GIFT OF 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION 
 
 ITS 
 
 HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES 
 
 VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF 
 
 MODERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 
 
 BY 
 
 ROBERT SCHWICKERATH, S. J., 
 WOODSTOCK COLLEGE, MD. 
 
 > xr\ s ?p~ 
 
 f v or THE 
 I UN1VERSIT 
 
 OF 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO. 
 B. HERDER 
 
 17 South Broadway. 
 1903. 
 
H 
 
 & W&e< 
 
 COPYRIGJJT 
 1903 
 
 BY JOSEPH GUMMERSBACH. 
 
 -DECICTOLD 
 
 PRINTING AND BOOK MFG. CO. 
 ST. LOUIS, MO. 
 
|H 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Mr. Quick, the English educationist, asserts that 
 "since the Revival of Learning, no body of men has 
 played so important a part in education as the Jesuits. " 
 And yet, as the same author says, "about these Jesuit 
 schools there does not seem to be much information 
 accessible to the English reader." (Educational Re- 
 formers j pp. 33 34.) It is true, indeed, that during 
 the past few years much has been said and written 
 about the Jesuit schools; in fact, they have occupied 
 the attention of the public more, perhaps, than ever 
 before. Howev.er, with the exception of the excellent 
 book of Father Thomas Hughes, S. J. (Loyola and the 
 Educational System of the Jesuits, 1892), most of what 
 has been offered to American and English readers is 
 entirely untrustworthy. The account given of the 
 Jesuit system in Histories of Education used in this 
 country, as those of Compayre, Painter, and Seeley, 
 is a mere caricature. Instead of drawing from the 
 original sources, these authors have been content to 
 repeat the biased assertions of unreliable secondary 
 authorities. Some observations on American Histories 
 of Education will be found at the end of this book 
 (p. 649 sqq.). The publication of a new work on the 
 educational system of the Jesuits may be justified at 
 the present day. During the last decade, educational 
 circles in this country have been greatly agitated 
 about various questions of the utmost importance: the 
 elective system, the value of the study of the classics, 
 
 (m) 
 
IV PREPACK. 
 
 the function of the college and its relation to the high 
 school and university, and the problem of moral and 
 religious training. It has been the author's intention 
 to view the Jesuit system chiefly in the light of these 
 modern problems. These important educational ques- 
 tions have been treated at some length, and it is hoped 
 that on this account the work may engage the atten- 
 tion of all who are interested in education. 
 
 I feel almost obliged to apologize for one feature of 
 the book, viz., the numerous quotations and references. 
 Though aware that there is among American and 
 English readers a sort of antipathy against many 
 references, I have yet deemed it necessary to quote 
 freely from various sources. This course I am forced 
 to adopt, as I do not wish to lay before the reader my 
 own opinions about the educational system of the 
 Jesuits, but I want to show what this system is accord- 
 ing to the original sources. These are, above all, the 
 Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, and the Ratio 
 Studiorum, which, however, must be supplemented 
 by other documents. For, many points of the Ratio 
 Studiorum are intelligible only in the light of the 
 decrees of the Legislative Assemblies of the Order, the 
 regulations of the General and Provincial Superiors, 
 and the commentaries of prominent Jesuit educators. 
 A great deal of this material has been published by 
 Father Pachtler, in four volumes of the great collec- 
 tion Monumcnta Germaniae Paedagogica (Berlin 1887 
 1894); other valuable information has been published 
 within the last few years, in the Monumenta Historlca 
 Societatis Jesiij especially in the part entitled Monu- 
 menta Paedagogica, which appeared in 1901 and 1902. 
 An account of these works is given in the Biblio- 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 graphical Appendix, under the heading : Primary 
 Sources. 
 
 Another reason which moved me to make use of 
 numerous quotations was the desire to show what 
 distinguished historians and educators outside the 
 Society, particularly non-Catholics, both in America 
 and Europe, have said on the educational system of 
 the Jesuits. I wished also to call attention to points 
 of contact between the Ratio Studiorum and other 
 famous educational systems. As so many features of 
 the Jesuit system have been misrepresented, a work 
 of this kind must, at times, assume a polemical atti- 
 tude. Painful as controversy is, the unfair criticism 
 of many writers has compelled me to contest their 
 positions. The style of the book may not always be as 
 smooth as is desirable. In partial extenuation of this 
 defect, it should be stated that a considerable amount 
 of the material had to be translated, chiefly from the 
 Latin, German, and French. It has been my prin- 
 cipal aim to be faithful to the original, and in general, 
 to write in the simplest possible language, so as to let 
 the facts speak without attempt at literary embellish- 
 ment. 
 
 I desire to acknowledge my obligation to several 
 friends of Woodstock College, who rendered kind 
 assistance in revising the manuscript and reading the 
 proofs. In particular I wish to thank the Rev. Samuel 
 Hanna Frisbee, S. J. , editor of the Woodstock Letters, 
 who allowed me the freest use of the Letters and 
 
 furnished other valuable material. 
 
 R. S. 
 
 WOODSTOCK COLLEGE, MARYLAND, 
 March 12, 1903. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Modern Criticism of Jesuit Education ... 5 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 History of the Educational System of the Society 
 of Jesus. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Education before the Foundation of the Society 
 of Jesus. 
 
 The Jesuit System and Early Protestant Schools 17 
 
 i. Schools at the Close of the Middle Ages. 
 The Catholic Church and Medieval Education 21 
 Primary Schools ....... 23 
 
 Secondary Schools ...... 25 
 
 Schools in Italy . . . . . . .26 
 
 Schools in Scotland and England - . . . 28 
 Schools in Germany, France, and the Netherlands 31 
 The Older Humanists in Germany . . -34 
 Universities ....... 38 
 
 2. Character of Medieval Education. 
 Trivium and Quadrivium . . . . -44 
 
 Scholasticism 45 
 
 Renaissance ....... 47 
 
 Two Schools of Humanists .... 49 
 
 Condition of Education on the Eve of the Refor- 
 mation ....... 55 
 
 (VII) 
 
VIII CONTENTS- 
 
 3. Education under the Influence of the 
 
 Reformation. 
 
 Luther's Alliance with the Humanists . 57 
 
 Decline of the Schools .... 60 
 
 Luther's Endeavor to Prevent the Total Ruin of 
 
 the Schools 65 
 
 Effects of the English Reformation on the Schools 69 
 Catholic Counter-Reformation . . . . 71 
 
 \ CHAPTER III. 
 The Society of Jesus. Religious as Educators. 
 
 Ignatius of Loyola, his Character and Aims . 73 
 The Society of Jesus ... .76, 
 
 Religious as Educators . . . . .80 
 The Society of Jesus the First Order that Made 
 
 Education of Youth a Special Ministry . 87 
 Opposition to the Educational Labors of Religious 98 
 
 Constitutions of the Society 101 
 
 The Fourth Part of the Constitutions Treating of 
 
 Studies 103 
 
 The Society and Primary Education . . .104 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Ratio Studiorum of 1599. 
 / Plans of Studies in Jesuit Colleges Previous to the 
 
 Ratio Studiorum 107 
 
 , Care in Drawing up the Plan of Studies . . 109 
 / Peculiar Character of the Ratio Studiorum . 114 
 
 Officers of Jesuit Colleges 115 
 
 The Literary Curriculum: Ancient Languages 118 
 
 The Study of History 124 
 
 Geography . . . . . . .127 
 
 Study of the Mother-Tongue . . . .129 
 
 The Philosophical Course . . . .131 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Mathematics and Sciences . . . . 133 
 Sources of the Ratio Studiorum . . .136 
 
 V^HAPTKR V. 
 
 Jesuit Colleges and Their Work before the 
 Suppression of the Society (1540 1773). 
 
 Spread of Jesuit Colleges . . . .144 
 
 " Superiority of the Jesuit Schools according to the 
 
 Testimony of Protestants .... 145 
 
 ^Literary and Scientific Activity of Jesuit Colleges 148 
 
 /Languages . 149 
 
 Mathematics and Natural Sciences . . .155 
 
 Geography . . . . . .158 
 
 I History ........ 160 
 
 / Literature . . . . . . .161 
 
 / .School Drama of the Jesuits . . . .164 
 
 Growing Opposition to the Society . . . 173 
 
 ^ Suppression of the Order 175 
 
 ^ Protection of Frederick the Great of Prussia and 
 
 Catharine II of Russia . . . .176 
 Efficiency of Jesuit Colleges at the Time of the 
 
 Suppression 178 
 
 Effects of the Suppression on Education in Cath- 
 olic Countries 184 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Revised Ratio of 1832 and Later 
 Regulations. 
 
 S Restoration of the Society 189 
 
 s Revision of the Ratio Studiorum . . . 191 
 Philosophy Preserved as Completion of College 
 
 Training . . . . . . . 195 
 
 / The Ratio of 1832 not Final . . . - 197 
 
 Later Educational Regulations . . . .198 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Educational Work of the Jesuits in the 
 Nineteenth Century. 
 
 New Growth of Jesuit Colleges . . . 200 
 'Jesuit Colleges in the United States . . .201 
 
 Colleges in Other Countries .... 206 
 
 Efficiency of Jesuit Schools 209 
 
 /President Eliot's- Charges .... 223 
 
 Literary and Scientific Work of the Jesuits during 
 
 the Last Twenty-five Years . . . .225 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Opposition to Jesuit Education. 
 
 Laws against Jesuit Schools .... 239 
 General Charges against the Jesuit Schools . .241 
 Contradictory Statements of Opponents . . 243 
 Special Charges: "The Jesuits Educate only the 
 
 Rich and Those Who Pay" . . . .247 
 "Estrange Children from the Family'' . . 250 
 "Cripple the Intellect and Teach Corrupt Mor- 
 ality" 251 
 
 4 'Seek Their Own Interest in Educational Labors' ' 254 
 "Their Education Antinational and Unpatriotic" 255 
 Causes of Opposition among Protestants . . 264 
 Causes of Antipathy of Some Catholics . . 269 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 The Principles of the Ratio Studioruni. Its Theory 
 
 and Practice Viewed in the Light of Modern 
 
 Educational Problems. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Adaptability of the Ratio Studiorum. 
 Prudent Conservatism. 
 
 Adaptability and Adaptation . . . .280 
 Necessity of Wise Conservatism .... 288 
 
 Lesson from Germany 289 
 
 Lesson from American Schools .... 292 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The Intellectual Scope. 
 
 Scope of Education: Harmonious Training of the 
 
 Mind ....... 297 
 
 Cramming in Modern Systems .... 300 
 
 Premature Specialization . . . . 302 
 
 Function of the College 306 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Prescribed Courses or Elective Studies. 
 
 Electivism in the United States . . . 310 
 President Eliot Censures the Jesuit Colleges for 
 
 Adhering to Prescribed Courses . . -311 
 
 Criticism of the Elective System . . . 313 
 
 Dangers for the Moral Training . . . .316 
 
 Dangers for the Intellectual Training . . 322 
 
 Election almost Impossible . . .325 
 
XII CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Classical Studies. 
 Modern Discussions about the Value of the Study 
 
 of the Classics 330 
 
 Distinguished Men Defend Their Value . . 333 
 Advantages Derived from the Study of the Clas- 
 sics for the Logical, Historical, Literary, 
 Aesthetic, and Ethical Training . . 346 
 Beneficial Results for the Mother-Tongue . . 356 
 Objections against the Jesuit Method of Teaching 
 
 the Classics 361 
 
 The Gaume Controversy and the Jesuits . . 366 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Syllabus of School Authors. 
 
 i. General Remarks. 
 
 The Study of Grammar 370 
 
 Choice of Authors in Jesuit Colleges . . . 372 
 2. Latin Prose Writers . . . 377 
 3. Latin Poets ..... 385 
 4. Greek Prose Writers . . -392 
 5. Greek Poets ..... 399 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Scholarship and Teaching. 
 
 Scholarship in Relation to Practical Teaching . 402 
 Decline of Teaching ..... 404 
 American Scholarship 411 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Training of the Jesuit Teacher. 
 
 The Candidate for the Order . . . .415 
 Noviceship and Religious Training . . .417 
 Study of Languages and Philosophy after the 
 
 Noviceship 422 
 
CONTENTS. XIII 
 
 Influence of Uniform Training on Individuality . 425 
 Immediate Preparation of the Jesuit for Teaching 432 
 
 Permanent Teachers 435 
 
 Work Assigned according to Ability . . . 439 
 Class Teachers, not Branch Teachers . . 443 
 Continued Self-Training of the Teacher . . 446 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 The Method of Teaching in Practice. 
 
 i. The Prelection or Explanation of the 
 
 Authors. 
 
 Characteristic Feature of the Jesuit Method . 457 
 
 Accurate Pronunciation 458 
 
 Translation and Explanation . . . .461 
 
 Repetition ........ 466 
 
 Specimens of Interpretation .... 468 
 
 Soundness of the Method of the Ratio . . . 475 
 
 Amount of Reading ...... 482 
 
 Subject and Antiquarian Explanation . . . 485 
 
 Explanation of Authors in the Vernacular . 491 
 
 2. Memory Lessons. 
 
 Importance of Memory Lessons .... 493 
 
 Manner of Committing to Memory . . . 496 
 
 3. Written Exercises. 
 
 Importance and Value of Compositions . . 498 
 
 Subjects to be Taken from Authors Studied . 499 
 
 Correction 503 
 
 Speaking Latin ...... 506 
 
 A Lesson from Germany ..... 509 
 
 4. Contests (Emulation). 
 Emulation in School Work . . . .511 
 
 Various Kinds of Contests, Class Matches . .515 
 
 Academies 518 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 The Moral Scope. 
 
 The Moral Training Neglected by Many Teachers 
 
 of Our Age 522 
 
 Importance Attached to the Moral Training in 
 
 Jesuit Schools . . . . . .527 
 
 Means Employed . . . . . . 531 
 
 Supervision ....... 537 
 
 Private Talks with Pupils 548 
 
 Educational Influence of Confession . . 550 
 
 Communion ....... 557 
 
 Devotions ....... 558 
 
 The Sodalities 560 
 
 Watchfulness in Regard to Reading . . 564 
 
 Good and Evil Results of Sports . . . -569 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Religious Instruction. 
 
 Religious Instruction the Basis of Solid Moral 
 
 Training . . 574 
 
 Correctness of the Catholic Position in Regard to 
 
 Religion and Education . . . -577 
 Undenominational Religion an Absurdity . . 582 
 The Reading of the Bible not Sufficient for Reli- 
 gious Instruction 583 
 
 Catholic Position ...... 587 
 
 Religious Instruction in the Jesuit System . 590 
 Catechisms Written by Jesuits .... 592 
 
 Peter Canisius, the Model Jesuit Catechist . 594 
 Correlation of All Branches with Religious In- 
 struction ....... 599 
 
 Religious Instruction Necessary also in Higher 
 
 Schools ....... 605 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 School-Management. 
 
 Trials in Teaching 608 
 
 Particular Points of School-Management: 
 
 i. Authority . . . . . .610 
 
 2. Punishments . . . . .614 
 
 3. Impartiality . . . . .619 
 
 4. Discipline in the Classroom . . 623 
 
 5. Politeness and Truthfulness . . 626 
 
 6. Some Special Helps . . .631 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 The Teacher's Motives and Ideals. 
 
 The Chief Motive : Utility and Dignity of the 
 
 Work of Education ..... 636 
 
 Illustrated by Analogies 638 
 
 The Ideal and Model of the Teacher: Christ, the 
 
 Great Master 641 
 
 Conclusion ....... 647 
 
 Appendix I: Additions and Corrections . . 649 
 Appendix II: Bibliography .... 662 
 Index 671 
 
OF THE 
 
 I UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 OF 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Introduction. 
 
 We are living in an age of school reforms and 
 pedagogical experiments. The question of higher 
 education in particular is warmly debated in England, 
 France, Germany, and the United States. The 
 respective merits of rival educational systems are 
 topics of lively discussion and comment in numberless 
 books and articles. New "curricula" are planned on 
 all sides, and new courses are offered in the various 
 seats of learning. Not long ago it was stated that 
 "the American College was passing." Harvard, 
 Yale, Columbia, the University of Pennsylvania, and 
 other leading schools, now accept the studies of the 
 professional schools as meeting the requirements of 
 the last year in college. Yale University was also 
 reported as making ready to follow in the wake of 
 Harvard and abolish the study of Greek as a requisite 
 for admission. The University of Michigan, abandon- 
 ing the attempt to distinguish between forms of ad- 
 mission or courses of study pursued in the college, 
 will give up degrees like bachelor of letters or bachelor 
 of philosophy, and confer on all its students indis- 
 criminately at graduation the degree of bachelor of 
 arts, in this respect following what is substantially the 
 procedure of Harvard. Harvard, with its system of 
 election, election in the preparatory schools, in the 
 college, and in the professional schools, is the fore- 
 
2 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 runner in the revolution, and to the course it has laid 
 down the other colleges and universities either have 
 adapted themselves or are preparing so to do. "Facul- 
 ties and Presidents are trying to tear down the old 
 order which they no longer honor." l 
 
 For two or three decades various attempts and ex- 
 periments have been made to establish a "new order." 
 But the dissatisfaction seems rather to grow than to 
 diminish. The man who has kept in touch with 
 pedagogical publications knows right well that there 
 exists in our high schools and colleges an unsettled 
 state of affairs and a wide-spread discontent with 
 present methods. Thus, in the Educational Review, 
 we find the following statements: "It is not without 
 reason that one so often hears the state of the educa- 
 tional world described as chaotic." 2 The first sen- 
 tence of an article on "L,atin in the High School" 
 informs us that "even to the superficial observer it 
 must be apparent that our secondary L,atin teaching is 
 in a state of unrest." "Further proof of this wide- 
 spread feeling of insecurity lies in the susceptibility of 
 our L,atin teachers to fashions or 'fads', in a surprising 
 readiness to adopt innovations and carry them to an 
 extreme. ' ' 3 Many will not care much for the "dead" 
 languages, if only the "sciences" are taught well. 
 
 1 New York Sun, March 3, 1901. However, at the last 
 Commencement, President Hadley of Yale declared that a 
 careful inquiry made among the masters of the secondary 
 schools had furnished abundant evidence decidedly unfavor- 
 able to this change, and he allowed it to be understood that 
 Greek would be required at Yale for a good while to come. 
 The Yale Alumni Weekly, July 31st, 1902, pp. 43032. 
 
 2 Educational Review, 1894, p. 62. 
 8 /., p. 25. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 What is said about the sciences ? The same volume 
 contains an article entitled: "The Disappointing 
 Results of Science Teaching." Therein it is stated 
 that "the results of the teaching of science in schools 
 of all kinds have been very disappointing to the 
 
 friends and advocates of science teaching The 
 
 work is unsatisfactory when the best opportunities are 
 provided and skilled teachers devote all their time to 
 it, indeed where they practically have everything their 
 
 own way This has given the advocates of the 
 
 older literary studies a chance to look over their 
 spectacles and say: 'I told you so.' It is plain that 
 class-room science-teaching has no history to be proud 
 of, but the reverse. Something is radically wrong 
 when, after a generation of science-teaching, those 
 who have had the best available teaching in it do not 
 show some of the superiority which is claimed for it in 
 insight, tact, skill, judgment, and affairs in general." 1 
 Complaints of a similar nature can be found in more 
 recent publications. 
 
 It is evident, then, that final judgment on the 
 modern system is reserved for the future. If we con- 
 sider the results obtained within the last ten years, it 
 appears unintelligible that many writers on education 
 are so unreserved in denouncing systems of the past, 
 which have a "history to be proud of." Indeed, it 
 may be said that the present educational movement is 
 characterized by a morbid craving for novelties, but 
 still more by contempt of old traditions. Modern 
 pedagogy has rightly been called a Proteus. It 
 daily assumes new forms so that even its most ardent 
 followers seem not to know what they are really 
 
 1 /., p. 485. 
 
4 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 grappling with. In very truth, pedagogists of to-day 
 appear to be quite certain of only one point, that "the 
 old is worthless and that something new must be 
 produced at any price." l 
 
 We do not deny that our age demands "some- 
 thing' ' new in education. Growth and development are 
 necessary in educational systems. Every age and every 
 nation has its own spirit, its peculiar ways and means 
 to meet a given end, and these very ways and means 
 inevitably exert a great influence on educational meth- 
 ods and call for modifications and adaptations of what 
 has met the purpose of the past. An educational system , 
 fitted in every detail to all times and all nations, is an 
 impossibility. For the majority of cases it would be a 
 Procrustean bed. It would be folly, therefore, to claim 
 that even the best system of education in all its 
 details were as fit for the twentieth century as for 
 the sixteenth, or that the same system in its entirety 
 might be introduced into Japan or China as well as 
 into Germany, England and the United States. 
 
 For an educational system must aim not at educat- 
 ing men in general, but at educating the youth of a 
 
 1 See Dr. Dittes, in Report of the Commissioner of Edu- 
 catioH) 1894 95, vol. I, p. 332. From different sides com- 
 plaints are heard that many educationists of to-day are con- 
 spicuous for their contempt of all that was venerated for- 
 merly. Dr. Matthias of Berlin, one of the most distinguished 
 schoolmen of Germany, wrote recently : "Men of sound judg- 
 ment point with alarm to a sort of pedagogical pride and 
 arrogance of the younger teachers, which was unknown to 
 the older generation." Monatschrift fur hohere Schulen, 
 January 1902, p. 9. Similarly Professor Willmann of the 
 University of Prague: "A morbid hunting after novelties and 
 a haughty contempt of all traditions are the characteristics 
 of the modern educational agitation." In Vigilate, I, p, 31. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 certain age in a certain country. Hence the necessity 
 of changes, of development. Education is something 
 living and must grow, otherwise it will soon wither 
 and decay. There are, however, certain fundamental 
 principles, certain broad outlines of education, based 
 on sound philosophy and the experience of centuries, 
 which suffer no change. Unfortunately, it is some of 
 these principles which have been abandoned by 
 modern pedagogists, and it is for this reason that many 
 " school reforms" of these days have proved mere 
 " school changes" or, as Professor Miinsterberg of 
 Harvard University styles them, "school deteriora- 
 tions. ' ' 1 This important distinction between what is 
 essential and what is accidental in education, has too 
 frequently been disregarded by those advocates of the 
 new system who claim that the old principles and 
 methods must be given up, because they are not 
 suited to cope with modern conditions. What is but 
 secondary in education, as for instance the election of 
 courses and branches, has been proclaimed to be of 
 vital importance, and its absence in the older systems 
 has been considered as the strongest proof that these 
 systems are entirely antiquated. This mistake has 
 more than once been made by those who attack one of 
 the celebrated old systems, the Ratio Studiorum of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Only three years ago, President Eliot of Harvard 
 University, in a paper read before the American 
 Institute of Instruction, July 10, 1899, advocated the 
 extension of electivism to secondary or high schools. 2 
 
 i 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, May 1900. 
 2 The paper was printed in the Atlantic Monthly^ 
 October 1899. 
 
6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 As opposed to his favorite system, President Eliot 
 mentioned "the method followed in Moslem countries, 
 where the Koran prescribes the perfect education to be 
 administered to all children alike. Another instance 
 of uniform prescribed education may be found in the 
 curriculum of Jesuit colleges, which has remained 
 almost unchanged for four hundred years, disregarding 
 some trifling concessions made to natural sciences." 
 The President further declared that "the immense 
 deepening and expanding of human knowledge in the 
 nineteenth century and the increasing sense of the 
 sanctity of the individual's gifts and will-power have 
 made uniform prescriptions of study in secondary 
 schools impossible and absurd. ' ' 
 
 As the Jesuits, together with the Moslems, are said 
 to uphold prescribed courses, they are implicitly 
 charged with attempting what is "absurd," nay "im- 
 possible." In our days of critical and fair-minded 
 research, such sweeping condemnations are beyond 
 excuse ; they show forth no careful and impartial 
 examination of the system censured. But we have 
 reasons to suspect that lack of sympathy and of knowledge 
 impairs the judgment of most opponents of the Jesuits. 
 "True criticism," writes a distinguished English 
 historian, "must be sympathetic;" l where there is 
 antipathy a false appreciation is inevitable. That 
 lack of sympathy has led many critics into unfair dis- 
 criminations in regard to the educational system of the 
 Jesuits, can be proved by numerous instances. In the 
 sixteenth century, Protestant as well as Catholic 
 schools made Latin the principal subject matter of 
 
 1 Professor Rainsay iii The Church in the Roman Empire 
 before A. D. 170. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1893, p. VIII. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 instruction, and the study of the mother tongue was 
 well nigh neglected. In many Protestant schools the 
 use of the Latin language in conversation, school 
 exercises and dramatic performances was more strictly 
 enforced than in Jesuit colleges, and those who spoke 
 the vernacular were punished. 1 Should we not sup- 
 pose that in Protestant and Jesuit schools the same 
 reasons suggested the use of the Latin tongue? Some 
 Protestant critics assign quite different reasons, but 
 without proof. In a work published by order of the 
 Prussian Ministry for Instruction, 2 we find the follow- 
 ing : "The School System of Saxony of 1528 provided 
 Latin schools pure and simple. Why? Because it 
 demanded an extraordinary amount of time to make 
 Latinists of German boys, so that little time and 
 energy were left for other subjects. Melanchthon, for 
 this reason, excluded even Greek from his plan of 
 studies. As Latin, at that time, was the universal 
 language of all Western Christendom, the official 
 language of the Roman Church and of diplomatic 
 intercourse, the language of the most celebrated code 
 of laws, the only language of learning, mastery of this 
 language was the first and indispensable condition for 
 a career in Church and State, and for every participa- 
 tion in the higher intellectual life." However, when 
 .speaking of the great stress laid on Latin in the Jesuit 
 schools, the same author does not hesitate to assert : 
 "A more zealous cultivation of the mother tongue 
 
 1 Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den 
 deutschen Schulen und UniversMten vom Ausgang des Mittel- 
 alters bis zur Gegenwart, p. 239. (2. ed. vol. I, p. 352.) 
 
 5 Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen im neunzehnten Jahr- 
 hundert, von Professor Dr. Conrad Rethwisch. Berlin, 1893, 
 p. 12. 
 
8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 would have opposed the Romish -inter national tenden- 
 cies of the Order. ' ' l Here we must ask : Was not 
 the Latin language, for Catholics as well as for Pro- 
 testants, the language of learning, of diplomatic in- 
 tercourse, of the most celebrated code of laws? And 
 was not the mastery of this language, equally for the 
 Catholics, the indispensable condition for a career in 
 Church and State, and for every participation in the 
 higher intellectual life? Consequently, the Jesuits 
 had to insist on this language as well as the Protes- 
 tants, and that for the very same reasons. Why, then, 
 impute to them other motives of rather a suspicious 
 character ? 
 
 Nor are scholarly works of prominent American 
 writers free from similar misstatements. Dr. Russell, 
 Dean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, 
 writes: "Catholic and Protestant schools alike at the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, gave little heed 
 to the substance of the ancient civilization. Both 
 alike were earnestly devoted to the study of the Latin 
 language the Jesuits, because it was the universal 
 speech of their Order; the Protestants, because it was 
 the first step towards a knowledge of Holy Writ. ' ' 2 
 No proof is given to substantiate the discrimination 
 between Protestants and Catholics. Latin was, as 
 
 1 Ib. y p. 2. There it is also stated that "the greatest 
 Greek authors were all excluded from the Jesuit schools, and 
 that the mother tongue and its literature received some atten- 
 tion for the first time in the Revised Ratio of 1832." How 
 utterly false these assertions are will appear from later chap- 
 ters of this book. Suffice it to state here that among the 
 Greek authors studied in Jesuit schools were Homer, Sopho- 
 cles, Kuripides, Demosthenes, etc. See below chapter XIII, 
 1, 4 5. On the study of the mother tongue see chapter IV. 
 
 2 German Higher Schools, New York, 1899, p. 50. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 Dr. Rethwisch affirms, "the universal language of all 
 Western Christendom," not only the universal speech 
 of the Order of Jesuits. Besides, as the Catholics 
 used extensively the Latin Vulgate of the Bible, the 
 study of I^atin was for them much more than for the 
 Protestants "the first step towards a knowledge of 
 Holy Writ." 
 
 Lack of sympathy is the least unworthy reason 
 assignable for President Eliot's grouping of only 
 Jesuits and Moslems as the upholders of prescribed 
 courses. Have not all European countries prescribed 
 courses that resemble the system of the Jesuits incom- 
 parably more than President Eliot's electivism? Ger- 
 many, for instance, although it offers various schools : 
 classical (Gymnasium) , Latin-scientific (Real- Gym- 
 nasium), scientific (Real-Schule), has within these 
 schools strictly uniform curricula. x And yet American 
 educators do not hesitate to say that "the organization 
 of the higher school system, especially in Prussia, is 
 worthy of general imitation;" that "for many years 
 American educators have drawn professional inspira- 
 tion from German sources ;" that "the experience of 
 Germany can teach us much, if we will but learn to 
 consider it aright ;" and that u a uniform course of study 
 for all schools of a particular grade, and a common 
 standard for promotion and graduation, can be made 
 most serviceable in a national scheme of education." 2 
 
 1 It is only since 1901 that, in the three middle classes 
 of the Gymnasium, English may be taken as an alternative 
 for Greek ; in the three highest classes Greek remains 
 obligatory. Besides in these three classes English or French 
 may be taken (just as in many Jesuit Colleges in this country 
 French or German is obligatory). 
 
 2 Dr. Russell, /. c. y pp. V, 409, 422. (Italics are ours.) 
 See also Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1888 1889, 
 
10 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Why then mention only Jesuits and Moslems ? Con- 
 sidering the esteem in which German schools and 
 scholarship are held by many, it would evidently have 
 produced little^8ect to have said: " Moslems, the 
 Jesuits and the Germans have prescribed courses. ' ' 
 
 Many writers on education have been misled in 
 their estimate of the Jesuit system by blindly accept- 
 ing and uncritically repeating the censures of a few 
 authors who, deservedly or not, have acquired a 
 reputation as pedagogical writers. Thus Quick, in 
 numerous passages of his Educational Reformers, pays 
 a high tribute to the Jesuit system. In a few places, 
 especially in one paragraph, he finds fault with it. In 
 some American works l we find this one paragraph 
 quoted as Quick's judgment on the Jesuit system, and 
 not a word is said of his hearty approbation of most 
 points of that system. It is also most unfortunate that 
 American teachers and writers on education place so 
 much confidence in the productions of M. Compayre, 
 especially his History of Pedagogy. For many reasons 
 this work must be called a most unreliable source of 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 3274, especially pp. 70 foil, where it is stated 
 that ''the superiority of German public schools over those of 
 other nations has been acknowledged repeatedly." In an- 
 other place of the same Report (1891 92), Vol. I, p. 140, the 
 words of Dr. Joynes of the University of S. C. are quoted: 
 "Germany has now become the schoolmistress of the world." 
 1 So in the histories of education by Painter and Seeley. 
 I wish to state here that of all American text-books on the 
 history of education the latest, the History of Education, by 
 Professor Kemp, (Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1902) is the most 
 impartial. The chapter on the Jesuits (XVIII.) is singularly 
 free from the misrepresentations which are so numerous in 
 other text-books. In one point, however, regarding "emula- 
 tion," the author is mistaken. See below, ch. XVI, 4. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 information. 1 In the chapter on the Jesuits in par- 
 ticular, there are not many sentences which do not 
 contain some misstatement. Whereas nearly all 
 writers, even those most hostile to the Society, 
 acknowledge at least a few good points in its educa- 
 tional system, Compayre cannot admit therein a single 
 redeeming feature. The Jesuits are blamed alike in 
 their failures and in their successes. It is sad to think 
 that from such untrustworthy sources American 
 teachers largely derive their information about the 
 educational labors of the Jesuits and of Catholics in 
 general. Can we wonder that so many prejudices 
 prevail against Jesuit education, of which many know 
 only an ugly caricature? 
 
 Indeed, lack of sufficient knowledge is at the root 
 of 'most censures of the educational principles and 
 methods of the Society. In nearly every case of 
 adverse criticism, it is apparent that a scholarly 
 examination of the official documents has been dis- 
 
 1 Br. Azarias calls this work a "condensation of all 
 virulence and hatred against everything Catholic, but ill con- 
 cealed beneath a tone of philosophic moderation." American 
 Ecclesiastical Review, 1890, p. 80. foil. Another critic said 
 recently of M. Compayre: "He misquotes and suppresses, 
 blinded, I suppose, by a bad form of Anti-Jesuit disease. You 
 can certainly learn from his book the fury of that malady. In 
 France, one may fairly say, M. Compayre is recognized as 
 meaning to attack the beliefs of Christian pupils, and as 
 ranging himself essentially on the side of those who wish 'to 
 eliminate the hypothesis of God' from the education of chil- 
 dren." (This opinion was expressed in a resolution of five 
 hundred teachers in a meeting at Bordeaux in 1901.) Mr. 
 Stockley, of the University of New Brunswick, in the Amer- 
 ican Ecclesiastical Review, July 1902, p. 44. See also the 
 criticism of Father Poland, S. J., in the American Catholic 
 Quarterly Review, January 1902. 
 
12 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 pensed with, and that the oft-refuted calumnies of 
 virulent partisan pamphlets have simply been repeated. 
 Or have the assailants of the educational system of the 
 Jesuits carefully studied the original sources : the 
 Fourth Part of the Constitutions, the Ratio Studiorum, 
 and the numerous other documents of the Society, 
 treating of its educational system? Or have they 
 themselves studied in Jesuit colleges? Have their 
 children, relatives or friends been Jesuit pupils? Have 
 they been sufficiently acquainted with Jesuit teachers? 
 If not, is it fair and conscientious criticism to condemn 
 a system about which they possess no reliable informa- 
 tion whatever? If now-a-days one writes on the 
 philosophy of India, on the doctrine of Zoroaster, or 
 on the education of the Greeks and Romans, he 
 adorns his books with an elaborate scientific apparatus. 
 He studies the original languages or consults the best 
 translations and commentaries, and spares no pains to 
 let the reader know that he has drawn from trust- 
 worthy sources. How much more care should be 
 taken if, not philosophic systems or nations of a far-off 
 past, but a living institution is concerned? No matter 
 how much opposed it may be to the critic's views, fair 
 treatment and justice should never be denied, even if 
 all sympathy is withheld. But a few years ago a 
 Protestant writer in Germany, reviewing Father 
 Duhr's work on the educational system of the Society, 
 recommended the work most earnestly to the Protes- 
 tant educators; for, as he said, "even our scholarly 
 works on education betray a shocking ignorance in 
 regard to everything pertaining to the Jesuits." * It 
 
 1 Central-Organ fur die inter cssen dcs Realschuhvesens> 
 Berlin. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 is needless to say that this remark has an application 
 for America and England. 
 
 The study of this system cannot be without interest 
 to those who devote themselves to educating youth. 
 During the two centuries preceding the suppression of 
 the Order, this system exerted a world-wide influence 
 on hundreds of thousands of pupils, and, although in 
 a lesser degree, does so at present. 1 In 1901 the 
 Jesuits imparted a higher education to more than fifty- 
 two thousand youths, of which number seven thousand 
 two hundred belong to this country. The educational 
 work of the Jesuits produced most brilliant results in 
 former centuries and received most flattering commen- 
 dations from Protestant scholars and rulers, and from 
 atheistic philosophers. 
 
 However, the study of the Ratio Studiorum is not 
 only of historical interest. Protestant writers admit 
 that a close examination of the Jesuit system may 
 teach the educators of our age many valuable lessons. 
 According to Quick "it is a system, a system built 
 up by the united efforts of many astute intellects and 
 showing marvellous skill in selecting means to attain 
 a clearly conceived end. There is then in the history 
 of education little that should be more interesting or 
 might be more instructive to the master of an English 
 public school than the chapter about the Jesuits. ' ' 2 
 Davidson, in spite of some severe strictures, is not 
 less convinced of the advantages which may be derived 
 
 1 Quick prefers to speak of the Jesuit schools as ' 'things 
 of the past." Compayre thinks otherwise: "They are more 
 powerful than is believed ; and it would be an error to think 
 that the last word is spoken with them." Quick, Educ. 
 
 p. 35, note. 
 
 2 Educational Reformers, p. 59. 
 
14 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 from the .study of Jesuit education: "While it is im- 
 possible for lovers of truth and freedom to have any 
 sympathy with either the aim or matter of Jesuit 
 education, there is one point connected with it that 
 well deserves our most serious consideration, and that 
 is its success. This was due to three causes, first, to 
 the single-minded devotion of the members of the 
 Society; second, to their clear insight into the needs of 
 their times; third, to the completeness with which 
 they systematized their entire course, in view of a 
 simple, well-defined aim. In all these matters w r e can 
 well afford to imitate them. Indeed, the education of 
 the present day demands just the three conditions 
 which they realized. ' ' l 
 
 For many the study of one of the old systems may 
 be the greatest novelty. So much is said now-a-days 
 about the new pedagogy and modern psychology, that 
 it might appear as if the past had been utterly igno- 
 rant of the true nature of the child and of the rational 
 methods of education. Still the writer hopes to es- 
 tablish that, what the ablest educators, even of our 
 own age, have pronounced essential for the training of 
 the young, is contained in the educational system of 
 the Jesuits. It is not claimed that this system is per- 
 fect. No educational system can be found which, 
 both in plan and execution, is without defects. The 
 Society of Jesus has never denied the possibility and 
 necessity of improvements in its educational system; 
 nor has it ever claimed that the Ratio Studiorum, in 
 every detail was to be applied to all countries and to 
 all ages. Changes were made in the course of time; 
 
 1 A History of Education (New York, Scribiier's Sons> 
 1900;, p. 187. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 and in many passages of the Ratio Studiorum it is 
 expressly stated that the Superiors are empowered to 
 make these changes, according to the demands of time 
 and place. Thus the teaching of the Jesuits varies 
 considerably in different countries, without necessitat- 
 ing any change in the Order's legislation on education. 
 A biographer of the founder of the Society says 
 with reference to the educational system of the Order: 
 "It is a plan which admits of every legitimate progress 
 and perfection, and what Ignatius said of the Society 
 in general, may be applied to its system of studies in 
 particular, namely, that it ought to suit itself to the 
 times and comply with them, and not make the times 
 suit themselves to it. ' ' 1 The advice of St. Ignatius is 
 undoubtedly of vital importance to the Order, if now 
 and in future it wants to do the work for which it was 
 instituted. In fact, the versatility of the Jesuits has 
 become proverbial and a reproach to the Order; they 
 are said to be so shrewd and cunning that, among those 
 hostile to the Order, the very word "Jesuit" has come 
 to mean the incarnation of craft and subtlety. Is it 
 probable that the Jesuits on a sudden have utterly for- 
 gotten the all-important injunction of their founder? 
 Is it probable that they who are said to be most am- 
 bitious and most anxious of success, have so little 
 suited themselves to the times, as to leave their method 
 of teaching unchanged for centuries? Is it possible 
 that the men who, as Davidson says, had such "a 
 clear insight into the needs of their times" do not 
 adapt their system to the needs of our age? Or is 
 their system not capable of being suited to modern 
 times? This indeed is the favorite objection raised 
 
 1 Genelli, Life of St. Ignatius, part II, cli. VII. 
 
1 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 now-a-days. "The Ratio Studiorum is antiquated and 
 difficult to reform. . . For nearly three centuries they 
 [the Jesuits] were the best schoolmasters of Europe; 
 they revolutionized instruction as completely as Fred- 
 erick the Great modern warfare, and have thus acted, 
 whether they meant it or not, as pioneers of human 
 progress. . . Whatever may have been the service of 
 the Jesuits in past times, we have little to hope for 
 them in the improvement of . education at present. 
 Governments have, on the whole, acted wisely by 
 checking and suppressing their colleges. " 1 At any 
 rate, the study of a system which for "centuries furn- 
 ished the best schoolmasters of Europe and completely 
 revolutionized instruction", must be interesting for the 
 student of the history of education. For this reason 
 we first present the history, or the development, of this 
 system. In the second part we shall explain its prin- 
 ciples, its theory and practice, with special reference 
 to modern educational views. 
 
 1 Oscar Browning in the Encyclopedia Britannica, ar- 
 ticle : ' 'Education ' ' . 
 
PART FIRST. 
 
 History of the Educational System of the 
 Society of Jesus. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Education before the Foundation of the Society 
 of Jesus. 
 
 The following remarkable passage is taken from 
 trie work of one who cannot be charged with partiality 
 to the Jesuits, I mean Frederick Paulsen, a professor 
 of the University of Berlin, the author of the great 
 ''History of Higher Education." J In this work, after 
 having described the marvellous success which the 
 Jesuits achieved in the sixteenth century, the author 
 asks: "What was the secret source of the power of 
 these men? Was it that they were 'men filled with 
 wickedness', as Raumer styles them? Or was it that 
 they were more cunning, more unscrupulous than the 
 rest? No, this would ascribe to lying and deceit more 
 than it can do. ... There is in the activity of the 
 Order something of the quiet, yet irresistible, manner 
 of working which we find in the forces of nature. 
 Certainty and superiority characterize every move- 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen 
 Schiilen und Universit&ten vont Ausgang des Mittelalters bis 
 zur Gegenwart. Leipzig, 1885, p. 281 foil. (2. ed. I, p. 408.) 
 
 2 (17) 
 
1 8 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ment. . . . Whence does the Order derive this power ? 
 I think it can arise only from a great idea, not from 
 base and selfish desires. Now the root idea which 
 animated all the members of this Society, and which 
 inspired them with enthusiasm, was that their Order 
 was the chosen instrument for saving the Church; 
 that they were the knights, the champions, of the ruler 
 of the Church, ready, if God should so will it, to fall 
 as first victims in the great battle against a heathen 
 and heretical world. . . . pasting results cannot be 
 achieved by an idea unless it is embodied in some 
 external system. The system of the Society of Jesus, 
 from the fundamental principles to the minutest details 
 of discipline, is admirably fitted and adapted to its 
 ends. The greatest possible power of the individual 
 is preserved without derangement of the organism of 
 the Order; spontaneous activity and perfect submission 
 of the will, contrasts almost irreconcilable, seem to 
 have been harmoniously united in a higher degree by 
 the Society than by any other body. ' ' 
 
 These remarks of the Berlin Professor were made 
 with special reference to the educational system of the 
 Society, as laid down in the Ratio Studiorum. Years 
 before another German Protestant had spoken similar- 
 ly on the same subject. Ranke, in his History of the 
 Popes, admits that the Jesuits were very successful in 
 the education of youth, but he claims that this suc- 
 cess can scarcely be credited to their learning or their 
 piety, but rather to the exactness and nicety of their 
 methods. He finds in their system a combination of 
 learning with untiring zeal, of exterior pomp with 
 strict asceticism, of unity of aim with unity of govern- 
 ment, such as the world has never witnessed before 
 or since. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 19 
 
 Now-a-days a great interest is taken in the histori- 
 cal aspects of educational systems. The first question, 
 then, which presents itself is: From what sources did 
 the Jesuits derive the principles and methods by which 
 they were enabled to obtain such success? It is evi- 
 dent that the Jesuit system was not altogether the 
 original work of a few clever men who produced a 
 system with methods previously unheard of; their 
 Ratio Studiorum was, to a great extent, a prudent 
 adaptation and development of methods which had 
 existed before the foundation of the Order. It has 
 frequently been maintained that all, or at least much, 
 of what is good in the Ratio Studiorum, was drawn 
 from the famous Plan of Studies of John Sturm, the 
 zealous Protestant reformer and schoolman of Stras- 
 burg. Dr. Russell is convinced of this fact, when he 
 writes: " Sturm could have received no greater com- 
 pliment than was paid him by the Society of Jesus in 
 incorporating so many of his methods into the new 
 Catholic schools." A Indeed, Sturm himself expressed 
 in 1565 the suspicion that the Jesuits had drawn from 
 his sources. 2 As we shall see in the next chapters, 
 both Sturm and Ignatius of Loyola drew, in all likeli- 
 hood, from the same sources, namely, the traditions 
 of the great University of Paris and the humanistic 
 schools of the Netherlands. 
 
 It is a very common error to argue: post hoc, ergo 
 propter hoc. Anything good found after the Protestant 
 Reformation of the sixteenth century, is by many 
 writers directly ascribed to its influence. Thus it is 
 said that, after the Protestants had awakened a zeal 
 
 1 German Higher Schools^ p. 47. 
 
 2 " Ut a nostris fontibus derivata esse videatur." See 
 Duhr, Studienordnung, p. 7. 
 
20 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 for learning, the Jesuits determined to avail themselves 
 of this zeal in the interest of the Catholic Church, and 
 to combat the Reformation with its own weapon. 1 To 
 the same purpose Dr. Russell writes: "The Jesuits in 
 employing schools to check the growth of heresy and 
 to win back to the Church apostate Germany, merely 
 borrowed the devil's artillery to fight the devil with. 
 And they used it to good effect. ' ' 2 Two serious errors 
 are at the root of such statements : First, it is taken 
 for granted that the Society of Jesus was instituted 
 directly against Protestantism, and that it used schools 
 and learning only to counteract this movement. In 
 the next chapter we shall prove that this view of the 
 Society is entirely unhistorical. The second error 
 underlying this view is the implicit belief that, before 
 the Protestant Reformation, education was at a very 
 low ebb, and that there existed little, if any, zeal for 
 learning. In order to understand the rise and pro- 
 gress of the educational system of the Jesuits and its 
 dependence on other schools, it will be necessary to 
 sketch the status of education in Western Christendom 
 before the foundation of the Society of Jesus. This 
 sketch must be very imperfect and fragmentary in a 
 work like the present. Besides, there exists as yet no 
 history of education in the Middle Ages which can be 
 considered as satisfactory, although some valuable 
 monographs on the subject have appeared within the 
 past few years. 3 
 
 1 American Cyclopedia (ed. 1881), article: "Education". 
 
 2 L. c. y p. 47. So also Seeley, History of Education, 
 p. 182. 
 
 3 The following works are the chief ones consulted: 
 Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deut- 
 schen Schulen und Universitaten vom Ausgang des Mittel- 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 21 
 
 i. Schools at the Close of the Middle Ages. 
 
 The intellectual darkness of the Middle Ages has 
 been long a favorite theme for popular writing. Many 
 have had the fixed notion that the Church, afraid of 
 progress, ever set her face against the enlightenment of 
 the people, but that at length her opposition was 
 beaten down by the craving for knowledge aroused by 
 the principles of the Reformation, and that, in con- 
 sequence of the break with Rome, various schools at 
 once arose in Protestant countries. Such popular 
 declamations have been disavowed by all honest Pro- 
 testant historians. 1 They admit that, what may be 
 called the darkness of these centuries, was owing to 
 the political and social conditions of the nations after 
 the Northern barbarians had nearly annihilated ancient 
 civilization, but not to any hostility of the Church 
 against learning and education. "The grossest igno- 
 rance of the Dark Ages," says an English historian, 
 "was not due to the strength of the ecclesiastical 
 system, but to its weakness. The improvement of 
 education formed a prominent object with every 
 zealous churchman and every ecclesiastical reformer 
 from the days of Gregory the Great to the days when 
 the darkness passed away under the influence of the 
 
 alters bis zur Gegenwart. Leipzig 1885. Specht, Geschichte 
 des Unterrichtswesens in Deutschland bis zur Mitte des 
 dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1885. Jaiissen, 
 History of the German People, I,ondon, Kegan Paul, 1896, 
 vol. I. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation, New York, 
 Putnam's Sons, 1900. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in 
 the Middle Ages. 2 vols. Oxford 1895. See also West, 
 Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools. New York, 
 Scribner's Sons, 1892. (The Great Educators Series.) 
 1 See Maitlaud, The Dark Ages. 
 
22 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ecclesiastical revival of the eleventh and twelfth cen- 
 turies." 1 
 
 In another passage of his great work the same 
 author says of education before the Reformation: "It 
 may be stated with some confidence that, at least in 
 the later middle age, the smallest towns and even the 
 larger villages possessed schools where a boy might 
 learn to read and to acquire the first rudiments of 
 ecclesiastical L,atin, while, except in very remote and 
 thinly populated regions, he would never have to go 
 far to find a regular grammar school. That the means 
 of reading, writing and the elements of Latin were far 
 more widely diffused than has sometimes been sup- 
 posed, is coming to be generally recognized by students 
 of medieval life. ' ' 2 
 
 It is now not only acknowledged that much was 
 done for the education of the people, but also that all 
 education during the Middle Ages proceeded from the 
 Church. 3 Nothing but prejudice or ignorance of the 
 
 1 Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 
 vol. I , p. 27. 
 
 2 Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. II , 
 p. 602. 
 
 3 Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 11. 
 Professor Harnack of the University of Berlin, speaking of 
 the achievements of the Roman Church, says: "In the first 
 place it educated the Romano-Germanic nations, and edu- 
 cated them in a sense other than that in which the Eastern 
 
 Church educated the Greeks, Slavs, and Orientals It 
 
 brought Christian civilization to young nations, and brought 
 it, not once only, so as to keep them at its first stage no ! it 
 gave them something which was capable of exercising a 
 progressive educational influence, and for a period of almost 
 a thousand years it itself led the advance. Up to the four- 
 teenth century it was a leader and a mother ; it supplied the 
 ideas, set the aims, and disengaged the forces." The same 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF TH SOCIETY. 23 
 
 past can raise any doubts about the merits of the 
 Church in the field of education. We cannot narrate 
 what the Church has done to advance popular educa- 
 tion in the earlier Middle Ages. Numerous councils, 
 for instance, those of Orange in France (529), 
 Constantinople (680), Aix-la-Chapelle (802), l Mentz 
 (813), Rome (826 and 1179), exhorted the clergy 
 to instruct the children, "without accepting anything 
 beyond a compensation the parents should offer 
 freely," as Bishop Arbyton of Basle (died in 821) 
 writes. From the twelfth century on the number of 
 schools increased considerably. 2 
 
 Much more evidence is available about the schools 
 of the closing Middle Ages. A great deal of it is 
 published in the well-known History of the German 
 People by Janssen. 3 Although compulsory education 
 was unknown, we learn from many records, preserved 
 in towns and villages, that the schools were well 
 attended. In the little town of Wesel there were, in 
 1444, five teachers employed to instruct the children 
 in reading, writing, arithmetic, and choir-singing. In 
 the district of the Middle Rhine, in the year 1500, 
 
 author admits that even at present the Catholic Church has 
 an important share in the movement of thought. What is 
 Christianity? (Putnam's Sons, New York, 1901.) Lecture 
 XIV, p. 247. Well has Cardinal Newman said: "Not a man 
 in Europe now, who talks bravely against the Church, but 
 owes it to the Church, that he can talk at all.'* Historical 
 Sketches, vol. Ill , p. 109. 
 
 1 On the schools of Charles the Great and of the cen- 
 turies following see Specht, Geschichte des Unterrichtswesens. 
 
 West, Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools. 
 
 2 See Specht, op. cit. Russell, German Higher 
 Schools. 
 
 3 Vol. I. (English translation), pp. 2560. 
 
24 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 there were whole stretches of country where a 
 "people's school" was to be found within a circuit of 
 every six miles. Small parishes even of five or six 
 hundred souls were not without their village schools. 1 
 The Protestant historian Palacky stated that, while 
 examining documents in the archives of Bohemia, he 
 took note of all the teachers whose names he happened 
 to come across, and found that about the year 1400 
 the diocese of Prague must have had at least 640 
 schools. Taking this for the average, the 63 dioceses 
 then existing in Germany would have possessed the 
 respectable number of over 40,000 elementary or 
 primary schools. 2 
 
 This conjecture may not be very accurate, but the 
 evidence furnished by contemporary documents at 
 least goes a great way to show that the number of 
 schools was very large. The latter part of the Middle 
 Ages was the time in which the burning zeal for 
 learning led to the invention of the art of printing, 
 and this art in turn still further increased the desire to 
 learn and facilitated the work of education. In a 
 pamphlet printed .in Mentz, in 1498, it was said: 
 "Everybody now wants to read and to write. " In the 
 light of such facts, who does not see the absurdity of 
 the assertion of Compayre and other writers that the 
 primary school, whether Catholic or Protestant, is the 
 child of the Reformation ? 3 Towards the end of the 
 
 1 Ib., pp. 2627. 
 
 2 At present the number of elementary schools in Ger- 
 many is less than 60,000;' there were 56,563 in 1892. 
 
 3 "In its origin, the primary school is the child of 
 Protestantism, and its cradle was the Reformation." Com- 
 payre*, History of Pedagogy, p. 112. Similarly Professor 
 Beyschlag of Halle. 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF THK SOCIKTY. 25 
 
 fifteenth century good and respectable parents, at least 
 in Germany, began to consider it their duty to let their 
 children acquire an education. This interest in edu- 
 cation naturally led to the establishment of many new 
 schools. Complaints are even made in some cities 
 that too many schools are opened. The facts given so 
 far prove also that it is not correct to say that the 
 German ( 'people's school" did not assume the shape 
 of a school for the masses until the Reformation, 1 or 
 that medieval culture was but for the few, and that it 
 was Luther who brought the schoolmaster into the 
 cottage. 2 Otherwise who frequented the numerous 
 schools in towns and villages, where "everybody 
 wanted to read and to write" ? 
 
 What is now called "secondary education" was 
 not as strictly distinguished from elementary and 
 university training as it is now-a-days. From very 
 early times higher education was cared for in num- 
 erous schools connected with monasteries and cathe- 
 drals. The merits of the Order of St. Benedict in 
 preserving the treasures of classical literature are uni- 
 versally acknowledged. Its monks were not only the 
 great clearers of land in Europe, at once missionaries 
 and laborers, but also the teachers of the nations 
 rising from barbarism to civilization. 
 
 Benedictine monasticism gave the world almost its 
 only houses of learning and education, and constituted 
 by far the most powerful civilizing agency in Europe, 
 until it was superseded as an educational instrument 
 by the growth of the universities. The period that 
 
 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 188889, 
 vol. I, p. 32. 
 
 1 Encyclopedia Britannica, article : ' 'Education." 
 
26 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 intervenes between the time of Charlemagne and the 
 eleventh century has been well styled the Benedictine 
 age. And before that period the numerous monastic 
 schools of Ireland had been frequented by so many 
 holy and learned men as justly to win for that country 
 the title of Insula Sanctorum et Doctorum, the Island 
 of Saints and Scholars. 1 In general, careful historical 
 research by modern scholars presents a picture of the 
 medieval monks quite different from that given by 
 the author of Ivanhoe and by other imaginative "mis- 
 describers' ' , according to whom the monk was, if not 
 a hypocritical debauchee, at the least a very ignorant 
 and very indolent person. 
 
 We have to sketch chiefly the condition of educa- 
 tion at the close of the Middle Ages. It is scarcely 
 necessary to speak of Italy which, in the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries, was the intellectual centre of 
 Europe and at that time exhibited a literary activity 
 such as no other period of history has ever witnessed. 
 For it was in Italy that the renaissance began. This 
 mighty movement, which marks the transition of the 
 Middle Ages to modern times, effected a revolution in 
 literature, science, art, life and education. From Italy 
 it swept on over Europe and caused similar changes 
 everywhere. What is called the classical education is 
 the immediate outcome of the Italian Renaissance. 
 During the first half of the fifteenth century there lived 
 in Northern Italy one of the ablest and most amiable 
 educators in the history of all ages : Vittorino da 
 
 1 See Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars, by the 
 Most Rev. John Healy, D. D. Newman, Historical Sketches, 
 vol. Ill, pp. 116129. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 27 
 
 Feltre. l He modified considerably the medieval 
 school system of the Trivium and Quadrivium. Al- 
 though the classics, carefully selected, formed the 
 groundwork of his course, other branches, as mathe- 
 matics and philosophy, were not neglected. Due at- 
 tention was devoted to the physical development of 
 the pupils, and riding, fencing, and other gymnastic 
 exercises were greatly encouraged. Vittorino lived 
 among his pupils like a father in his family, revered 
 and beloved. Poor scholars were not only instructed, 
 but also fed, lodged, and clothed gratuitously. The 
 secret of his wonderful influence lay in his lofty moral 
 principles and his deeply religious spirit. In his 
 calling he recognized a noble mission to which he 
 devoted himself zealously and exclusively, without 
 seeking anything for himself. His contemporaries 
 called him the " Saintly Master". His virginal purity 
 charmed all who came into contact with him. Although 
 not a priest, he daily recited the Divine office, fre- 
 quently approached the sacraments and accustomed 
 his pupils to receive holy communion monthly and to 
 hear mass daily. This great educator's fame spread 
 far and wide, and eager youths flocked to him even 
 from France, Germany and other countries. Many 
 customs and practices found in humanistic schools 
 north of the Alps may have been copied from Vittori- 
 no J s famous school. It is certain that his influence 
 was felt in England, for one of his pupils, Antonio 
 Beccaria, was secretary and "translator" of Duke 
 Humphrey of Gloucester, the first patron of the new 
 
 1 Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I, pp. 44-46. Wood- 
 ward, Vittorino da Feltre and other Humanist Educators, 
 N. Y., Macmillan. 
 
28 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 learning in England, l and the celebrated school of 
 Winchester, founded by Bishop Langdon, was, in all 
 probability, modeled after that of Vittorino. 2 
 
 It is almost superfluous to mention the keen in- 
 terest in learning manifested by the Italian ecclesiastics 
 of this period. They raised to the papacy the book- 
 lover and enthusiastic student, Parentucelli ; and he, 
 as Nicholas V. (1447-1455), placed himself at the head 
 of the great movement of the renaissance, and won 
 immortal renown by founding the Vatican Library, 
 where the glorious monuments of Greek and Roman 
 intellect were collected under the protection of the 
 Holy See. The second successor of Nicholas V. was 
 Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.), famous as a humanist 
 scholar and author. But it is impossible here to enu- 
 merate all the ardent promoters of learning among the 
 popes, cardinals and other church dignitaries of this 
 time. So large a part of a churchman's life did learn- 
 ing occupy in Italy, that no prelate considered his 
 household complete without a retinue of scholars. 3 
 We cannot here trace the gradual spread of this mighty 
 movement into other countries, but must confine our- 
 selves to the bare mention of a few facts regarding the 
 educational conditions. 
 
 What has often been said respecting the ignorance 
 prevailing in Scotland before the Reformation, has 
 been repudiated by the researches of Protestant his- 
 torians, such as Burton, L,awson, Edgar, and others. 
 It has been proved that this country, throughout the 
 
 1 Einstein, The Italian Renaissance in England (New 
 York, the Columbia University Press, 1902), p. 4. 
 
 2 /., p. 53. 
 
 3 /., p. 20. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 29 
 
 latter part of the Middle Ages, possessed an abundance 
 of educational facilities. We find here even an in- 
 teresting example of compulsory higher education. At 
 the instance of the clergy, in 1470, an act of parliament 
 was passed providing that all barons and freeholders 
 should, under penalty of twenty pounds, send their 
 sons at the age of nine or ten years to the schools, to 
 remain there until they had acquired a competent 
 knowledge of L,atin. They were then to attend the 
 schools of art and law. 1 
 
 As regards secondary schools in England, it used 
 to be commonly asserted that Edward VI. , the first 
 monarch of the Reformed Faith, was the great founder 
 and reformer. 2 Upwards of thirty free grammar 
 schools founded at this time have permanently asso- 
 ciated the reign of Edward VI. with popular education. 
 The Schools Inquiring Commission in 1886 went 
 further, and set down fifty-one schools to the credit of 
 Edward. Modern historical research has broken, 
 stick by stick, the whole bundle of old misrepresenta- 
 tions. "The fact is that the whole theory about the 
 dearth of grammar schools and other schools still more 
 elementary is a mere delusion. The immense prestige 
 that Edward VI. has acquired as a patron of education 
 is simply due to the fact that he refounded out of con- 
 fiscated Church property some small percentage of 
 schools which he and his rapacious father had de- 
 stroyed. The probability is that England was far 
 
 1 Bellesheim, History of the Catholic Church of Scot- 
 land, vol. II, pp. 326, 346. 
 
 2 See the article : Medieval Grammar Schools, in the 
 Dublin Review, 1899, vol. CXXV, pp. 153-178. 
 
30 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 better provided with grammar schools before the Re- 
 formation than it has ever been since. ' ' l 
 
 This startling statement has been confirmed by a 
 careful study of the records of the time of Henry VIII. 
 and Edward VI. , from which it is clear that at least 
 two hundred grammar schools must have been in 
 existence before Edward came to the throne. Mr. 
 lyeach raises the number by the addition of another 
 hundred, and says that three hundred is a moderate 
 estimate for the year I535; 2 and this number is ex- 
 clusive of elementary schools and universities. It will 
 suffice to mention a few names of famous schools : 
 Canterbury, Lincoln, Wells, York, Beverly, Chester, 
 Southwell, Winchester, Eton, the school of Dean 
 Colet in London, and the numerous schools attached 
 to the monasteries. In regard to the great number 
 of foundation schools established just after the Refor- 
 mation, Professor Thorold Rogers maintains that it 
 was not a new zeal for learning, but a very inadequate 
 supply of that which had been so suddenly and dis- 
 astrously destroyed. 8 
 
 During the period immediately preceding the Re- 
 formation, England possessed a great number of dis- 
 tinguished scholars, most of whom were ecclesiastics. 
 The revival of letters was heartily welcomed by the 
 clergy. The chief ecclesiastics of the day, as Wolsey, 
 Warham, Fisher, Tunstall, L,angton, Stokesley, Fox, 
 
 1 The Rev. Hastings Rashdall, Harrow School, chap. II, 
 p. 12. {Dublin Review, L c., p. 156.) 
 
 2 English Schools at the Reformation, p. 6 ; ( /. c , 
 p. 157J. 
 
 * Six Centuries of Work and Wages, vol. I, p. 165. 
 {Dublin Review, 1. c., p. 162.) 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 31 
 
 Selling, Grocyn, Whitford, lyinacre, Colet, Pace, 
 William L,atimer, and numerous others, were not only 
 ardent humanists, but thorough and practical church- 
 men. l 
 
 Similar conditions existed on the European" con- 
 tinent. The L,atin City Schools towards the* close of 
 the Middle Ages were numerous throughout Germany. 2 
 About this time, the intellectual condition of the people 
 in Germany, the Netherlands and France was most 
 beneficially influenced by the " Brethren of the Com- 
 mon lyife". Founded by Gerard Groot of De venter, 
 this fraternity at first was employed in the transcrip- 
 tion of books, all, profane studies being prohibited. 
 They were supposed to restrict themselves exclusively 
 to the reading of the Scriptures and the Fathers, not 
 wasting their time over "such vanities as geometry, 
 arithmetic, rhetoric, logic, grammar, lyric poetry, and 
 judicial astrology. " 3 These principles were extreme, 
 and it is some consolation to find that the founder 
 admitted the "wiser of the Gentile philosophers," such 
 as Plato, Aristotle, and Seneca. In 1393, a little 
 scholar, Thomas Hammerken of Kempen, Rhineland, 
 entered the school of Deventer; he was no other than 
 the famous Thomas a Kempis, most probably the 
 author of the Following of Christ. 
 
 Shortly after the death of Gerard Groot (1384), the 
 labors of the Brethren were made to embrace a wider 
 sphere, and especially to include the education of 
 
 1 Einstein, The Italian Renaissance in England, pp. 
 18-57. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation, pp. 36-50. 
 
 2 On their character see Report of the Commissioner of 
 Education, 1897-98, vol. I, pp. 20-23. 
 
 3 A. T. Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, vol. II, 
 p. 335. 
 
32 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 youth. The prohibition against profane learning dis- 
 appeared, Deventer became a most celebrated institu- 
 tion, and numerous .schools were founded all over 
 Flanders, France and Northern Germany. The settle- 
 ments of the Brethren spread gradually along the 
 Rhine as far as Suabia, and by the end of the fifteenth 
 century they reached from the Scheldt to the Vistula, 
 from Cambrai, through the whole of Northern Ger- 
 many, to Culm in Prussia. In these schools, Chris- 
 tian education was placed high above mere learning, 
 and the training of the young in practical religion and 
 active piety was considered the most important duty. 
 The whole system of instruction was permeated by a 
 Christian spirit ; the pupils learned to look upon 
 religion as the basis of all human existence and cul- 
 ture, while at the same time they had a good supply 
 of secular knowledge imparted to them, and they 
 gained a genuine love for learning and study. 1 The 
 Brethren had been established by John Standonch, 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, in the College de Montaigne 
 in the University of Paris. 2 The founder of the 
 Society of Jesus studied in this college, and some 
 suppose that the rules of the Poor Clerks, as they were 
 often called, furnished Ignatius some ideas for his 
 rules. 3 This much is certain, that Ignatius had im- 
 bibed the spirit of those Brethren from the study of the 
 works of Thomas a Kempis. It is related that at the 
 time when he wrote the Constitutions of his Order, he 
 had no other books in his room except the New 
 Testament and the Following of Christ. 
 
 1 Janssen, Hist, of the German People -, vol. I, ch. 3. 
 
 2 Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, vol. II, p. 339. 
 
 3 This is for instance the opinion of Boulay, the historian 
 of the University of Paris. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 33 
 
 Youths eager for knowledge flocked from all parts 
 to the schools of the Brethren. The number of schol- 
 ars at Zwolle often rose to eight hundred or ten 
 hundred ; at Alkmaar to nine hundred ; at Herzogen- 
 busch to twelve hundred ; and at Deventer, in the 
 year 1500, actually to twenty-two hundred. Other 
 celebrated schools were at Liege and Louvain. The 
 instruction being free in all these schools, they were 
 open to students of the smallest means. In many of 
 the towns also, where they had not started actual 
 schools, the Brethren supplied teachers for the town 
 schools, not unfrequently paid the expenses of the 
 poorer scholars and supplied them with books, station- 
 ery and other school materials. In 1431 Pope Eugene 
 sent orders to the bishops that they should prevent 
 any interference with the beneficial work of these 
 zealous educators. Pius II. and Sixtus IV. went even 
 further in their support and encouragement. One of 
 their most active patrons was Cardinal Nicholas of 
 Cusa, renowned as a mathematician and the precursor 
 of Copernicus. Nicholas himself had been educated 
 at Deventer, and had given this school material sup- 
 port by a liberal endowment for the maintenance of 
 twenty poor students. l 
 
 The schools of the Brethren had been among the 
 first of those north of the Alps which introduced the 
 revived study of classical literature. It was in these 
 schools that Rudolphus Agricola, Alexander Hegius, 
 Rudolph von L,angen and L,udwig Dringenberg 
 studied. All were equally distinguished for learning, 
 piety, and purity of morals, and became the most en- 
 thusiastic revivers of the classical studies on German 
 
 1 Janssen, /. c., pp. 61-62. 
 3 
 
34 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 soil, the fathers of the older German humanism. 1 
 Hegius, one of the greatest scholars of the century, was 
 rector of the schools at Wesel, Emmerich and De- 
 venter. Erasmus, a pupil of Deventer, ranks him 
 among the restorers of pure Latin scholarship. Hegius 
 enjoys the undisputed credit of having purged and 
 simplified the school curriculum, improved the method 
 of teaching, corrected the old text-books or replaced 
 them by better ones. He also made the classics the 
 staple of instruction of youth. 2 Together with Agri- 
 cola, Erasmus and Reuchlin, he was foremost in pro- 
 pagating enthusiasm for Greek in Germany. Hegius 
 emphasized the necessity of a knowledge of Greek for 
 all sciences : 
 
 Qui Graece nescit, nescit quoque doctus haberi. 
 
 In summa: Grajis debentur singula doctis. 3 
 In Alsace flourished the school of Schlettstadt, 
 more important even than those on the Lower Rhine. 
 It was one of the first of the German schools in which 
 the history of the Fatherland was zealously studied 
 side by side with the classics. Among its most dis- 
 tinguished pupils were Johannes von Dalberg, Geiler 
 von Kaisersberg and Wirnpheling. Dalberg was bishop 
 of Worms and curator of the Heidelberg University, a 
 liberal patron of all learned men, especially of Reuch- 
 lin, the great Greek and Hebrew scholar. This noble 
 bishop was also the leader and director of the ' * Rhe- 
 
 1 See Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. V, chapter 
 I: "Humanism in Germany. " 
 
 2 Janssen, /. ^., p. 68. 
 
 3 Paulsen, Geschiclite des gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 42, 
 (vol. I, p. 67). Further details are given by Janssen, History 
 of the German People; "The Higher Schools and the Older 
 Humanists." (English translation, vol. I, pp. 61 85.) 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIKTY. 35 
 
 nish Literary Society," founded in 1491, to which be- 
 longed a host of learned men, theologians, lawyers, 
 doctors, philosophers, mathematicians, linguists, his- 
 torians and poets, from the Rhinelands and the Middle 
 and Southwest of Germany. The object of this society, 
 as of many similar ones existing at that time in Ger- 
 many, was the encouragement and spread of science 
 and the fine arts generally, and of classical learning in 
 particular, as also the furthering of national historical 
 research. l 
 
 Another great pupil of Schlettstadt was Geiler von 
 Kaisersberg (died 1510), the Cathedral preacher of 
 Strasburg, great not only as theologian and pulpit 
 orator, but also as an ardent promoter of humanistic 
 studies, a friend of the learned Benedictine Johannes 
 Trithemius and of Gabriel Biel of Tiibingen, and the 
 leading spirit of a circle of highly gifted men on the 
 Upper Rhine. The third great scholar of Schlettstadt 
 was Wimpheling, called the "Teacher of Germany." 
 As Hegius was the greatest German schoolmaster of 
 his century, so Wimpheling was the most distinguished 
 writer on matters educational, one of the most famous 
 restorers of an enlightened system of education from a 
 Christian point of view. In one of his writings, 
 the Guide for German Youth, (1497), he forcefully 
 points out the defects of the earlier system of educa- 
 tion and lays down some golden rules for improve- 
 ments, especially for mastering the ancient languages. 
 It is the first work published on rational pedagogy 
 and methodics in Germany, a truly national work. 
 According to Wimpheling and other schoolmen of this 
 time, the study of L,atin and Greek should not be-con- 
 1 Jaussen, /. c., p. 107. 
 
36 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 fined to the learning of the languages, but should be 
 the means of strengthening and disciplining thought, 
 true gymnastics of independent judgment. 1 
 
 There are many names of great educators and 
 scholars of this time which deserve at least to be men- 
 tioned: Pirkheimer in Nuremberg, Cochlaeus, professor 
 of classics and director of the school of poetry in the 
 same city, Murmellius, co-rector of the Cathedral 
 school in Minister, Count Moritz von Spiegelberg, 
 provOvSt at Emmerich. 
 
 But we must leave this interesting subject, how- 
 ever reluctantly, and refer the reader to Janssen's first 
 volume. Prom contemporary sources this author has 
 drawn the following conclusions: "Outside the Mark 
 of Brandenburg, there was scarcely a single large town 
 in Germany in which, at the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, in addition to the already existing elementary 
 national schools, new schools of higher grade were not 
 built or old ones improved. ' ' 2 The control of these 
 schools was in the hands of the Church, and most of 
 the masters were clerics. School rates were unknown. 
 The schools were kept up by frequent legacies; for the 
 education of the young was counted among the works 
 of mercy, to which money was liberally given in 
 loyal obedience to the Church's doctrine of good 
 works. Libraries were also founded in the same 
 spirit. 3 
 
 All over Europe we find, therefore, a great, yea 
 
 1 /., p. 80. 
 
 2 L. c. y pp. 80 81. Erasmus wrote to I^uiz Vives : "In 
 Germania tot fere sunt academiae quot oppida. Harum nulla 
 paene est, quae non magnis salariis accersat linguarum profes- 
 sores." Opera, III, 689. 
 
 3 Janssen, /. c., p. 81. 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 37 
 
 enthusiastic, activity in the field of learning and edu- 
 cation. The foremost promoters and patrons of this 
 intellectual movement are everywhere ecclesiastics. 
 This fact is so patent that an impartial American 
 scholar wrote quite recently: "The patronage of learn- 
 ing which has always been one of the proudest boasts 
 of the Catholic Church existed especially in the 
 Renaissance, when a genuine love for it on the part of 
 churchmen atoned for many other shortcomings. The 
 higher clergy, moreover, were mostly university men 
 whose scholarly interests had been awakened early in 
 life, and who later were placed in a position to show 
 their gratitude. A zeal for learning and the patronage 
 of scholars became almost an affectation on the part of 
 the higher clergy. ... In all ranks of the Church an 
 interest in the new learning was shown , even by those 
 who were to leave the Roman faith, but who in their 
 zeal for letters continued former traditions. ' ' l 
 
 In the face of such historical evidence, it is unintel- 
 ligible how certain writers can describe the pre-Refor- 
 mation period as one of intellectual stagnation and 
 degeneracy. If we are to believe Mr. Painter, shortly 
 before the Reformation, learning had died out among 
 the clergy, the schools were neglected, superstition 
 and ignorance characterized the masses. 2 Mr. Seeley's 
 estimate of the period is not less unfavorable: "The 
 Church which had been the Mother of schools had 
 become corrupt and degenerate; priests were ignorant 
 and immoral, and good teachers were no longer to be 
 found. Education was at such low ebb, and the 
 advantages offered were so poor, and of such doubtful 
 
 1 Einstein, The Italian Renaissance in England, pp. 
 5154. See also Paulsen, /. <;., vol. I, pp. 2729. 
 
 2 A History of Education, p. 136, 
 
38 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 character, that but few persons cared to avail them- 
 selves of their privileges." 1 Prejudice or ignorance 
 characterize these sweeping indictments, and any 
 further comment on them is unnecessary. 
 
 The greatest and most glorious achievement of the 
 medieval Church in the intellectual sphere are the 
 universities. These institutions have been bequeathed 
 to us by the Middle Ages, and they are of greater and 
 more imperishable value even than its cathedrals. 2 
 The universities were, to a great extent, ecclesiastical 
 institutions, 3 they were, at least, endowed with 
 privileges from the Holy See. They were meant to 
 be the highest schools not only of secular, but also of 
 religious learning, and stood under the jurisdiction of 
 the Church, as well as under her special protection. 4 
 It was through the privileges of the Church that the 
 universities were raised from merely local into ecu- 
 menical organizations. The doctorate became an 
 order of intellectual nobility, with as distinct and 
 definite a place in the hierarchical system of medieval 
 Christendom, as the priesthood and the knighthood. 
 In fact the Sacerdotium, Imperium, and Studium are 
 
 1 History of Education, p. 166. 
 
 2 Rashdall, Universities of the Middle Ages, vol. I, p. 5. 
 
 3 Of the forty-four universities founded by charters 
 before 1400, there are thirty-one which possess papal charters. 
 Deuifle, O. P., Die Entstehung der Universitdten des Mittel- 
 alters bis 1400, p. 780. 
 
 4 On this subject see: Denifle, /. c.; Rashdall, The Uni- 
 versities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols. Dublin 
 Review, July 1898: The Church and the Universities, byj. B. 
 Milburn. Newman, Rise and Progress of Universities, in 
 Historical Sketches, vol. III. For further literature see 
 Guggenberger, S. J., A General History of the Christian Era, 
 vol. II, pp. 126129. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORK FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 39 
 
 the three great forces which energized those times and 
 built up and maintained the mighty fabric of medieval 
 Christendom. The University of Paris, the first school 
 of the Church, with its four Nations, possessed some- 
 thing of the international character of the Church. 1 
 4 'It may with truth be said that in the history of 
 human things there is to be found no grander concep- 
 tion than that of the Church in the fifteenth century, 
 when it resolved, in the shape of the universities, to 
 cast the light of knowledge abroad over the Christian 
 world." 2 These are the testimonies of Protestant 
 historians. 
 
 As the Benedictines in the earlier ages had been 
 the most zealous educators, so, from the twelfth cen- 
 tury on, the friars or mendicants took the most prom- 
 inent part in university education. The greatest 
 professors in philosophy and theology were friars ; 
 to the order of St. Francis belonged Alexander of 
 Hales, St. Bonaventure, Roger Bacon, and Duns 
 Scotus. The last mentioned was one of the profoun- 
 dest and most original thinkers that the world has ever 
 seen, and deservedly was styled the Doctor subtilis. 
 Blessed Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas, "the 
 Angelic Doctor and Prince of the Schools," were 
 Dominicans. Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon 
 were far in advance of their time in the knowledge of 
 mathematics and natural sciences. Mr. Rashdall com- 
 pares Roger Bacon with his great namesake, Francis 
 
 1 Rashdall, /. c., vol. I, p. 546. 
 
 2 Burton, History of Scotland, vol. IV, p. 109. (Belles- 
 heim, History of the Catholic Church of Scotland ', vol. II, 
 p. 346.) 
 
40 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Bacon, and the comparison is decidedly in favor of 
 the monk. l 
 
 There existed a considerable number of universities 
 before the year 1400, chief among them were those of 
 Paris, Bologna, Oxford and Cambridge, Salamanca, 
 Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, etc. From 1400 to the 
 Reformation many new universities were founded in 
 Western Christendom. ' 2 Twenty-six of those founded 
 between 1400 and 1500 are still existing, 3 among them 
 Wiirzburg, L,eipsic, Munich, Ttibingen, etc., in Ger- 
 many; St. Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen in Scotland; 
 Upsala in Sweden ; Copenhagen in Denmark, etc. 
 In Germany alone nine were founded between 1456 
 and I5o6. 4 But we need not dwell further on these uni- 
 versities, as any information that is sought can be 
 easily gathered from the many books that are available 
 on this subject. 5 
 
 The intellectual activity of the universities of the 
 Southern European countries was nowise inferior to 
 that of Central and Northern Europe. In Portugal 
 there was the University of Coimbra ; in Spain, there 
 were at least twelve universities before i5oo, 6 the 
 
 1 L. c., vol. II, pp. 523524. 
 
 2 Compayre enumerates 75 universities existing in 1482, 
 the year before Luther's birth. "Who could deny," he says, 
 "after merely glancing over this long enumeration, the im- 
 portance of the university movement in the last three cen- 
 turies of the Middle Ages?." Abelard, pp. 5052. 
 
 3 See Report of Com. of Ed., 1897-98, vol. II, p. 1741. 
 
 4 Jansseu, /. <:., vol. I, p. 86. 
 
 5 Janssen, vol. I. Compayr6, Abelard and the Origin 
 and Early History of Universities (Scribner's Sons, New 
 York). Rasbdall, vol. II, pp. 211-280; on the universities 
 of Poland, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, and Scotland, pp. 
 283315. 
 
 6 See Rashdall, vol. II, pp. 65107. 
 
EDUCATION BKFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 41 
 
 chief among them at Salamanca. Here flourished, 
 shortly before the outbreak of the Reformation, the 
 famous classical scholar, Peter Martyr, Prior of the 
 Church of Granada. He and other scholars labored 
 with such success for the higher education of the 
 nobility, that no Spaniard was considered noble who 
 showed any indifference to learning. Erasmus also 
 declares that "the Spaniards had attained such emi- 
 nence in literature r that they not only excited the 
 admiration of the most polished nations of Europe, but 
 served likewise as models for them. ' ' l Many belong- 
 ing to the first houses of the nobility once so high 
 and proud now made 110 hesitation to occupy chairs 
 in the universities. Among others Don Gutierre de 
 Toledo, son of the Duke of Alva and cousin of the 
 King, lectured at Salamanca. Noble dames likewise 
 vied with illustrious grandees for the prize of literary 
 pre-eminence ; while many even held chairs in the 
 universities, and gave public lectures on eloquence 
 and classical learning. Some of the names of these 
 literary ladies have been preserved : the Marchioness 
 of Monteagudo, Dona Maria Pacheco, and Queen 
 Isabella's instructor in Latin, Doiia Beatriz de Galin- 
 do, and others. 2 With such a zeal for knowledge the 
 
 1 Epist. 977. (Hefele, Life of Ximenez, p. 115.) 
 
 2 Hefele, The Life of Cardinal Ximenez, translated by 
 the Rev. Canon Dalton, p. 115. Rashdall remarks on this 
 fact: "Salamanca is not perhaps ^precisely the place where 
 one would look for early precedents for the higher education 
 of women. Yet it was from vSalamanca that Isabella, the 
 Catholic, is said to have summoned Doiia Beatriz Galiudo to 
 teach her Latin long before the Protestant Elizabeth put her- 
 self to school under Ascham." Univ. in theM. A., vol. II, p. 79. 
 The education of women was not so entirely neglected as is 
 
42 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 old schools began to be filled, and the newly endowed 
 Salamanca excelled them all. It was called the 
 "Spanish Athens", and was said at one time to have 
 seven thousand students. It was there that Peter 
 Martyr gave lessons on Juvenal (1488), before such an 
 immense audience that the entrance to the hall was 
 completely blocked up and the lecturer had to be car- 
 ried in on the shoulders of the students. l It should 
 be mentioned to the credit of Salamanca that her 
 Doctors encouraged the designs of Columbus, and that 
 the Copernican system found early acceptance in its 
 lecture rooms. 2 
 
 In the beginning of the sixteenth century other 
 schools for higher education were established at Tole- 
 do, Seville, Granada, Ognate, Ossuna, and Valencia. 
 But all these schools were far excelled by the new 
 university of Alcala, founded by Ximenez in 1500. 
 It was so magnificent an establishment that the Span- 
 iards called it the * 'eighth wonder of the world. ' ' The 
 college of San Ildefonso was the head of the new 
 university. Moreover, Ximenez founded several other 
 institutions, adapted to all kinds of wants. Most re- 
 nowned was the * 'College of Three Languages' ' for the 
 study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. For poor young 
 students in the classics, Ximenez endowed two board- 
 ing schools, where forty -two scholars were supported 
 three years free of expense. The students attended 
 the lectures given by the six professors of languages, 
 
 commonly believed. See Specht, /. c., ch. XI, "Education 
 of Women" Further Janssen's History of the German 
 People, vol. I, pp. 8285. 
 
 1 Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella, Part I, ch. XIX. 
 Peter Martyr's Epist., 57. Hefele, p. 116. 
 
 2 Rashdall, /. r., vol. II, p. 77. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 43 
 
 who were attached to the university ; at their houses, 
 however, special exercises were given and disputations 
 held for fourteen days. Strict examinations were 
 required before any one could be admitted to a higher 
 class, or to a particular course of lectures on any 
 science. All the regulations were followed by such 
 great results that, according to Erasmus, Alcala was 
 especially distinguished by its able philologists. l 
 The most splendid production of the philological and 
 biblical activity of this university is the celebrated 
 Complutensian Polyglot of the Bible. In 1526 Igna- 
 tius of Loyola, the future founder of the Society of 
 Jesus, attended the University of Alcala ; in 1527 we 
 find him in Salamanca. 
 
 In connection with Alcala we must mention the 
 greatest school of the Netherlands, the University of 
 Louvain. Especially distinguished was its Collegium^' 
 Trilingue, founded in 1516 by Busleiden, the friend of 
 Erasmus and Thomas More. Busleiden had visited 
 Alcala and wished to have in Lou vain, a college like 
 that of the "Three Languages" at Alcala for the study 
 of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The famous universities 
 of Alcala, Salamanca, Paris, and Louvain furnish the 
 connecting link between the educational system of the 
 Jesuits and that previous to the foundation of the So- 
 ciety. But the great University of Paris was really the 
 . Alma Mater of St. Ignatius of Loyola. There also he 
 won his first companions, chief among them Peter 
 Kaber, and St. Francis Xavier. In 1529 and 1530 
 Ignatius visited the Netherlands. During its infancy 
 several distinguished members of the Order were 
 scholars from that country, as Peter Canisius, Francis 
 
 1 Epist. 755. (Hefele, /. c., p. 122.) 
 
44 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Coster, Peter Busaeus, John Theodore Macherentius, 
 and others. The traditions of the University of Paris 
 and of the humanistic schools of the Netherlands un- 
 doubtedly exerted a considerable influence on the 
 Jesuit system of education. Before narrating the 
 foundation of the Society and the development of its 
 educational system, it is necessary to speak of two 
 great movements, the Renaissance and the Reformation. 
 
 2. Character of Medieval Education. The Renaissance. 
 
 Higher education in the Middle Ages followed the 
 course known as the study of the "Seven Liberal 
 Arts," divided into the Trivium: Grammar, Rhetoric, 
 and Logic ; and the Quadrivium: Arithmetic, Music, 
 Geometry, and Astronomy. 1 If we read that "gram- 
 mar" was studied for several years and that many 
 confined their studies to this part of the course, we 
 ought well to understand the meaning of this term. 
 By grammar was not meant, as now, the mere study 
 of the rules of a language, its etymology and syntax, 
 but rather a scholarly acquaintance with the literature 
 of that language, together with the power of writing 
 and speaking it. 2 Rabanus Mattrus, the greatest pupil 
 of Alcuin and later on Archbishop of Mentz, defined 
 grammar as "the science of interpreting poets and 
 historians, as well as the science of the rules of speak- 
 ing and writing." Latin was the principal subject of 
 instruction, the favorite authors were Virgil and Ovid. 
 Hugo of Trimberg, the master of a school at Bamberg, 
 
 1 On the Trivium and Quadrivium, see West, Alcuin 
 and the Rise of the Christian Schools, pp. 1 39. 
 
 2 Newman, Historical Sketches^ vol. II, p. 460. 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF THK SOCIKTY. 45 
 
 about 1250, enumerates the following authors whom 
 he read with his pupils: Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal, 
 Persius, Statius, Homerus lyatinus, Boethius, Clau- 
 dian, Sedulius, Prudent ins, and others. l Of prose 
 authors are mentioned : Cicero, Seneca, Sallust, and 
 others. The study of Greek is met with only very 
 exceptionally before the Renaissance. Mathematics 
 were taught, but it is difficult to say to what extent. 
 
 In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there was a 
 revival of literary studies, which, however, was soon 
 replaced by another movement, scholasticism. Through 
 the Arabs and the Jews, Western Europe became 
 acquainted with the entire Logic of Aristotle hitherto 
 only his Organon was known, and that in the L,atin 
 translation of Boethius, with his Dialectics, Physics, 
 Metaphysics, and Ethics. 2 Scientific inquiry in the 
 universities began to move in another direction than 
 heretofore. The methods of Aristotle were introduced 
 into the schools; henceforth there was a more rigorous 
 form of reasoning, a dialectic tendency, and a closer 
 adherence to the syllogism ; disputations were very 
 common. A renewed study of the Fathers of the 
 Church, and a more correct understanding of Aristotle 
 inaugurated the most brilliant period of scholasticism 
 (12301330). 3 
 
 1 On the authors studied or known during the Middle 
 Ages see Coinparetti, Virgil in the Middle Ages. Boutaric^ 
 Vincent de Beauvais et la connaissance de Vantiquite classique 
 au treizieme siecle, in Revue des Questions Historiques, vol. 
 XVII, pp. 5 57. An adequate history of the use of the 
 classics during this period does not exist. A pretty full 
 bibliography of monographs is given by Taylor, The Classical 
 Heritage of the Middle Ages, pp. 363365. 
 
 2 Windelbaud, A History of Philosophy, p. 310. 
 
 3 On Scholasticism see also Alzog, History of the 
 Church, vol. II, pp. 728784. 
 
46 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 It cannot and need not be denied that the educa- 
 tion imparted by the medieval scholastics was in many 
 regards defective. It was at once too dogmatic and 
 disputatious. T Literary studies were comparatively 
 neglected ; frequently too much importance was at- 
 tached to purely dialectical subtleties. This education 
 was one-sided, and a few great men of the age, as 
 Roger Bacon, the great medieval scientist, and John 
 of Salisbury, complained that scholasticism was too 
 narrow. 2 The defects of scholasticism became es- 
 pecially manifest in the course of the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries, when much time and energy was 
 wasted in discussing useless refinements of thought. 
 
 Another serious defect of medieval education was 
 the lack of philological and historical criticism. This 
 uncritical spirit has been well pointed out in the Inter- 
 national Catholic Scientific Congress at Munich, 1900, 
 by the distinguished Jesuit historian, Father Grisar. 
 Speaking of the unwarranted traditions and pious 
 legends that grew up during the Middle Ages, he says: 
 "The age was really in infancy, so far as regular his- 
 torical scientific instinct was concerned. As in other 
 branches of knowledge, people lived on the good or 
 bad tradition of former days, just as they had received 
 it. ... The scientific work of the whole epoch was 
 devoted to those branches of knowledge that are most 
 sublime in their matter and stand in closest relation 
 to religion and Church. The age produced great and 
 exceedingly acute theologians, philosophers and can- 
 onists, but in these very men the general absence of 
 the historical sense, and of the criticism of facts, is 
 
 1 See Dublin Review, 1899, vol. CXXIV, p. 340. 
 
 2 Alzog, /. c., vol. II, p. 783. 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF TUB SOCIETY. 47 
 
 remarkable. It never occurs to them to question the 
 heritage of traditions or the wonderful narratives that 
 spring up. Rather in general they endeavor to find 
 in their systems a place for the most incongruous 
 statements without any question as to their foundation 
 in fact. ' ' l This lack of criticism explains the general 
 acceptance of such forgeries as the ''Decretals of 
 Pseudo-Isidorus", of the "Donation of Constantine", 
 and of the works of "Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita". 
 The knowledge of antiquity was exceedingly vague 
 and defective. Even such writers as Vincent of 
 Beauvais, who wrote a cyclopedia of all branches of 
 learning then known (the Speculum Majus), makes 
 the most curious blunders. Thus Caesar's Commen- 
 taries he ascribes to Julius Celsus ; Marcus Tullius 
 Cicero he confounds with his brother Quintus, in say- 
 ing that the great orator was a lieutenant of Caesar. 
 Spurious works abound in his lists of ancient authors, 
 whilst important works, as Cicero's Epistles, De Ora- 
 tore, Brutus, etc. , were unknown to him. 2 
 
 Undoubtedly a reaction was inevitable and, at the 
 same time, needed. It came in the Renaissance, or the 
 Revival of Learning. However, this movement soon 
 went to another extreme, to an enthusiasm for the 
 ancient authors which was beyond the limits of reason. 
 Thus humanism became not less one-sided than 
 scholasticism had been. We shall see further on that 
 the educational system of the Society is a combination 
 of humanism and scholasticism. A thorough educa- 
 
 1 Translation from The Review, St. Louis, May 23, 1901. 
 
 2 See'Boutaric, Vincent de Beauvais et la connaissance 
 de V antiquitk classique au treizieme siecle. {Revue des 
 Questions Historiques, vol. XVII, pp. 557.) 
 
48 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 tion in the classics is followed by a solid course of 
 philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences. Thus 
 the shortcomings of both systems are effectively 
 obviated. 
 
 Both terms : "renaissance" and "humanism", are 
 apt to be misunderstood. If "humanism" means the 
 true perception of man's nature and destiny, or truly 
 humane feelings towards fellow-man and active hu- 
 manitarian interest in his welfare, then the Middle 
 Ages knew and practised humanism. Thus under- 
 stood it is in no way different from the sublime prin- 
 ciples laid down by the most humane of all teachers, 
 the God-man Jesus Christ. If, however, it signifies 
 a view of life and mankind which recognizes nothing 
 but the purely natural man, which finds in the purely 
 human its highest ideals and rejects the relation to the 
 vision of a future beyond this life, then it was foreign 
 to the medieval mind, as it is foreign to Christianity. 
 For the religious, supernatural element was central in 
 medieval life. 1 If "Revival of Learning" is meant 
 to imply that the ancient classics were altogether 
 unknown during the Middle Ages, it is a wrong con- 
 ception. But should the word designate a more 
 extensive study, and, above all, a more enthusiastic 
 interest in classical learning which developed even 
 into excessive admiration for antiquity, it is correctly 
 applied to the period closing the Middle Ages. 
 
 At the time when scholasticism flourished most, 
 Dante in his grand poem, which has been styled a 
 "Poetical Summa Theologiae", represents the har- 
 monious combination of scholastic and classic learn- 
 
 1 Willmanii, Didaktik, vol. I, p. 289. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 49 
 
 ing. 1 In this immortal work classical antiquity and 
 Christianity go hand in hand. Virgil is no less his 
 teacher than is Thomas Aquinas, and his poetry is 
 the beautiful expression of the union between faith 
 and reason. 2 The whole humanistic movement which 
 began soon after Dante, was not so much a change of 
 the subject of learning as a change in the mental 
 attitude towards these subjects. 3 This attitude as- 
 sumed different shapes in various schools of humanists. 
 Some of them, particularly the earlier humanists in 
 Germany, combined enthusiasm for the classics with 
 faithful allegiance to the Church ; others assumed an 
 attitude of indifference or scepticism towards Chris- 
 tianity; others again showed open hostility, not only 
 against scholasticism, but against Christian dogma and 
 morality. The one party, the more conservative 
 humanists, admired the Greek and Roman writers, 
 but looked upon the Sacred Scriptures as higher than 
 all the wisdom of the ancients. Listen to Petrarch ! 
 "L,et no subtlety of argument, no grace of speech, no 
 renown ensnare us; they [the ancients] were but men, 
 learned so far as mere human erudition can go, but 
 
 1 The Vulgate is quoted or referred to more than 500 
 times ; Aristotle more than 300 ; Virgil about 200 ; Ovid about 
 100; Cicero and Lucan about 30 and 40 each, etc. Taylor, 
 /. e., p. 365. 
 
 2 Creighton, History of the Popes, vol. II, p. 332. 
 Baumgartner, Geschichte der Weltliteratur, vol. IV, p. 469. 
 
 3 For the history of this movement see Pastor, History 
 of the Popes, vols. I and V. Burckhardt, History of the 
 Renaissance in Italy ; Symonds, Renaissance in Italy ; A. 
 Baumgartner, S. J., Geschichte der Weltliterattir, vol. IV, 
 pp. 469-623. On the Renaissance in England see Gasquet, 
 The Eve of the Reformation, chapter II, and especially Kin- 
 stein, The Italian Renaissance in England. 
 
 4 
 
50 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 deserving of pity, inasmuch as they lacked the highest 
 and ineffable gift. Let us study philosophy so as to 
 love wisdom. The real wisdom of God is Christ. 
 We must first be Christians. We must read philo- 
 sophical, poetical, and historical works in such a 
 manner that the Gospel of Christ shall ever find an 
 echo in our hearts. Through it alone can we become 
 wise and happy; without it, the more \ve have learned, 
 the more ignorant and unhappy we shall be. On the 
 Gospel alone, as upon the one immovable foundation, 
 can human diligence build all true learning. ' ' 1 
 
 Though Petrarch himself did not escape the in- 
 fluence of the dangerous elements contained in the 
 writings of antiquity, still he never went so far as did 
 his friend Boccaccio, whose writings breathe an at- 
 mosphere of pagan corruption. And yet not even this 
 writer was an unbeliever, or an enemy to the Church. 
 
 As knowledge is good in itself and as its abuse 
 never justifies its suppression, the Church considered 
 the study of classical literature as a legitimate move- 
 ment, productive of great fruit for spiritual and secular 
 science. Thus we find so many ardent patrons of the 
 new learning among the Popes and other ecclesiastical 
 dignitaries. But there is a great danger in the one- 
 sided enthusiasm for heathen literature. Everything 
 depends on the manner in which the ancient authors 
 are read and employed in education. They must be 
 read and interpreted in the spirit of the Christian 
 religion. This was not done by the radical humanists. 
 They not only praised and admired the elegant style, 
 the brilliant eloquence and poetry of the ancients, but 
 wanted to effect a radical return to pagan thought and 
 
 1 EpisL rer. fam. VI, 2. Pastor, /. c., vol, I, p. 2. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 51 
 
 manners. They imitated, or even outdid, some of the 
 most licentious writers of antiquity in vile and obscene 
 productions. They endeavored to resuscitate ancient 
 life, and not in its best forms. The horrible crimes 
 which are the worst blot on the history of antiquity, of 
 Greece in particular, were made the subject of elegant 
 verses. And the vices which were the curse of Greece 
 and one of the causes of its downfall, began to rage 
 like a dreadful plague in the cities of Italy, especially 
 among the higher class of society. l 
 
 One has only to recall the names of such humanists 
 as Valla, Poggio, Becadelli and others, to understand 
 how justly this class of writers is censured. Their 
 writings have been called ' * an abyss of iniquity 
 wreathed with the most beautiful flowers of poetry. ' ' 
 It was against this flood of abomination that the 
 zealous, but unfortunately impetuous and stubborn 
 Savonarola directed his thundering eloquence, with 
 only a temporary result. It can easily be imagined 
 what influence this new paganism exerted on youth. 
 What kind of moral safeguard could be expected from 
 teachers of the stamp of Valla ? No attempt was made 
 to keep from the hands of the young books which in 
 all ages have been proscribed as disastrous to morality. 
 In the light of such facts the anxiety which Ignatius 
 of Loyola, the founder of the Society of Jesus, felt 
 about dangers arising from the indiscriminate reading 
 of the classics, is fully justified. 2 Not a few of the 
 humanists had lost all faith. Other defects of the 
 majority of the humanists, especially their exorbitant 
 
 J Pastor, vol. I, p. 25. 
 
 2 See below chapter XVII. 
 
52 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 vanity and self conceit, have been deservedly chastised 
 by various authors. l 
 
 It became especially the fashion among humanists 
 to sneer at the " metaphysical juggleries" and the 
 ' ' barbarous Latin ' ' of the scholastics. It is true, the 
 all absorbing interest in philosophical and theological 
 questions had caused a retrogression in the study of 
 the classical authors. But this loss was counteracted 
 by a considerable gain. At any rate, the sweeping 
 condemnations of the humanists were not justified. 
 Modern scholars begin to see the service rendered to 
 science by scholasticism, and not a few defend the 
 schoolmen against the ' ' arrogant accusations of the 
 humanists ' ' as Professor Paulsen calls them. ' * We 
 might just as well accept the judgments of socialists on 
 our present conditions as reliable criticisms. It is the 
 task of the historians to judge the past from what it 
 was in and for itself, a task which in most cases means 
 to defend it against that which immediately succeeded. 
 For it is the lot of all historical institutions to be 
 thrown aside with hatred and contempt by that which 
 follows. Will not a time come when the philological 
 and historical, physical and other inquiries of the 
 present appear as dreary and barren, as to us scholastic 
 and speculative philosophy appear? " 2 
 
 Not only Leibnitz, but modern philosophers as 
 Hegel, Edward von Hartmann, and the rationalistic 
 Professor Harnack, have respected the schoolmen as 
 the leaders in a great movement and defended them 
 against their calumniators. Hartmann admits that 
 
 1 For instance by Paulsen, Gesch. des gel. Unt. } pp. 
 29 31, (I, 51 foil.), and passim. Baumgartner, vol. IV, pp. 
 487 foil. On Erasmus see Janssen, vol. Ill, p. 11. 
 
 2 Geschichte des gel. Unt., p. 20. (I, p. 36). 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 53 
 
 * * scholasticism was an intellectual system wonderfully 
 coherent and consistent in itself, of which only those 
 judge slightingly who have not yet overcome their 
 hostility to it and have not yet arrived at the ob- 
 jective view of history." l 
 
 From Italy the literary renaissance spread to Spain, 
 France, England and Germany. The flourishing con- 
 dition of the schools in England and Germany, de- 
 scribed on previous pages, was chiefly due to this 
 movement. The radical school of humanism, hostile 
 to Christianity, did not enter England. The most 
 distinguished English humanists were thorough and 
 practical churchmen, 2 or laymen, most loyal to the 
 Church. Two of them, Bishop Fisher and Thomas 
 More, have been raised by the Church to the honor 
 of the altar. In Germany, matters developed very 
 differently. The humanistic movement began to be 
 felt in the German universities after 1450. Its gradual 
 entrance into the various seats of learning is well 
 traced by Professor Paulsen. 3 However, it is the inner 
 development of humanism in Germany which is of 
 greater importance. 4 
 
 The earlier humanists, as Hegius and his friends, 
 had contemplated classical antiquity from the point of 
 
 1 Quoted by Willmann, Geschichte des Idealismus, vol. 
 Ill , p. 855. For an excellent criticism of scholasticism see 
 vol. II, pp. 321652. 
 
 2 vSee above p. 30; cf. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reforma- 
 tion , chapter II, The Revival of Letters in England, pp. 14 
 50. Einstein, The Italian Renaissance in England, pp. 
 1857. 
 
 s Gesch. des gel. Unt., pp. 44127. (I, 74170). 
 
 4 On this subject see Creighton, History of the Papacy, 
 vol. V. The German Revolt, cli. I. "Humanism in Ger- 
 many," pp. 1 49. 
 
54 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 view of absolute faith in Christianity. Wimpheling 
 expressed their sentiments in these words : l< It is not 
 the study of the heathen writers in itself which is 
 dangerous to Christian culture, but the false apprehen- 
 sion and handling of them, as is often done in Italy, 
 where, by means of the classics, pagan ways of 
 thought and life are spread prejudicial to Christian 
 morality and the patriotic spirit. ' ' 1 
 
 Fundamentally different from this conservative 
 school were the younger or radical humanists. Wanton 
 attacks upon the Holy See, the religious orders, 
 Catholic doctrines and practices, contempt for the 
 whole learning of the Middle Ages and for their own 
 mother tongue, or even a worse than pagan im- 
 morality in their writings characterize the great ma- 
 jority of this school of " Poets" in Germany as in 
 Italy. The chief representative of humanism in Ger- 
 many was Erasmus of Rotterdam, who exercised an 
 enormous influence on his times. The extent and 
 variety of his knowledge in almost every branch of 
 contemporary learning, his untiring activity in all 
 directions, his consummate mastery and artistic treat- 
 ment of the L,atin tongue, and the variety and rich- 
 ness of his style were equalled by few. He brought 
 forth fresh editions of the Bible, of the Greek classics 
 and Fathers, and original treatises in every branch of 
 literature. But he was altogether wanting in intellectual 
 depth. He traveled through England, Italy, and France 
 as a mere book -worm without eye or understanding for 
 national life and character. His freedom in the use 
 
 1 Janssen, vol. Ill , pp. 12. For the following see the 
 same volume, pp. 179, and Guggenberger, S. J., A General 
 History of the Christian Era, vol. II, p. 133. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 55 
 
 of calumny, his talent for fulsome flattery to obtain 
 money and presents, matched only by his malignant 
 spite against adversaries, destroyed all proportions be- 
 tween his literary achievements and his character. 1 
 The leaders among the younger humanists who, when 
 not fighting the theologians, devoted their energies to 
 the composition of vapid verses and lewd poems, were 
 Conrad Celtes, Eobanus Hessus, Crotus Rubianus, 
 Conrad Rufus, Mutian, the dissolute Ulric of Hutten, 
 the knight-errant of humanism, and a host of minor 
 scribblers. In their school work they read the most 
 profligate pagan poetry with their young pupils, and 
 introduced a reign of unrestrained license at Erfurt and 
 other universities and schools. 
 
 In Germany, as well as in Italy, this reaction in 
 the renaissance took a special coloring from the cir- 
 cumstances of the melancholy period in which it oc- 
 curred. From the beginning of the fourteenth century 
 deplorable effects had been manifesting themselves in 
 the Church. The authority of the Pope had been 
 weakened, a great part of the clergy was steeped in 
 worldliness ; scholastic philosophy and theology had 
 declined and terrible disorders were rife in political 
 and civil life. The dangerous elements, which no 
 doubt ancient literature contained, were presented to 
 a generation intellectually and physically overwrought 
 and in many ways unhealthy. It is no wonder, there- 
 fore, that some of the adherents of the new tendency 
 
 1 A much kindlier view of Krasmus is taken in the highly 
 interesting chapter on "Erasmus", in Gasquet's The Eve of 
 the Reformation, pp. 155 207. There his attitude towards 
 IvUther and his loyalty to the Catholic Church are admirably 
 set forth. 
 
56 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 turned aside into perilous paths. 1 In particular the 
 nepotism, worldly life, unscrupulous state policy, and 
 scandalous appointments to high places, for which 
 some of the Popes were responsible, and the scandals 
 connected with the name of Alexander VI., furnished 
 welcome weapons to diets, to princes and agitators, 
 who, under the guise of "reform in head and mem- 
 bers," pursued their own selfish ends and aimed at 
 nothing less than the secularization of ecclesiastical 
 property and the usurpation of ecclesiastical juris- 
 diction. 2 
 
 Besides these abuses, affecting the Church at large, 
 there were others threatening Germany in particular. 
 It is true there existed a great love of learning among 
 all classes, and piety and active charity were found 
 among a great number of clergy and laity. As we 
 have seen, in the lower elementary and the advanced 
 middle schools a sound basis of popular education was 
 
 1 Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I, p. 12. 
 
 1 Guggenberger, vol. II, p. 147. However, it is fair to 
 mention that there were not only deep shadows in this period 
 but also gleams of sunshine. The pagan tendencies were not 
 absolutely general. The religious orders gave to the Church 
 a line of saintly, brilliant, and truly apostolic preachers, who 
 fearlessly raised their voices against the sins and failings of 
 high and low, ecclesiastics and laymen. Nor were their 
 efforts in vain, as may be seen from the conversion of whole 
 towns and provinces, effected by Vincent Ferrer, Bernardine of 
 Siena, John Capistran, Savonarola, and others. And beside 
 the many unworthy prelates and priests of the period, the his- 
 torian meets, in every country of Christendom, with a great 
 number of men distinguished alike for virtue and learning. 
 The number of Saints of this period, especially in the Francis- 
 can and Dominican Orders, is exceedingly great, a proof that 
 the Church had not lost her saving and sanctifying power. 
 See Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. I, pp. 3238. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 57 
 
 established ; the universities attained a height of dis- 
 tinction never dreamt of in former times. And art 
 developed more rapidly than learning. But there were 
 many dangerous symptoms in religious, social and po- 
 litical life. 1 In all departments perplexity and con- 
 fusion were visible. A mass of inflammable material 
 was ready everywhere, and it needed but a spark to 
 set the whole mass ablaze. This spark came from 
 Wittenberg. 
 
 3. Education under the Influence of the Reformation. 
 
 Luther was undoubtedly a man endowed with the 
 highest natural gifts. Still he was not what Protestant 
 tradition has made him. 2 "On the part of the Protes- 
 tants," writes one of Germany's historians, the Prot- 
 estant K. A. Menzel, "it is an accepted maxim to 
 represent to oneself the Reformers as lords and half 
 saints. This prejudice is indeed broken in circles that 
 are conversant with history, but among the large mass 
 of the evangelical population it is still maintained, not, 
 however, to the preservation of truth. It passes cur- 
 rent as 'cultured', and is paraded as a mark of 'scien- 
 tific investigation' to undermine with criticism and 
 negation even the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
 ity. But woe to him who with the torch of science 
 invades the vestibule of the temple in which prejudice 
 
 1 These symptoms are summed up by Janssen, vol. II, 
 passim, especially pp. 285 302. Guggenberger, vol. II, pp, 
 146-151. 
 
 1 See: Luther and his Protestant Biographers, by the 
 Rev. H. G. Ganss in the American Catholic Quarterly Review r , 
 July 1900; also The Messenger, Nov. 1902. 
 
58 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and tradition have erected the throne of the 'heroes 
 of the Reformation' and their works. The historical 
 investigator who possesses such a foolhardiness is sure 
 to be decried as a Crypto-Catholic. ' ' 1 Not a few 
 Protestant historians frankly confess that the whole 
 structure of Reformation history must undergo a 
 change from its very foundation. One of them says : 
 "Too great is the rubbish and garbage which, inten- 
 tionally or unintentionally, the prevailing theological 
 standpoint concerning the Reformation period has in- 
 augurated. ' ' 2 From original documents a picture of 
 the Reformers, very different from the traditional one, 
 has been presented by the "fear- inspiring book of 
 Dollmger" and by "Janssen's crushing examination of 
 the Luther myth which produced a tremendous up- 
 roar in Germany. " 3 A great deal of ' ' rubbish and 
 garbage" has also hidden the truth in regard to the 
 influence of Luther and the Reformation on education. 
 It is a fact of no little significance that Luther's 
 first confederates were the radical humanists. In their 
 hatred against scholastic learning and ecclesiastical 
 authority they welcomed Luther's audacious attacks 
 on the Church. Luther himself had tried at an early 
 date to ingratiate himself with the humanistic con- 
 federacy. 4 After the example of Luther the younger 
 humanists, these inveterate enemies of all religion, 
 now accustomed themselves to a Biblical style of lan- 
 
 1 Neue Geschichte der Deutschen, vol. II, p. 44, quoted 
 by Ganss, /. c. y p. 699, where similar statements of other 
 Protestants may be found. 
 
 2 Professor Maurenbrecher of the Konigsberg Univer- 
 sity, ib. 
 
 3 London Athenaeum, Dec. 1884, p. 729. 
 
 4 Janssen, vol. Ill, pp. 100101. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 59 
 
 guage ; they even became of a sudden scholars of 
 divinity and delivered lectures on theological subjects. 
 Luther did not shrink from a formal alliance with the 
 most violent of these enemies of the existing order, the 
 gifted but utterly corrupt Ulrich von Hutten, who at 
 that time together with Franz von Sickingen planned 
 a revolution against the Emperor. 1 
 
 This was indeed a remarkable alliance. Prof. Paul- 
 sen's comment on it is worth quoting: * 'The humanists 
 offered their assistance to the monk whose controver- 
 sies they had shortly before despised as a monkish 
 quarrel. 'Evangelical liberty' became their war-cry 
 instead of 'learning and humanity'. It is only through 
 this alliance that Luther's cause, which had begun as 
 a 'monkish quarrel', became that tremendous revolu- 
 tionary movement which unhinged the gates of the 
 Church. A reminder of humanism is that naturalism 
 contained in the pure gospel, that addition which 
 appears so strange in Luther's writings, when now and 
 then he represents the works of the flesh as divine 
 commandments and continence as well nigh a rebellion 
 against God's word and will : almost as if the emanci- 
 pation of the flesh was to be realized through the gos- 
 pel of Christ. Of course this must not be understood 
 as though these elements had not existed in Luther's 
 nature, in his views and sentiments, but it was only 
 under the influence of humanism that they developed. 
 Under different circumstances they might have re- 
 mained latent. ' ' * Luther and Loyola have often been 
 contrasted, the one as the leader of the Protestant 
 Revolution, the other as prominent in the counter- 
 
 1 Janssen, vol. Ill, pp. 106 foil. 
 
 2 Gesch. des gel. /;//., pp. 128-29. (2. ed. I, 174 foil.). 
 
60 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 reformation. Luther tried to reform by a revolution, 
 by a complete break with the past 1 ; Loyola by a real 
 reformation. Luther changed the doctrine, Loyola 
 saw, as his first companion, Peter Faber, has it, that 
 4 'not the head, but the heart, not the doctrine, but the 
 life needed a change.'' Luther allied himself with 
 the radical humanists, Loyola imitated the earlier 
 conservative humanists. 
 
 That a Christian reformer followed the earlier 
 humanists, who were thoroughly imbued with the 
 spirit of Christianity, as Vittorino da Feltre, Hegius, 
 Agricola, Wimpheling, is natural. But, as Paulsen 
 remarks, "it is a strange phenomenon that a man 
 (Luther) who seemed to be made to fight with Savo- 
 narola against the worldliness of the Church intro- 
 duced by humanism, had to unite himself with Hutten 
 for the extirpation of monasticism. True, it is stran- 
 ger still that Hutten could make common cause with 
 Luther against the Papacy whose representative was 
 a Medici, against a Church which raised such patrons 
 of learning as Cardinal Albrecht of Mentz to the 
 highest dignities. Well might one have warned Hut- 
 ten not to cut the branch on which he was sitting." 2 
 
 The humanists had, indeed, cut the branch. 
 Humanism was ruined by its alliance with the Refor- 
 mation, and as early as 1524 the eyes of the humanists 
 were opened. The universities and schools were 
 almost annihilated in the storms of religious strife. 
 Professor Paulsen shows this in detail in regard to the 
 
 1 Protestants frequently object to the appellation "re- 
 volution", as applied to the Reformation. However, men 
 like Haruack openly declare that it was a revolution. See 
 What is Christianity? Lecture XV, pp. 277-281. Paulsen, /. c. 
 
 2 L. 6'., p. 129. (1. ed.;cf. 2. ed. I, p. 174 foil.) 
 
EDUCATION BEFORK FOUNDATION OF THK SOCIETY. 6 1 
 
 various German universities, 1 as Wittenberg, Erfurt, 
 Leipsic, Frankfurt, Rostock, Greifswald, Cologne, 
 Vienna, Heidelberg, etc. Ingolstadt, of all German 
 universities, was least affected by the Reformation. 
 Under the leadership of Dr. Eck the Lutheran invasion 
 was energetically combated. The number of students 
 declined somewhat, but not considerably, so that this 
 university shows the most favorable conditions of all 
 universities. 2 The same decline was visible in the 
 lower schools. Dollinger has collected a long list of 
 complaints that could be easily enlarged, about the 
 ruin of the schools consequent upon the religious 
 revolution. 3 
 
 The humanist Eobanus Hessus writes from Erfurt 
 in the year 1523 : "Under the cloak of the Gospel the 
 escaped monks here are suppressing all liberal studies. 
 Our university is quite deserted ; we are utterly de- 
 spised. " In the same year the Dean of the Erfurt 
 philosophical faculty complains : * ' Nobody would 
 have believed it, if it had been predicted that in a short 
 time our university would have fallen so low that 
 scarcely a shadow of its former lustre would remain. ' ' 
 In the same strain lament Melanchthon from Witten- 
 berg, and others from all seats of learning throughout 
 Germany. 
 
 Erasmus, an eye-witness of the first scenes in the 
 great drama of the Reformation, the intimate friend of 
 Melanchthon and other Reformers, writes in 1528 : 
 "Wherever L,utheranism reigns, there literature per- 
 
 1 Paulsen, /. c. 9 pp. 133-144. (I, pp. 184195.) 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 143. (I, p. 194.) 
 
 1 Die Reformation, vol. I, pp. 418-545; see also Jans- 
 sen, vol. Ill, pp. 355-365 ; vol. VII, p. 11 foil. 
 
62 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ishes. I dislike these gospellers on many accounts, 
 but chiefly, because through their agency literature 
 everywhere languishes, disappears, lies drooping and 
 perishes : and yet, without learning, what is a man's 
 life ? They love good cheer and a wife ; for other 
 things they care not a straw." 1 In a letter to Mel- 
 anchthon he states that at Strasburg the Protestant 
 party had publicly taught, in 1524, that it was not 
 right to cultivate any science, and that no language 
 should be studied except the Hebrew. In fact, who 
 was to be blamed for this rapid decay of schools but 
 the Reformers themselves? Carlstadt was not only 
 a fanatic in his hatred of Catholic doctrines and 
 customs, but also spoke with contempt of all human 
 learning. He advised the students to return to their 
 homes and resume the spade or follow the plough, and 
 cultivate the earth, because man was to eat bread in 
 the sweat of his brow. George Mohr, master of the 
 boys' school at Wittenberg, carried away by a similar 
 madness, called from his window to the burghers out- 
 side to come and remove their children. Where, 
 indeed, was the use of continuing their studies, since 
 a mechanic was just as well, nay, perhaps better 
 qualified than all the divines in the world, to preach 
 the Gospel. 2 
 
 The Anabaptists in Miinster decided that there was 
 only one book necessary to salvation, the Bible, all 
 others should be burned as useless or dangerous. 
 
 1 Hallam, Introduction to the Literature of Europe in 
 the fifteenth , sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, vol. I, chap- 
 ter VI, p. 189, note (Harper's ed. 1842). Janssen, vol. Ill, 
 p. 357. Dollinger, /. c., vol. I, p. 470 foil. 
 
 2 See Archbishop Spalding's The Reformation in Ger- 
 many, chap. XIII. Dollinger, Die Reformation, vol. I, p. 423. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 63 
 
 This decision was carried out, and whole libraries 
 with numerous precious manuscripts of Latin and 
 Greek authors perished in the flames. Popes, bishops, 
 and councils during the Middle Ages, had enforced 
 the obligation of establishing schools throughout 
 Christendom. The vandalism of some Reformers 
 destroyed innumerable monasteries and with them 
 schools without number. The funds for the support 
 of these schools had been accumulated by the piety, 
 zeal and liberality of previous ages. 
 
 No one is more responsible for this sad change 
 than Luther himself. If, with the aid of the Holy 
 Ghost, Scripture could be interpreted by "a miller's 
 maid and a boy of nine years better than by all the 
 popes and cardinals," these are Luther's words, 
 of what value could human learning be in religion ? 
 Nay more, according to Luther's early teaching higher, 
 learning was not only useless, but positively danger- 
 ous. He spoke with a fierce hatred against higher 
 schools and human learning. Professor Paulsen ad- 
 mits that the vehemence of tone in which Luther 
 spoke of the universities as the real bulwarks of the 
 devil on earth, has perhaps never been rivalled before 
 or after by any attack on these institutions. 1 A few 
 specimens of these invectives may suffice. 
 
 According to Luther, everything instituted by the 
 papacy was only intended to augment sin and error, 
 so also were the universities. It is the devil himself 
 who has introduced study; there reigns the damned, 
 haughty and wicked Aristotle, from whose works 
 Christian youth is instructed. 2 And yet "a man who 
 
 1 L. c., p. 134. (I, p. 185.) 
 
 2 Paulsen, ib. 
 
64 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 boasts the title of philosopher cannot be called a 
 Christian." "The Moloch to which the Jews offered 
 up their children, are the higher schools (hohen 
 Schulen = universities), in which the best part of 
 youth is sacrificed as a burnt offering. There they 
 are instructed in false heathen art and godless human 
 knowledge : this is the fire of Moloch which no one 
 can weep over enough, through which the most pious 
 and most clever boys are miserably ruined." 1 "The 
 higher schools all deserve to be ground to dust ; 
 nothing more hellish, nothing more devilish has 
 appeared on earth, nor will ever appear. These schools 
 have been invented by no one else than the devil. ' ' 2 
 Luther hated the universities because they exalted 
 reason, "the light of nature", too much. To Luther 
 reason is only "the devil's bride, a beautiful prostitute 
 of the devil. " 3 "Human reason is sheer darkness." 
 The faithful strangle reason and say: "Hearest thou, 
 a mad blind fool thou art, understandest not a bit of 
 the things that are God's. Thus the believers throttle 
 this beast." 4 
 
 It is surprising to see that Melanchthon fell in with 
 the tone of Luther. 5 He denounced universities, 
 philosophy, and ethics, almost as violently as his 
 master, but only for a time ; lie soon abated the 
 violence of his sentiments, whereas Luther to the end 
 
 1 Luther's Werke, ed. Walch XIX, 1430. See Dollinger, 
 /. r., vol. I, p. 475 foil. Jansseu, vol. II (German ed. 18), 
 pp. 211-213. 
 
 2 /., XII, 45; XI, 459. 
 
 3 See Dollinger, Die Reformation, vol. I (2nd ed.), 
 pp. 477 foil. 
 
 4 /., p. 479. 
 
 6 Paulsen, pp. 135 foil. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OE THE SOCIETY. 65 
 
 of his life preserved his bitterness against natural 
 reason. Innumerable other preachers began to vie 
 with each other in pouring forth virulent abuse against 
 all enlightened knowledge and secular learning. 
 
 Can we then wonder that the parents, prejudiced 
 by such inflammatory declamations, became averse 
 not only to higher learning, as it had existed before 
 the religious disturbances, but to schools in general ? 
 No wonder that the lower schools also began to be 
 neglected, so that contemporary writers say: " About 
 the year 1525 schools began to decline, and no one 
 wanted to send his children to school, as people had 
 heard so much from Luther's writings of how the 
 priests and the learned had so pitiably seduced man- 
 kind." The official report of the inspectors of the 
 district of Wittenberg, the centre and starting point of 
 L,uther's * "reform", informs us in the year 1533: "The 
 city schools which, in addition to the instruction they 
 imparted, had given the children a material mainten- 
 ance, are alarmingly decreasing." 1 
 
 Luther himself was appalled at this desolation, for 
 he knew full well the importance of the school. With 
 bitter invective and reproach he lashes the indifference 
 of the people and the avarice of the princes who, after 
 having squandered the property of the Church and 
 the funds of the schools, refused to do anything for 
 establishing new schools or even for maintaining those 
 in existence. "Formerly'', he says, "when we were 
 the slaves of Satan, and profaned the blood of Christ, 
 
 1 Dollinger, Die Reformation, vol. I, p. 466 foil. 
 Numerous contemporary testimonies to the same effect may 
 be seen in Janssen's Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (Ger- 
 man edition, 18), vol. II, p. 322; vol. VII, pp. 11-211. 
 5 
 
66 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 all purses were open ; then nothing was spared to put 
 children in the cloister or to send them to school. But 
 now when we must establish good schools (rechte 
 Schulen) establish, did I say, no, but only pre- 
 serve the buildings in good condition the purses 
 are closed with iron chains. The children are neg- 
 lected, no one teaches them to serve God, while they 
 are joyfully immolated to Mammon." But herein 
 Luther was inconsistent. Had he not taught people 
 again and again that good works were useless? Why 
 should they make any sacrifice of money for a pious 
 work like that of education ? And was it a good and 
 pious work at all ? This might have been asked by 
 those who remembered Luther's reckless invectives 
 against higher schools. 
 
 Luther was absolutely powerless to remedy the evil 
 which grew worse daily. Therefore he appealed earn- 
 estly to the Protestant princes and magistrates to 
 found and support schools. He told them that it was 
 their right, nay, their duty to oblige their subjects to 
 send their children to school. As is evident, Luther 
 had been forced to this step because his voice, always 
 "omnipotent when it preached destruction and spolia- 
 tion, now fell powerless when it was at length raised 
 to enforce the necessity of liberal contribution for the 
 rearing of institutions to replace those which had been 
 wantonly destroyed. ' ' l Compulsory education, accord- 
 ingly, is a child of the Reformation; so is also the 
 state-monopoly which gradually developed in European 
 countries. 2 
 
 1 Spalding, The Reformation in Germany, ch. 14. 
 
 2 Another result of the Reformation has been pointed 
 out by President Butler of Columbia University, New York : 
 
EDUCATION BKFORK FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY, 67 
 
 The princes and magistrates to whom leather 
 appealed for establishing new schools, were slow in 
 following these admonitions, whereas they had been 
 most docile when told to confiscate the rich abbeys 
 and monasteries which had maintained many educa- 
 tional institutions. L,uther himself complained that 
 so little heed was paid to his words. In 1528 a new 
 " Order " for the cities of Saxony was prepared by 
 Melanchthon. In 1559 appeared the ' 'Church and 
 School Order of Wii rttemberg. ' ' 1 Very different from 
 the attitude of I/uther was that of Melanchthon tow- 
 ards higher studies. L,uther saw in humanistic studies 
 only a weapon for theological purposes ; but Melanch- 
 thon was himself a humanist and believed that study 
 of the ancient languages and literature offered im- , 
 mediate educational benefit to the student. 2 Melanch- 
 thon has been called Praeceptor Germaniae, and this 
 he was for the Protestant part of that country. His 
 system was an adaptation of the humanistic principles 
 of Erasmus, and especially of Rudolph Agricola, 3 who 
 * was prominent among the earlier conservative 
 humanists. 
 
 It is evident that lather's merits in regard to 
 education have been exaggerated. The words of the 
 Protestant Hallam deserve to be more universally 
 
 "The separation of religious training from education as a 
 whole is the outgrowth of Protestantism and democracy." 
 Educational Review, December 1899, p. 427. Why democracy 
 should be a cause of this separation is not clear to me, nor 
 are the arguments, adduced by President Butler, convincing. 
 
 1 On the development of the Protestant schools see 
 Paulsen, /. c. y p. 145 foil. (I, 209). Ziegler, /. c., p. 61 foil. 
 
 2 Dr. Nohle, in Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1897-98, vol. I, p. 30. 
 
 3 Ziegler, Geschichte der Padagogik, p. 69. 
 
68 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 known : " Whatever may be the ideas of our minds as 
 to the truth of Luther's doctrines, we should be care- 
 ful .... not to be misled by the superficial and un- 
 grounded representations which we sometimes find in 
 modern writers. Such is this that L,uther, struck by 
 the absurdity of the prevailing superstitions, was 
 desirous of introducing a more rational system of 
 religion. . . ., or, what others have been pleased to 
 suggest, that his zeal for learning and ancient philo- 
 sophy led him to attack the ignorance of the monks 
 and the crafty policy of the Church, which withstood 
 all liberal studies. These notions are merely fallacious 
 refinements, as every man of plain understanding who 
 is acquainted with the writings of the early reformers, 
 or has considered their history, must acknowledge. 
 The doctrines of Luther, taken altogether, are not 
 more rational than those of the Church of Rome ; nor 
 did he even pretend that they were so ... nor, again, 
 is there any foundation for imagining that L,uther was 
 concerned for the interests of literature. None had he 
 himself, save theological ; nor are there, as I appre- 
 hend, many allusions to profane studies, or any proof 
 of his regard to them, in all his works. On the con- 
 trary, it is probable that both the principles of this 
 great founder of the Reformation, and the natural 
 tendency of so intense an application to theological 
 controversy, checked for a time the progress of philo- 
 logical and philosophical literature on this side of the 
 Alps." 1 As regards the much vaunted intellectual 
 
 1 Introduction to the Literature of Europe -, vol. I, p. 165 
 (Harper's ed. 1842). Hence it is utterly false to say that the 
 reform of the studies in the sixteenth century was, in the first 
 place, a Protestant work. And yet this statement is repeated 
 again and again. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY. 69 
 
 and religious liberty of the Reformers, it is well known 
 that they very soon exercised an unbearable tyranny. 
 Hallam was honest enough to admit this, however 
 reluctantly. * 
 
 On the eve of the Reformation, England* possessed 
 a great number of secondary schools. Both these and 
 the universities suffered greatly from the Reformation 
 and the events connected with it. When by the order 
 of Henry VIII. the monasteries were suppressed, 
 numberless precious manuscripts and other contents 
 of monastic libraries disappeared, and are now lost to 
 the world beyond recovery. Grocers and soap-sellers 
 bought them for their business purposes. 2 Learning, 
 both secular and religious, rapidly declined, and de- 
 terioration was felt in all grades of education. Most 
 of the schools at this time were closed, without pro- 
 vision for a substitute. Moreover, the monasteries and 
 convents had supported scholars at the universities, 
 or provided for young clerics until their ordination, 
 when they supplied them with a title. This change 
 was felt immediately. From 1506 to 1535 the average 
 number of yearly degrees granted at Oxford had been 
 127. In 1535 the number was 108. In that year the 
 operations against the monasteries were commenced. 
 In the following year the number of graduates fell to 
 only 44 ; the average number till 1548 was less than 
 57, from 1548 till 1553 not more than 33, but it rose 
 again under Queen Maty to 70. 3 The University of 
 Cambridge suffered not less than Oxford. 
 
 1 Ib., p. 200. Also Dollinger, Die Reformation, vol. I, 
 pp. 546563, and especially Paulsen I, 212214. 
 
 2 Gasquet, Henry VIII, and the English Monasteries, 
 vol. II, p. 423. 
 
 3 Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation, p. 41 foil. 
 
7O JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The scholars of Cambridge, in 1545, petitioned 
 King Henry for privileges, as they feared the destruc- 
 tion of the monasteries would altogether annihilate 
 learning. l For a time these great homes of learning 
 were threatened with nothing less than ruin. Thus 
 it is undeniable that the dissolution of monasteries, in 
 1536 and the next two years, gave a great temporary 
 check to the general state of letters in England. 
 
 Hallam attempts to palliate this charge, but in 
 vain. Let us contemplate the picture which Latimer, 
 the fanatic opponent of Catholicism, drew in 1550 of 
 the state of education in England. His words are 
 almost identical with those of Luther. 2 "In those 
 da}^s (before the suppression of monasteries) , what did 
 they when they helped the scholars ? Marry ! They 
 maintained and gave them livings that were very 
 JPapists and professed the Pope's doctrine ; and now 
 that the knowledge of God's word is brought to light, 
 and many earnestly study and labour to set it forth, 
 now almost no man helpeth to maintain them. " . . . 
 4 'Truly it is a pitiable thing to see schools so neglected; 
 every true Christian ought to lament the same ; to 
 consider what has been plucked from abbeys, colleges 
 and chantries, it is a marvel no more to be bestowed 
 upon this holy office of salvation. Schools are not 
 maintained, scholars have no exhibitions. ... I think 
 there be at this day twenty thousand students less 
 than within these twenty years and fewer preachers." 
 Anthony Wood, in his History and Antiquities of the 
 University of Oxford, writes : "Most of the halls and 
 
 1 Fuller's History of the University of Cambridge, in 
 Gasquet, Henry VIII , etc., vol. II, p. 519. 
 
 2 See above, p. 6566. 
 
EDUCATION BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE) SOCIETY. 71 
 
 hostels iii Oxford were left empty. Arts declined and 
 ignorance began to take place again. ' ' * 
 
 This sketch of the status of education previous to 
 the foundation of the Society of Jesus warrants us to 
 draw the following conclusions. First, a reform was 
 urgently needed, not only in the religious and moral 
 sphere but also in education. There was a great 
 literary activity all over Christendom. In the coun- 
 tries most affected by the Reformation, this activity 
 was checked for a time, in Germany almost annihi- 
 lated. In those countries which were less affected by 
 the religious revolution, the educational work was not 
 formed into a well balanced system of instruction and 
 discipline. Further, the teaching of the classics was 
 in many cases carried on in a pagan spirit. The 
 Catholic reform centres around the Council of Trent. 
 The members of a Commission preparatory to this 
 Council, mostly refined humanists and university 
 scholars, pointed out as one of the great abuses in the 
 Church, that "in the public schools, especially of 
 Italy, many teach impiety." This was stated in 1538, 
 two years before the approbation of the Society of 
 Jesus. In this Society "the Church of Rome, deeply 
 shaken by open schism and lurking disaffection, was 
 to find an unexpected strength. The Jesuits were 
 speedily to acquire a vast influence by the control of 
 education." 2 In fact, the Jesuits were to give to 
 Catholic countries a uniform system of education, 
 which was so sadly needed at the time. They were 
 to purify and elevate the. teaching of the classics, so as 
 
 1 Gasquet, Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries, 
 vol. II, pp. 519-520. 
 
 2 Hallam, Literature of Europe, vol. I, p. 196. 
 
72 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to make it a useful means of Christian education as 
 well as of mental training. 
 
 Secondly: The foregoing sketch proves that it is 
 false to say : the Jesuits availed themselves, in the 
 interest of the Catholic Church, of the zeal for learn- 
 ing which the Protestants had awakened. 1 It can be 
 proved over and above that a great zeal for learning 
 had existed before the Reformation, 2 and that this 
 zeal was well-nigh extinguished by this movement. 
 Melanchthon, Sturm and other reformers who worked 
 for the establishment of schools, had received their 
 literary education, their zeal for learning, and the 
 greater part of their educational principles from the 
 schools flourishing before the outbreak of the religious 
 revolution. Their efforts were directed towards re- 
 establishing what the religious disturbances had 
 destroyed. Of course, we are far from denying that 
 the Reformers introduced many improvements into 
 the Protestant schools ; but they and the Jesuits drew 
 from the same sources. 
 
 The preceding sketch of the condition of educa- 
 tion previous to the foundation of the Society of Jesus 
 may seem disproportionately long. However, it was 
 necessary to dwell on this point at some length, in 
 order to expose one of the fundamental errors concern- 
 ing the origin of the educational system of the Jesuits. 
 It would not have sufficed to make a few general as- 
 sertions as has been done by some non-Catholic 
 writers on the history of education- but it was neces- 
 sary to quote details, in order to refute this erroneous 
 view. 
 
 1 See page 20. 
 
 - See the words of Mr. Einstein, above p. 37, 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 The Society of Jesus. Religious as Educators. 
 
 It is not our task to give a detailed history of 
 Ignatius of Loyola, the Spanish nobleman who was 
 wounded on the ramparts of Pampeluna, in 1521, 
 nor of his subsequent conversion and life. This story 
 has often been told and may be read in the numerous 
 biographies of the Saint. l Nor need we enumerate 
 all the different and contradictory estimates of his 
 character, as given by various writers. Macaulay calls 
 him a "visionary" and an "enthusiast, naturally pas- 
 sionate and imaginative," possessed of a "morbid in- 
 tensity and energy, a soldier and knight errant," who 
 became "the soldier and knight errant of the spouse of 
 Christ." 2 Canon Li ttledale, in spite of his hostility 
 against the Society, cannot help admitting that Loyola 
 possessed "powerful gifts of intellect and an unusual 
 practical foresight. ' ' 3 
 
 To see with Macaulay in Ignatius a "visionary," 
 is an utter misconception of his character. Nor is it 
 
 1 The best for English readers are : Saint Ignatius of 
 Loyola, by Henri Joly (I/ondon, 1899). Life of St. Igna- 
 tius, by C. Genelli. Saint Ignatius and the Early Jesuits^ by 
 Stewart Rose. 
 
 Essays: "Ranke's History of the Popes." 
 
 3 Encyclopedia Britannica (9th ed.), article ' 'Jesuits." 
 This article teems with gross misrepresentations of the Order, 
 and it would take a volume to refute the calumnies and the 
 ungrounded insinuations contained therein. 
 
 (73) 
 
74 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 correct to style him a "religious enthusiast." This 
 appellation could, at the most, be applied to him only 
 for the first few years after his conversion. During 
 that period, in a few instances, as in the famous meet- 
 ing with the Saracen, Ignatius displays indeed a 
 conduct singularly contrasting with his conduct in 
 after-life and with those wonderfully wise rules 
 which he laid down on the discernment of the good 
 spirit from the evil one. In his Autobiography the 
 Saint insists particularly on the mistakes into which 
 he had fallen on the road to mature judgment in 
 spiritual matters. 1 During these first few years fol- 
 lowing his conversion, Ignatius gave manifestation of 
 the chivalrous spirit which he had imbibed from his 
 early military training, when, for instance, in the 
 Monastery of the Montserrat he hung up his sword 
 beside our Lady's image, in token that henceforth 
 his life was to be one of spiritual warfare and spiritual 
 knighthood. 
 
 The Society, however, was not founded in this 
 period of the Saint's life, but when the youthful fervor 
 was completely mastered by the calmest discretion. 
 At the time when he drew up the Constitutions of the 
 Society, all his actions and sentiments were so entirely 
 under his control that, although by nature of an ardent 
 temper, he was commonly thought cold and phleg- 
 matic. In framing the Constitutions he proceeded 
 with the utmost care and circumspection. On points 
 which .might appear unimportant, he deliberated for 
 days, nay for weeks and months. It was a common 
 
 1 See The Testament of St. Ignatius. Introduction by 
 Father Tyrrell, S. J., p. 7; and notes on pp. 6061, 7982, 
 197 foil. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -REUGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 75 
 
 practice of his to write down the reasons for and 
 against in parallel columns, then to weigh their force 
 and importance. After this he consulted the Fathers 
 who lived with him in Rome, in order to take their 
 advice as to changes or additions which they thought 
 necessary or useful. Moreover, he submitted the 
 results of his painstaking labors to the judgment of 
 those Fathers who lived in various' parts of Europe. 
 Surely in this cautiousness we see anything but the 
 traits of a visionary or enthusiast. 
 
 As early as 1523 Ignatius had conceived the idea of 
 his future life-work, although only in general outlines. 
 We find this idea embodied in his Spiritual Exercises, 
 particularly in the contemplation on the ''Kingdom of 
 Christ." The generous knight, who has renounced 
 all worldly ambition, is resolved to become a soldier of 
 Christ. In Him he sees his King and General and, 
 in order to defend and propagate Christianity, the 
 Kingdom of Christ, he plans a spiritual crusade. 
 Those who wish to become his companions in this 
 noble enterprise must be determined to distinguish 
 themselves in the service of their heavenly King. 
 They are not to be satisfied with being ordinary 
 soldiers in this army, but they are to constitute, as 
 it were, Christ's bodyguard, hence the name of the 
 Society: '%a Compania de Jesus," the Company of 
 Jesus. A distinguished Protestant writer, Professor 
 Harnack of Berlin, has recently made the f6llowing 
 comparison which in some points is not inappropriate: 
 "If we assert and mean the assertion to hold good 
 even of the present time, that the Roman Church is 
 the old Roman Empire consecrated by the Gospel, that 
 is no mere 'clever remark,' but the recognition of the 
 
76 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 true state of the matter historically, and the most ap- 
 propriate and fruitful way of describing the character 
 of this Church. It still governs the nations ; its Popes 
 rule like Trajan and Marcus Aurelius ; Peter and Paul 
 have taken the place of Romulus and Remus ; the 
 bishops and archbishops, of the pro-consuls ; the troops 
 of priests and monks correspond to the legions ; the 
 Jesuits to the imperial body-guard. ' ' l 
 
 Ignatius' first intention was to convert the Turks 
 in Palestine. So he went to Jerusalem, there to estab- 
 lish a society of apostolic men who, in the midst of the 
 children of Mahomet, should open a way to new 
 triumphs of the Church. This was without doubt a 
 noble conception, one which the swords of Christian 
 chivalry had not been able to realize by the efforts 
 and enthusiasm of centuries. It was only after his 
 endeavors to gain a foothold near Our Lord's Sepulchre 
 had been frustrated, that Ignatius gave his new So- 
 ciety the more general character of defending the 
 * 'Kingdom of Christ'' among all classes, in all coun- 
 tries, and by all legitimate means. As the object of the 
 Society was purely spiritual, not temporal or political, 
 so also the means employed were to be of spiritual 
 order, above all preaching and teaching. 
 
 1 Harnack, What is Christianity? (New York, 1901), 
 I/ecture XIV, p. 252. However, much of what has been 
 written about the military character of the Society is due to a 
 misconception. When Mr. Davidson, in his History of Edu- 
 cation, says that "the Society of Jesus was a great military 
 organization, a Catholic Salvation Army, with methods very 
 much resembling those of its latest imitator," we must call 
 this comparison absurd. For a greater difference than that 
 between the methods of the Society and those of the Salvation 
 Army is scarcely conceivable, not to say a word of the vast 
 difference of their aims. 
 
THK SOCIETY OF JKSUS.-RKUGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 77 
 
 It has often been said that the prime object of the 
 Society was and is the crushing of Protestantism. 1 
 This assertion is proved to be false by the life of 
 Ignatius, and this proof is strengthened by the Con- 
 stitutions, the Papal Approbations, and the whole his- 
 tory of the Order. The Papal Letters and the Consti- 
 tutions assign as the special object of the Society : 
 f ' 'The progress of souls in a good life and knowledge of 
 - religion ; the propagation of faith by public preaching, 
 < the Spiritual Kxercises and works of charity, and par- 
 ticularly the instruction of youth and ignorant persons 
 in the Christian religion. ' ' 2 The Protestants are not 
 as much as mentioned in this Papal document which 
 states the end and the means of the Society. Pius V. , 
 in 1571, highly praised the educational work of Jesuit 
 schools and granted them ample privileges. 3 Here 
 again it is not said that these schools or the Society are 
 directed against Protestantism. 
 
 The evidence is so strong that Professor Huber, one 
 of the bitterest opponents of the Order, declares: "At 
 the time when Ignatius conceived the idea of found- 
 ing a new order, he had not heard as much as the 
 name of the German Reformer. Even more than a 
 decade later he seems to have paid little heed to the 
 
 1 "To resist the encroachments of Protestantism, that 
 followed the diffusion of instruction among the people, Loyola 
 organized his teaching corps of Catholic zealots ; and his mode 
 of competition for purposes of moral, sectarian and political 
 control has covered the earth in all Christian countries with 
 institutions of learning." Compayre, History of Pedagogy ', 
 p. 163. 
 
 ! In the first approbation of the Institute, by the Brief 
 Regimini militantis of Pope Paul III., September 27, 1540. 
 (Cf. Litterae Apostolicae, Florentiae, 1892, p. 4.) 
 
 3 Litterae Apostolicae, 1. c., p. 44. 
 
78 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 religious movement in Europe, especially in Ger- 
 many." ] As we said, it was the intention of Ignatius 
 to convert Palestine. Frustrated in this plan, he chose 
 Italy, Spain and Portugal as the field of labor for him- 
 self and his companions. There he endeavored to re- 
 form the morals of the people and to encourage the 
 practice of works of charity. 2 His most powerful co- 
 worker, Francis Xavier, he sent to East India ; to 
 Germany, he sent the first Jesuit in 1540, and that only 
 at the urgent request of the Imperial Ambassador. In 
 *555> one Y ear before the death of Ignatius, the So- 
 ciety comprised eight provinces : Italy had two; Spain, 
 three ; Portugal, one ; Brazil, one ; India and Japan, 
 one. There was none in Germany, the cradle of Prot- 
 estantism. Of the sixty-five residences of the Order in 
 that year, there were only two in Germany : those of 
 Cologne and Vienna. The first colleges of the So- 
 ciety were founded in Catholic countries : at Gandia in 
 Spain, Messina in Sicily, Goa in the East Indies. 
 Protestant pupils were received only by exception, and 
 in many colleges they were not admitted at all. How, 
 then, can all this be explained, if the main object of 
 the Society was the destruction of Protestantism and 
 prosely tism among Protestant students ? 3 
 
 When Ignatius had decided to devote his life "to 
 the greater glory of God" and the salvation of souls, 
 he understood the necessity of higher learning. So, at 
 the age of thirty-three, the former gallant officer and 
 hero of Parnpeluna, was not ashamed to sit with 
 
 1 Huber, DerJesuiten-Orden, 1873, p. 3. 
 
 2 Huber, /. c., p. 26. 
 
 3 Oil this subject cf. Duhr , Jesuitenfabeln. (Jesuit- 
 Myths), Herder, Freiburg, and St. Louis, 1899, (3rd edition), 
 pp. 128. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -REUGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 79 
 
 children on the school-bench at Barcelona, where he 
 began to study the rudiments of Latin. After two 
 years he went to the university of Alcala, thence to 
 Salamanca, and last to the university of Paris, at that 
 time the greatest centre of philosophical and theo- 
 logical learning. 
 
 He arrived in the French capital in 1528. There 
 he studied philosophy and theology, and in 1534, by a 
 successful examination, became a Master of Arts. At 
 the University he had won six young men : Peter 
 L,efevre, a Savoyard ; Francis Xavier, a Navarrese ; 
 the three Spaniards, James Lainez, Alphonsus Sal- 
 meron, and Nicholas Bobadilla, and Simon Rodriguez, 
 a Portuguese. On August 15, 1534, the little band 
 repaired to the church of the Blessed Virgin at Mont- 
 martre in Paris, and bound themselves by a vow to 
 the service of God. This was the birthday of the So- 
 ciety of Jesus. The new Order received the papal 
 sanction from Paul III., on September 27, 1540. 
 
 The aim of the Society is expressed by its motto : 
 Omnia ad majorem Dei gloriam All for God's greater 
 glory. Hence it is the duty of the members to labor 
 with the same zeal for the salvation of others as for 
 their own perfection. The salvation of their neighbor 
 they accomplish by conducting the spiritual exercises, 
 preaching missions to the faithful, and evangelizing 
 the heathen ; by hearing confessions ; by defending 
 the faith against heretics and infidels through their 
 writings ; by leaching catechism to children and the 
 ignorant; by lecturing on philosophy and theology in the 
 universities; by instructing youth in grammar schools and 
 colleges. Although various occupations are here men- 
 tioned, yet, as Professor Paulsen rightly observes, 
 
82 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 However, there are many enlightened and scholarly 
 non-Catholics who do not share these opinions. Care- 
 ful historical research revealed that the monks were 
 not lazy drones, but that they were the civilizers of 
 Europe and the preservers of ancient literature. Then 
 it was admitted that they were not all hypocritical 
 debauchees. Thus, in a recent work of an American 
 scholar, 2 we find, after the description of the monastic 
 principles and ideals, the following statement : ''The 
 ideal monastic character was that which corresponded 
 to these principles. And in hundreds of instances a 
 personality with such a character did result ; a person- 
 ality when directing faultless in humility and obedience 
 to God, faultness in humility and obedience when 
 obeying ; knowing neither pride nor vanity, nor cov- 
 etousness nor lust, nor slothful depression ; grave and 
 silent with bent head, yet with an inner peace, even an 
 inner passionate joy ; meditative, mystic, an other- 
 world personality ; one that dwells in spiritual facts, 
 
 writings of many humanists exhibit a licentiousness which 
 would have made most religious throw these books aside with 
 utter disgust. Some Protestant critics severely blamed the 
 Berlin Professor for this defence of the outlawed monks. 
 Professor Ziegler even accused him that, in alliance with 
 Janssen and Denifle, he endeavored to restore the old Catholic 
 fable convenue. Professor Paulseu answers this charge of his 
 co-religionists by saying that he is entirely free from any such 
 tendency. "I do not want to restore or maintain any fables, 
 neither Catholic nor Protestant ; but I wish, as far as possible, 
 to see things as they are. It is true, this endeavor has led 
 me to doubt whether the renaissance and its apostles deserve 
 all the esteem, and the representatives of medieval education 
 all the contempt which, up to this day, has been bestowed on 
 them." Z. c. y vol. I, p. 89. 
 
 2 Taylor, The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, 
 (New York, Macmillan 1900), p. 182. 
 
3 SOCIETY OF JESUS. -KELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 83 
 
 for whom this world has passed away and the lusts 
 thereof ; one that is centered in God and in eternal 
 life, and yet capable of intense activities ; a man who 
 will not swerve from orders received, as he swerves not 
 from his great aim, the love of God and eternal life." 
 And the Protestant Professor Harnack declares that 
 even to-day the Roman Church * 'possesses in its' orders 
 of monkhood and its religious societies, a deep element 
 of life in its midst. In all ages it has produced saints, 
 so far as men can be so called, and it still produces 
 them to-day. Trust in God, unaffected humility, the 
 assurance of redemption, the devotion of one's life to 
 the service of one's brethren, are to be found in it; 
 many brethren take up the cross of Christ and exercise 
 at one and the same time that self -judgment and that 
 joy in God which Paul and Augustine achieved. The 
 Imitatio Christi kindles independent religious life and 
 a fire which burns with a flame of its own. ' ' l 
 
 A still more remarkable reaction seems of late to 
 take place in the minds of Protestant writers, concern- 
 ing the origin and nature of "monasticism". After 
 various attempts had been made to explain the rise of 
 monasticism from Essene, Brahman, or Buddhist in- 
 fluence, not a few Protestants admit now that it logic- 
 ally, and, as it were, naturally, arose from Christianity. 
 "Monasticism", says Mr. Taylor, "arose from within 
 Christianity, not from without. " 2 Professor Harnack 
 even regrets it that the Reformation has abolished 
 monasticism within the Kvangelical Church. The 
 words of this leader among rationalistic Protestants 
 deserve to be quoted. After having pictured the 
 
 1 What is Christianity?, p. 266. 
 
 2 The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, p. 142. 
 
84 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 achievements of the Protestant Reformation, he asks 
 what it has cost. Among other ''high prices" which 
 the Reformation had to pay, he enumerates monasti- 
 cism. When the Reformation abolished monasticism, 
 ' 'something happened which Luther neither foresaw 
 nor desired : monasticism, of the kind that is con- 
 ceivable and necessary in the evangelical sense of the 
 word, disappeared altogether. But every community 
 stands in need of personalities living exclusively for its 
 ends. The Church, for instance, needs volunteers 
 who will abandon every other pursuit, renounce the 
 * world', and devote themselves entirely to the service 
 of their neighbor; not because such a vocation is a 
 'higher one', but because it is a necessary one, and 
 because no church can live without also giving rise to 
 such a desire. But in the evangelical churches the 
 desire has been checked by the decided attitude which 
 they have been compelled to adopt towards Catholi- 
 cism. It is a high price that we have paid ; nor can 
 the price be reduced by considering, on the other hand, 
 how much simple and unaffected religious fervor has 
 been kindled in home and family life. We may re- 
 joice, however, that in the past century a beginning 
 has been made in the direction of recouping this loss. 
 In the institution of deaconesses and many cognate 
 phenomena the evangelical churches are getting back 
 what they once ejected through their inability to 
 recognize it in the form which it then took. But it 
 must undergo a much ampler and more varied devel- 
 opment. ' ' 1 
 
 One of the "ends" of the Church is education. It 
 is natural, then, that there should be personalities who 
 
 1 What is Christianity?, p. 288. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 85 
 
 live exclusively for this end, or, at least, devote them- 
 selves in a special manner to this work. In fact, from 
 the earliest ages of Christianity, we find that religious 
 took a special interest in the education of youth. The 
 celebrated historian Dr. Neander of Berlin, who can 
 not be accused of any undue leaning towards Catholi- 
 cism, praises the early monks for their labor in this 
 direction. He points out that the duties of education 
 were particularly recommended to the monks of St. 
 Basil. They were enjoined to take upon themselves 
 voluntarily the education of orphans, and the educa- 
 tion of other youths when entrusted to them by their 
 parents. It was by no means necessary that these 
 children should become monks ; they were early in- 
 structed in some trade or art, and were afterwards at 
 liberty to make a free choice of their vocation. 1 
 
 St. John Chrysostom most earnestly recommended 
 to parents to employ the monks as instructors to their 
 sons ; to have their sons educated in monasteries, at 
 a distance from the corruption of the world, where 
 they might early be made acquainted with the Holy 
 Scriptures, be brought up in "Christian habits, and 
 where the foundation of a true Christian character might 
 be laid, the fruits of which would afterwards manifest 
 themselves in every station and circumstance of life. 
 Dr. Neander thus comments on the appeals of St. 
 Chrysostom: "Where men truly enlightened were 
 'to be found among the monks, as was often the case, 
 the advice of St. Chrysostom was undoubtedly correct; 
 and even where too great attention to outward forms, 
 
 1 The Life of St. Chrysostom, by Dr. Neander. Trans- 
 lated from the German by the Rev. J. C. Stapleton, London 
 1845, p. 92. 
 
84 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 achievements of the Protestant Reformation, he asks 
 what it has cost. Among other "high prices" which 
 the Reformation had to pay, he enumerates monasti- 
 cism. When the Reformation abolished monasticism, 
 "something happened which Luther neither foresaw 
 nor desired : monasticism, of the kind that is con- 
 ceivable and necessary in the evangelical sense of the 
 word, disappeared altogether. But every community 
 stands in need of personalities living exclusively for its 
 ends. The Church, for instance, needs volunteers 
 who will abandon every other pursuit, renounce the 
 'world', and devote themselves entirely to the service 
 of their neighbor ; not because such a vocation is a 
 'higher one', but because it is a necessary one, and 
 because no church can live without also giving rise to 
 such a desire. But in the evangelical churches the 
 desire has been checked by the decided attitude which 
 they have been compelled to adopt towards Catholi- 
 cism. It is a high price that we have paid ; nor can 
 the price be reduced by considering, on the other hand, 
 how much simple and unaffected religious fervor has 
 been kindled in home and family life. We may re- 
 joice, however, that in the past century a beginning 
 has been made in the direction of recouping this loss. 
 In the institution of deaconesses and many cognate 
 phenomena the evangelical churches are getting back 
 what they once ejected through their inability to 
 recognize it in the form which it then took. But it 
 must undergo a much ampler and more varied devel- 
 opment. ' ' l 
 
 One of the "ends" of the Church is education. It 
 is natural, then, that there should be personalities who 
 
 1 What is Christianity?, p. 288. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -REUGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 85 
 
 live exclusively for this end, or, at least, devote them- 
 selves in a special manner to this work. In fact, from 
 the earliest ages of Christianity, we find that religious 
 took a special interest in the education of youth. The 
 celebrated historian Dr. Neander of Berlin, who can 
 not be accused of any undue leaning towards Catholi- 
 cism, praises the early monks for their labor in this 
 direction. He points out that the duties of education 
 were particularly recommended to the monks of St. 
 Basil. They were enjoined to take upon themselves 
 voluntarily the education of orphans, and the educa- 
 tion of other youths when entrusted to them by their 
 parents. It was by no means necessary that these 
 children should become monks ; they were early in- 
 structed in some trade or art, and were afterwards at 
 liberty to make a free choice of their vocation. 1 
 
 St. John Chrysostom most earnestly recommended 
 to parents to employ the monks as instructors to their 
 sons; to have their sons educated in monasteries, at 
 a distance from the corruption of the world, where 
 they might early be made acquainted with the Holy 
 Scriptures, be brought up in 'Christian habits, and 
 where the foundation of a true Christian character might 
 be laid, the fruits of which would afterwards manifest 
 themselves in every station and circumstance of life. 
 Dr. Neander thus comments on the appeals of St. 
 Chrysostom: "Where men truly enlightened were 
 'to be found among the monks, as was often the case, 
 the advice of St. Chrysostom was undoubtedly correct; 
 and even where too great attention to outward forms, 
 
 1 The Life of St. Chrysostom, by Dr. Neander. Trans- 
 lated from the German by the Rev. J. C. Stapleton, London 
 1845, p. 92. 
 
86 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and too little of an evangelical spirit prevailed, educa- 
 tion among them was more desirable than in corrupted 
 families, or the schools of the sophists, in which van- 
 ity and ostentation were in every way encouraged. ' ' l 
 It is scarcely necessary to state that other religious 
 orders before the foundation of the Society of Jesus, 
 especially the Benedictines and the Dominicans, had 
 rendered inestimable service to the cause of Christian 
 education. Cardinal Newman compares the educa- 
 tional work of these three orders in the following 
 terms:- "As the physical universe is sustained and 
 carried on in dependence on certain centres of power 
 and laws of operation, so the course of the social and 
 political world, and of that great religious organiza- 
 tion called the Catholic Church, is found to proceed 
 for the most part from the presence or action of definite 
 persons, places, events, and institutions, as the visible 
 cause of the whole. . . . Education follows the same 
 la.w: it has its history in Christianity, and its doctors 
 or masters in that history. It has had three periods : 
 the ancient, the medieval, and the modern ; and there 
 are three religious orders in those periods respectively 
 which succeed, one the other, on its public stage, and 
 represent the teaching given by the Catholic Church 
 during the time of their ascendancy. The first period 
 is that long series of centuries, during which society 
 was breaking, or had broken up, and then slowly 
 attempted its own reconstruction ; the second may be 
 called the period of reconstruction ; and the third 
 dates from the Reformation, when that peculiar move- 
 ment of mind commenced, the issue of which is still 
 to come. Now, St. Benedict has had the training of 
 
 1 Ibid., p. 37. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS, -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS, 87 
 
 the ancient intellect, St. Dominic of the medieval, and 
 St. Ignatius of the modern. . . . Ignatius, a man of 
 the world before his conversion, transmitted as a legacy 
 to his disciples that knowledge of mankind which 
 cannot be learned in cloisters. ' ' l 
 
 However, none of the religious orders of the Middle 
 Ages had taken the education of youth formally and 
 expressly into its constitution. As regards the Bene- 
 dictines, Cardinal Newman maintains that their occu- 
 pation with literary and historical studies was, in a 
 way, a compromise with the primary end of their in- 
 stitute. The monastic institute, as the great Benedic- 
 tine scholar Mabillon says, demands summa quies, the 
 most perfect quietness. Hence the studies which they 
 pursued with special predilection, were such as did not 
 excite the mind : the study of Holy Scripture and the 
 Fathers, the examination of ancient manuscripts, edi- 
 tions and biographies of the Fathers, studies which 
 can be undergone in silence and quietness. 2 So was 
 also the educational work which they undertook acci- 
 dental to the primary object of their institute. The 
 Order of St. Dominic had a much closer, a more direct 
 and explicit connection with studies and teaching. 
 But it was chiefly the teaching of the highest branches, 
 of theology, the "science of sciences", and of philo- 
 sophy, which this order undertook. What we now 
 understand by * 'education" was only remotely included 
 in the object of the Order of St. Dominic. 
 
 St. Ignatius was the first to assume the education 
 of youth as a special part of the work of a religious 
 order, as a special ministry, a special means of ob- 
 
 1 Historical Sketches, vol. II, pp. 365-366. 
 
 2 Newman, Historical Sketches, vol. II, pp. 420-26; 452. 
 
88 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 taining the end of his Society : the glory of God and 
 the salvation of souls. "We can," says Cicero, "do 
 no greater or better service to the commonwealth than 
 to teach and instruct youth. ' ' St. Ignatius knew this 
 full well, he also knew that it applied to the super- 
 natural commonwealth, the City of Goa, the Church 
 of Christ. 
 
 In opposition to the pagan ideas of the radical 
 school of the humanists, he deemed it absolutely 
 necessary that all efforts should be made to instil the 
 principles of the true religion, together with useful 
 knowledge, into the minds of boys ; for as the Wise 
 Man says: "A young man, according to his way, 
 even when he is old, he will not depart from it." 
 (Prov., 22, 6.) "Hence", as the Jesuit theologian 
 Suarez says : "God raised up St. Ignatius, and gave 
 to him this mind and counsel, without the motive and 
 example of other religious orders, and it has been 
 approved by the authority of His Vicar. ' ' 1 
 
 This measure of St. Ignatius in taking the educa- 
 tion of youth as a fundamental part into his order, 
 marks an important epoch in the history of Catholic 
 education. After the time of St. Ignatius other re- 
 ligious congregations were founded with the special 
 object of undertaking the education of the young ; we 
 mention only the Christian Brothers, founded by Saint 
 de L,a Salle, and the Piarists. For the education of 
 women there are numerous congregations of sisters, 
 which exclusively or primarily are engaged in impart- 
 ing a refined and thoroughly Christian education. 
 
 1 De Religione Societatis Jesu. See the digest of the 
 work in The Religious State, by W. Humphrey, V S. J., 
 vol. Ill, p. 167. 
 
TH SOCIETY OF JKSUS, -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 89 
 
 y 
 
 Of late the educational work of religious orders 
 has frequently been objected to, even by some who 
 call themselves Catholics. But in spite of all that has 
 been said to the contrary, the care which religious 
 orders take of education is a source of blessings for the 
 pupils, the family, and the whole community. Re- 
 ligious, above all, try to impart a religious, a Christian 
 education. How useful, how absolutely necessary this 
 is for society as well as for the individual pupil, need 
 not be discussed. Further, in the case of religious 
 teachers a guarantee is given that persons of noble 
 character and high aspirations devote their whole lives 
 to the cause of education. Must we not expect that 
 such teachers will obtain most satisfactory results in 
 their work? At all events, it cannot be denied that the 
 educational labors of the Society were crowned with 
 success. 
 
 Protestant historians, as Ranke, Paulsen, and 
 others, admit that the Jesuit schools of the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries were far more successful 
 than their Protestant rivals. Whence the difference ? 
 Ranke finds it in the exactness and nicety of the meth- 
 ods of the Society. This was undoubtedly one cause 
 of their greater 'success. Still it is more probable that 
 the chief reason is to be sought in the teachers them- 
 selves. The teachers in the Jesuit colleges were, on 
 the whole, better fitted for their work than were most 
 other teachers. It is not difficult to prove this asser- 
 tion. The social position of teachers was, during 
 these centuries, a most undesirable one. 1 The salaries 
 
 Many interesting details on this subject have been 
 published in a recent book by Reicke, Lehrer und Unterrichts- 
 wesen in der deutschen Vergangenheit, I/eipzig, Diederichs, 
 
90 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 were so miserable that the teachers, to support them- 
 selves and their families, had to practise some other 
 profession or trade. Professor Paulsen states that in 
 Saxony, towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
 the one schoolmaster of a small town was regularly 
 organist, town-clerk and sexton. 1 The village school- 
 masters were mostly sextons, field-guards, or tailors. 
 As late as 1738, an order was issued in Prussia to the 
 effect that in the country" there should be no other 
 tailors besides the sextons and schoolmasters, and later 
 on Frederick the Great declared: "tailors are bad 
 schoolmasters," and so he preferred to make teachers 
 out of old soldiers, invalid corporals, and sergeants. 
 The position of teachers in the higher schools was not 
 much more enticing. They had to obtain some addi- 
 tion to their scanty salaries by a sort of genteel beg- 
 gary : by dedicating books or orations to influential 
 persons, by writing poems for weddings or similar 
 occasions. Teachers were always far worse off than 
 .lawyers or physicians. It was always a true saying, 
 but especially in those times : 
 
 Dat Galenus opes, dat Justinianus /wnores, 
 Sed genus et species cogitur ire pedes> 
 
 which may be freely rendered : 
 
 The doctor's purse old Galen fills, 
 Justinian lifts the esquire on high, 
 But he that treads in grammar-mills, 
 Will tread it on until he die. 
 
 The famous rector of the school of I If eld, Neander, 
 
 1901. Summary in Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische 
 Altertum, 1902, vol. X, pp. 295 296. See also Paulsen, 
 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts (2nd ed.), vol. I, pp. 
 326-333; 362. 
 
 1 L. c., p. 296. 
 
THE SOCIETY F JESUS, -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 91 
 
 was told one day by his former colleague of Schul- 
 pforta, Gigas, who had retired to a parish : "You 
 should have had yourself flayed alive rather than stay 
 so many years with the wicked and devilish youths 
 of to-day. " And Schekkius, who died in 1704, had 
 the following inscription painted on the wall of the 
 Gymnasium in Hildesheim : 
 
 "Quis miser est ? Vere miseros si dixeris ullos. 
 Hi stint, qui pueros betha vel alpha docent. 
 
 The schoolmasters have horses 1 and asses' labor ; 
 they have to swallow much dust, stench and smoke to 
 boot ; discomfort, calumnies, and sundry troubles, 
 with ingratitude in fine laborum." 
 
 We cannot wonder that the desudare in pulvere 
 scholastico was not considered a desirable profession, 
 and that the school career was sought only as a trans- 
 itory occupation, which was abandoned as soon as a 
 good parsonage was offered. Others again entered 
 upon this career because, for lack of talent or other 
 qualities, they could not expect to succeed in the min- 
 istry. l The changes among the teachers, in Saxony 
 and elsewhere, were exceedingly frequent. It was very 
 common among Protestant theologians to teach for 
 one year, or at the most two years, and then to retire 
 to a parish. 2 
 
 What do we find among the Jesuits ? The most 
 talented youths entered their ranks, and after a long 
 and solid training many taught in the colleges their 
 whole lives, others for at least five or more years. 
 They had not to worry about their livelihood, as the 
 Order provided all they needed. So they could devote 
 
 1 Paulsen, Geschichte des gel. Unt., I. c.> p. 327. 
 
 2 Ib., p. 296. 
 
92 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 themselves, all their time and strength, to the work of 
 education. 1 But this was possible only because they 
 had joined a religious order, which had taken up the 
 education of youth as one of its special ministries. 
 I have never found that any writers who discuss the 
 causes of the superiority of the Jesuit schools have 
 taken this fact into account. And yet it was un- 
 doubtedly one of the most important reasons of the 
 great success of the colleges of the Society. 
 
 But may not even at the present day religious most 
 beneficially be employed as educators of Catholic 
 youth ? Will not their state of life secure some ad- 
 vantages for the work of education ? It has repeatedly 
 been stated by non- Catholic writers that the schools 
 of the teaching congregations in France were far more 
 successful than the lay schools. 2 What is the ex- 
 planation of this fact, so unwelcome to those who have 
 to admit it? A recent article in an American mag- 
 azine may help us to find a very plausible explanation. 
 Professor Miinsterberg of Harvard writes 3 : "The 
 
 1 Prof essorPaulsen states that the Jesuit teachers changed 
 also rather frequently ; but every Jesuit had to teach at 
 least four or five years after the completion of his philosoph- 
 ical course, and very many returned to the colleges after their 
 theological studies. Hence there was incomparably more 
 stability in Jesuit colleges than in most Protestant schools of 
 those times. 
 
 2 See for instance the Contemporary Review, March, 
 1900, p. 441, where it is plainly stated by a writer most hostile 
 to the religious orders, that the ' 'religious teachers do their 
 work efficiently and successfully, their rivals with a degree 
 of slovenliness which is incredible.'* See further testimonies 
 below, chapter VII. 
 
 3 Atlantic Monthly, May 1901, p. 628. However, this 
 feature is not confined to American schools. Within the last 
 few years serious complaints begin to be heard also in Ger- 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS, -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 93 
 
 greater number of those who devote themselves to 
 higher teaching in America are young men without 
 means, too often without breeding ; and yet that 
 would be easily compensated for, if they were men of 
 the best minds, but they are not. They are mostly 
 men of a passive, almost indifferent sort of mind, 
 without intellectual energy, men who see in the aca- 
 demic career a modest safe path of life .... while our 
 best young men must rush to law, and banking, and 
 what not, ' ' and all this because the salaries are not 
 high enough. l It is not our task to investigate or 
 
 many. There is even a serious danger apprehended for the 
 higher schools. The commercial spirit has invaded Germany, 
 and young men are not anxious to enter on a career which is 
 perhaps the most fatiguing of all and offers the fewest chances 
 for advancement. See Dr. Wermbter, Die hohere Schullauf- 
 bahn in Preussen, 1901; Dr. Schroder: Periculum in Mora, 
 1901. Of the French teachers M. Breal, Professor of the 
 College de France, said as early as 1879: "Les maitres d'etudes 
 sont, g^neralement, des jeunes gens qui acceptent de fati- 
 gantes et difficiles fonctions pour avoir le loisir de se preparer 
 & un emploi plus releve", . . . personnes sans experience peda- 
 gogique, dont la pensee et 1'activite sont tournees vers les 
 examens qui les attendent. . . Je ne crains pas d'etre contre- 
 dit si j'affirine que 1'autorite leur manque pour tre les 
 educateurs que nous cherchons." Du Lac, Je suite s> p. 280. 
 
 1 Political influence has repeatedly been pointed out as 
 another cause that deters able men in this covntry from school 
 work. "It seems to be true that high schools have not been 
 able to attract the best men into their service, because ap- . 
 pointments in them must be sought usually through avenues 
 of political influence." Educational Review, May, 1902, 
 p. 506. See also President Draper, in Education in the 
 United States, vol. I, pp. 13, 16, 29; and Mr. Anderson's 
 article "Politics in the Public Schools," Atlantic Monthly, 
 >ril, 1901. 
 
94 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 defend the correctness of these statements, which un- 
 questionably contain a great deal of truth. 
 
 What do we find in religious orders? No doubt, 
 the type of mind described in the preceding lines is to 
 be met with among them ; but in schools, conducted 
 by religious, men are teaching who are "of the best 
 minds", sometimes also men who belong to the best 
 Catholic families in the land. The Jesuits, in partic- 
 ular, have even been charged with drawing the finest 
 talents and the sons of the most distinguished families 
 to their Order. If this were true, these talents would 
 not be lost to society. For they are working for the 
 noblest cause, the education of the young. Their state 
 of life made firm and lasting by sacred vows, frees 
 them from family cares and family troubles, and per- 
 mits them to devote all their time and energy to edu- 
 cation. The Jesuit is prevented from seeking earthly 
 remuneration, consequently, no "better chance", no 
 higher salary offered by other occupations, will entice 
 him to forsake his arduous but sublime task. 
 
 In the year 1879, at the time of violent agitations 
 against the Jesuit colleges in France, a writer in the 
 Paris Figaro called attention to the fact how little a 
 Jesuit teacher needed. In the provinces, a Jesuit 
 teacher costs one thousand francs, in Paris, a little 
 more, and this is for board, clothes, etc. Going from 
 one college to another, he takes with him his crucifix, 
 his breviary, and the clothes which he wears on his 
 body, his manuscripts, if he has any, and that is all. 
 And yet, as the same writer points out, among these 
 truly poor men, among these volunteers to the noble 
 cause of education, are men who are the sons of mil- 
 lionaires, others who have received the badge of the 
 
SOCIKTY OF JKSUS. -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 95 
 
 "L,egion of Honor", others who had been awarded 
 this distinction before they became Jesuits ; there are 
 among them men who had been able officers in the 
 army or navy. Indeed, these men must see in the 
 education of youth something more than an occupation 
 for gaining a livelihood. 
 
 In this country the instability of teachers has more 
 than once formed the subject of complaints. "In 
 Maine, 1 some time ago, four years was found to be the 
 average time of service. The report of 1892 on the 
 high schools of Washington (D. C.) remarks that, 
 with few exceptions, all professionally prepared teachers 
 who had occupied their positions four years ago had 
 resigned to enter more lucrative positions. Better 
 opportunities are offered not only to male but to female 
 teachers, who also give up their positions to enter 
 upon married life. Even well-to-do American women, 
 generally highly educated, well informed, and at the 
 same time enterprising, prefer to spend a few years in 
 teaching rather than await their future inactively. 
 The official report condenses all this in the mournful 
 remark: In the United States the profession of teach- 
 ing seems to be a kind of waiting-room in which the 
 young girl awaits a congenial, ulterior support, and 
 the young man a more advantageous position. ' " 2 
 
 It is evident that teaching must suffer from such 
 instability. No professional skill is possible in the 
 majority of teachers; experience and steadfastness, two 
 
 1 In Illinois and other states the same has been proved. 
 Mr. McBurney wrote quite recently in the Ohio Teacher that 
 the average life of the country teacher is not over three years. 
 See The Review, St. Louis, October 2, 1902, p. 601. 
 
 2 Report of the Com. of Education, 189293, vol. I, p. 
 545 ; see also pp. 565 and 586. 
 
96 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 important elements in education, are lacking. This 
 latter point may be illustrated by a comparison drawn 
 between the Catholic Sister and the Protestant Deacon- 
 ess. The comparison has been drawn by a Protes- 
 tant lady in Germany, Frau Elisabeth Gnauck-Kuhne, 
 who for many years was prominent in works of Chris- 
 tian charity. She says: 1 "The Catholic Sister has 
 made a binding vow, she has burnt the ships behind 
 her; earthly cares, earthly pleasures she knows no 
 more, her conversation is in heaven. It is the same 
 to her whither she goes, whom she attends, poor or 
 rich, old or young, high or low, all these circumstan- 
 ces are immaterial; for she has balanced her account 
 with the life on this side of the grave, she does nothing 
 by halves. The Evangelical Deaconess in theory 
 stands in a different position. Her church demands 
 of her no oath of renunciation, she has not destroyed 
 the bridge, she may at any moment return to the flesh- 
 pots of Egypt, especially when a man wants her for 
 his wife. Then the motives which have led her to the 
 service of the sick will hold no longer; then the needs, 
 which, as far as lay in her, she wished to remedy, 
 must continue to exist, she doffs the severe garb and 
 decks herself with the orange-blossoms. Such being 
 the case, is it not most natural that she yields more 
 easily to the temptation of having one eye on her 
 vocation, the other on the world? What is excluded 
 in the case of the Catholic Sister, the desertion of her 
 vocation and marriage, are possible for her, and why 
 should she not find the possibility desirable ? If, in 
 addition, the wish is father to the thought, there arises 
 
 1 From the Protestant Tdgliche Rundschau of Berlin, 
 Sept. 28, 1899. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 97 
 
 consciously or unconsciously, that disposition which 
 has been felt as a 'tinge of worldliness. ' But it would 
 be unfair to blame the Deaconess. Protestantism 
 with irresistible consistency must produce the described 
 disposition and half-heartedness, for it esteems married 
 life more highly than voluntary virginity, and under 
 all circumstances it is lawful and laudable to strive 
 after that which is higher and better. The Catholic 
 Church, on the other hand, while considering married 
 life a sacred state, gives a higher rank to life-long vir- 
 ginity consecrated to God. ' ' 
 
 This surprising tribute to the usefulness and dig- 
 nity of the religious life as practised in the Catholic 
 Church, may be applied with equal force to the religi- 
 ous teachers. They, too, do nothing by halves; "their 
 hearts are not divided." 1 "For the kingdom of 
 heaven's sake" 2 they have renounced the joys of 
 family life. All their affections purified, ennobled and 
 made supernatural, are to be bestowed on those en- 
 trusted to their care. It is Christ whom they have to 
 see in the little ones, according to the words of the 
 Divine Master: "He that receiveth one such little child 
 in my name receiveth me. ' ' We do not mean to im- 
 ply that married men may not be excellent teachers, 
 thousands have been such, nor that all religious on 
 account of their state are good teachers. We merely 
 wish to prove that the religious state in itself affords 
 many advantages for the cause of education. The 
 difficulties connected with education will be borne 
 more patiently, sometimes even heroically, by one who 
 has bound himself to a life of perfect obedience and 
 self-sacrifice. 
 
 1 I. Corinth. 7, 33. 
 2 ? Matth. 19, 11, 12. 
 
98 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Besides, in a teaching order, a continuity of aim 
 and effort is effected which is and must be wanting in 
 individuals. Mr. Quick has well emphasized this 
 fact: (< By corporate life you secure continuity of effort. 
 There is to me something very attractive in the idea of 
 a teaching society. How such a society might capit- 
 alize its discoveries. The Roman Church has shown 
 a genius for such societies, witness the Jesuits and the 
 Christian Brothers. The experience of centuries must 
 have taught them much that we could learn of them. ' ' l 
 For this reason a change of Professors in a Jesuit Col- 
 lege is attended by fewer inconveniences, as all have 
 been trained under the same system, and thus have 
 imbibed the pedagogical traditions of the Order. 
 
 A French writer has spoken of another advantage, 
 the moral influence, which the religious exercises 
 owing to his state. ' 'The Jesuit teacher' ' the same 
 may be said of all religious teachers "is not a paid 
 official. The pupils look up to him as a loved and 
 venerated friend. Perhaps they know that he is the 
 scion of an illustrious family, who could have followed 
 a splendid career in life, who could have succeeded in 
 the world of finances and industry. But he preferred 
 to take the black gown and to devote himself to educa- 
 tion." 2 
 
 The source of the growing antipathy against the 
 educational labors of religious is either hatred of the 
 Catholic religion or religious indifferentisrn. When 
 people do not care any more for the supernatural, the 
 education based professedly on supernatural views, 
 seems to them out of date, antiquated, a remnant of 
 
 1 Educational Reformers^ p. 532. 
 
 2 Albert Duruy in Revue des Deux-Mondes, Jan. 1, 1880. 
 
SOCIETY OF JESUS. -REUGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 99 
 
 medieval priestcraft and clerical tyranny. Be it re- 
 marked, however, that this opposition is not new to 
 our age. The very Middle Ages witnessed a violent 
 opposition to the teaching of religious orders. This 
 was especially the case in the University of Paris, 
 where, in the thirteenth century, a strong rationalistic 
 party, headed by William of Saint- Amour, endeavored 
 to expel the Dominicans and Franciscans from the 
 professorial chair. William's contention was that the 
 religious should not be allowed to teach, but should 
 employ themselves in manual labors, as did the monks 
 in olden times. Then it was that three able pens were 
 employed to defend the religious orders and their 
 work: those of Bonaventure, of Albertus Magnus, arid 
 of Thomas Aquinas. St. Thomas wrote his little 
 work: "Against those who attack Religion and the 
 Worship of God", 1 of which Fleury said that it had 
 always been regarded as the most perfect apology for 
 religious orders. In the second chapter, headed 
 "Whether Religious may teach", and the third, 
 * 'Whether Religious may be a corporate body of secular 
 teachers", the Saint refutes the objections of William 
 in a most lucid and powerful manner, and sets forth 
 the advantages which the Church and society may 
 derive from teaching by religious orders. He con- 
 tends that a religious order may be instituted for any 
 work of mercy. As teaching is a work of mercy, a 
 religious order may be founded with the special end of 
 teaching. 2 And as the common good is to be preferred 
 
 1 Contra Impugnantes Dei Cultum et Religionem. Edi- 
 tion of Parma, 1864, vol. XV. Opusculum I. See The Life 
 and Labors of St. Thomas Aquinas, by Roger Bede Vaughan, 
 O. S. B., 1871, vol. I, pp. 625726. 
 
 2 See also Summa Theol., 2., 2., qu. 188, a. 5. 
 
100 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to private utility a monk may leave his solitude with 
 permission of Superiors, to minister to the general 
 good by teaching as well as by writing. 
 
 We see from this fact that history repeats itself, 
 and that the modern attacks on the educational labors 
 of religious communities are by no means new. The 
 tactics of the enemies of the religious change, the pre- 
 texts of attacks on them will vary, but the nature of 
 the warfare is ever the same. It is conscious or un- 
 conscious opposition to the principles of Christianity. 
 Therefore, we find that those who have the interest of 
 religion at heart, are not among the opponents of 
 * ' clerical ' ' education. 
 
 Even Protestants frankly admit that the union of 
 the clerical office with that of the teacher offers great 
 advantages. Sir Joshua Fitch, the distinguished 
 English educator, thinks that the "parents in parting 
 with the moral supervision of their sons are not un- 
 reasonably disposed to place increased confidence in a 
 headmaster who combines the scholarship and the 
 skill of teaching with the dignity and the weight of 
 the clerg}mian's office." 1 And Professor Paulsen, 
 certainly not theologically biased, says that it was not 
 without disadvantages that the theologians were re- 
 placed in the Gymnasia b}^ philologians and mathe- 
 maticians, a change which for a long time was wished, 
 undoubtedly not without good reasons. The theolo- 
 gian, owing to his whole training, had an inclination 
 towards the care of the souls; the interest in the whole 
 man was the centre of his calling. 2 
 
 1 Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 97. 
 
 2 Geschichte des gel. Unt., pp. 628629 (2, eel., vol. II, 
 p. 390). 
 
THK SOCIETY OF JESUS. -RELIGIOUS AS'EDUCATORS. IOI 
 
 What we have said so far undoubtedly justifies us 
 in maintaining that the measure adopted by Ignatius, 
 in making education a special ministry of a religious 
 order, marks an epoch of prime importance in the 
 history of Catholic pedagogy. 
 
 The character and object of the Society, the means 
 it applies for obtaining its object, and its system of 
 administration are laid down in the Constitutions of 
 the Society. These Constitutions are the -work of St. 
 Ignatius, not, as has been asserted, of his successor 
 Lainez, although the latter was one of those Fathers 
 whom Ignatius consulted very frequently whilst draw- 
 ing up the Constitutions. St. Ignatius died in 1556; 
 in 1558 the representatives of the Order met together 
 and elected James L,ainez second General of the Society. 
 They examined the Constitution which Father Igna- 
 tius had left at his death, and received it with unan- 
 imity, just as it stood. They presented it to the Sover- 
 eign Pontiff Paul IV. , who committed the code to four 
 Cardinals for accurate revision. The commission re- 
 turned it, without having altered a word. 1 
 
 We must explain a few details of the organization 
 of the Order, as certain terms will be used again and 
 again in this work. The Order is divided into Pro- 
 vinces, which comprise all the colleges and other 
 houses in a certain country or district. The Superior 
 of a Province is called Provincial; he is appointed by ! 
 the General for a number of years. Several Provinces 
 form a so-called Assistancy. The head of the Order is 
 the General, elected for lifetime by the General Con- 
 gregation. He possesses full jurisdiction and admin- 
 istrative power in the Order. Five assistants form, as 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 65. 
 
102 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 it were, his council. They are elected by the General 
 Congregation, from the various assistancies. They 
 are now five: those of Italy, Germany (with Austria, 
 Galicia, Belgium and Holland), France, England and 
 North America, Spain (with Portugal). The legis- 
 lative body of the Order is the General Congregation. 
 It alone can add to the Constitutions, change or abro- 
 gate. It consists of the General (after his death, his 
 Vicar), the Assistants, the Provincials, and two 
 special deputies, elected by each province. It assem- 
 bles only after the death of a General, or in extra- 
 ordinary cases at the command of the General. As 
 was said, it elects a new General and his assistants, 
 and it may depose the General for grave reasons. It 
 is clear, then, that the General's power is not so ab- 
 solute as it is sometimes represented to be, but is 
 wisely limited. 
 
 In this way the greatest possible centralization is 
 secured in the hands of the General, and yet the 
 danger of abusing so great a power is excluded by the 
 institution of the Assistants. Ribadeneira has well 
 remarked that this form of government borders closely 
 upon monarchy, but has still more in common with 
 an oligarchy, for it avoids everything faulty in each of 
 the two systems and borrows the best points of both. 
 From the monarchy it takes its unity and stability; 
 from the oligarchy the existence of a council, so that 
 the General may command every one, and at the same 
 time, be subject to every one (praesit et subsit). 1 
 
 In connection with the Constitutions we must 
 mention a book which is said to exhibit the "true" 
 character of the Society, namely the so-called Monita 
 
 1 Saint Ignatius, by H. Joly, p. 217. 
 
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. 103 
 
 Secreta, or code of secret instructions, supposed to have 
 been drawn up by Aquaviva, the fifth General, for the 
 benefit of Superiors and others who are considered fit 
 to be initiated in the full mystery of the schemes of 
 the Society. It imputes to the Society the most 
 crooked designs to achieve the aggrandizement of the 
 Order. It has been reprinted again and again, in 
 England as late as 1850 (London), in Prance 1870 
 and 1876, in Germany 1886 and 1901. The work has 
 repeatedly been proved to be an infamous libel, writ- 
 ten by one Zahorowski, who had been discharged 
 from the Society in 1611 or 1612. Even such enemies 
 of the Society as the Jansenist Arnauld, the " Old- 
 Catholics" Dollinger, Huber, Reusch, and Friedrich, 
 declare it ''spurious and a lampoon on the Order." 
 Dr. Littledale calls it "an ingenious forgery", 1 it has 
 been recently called a fraudulent squib by Protestants 
 like Professor Harnack (1891), Tschackert (1891), 
 and others. 2 And still, in spite of all this adverse 
 authority, recent Protestant publications have referred 
 to this forgery as to an authentic document. No, not 
 the Monita Seer eta, but the Constitutions, available to 
 any one, contain the spirit of the Society. 
 
 The Constitutions are divided into ten parts, the 
 fourth of which treats of studies. This part is the / 
 longest of all, and its perfect arrangement met with v 
 especial admiration. After the promulgation of the 
 Constitutions successive General Congregations issued 
 
 1 Encyclopedia Britannica^ article "J esu Us". 
 
 2 See Duhr, Jesuitenfabeln (3rd ed.), pp. 76-102. The 
 Month (London), August 1901, pp. 176-185: The Jesuit Bogey 
 and the Monita Secreta; and especially Reiber, Monita Se- 
 creta, Augsburg, 1902. 
 
104 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 decrees, emphasizing the vast importance of the educa- 
 tion of youth, and the great esteem to be had for the 
 teaching of grammar and the classics. It is called 
 "a special and characteristic ministry of the Society" 
 ( Congr. 8. , Dec. 8. ) , * 'one of the most desirable occupa- 
 tions and most beneficial to many" (C. 7., D. 26.). 
 In the Ratio Studiorum, the very first Rule reads : l 
 "As it is one of the principal ministries of our Society 
 to teach all the branches of knowledge, which accord- 
 ing to our institute may be taught, in such a manner 
 that thereby men may be led to the knowledge and 
 love of our Creator and Redeemer, the Provincial 
 should consider it his duty to see with all diligence, 
 that the fruit which the grace of our vocation re- 
 quires, corresponds with the manifold labors of our 
 schools. ' ' This work of teaching boys is considered 
 so important in the Society that in the last vows it is 
 expressly mentioned : "I vow according to obedience 
 a special concern for the education of boys. ' ' 
 
 The branches which " according to the Institute 
 may be taught," are chiefly those that are connected 
 with higher education. The Society has been blamed 
 for neglecting elementary education. Professor Huber 
 thinks that the Jesuits did so, ''first, because this task 
 seemed to them to be more subordinate, since the hold 
 on the people was assured to them any way by their 
 ecclesiastical influence; secondly, because on the whole 
 they were no friends of popular education, however 
 insignificant ; for the complete ignorance of the masses 
 did but fortify their control of them. ' ' 2 This is a 
 
 1 First Rule of the Provincial. 
 
 ! Der Jesuiten-Orden, p. 348. Coinpayre repeats this 
 charge: "The Jesuits have deliberately neglected and dis- 
 dained primary education." Hist, of Fed., p. 142. 
 
THK SOCIETY OF JKSUS. -RELIGIOUS AS EDUCATORS. IO5 
 
 flagrant injustice and sheer calumny. The Order never 
 opposed popular education. On the contrary, the 
 Constitutions expressly declare it to be a laudable 
 work : ' ' Moreover it would be a work of charity to 
 teach reading and writing, if the Society had a suf- 
 ficient number of men. But on account of dearth of 
 men we are not ordinarily used for this purpose. " 1 
 This is the proper reason, and the only one why the 
 Jesuits could not undertake elementary education. 
 They had never men enough to supply the demands yf 
 for higher education. Actually hundreds of applica- 
 tions from bishops and princes for erecting colleges 
 had to be refused. As early as 1565, the Second Gen- 
 eral Congregation had to decree that "existing colleges 
 should rather be strengthened than new ones admitted. 
 The latter should be done only if there was a sufficient 
 endowment and a sufficient number of teachers 
 available. ' ' 2 
 
 How, then, could the Society enter so vast a field 
 as that of elementary education ? Besides the whole 
 intellectual training of the Jesuits fitted them better v 
 for the higher branches. At the present day, when 
 the watchword is "specialization", the Jesuits should 
 
 1 Constitut., P. IV, c. 12, Declaratio C. The XX. Gen- 
 eral Congregation, 1820, when asked whether elementary 
 schools should be admitted, reverted to this passage of the 
 Constitutions: ' 'Such schools are not excluded by our Insti- 
 tute, on the contrary, it is said in the Constitutions that such 
 teaching is a work of charity. But the dearth of men is to be 
 taken into consideration, and care must be taken not to hin- 
 der greater good through this (admission of elementary 
 schools). The whole matter is left to the prudence of the 
 Provincials, who have to see what is expedient according to 
 place and circumstances." Deer. XXI. Pachtler, vol. I, p. 107. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. I, p. 74. (Deer. VIII.) 
 
106 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 rather find recognition than censure, for having wisely 
 limited their work centuries ago. Moreover, the 
 Jesuits did teach elementary branches, at least in 
 some places, not only in Paraguay, but also in 
 Europe. Father Nadal writes : ' ' In the elementary 
 class (classis abecedariorum) , whichr^niay be opened 
 with the permission of the General, the boys are taught 
 reading and writing. A brother may be employed to 
 assist the teacher if the class should be too large. ' ' l 
 Be it further added that at present, in the foreign mis- 
 sions, v. g. in Syria, the Jesuits conduct hundreds of 
 elementary schools, in which most branches are taught 
 by lay brothers or by sisters of various teaching con- 
 gregations. 2 
 
 The fourth part of the Constitutions contains only 
 the general principles, not a complete system of educa- 
 tion. That this more general legislation was not con- 
 sidered final by St. Ignatius, follows from the passage 
 in which he states that "a number of points will be 
 treated of separately in some document approved by 
 the General Superior. ' ' 3 This is the express warrant, 
 contained in the Constitutions, for the future Ratio 
 Studiorum, or System of Studies in the Society of 
 Jesus. 
 
 1 Monumenla Paedagogica, 1902, p. 108. 
 
 2 See below chapter VII. 
 
 8 Const., P. IV, cap. XIII. Decl. A. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 The Ratio Studiorum of 1599. 
 
 The number of colleges of the Society grew very 
 rapidly. Colleges were opened during the life-time 
 of St. Ignatius, at Messina, Palermo, Naples, and 
 other towns in Italy; at Gandia, Salamanca, Valencia, 
 Alcala, Burgos, Valladolid, and Saragossa in Spain ; 
 at Lisbon in Portugal ; at Vienna in Austria ; and at 
 Billom in France. After the death of the first Gen- 
 eral (1556), many more colleges were added to the 
 list, especially in those parts of Germany and the 
 Netherlands which had remained faithful to the Cath- 
 olic Church. Thus Ingolstadt, Cologne, Prague, 
 Tyrnau (Hungary) were opened in 1556, Munich 
 1559, Treves 1560, Innsbruck and Mentz 1561, etc. 1 
 In Belgium Audenarde 1566, Douay 1568, Bruges 
 1571, Antwerp 1575, Liege 1582, etc. But the So- 
 ciety possessed as yet no uniform system of education; 
 the colleges in the various countries at first followed, 
 more or less, the systems prevailing there, not how- 
 ever, without improving the existing methods accord- 
 ing to the general principles of the fourth part of the 
 Constitutions. Still, it would be altogether wrong to 
 suppose that the Ratio Studiorum, or Plan of Studies, 
 drawn up '1584-1599, was the first important document 
 
 1 The Colleges of Germany are enumerated by Paulsen, 
 /. c., pp. 265-281 (2nd ed., vol. I, pp. 390-406); those of Ger- 
 many (Austria), Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands, by Pacht- 
 ler, vol. Ill, pp. IX XVI. 
 
 (107) 
 
108 JESUIT EDUCATION 
 
 of its kind. The recent historical researches of the 
 Spanish Jesuits have shed much new light on this 
 question. 1 These Fathers have published in 1901-1902 
 many important documents o.n the educational methods 
 of the Society, drawn up before 1584. Three docu- 
 ments especially exhibit three complete "Plans of 
 Studies." The first was written by Father Jerome 
 Nadal (Latinized Natalis), probably between 1548- 
 1552, during the life-time of St. Ignatius. Nadal was 
 well fitted for drawing up a plan of studies. Possessed 
 of great talent and a singular prudence, he had made 
 excellent studies in the University of Paris. Appointed 
 Rector of the new College at Messina, in 1548, he 
 wrote his treatise De Studiis Societatis Jesu 7 the first 
 plan of studies of the Society known thus far. 2 The 
 second is an adaptation of Father Nadal' s plan which 
 was sent from Messina to the Roman College. 3 The 
 most important is the third, written by Father Le- 
 desma. This distinguished scholar had studied in 
 the Universities of Alcala, Paris and lyouvain. Im- 
 mediately after his entrance into the Society, in 1557, 
 he taught in the Roman College until his death, in 
 1575. As Prefect of Studies in this college, he drew 
 up a plan of studies which practically contains, at 
 least in outline, all points which were later on laid 
 down in the Ratio Studiorum concerning classical 
 
 1 Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu : Monumenta 
 Paedagogica, 1901-1902. We quote this important collection 
 as Monumenta Paedagogica, to be carefully distinguished 
 from Father Pachtler's Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica. 
 
 2 Monumenta Paedagogica , p. 8 and p. 89. 
 
 3 Monnmenta Historica Societatis Jesu: "lyitterae Qua- 
 drimestres", vol. I, pp. 349-358. 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 109 
 
 studies. l Besides these three documents there are 
 extant fragments of plans of studies of various colleges 
 in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. 2 
 
 With the increase of the colleges, the want of a 
 uniform system for the whole Society was felt more 
 and more. Teachers and superiors of schools and 
 provinces asked more urgently for the plan of studies 
 which St. Ignatius had promised in the Constitutions. 
 The final completion of the educational .system was 
 reserved to the fifth General of the Order, Father 
 Claudius Aquaviva, who governed the Society from 
 1581-1615. His Generalate was a most stormy, but 
 at the same time the most brilliant, epoch in the his- 
 tory of the Order. It was the glorious time of the 
 English and Japanese martyrs ; the time when the 
 great missions in Japan, China, and Brazil began to 
 flourish ; the time in which learned men like Bellar- 
 mine, Suarez, Maldonatus, Toletus, del^ugo, Vasquez, 
 Molina, I^essius, a L,apide, Peter Canisius, Clavius, 
 and a host of other writers not only added lustre to 
 the Society, but were held to be the foremost scholars 
 of the age and the most renowned champions of the 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 In 1584, Father Aquaviva called to Rome six 
 experienced schoolmen, who had been elected from 
 different nationalities and provinces, in order that the 
 peculiarities of the various nations might be considered 
 in the formation of a system which was destined to be 
 put to practice in so many countries all over the 
 
 1 Monumenta Paedagogica, pp. 10-12 ; and p. 141 foil. 
 
 ! Ibid. Father Pachtler had published one such plan, 
 which he ascribed to Blessed Peter Canisius, probably written 
 in 1560. 
 
110 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 world. These men worked for about a year, consult- 
 ing authors on education, examining the regulations 
 and customs of universities and colleges, especially 
 those of the Roman College, and the letters, observa- 
 tions, and other documents sent to Rome from the 
 various provinces. The standard which guided these 
 men in their deliberations was the fourth part of the 
 Constitutions. In 1585 they presented the result of 
 their labor to the General. 1 In 1586, Father Aquaviva 
 sent the report to the provinces ; and at the same time 
 ordered that in each province at least five men of 
 eminent learning and experience should examine the 
 report, first in private, then in common, and should 
 send the result of their examination to Rome. 
 
 How much liberty was granted in these remarks 
 on the educational methods then prevailing in the 
 Order, may be seen from the verdict given by James 
 Pontanus (his German name was Spanmiller), one of 
 the ablest classic scholars of the Society. He boldly 
 censures some abuses, especially that sometimes young 
 men were employed in teaching who were not suf- 
 ficiently prepared for the work ; men who were not 
 well grounded in Greek ; that too frequent changes 
 occurred among teachers, etc. He deplores the fact 
 that too much weight is laid on physics, metaphysics, 
 and dialectics, and that the humanistic studies are not 
 valued as they deserve. "Without classical educa- 
 tion," he says, "the other branches of study are cold, 
 dumb and dead ; classical learning gives these other 
 studies life, breath, motion, blood and language." 
 Pontanus' memorandum was by no means free from 
 
 1 Documents given by Pachtler, vol. II, p. 1 foil. A 
 summary in the Etudes, Paris, January 1889. 
 
RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599- III 
 
 exaggerations and unwarranted generalizations of 
 single instances. But it is interesting to see how 
 freely opinions could be uttered on a question of such 
 importance. l 
 
 The notes and suggestions sent from the different 
 provinces were examined by the most prominent Pro- 
 fessors of the Roman College and three members of the 
 committee of 1584-85, and then were used in drawing 
 up a second plan. This new plan, after having been 
 revised by the General and his Assistants, was sent to 
 the provinces in 1591 as Ratio atque Institutio Studio- 
 rum, the editio princeps of the Ratio. The Provin- 
 cials who came to Rome for the fifth General Congre- 
 gation (1593-94), again reported on the results of the 
 plan as practised during the last years, and demanded 
 some changes. At length, in 1599, when every pos- 
 sible effort had been made, when theory and practice 
 alike had been consulted, and every advisable modifi- 
 cation had been added, the final plan of studies 
 appeared under the title: Ratio atque Institutio Studio- 
 rum Societatis Jesu (Naples 1599), usually quoted as 
 Ratio Studiorum. Well could it be said that this Ratio 
 was "the fruit of many prayers, of long and patient 
 efforts, and the result of the combined wisdom of the 
 whole Order." It has sometimes been said that 
 the word Ratio Studiorum is a misnomer, as it does 
 not propose any educational principles. However, as 
 Father Eyre, S. J., years ago has pointed out, 2 Ratio, 
 as applied to studies, more naturally means method' 
 than principle, and the Ratio Studiorum is essentially 
 
 1 Extracts of this Memorandum in Janssen's Geschichte 
 des deutschen Volkes, vol. VII, pp. 100-103. 
 
 2 Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 57. 
 
112 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 a practical method or system of teaching. Hence the 
 name is altogether appropriate. 
 
 How easily an author, even without ill will, may 
 be led into mistakes regarding the Ratio Studiorum, 
 can be inferred from the following passage which is 
 found in a Catholic magazine. 1 ''The work which 
 caused the greatest sensation was the Ratio atque 
 Institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu, published in the 
 College at Rome in 1586. It took nine months to 
 print it. The part bearing on theological opinions 
 raised a storm of opposition among the other religious 
 orders, principally the Dominicans, who denounced it 
 to the Inquisition. The result was that Sixtus V. 
 pronounced against the book, and, in the following 
 editions, the chapter De Opinionum Delectu was omit- 
 ted. " The same mistake is made by Dr. Huber. 2 
 
 The author of the article was betrayed into making 
 these very inaccurate statements by implicitly trusting 
 Debure (Biographic Instructive, Paris, 1764). The 
 historical truth is established by Father Pachtler, 3 and 
 by Father Duhr. 4 The evidence given by Father 
 Pachtler may be summed up as follows : 
 
 i. The Ratio of 1586 was in no sense of the word 
 "published", and hence caused no "sensation" what- 
 ever. It was only the project or plan of a Ratio, and 
 printed privately for the members of the Order. How 
 it should have taken "nine months to print it," is un- 
 intelligible ; the error arose probably from misunder- 
 standing the fact, that it took the six fathers who 
 
 1 Iii the Catholic World, April 1896 : Early Labors of 
 the Printing Press. 
 
 2 Huber, Jesuiten-Orden, p. 352. 
 
 s Mon. Germ. Paed., vol. II, pp. 19-21. 
 4 Studienordmmg ', pp. 15-23. 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 113 
 
 formed the committee, nine months to work out the 
 plan of the Ratio. 
 
 2. This first draft,, written in the form of disserta- 
 tions, is now very rare. It is known to exist at present 
 in Trier (Treves), Berlin, Milan, and Marseilles. 
 Father Pachtler has for the first time reprinted it en- 
 tirely from the copy found in the city library at Trier 
 (located in the former Jesuit College). 
 
 3. This private document was not "denounced to 
 the Inquisition," but was wrongfully seized by the 
 "Spanish Inquisition," at the instance of the Spanish 
 Dominicans, set on by some disloyal Spanish Jesuits 
 who were soon after expelled from the Society. 
 
 4. As soon as the seizure was reported to Rome, 
 Father Aquaviva complained directly to Pope 
 Sixtus V. This energetic Pope, formerly a Franciscan 
 and by no means partial to the Jesuits, far from "pro- 
 nouncing against the book," became highly incensed 
 at the action of the Spanish Inquisition, and wrote a 
 characteristic dispatch to his nuncio in Spain, inclos- 
 ing a letter to the Cardinal Grand Inquisitor Quiroga, 
 and bidding the nuncio deliver the letter to the Car- 
 dinal only after having read it to him. In this letter 
 the masterful Pontiff commands Quiroga, in virtue of 
 his apostolic power, forthwith to restore to the Society 
 the book of the Institute (which had also been seized) , 
 and especially the Ratio Studiorum. And unless he 
 obeyed this command, the Pope threatened to depose 
 him at once from the office of Grand Inquisitor, and 
 strip him of the dignity of Cardinal. 1 
 
 5. The second draft of the Ratio was sent to the 
 
 1 See Sacchini, Historiae Societatis Jesu, Pars V, torn, 
 prior, p. 337. 
 8 
 
114 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Provinces in 1591. In this draft the chapter De Opi- 
 nionum Delectu (i. e. catalogue of philosophical and 
 theological questions which were not to be taught in 
 the Society), was omitted, but was sent out separately 
 for examination in the following year. Hence the 
 statement that in the following editions the chapter 
 De Opinionum Delectu was omitted, is again inaccurate. 
 
 6. The final Ratio, including, of course, the Cata- 
 logus Quaestionum, was, as we have seen before, pro- 
 mulgated in 1599. * 
 
 This final Ratio did not contain any discussions on 
 the educational value of different subjects, nor any 
 treatises why this or that method had been adopted. 
 Such discussions had preceded, and had been con- 
 tained in the Ratio of I585/ 2 That of 1599 was a code 
 of laws, a collection of rules for the different officials, 
 in whose hands lies the government of a college, and 
 for the teachers of the various classes. The rules are 
 divided as follows : 
 
 I. 
 Regulae Provincialis (Provincial Superior). 
 
 " Rectoris (President). 
 
 4< Praefecti Studiorum (Prefect or Superintendent of 
 Studies;. 
 
 II. 
 
 Regulae Communes omnibus Professoribus Superiorum Fa- 
 cultatum (General regulations for the Professors 
 of theology and philosophy). 
 
 " Professoris Sacrae Scripturae. 
 
 " " Linguae Hebraicae. 
 
 " " Scholasticae Theologiae. 
 
 " " Historiae Ecclesiasticae. 
 
 " (( Juris Canonici. 
 
 " " Casuum Conscientiae (Moral Theology). 
 
 1 Woodstock Letters, 1896, pp. 506-507. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. II, pp. 25-217. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 115 
 
 III. 
 
 Regulae Professor-is Philosophiae . 
 
 (< " Philosophiae Moralis (Ethics). 
 
 " " Physicae (Physics and other natural 
 
 sciences). * 
 " " Mathematicae . 
 
 IV. 
 
 Regulae Praefecti Studiorum Inferiorum (together with reg- 
 ulations for written examinations and for 
 awarding prizes). 
 
 Regulae Communes Professoribus Classium Inferiorum. 
 " Professoris Rhetoricae. 
 " " Hu man itatis . 
 
 " " Supremae Classis Grammatical. 
 
 Mediae 
 Infimae 
 
 Hv Then follow various rules: for the pupils, for the 
 management of academies (literary and debating 
 societies) etc. 
 
 The rules under No. I are those of the Superiors. 2 
 The entire government of a college is in the hands of 
 the Rector (President). He is also the court of appeal 
 in all disputed questions among the teachers, or 
 between the masters and the students. He is to in- 
 spect the classes from time to time, in order to inform 
 himself of the progress of the students, and to give ad- 
 vice to the teachers. As far as possible, he is to take 
 an interest in each pupil personally. Nothing _jL im- 
 portance can be undertaken in the college without 
 consulting him, nor can any custom of the house be 
 changed without his consent. The subordinate offici- 
 als have that amount of authority which he gives 
 
 1 Was added in 1832. In the Ratio of 1599 natural 
 sciences were treated as part of philosophy. 
 
 2 See John Gilmary Shea, History of Georgetown Col- 
 lege, 1891 < pp. 83 84. 
 
Il6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 them, and they are obliged to report to him frequently 
 on the conditions of affairs in the college. The Rec- 
 tor's power is, however, not absolute; he has to follow 
 the laws laid down for him. Besides he is provided 
 with a Board of Consultors and he is obliged to ask 
 their opinion on all matters of greater moment, although 
 he remains free to follow their advice or to reject it. 
 The teachers have to carry out the decisions of the 
 Rector, but they may always have recourse to the 
 higher Superior, the Provincial. The Provincial visits 
 the colleges at least once a year, and every teacher 
 has to confer with him privately and may lay before 
 him any complaints against the Rector. In this man- 
 ner, a firm centralized government is ensured, while at 
 the same time any arbitrariness on the part of Superi- 
 ors is prevented. 
 
 Interesting are, in this regard, the words of Father 
 Nadal: "L,et the Rector have his ordinary advisers 
 (consultores) and let him hold regular meetings (con- 
 cilia). One is the meeting of 'languages', in which 
 all teachers of the languages take part; the second of 
 philosophy, and the third of theology. To these meet- 
 ings the Rector may invite two or three other experi- 
 enced men, if he thinks it necessary or useful. In 
 order to settle a question concerning languages, or 
 philosophy, or theology, a meeting of the respective 
 professors should be held; if a question concerns the 
 whole institution, a meeting of all professors should be 
 called. However, the Rector is not so bound that he 
 could not do anything without convoking such a meet- 
 ing. For these meetings are held that he may benefit 
 by their advice. The whole authority and respon- 
 sibility of the administration rests with him; but every 
 
RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 117 
 
 year the Rector shall report to the General about the 
 college, and all officials of the college shall inform the 
 General through sealed letters about the administra- 
 tion by the Rector. ' ' 1 
 
 The chief assistant of the Rector is the Prefect of 
 Studies. To him belongs the direct supervision of the 
 classes and everything connected with instruction. 
 He must be a man of literary and scientific accom- 
 plishments and of experience in teaching, so that both 
 teachers and students can have recourse to him 
 with confidence in all questions pertaining to educa- 
 tion. It is his duty to assign the students to their 
 proper classes, to determine the matter of examination, 
 and to appoint the examiners, to select the authors to 
 be read during the following scholastic year, 2 to visit 
 every class at least once in two weeks, to admonish 
 the masters of any defects he notices in their manner 
 of teaching, and to direct them by other useful advice. 
 In all this he is the instrument of the Rector, whom 
 he has to consult in all important matters. 
 
 There is another assistant of the Rector, the Prefect 
 of Discipline, who is immediately responsible for all 
 that concerns external order and discipline. From 
 these few details, it will appear that the government 
 of a Jesuit college is, at once, extremely simple and 
 highly efficient. 
 
 The regulations contained under No. II are for the 
 theological faculty in universities and seminaries. We 
 have to examine chiefly the last two classes: the regu- 
 
 1 Monuuienta Paedagog'ica, p. 102. 
 
 2 "Before selecting the authors", says Father Nadal, 
 "let the Prefect of Studies hear first the opinion of the teach- 
 ers." Mon. Paed., p. 130. 
 
1 1 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 lations for the faculty of Arts or Philosophy, and those 
 for the Studio, inferiora or Humanities. These "lower 
 studies" were for the greater part literary and corre- 
 spond to the classical course of the high school and 
 part of the college. The Ratio Studiorum treated lan- 
 guages, mathematics and sciences not simultaneously, 
 but successively; hence the distinction between Phi- 
 losophy (Arts) and Studia inferiora. 
 / In the five lower classes in many places there 
 were six the classical languages were the staple 
 studies. Other branches, as history- and geography, 
 were to be treated as accessories or complements of the 
 literary studies. The task for each grade is expressed in 
 the first rule of the Professor of the respective class. 1 
 
 lyOWER GRAMMAR. The aim of this class is a per- 
 fect knowledge of the rudiments and elementary know- 
 ledge of the syntax. In Greek: reading, writing, 
 and a certain portion of the grammar. The work used 
 for the prelection, 2 will be some easy selections from 
 Cicero, besides fables of Phaedrus and Lives of Nepos. 
 
 MIDDLE GRAMMAR. The aim is a knowledge, 
 though not entire, of all grammar; and, for the pre- 
 lection, only the select epistles, narrations, descriptions 
 and the like from Cicero, with the Commentaries of 
 Caesar, and some of the easiest poems of Ovid. In 
 Greek: the fables of Aesop, select dialogues of Lucian, 
 the Tablet of Cebes. 
 
 UPPER GRAMMAR. The aim is a complete know- 
 
 1 The following translation of these rules is mostly that 
 of Father Hughes, Loyola, p. 271 foil. These rules contain a 
 few modifications of the Revised Ratio of 1832. The two 
 Ratios may be seen separately in Pachtler, vol. II, 225 f. and 
 Duhr, /. c., pp. 177280. 
 
 2 On prelection see chapter XVI, 1. 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 119 
 
 ledge of grammar, including all the exceptions and 
 idioms in syntax, figures and rhetoric, and the art of 
 versification. In Greek: the eight parts of speech, 
 or all the rudiments. For the lessons: in prose, the 
 most important epistles of Cicero, the books, De Ami- 
 citia, De Senectute, and others of the kind, or even 
 some of the easier orations; in poetry, some select 
 elegies and epistles of Ovid, also selection from Catul- 
 lus, Tibullus, Propertius, and the Eclogues of Virgil, 
 or some of Virgil's easier books, as the fourth book of 
 the Georgics, or the fifth and seventh books of the 
 Aeneid. In Greek: St. Chrysostom, Aesop, and the 
 like. > 
 
 HUMANITIES. The aim is to prepare, as it were, the 
 ground for eloquence, which is done in three ways: by 
 a knowledge of the language, some erudition, and a 
 sketch of the precepts pertaining to rhetoric. For a 
 command of the language, which consists chiefly in 
 acquiring propriety of expression and fluency, the one 
 prose author employed in daily prelections is Cicero; 
 as historical writers, Caesar, Sallust, lyivy, Curtius, 
 and others of the kind; the poets used are, first of all, 
 Virgil; also odes of Horace, with the elegies, epigrams 
 and other productions of illustrious poets, expurgated; in 
 like manner orators, historians, and poets, in the vernac- 
 ular (1832). The erudition conveyed should be slight, 
 and only to stimulate and recreate the mind, not to 
 impede progress in learning the tongue. The precepts 
 will be the general rules of expression and style, and 
 the special rules on the minor kinds of composition, 
 epistles, narrations, descriptions, both in verse and 
 prose. In Greek: the art of versification, and some 
 notions of the dialects; also a clear understanding of 
 
120 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 authors, and some composition in Greek. The Greek 
 prose authors will be Saints Chrysostom and Basil, 
 epistles of Plato and Synesius, and some selections 
 from Plutarch; the poets: Homer, Phocylides, Theo- 
 gnis, St. Gregory Nazianzen, Synesius, and others 
 like them. 
 
 RHETORIC. The grade of this class cannot be 
 easily defined. For it trains to perfect eloquence, 
 which comprises two great faculties, the oratorical and 
 the poetical, the former chiefly being the object of cul- 
 ture; nor does it regard only the practical, but the 
 beautiful also. For the precepts, Cicero may be sup- 
 plemented with Quintilian and Aristotle. The style, 
 which may be assisted by drawing on the most ap- 
 proved historians and poets, is to be formed on Cicero; 
 all of his works are most fitted for this purpose, but 
 only his speeches should be made the subject of pre- 
 lection, that the precepts of the art may be seen in 
 practice. As to the vernacular, the style should be 
 formed on the best authors (1832). The erudition will be 
 derived from the history and manners of nations, from 
 the authority of writers and all learning; but moder- 
 ately as befits the capacity of the students. In 
 Greek: the fuller knowledge of authors and of dialects 
 is to be acquired. The Greek authors, whether ora- 
 tors, historians, or poets, are to be ancient and classic: 
 Demosthenes, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, 
 Pindar, and others of the kind, including Saints Nazi- 
 anzen, Basil, and Chrysostom. 
 
 Let it not be imagined, however, that this plan 
 was followed slavishly. The different provinces of the 
 Order made such adaptations and introduced such 
 changes as they thought best for their respective coun- 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 121 
 
 tries. We give here the plan which was followed in 
 the colleges in Upper Germany, in the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century. It is taken from the Ratio et 
 Via of Father Kropf, published in I736. 1 
 
 LOWER GRAMMAR. First Year. 
 (First high school class.) 
 
 Latin. . Grammar of Alvarez, elements, and easier 
 rules of construction. Reading: The easiest letters 
 of Cicero, specially selected and separately printed. 
 Selections from book I and II of Father Pontanus' 
 Progymnasmata . 2 
 
 Greek. Grammar of Father Gretser, 3 or of Father 
 Bayer. 4 Correct reading and writing; accents and 
 declensions. 
 
 Religion. Small Catechism of Peter Canisius, 5 
 part I II. Explanation of the Latin Gospel. 
 
 History. Rudimenta historical vol. I., treating 
 chiefly of the history of the people of Israel. 
 
 1 In Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Padagogik* 
 vol. X, pp 340348. 
 
 2 James Pontanus S. J, Progymnasmatum Latinitas sive 
 dialogorum selectortim libri quattuor. Several works of this 
 Jesuit were used in most European schools for over a century. 
 
 3 James Gretser, S. J., wrote several textbooks: a larger 
 Greek Grammar, and a Compendium : Rudimenta Linguae 
 Graecae, both in many editions ; a Latin-Greek-German and 
 a Latin-Greek Dictionary. 
 
 4 James Bayer, S. J., wrote a Short Greek Grammar, a 
 Latin-Greek Dictionary, and a Latin-German and German- 
 Latin Dictionary. Of the last the eleventh edition was pub- 
 lished by Professor Mayer, Wurzburg, 1865. 
 
 5 On this catechism see chapter XVIII. 
 
 6 This history, comprising six volumes, was written by 
 Max Dufrene, S. J., (Landshut, Bavaria). It appeared first 
 17271730; several editions followed. 
 
122 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 LOWER GRAMMAR. Second Year. 
 
 (Second high school class.) 
 
 Latin. Alvarez' Grammar, book I, part II ; repe- 
 tition of first year's matter; the irregular verb; first part 
 of syntax. Reading: Select letters of Cicero. Selec- 
 tions from Pontanus' Proyymnasmata. 
 
 Greek. Grammar: repetition of declensions; com- 
 parison of adjectives; pronouns and auxiliary verbs. 
 
 Religion. Catechism of Canisius, part I III. 
 Explanation of Latin Gospel. 
 
 History. Rudimenta historica, vol. II : The four 
 monarchies (Ancient history). 
 
 MIDDLE GRAMMAR. 
 (Third high school class.) 
 
 Latin. Grammar: The whole of syntax; repetition 
 of irregular verbs. Reading: chiefly Cicero's Epis- 
 tulae ad Familiares, some parts of the Progymnasmata. 
 The reading of poetical works which is customary in 
 other Jesuit colleges in this class, is not sanctioned in 
 this province. 
 
 Greek. Grammar: the verb completed. As re- 
 gards reading it is left to the judgment of the Prefect 
 of Studies to prescribe the study of the Greek Cate- 
 chism or Cebes' Tablet. At all events the pupils 
 should practise the reading of these books from time 
 to time and give an account of their reading. 
 
 Religion. Catechism of Canisius and Latin Gospel. 
 History. Rudimenta historica, vol. Ill: The Chris- 
 tian Emperors of Rome (Medieval history). 
 
 UPPER GRAMMAR. 
 (Fourth high school class.) 
 
 Latin. Grammar: the whole of syntax (repeated), 
 rules of construction; rules of prosody. Reading: 
 Above all, the Letters of Cicero to Atticus and his 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1 599. 123 
 
 brother Quintus; De Amicitia, De Senectute, etc. Selec- 
 tions from the Progymnasmata, books II and III. 
 Selections from Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius; Ovid; 
 Virgil; fourth book of the Georgics; Aeneid, books V 
 and VII. 
 
 Greek. First book of Gretser's grammar, except the 
 dialects. Reading: Chrysostom, Aesop, Agapetus, etc. 
 
 Religion. Catechism of Canisius. Greek Gospel. 
 
 History. Rudimenta historica, vol. IV : The States 
 of the World (Modern history). 
 
 HUMANITIES, (Freshman. ) 
 
 Latin. Rules of rhetoric from a brief compendium; 
 rules of style, tropes, figures, etc. Reading: Cicero's 
 ethical works; Caesar, lyivy, Curtius, Sallust, etc., or 
 easier orations of Cicero: Pro Lege Manilla, Pro Archia, 
 Pro Mar cello j etc. Virgil; select odes of Horace, etc. 
 
 Greek. The whole of syntax. The teacher should 
 see that the pupils acquire a fair understanding of the 
 authors, and that they are able to write an easier 
 Greek composition. The authors are orations of Iso- 
 crates, or of Chrysostom and Basil; also letters of Plato 
 and Synesius, selections from Plutarch, poems of 
 Phocylides, Theognis, etc. 
 
 Religion. Catechism of Canisius; the Greek Gospel. 
 
 History. Rudimenta historica, vol. V : Geography 
 and heraldics. 
 
 RHETORIC. (Sophomore. ) 
 
 Precepts of rhetoric from the oratorical works of 
 Cicero and Aristotle. The practice of the rules is 
 chiefly based on Cicero, particularly his orations; also 
 the historians may be used to some extent. The rules 
 of poetry may be drawn from Aristotle's Poetics. Of 
 the poets only the best should be read: Virgil, Horace, 
 etc. 
 
124 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Greek. Repetition of syntax; prosody; the dialects, 
 a further introduction into Greek literature. The 
 standard authors are Demosthenes, Plato, Thucydides, 
 Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, etc.; also Gregory Nazian- 
 zen, Basil, and Chrysostom may be read. 
 
 Other L,atin and Greek authors which may be 
 given into the hands of the pupils of the class of 
 Rhetoric and of other classes, are enumerated by 
 Juvencius. 
 
 Religion. Catechism of Canisius (larger one). On 
 Saturday the Acts of the Apostles are read in Greek, 
 or an oration of Chrysostom. 
 
 History. Rudimenta histerica, vol. VI : Compen- 
 dium of Church history. 
 
 The school hours were not too long; two hours and 
 a half in the morning and the same in the afternoon; 
 in the highest class (rhetoric), only two hours in the 
 morning and the same in the afternoon; thus the 
 students of the highest grade were wisely given more 
 time for home work. There was ordinarily a full 
 holiday every week, usually Wednesday or Thursday, 
 "lest," as the regulations of the Province of the Upper 
 Rhine have it, "the pupils have to go to school four 
 days in succession. ' ' x These holidays were frequently 
 spent in a country house (villa), near the city. On 
 the whole, study and recreation were .so distributed 
 that the complaints of "overburdening" the students 
 could not reasonably be made in Jesuit schools. 
 
 Against the literary curriculum of the Society some 
 serious charges have been made by modern critics. It 
 has been said that nothing but the ancient languages 
 was studied in Jesuit colleges, and that other branches, 
 
 1 Pachtler, /. c. t vol. Ill, p. 398. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 125 
 
 as history, were entirely neglected, ''Preoccupied 
 before all else with purely formal studies, and exclus- 
 ively devoted to the exercises which give a training in 
 the use of elegant language, the Jesuits leave real and 
 concrete studies in entire neglect. History is almost 
 wholly banished from their programme. It is only 
 with reference to the Greek and Latin texts that 
 the teacher should make allusion to the matters 
 of history, which are necessary for the understanding 
 of the passage under examination. No account is 
 made of modern history, nor of the history of France. 
 'History', says a Jesuit Father, 'is the destruction of 
 him who studies it'." 1 This last remark strikes us, 
 and perhaps also other readers of M. Compayre's work, 
 as ridiculous. We ask: Who is this Jesuit Father 
 that made such a silly statement? Is he one of the 
 framers of the Ratio Studiorum, or one of its com- 
 mentators, or a Superior of the Order? No; no one 
 knows who he is if ever a Jesuit has said such non- 
 sense. But granted one has said it, must not every 
 fair-minded reader ask: Can the Jesuit Order be said 
 to hold and defend all the views which every individ- 
 ual Jesuit has uttered ? If a Professor of Harvard or 
 Yale University made a foolish remark, would it be 
 fair to hold up the two universities to ridicule ? 
 
 But let us examine the facts. History is taught in 
 Jesuit schools and was taught in the Old Society, it 
 matters little whether this and other branches were 
 called accessories or side branches they were called 
 so because much less time was devoted to them than 
 to the study of language and literature. It is true, the 
 historical studies were not then cultivated, neither in 
 
 1 Compayr, History of Pedagogy, pp. 144 145. 
 
126 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Protestant nor Catholic schools, to such extent as is 
 done now. But history was never neglected in Jesuit 
 colleges, and it gradually obtained a place of honor 
 among the literary studies. This was evidently the 
 case in France in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. We refer the reader to various works which 
 deal with this subject. 1 In Germany we find in the 
 Jesuit colleges, as early as 1622, special historical 
 works assigned to various classes. In these compen- 
 dia also "modern" history was treated. 2 The text- 
 books most in use in German Jesuit colleges during 
 the eighteenth century, were the Rudimenta Historica 
 of Father Dufrene, 3 and the Introductio of Father 
 .Wagner. 4 From Father Kropf's work it is evident 
 that, when he wrote this work in 1736, history was 
 treated quite systematically, in a well graded course, 
 in all the classes below philosophy. This is evident 
 from the programme given above on pages 121 125. 
 The same author gives also a method of teaching 
 history. 5 
 
 1 Daniel, Les Jesuites instituteurs de la jennesse aux 
 XVII. et XVIII. siecles. Rochemonteix, Un college de 
 Jesuites aux XVII. et XVIII. siecles. Le college Henri IV. 
 de la Fleche, vol. IV., pp. 123147. 
 
 2 Duhr, Studienordnung, pp. 104106. Pachtler, Mo- 
 numenta, vol. IV, p. 105 seq. The first compendium used 
 was that of Tursellini, reaching down to 1598. It went 
 through many editions in Germany, and in 1682 Father Ott 
 supplemented it by a history of the seventeenth century. 
 
 3 Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 112 seq. 
 
 4 Paehtler, /. c., p. 118 seq. 
 
 5 Pachtler, /. c., p. 116; and German translation of 
 Kropf's work in Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Pddago- 
 gik, vol. X, p. 422. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 127 
 
 Nor was geography neglected. In the earlier 
 Jesuit schools it was treated more fully only in the 
 philosophical course, in connection with astronomy, 
 or as "erudition" in the class of rhetoric. As early as 
 1677 a geographical text-book, written by Father 
 Konig, 1 was used in German colleges. We have 
 proofs that geography was taught in the colleges in 
 France, twelve years after the publication of the Ratio 
 Studiorum. A few years ago a manuscript was found 
 belonging to the old Jesuit college of Avignon, written 
 in the year 1611 by Father Bonvalot. It contains, in 
 ninety-four folio pages, a brief but complete course of 
 geography. This course is divided into two parts: 
 Europe, and the countries outside of Europe. Every 
 country of Europe forms the subject of a special chap- 
 ter, in which ancient and modern geography are com- 
 bined. Special attention is paid to the customs of the 
 peoples, the form of government, etc. This manuscript 
 was used as the basis of lessons in geography, which 
 were dictated to the pupils. It has been said that 
 geography was not taught in Jesuit schools until long 
 after this branch had been cultivated in the schools of 
 the Oratory and the P elites- E coles of Port-Royal. And 
 yet Father Bonvalot wrote his 'course of geography the 
 very year in which the Oratory was founded and more 
 
 than thirty years before the opening of the Petites- 
 
 f 
 
 E coles. But Father Bonvalot was perhaps an excep- 
 tion. By no means. Documentary evidence is at 
 hand to show that, before the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century, there was hardly a manuscript "course 
 of rhetoric" in the colleges of Lyons, Tournon, Avi- 
 gnon, etc., which did not contain a course of geogra- 
 
 1 Pachtler, /. c., pp. 106107. 
 
128 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 phy. 1 The custom of dictating these lessons was 
 continued until the handbooks of geography were 
 published by the Jesuits Monet, Riccioli, Labbe, Briet, 
 Saint-Juste, Buffier. Father Daniel, S. J. , in an 
 interesting essay of twenty-eight pages, has given 
 many important details about the teaching of geogra- 
 phy in Jesuit colleges of the seventeenth and eigh- 
 teenth centuries. 2 
 
 Special attention was given to the geography of the 
 country in which the colleges were situated, but great 
 interest was also taken in the geographical discoveries 
 in foreign countries. The Jesuits .had, during the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries," better advan- 
 tages for obtaining geographical information than any 
 other body of men. The Jesuit missionaries scattered 
 all over the world sent regular accounts of their jour- 
 neys and observations to their brethren in Europe. 
 That much valuable geographical and ethnological in- 
 formation was contained in these reports may be seen 
 from the "Jesuit Relations", seventy -three volumes of 
 letters of Jesuits from New France, i. e. .Canada and 
 the Northern part of the United States. 3 Several Jesuit 
 missionaries have made most important contributions 
 to the science of geography, not only by great dis- 
 coveries as that of the Mississippi by Father Mar- 
 
 1 Chossat, Lesjksuites a Avignon, pp. 316 318. 
 
 2 La geographie dans les colleges des Jesuites aux XVII. 
 et XVIII. sitcles. In the Etudes, June 1879. 
 
 3 Edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, published by Bur- 
 rows Brothers, Cleveland, Ohio, 18961901. The letters of 
 the missionaries were read by the students in the colleges. 
 Father Nadal said they might be read to the boarders during 
 dinner and supper. (Mon. Paed. p. 612.). 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 129 
 
 quette, but also by most valuable maps. Thus we 
 read of Father Martini in Baron von Richthofen's 
 work on China : "Father Martini is the best geogra- 
 pher of all the missioriers. By his great work, Novus 
 Atlas Sinensis, the best and most complete description 
 which we possess of China, he has become the Father 
 of Chinese geography." The first maps of North 
 Mexico, Arizona and L,ower California, were prepared 
 by four German Jesuits, among them the famous 
 Father Kino (his German name was Kiihn). 1 
 
 These few details taken from a mass of similar 
 facts, show what interest the Jesuits took in geogra- 
 phy, and even if we had no positive proof we would 
 have to conjecture that they did not neglect its study 
 in their schools. But the positive proofs abundantly 
 show that another charge against the Jesuit colleges 
 of former centuries is a sheer calumny. 
 
 Owing to the importance of Latin as the universal 
 language of the educated world, less attention was 
 devoted to the study of the mother-tongue. In this 
 regard the schools of the Jesuits did not differ from 
 those of the Protestants. However, at no time was 
 the mother-tongue entirely neglected; and gradually it 
 received more and more consideration. Thus, in 
 France, rules for writing French verses appear in the 
 dictated "courses of rhetoric" in 1663. 2 About 1600, 
 the Bohemian Jesuits asked and received permission 
 to open a private "academy" for the study of the 
 Czech language. 3 As early as 1560 Father Jerome 
 
 See Notes upon the First Discoveries of California, 
 Washington, 1879. 
 
 ! Chossat, Lesfesuites,a Avignon, p. 320. 
 Duhr, Studienordnung , p. 110. 
 9 
 
130 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Nadal had exhorted the Jesuits at Cologne, "to cul~ 
 tivate diligently the German language and to find out 
 a method of teaching it; they should also select pupils 
 and teachers for this branch. " l In 1567 he gave the 
 same order in Mentz. During the Thirty Years' War, 
 the German Jesuits Balde, Mair, Bidermann and 
 Pexenf elder, planned the establishment of a society for 
 the improvement of the German language; but the 
 calamities of that horrible war, which reduced Ger- 
 many to a state of utter misery, frustrated this whole 
 plan. From about 1730 on, the German language 
 was taught in the Jesuit schools according to fixed 
 rules, and the pupils were diligently practised in writ- 
 ing prose compositions and poetry. Many valuable 
 testimonies on this subject are given by Father Duhr. 2 
 The fact that many Jesuits are to be found among the 
 prominent writers in the different modern languages is 
 another proof that the vernacular was not neglected, 
 much less "proscribed" as M. Compayre says. 3 One 
 of the finest German writers of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury was the Jesuit Spe. The sweetness, power and 
 literary merits of his collection of exquisite poems, 
 entitled Trutz-Nachtigall (Dare- Nightingale), and of 
 his prOvSe work Guldnes Tugendbuch (Virtue's Golden 
 Book) are admired by critics of the most different 
 schools, Protestants as well as Catholics. 4 Father 
 
 J Ib., p. 109: "Exerceant diligenter linguam germani- 
 cam, et inveniant rationem qua id commodissime fieri possit; 
 deligantur etiam qtii earn stint docendi et quis docturus." 
 
 2 Ib., pp. 110116. 
 
 3 History of Pedagogy, p. 144. 
 
 4 Duhr, Frederick Spe, Herder, Freiburg and St. Louis, 
 1901. See the writer's article "Attitude of the Jesuits iu the 
 Trials for Witchcraft," American Catholic Quarterly Review, 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 131 
 
 Denis, a Jesuit of the eighteenth century, was a most 
 distinguished German writer, and has been called "the 
 pioneer of German literature in Austria," How could 
 all these facts be explained if what Mr. Painter says 
 were true : "The Jesuits were hostile to the mother- 
 tongue; and distrusting the influence of its associa- 
 tions, endeavored to supplant it"? 1 
 
 After the pupil's mind had been enriched with the 
 treasures of Latin and Greek literature, and after his 
 native talents had been "cultivated" or "stimulated", 
 as the Ratio very expressively designates it, the student 
 entered on the study of philosophy. 2 This course, if 
 given completely, comprised three years. The Ratio 
 of 1599 prescribed for the First Year: Introduction and 
 Logics; Second Year: Physics, Cosmology and Astron- \ 
 omy; Third Year: Special Metaphysics, Psychology 
 and Ethics. A course of mathematics runs parallel 
 with philosophy. 
 
 In philosophy Aristotle was the standard author. 
 Of course, those of his opinions which were contradict 
 tory to revealed truths were refuted. 3 fSpecial care is 
 recommended in the correct explanation of the text of 
 Aristotle. "No less pains are to be taken in the inter- 
 pretation of the text than in the questions themselves. 
 And the Professor should also convince the students 
 that it is a very defective philosophy which neglects 
 this study of the text. ' ' 4 The Professor of Philosoph} 7 " 
 
 July 1902, p. 500. This Father Spe is better known as the 
 heroic opponent of witch persecution. 
 
 1 History of Education, p. 170. 
 
 2 vSee Hughes, Loyola, pp. 274281. 
 
 3 Reg. Prof. Philosophise, 2. 
 
 4 /., 12. 
 
132 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 is also told "to speak respectfully of St. Thomas Aqui- 
 nas and to follow him whenever possible." 1 The 
 Ratio had to encounter many an attack for not follow- 
 ing St. Thomas more rigorously. But the composers 
 of the Ratio wisely admitted modifications, as St. 
 Thomas evidently could not claim infallibility in all 
 questions. 
 
 The philosophical course comprised not only phil- 
 osophy properly so called, but also mathematics and 
 natural sciences. This successive teaching of literary 
 and scientific subjects secured concentration and unity 
 in instruction, whereas in modern systems too many 
 branche's, which have no connection with each other, 
 are taught in the same class so that the mind of the 
 young untrained learner is bewildered. There is an- 
 other consideration which may vindicate the educa- 
 tional wisdom of the Ratio Studiorum in assigning 
 mathematics and sciences to a later stage in the cur- 
 riculum. Distinguished teachers of mathematics have 
 recently pointed out that the mathematical teaching in 
 the lower and middle classes is frequently beyond the 
 capacity of the students of those grades. Problems 
 are proposed which, at that stage, can at best be 
 treated only mechanically and superficially. 2 Mathe- 
 matics, says a prominent writer on this subject, makes 
 very high demands on the mental powers of the pupils, 
 in such a degree that only the mature age derives the 
 full benefit from the study of this branch. 3 
 
 1 Id., 6. 
 
 2 Neue Jahrbucher filr das klassische Altertum etc., 1901, 
 vol. VIII, p. 201. 
 
 3 Professor Simon, iu Baumeister's Handbuch der Er- 
 ziehnngs- und Unterrichtslehre , vol. rVY^Mathematik", p. 33. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 133 
 
 In the philosophical course of the Jesuit colleges, 
 mathematics was by no means slighted, or treated as 
 a branch of small educational value. It will suffice to 
 quote what an autograph treatise written by Father 
 Clavius, the "Euclid of his Age," has on the teaching 
 of mathematics. "First, let a teacher of more than 
 ordinary learning and authority be chosen to teach 
 this branch ; otherwise, as experience proves, the 
 pupils cannot be attracted to the study of mathe- 
 matics. ... It is necessary that the professor have an 
 inclination and a liking for teaching this science ; he 
 must not be distracted by other occupations, otherwise 
 he will hardly be able to advance the students. In 
 order that the Society may always have capable pro- 
 fessors of this science, some men should be selected 
 who are specially fitted for this task, and they should 
 be trained in a private school (academia) in the science 
 of mathematics. ... I need not mention that without 
 mathematics the teaching of natural philosophy is. de- 
 fective and imperfect. In the second place it is neces- 
 sary that the pupils understand that this science is 
 useful and necessary for a correct understanding of 
 philosophy, and, at the same time, complements and 
 embellishes all other studies. Nay more, they should 
 know that this science is so closely related to natural 
 philosophy that, unless they help each other, neither 
 can maintain its proper place and dignity. In order 
 to accomplish this it will be necessary for the students 
 of physics to study mathematics at the same time ; 
 this is a custom which has always been kept up in the 
 schools of the Society. For if the mathematical 
 sciences were taught at any other time, the students 
 of philosophy would think, and not without some 
 
134 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 reason, that they were not necessary for physics, and 
 so very few would be inclined to study mathematics. ' ' 
 The writer then goes on to show the necessity of 
 mathematics for the study of the movements of heav- 
 enly bodies, of their distances, of the oppositions and 
 conjunctions of the comets ; of the tides, the winds, 
 the rainbow, and other physical phenomena. He also 
 treats of various exercises by which the study of 
 mathematics can best be advanced, such as lectures 
 given by the students on mathematical and astronom- 
 ical subjects. l 
 
 We find that in mathematics, pure and applied, 
 the courses of the Jesuit colleges were advanced to 
 the foremost rank ; in arithmetic and geometry we 
 notice that, as early as 1667, a single public course, 
 under the direction of the Jesuits at Caen, numbered 
 four hundred students. 2 The Order had among its 
 members many distinguished mathematicians, some of 
 whom will be mentioned in succeeding chapters. 
 
 The modern course of physics was, in those cen- 
 turies, a thing of the future. But the physical sciences 
 were taught as far as they were known ; in the middle 
 of the eighteenth century, we find physical cabinets in 
 regular use, and experimental lectures given to the 
 classes by the professor of physics. 3 
 
 These testimonies will suffice to show that the 
 Jesuits, however much they valued the classical 
 studies, were not so one-sided as to disregard or neglect 
 
 1 Monumenta Paedagogica y pp. 471 478. 
 
 2 Cretineau-Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie, vol. IV, 
 ch. 3. Hughes, /. r., p. 275. See also Janssen, vol. VII, 
 pp. 8687. ; vol. IV (16. ed.), p. 414. 
 
 3 Pachtler, vol. Ill, p. 441, n. 7. 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 135 
 
 mathematics and natural sciences. What, then, should 
 be said of Compayre's statements : "The Jesuits leave 
 real and concrete studies in entire neglect. . . . The 
 sciences are involved in the same disdain as history. 
 Scientific .studies are entirely proscribed in the lower 
 classes." 1 Indeed, in the Old Society, the sciences 
 were not taught in the five lower classes ; there the 
 Jesuits concentrated the efforts of the pupils on the 
 languages ; but in the three highest classes they ap- 
 plied the students with the same energy to the study 
 of mathematics, sciences and philosophy. 
 
 Having thus far analyzed the Ratio Studiorum, we 
 may be allowed to quote the judgment of Mr. Quick 
 on the Ratio Studiorum: "The Jesuit system stands 
 out in the history of education as a remarkable instance 
 of a school system elaborately thought out and worked 
 as a whole. In it the individual schoolmaster with- 
 ered (sic!), but the system grew, and was, and I may 
 say is, a mighty organism. The single Jesuit teacher 
 might not be the superior of the average teacher in 
 good Protestant schools, but by their unity of action 
 the Jesuits triumphed over their rivals as easily as a 
 regiment of soldiers scatters a mob. ' ' 2 This system 
 "points out a perfectly attainable goal, and carefully 
 defines the road by which that goal is to be approached. 
 For each class was prescribed not only the work to be 
 done, but also the end to be kept in view. Thus 
 method reigned throughout perhaps not the best 
 method, as the object to be attained was assuredly not 
 the highest object (sic /) , but the method such as it was, 
 was applied with undeviating exactness. In this par- 
 
 Hisiory of Pedagogy, p. 144. 
 1 Educational Reformers, p. 508. 
 
136 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ticular the Jesuit schools contrasted strongly with 
 their rivals of old, as indeed with the ordinary school 
 of the present day. ' ' 1 
 
 If we ask to which sources the Ratio Studiorum is 
 to be referred, we must confess that an adequate 
 answer is not easy. There are many little brooks 
 which by their conflux form that mighty river. Ig- 
 natius and his companions had been trained in scho- 
 lastic philosophy. The Constitutions and the Ratio 
 Studiorum adapted this philosophic system, modified, 
 however, and perfected by the teachers and writers of 
 the Order. Hence the central position of Aristotle in 
 philosophy, and St. Thomas Aquinas in theology. 2 
 
 1 Ib., p. 49. 
 
 2 This close adherence to Aristotle lias been made a sub- 
 ject of reproach against the Jesuit system. And yet Protestant 
 universities followed Aristotle as closely as the Ratio. Pro- 
 fessor Schwalbe said in the Conference on questions of 
 Higher Education, held at Berlin in 1900: "We have grown 
 up in the belief in the infallibility of the dogma of Aristotle. 
 When I was a student, Aristotle was still considered the 
 greatest scientist on earth. I have investigated this question 
 most thoroughly, and have found that the universities, even 
 the freest, with the one exception of Wittenberg, fined any 
 one who dared to contradict any of Aristotle's propositions on 
 scientific subjects. In Oxford the penalty was so high that 
 Giordano Bruno was unable to pay it." Verhandlungen iiber 
 die Fragen des hoheren Unterrichts (Halle, 1902), p. 109. 
 This is a good illustration of the fact that there existed a 
 Protestant "Inquisition" as well as a Catholic, and it should 
 warn certain writers to speak with less religious bitterness on 
 the regrettable Galileo affair. Professor Paulsen states in 
 his latest work: Die deutschcn Universitdten (1902, p. 43), 
 that the dread of heresy, during the seventeenth century, was 
 probably greater in the Lutheran universities than in the 
 Catholic, because in the former the doctrine was less certain, 
 and dangers were apprehended not only from Catholicism 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 137 
 
 The literary course was an adaptation of the hu- 
 manistic schools as they existed shortly before the 
 outbreak of the Reformation. It is especially Paris 
 and the Netherlands which we have to consider as the 
 chief sources of much that is contained in the Ratio. 
 We heard that the great University of Paris was the 
 Alma Mater of St. Ignatius and his first companions. 
 Great must have been the influence of this seat of 
 learning on the formation of the educational system of 
 the Jesuits. Bartoli, one of the historians of the 
 Society, goes so far as to say: "Spain gave the Society 
 a father in St. Ignatius, France a mother in the 
 University of Paris. ' ' From this University Ignatius 
 probably adopted the division of his system of studies 
 into the three parts : Languages, Arts or Philosophy, 
 Theology. In languages again the Constitutions, as 
 well as the Paris University, distinguished three parts: 
 Grammar, Humanities, Rhetoric. The school ex- 
 ercises, especially the disputations in philosophy, were 
 fashioned after those of Paris. Father Polanco, secre- 
 tary of the Society, himself a student of Paris, writes 
 about the colleges of Messina and Vienna, that "exer- 
 cises (disputations) were added to the lectures after 
 the model of those of Paris (more par&iensi).'* l 
 
 Ignatius himself had recommended Paris as "the 
 
 but also from Calvinism. Hence also in the philosophical 
 faculties of Protestant universities theological orthodoxy was 
 insisted on most rigorously. The same author says that in 
 the frequent changes from Lutheranism to Calvinism, and 
 vice versa, which took place in various Protestant states in 
 Germany, careful inquiries were made as to whether all 
 teachers and officials had accepted the change with due sub- 
 mission. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, vol. I, p. 324. 
 1 Duhr, Studienordnung ', p. 5. 
 
138 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 University where one gains more profit in a few years 
 than in some others in many." l In 1553 he writes to 
 Cardinal Morone that in the Collegium Germanicum in 
 Rome, the exercises in the Aries Liberales were the 
 same as in Paris, L,ouvain, and other celebrated Uni- 
 versities. 2 lyouvain was called by him a "most flour- 
 ishing University, " and he wishes to establish a 
 college there. 3 It was pointed out before, that the 
 "plans of study" of Nadal and L,edesma exerted a 
 great influence on the Ratio of 1599. Both these men 
 had for many years studied at Paris, Ledesma also 
 in lyouvain. 
 
 This leads us to another source of the educational 
 system of the Jesuits : the humanistic schools of the 
 Netherlands. We spoke of L,ouvain in chapter II. 
 Ignatius had visited the Netherlands in 1529 and 1530, 
 and a considerable number of Jesuits in the first dec- 
 ades of the Society came from that country. Ribade- 
 neira enumerates 53 who became known as writers 
 before 1600. Two of the men who were in the Com- 
 missions for drawing up the Ratio, Francis Coster and 
 Peter Busaeus, were from the Netherlands. Others 
 were influential as founders of colleges, for instance, 
 Peter Canisius of Nymwegen ; or as heads of famous 
 institutions, like Leonard Kessel of Louvain, Rector 
 of the College of Cologne. 
 
 As was said before, during his sojourn at Paris, 
 Ignatius may have come into contact with the Breth- 
 ren of the Common L,ife. 4 These Brethren conducted 
 
 1 Joly, Life of St. Ignatius, p. 85. Cartas de San 
 Ignacio (Madrid 1874), vol. I, p. 76. 
 
 2 Cartas, vol. Ill, p. 178. 
 
 3 Id., vol. II, p. 292. 
 
 4 See page 32. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 139 
 
 famous schools all over the Netherlands ; their col- 
 lege in lyie'ge was perhaps the most nourishing school 
 in Europe at the beginning of the Reformation. Many 
 points conspicuous in the Ratio Studiorum, as well as 
 in Sturm's system, were to be found in this college. 
 Latin was the principal branch. It was taught very 
 methodically, and the imitation of authors was insisted 
 on. The course had eight classes ; the lower were 
 grammar classes ; the fifth and part of the sixth 
 was Rhetoric, the seventh and eighth taught Aristote- 
 lian philosophy and mathematics. Contests between 
 the pupils (concertationes) were frequent, especially 
 solemn ones at the distribution of prizes at the end of 
 the scholastic year. On account of the great number 
 of pupils, the classes were divided into decuriae, di- 
 visions of ten pupils each. At the head of each decuria 
 was a decurio, to whom his ten subjects had to recite 
 their lessons, etc. 1 All these customs are found in 
 the Ratio Studiorum. 
 
 A result of humanistic influences was also the 
 domineering position which Cicero held in the classi- 
 cal course. To the humanists Cicero had been the 
 author, whose style was considered by many with 
 almost superstitious reverence. 
 
 Humanism in the Netherlands had been much 
 more conservative than in Italy and Germany. Owing 
 to the influence of the Brethren of the Common Life, 
 it had kept more faithfully the Christian views of the 
 earlier humanists. It certainly was this Christian 
 humanism which appealed to the religious mind of 
 Ignatius; he always suspected the writings of the 
 3 r ounger humanists. Very early, shortly after his 
 
 1 See Ziegler, Geschichte der Pddagogik, p. 52. 
 
140 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 conversion, the Christian Knight of Erasmus had 
 fallen into his hands. l He conceived for this book, 
 as well as for the Colloquies and similar works of the 
 author, an aversion in which time only confirmed him. 
 Not that he was insensible to the author's grace of 
 style (for it is said he made extracts from the Christian 
 Knight in order to familiarize himself with the niceties 
 of the Latin tongue), nor that he found heterodox 
 propositions in it ; but he felt repulsed by the color in 
 which things and ideas were presented, by the ma- 
 licious satire, lack of feeling, vanity, and hollow 
 scepticism which were prominent on every page. 
 Undoubtedly even if lyUther had not started his Re- 
 formation, Ignatius would have become a leader in a 
 reform opposed to the radical school of humanists, to 
 whose disastrous influence the immorality of the time 
 and the worldliness of many ecclesiastics is, to a great 
 extent, to be ascribed. 
 
 The dependence of the Ratio on the University of 
 Paris and the humanistic schools of the Netherlands 
 refutes also the supposition that the Jesuits have drawn 
 from Sturm's "Plan of Studies". Sturm himself had 
 studied, from 1521-1523, in the school of the Brethren 
 in lyiege, from 1524-1529 at I<ouvaiii in the famous 
 Collegium Trilingue; from 1530-1537 he was student 
 and teacher in Paris. A German Protestant 2 says : 
 "The organization of the college of L,iege made such 
 an impression on young Sturm that he adopted it even 
 in some minute details as the model for his school in 
 Strasburg." 3 Similarly speaks Professor Ziegler. 4 
 
 1 Joly, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, p. 70. 
 
 2 Ch. Schmidt, Director of the Protestant Gymnasium 
 at vStrasburg. 
 
 3 Jean Sturm, pp. 5 and 36. 
 
 4 Geschichte der Padagogik, p. 75. 
 
THE RATIO STUDIORUM OF I59Q. 14! 
 
 Thus we see that Sturm had drawn his educational 
 ideas from the very same schools in which many of the 
 first Jesuits had been educated, and which were con- 
 sidered by them as models. Is it not much more 
 probable that the Jesuits fashioned their own system 
 after these schools, than after that of Sturm in Stras- 
 burg? Assertions, like that of Dr. Russell, that "the 
 Society of Jesus incorporated so many of his [Sturm's] 
 methods into the new Catholic schools, ' ' 1 are highly 
 improbable, and certainly not substantiated by any 
 positive proof. What was similar in both systems, 
 was to be found in the humanistic schools of the 
 Netherlands. 2 
 
 On equally feeble grounds rests another hypothesis 
 advanced in recent years, namely that "what is really 
 good in the Jesuit system can be traced almost in detail 
 to lyuiz Vives. " 3 In proof of this statement the 
 fact is mentioned that Ignatius met Vives in Bruges. 
 The Spaniard Vives was one of the most brilliant 
 humanists of the time, and a distinguished writer on 
 pedagogy. He, too, had studied at Paris (1509-1512), 
 and spent a great part of his life in the Netherlands. 
 The argument used against the dependence on Sturm, 
 holds good in this case as well. It is asserted that 
 Ignatius had borrowed from Vives, among other good 
 things, "the physical care bestowed upon the young, 
 
 1 German Higher Schools, p. 47. 
 
 ! After this chapter had been finished, I found that Pro- 
 fessor Paulsen had expressed the same conclusion in his 
 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts (vol. I, p. 412), where 
 he states that any dependence of the Jesuit system on 
 Sturm's plan is most improbable. 
 
 3 I/ange, in Encyclopddie des gesammten Erziehungs- 
 und Unterrichtswesens, IX, 776. See Duhr, /. c., p. 13. 
 
142 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the infrequency of punishment, the systematic teach- 
 ing of Latin in a series of classes, the study of prac- 
 tical science, of history and geography, in conjunction 
 with the explanation of the texts, the use of note books, 
 emulation, and the like." Now many of these points 
 were not inventions of Vives, but had been already 
 mentioned by Quintilian. 1 
 
 The words of a German writer on pedagogy are 
 well worth being quoted on this point : ' ' Strange 
 attempts have recently been made to show that the 
 Jesuit pedagogy which, through its unquestionably 
 grand results, has become famous, is to be traced back 
 to Vives. The fact that Vives met the founder of the 
 Society once, for a very short time, must serve as a 
 proof. But if one examines the educational principles 
 which the Jesuits are supposed to have taken from 
 Vives : infrequency of punishment, physical care of 
 the pupils, etc., it becomes immediately evident that 
 these are principles which all reasonable educators 
 have followed at all times. We should be forced to 
 make the absurd assumption that, until the time of 
 Vives, Catholics never in the past had had sound 
 pedagogical views, if we wished to trace back these 
 self-evident principles to Vives. ' ' 2 
 
 It really looks as though some writers are deter- 
 mined at least to deny all originality to the Ratio 
 Studiorum, if they are compelled to admit that it 
 achieved great results. We frankly and willingly 
 admit that the authors of the Ratio borrowed much 
 
 1 See Duhr, Studienordnung > p. 15. 
 
 2 Dr. Frederick Kayser, in Historisches Jahrbuch, 
 Munich 1894, vol. XV, page 350, article: "Johannes I/udwig 
 
 Vives." 
 
THK RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599. 143 
 
 from existing systems, it matters little whence and 
 how much. We must, however, claim that their ex- 
 perience from 1540-1599, and their painstaking efforts 
 in drawing up the Ratio, had a considerable share in 
 the results that attended their system. l Above all, 
 what is most characteristic in the Jesuit system, the 
 wonderful unity and organization, was not borrowed 
 from any other system, but is the work of the framers 
 of the Constitutions and of the Ratio Studiorum. 
 
 1 "It may be said in general that the practical experience 
 (of the early Jesuits) exerted a greater influence 011 the forma- 
 tion of the Order's pedagogy than the study of pedagogical 
 theorizers." G. Muller, quoted by Paulsen, /. c. t vol. I, 
 page 412. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Jesuit Colleges and their Work before the Sup- 
 pression of the Society (1540-1773). 
 
 Within fifty years from the solemn approbation of 
 the Society of Jesus, the Order had spread all over the 
 world, from Europe to the Indies, from China and 
 Japan in the East, to Mexico and Brazil in the West. 
 Wherever the Church was not actually persecuted, as 
 in England, there sprang up educational institutions. 
 Shortly after the death of the fifth General, Father 
 Aquaviva, in 1615, the Society possessed three hundred 
 and seventy-three colleges; in 1706 the number of 
 collegiate and university establishments was seven 
 hundred and sixty-nine, and in 1756, shortly before 
 the suppression, the number was seven hundred and 
 twenty -eight. 1 In 1584 the classes of the Roman 
 College were attended by two thousand, one hundred 
 and eight students. At Rouen, in France, there were 
 regularly two thousand. Throughout the seventeenth 
 century the numbers at the College of L,ouis-le-Grand, 
 in Paris, varied between eighteen hundred and three 
 thousand. In 1627, the one Province of Paris had in 
 its fourteen colleges 13,195 students, which would 
 give an average of nearly one thousand to each col- 
 lege. In the same }^ear Rouen had 1,968, Rennes 
 1,485, Amiens 1,430. In 1675 there were in L,ouis- 
 
 1 See Hughes, Loyola, pp. 69 77 ; and especially Hamy, 
 S.J., Documents pour servir & Vhistoire des domiciles de la 
 Compagnie de Jesns, Paris, Alphonse Ficarcl. 
 
 (144) 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 145 
 
 le-Grand 3,000, in Rennes 2,500, in Toulouse 2,000^ 
 Cologne began its roll in 1558 with almost 800 stu- 
 dents; Dillingen in Bavaria had 760 in 1607. At 
 Utrecht in Holland there were 1000 ; at Antwerp and 
 Brussels each 600 scholars. Miinster in 1625 had 
 1300, Munich had 900 in 1602. The absolute average 
 is not known, three hundred seems, however, the very 
 lowest. This would give to the seven hundred and 
 more institutions a sum total of two hundred and ten 
 thousand students, all trained under one system. 
 That thus the Jesuits exercised a great influence on 
 the minds of men, is undeniable. The question is 
 only, was their influence for good or evil? Was their 
 teaching a benefit to the individuals, and more so, 
 was it advantageous to the communities ? Was their 
 method considered as productive of good results? 
 L,et us listen to contemporaneous writers in high 
 positions, to men known for their intellectual achieve- 
 ments, to men who, owing to their religious tenets, 
 cannot be suspected of partiality to the Jesuits. 
 
 The testimony of L,ord Bacon, the English philos- 
 opher and statesman, is well known: "Of the Jesuit 
 colleges, although in regard of their superstition 
 I may say, 'Quo meliores eo deteriores,' yet in regard 
 of this and some other points of learning and moral 
 matters, I may say, as Agesilaus said to his enemy 
 Pharnabaces, 'Talis cum sis, utinam noster esses'." 2 
 Our American historian Bancroft does not hesitate to 
 say of the Jesuits: "Their colleges became the best 
 schools in the world. ' ' 3 And Ranke writes : "It was 
 
 1 Du Lac, Jesuites, p. 297. 
 - Advancement of Learning, book 1. 
 3 History of the United States, vol. Ill, page 120 (18th 
 edition, Boston 1864). 
 10 
 
146 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 found that young people gained more with them in six 
 months than with other teachers in two years. Even 
 Protestants removed their children from distant gym- 
 nasia to confide them to the care of the Jesuits. " x 
 This last fact was more than once lamented by Prot- 
 estants. 
 
 In 1625 a report of the Gymnasium in Brieg, Sile- 
 sia, complains bitterly of the lamentable condition of 
 this school. This condition is ascribed chiefly to the 
 theological wranglings of the Lutherans and the Re- 
 formed, and to the inability of the teachers, who 
 frequently were engaged in trades, or as inn-keepers, 
 or acted as lawyers, and thus neglected their duties as 
 teachers. The report then adds : "If the teachers 
 knew how to preserve the confidence of the parents, 
 then an interest in the school would soon be mani- 
 fested by those who now prefer to send their children 
 to the Jesuits. For these Jesuits knoiv better how to treat 
 boys according to their nature, and to keep alive a zeal for 
 studies." 2 
 
 Also in the Protestant Margravate of Brandenburg 
 the condition of the schools induced parents, noble- 
 men, state officials, and citizens, to send their sons to 
 foreign Jesuit colleges. But then the preachers started 
 a violent campaign against this practice, although they 
 had to admit that the Jesuit pupils were better trained 
 than those educated in the Margravate. Consequently, 
 the Elector John George issued severe decrees against 
 sending children to foreign schools (1564 and I572). 3 
 
 1 History of the Papacy, vol. I, book V, sec. 3 (Ed. 
 London 1896, p. 416). 
 
 2 Dollinger, Die Reformation, vol. I, p. 447 (note 55). 
 
 3 Dollinger, /. c. t p. 543. 
 
JESUIT COI^EGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 147 
 
 Professors and preachers in L,emgo, Danzig, Konigs- 
 berg, and in other cities, denounced the "godless 
 practice of Protestants who sacrificed their children to 
 the monstrous Moloch of Jesuit schools. ' ' l 
 
 Wilhelm Roding, Professor in Heidelberg, in a 
 book : Against the impious schools of the Jesuits, dedi- 
 cated to Frederick III. , Elector of the Palatinate, gives 
 expression to the following complaint: "Very n\any 
 who want to be counted as Christians send their chil- 
 dren to the schools of the Jesuits. This is a most 
 dangerous thing, as the Jesuits are excellent and subtle 
 philosophers, above everything intent on applying all 
 their learning to the education of youth. They are 
 the finest and most dexterous 6f teachers, and know 
 how to accommodate themselves to the natural gifts of 
 every pupil. ' ' Another Protestant, Andrew Dudith of 
 Breslau, wrote : "I am not surprised if I hear that one 
 goes to the Jesuits. They possess varied learning, 
 teach, preach, write, dispute, instruct youth without 
 taking money, and all this they do with indefatigable 
 zeal ; moreover, they are distinguished for moral in- 
 tegrity, and modest behaviour. " 2 A Protestant 
 preacher attributed the popularity of the Jesuit schools 
 to magical practices of these wicked men: "These 
 Jesuits have diabolical practices; they anoint their 
 pupils with secret salves of the devil, by which they so 
 attract and attach the children to themselves that they 
 can only with difficulty be separated from these wiz- 
 ards, and always long to go back to them. Therefore, 
 the Jesuits ought not only to be expelled but to be 
 
 1 /., pp. 544545. 
 
 Further testimonies see Janssen, vol. IV (16th ed.), 
 pp. 473476; vol. VII, pp. 8082. 
 
148 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 burnt, otherwise they can never be gotten rid of." 
 Of the Hildesheim Jesuits it was said that they used 
 some secret charms to hasten the progress of their 
 pupils. 1 
 
 A most remarkable testimony to the ability of the 
 Jesuits as teachers was rendered by the words and 
 actions of two non-Catholic rulers, at the time. of the 
 suppression of the Society in 1773, namely by King 
 Frederick of Prussia and Empress Catharine of Russia; 
 we shall revert to their testimony further on in this 
 chapter. 
 
 In a history of the Jesuit colleges mention must be 
 made of the literary and scientific works published by 
 Jesuits. The colleges of the Society were as many 
 colonies of writers. It is impossible to give here an 
 adequate description of this work of the Society; the 
 Bibliography of the Order comprises nine folio vol- 
 umes, and contains the names of thirteen thousand 
 Jesuit authors many, if not most of them, professors 
 who published works on almost every branch of 
 learning. 2 Even Dr. Huber admires the literary and 
 scientific activity of the Order: "More than three 
 hundred Jesuits have written grammars on living and 
 dead languages, and more than ninety-five languages 
 have been taught by members of the Orcler. In mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences there are among them 
 first class scientists. Many astronomical observatories 
 were erected by them, and directed with great suc- 
 cess. ' ' 3 Still more striking is the testimony of the 
 
 1 Janssen, vol. VIII, p. 650. 
 
 2 BibliothZque de la Compagnie de Jesus, par Carlos 
 Sommervogel . Brussels, 1890 1900. On the writers of the 
 old Society see Cretineau-Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de 
 Jesus, vol. IV, ch. IV (3rd ed., pp. 214-296). 
 
 3 Huber, Der Jesuiten-Orden, pp. 418-420. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 149 
 
 bitterest enemy of the Jesuits, d'Alembert. He writes: 
 "Let us add for we must be just that no religious 
 society whatever can boast of so many members dis- 
 tinguished in science and literature. The Jesuits have 
 successfully cultivated eloquence, history, archaeology, 
 geometry, and literature. There is scarcely a class of 
 writers in which they have no representatives of the 
 first rank ; they have even good French writers, a 
 distinction of which no other religious order can 
 boast." 1 
 
 Some of the linguistic works of the Jesuits are of 
 the greatest importance and even celebrity in the his- 
 tory of the science of language. The first, not in time 
 but in importance, is that of the Spanish Jesuit Her- 
 vas. Professor Max Miiller of Oxford speaks of this 
 Jesuit in the highest terms, and says that he wishes to 
 point out his real merits, which other historians have ' 
 overlooked. 2 While working among the polyglottous 
 tribes of South America, the attention of Father Hervas 
 was "drawn to a systematic study of languages. After 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America in 
 1767, he lived in Rome amidst the numerous Jesuit 
 missionaries who assisted him greatly in his re- 
 searches. 
 
 His works are of a most comprehensive character ; 
 the most important is his Catalogue of Languages, in 
 six volumes. "If we compare the work of Hervas 
 with a similar work which excited much attention 
 towards the end of the last century, and is even now 
 more widely known than Hervas' I mean Court de 
 
 1 La destruction des Jtsuites, p. 43 ; quoted by De Badts 
 de Cugnac, Les fesuites et V education, p. 9. 
 
 2 Lectures on the Science of Language (6th ed. 1871), 
 vol. I, p. 157, note 40. 
 
150 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Gebelin 's Monde primitif we shall see at once how 
 far superior the Spanish Jesuit is to the French phi- 
 losopher. Gebelin treats Persian, Armenian, Malay, 
 and Coptic as dialects of Hebrew; he speaks of Bask 
 as a dialect of Celtic, and he tries to discover Hebrew, 
 Greek, English, and French words in the idioms of 
 America. Hervas, on the contrary, though embracing 
 in his catalogue five times the number of languages 
 that were known to Gebelin, is most careful not to 
 allow himself to be carried away by theories not war- 
 ranted by the evidence before him. It is easy now to 
 point out mistakes and inaccuracies in Hervas, but I 
 think that those who have blamed him most are those 
 who ought most to have acknowledged their obliga- 
 tions to him. To have collected specimens and notices 
 of more than three hundred languages, is no small 
 matter. But Hervas did more. He himself composed 
 grammars of more than forty languages. He was one 
 of the first to point out that the true affinity of lan- 
 guages must be determined chiefly by grammatical 
 evidence, not by mere similarity of words. He proved, 
 by a comparative list of declensions and conjugations, 
 that Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and 
 Aramaic are all but dialects of one original language, 
 and constitute one family of speech, the Semitic. He 
 scouted the idea of deriving all languages of mankind 
 from Hebrew. He had perceived clear traces of affin- 
 ity between Chinese and Indo-Chinese dialects ; also 
 between Hungarian, Lapponian, and Finnish, three 
 dialects now classed as members of the Turanian fam- 
 ily. He had proved that Bask was not, as was com- 
 monly supposed, a Celtic dialect, but an independent 
 language. . . Nay, one of the most brilliant discoveries 
 
JESUIT COU,EGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 151 
 
 in the history of the science of language, the establish- 
 ment of the Malay and Polynesian family of speech. . . 
 was made by Hervas long before it was worked out, 
 and announced to the world by Humboldt. ' ' 1 
 
 Great are also the merits of Jesuits in regard to 
 the study pf Sanskrit. "The first European Sanskrit 
 scholar was the Jesuit -Robert de Nobili," 2 a nephew 
 of the famous Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. According 
 to the words of Max Miiller, he must have been far 
 advanced in the knowledge of the sacred language and 
 literature of the Brahmans. 3 The first Sanskrit gram- 
 mar written by a European is commonly said to be 
 that of the German Jesuit Hanxleden (t 1732). How- 
 ever, this honor belongs to another German Jesuit, 
 Heinrich Roth (| 1668), who wrote a Sanskrit gram- 
 mar almost a century before Hanxleden. 4 Father Du 
 Pons, in 1740, published a comprehensive and, in 
 general, a very accurate description of the various 
 branches of Sanskrit literature. 5 Of Father Coeurdoux 
 Max Miiller writes that he anticipated the most im- 
 portant results of comparative philology by at least 
 fifty years; at the same time the Oxford Professor 
 expresses his astonishment that the work of this 
 humble missionary has attracted so little attention, and 
 only very lately received the credit that belongs to it. 6 
 Father Calmette wrote a poetical work in excellent 
 
 1 Id., pp. 154157. 
 
 2 /., p. 174. 
 
 3 fb., p. 174. 
 
 4 Max Miiller, /. c., p. 175. Wiener Zeitschrift fur die 
 Kunde des Morgenlandes, XV, 1901, pp. 313320. Father 
 Roth's grammar was extant in the Roman College, when 
 Hervas wrote his Catalogue. 
 
 5 Max Miiller, /. c., p. 179. 
 
 6 /., p. 183. 
 
152 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Sanskrit, the Ezour Veda, which gave rise to an in- 
 teresting literary discussion. Voltaire declared it to 
 be four centuries older than Alexander the Great, and 
 pronounced it the most precious gift which the West 
 had received from the East. On account of the Chris- 
 tian ideas contained in the poem, the atheistic philos- 
 ophers of France thought they had found in it a most 
 effective weapon for attacking Christianity. Unfor- 
 tunately for these philosophers, an English traveler 
 discovered Father Calmette's manuscript in Pondi- 
 chery. l 
 
 Various important works on the dialects of India 
 were written by Jesuits, among others several gram- 
 mars and dictionaries of the Tamil language, for 
 which the first types were made by the Spanish lay 
 brother Gonsalves. The works written in the Tamil 
 language by Father Beschi (f 1740) have received the 
 most flattering criticism by modern Protestant writers. 
 The Anglican Bishop Caldwell, in his Comparative 
 Grammar of the Dravidian Languages (London 1875), 
 styles them the best productions in modern Tamil, 
 and other scholars, as Babington, Hunter, Pope, and 
 Benfey, concur in this eulogy. 2 Beschi's grammar 
 and dictionary are praised as masterpieces. Father 
 Stephens' grammar of the Konkani language is called 
 an admirable achievement. 3 It was republished as 
 late as 1857, and was used extensively in the nine- 
 teenth century. 
 
 1 Dahlmaun, Die Sprachkunde und die Missionen (Her- 
 der, 1891), p. 19. 
 
 Dahlrnaim, /. c., pp. 12 15. 
 
 8 Truebner's American and Oriental Literary Record, 
 London 1872, p. 258. (Dahlmaun, /. c. y p. 15.) 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 153 
 
 Not less noteworthy were the labors of the Jesuits 
 in the Chinese language. In the fourth International 
 Congress of Orientalist, Father Matteo Ricci was 
 called "the first Sinologue". 1 When not long ago the 
 Protestant missionaries in Shanghai published an 
 edition of Euclid, they took as the basis of their work 
 the translation made by Ricci. His works were 
 written in the best Chinese, and, according to the 
 eminent Orientalist Remusat, were even in the nine- 
 teenth century highly esteemed by Chinese scholars, 
 for their elegance of diction and purity of language. 2 
 Father Premare (t 1736) is called by Morrison the 
 most thorough and profound grammarian of the Chi- 
 nese language. And Remusat asserts that the two 
 Jesuits Premare and Gaubil have not been surpassed 
 or equalled by any European in sound and compre- 
 hensive knowledge of Chinese, and that both belong 
 to the number of great literary luminaries that form 
 the pride of France. 3 Premare 's most important work, 
 the Notitia Linguae Sinicae, was published in 1831, 
 by the Protestant Collegium Anglo- Sinicum in Malakka. 
 Remusat styles this work the best ever produced by a 
 European in the field of Chinese grammar. 4 And a 
 German scholar writes: "We possess no work on 
 Chinese grammar which, in comprehensive and ju- 
 dicious treatment of the subject, can be compared to 
 that of Premare's Notitia. Some may acquire a better 
 understanding of the Chinese language than the 
 French Father, but it may be said that not easily will 
 
 1 Dahlmann, /. c., p. 27. 
 
 2 Melanges Asjiatiques, vol. II, p. 11. (Dahlmann, /. ., 
 p. 28.) 
 
 Dahluianu, /. c. y pp. 40 41. 
 * /., page 42. 
 
154 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 any European so fully and so thoroughly master the 
 spirit and taste of the Chinese language; nor will there 
 soon be found an equally capable teacher of Chinese 
 rhetoric. In this I recognize the imperishable value 
 of this work, a value which in some quarters is rec- 
 ognized more in deeds than in words." 1 By the last 
 remark the author seems to imply what another Ger- 
 man writer has stated more explicitly, namely, that 
 "several of the best works of these Jesuits have been 
 published by another firm," 2 i. e., they have been 
 largely used by other writers without receiving the 
 credit due to them. Other distinguished Chinese 
 scholars were the Fathers Noel, Gerbillon, Parrenin, 
 de Maillac, and Amyot. 3 
 
 Great praise has also been bestowed on works of 
 Jesuit authors on the languages of Japan, South 
 America, etc. 4 Thus we read in the Narrative and 
 Critical History of America, by Justin Winsor : "The 
 most voluminous work on the language of the Incas 
 has for its author the Jesuit Diego Gonzales Holguin. . . 
 He resided for several years in the Jesuit College at 
 Juli, near the banks of L,ake Titicaca, where the 
 Fathers had established a printing-press, and here he 
 studied the Quichua language. . . He died as Rector 
 of the College at Asuncion. His Quichua dictionary 
 was published at Lima in 1586, and a second edition 
 appeared in 1607, the same year in which the gram- 
 
 1 Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellsch aft, 
 XXXII, p. 604. (Dahlmann, /. c., p. 45.) 
 
 2 Neumann, quoted by Dahlmann, p. 25; a specimen of 
 such plagiarism which occurred quite recently, shall be men- 
 tioned in chapter VII. 
 
 3 /., pp. 2956. 
 
 4 Ib., pp. 57144. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 155 
 
 mar first saw the light. The Quichua grammar of 
 Holguin is the most complete and elaborate that has 
 been written, and his dictionary is also the best." l 
 Similar commendations have been bestowed on the 
 linguistic works of the Fathers Rubio, de Acosta, 
 Barzena, Bertonio, Bayer, Pebres (whose grammar 
 and dictionary of the Auracanian dialect were re- 
 published for practical use in 1882 and 1884 at Buenos 
 Ayres and Rio de Janeiro), Anchieta, Figueira, Ruiz, 
 and others. Ruiz' grammar and dictionary of Gua- 
 rani, in the words of Mulhall, are a lasting monument 
 to his study and learning. 2 Many most valuable 
 books and manuscripts of the Jesuits were ruthlessly 
 destroyed, when the Fathers were expelled from their 
 
 " colleges and missions in South America. Protestant 
 writers, as Bach and Kriegk, lament that this van- 
 dalism of the enemies of the Society has destroyed for 
 ever most valuable literary treasures. 
 
 V In the field of mathematics and natural sciences 
 several Jesuit professors have attained to high dis- 
 tinction. We mention the names of a few. Clavius 
 (t 1610), who was called the "Euclid of his age", 
 was the leading man in the reformation of the calendar 
 under Pope Gregory XIII. Professor Cajori says with 
 reference to this work : "The Gregorian calendar met 
 with a great deal of opposition both among scientists 
 and among Protestants. Clavius, who ranked high as 
 a geometer, met the objections of the former most ably 
 and effectively ; the prejudices of the latter passed 
 
 1 Wiiisor, Narrative and Critical History of America, 
 Boston, 1889, vol. I, p. 279. See also pp. 262264. 
 
 1 Mulhall, Between the Amazon and Andes, London, 
 1881, p. 263. (Dahlmaun, /. c., p. 85.) 
 
156 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 away with time. ' ' One of his pupils was Gregory of 
 Saint-Vincent (t 1667), whom Leibnitz places on an 
 equality with Descartes as a geometrician. ' 'Although 
 a circle-squarer, he is worthy of mention for the nu- 
 merous theorems of interest which he discovered in 
 his search after the impossible, and Montucla ingen- 
 iously remarks that no one ever squared the circle 
 with so much ability, or (except for his principal ob- 
 ject) with so much success. ' ' 2 
 
 Another disciple of Clavius was Matthew Ricci 
 (t 1610), the illustrious mathematician and apostle of 
 China, who published also a vast number of valuable 
 observations on the geography and history of China. 
 Father Schall of Cologne (t 1669), a prominent mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, was appointed director of the 
 "Mathematical Tribunal" in Pekin, and revised the 
 Chinese calendar. 
 
 Within the last few years the attention of mathema- 
 ticians has been drawn to the Jesuit Father Saccheri, 
 Professor of mathematics at Pavia. Non-Euclidean 
 mathematics is now recognized as an important branch 
 of mathematics. The beginnings of this system have 
 sometimes been ascribed to Gauss, the "Nestor of 
 German mathematicians". But recent research has 
 proved that as early as 1 733 Father Saccheri had pub- 
 lished a book which gives a complete system of Non- 
 Euclidean geometry. Beltrami, in 1889, and Staeckel 
 and Engel in 1895, pointed out the great importance 
 of the work of Saccheri. 3 
 
 1 A History of Mathematics, by Florian Cajori, Profes- 
 sor in Colorado College. Macmillan, 1894, p. 155. 
 
 2 Ball, A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 
 Macmillan, 1888, p. 275. 
 
 3 Professor Halsted of the University of Texas published 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 157 
 
 Father Grimaldi (f 1663), professor of mathematics 
 in the College at Bologna, gave an accurate description 
 of the moon spots, discovered the diffraction of light, 
 and, in his work Physico - Mathesis de Lumine, 
 Coloribus et Iride, advanced the first attempt of a 
 theory of undulation. This work was the basis of 
 Newton's theory of light. 1 Father Scheiner (| 1650) 
 was one of the first observers of the sun spots ; it is 
 disputed whether he or Galileo discovered them first. 
 Scheiner also invented the pantograph, and, in his 
 work OculuSj hoc est Fundamentum Opticum, laid down 
 opinions of lasting value (especially on the accommoda- 
 tion of the eye). 2 
 
 More famous than these was Athanasius Kircher 
 (t 1680), a man of most extensive and varied learn- 
 ing who wrote on mathematics, physics, history, 
 philology, and archaeology. He is the inventor of the 
 magic lantern and other scientific instruments. He 
 was the first who successfully studied the Coptic Ian- n 
 guage and deciphered the Egyptian hieroglyphics. V 
 The very variety and universality of his learning was 
 naturally a danger, to which he not unfrequently suc- 
 cumbed. He often betrays a lack of critical spirit, 
 
 a translation of Saccheri's work in the American Mathemat- 
 ical Monthly, and Professor Manning of Brown University 
 states that he has taken Saccheri's method of treatment as 
 the basis of the first chapter of his recent book Non-Eucli- 
 dean Geometry, Boston, Ginn and Company, 1901, p. 92. See 
 also Cajori, A History of Mathematics, p. 303. Hagen, 
 Synopsis der hoheren Mathematik, vol. II, p. 4. 
 
 1 Meyer's Conversations- Lexicon (1895), vol. VII, p. 983. 
 - Cajori, A History of Physics, Macmillan, 1899, pp. 8889. 
 
 2 Ib., vol. XV, p. 400; XVI, p. 475; and Allgemeine 
 deutsche Biographie, vol. XXX, p. 718. 
 
I5S JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and proposes phantastic theories. Still, in spite of 
 these defects, his works are of the greatest importance, 
 and his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restitute has been styled 
 indispensable even at the present day for the study of 
 the Egyptian language. l Father Kircher founded 
 also the famous Museo Kircheriano in the Roman 
 College, and if he had done nothing else, this alone 
 would secure him a place of honor in the world of 
 science. The services rendered to mathematics, as- 
 tronomy, physics, and geography, by the Jesuits in 
 China, especially by Ricci, Schall, Verbiest, Koegler, 
 Hallerstein, Herdtrich, Gaubil, have been generously 
 acknowledged by Lalande, Montucla, and more re- 
 cently by the Protestant scholars Maedler,' 2 and Baron 
 von Richthofen. 3 On the astronomical observatories 
 of the Jesuits a few words will be said when we come 
 to speak of the suppression of the Order. 
 
 Of the geographical works of the Jesuits in China 
 Baron von Richthofen writes : "If the Jesuits had not 
 applied their scientifically trained minds to practical 
 subjects, we would not possess the great cartographic 
 work on China, and that country would still be a 
 terra incognita for us, and the time would be very far 
 off in which it would become possible to obtain as 
 much as that picture of China which the Jesuits have 
 given us, and which is now well known to every- 
 body. ... It is the most important cartographic work 
 ever executed in so short a time, the grandest scientific 
 achievement of the most brilliant period of Catholic 
 missions in China." The same author says of the 
 
 1 Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, vol. XVI. 
 
 ' 2 Madler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde. 
 
 3 Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 159 
 
 Tyrolese Father Martini (| 1661): "He is the best 
 geographer of all the missionaries, and by his great 
 work, the Novus Atlas Sinensis, the best and most 
 complete description which we possess of China, he 
 has become the * Father of Chinese geography." 
 Father Du Halde gave an accurate description of 
 Mongolia, and his great work on China (1735) is still 
 one of the most important sources available on the 
 geography, history, religion, industry, political or- 
 ganization, customs, etc., of that country. 1 Some of 
 the geographical labors of the Jesuits in America have 
 been mentioned previously. 2 Justin Winsor states 
 that the Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias of 
 Father de Acosta, "the Pliny of the New World," is 
 much relied on as an authority by Robertson, and 
 quoted 19 times by Prescott in his Conquest of Peru, 
 thus taking the fourth place as an authority with re- 
 gard to that work. 3 
 
 All these works are as many testimonies to the 
 efficiency and the practical character of the system 
 under which these men had been trained ; most of 
 them had entered the Society at a very early age. 
 How could they have produced such works, if what 
 Compayre says, were true, that the Society devotes 
 itself exclusively to "purely formal studies, to exer- 
 cises which give a training in the use of elegant lan- 
 
 1 China, vol. I, pp. 650-692. See Dahlmann, /. ., pp. 
 35-37. Huonder, Deutsche Jesuiten-Missionare des //. und 
 18. Jahrhunderts (Herder, 1899), pp. 86-89. 
 
 2 Chapter IV, pp. 127129. 
 
 3 Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. I, 
 pp. 262-263. On the works of Father Clavigero on Mexico 
 see ib., p. 158. 
 
160 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 guage, and leaves real and concrete studies in entire 
 neglect" P 1 
 
 In history the Society must yield the palm to the Order 
 of St. Benedict, particularly to the celebrated Congrega- 
 tion of St. Maur. Still, some Jesuits produced works of 
 lasting value. We mention first the De Doctrina Tempo- 
 rum by Father Petavius (j 1652), of which a great au- 
 thority on chronology said that it was superior to the 
 work of Scaliger, and an invaluable mine of information 
 for later chronologists. 2 Father L,abbe (t 1667) began 
 the Collection of the Councils which is much used up to the 
 present day. A more complete Collection of the Coun- 
 cils, in fact the most complete that exists, was published 
 by Father Hardouin ( t 1729). He wrote also a most val- 
 uable work on numismatics, in which six hundred anci- 
 ent coins were, for the first time, described and with won- 
 derful sagacity used for solving intricate historical prob- 
 lems. In other historical and critical works he proceeded 
 with an almost incredible boldness and arbitrariness, 
 denying the authenticity of a great number of the 
 works of the classical writers and the Fathers of the 
 Church. In many questions of criticism he was far in 
 advance of his age, but some of his hyper-critical and 
 eccentric hypotheses have, to a great extent, obscured 
 his reputation. 3 The greatest historical work of the 
 
 1 History of Pedagogy, p. 144. 
 
 2 Ideler, Handbuch der Chronologie, vol. II, pp. 602-604. 
 See Weiss, Weltgeschichte (2nd ed.), vol. V,II, pp.544 552. 
 
 3 It is a rather curious fact that some have blamed the 
 Jesuit Superiors for allowing the publication of several of 
 Father Hardouin's works, curious I say, because it is said 
 again and again that the severe censorship of the Order sup- 
 presses all original and independent works of its subjects. 
 "Do what you may, we shall find fault with you," seems to 
 be the principle guiding some critics of the Order. 
 
JESUIT COU<3GES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION, 161 
 
 Jesuits is the collection of documents called Acta 
 Sanctorum, or the Bollandists, so named after the first 
 editor, Father Bolland (t 1668). The most distin- 
 guished of the Bollandist writers was Father Papen- 
 broeck (t 1714). Fifty -three folio volumes appeared 
 before the suppression of the Society. This gigantic 
 collection is a work of prime importance for the history 
 of the whole Christian era, a monumentum aere perennius . 
 Leibnitz said of it: "If the Jesuits had produced 
 nothing but this work, they would have deserved to 
 be brought into existence, and would have just claims 
 upon the good wishes and esteem of the whole 
 world. ' ' l 
 
 In literature we find the names of several distin- 
 guished Jesuits. The odes of Matthew Sarbiewski 
 (t 1640) were praised as successful rivals of the best 
 lyrics of the ancients; Hugo Grotius even preferred 
 them to the odes of Horace," 2 although w r e must call 
 this an exaggerated estimate. Sarbiewski was sur- 
 passed by James Balde (t 1668), who for many years 
 taught rhetoric in Ingolstadt and Munich, and was 
 styled not only the "Modern Quintilian", but also the 
 "Horace of Germany". His Latin poems manifest a 
 variety, beauty, warmth .of feeling, and glowing patri- 
 otism unrivalled in that period. He was, however, 
 not altogether free from the mannerisms of his age. 
 Protestant critics, as Goethe and others, have admired 
 the productions of this highly gifted poet, and Herder, 3 
 
 1 Quoted by De Badts de Cugnac, Les Jesuites et r Educa- 
 tion, p. 34. 
 
 2 See Baumgartner, Geschichte der Weltliteratur, vol. IV, 
 pp. 642644. 
 
 3 Of Herder's works, the whole twelfth volume (Cotta, 
 1829), "Terpsichore", is devoted to Balde. 
 
1 62 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 who translated a selection of Balde's lyrics into 
 classical German, speaks of him in enthusiastic terms. 1 
 
 The classical German writings of Denis and Spe 
 have been mentioned previously. We may add here 
 the name of Father Robert Southwell, who was exe- 
 cuted for his faith in 1595. Saintsbury says of him 
 that he belonged to a distinguished family, was stolen 
 by a gipsy in youth, but was recovered; "a much 
 worse misfortune befell him in being sent for educa- 
 tion not to Oxford or Cambridge but to Douay, where 
 he fell into the hands of the Jesuits, and joined their 
 order. ' ' 2 Yet notwithstanding this terrible misfortune, 
 he must have greatly profited from this education; for 
 the same critic admits that Southwell produced not 
 inconsiderable work both in prose and poetry; that his 
 works possess genuine poetic worth; that his religious 
 fervor is of the simplest and most genuine kind, and 
 that his poems are a natural and unforced expression 
 of it. 
 
 Father Perpinian wrote most eloquent Latin dis- 
 courses, which, as the philologian Ruhnken affirms, 
 compare favorably with those of Muretus, the greatest 
 Neo-Latinist. The philological works of Pontanus, 
 Vernulaeus, L,a Cerda (the famous commentator of the 
 works of Virgil), and others, were held in high 
 repute. Sacchini, Jouvancy, Perpinian, Possevin, 
 
 1 The extensive literature on Balde's works is given by 
 Baumgartner, /. c. y p. 645. A most flattering estimate of this 
 Jesuit is to be found in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie fur pro- 
 testantische Theologie, vol. II. (3. edition, 1897), article 
 "Balde", by List, where it is said that "one always likes to 
 return to the perusal of the lyrics of this God-inspired man." 
 
 2 Saintsbury, A History of Elizabethan Literature, Lon- 
 don, 1887, pp. 119120. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION, 163 
 
 Bonifacio, and Kropf wrote valuable treatises on edu- 
 cation. 1 
 
 We have purposely abstained from mentioning any 
 writer on theology or scholastic philosophy. For it is 
 admitted on all sides that the Society produced a great 
 number of most distinguished writers in scholastic 
 philosophy and in the various branches of theology: 
 dogmatics, apologetics, exegesis, moral theology, etc. 
 
 Many good schoolbooks were written by Jesuits. 2 
 The number of grammars, readers, books on style, on 
 poetics, rhetoric, editions of classics, etc. , is very great. 
 De la Cerda published one of the best editions of Vir- 
 gil. The editions of L,a Rue (Ruaeus) were famous; 
 
 1 Compayre asserts: "The Jesuits have never written 
 anything on the principles and objects of education. We 
 must not demand of them an exposition of general views or a 
 confession of their educational faith." L. c., p. 142. Vol- 
 taire called Jouvancy 's Method of Learning and Teaching the 
 best work written since Quintilian's famous Institutes. - 
 Sacchini, Jouvancy and Kropf were published again in 1896, 
 as vol. X of Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Pddagogik; 
 selections from the works of Perpinian, Bonifacio and Posse- 
 vin in 1901 as vol. XI. 
 
 2 Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 40. That also in the 
 nineteenth century the Jesuits were able to write good text- 
 books may be seen from a statement of Thomas Arnold, sou 
 of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. During his sojourn in New Zealand, 
 he used to borrow books from Frederick Weld, a Jesuit pupil 
 of Fribourg (afterwards Governor of Western Australia.) "One 
 of his text-books," says Arnold, " which he had brought with 
 him from Fribourg, was a history of philosophy by the Jesuit 
 professor Freudenfelt [the name is Freudenfeld, died at 
 Stonyhurst 1850]. This book seemed to me more genially 
 and lucidly written than similar works that had been put in 
 my hands at Oxford." Passages in a Wandering Life, Lon- 
 don, 1900, p. 99. 
 
1 64 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of course, they are not what we now consider stand- 
 ard works on the classics. Father Tursellini's 
 book De Particulis Linguae Latinae appeared in fifty 
 editions; the last edition was prepared by Professor 
 Hand, the philologist of Jena. The celebrated Gott- 
 fried Hermann, of Leipsic, published a revised edition 
 of Father Viger's De Idiotismis Linguae Graecae. 1 This 
 is an honor which not many old books have received 
 at the hand of German scholars, who boast of such 
 achievements in the field of philology. It is needless 
 to add that the two works of the Jesuit philologians 
 thus singled out must be of considerable excellence. 
 
 One department of the activity of the Order deserves 
 a more detailed treatment: the Jesuit school-drama. 2 
 At present there is no need of defending the usefulness 
 of dramatic performances, given by students, provided 
 the subject and the whole tone of the play are morally 
 sound and elevating. Still, there were times, when 
 the Jesuits had to defend their practice, especially 
 against the rigorists of Port Royal, the Jansenists in 
 general, and in the eighteenth century against several 
 governments, which were swayed by a prosaic bureau- 
 cratic spirit of utilitarianism. 3 The principles accord- 
 ing to which the drama in Jesuit schools was to be 
 conducted are laid down by Jouvancy in his Ratio 
 Docendi, and by Father Masen; a book on the tech- 
 
 1 See Professor Dr. L/otholz, Padagogik, der Neuzeit, 
 1897, p. 323. 
 
 2 On this subject see Baumgartner, Geschichte der Welt- 
 literatur, vol. IV, pp. 623637. 
 
 3 Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, vol. I, 
 p. 358. 
 
JESUIT COI^KGES BEFORE THK SUPPRESSION. 165 
 
 nique of the drama was composed by Father I^ang. 1 
 The Institute of the Society had taken precautions 
 that the school dramas should neither interfere with 
 the regular work, nor do the least harm to the morals 
 of the pupils. The fifty-eighth rule of the Provincial 
 reads: "He shall only rarely allow the performance of 
 comedies and tragedies; they must be becoming 2 and 
 written in L,atin. J> The vast majority of plays were 
 consequently given in L,atin, the language, in those 
 times, understood by every man of culture. Many 
 Protestant educators and preachers * were altogether 
 opposed to dramas in the vernacular "which, as they 
 said, were good enough for the common people and 
 apprentices, but unbecoming students." In Jesuit 
 colleges plays were occasionally, and after 1700 more 
 frequently, performed in the vernacular. 3 Of L,atin 
 plays a programme and synopsis in the vernacular 
 was, at least in Germany, distributed amongst those 
 who did not know Latin. 
 
 In many Protestant schools of this period, for in- 
 stance in the celebrated schools of Sturm and Rollen- 
 hagen, and also in a few Catholic schools, the comedies 
 of Plautus and Terence were exhibited, not, however, 
 without .strong opposition of earnest men, who rightly 
 considered some of these plays as dangerous for 
 
 1 Jouvancy, /. c., ch. II, art. II, 3, 6. Masen, Palaestra 
 Eloquentiae Ligatae Dramatica, Cologne, 1664. I^ang, Dis- 
 sertatio de Actione Scenica etc., Munich, 1727. 
 
 2 That is, "the subject should be pious and edifying", 
 as the 13th Rule of the Rector has it. 
 
 3 Duhr, pp. 136 foil. In France many dramas were 
 given in French since 1679. Rochemonteix, /. c., vol. Ill, p. 
 189. The report of 1832 says dramas should be in the ver- 
 nacular. Pachtler, op. cit.> vol. IV, p. 479. 
 
1 66 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 young people. Von Raumer says: ' ' It seems incred- 
 ible that the learning by heart and acting of comedies, 
 so lascivious as those of Terence, could have remained 
 without evil influence on the morality of youth, and 
 we find it unintelligible that a religious-minded man 
 like Sturm did not consider Terence really seductive. 
 If the mere reading of an author like Terence is risky, 
 how much more risky must it be, if pupils perform 
 such pieces and have to familiarize themselves alto- 
 gether with the persons and situations. ' ' l No wonder 
 that serious complaints were made against such per- 
 nicious practices. 2 The biblical and historical plays 
 performed in Protestant schools were mostly directed 
 against "Popish idolatry". 3 
 
 The drama of the Jesuits stood in sharp contrast to 
 that of the Protestants. As their whole literary edu- 
 cation, so also their drama was subordinate to the 
 religious and moral training. The Ratio Studioruin 
 prohibited the reading of any classical books which 
 contained obscenities; they had first to be expurgated; 
 expressly mentioned were Terence and Plautus. This 
 must reflect most favorably on the Jesuits, in a time 
 when vulgarity and obscenity reigned supreme in 
 literature and drama. 
 
 As the nature and function of the theatre the 
 Jesuits considered the stirring up of the pious emo- 
 tions, the guardianship of youth against the corrupting 
 influence of evil society, the portrayal of vice as some- 
 thing intrinsically despicable, the rousing up of the 
 inner man to a zealous crusade for virtue, and the 
 
 1 History of Pedagogy, vol. I, p. 272. (Jansseii's History 
 of the German People, vol. VII, p. 108.) 
 
 2 IMd.,p. 113 sq. 
 
 3 Ibid., p. 117. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 167 
 
 imitation of the Saints. Even in the treatment of 
 purely secular subjects, the plot was always of a 
 spiritually serious, deeply tragic, and morally impor- 
 tant nature. The aim of the comic drama was to strike 
 at the puerilities and ineptitudes, which could be 
 treated on the stage without any detriment to the 
 moral conscience. Vulgar jokes and low comedy were 
 once and for all excluded, and the Jesuit authorities 
 were indefatigable in thus guarding the moral prestige 
 of the plays. In general, only such plays were written 
 and produced as were in harmony with the moral ends 
 and moral limits of dramatic art itself : a meritorious 
 achievement in an age when every sentiment of moral 
 delicacy, every prescription of social decorum, every 
 dictate of ordinary modesty both in the school and 
 on the stage was being outraged. And this fact 
 produced a healthy reaction in favor of all the fine arts 
 in general. The intermittent efforts of Jesuit dram- 
 atists could not, it is true, completely stem the tide of 
 public degeneracy, could not even remain altogether 
 unscathed by the time-serving fashions and foibles of 
 the age: from the grosser and more revolting aberra- 
 tions they were happily preserved. 1 
 
 The subjects of Jesuit dramas were frequently bib- 
 lical or allegorical: as "The Prodigal Son" (Heiligen- 
 stadt 1582), "Joseph in Egypt" (Munich 1583), 
 '"Christ as Judge", "Saul and David" (Graz 1589 
 1600), "Naboth" (Ratisbon 1609), "Elias" (Prague 
 1610). Or historical subjects were chosen: "Julian 
 the Apostate" (Ingolstadt 1608), "Belisarius" 
 (Munich 1607), "Godfrey de Bouillon" (Munich 
 1596), "St. Ambrose", "St. Benno", "St. Henry the 
 
 1 Janssen, vol. VII, pp. 120121. 
 
1 68 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Emperor", etc. 1 Favorite subjects were the lives of 
 the Saints with their rich, beautiful, touching and 
 morally ennobling elements, and the Christian legends. 
 In these the Catholic Church has preserved, as Profes- 
 sor Paulsen aptly remarks, a poetical treasure which 
 in many respects surpasses the stories of the Old Tes- 
 tament, both in purity and dramatic applicability. 2 
 
 Many of their dramas were exhibited with all pos- 
 sible splendor, as for instance those given at La 
 Fleche in 1614 before Louis XIII. and his court. 3 
 But it seems that nowhere was greater pomp displayed 
 than in Munich, where the Court liberally contributed 
 to make the performances as brilliant as possible. In 
 1574 the tragedy "Constantine" was played on two 
 successive days. The whole city was beautifully 
 decorated. More than one thousand persons took part 
 in the play. Constantine, after his victory over 
 Maxentius, entered the city on a triumphal chariot, 
 surrounded by 400 horsemen in glittering armor. At 
 the performance of the tragedy "Esther" in 1577, the 
 most splendid costumes, gems, etc. were furnished from 
 the treasury^of the duke; at the banquet ofKingAssue- 
 rus 1 60 precious dishes of gold and silver were used. 4 
 
 We may now understand the following assertions 
 of a German writer. "The Jesuits, as Richard Wag- 
 
 1 Titles and programmes of dramas in French colleges 
 by Rochemonteix, /. c. y vol. Ill, pp. 189 195 and 215 353. 
 The names of the best Jesuit dramatists are given by Baum- 
 gartner, /. c., vol. IV, pp. 627637. Janssen, /. c.> pp. 
 130134. 
 
 2 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts> vol. I, p. 418. 
 
 3 Rochemonteix, /. c. y pp. 9699. 
 
 4 Janssen, vol. VII, pp. 128129. 
 
JKSUIT COUvEGKS BKFORK THE) SUPPRESSION. 169 
 
 ner in our own days, aimed at and succeeded in unit- 
 ing all the arts within the compass of the drama. The 
 effects of such dramas were, like those of the Ober- 
 ammergau Passion Play, ravishing, overpowering. 
 Even people ignorant of the Latin tongue were trans- 
 ported by the representations of subjects usually fam- 
 iliar to them, as at present no one travels to the village 
 of Ammergau to be edified by the poetic beauties of 
 the text. And no one can deny that the liturgy of the 
 Catholic Church makes a deep impression, even on 
 the uncultured, although the L,atin language is un- 
 known to them. It is in the first place the power of 
 what is seen that affects the mind so forcibly. ' ' l 
 
 The concourse of people was often immense. In 
 1565 * "Judith" was played before the court in Munich, 
 and then repeated before the people on a public 
 square ; not only was the whole square densely 
 crowded, but even the surrounding walls and the roofs 
 of the houses were thickly filled with eager spectators. 
 In 1560 the comedy "Euripus" was given in the 
 court-yard of the College of Prague before a crowd of 
 more than 8000 people. The play had to be repeated 
 three times, and when further exhibitions were de- 
 manded, the Rector of the college urgently requested 
 the petitioners to desist from such demands, as ' 'after all 
 it was not the task of the Society to exhibit comedies. ' ' 
 
 Catholic writers of the time speak enthusiastically 
 of the salutary effects of such performances. "They 
 do more good than a sermon", writes the Italian 
 physician Guarinoni, who saw many Jesuit dramas at 
 
 1 K. Trautmann, Ober- Ammergau und sein Passions- 
 spiel (1890). "This play is an offshoot of the Munich Jesuit 
 drama", p. 47. 
 
1 70 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Hall in Tyrol. At Munich, on one occasion, in 1609, 
 the impression of a play it was "Cenodoxus, the 
 Doctor of Paris", (or the "Conversion of St. Bruno") 
 was overpowering. A spectator wrote that a 
 hundred sermons could not have produced the same 
 effect ; fourteen of the foremost members of the Bavarian 
 court, on the following day, withdrew themselves into 
 solitude, to enter upon the "Spiritual Exercises" of 
 St. Ignatius, and to change their manner of life. 1 
 
 Protestant preachers lamented that "high person- 
 ages, princes and counts, 110 less than townspeople and 
 rustics take such delight in the dramas of the Jesuits, 
 contribute money to them, and honor the actors, 
 whereas ours have nothing of the kind. Thus the 
 Jesuits have an opportunity of propagating their idola- 
 try and of gaining the good will even of the Evan- 
 gelicals. ' ' 2 This result would certainly have been 
 impossible, if the Jesuit dramas had contained invec- 
 tives against non-Catholics. They were free from in- 
 sulting and abusive attacks with which those of the 
 other side were teeming. This is established by the 
 standard authors on this subject, Karl von Reinhard- 
 stottner, and Holstein. The latter, speaking with 
 offensive and bitter language of the Jesuit dramas as 
 means of defending "idolatry", must admit that their 
 object was exclusively pedagogical, not at all polem- 
 ical. Another Protestant, Francke, states as the dif- 
 ference between Protestant and Catholic school dramas, 
 that the former sank more and more to a mere form 
 for political and ecclesiastical controversies, chiefly 
 directed against Popery, whereas the Jesuits were 
 
 1 Jansseu, vol. VII, p. 133. 
 
 2 Janssen, vol. VII, p. 125. 
 
 
JKSUIT COUvKGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 171 
 
 working quietly in their schools and performed their 
 biblical and historical plays. 1 
 
 That not all dramatic productions of the Jesuits 
 were of very inferior quality may again be inferred 
 from testimonies of competent Protestant critics. K. 
 von Reinhardstb'ttner writes: "In the first century of 
 their history the Jesuits did great work in this line. 
 They performed dramas full of power and grandeur 
 and although their dramatic productions did not equal 
 the fine lyrics of (the Jesuits) Balde and Sarbiewski, 
 still in the dramas of Fabricius, Agricola and others 
 there is unmistakably poetic spirit and noble serious- 
 ness. How could the enormous success of their per- 
 formances be otherwise explained? .... Who could 
 doubt for a moment that the Jesuits by their dramas 
 rendered great services to their century, that they ad- V 
 vanced culture, and preserved taste for the theatre and 
 its subsidiary arts? It would be sheer ingratitude to 
 undervalue what they have effected by their drama. ' ' 2 
 
 We have testimonies proving that not only in the 
 first century of its existence did the Order produce 
 good plays, but that it kept up a high standard to the 
 very end. One witness is Goethe, the first of German 
 writers, assuredly no mean critic in dramatic matters. 
 He was present at a play given in 1786 at Ratisbon, 
 where the traditions of the Jesuit schools were kept up 
 after the suppression of the Order. He bestows high 
 praise on the performance and on the skill with which 
 the Jesuits knew how to make the various arts subser- 
 vient to their dramatics. 3 
 
 1 Quoted by Janssen, vol. VII, pp. 120121. 
 
 2 Jausseu, vol. VII, p. 133. 
 
 8 Goethe writes: "This public performance has con- 
 vinced me anew of the cleverness of the Jesuits. They re- 
 
172 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 If the number of great men be taken as a just 
 criterion of the merit of an educational system, the 
 Society could exhibit a long roll of pupils, who in 
 their after-life were among the most prominent men in 
 European history: poets like Calderon, Tasso, Cor- 
 neille, Moliere, Fontenelle, Goldoni,) orators like Bos- 
 suet; scholars like Galileo, Descartes, Buffon, Justus 
 Lipsius, Vico, Muratori, Montesquieu, Malesherbes; 
 statesmen like Richelieu and Emperor Ferdinand; 
 generals like Tilly, Wallenstein and Conde; Church 
 dignitaries like the great St. Francis de Sales, Pope 
 Benedict XIV, called ' 'the most learned of the Popes. ' ' 
 These are but a few of the host of Jesuit pupils who 
 rose to the highest distinction in Church and State, or 
 in the domain of science and literature. 1 However, 
 the Society does not lay much stress on the fact of 
 having educated these brilliant men. It might be said 
 with Count de Maistre, that "Genius is not the pro- 
 duction of schools; it is not acquired but innate; it 
 recognizes no obligation to man; its gratitude is due 
 to the creative power of God." Still, a system of edu- 
 
 jected nothing that could be of any conceivable service to 
 them, and knew how to wield their instruments with devo- 
 tion and dexterity. This is not cleverness of the merely ab- 
 stract order : it is a real fruition of the thing itself, an ab- 
 sorbing interest, which springs from the practical use of life. 
 Just as this great spiritual society has its organ builders, its 
 sculptors, and its gilders, so there seem to be some who, by 
 nature and inclination, take to the drama; and as their 
 churches are distinguished by a pleasing pomp, so these 
 prudent men have seized on the sensibility of the world by a 
 decent theatre." Italienische Reise (Goethe's Werke, Cotta's 
 edition, 1840, vol. XXIII, pp. 34). 
 
 1 Many more are commemorated by Cretineau-Joly, 
 /. ., vol. IV, ch. III. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BKFORK THE SUPPRESSION. 173 
 
 cation may contribute much to foster and quicken the 
 development of genius. But the Society can justly 
 claim to have made excellent men of pupils with only 
 ordinary abilities, and these count by thousands, nay 
 by hundreds of thousands: lawyers, professors, state 
 officials, officers of the army, priests and bishops. 
 
 Considering the number and work of the Jesuit 
 schools, we may conclude that they wielded a very 
 great influence in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies. This influence led to the persecution and 
 finally the suppression of the Order ; not as if the Or- 
 der had abused its influence, but because the power 
 which the Society exercised in the intellectual and 
 moral world, was an eye-sore to the numerous enemies 
 of the Jesuits. At last, after the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century, the hated Order fell a victim to the 
 intrigues of its opponents. We cannot here enter on 
 a lengthy account of the history of the destruction of 
 the Society, but must refer the reader to special works 
 on this subject. l Suffice it to mention briefly the 
 opinions of a few impartial witnesses. 
 
 Prince Hohenlohe wrote at the time of the suppres- 
 sion that the destruction of the Order was u une cabale 
 in female." 2 Theiner, who was a bitter enemy of the 
 Society, calls the suppression a "disgraceful warfare, 
 a deplorable drama, in which too many impure ele- 
 ments played a leading part. ' ' 3 Many prominent 
 Protestant historians, as Ranke, Schoell, J. v. Miiller, 
 Sismondi, Leo, declare the charges brought against 
 
 See particularly the series of articles by the Rev. 
 Sydney Smith, in the Month (London), 1902. 
 
 Letter of August 4, 1773, in the Royal Archives at 
 Munich. 
 
 3 Geschichte des Pontificals Clemens XIV., vol. I, p. 3. 
 
174 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the Society as calumnies of its enemies, and maintain 
 that the suppression of the Order was not due to any 
 crimes of the Jesuits, but entirely to the tyrannical 
 violence of ministers of State. 1 In Portugal it was 
 Pombal who aimed at separating his country from 
 Rome and introducing infidelity; the Jesuits, for their 
 unflinching loyalty to the Papacy and the staunch 
 defence of revealed religion, were to be the first vic- 
 tims. Pombal hired pamphleteers to calumniate them 
 systematically. Spain and France at the same time 
 began to persecute the Society. In the latter country 
 the Jansenists and Huguenots had always borne a 
 deadly hatred to the Order. The names of the chief 
 enemies of the Jesuits show clearly, in what direction 
 the warfare against them tended : the Duke of Choi- 
 seul, the ill-famed Madame de Pompadour, Voltaire, 
 d'Alembert and other French infidel philosophers. 
 They had always regarded the Jesuits as the most 
 formidable and dangerous enemies of their revolution- 
 ary designs. Voltaire wrote to Helvetius, in 1761, in 
 a tone of exultant anticipation: "Once we have de- 
 stroyed the Jesuits, that ' infamous thing ' (the 
 Christian religion) will be only child's play for us." 2 
 However, he could not and would not calumniate the 
 hated Order in the style of others : "While doing my 
 very best to realize the motto : Ecrasez Vinfdme, I will 
 not stoop to the meanness of defaming the Jesuits. 
 The best years of my life have been spent in the 
 schools of the Jesuits, and while there I have never 
 listened to any teaching but what was good, or seen 
 
 1 So Korner in his History of Pedagogy. See also the 
 Open Court, Chicago, January 1902, p. 21 foil. 
 
 2 Alzog, Church History, vol. ill, p. 566. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 175 
 
 any conduct but what was exemplary. ' ' l Neither 
 could J. J. Rousseau be induced to lend his pen to 
 decry the Society, although he confessed that he did 
 not like the Jesuits. 
 
 Pope Clement XIV. at last yielded to the threats 
 of the ministers of the Bourbon kings, and in 1773, 
 by a Brief he suppressed the Society, "in order to 
 preserve peace." "This letter", says a Protestant 
 historian, "condemns neither the doctrine, nor the 
 morals, of the Jesuits. The complaints of the courts 
 against the Order are the only motives alleged for its 
 suppression." 2 When recently Sir Henry Howorth 
 represented this Brief as an infallible ex-cathedra pro- 
 nouncement of the Pope, he thereby showed that he has 
 not even the most elementary notion of what is meant 
 by Papal infallibility. Succeeding events proved that 
 
 to use the words of one of the enemies of the Jesuits 
 
 a peace treaty was struck between the wolves and 
 the shepherd, and that the latter had sacrificed the 
 best watch-dogs of the flock. The dreadful French 
 Revolution opened the eyes of many to the real pur- 
 port of the persecutions of the Jesuits. True, the 
 Church is not built on the Society, but on the rock of 
 Peter. Still the Church suffered immensely by this 
 sacrifice of its most zealous defenders, and well might 
 Pope Pius VII. , in the Bull of the Restoration of the 
 Society in 1814, speak of the "dispersion of the ver}^ 
 stones of the sanctuary," which had followed the 
 destruction of the Society and the consequent 
 calamities. 
 
 /., p. 570. 
 
 2 Schoell, Cours d'histoire des Etats europeens, vol. 
 XXXXIV, p. 83. 
 
176 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 It was at this juncture that a Protestant and a 
 Schismatical court rendered homage to the services of 
 the Jesuits, and gave a brilliant testimony to their 
 educational abilities. Frederick the Great, King of 
 Prussia, being determined to preserve them in his 
 kingdom, 1 wrote to Abbe Columbini, his agent at 
 Rome, a letter dated from Potsdam, September 13, 
 1773, in which the following passage occurs : " I am 
 determined that in my kingdom the Jesuits shall con- 
 tinue to exist and maintain their ancient form. In 
 the treaty of Breslau I guaranteed the status quo of 
 the Catholic religion ; nor have I ever seen better 
 priests, from any point of view, than the Jesuits. You 
 may add that since I belong to a heretical sect, His 
 Holiness holds no power to dispense me from the 
 obligation of keeping my word, or from my duty as 
 a king and an honest man." 2 On May i5th, 1774, 
 writing to d'Alembert, who was dissatisfied that the 
 Jesuits were not completely exterminated, and feared 
 that other kings moved by the example of Prussia 
 might demand of Frederick seed to cultivate in their 
 own kingdoms, he replied : "I view them only as men 
 of letters, whose place in the instruction of youth it 
 would be difficult, if not impossible, to supply. Of the 
 Catholic clergy of this country they alone apply them- 
 selves to literature. This renders them so useful and 
 necessary that you need not fear any one shall obtain 
 from me a single Jesuit." In 1770 he had written in 
 
 1 See documents given by Zalenski, Les Jesuites de la 
 Russie-Blanche y vol. I, livre II, ch. IV, "Frederic II. et les 
 Je*suites." Frederick strictly forbade the Bishops of his king- 
 dom to promulgate the Papal Brief of suppression. 
 
 2 Maynard, The Study and Teaching of the Society of 
 Jesus, p. 246. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 177 
 
 similar terms to Voltaire. Speaking of Pope Clem- 
 ent XIV., he says: "For my own part I have no 
 reason to complain of him ; he leaves me my dear 
 Jesuits, whom they are persecuting everywhere. I will 
 save the precious seed, for those who should wish to 
 cultivate a plant so rare." On May i5th, 1775, he 
 wrote to d'Alembert : "In their misfortune I see in 
 them nothing but scholars whose place in the education 
 of youth can hardly be supplied by others. ' ' Again 
 on Aug. 5, 1775 : "For the good Jesuit Fathers I have 
 a d tenderness, not as far as they are monks but as 
 educators and scholars, whose services are useful to 
 civil society. ' ' Now, if the Jesuits were dangerous to 
 the welfare of the state, as their enemies make them, 
 how strange that the Atheist on the Prussian throne, 
 the shrewdest and most keen-sighted monarch of his 
 time, should have failed to see it? But he was not the 
 man to let himself be influenced by silly prejudices. 
 
 The second ruler of Europe who endeavored to 
 protect the Society was Catharine II., Empress of 
 ;Russia. 2 In 1783 she wrote to Pope Pius VI. "that 
 ;she was resolved to maintain these priests for the wel- 
 fare of her states against any power, whatsoever it 
 ; was. " In the same year the Russian court in a note 
 to Mgr. Archetti, Papal Nuncio to Poland, thus ex- 
 pressed its sentiments on the Jesuits: "The Roman 
 Catholics of the Russian Empire, having given un- 
 equivocal proofs of their loyalty to the Empress, have 
 thereby acquired a right to the confirmation of their 
 former privileges. Of this number is the instruction 
 of youth, which has heretofore been committed to the 
 
 1 Lettre d, Voltaire, 7. Juillet, 1770. Oeuvres de Vol- 
 taire, torn. XII. 
 
 2 See Zaleiiski, /. c., pp. 239429. 
 
 12 
 
178 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Jesuits. The zeal animating these religious, and the 
 success crowning their efforts, have been marked by 
 the Imperial Government with the utmost satisfaction. 
 Would it be just to deprive the inhabitants of White 
 Russia of this precious Institution ? In other countries 
 where the Order was suppressed, no substitutes have 
 been found. And why single out for destruction, 
 among the many religious orders, that which devotes 
 itself to the education of youth, and consequently to 
 the public welfare?" 1 V V 
 
 These testimonies refute also a charge sometimes 
 made even by Catholic writers. Theiner, for instance, 
 asserts or implies that, for a space of time preceding 
 the suppression, the Society had fallen away from the 
 station it had held originally in literary and educational 
 matters, that their system had become useless to the 
 interests of science, that education suffered in their 
 hands, that youth issued from their colleges unpro- 
 tected against the assaults of error, etc. 2 These 
 charges are ably refuted by Abbe Maynard in his work 
 just quoted : The Studies and Teaching of the Society 
 of Jesus at the Time of its Suppression 1750-73. But 
 as we said, the appreciation of the Jesuits' educational 
 labors, as shown by Frederick II. and Catharine II. , 
 exonerates them completely. These two were the 
 most sagacious monarchs of Europe at the time, and 
 what could have influenced them, atheists as they 
 were, to show such favors to the persecuted Society, 
 had it not been its superiority as an educating body ? 
 All attempts to weaken the testimonies of the words 
 and actions of these two rulers have proved un- 
 successful. s 
 
 1 Maynard, /. ., p. 240. 
 
 2 History of the Pontificate of Clement XIV. 
 
 3 Most flattering testimonies as to the educational sue- 
 
JKSUIT COW,EGS BKFORK THE SUPPRESSION. 179 
 
 Besides, Maynard points out in detail that the 
 Jesuits at that time had among their number hundreds 
 of able writers in all branches of learning. The 
 Society could boast of great mathematicians and scien- 
 tists, as the famous Roger Boscovich (t 1787), who 
 was despatched by the Royal Society of I/ondon to 
 California to observe the second transit of Venus. 
 During the heat of the French Revolution the French 
 astronomer L,alande, who took pride in the title "the 
 atheist astronomer", ventured to write Father Bosco- 
 vich 's eulogy in the u Journal of Men of Science" 
 (February 1792). Then there was Maximilian Hell 
 (t 1792), for thirty-six }^ears director of the Imperial 
 Observatory at Vienna. In 1768 he was invited by 
 Christian VII., King of Denmark, to observe in Lap- 
 land the transit of Venus. Of the result of Father 
 Hell's expedition Lalande wrote: "This was one of 
 the five complete observations made at great distances 
 apart. ' ' 1 Father Hell was a worthy successor to the 
 
 cess of the Jesuits in Russia and Galicia, at the time of the 
 suppression, are given by Zalenski, Les J&suites de la Russie 
 Blanche, Paris 1886. 
 
 1 Bibliogr. Astron., 1792, p. 722; see Maynard, p. 205. 
 For many decades it was suspected that Father Hell had 
 tampered with the figures of his observations after others had 
 been published, so as to make his square with the rest. In 
 the Atlantic Monthly ', Nov. 1900, Professor Simon Newcomb, 
 of the Washington Naval Observatory, completely exonerates 
 Father Hell from this malicious charge. The distinguished 
 American Astronomer, who professes in his article a personal 
 affection for the Jesuit scientist, has examined the manu- 
 scripts of Father Hell, in Vienna, and found that the accusa- 
 tion was groundless, and based on the assertion of a man 
 whose sight was defective. Professor Newcomb further 
 affirms that Father Hell's observations gave figures st>me what 
 
l8O JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 great Jesuit astronomers and mathematicians Clavius, 
 Kirch er, Riccioli, Scheiner, Grimaldi, and a precursor 
 of the famous Father Secchi, one of the greatest astron- 
 omers, at least in spectroscopy, of the nineteenth 
 century, 
 
 Lalande, in his Bibliographic Astronomique, enum- 
 erates forty-five Jesuit astronomers and eighty-nine 
 astronomical publications for the short period of 1750 
 1773. The same author, in the continuation of 
 Montucla's History of Mathematics, pays the following 
 tribute to the Society: "Here I must remark to the 
 honor of this learned and cruelly persecuted Society, 
 that in several colleges it possessed observatories, for 
 instance in Marseilles, Avignon, Lyons, etc." There 
 were other observatories in Rome, Florence, Milan, 
 in fact in every country where Jesuits had colleges. 
 Of Germany and Austria, L,alande remarks : " There 
 were in Germany and the neighboring countries few 
 large colleges of the Society which had no observa- 
 tory. " He mentions those of Vienna, Tyrnau, Ingol- 
 stadt, Graz, Breslau, Olmiitz, Prague, etc., and speaks 
 highly of the scientific work done by the Jesuit 
 astronomers. He adds that after the ' ' deplorable 
 catastrophe of the Society, ' ' most of these observatories 
 shared the fate of the Order. a 
 
 Quite recently Professor Giinther of Munich 2 called 
 
 different from those of other astronomers, but that recent 
 discoveries have proved the Jesuit's observations to have been 
 the more correct ones. 
 
 1 Histoire des Mathmatiques y par J. F. Montucla, tome 
 IV, acheve" et publi par Jgrdme de la Lande, Paris, 1802, 
 pp. 347 foil. 
 
 2 Bibliotheca Mathematica, Zeitschrift fur Geschichte 
 der mathematischen IVissenschaften, 3. Folge, 3. Band, 
 2. Heft, 1902 (lyeipzig, Teubner), pp. 208225. 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. l8l 
 
 attention to the important scientific works of three 
 Jesuits of that period, three relatives of the name 
 Zallinger: John Baptist, Professor in the Jesuit college 
 at Innsbruck, who wrote a remarkable treatise on 
 the growth of plants; James Anton, Professor in 
 Munich, Dillingen, Innsbruck, and Augsburg, a zeal- 
 ous defender of the Newtonian system, who "published 
 works of such importance that it is surprising that 
 they could have been buried in oblivion." The 
 greatest of the three was Francis Zallinger v who pub- 
 lished several important works with new views, which 
 partly are held at present, on electricity, meteorology, 
 mechanics, and with particular success on hydrology. 
 Professor Giinther repeatedly expresses his astonish- 
 ment that such works could have been so completely 
 ignored, that no modern work on the history of sciences 
 does justice to them. Very few mention the names 
 of these writers. We may be convinced that careful 
 research will bring to light many more distinguished 
 Jesuit scientists of that period. 
 
 Also in literature, shortly before the suppression, 
 the Jesuits had among their numbers distinguished 
 writers. Father Tiraboschi (| 1794) wrote the 
 History of Italian Literature, in thirteen volumes, up 
 to this day one of the most valuable works on this 
 subject. In France, men like Father Poree and many 
 others were admired even by Voltaire for their literary 
 accomplishments. In Germany, the Jesuit Denis 
 (t 1800) rendered the so-called poems of Ossian into 
 his native tongue, and this with such success as to win 
 the highest praise from Goethe. About this time 
 Father Hervas began to write his great "Catalogue of 
 Languages", of which we spoke before. But as we 
 
1 82 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 are not writing a literary history of the Society, it is 
 enough to have mentioned these few names. A host 
 of other distinguished men, who flourished towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century, may be found in 
 Abbe Maynard's work. Thus the assertion that the 
 Society had become useless to science and literature, 
 is a pure calumny. 
 
 As groundless is the charge that the Jesuits had 
 failed in their lofty mission with respect to teaching. 
 We have heard what Frederick II. and Catharine II. 
 thought of them. Most of the celebrated writers 
 mentioned before were engaged as teachers in the 
 collegiate or university establishments of the Order. 
 A cloud of witnesses stands forth to testify that the 
 work of education was carried on with unabated zeal 
 and with great success, not only in languages and 
 literature, but also in mathematics and sciences. Thus 
 Deslandes, commissary of the navy at Brest, testified, 
 in 1748, that the Jesuits had furnished the navy ex- 
 cellent professors of mathematics. 1 
 
 It may be well to quote what the historian of the 
 University of Paris has to say about the educational 
 labors of the Society in France up to the time of its 
 suppression : "If one rises above prejudices and nar- 
 row professional jealousies, how can one deny the 
 eminent services which the Society rendered to youth 
 and the family, from its reestablishment under 
 Henry IV. ? Those of its enemies who want to be 
 impartial and sincere admit that its colleges were well 
 conducted, that the discipline was at once firm and 
 mild, strict and paternal ; that the scholastic routine 
 was improved by wise innovations, cleverly adapted 
 
 1 De Badts de Cugnac, Les Jesuites et V education, p. 11. 
 
JESUIT COWvEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 183 
 
 to the progress in manners and social demands ; that 
 the teachers were unassuming, devoted to their work, 
 well instructed, and for the greater part masters in the 
 ait of elevating youth ; some were perfect humanists, 
 others, scientists of the first rank, so regular in their 
 lives that never has any reproach of misdemeanor been 
 uttered against them. Should one say that, in spite 
 of showy appearances, the education given by the 
 Jesuits lacked solidity, that they too often substituted 
 frivolous practices or worldly exercises for serious 
 work, a charge frequently made by the University 
 the Jesuits could answer by pointing to their pupils 
 who, held honorable positions in the domain of science 
 and literature, at the court and in the armies, in the 
 ranks of the bourgeoisie and among the nobility. . . . 
 As instructors of youth, the Jesuits were above re- 
 proach, and more worthy of recommendation than of 
 persecution. . . . We do not inquire whether in other 
 roles played by the disciples of St. Ignatius, they did 
 not allow themselves to be carried away to excesses of 
 pride, ambition, and intolerance, which necessarily 
 brought upon them cruel retaliation ; in connection 
 with our subject, suffice it to state that in the field of 
 studies and public education, their activity was, in 
 general, beneficial. The inexorable sentence which 
 suddenly destroyed their colleges is explained, from 
 the historical point of view, by the prejudices and 
 the hatred existing against the Society. But after 
 having related the biased acclamations of contem- 
 poraries, must this sentence, so sadly renowned, be 
 confirmed by the equitable judgment of history? We 
 think not ; for it is against truth and justice in many 
 regards, and, as the events that followed have proved, 
 
1 84 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 it served neither the Church, nor the State, nor even 
 the University, in spite of the hopes which the latter 
 had based on the ruin of its adversaries. ' ' l The author, 
 in the chapter following, then describes the fatal con- 
 sequences for education in France, resulting from the 
 destruction of the Society. 
 
 This much is certain that it was not its inability, 
 but, on the contrary, its great success for which the 
 Society was doomed by the Catos of the eighteenth 
 century, whose ceterum censeo was that the hated 
 -Order was to be destroyed. What the Jesuits had been 
 doing for education and learning became apparent 
 after the destruction of their Order, and it was openly 
 declared by many that the ruin of the Society was 
 followed by a fatal decline of learning among the 
 Catholics. The Bishops of France represented to the 
 King, that ''the dispersion of the Jesuits had left a 
 lamentable void in the functions of the sacred min- 
 istry and the education of youth, to which they con- 
 secrated their talents and their labors." 2 In 1803 
 Abbe Emery wrote : ''The Jesuits have been expelled, 
 their system of teaching has been rejected. But what 
 substitutes for them have we discovered, and in what 
 have the new theories resulted ? Are the youth better 
 instructed, or their morals purer ? Their presumptuous 
 ignorance and depravity force us to sigh for the old 
 masters and the old ways. ' ' 3 
 
 About the same time Chateaubriand in his famous 
 work, The Genius of Christianity, exclaimed: "In the 
 
 1 Jourdain, Histoire de r Universite de Paris, vol. II, 
 pp. 298300. 
 
 2 Abbe Maynard, /. c., p. 237. 
 
 3 Pensees de Leibnitz, p. 429. (Maynard, /. <:., p. 238.) 
 
JESUIT COIylyKGKS BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 185 
 
 destruction of the Jesuits learned Europe has suffered 
 an irreparable loss. Since that unhappy event educa- 
 tion has never been in a state of prosperity. ' ' And in 
 his Melanges he expresses himself to the same effect : 
 "The Jesuits maintained and were increasing their 
 reputation to the last moment of their existence. Their 
 destruction has inflicted a deadly wound on education 
 and letters : as to this, at the" present time, there is no 
 diversity of opinion." And even Theiner does not 
 hesitate to say that * 'the wound inflicted on education 
 was incurable." 1 In L,ord Stanhope's conversation 
 with the great Duke of Wellington we find a striking 
 passage on the same subject. Speaking at Walmer in 
 October 1833, the Duke said to L,ord Mahon : "On the 
 whole I think it is very doubtful whether, since the 
 suppression of the Jesuits, the system of education has 
 been as good, or whether as remarkable men have 
 appeared. I am quite sure that they have not in the 
 south of Europe. It was a great mistake. " 2 In 
 Treves the Jesuits possessed, besides the novitiate and 
 the university, a flourishing college. When the news of 
 the suppression of the Society arrived, the Archbishop 
 Elector, Clement Wenceslaus of Poland, is said to 
 have exclaimed: "Cecidit corona capitis nostri^ "The 
 crown of our head is fallen;" 3 and, as the historian 
 of the Royal Gymnasium of Treves adds, his outcry of 
 sorrow was justified. A few years after the Jesuits had 
 left the college, the pernicious leaven of French in- 
 fidelity had permeated the faculty and was undermin- 
 ing the faith of the young. 
 
 1 Maynard, /. c., p. 242. 
 
 : Notes of Conversations with the Duke of Wellington, 
 by the Earl of Stanhope, L,ondou, Murray, 1888, p. 42. 
 
 5 Historisches Jahrbuch, Munich 1885, vol. VI, p. 420. 
 
1 86 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 And such was the case everywhere. German 
 scepticism, French atheism, Jansenism, and Josephism 
 began to reign supreme. Let us add here that the 
 Protestant cause was never strengthened by any per- 
 secution of the Society; the only gainer was always 
 infidelity. The statement of Mr. Browning, that the 
 governments on the whole have done well to suppress 
 the Jesuit colleges, 1 is proved utterly false by history. 
 At the same time it advocates an intolerable state 
 absolutism. If parents wish to send their children to 
 the schools of the Jesuits, and of religious in general, 
 it is a violation of parental rights, and an infringement 
 of religious and political liberty, to make the attain- 
 ment of such wishes impossible. In the light of this 
 consideration, the legislation of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, 
 and the recent proceedings against the teaching con- 
 gregations in France must appear to all fair-minded 
 men as tyranny and a new "reign of terror". 
 
 To all students of history who are not blinded by 
 fanatical hatred, the downfall of such a society of men 
 who had devoted their lives to the propagation of 
 religion and the advancement of science, must appear 
 most pathetic. Such it appeared to the atheist astron- 
 omer Lalande. * 'The mention of a Jesuit, ' ' he writes, 
 "awakens all the feelings of my heart, my mind and 
 my gratitude. It harrows all my sore feelings at the 
 blindness of the ministers of 1762. Mankind has ir- 
 retrievably lost, and will never recover, that precious 
 and surprising union of twenty-two thousand individ- 
 uals, devoted incessantly and disinterestedly to the 
 functions of teaching, preaching, missions, to duties 
 most serviceable and dearest to humanity. Retire- 
 
 1 Encyclopedia Britannica, article ' 'Education", 
 
JESUIT COLLEGES BEFORE THE SUPPRESSION. 187 
 
 ment, frugality, and the renunciation of pleasure, 
 constituted in that Society the most harmonious con- 
 cord of science and virtue. I had personal knowledge 
 of them : they were an assemblage of heroes for 
 religion and humanity. ' ' l 
 
 We close this chapter with the following sym- 
 pathetic lines of a recent writer: "The rise of the 
 Jesuits had been astonishing. Their fall was august. 
 Annihilation could not shake their constancy. No 
 tempests of misfortune could attaint their magnificent 
 obedience. Defamation, incarceration, banishment, 
 starvation, death, unthankfulness, fell upon them, 
 and could not alter, and could not dismay. To the 
 cabals of courtiers and the frenzy of kings, to the 
 laugh of triumphing harlots, and the rebuke of solemn 
 hypocrites, to the loud-voiced joy of the heretic and 
 the unbeliever, to the poisonous sneer of banded sec- 
 taries, exulting in their secret confederation, to the 
 gibes of traitors, to the burning sympathies of un- 
 purchased and unpurchasable multitudes, the only 
 response of the Jesuits was superb and indomitable 
 duty. Girt round by cruelty and frivolity, more cruel 
 still ; as in the centre of a vast amphitheatre of the 
 antique which they had taught so well, they remained 
 as high resolved, as unflinching as Sebastian before 
 the archers of the Palatine, or the virgin Blandina 
 amid the beasts at L,yons. It was hardly a marvel 
 that the victorious monarch of Prussia, outside the 
 Church though he was, but accustomed to see men 
 die at the call of honor and discipline, half owned 
 a thrill of warrior emotion, and paid a captain's 
 
 1 Quoted in the Annales Philosophiques, Morales, et 
 Littiraires, by M. de Boulogne, vol. I, p. 221. 
 
1 88 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 salutation, to that infrangible, that devoted army. 
 The Jesuits were not only the ablest of Renaissance 
 schoolmaster Sj they were great priests, great mission- 
 aries, great civilizers, great practicians of the supreme 
 art of persuading and leading men. And the sentence 
 of destruction smote them in the midst of their activ- 
 ity, in a hundred regions where they had become 
 indispensable or almost impossible to replace. . . Never 
 was such a famous company of scholars in all the 
 records of former civilizations, deep-read in philoso- 
 phies ; famous for sacred eloquence ; masters of lan- 
 guages, editors of the lore of antiquity, of the writers 
 of Byzantium, of the obscure dialects of Malaysia and 
 the Upper Amazon ; historians, philologists, restorers 
 of chronology. . . To gain the lying promise of a 
 lying peace, they were demanded as a holocaust to 
 the licentious puppets on the thrones of the Bourbons, 
 to the dark powers behind the veils of the lodge. And 
 their loss to civilization, their loss to France, was not 
 to be computed even by the largest enumeration of 
 what they had done, and what they were capable of 
 doing. The Christendom to which they had become 
 so necessary, and which in an hour was forced to do 
 without them, was yet to learn the unspeakable sig- 
 nificance of such a deprivation. In proportion to the 
 services of the Jesuits was the void of their disappear- 
 ance, the calamity of their fall. When main pillars 
 of an edifice are shattered, more may be shattered 
 than the pillars alone. ' ' * 
 
 1 The London Tablet, Dec. 7, 1901, p. 884. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 The Revised Ratio of 1832 and Later Regulations. 
 
 The Society had been suppressed by Clement XIV. 
 The historian Dr. Briick says: "The Pope's conduct 
 was harsh and unjust' ' , as he had not a single crime to 
 lay to their charge; l and even Dr. Dollinger, how- 
 ever hostile to the Society, must have considered its 
 suppression unjust; for he calls its restoration an act 
 of justice. 2 Documentary evidence proves that the 
 Jesuits heroically submitted. Even in Silesia, where 
 Frederick II. wanted to maintain them, "they were 
 unwilling to hold out against the papal bull", 3 and 
 laying aside whatever was specifically characteristic of 
 the Society, they directed the schools as secular priests. 
 Catharine II. of Russia stubbornly refused to allow the 
 Papal Brief of suppression to be published in her 
 dominions. As the publication was required before 
 the Brief could take effect, the Jesuits continued their 
 work in the two colleges at Mohilev and Polotzk in 
 White Russia. Five years after the suppression, in 
 1778, the new Pope Pius VI. granted them permis- 
 sion to establish a novitiate. Thus, as Frederick II. 
 
 1 History of the Catholic Church, (Bngl. transl.) vol. II, 
 p. 306. 
 
 2 See Historische Zeitschrift, 1900, vol. I^XXXIV, p. 300. 
 1 Alzog, Church History, vol. Ill, p. 571. Against Thei- 
 
 ner's charge of disobedience see Zalenski, Les Jesuites de la 
 Russie Blanche, vol. I, pp. 169213. 
 
 (189) 
 
igO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 expressed it, "the seed had been preserved for those 
 who should wish to cultivate a plant so rare." In 
 1 80 1, Pius VII. , the successor of Pius VI., allowed 
 the Jesuits to establish themselves as a Congregation 
 in Russia, and in 1804 he authorized the introduction 
 of this Congregation into the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies. 
 
 At length, in 1814, Pius VII., who had been edu- 
 cated by the enemies of the Jesuits, reestablished the 
 Society of Jesus. The Pope gives as the motive of 
 this step, that "he acted on the demand of all Catholic 
 Christendom". "We should deem ourselves guilty 
 of a great crime towards God, if amidst the dangers of 
 the Christian republic, we neglected the aids which 
 the special providence of God has put at our disposal; 
 and, if placed in the bark of Peter, tossed and assailed 
 by continual storms, we refuse to employ the vigorous 
 and experienced rowers who volunteer their services, 
 in order to break the waves of a sea which threatens 
 every moment shipwreck and death. " l In this Bull, 
 Pius VII. expressly says: "We declare besides, and 
 grant power that they may freely and lawfully apply 
 themselves to the education of youth in the principles 
 of the Catholic faith, to form them to good morals, 
 and to direct colleges and seminaries. ' ' 
 
 The Society immediately took up this work so dear 
 to its founder and ever cherished by the Fathers of the 
 Old Society. New fields had been opened in the 
 meantime for establishing colleges, especially in Eng- 
 land and her dependencies, and in the United States 
 of America. 
 
 1 The Papal Bull: Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum. This 
 Bull and that of the suppression of the Society are translated 
 in the Protestant Advocate, vol. Ill, pp. 13 and 153 etc. 
 
 
REVISED RATIO OF 1832 AND LATER REGULATIONS. IQI 
 
 As regards the system of studies it was found 
 necessary, soon after the restoration of the Society, 
 to accommodate the Ratio to the new conditions of 
 the time. The changes were undertaken with the 
 same calm circumspection with which the old Ratio 
 had been drawn up under Father Aquaviva. As 
 early as 1820 suggestions and observations were sent 
 to Rome from the different provinces. In 1830, the 
 General of the Society, Father Roothaan, 1 himself an 
 excellent classical scholar and experienced teacher, 
 summoned to Rome representatives of all the pro- 
 vinces. After careful deliberations the Revised Ratio 
 appeared in 1832. It was not a new system; nothing 
 had been changed in the essentials, in the fundamen- 
 tal principles. It was an adaptation to modern exigen- 
 cies of the old methods which had been approved by 
 such great success in former times. 
 
 The changes referred mainly to those branches of 
 study, which had become important in the course of 
 time. In the colleges L,atin and Greek should remain 
 the principal subjects, but more time and care should 
 henceforth be devoted to the study of the mother- 
 tongue and its literature, although this had by no 
 means been neglected in the Old Society. 2 Thus to 
 the 23. Rule of the Provincial was added: "He shall 
 take great care that the pupils [in the colleges of his 
 Province] are thoroughly instructed in their mother- 
 tongue, and he shall assign to each class the amount 
 
 1 J. A. Thym, S. J., Life of Father Roothaan. (In Dutch; 
 German Translation by Jos. Martin, S. J.) pp. 110113. 
 
 ! See above pp. 129131, and the chapter on the study 
 of the mother-tongue injouvancy's Ratio Disc, et Doc., part I, 
 ch. I, 3. Woodstock Letters, 1894, p. 309. Father Duhr, 
 Studienordnung y pp. 107 118. 
 
IQ2 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and kind of work to be done." The speaking of 
 Latin in the lower classes was no longer possible; 
 special care of idiom in translating is recommended, 
 as also correctness of pronunciation of the mother- 
 tongue. In the higher classes the cultivation of style 
 in the vernacular, according to the best models, is in- 
 sisted on. The rules concerning dramatic perfor- 
 mances are left out; exhibitions are neither encouraged 
 nor forbidden. In the report of the commission it is 
 said that, if dramas are given, they should be* in the 
 vernacular. 1 For the grammar classes, other authors 
 are introduced; in the highest grammar class, Sallust, 
 Curtius and L,ivy are read besides Cicero, the elements 
 of mythology and archaeology are to be taught. 
 Xenophoii takes the place of Aesop and Agapetus. 
 In the middle grammar class Caesar is added; in the 
 lowest, Cornelius Nepos. 2 
 
 As mathematics and natural sciences, history 
 and geography claimed more attention, the Revised 
 Ratio prescribed accordingly that more time should be 
 devoted to these branches, 3 although they were to be 
 considered rather as "accessories" in the literary cur- 
 riculum. For the study of more advanced mathe- 
 matics and of natural sciences was even then thought 
 to belong properly to the course of philosophy. Still 
 the new Ratio left to Provincial Superiors considerable 
 liberty in this matter, and the Jesuit colleges, con- 
 forming to the customs of the respective countries, 
 have introduced some of these branches also in the 
 lower classes. 
 
 1 Pachtler, op. cit., vol. IV, p. 479. 
 
 2 Other changes see Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 459469. 
 
 3 Reg. Prov., 23, sect. %.Reg. Praef. Stud. Inf., 8, 
 sect. 11. 
 
REVISED RATIO OF 1832 AND LATER REGULATIONS. 193 
 
 The greatest change was made in the rules con- 
 cerning the teaching of philosophy and natural 
 sciences. Aristotle, the Philosopher of former times, 
 could no longer hold his place in the schools. So the 
 Revised Ratio does not mention him, although the 
 speculative questions of logics and general metaphysics 
 are mostly treated according to Aristotelian principles. 
 And rightly so; for as a modern Professor of Philoso- 
 phy says, " Aristotle's doctrine forms the basis of 
 traditional logic even to this day. ' ' 1 
 
 It may be safely said that after the vagaries of 
 Hegel and others, there was manifested, in the latter 
 part of the nineteenth century, a greater appreciation 
 of Aristotelian philosophy. The most prominent ad- 
 vocate of this revival, Professor Trendelenburg of 
 Berlin, expressly declares that "the organic theory of 
 the universe, the basis of which was laid by Plato and 
 Aristotle, is the only philosophy which has a future 
 before it; and that speculation done by fits and starts 
 and by every man for himself, has proved itself to 
 have no permanence. " 2 A remark of Professor Paul- 
 sen may not be without interest. ''There are people 
 who are inclined to use the names of Thomas Aquinas 
 and Scotus as synonymous with nonsense and crazi- 
 ness. To such it may be well to say that even at the 
 present day there are men who think similarly as Saint 
 Thomas, whom they consider the prince of philoso- 
 phers, and on whom they base their whole philosophi- 
 cal instruction. And these are the men to whom the 
 despisers of scholasticism give credit for a great 
 amount, if not of wisdom, at least of extraordinary 
 
 1 Windelband, History of Philosophy ', p. 135. 
 
 2 Krdmann, History of Philosophy, vol. Ill, p. 278. 
 
 13 
 
194 JKSUIT KDUCATION. 
 
 prudence and cunning, I mean the Jesuits. Has not 
 the See of Rome restored Saint Thomas, the philoso- 
 pher whom the Society of Jesus has chosen as its 
 guide, as the philosopher of the Church? Has this 
 been done in order to stultify the clergy? Can this be 
 the intention of those who, through the clergy, wish 
 to domineer over the world?" 1 
 
 Physics, chemistry, physiology, psychology, as- 
 tronomy, geology, and cosmology are taught according 
 to the established principles of modern science. The 
 basis of this study is thus laid down: "The professor 
 of physics is to expose theories, systems, and hypo- 
 theses, so as to make it clear what degree of certitude 
 or probability belongs to each. Since in this faculty 
 new progress is made every day, the professor must 
 consider it part of his duty, to know the more recent 
 discoveries, so that in his prelections he may advance 
 with the science itself." 2 Higher mathematics (ana- 
 lytic geometry and calculus) are to be taught not 
 only in one but in two, if possible in three, years of 
 the philosophical course. We may now invite the 
 reader to judge about Compayre's assertions: "The 
 sciences and philosophy are involved in the same dis- 
 dain as history. Scientific studies are entirely pro- 
 scribed in the lower classes, and the student enters his 
 year in philosophy, having studied only the ancient 
 languages. Philosophy itself is reduced to a barren 
 study of words, to subtile discussions, and to commen- 
 taries 011 Aristotle. Memory and syllogistic reasoning 
 are the only faculties called into play; no facts, no 
 real inductions, no care for the observation of nature. 
 In all things the Jesuits are the enemies of progress. 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, vol. I, p. 38. 
 
 2 Reg. Prof. P/iys. t 3435. Hughes, Loyola, p. 275. 
 
REVISED RATIO OF 1832 AND I^ATER REGULATIONS. 1 95 
 
 Intolerant of anything new, they would arrest the pro- 
 gress of the human mind and make it immovable. ' ' 
 It seems almost impossible to crowd more falsehoods 
 into so small a space. There are at least ten flagrant 
 misrepresentations in these six short sentences. 2 
 
 Philosophy has been discarded from most modern 
 programs of college instruction, but to the great detri- 
 ment of solid learning. A thorough philosophical 
 training is of the greatest value for the lawyer, physi- 
 cian, and scientist, and for every man who wishes to 
 occupy a higher position in life. Paulsen, and many 
 other leading German schoolmen, express their regret 
 that in the new systems philosophical training has 
 been entirely relegated to the university. Two objec- 
 tions are made against this method: First, the form of 
 
 1 History of Pedagogy ', p. 145. It is beyond my coin- 
 preheusion how Mr. Payne, the translator, can style this book 
 'a model, in matter and form, for a general history of educa- 
 tion", nor is it intelligible how such a superficial production 
 could be received so favorably by the American educational 
 public. 
 
 2 1. History, as has been proved before, is not disdained; 
 2. sciences and philosophy are not disdained ; 3. scientific 
 studies are not entirely proscribed in the lower classes; 
 
 4. there are ordinarily two years of philosophy, not one; 
 
 5. the student, entering philosophy, has studied much more 
 than only the ancient languages; 6. philosophy is not merely 
 a barren study of words ; 7. nor is it reduced to a commentary 
 on Aristotle ; 8. facts, inductions, the observation of nature 
 are not neglected ; 9. the Jesuits are not enemies of progress 
 in all things (see what has been said by Protestant scholars 
 on their writers, above pp. 149173, 179182, and below, 
 chapter VII); 10. far from being intolerant of everything 
 new, the professors are expressly told to study carefully the 
 new discoveries and to keep abreast of the advance of science; 
 etc., etc. 
 
196 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 instruction proper to the university is of the continu- 
 ous lecture. But this method presupposes instruction 
 in form of question and answer, in philosophy as well 
 as in other branches. We should consider it a failure 
 to try to teach grammar from the beginning by lec- 
 tures, as given at the university. It seems as little 
 promising of success to teach logic in this manner. 
 Exercises in logic must be practised as well as must 
 the forms of grammar. By giving a boy a definition 
 of the Subjunctive or of the Ablative Absolute, you 
 will not enable him to write correctly. Similarly by 
 lecturing about the definition or by giving a definition 
 of definition, even when illustrated by examples, you 
 will not enable the student to handle these formulas 
 logically. To a certain extent this applies also to 
 psychology, ethics and civics. The elementary 
 notions must be practised by concrete examples, so 
 that they are ready, and as it were, handy in mind; 
 .then it is possible to use them for more complicated 
 operations. 1 
 
 The second reason for not relegating philosophy 
 entirely to the university, has been well stated by 
 Professor Elsperger. "If the gymnasia do not wish to 
 leave to chance the sort of ideas the pupils get from a 
 reading that is often enough desultory, and from inter- 
 course with others, then they need, in the highest 
 classes, a branch of study which gives them the ideas 
 needed. This can be attained only by elementary 
 training in philosophy. Mathematics can do nothing 
 in this direction, the study of L,atin and Greek liter- 
 
 1 Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 771. 
 (2. ed. vol. II, p. 668.) See also Willmann, Didaktik, vol. 
 II, pp. 142 foil. 
 
RKVISKD RATIO OF 1 83 2 AND I.ATKR REGULATIONS. 1 97 
 
 ature does something, but is not sufficient, and un- 
 fortunately, religion is to some extent mistrusted by 
 not a few teachers. Thus it happens that many of our 
 older pupils not only suffer shipwreck in their faith, 
 but leave college with that lamentable scepticism of 
 the uneducated, which views every nobler idea with 
 suspicion. This tendency of very many of our young 
 men can be counteracted only by a branch of study 
 which attacks that sceptical disposition, and forces the 
 pupil to obtain a deeper view of things. ' ' l 
 
 It is exactly for such reasons that the Society of 
 Jesus has kept the course of philosophy in its cur- 
 riculum of higher education. It agrees with Professor 
 Paulsen that elementary training in philosophy is 
 possible and necessary in higher schools. 2 About 
 the possibility, the Jesuits never could entertain the 
 least doubt, as for centuries they carried it out success- 
 fully, and at present are giving a solid philosophical 
 training in all their larger colleges. 
 
 The Revised Ratio of 1832 was in no way con- 
 sidered final. In the letter accompanying this Ratio, 
 Father General Roothaan, writes to the provinces: 
 "We offer to you the result of careful examinations 
 and discussions. You must test it practically that it 
 may be again corrected, if necessary, or enlarged, and 
 then be sanctioned as a universal law (for the 
 
 1 Blatter fur das bayerische Gymnasialwesen, vol. VII, 
 p. 41. (Paulseu, /. c., II, 667.) In recent years educators 
 demand more and more that college education should ter- 
 minate in a solid course of philosophy. See lyehmann, Er- 
 ziehung und Erzieher, Berlin, 1901. Paulsen, /. r., II, 
 664670. 
 
 2 L. c., vol. II, p. 666: "The lack of philosophical train- 
 ing makes itself felt more painfully every day among the 
 scientists, and in public life." 
 
198 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Society) . ' ' l Only by a decree of a General Congregation 
 of the Order is this sanction possible. Such a decree, 
 however, was not passed; consequently, the Revised 
 Ratio has not the force of a law in the Society, but is 
 merely to be considered as a regulation of the General. 
 So much liberty is left to Provincials that the teaching 
 in Jesuit colleges can easily be adapted to the educa- 
 tional needs of all countries. In 1853, the XXII. 
 Congregation of the Order passed a decree that "the 
 Provincials should be free to exercise the power granted 
 them by the 2Qth rule of making changes in the 
 studies, according to the demands of various coun- 
 tries and times. ' ' 2 The same decree ordered that 
 "new proposals for amendments be sent from the 
 single provinces and that the Ratio (of 1832) be revised 
 with the advice of learned and experienced men. ' ' 
 
 In the XXIII. Congregation, 1883, the study of 
 natural sciences was especially recommended. Among 
 others the following regulation was passed: "Those 
 scholastics [the younger members of the Order en- 
 gaged in studies] who seem to have a special talent 
 for any of these sciences, should be given a fourth 
 year, or special hours in the third year of their phil- 
 osophical course, to perfect themselves in that science 
 under the direction of a professor." y "It is advisable 
 to destine select younger members of the Society for 
 the acquisition of the degrees which empower them to 
 act as authorized public teachers." (State examina- 
 tions in the European Universities.) These special 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. II, pp. 228233. There it is also stated 
 expressly: "Some of these regulations are merely temporary"; 
 p. 232. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. I, p. 115. 
 
 3 Deer. XVII., Pachtler, vol. I, p. 121. 
 
RKVISKD RATIO OF 1832 AND I,ATR REGULATIONS. 199 
 
 subjects are to be pursued after the regular course of 
 studies has been finished. 1 Finally, it was asked 
 "that some regulations should be made as to special 
 studies in ancient languages, philology, ethnology, 
 archaeology, history, higher mathematics and all nat- 
 ural sciences." It was decreed that no "general 
 prescription could be made in this matter, but the 
 Provincials should confer with the General as to how 
 these studies should be arranged in the different pro- 
 vinces. At the same time the Congregation decrees 
 that, provided the customary studies of the Society, 
 and as far as possible, the preeminence of literary 
 studies remain intact in the classical schools, the pro- 
 gress and increased cultivation of those [special] 
 branches should be earnestly recommended to the 
 Provincials. It is also their duty to select those young 
 men, who have a special talent for these branches, 
 that they may devote themselves to them entirely. ' ' ' 2 
 
 From all that has been said so far, it becomes 
 evident that the Society is continually improving its 
 system, and adapting it to the conditions of the age. 
 It would also seem that it was inadvertence to these 
 more recent legislations which betrayed President 
 Eliot into the statement : "The curriculum of the 
 Jesuit colleges has remained almost unchanged for 
 four hundred years, disregarding some trifling conces- 
 sions made to natural sciences. ' ' 3 As the Ratio of 
 1832 has not been ratified by a Congregation, and as 
 a further revision has been demanded, we may expect 
 to hear in the future of further development in the 
 Jesuit system. 
 
 1 Deer. XXII., Pachtler, vol. I, p. 123. 
 
 Deer. XXIII., Pachtler, vol. I, p. 123. 
 3 Atlantic Monthly, October 1899. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Educational Work of the Jesuits in the 
 Nineteenth Century. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the Jesuits have not had 
 the same brilliant success as educators in the nine- 
 teenth century, as during the centuries preceding the 
 suppression of the Order. How is this to be explained ? 
 The opponents of the Order are ready with an answer : 
 "It is because the Jesuits have not kept up with the 
 progress of the age. Their whole system is not suited 
 to modern times. ' ' Even such as are not hostile to 
 the Society, have said that the Old Society took with 
 it into its grave the secret of its educational success. 
 However, a short reflection will give us the true 
 explanation. 
 
 The time of the suppression, a period of forty 
 years, forms a gap in the educational history of the 
 Society. These blank pages, as Father Hughes says, 
 signify the total loss of property and position, with 
 a vSeverance in many places of the educational tra- 
 ditions for almost sixty years, and the entire destruc- 
 tion of them in many other parts. l Restored, the 
 Society had to struggle into existence under altered 
 and unfavorable conditions. The schools in about 
 seven hundred cities and towns, which the Order had 
 possessed before its suppression, were now largely in 
 the hands of State authorities. And besides, the 
 nineteenth century was not a time of undisturbed peace 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 266. 
 
 (200) 
 
JKSUIT EDUCATION IN THE igth CENTURY. 2OI 
 
 for tlie Jesuits. There was a persecution going on- 
 against them nearly all the time in one country or 
 other. They were expelled from Spain in 1821, re- 
 admitted, but driven out again in 1835 and 1868; 
 expelled from Belgium 1818, from Russia 1820, from 
 Naples 1820, from France 1830 and 1880, from Por- 
 tugal 1834, from the Argentine Republic 1848, from 
 Switzerland 1847, from Austria 1848, from Italy 1848 
 and 1859, from New Granada 1850 and 1859, from 
 Guatemala 1871, from Germany 1872, from Nicaragua 
 1 88 1, from Costa Rica 1884, harassed in Spain and 
 Portugal during the last years, and driven out of 
 France owing to the "Laws of Associations." 
 
 All these persecutions seriously hampered the 
 educational work of the Jesuits. They frequently lost 
 a number of flourishing colleges forever, others had to 
 be commenced anew, when they were allowed to 
 return. Besides, in many cases, expulsion meant the 
 loss of libraries, observatories, and laboratories. Still, 
 in spite of these difficulties, at the end of the nine- 
 teenth century, they possess a respectable number of 
 colleges, scattered all over the world, from Zi-ka-wei 
 in China to Beirut in Syria, from Australia to Eng- 
 land and Ireland, from Argentina and Chili to Canada. 
 
 The development of the colleges of the Society in 
 the United States deserves a brief sketch. The first 
 Jesuit school in this country was opened in New York. 
 A Jesuit was the first priest, so far as records go, who 
 ever visited (1644) the island of Manhattan, now a 
 part of the city of New York. 1 He was the saintly 
 French missionary, Father Isaac Jogues, who was put 
 
 "* Rev. Henry A. Brann, D. D., in The College of St. 
 Francis Xavier, p. 1 foil. 
 
202 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to death in 1646 by the Mohawks at Auriesville. 
 Forty years after the martyrdom of Father Jogues, 
 three other Jesuits, Thomas Harvey, Henry Harrison, 
 and Charles Gage, were invited to New York by Gov- 
 ernor Dongan. These Fathers, true to the spirit of 
 the Society, soon established a classical school in 
 New York. It was situated apparently in what then 
 was called "King's Farm;" the site was subsequently 
 leased to Trinity Church. Governor Dongan, himself 
 an Irish Catholic, heartily patronized this school, 
 which was frequented by the sons of the best families 
 on Manhattan Island; the bell of the Dutch church in 
 the fort was rung to summon the pupils. l But the 
 clergy and the people of the Church of England, not 
 as friendly to the Jesuits as the Dutch Protestants, 
 attacked the school, and penal laws were passed ex- 
 pelling the Jesuits and other Catholic priests from the 
 island. It was enacted that priests " be deemed and 
 accounted incendiaries, disturbers of the peace and 
 safety, and enemies to the true Christian religion, and 
 shall be adjudged to suffer perpetual imprisonment." 2 
 This law put an end to the L,atin school of the Jesuits. 
 The second attempt made by the Jesuits to found a 
 classical school in New York occurred about the year 
 1808. The learned Father Kohlmann opened a little 
 school in Mulberry Street, but in 1817 the Jesuits were 
 recalled from New York to Washington, and it was 
 only in 1847, that the College of St. Francis Xavier 
 in New York was founded. 
 
 It is, however, not New York, but Maryland where 
 the first Jesuit school in the colonies and the first 
 
 1 Shea, The Catholic Church in Colonial Days, p. 91." 
 
 2 Brann, /. c., p. 2. 
 
JKSUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 203 
 
 Jesuit college in the United States was founded. In 
 1634 two Jesuit Fathers landed in the province which 
 George Calvert, L,ord Baltimore, had obtained from 
 the English crown. It was this province, Maryland, 
 1 'the asylum of the Papists/* as Bancroft says, " where 
 Protestants were sheltered against Protestant in- 
 tolerance." l But not long after, ungrateful men who 
 had fled from other colonies, and who had been wel- 
 comed in this province, turned on those who showed 
 hospitality to them, and a relentless war of persecution 
 was waged against the Catholic settlers of Maryland. 
 This hampered the development of Catholic education 
 greatly. Still, zeal for higher studies was never lack- 
 ing. In 1638, Father Poulton had been sent from 
 England as Superior of the Maryland Mission. One 
 of his first acts was the project of a seat of learning in 
 the colony. This was about the same time when the 
 initial movement was made to establish Harvard Col- 
 lege. But how different were the circumstances in 
 which Harvard and the Jesuit school developed ! The 
 one protected by the government, the other persecuted. 
 And yet, amidst all the trials and annoyances, the 
 Jesuits never ceased to labor for the intellectual train- 
 ing of the Catholics as well as for the religious. In 
 1651 we find their academy near Calvert Manor, in 
 1677 i n or about Newtown Manor; for the trials of 
 the times did not permit the school to be stationary. 
 In 1746 the Jesuits were driven out of Southern Mary- 
 land ; they crossed the Chesapeake Bay and immed- 
 
 1 History of the United States, vol. I, pp. 244248 
 (18th ed., Boston, 1864). However, on the ' 'toleration" in 
 Maryland see Griffin, Historical Researches, 1902, vol. XIX, 
 No. 4. 
 
204 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 lately opened their academy on the Eastern shore, at 
 Bohemia Manor. 
 
 In this school two men studied who became famous 
 in the history of America : Charles Carroll of Carroll- 
 ton, one of the signers of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence, and his cousin John Carroll, the first Archbishop 
 of Baltimore. As the institutions of learning in the 
 colonies and the great universities of England were in 
 those days closed to Catholic pupils, those who could 
 afford it, went to the European Continent. Thus John 
 and Charles Carroll went to the famous Jesuit college 
 at St. Omer in Flanders, where they won a high 
 reputation for their brilliant scholarship. After six 
 years study in that school, John entered the Society of 
 Jesus. Later on he spent a series of years as professor 
 in the colleges of St. Omer, L,iege and Bruges. The 
 suppression of the Society filled his heart with the 
 deepest grief. He went to England, where he was 
 received most heartily by L,ord Arundell and other 
 English noblemen. But when he saw that measures 
 were adopted by the English government, which more 
 and more alienated the American colonies from the 
 sovereign and parliament of Great Britain, Father 
 Carroll patriotically resolved to return to his native 
 country and share its trials and fortunes. The services 
 which he rendered to the nascent republic during the 
 war of the Revolution, especially his mission to Canada 
 with Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Chase and Charles 
 Carroll, need not be dwelled on here. 1 
 
 In 1784 Carroll was appointed Prefect Apostolic for 
 the Catholics in the United States. He immediately 
 
 1 See Shea, Life and Times of the Most Reverend John 
 Carroll, oh. IV. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE IQth CENTURY. 205 
 
 planned the establishment of an academy for higher 
 studies. The outcome of this plan was the foundation 
 of the College of Georgetown, near Washington, in 
 1789. In 1791 the doors of the college were opened 
 to students. The first pupil to enter was William 
 Gaston of North Carolina, who became a profound 
 scholar and a great orator. He entered the House of 
 Representatives in 1813, was a distinguished member 
 of the Federal party, and for many years adorned the 
 judicial bench of his native state. l Among others of 
 the pioneer pupils of Georgetown were Philemon 
 Charles Wederstrandt (later on commandant of the 
 "Argus"), Robert Walsh, an eminent writer who ably 
 defended American affairs against the misrepresenta- 
 tions of English writers, and founder of the first 
 American Quarterly: The American Review of History 
 and Politics. 2 When Washington honored George- 
 town College by a formal visit, Robert Walsh was 
 chosen to address him. 
 
 The college had been founded by Ex-Jesuits. 
 Many of the professors had joined the Society of Jesus, 
 which had been revived in Russia, and, at last, in 
 1814, Archbishop Carroll and the Fathers in George- 
 town received with joy and exultation the news of the 
 complete restoration of the Society. After this event, 
 Jesuit colleges began to multiply. In the year 1900 
 the Jesuits conducted twenty-six colleges, the principal 
 ones, besides Georgetown, being in Baltimore, Boston, 
 Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Denver, 
 Detroit, Fordham (New York), New Orleans, New 
 York, Omaha, St. I^ouis, St. Mary's (Kansas), San 
 
 Shea, History of Georgetown College, p. 15. 
 2 Shea, /. c. 
 
206 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Francisco, Santa Clara (California), Spokane, Spring 
 Hill (Mobile), Washington, Worcester (Massachu- 
 setts). In that same year over fifty-two thousand boys 
 were educated in Jesuit high schools and colleges all 
 over the world, that is nearly twice as many as in 
 Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, the 
 Universities of Chicago, Michigan, Pennsylvania, 
 Wisconsin, combined. 
 
 Some of the Jesuit institutions rank very high, 
 both for the number of pupils and for the excellent 
 results which they exhibit. The German Jesuits, 
 expelled from the "land of science and LehrfreiheitJ* 
 impart a higher education to more than five thousand 
 students in foreign countries. Their Francis-Xavier 
 College at Bombay, in 1897, numbered fifteen hundred 
 and twenty-six students ; ten hundred and two Chris- 
 tians ; two hundred and ninety Parsis ; one hundred 
 and seventy-one Hindoos ; fifty-four Mahometans ; 
 nine Jews. French Jesuits have two colleges in 
 Trichinopoli,East India. The one is frequented by 
 eighteen hundred students, among them five hundred 
 and fifty of the Brahmin caste. The English govern- 
 ment in India shows the Jesuits many favors for their 
 educational work. Not unfrequently the Viceroy, or 
 the Governor, visits the colleges and praises the work 
 of the teachers, and not a few Jesuits have been 
 appointed University examiners. 
 
 In Syria, the Jesuits conduct St. Joseph's Univer- 
 sity, Beirut. They have a printing establishment 
 there which probably holds the first rank among those 
 of the Orient. A French" admiral calls it "a creation 
 which is the symbol of the union of the two greatest 
 forces in the world, religion and science ; an establish- 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 207 
 
 nient which is the pride of France, as well as of the 
 Catholic Church. " 1 A Protestant Review in Germany 
 writes : "The progress which, owing to this establish- 
 ment, the Arabic literature has made, cannot be 
 ignored. ' ' 2 The latest catalogue has four hundred 
 and four numbers, of all sorts of Arabic and Syriac 
 works, grammars, dictionaries, etc. Some of the works 
 edited by these Jesuits, are at present used in the 
 lectures in the University of Berlin. 3 
 
 Another great Jesuit school in the East is Zi-ka- 
 wei, near Shanghai, China. The educational labors 
 of the Jesuits in this institution have been acknowl- 
 edged by distinguished Protestant visitors. In 1898 
 Prince Henry of Prussia, on his first landing in 
 Shanghai, paid a visit to this establishment. He spent 
 nearly a whole day with the Fathers, and frankly ex- 
 pressed his admiration at the splendid work they were 
 doing. In fact, he was so impressed by what he had 
 seen, that again and again after his visit, he would 
 return to the subject and talk about the work of "those 
 excellent French Jesuits. ' ' It soured a few German 
 fanatics somewhat against him, when reports began to 
 be printed in the German papers, to the effect that 
 Prince Henry had spoken kindly of the hated Jesuits. 
 But this bigotry did not influence Prince Henry. 
 Princess Irene, his wife, having the next year rejoined 
 her husband in China, they paid a second visit to 
 Zi-ka-wei, which is briefly related in the following 
 terms : "On the i2th of March, 1899, Prince Henry of 
 Prussia, and the Princess, his wife, arrived at Shanghai; 
 
 1 A terre et d bord, par Tamiral Aube, 1894, p. 45. 
 
 2 Literarisches Centralblatt, 1890, No. 42. 
 
 3 Braunsberger, S. J., Rilckblick auf das katholische 
 Ordenswesen im 19. Jahrhundert, (Herder, 1901) p. 150. 
 
208 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the next morning they hastened to pay a visit to 
 Zi-ka-wei. The Prince told us that he had said such 
 nice things to the Princess about the establishments 
 at Zi-ka-wei that she wished to visit them at once. ' ' l 
 
 The following comparison, made by an English 
 Protestant, Laurence Oliphant, speaks well for the 
 educational labors of the Jesuits : * ' I was struck with 
 the intelligent expression of the youths' countenances 
 in the Jesuit school at Shanghai, and at the evident 
 affection they had for their teachers. Instead of cram- 
 ming nothing but texts down their throats, they teach 
 them the Chinese classics, Confucius, etc., so as to 
 enable them to compete in the public examinations. 
 The result is, that even if these native youths do not 
 all become Christians, they have always gratitude 
 enough to protect and love those to whom they owed 
 their education, and perhaps consequent rise in life. 
 A few days later I went over the school of the Protes- 
 tant Bishop. The contrast was most striking. The 
 small boys gabbled over the Creed in what was sup- 
 posed to be English, but which L,ord Elgin, who was 
 with me, was firmly persuaded was Chinese. They 
 understood probably about as clearly as they pro- 
 nounced. Then instead of the missionaries living 
 among them, and really identifying themselves with 
 the lads, as the Jesuits do, they have gorgeous houses, 
 wives and families. A Protestant missionary here, 
 with a wife and four children, gets a house as big as 
 Spring Grove, rent free, and ^500 a year. And that 
 is what they call 'giving up all for the sake of the 
 heathen V 2 
 
 1 The Messenger, New York, March 1902, p. 335. 
 
 2 Memoir of the Life of Laurence Oliphant (New York, 
 Harper, 1891), vol. I, p. 229. 
 
JKSUIT EDUCATION IN THE) IQtll CENTURY. 209 
 
 This is clearly another proof for what was said in 
 a previous chapter, 1 that the religious state affords 
 many advantages for educational work, at least in 
 missionary countries. Here we must add that the 
 educational labors of the Jesuits in those countries are 
 not confined to higher instruction. Many lay-brothers 
 give elementary instructions in the schools, 2 and the 
 priests give catechetical instruction in hundreds of 
 such schools, which in many other ways are directed 
 by them. In February 1901, fifteen scholars of Paris, 
 Professors in the University or members of the In- 
 stitut de France, among them the celebrated Paul 
 Sabatier, Dean of the Protestant Theological Faculty, 
 issued a declaration in favor of the religious associa- 
 tions. A list is added about the educational work in 
 foreign countries under the direction of French Jesuits. 
 The total given there is 3,923 schools, or orphan 
 asylums, with 156,256 children, and all this is done 
 by the French Jesuits alone. Of their 193 schools in 
 Syria in particular, the Protestant Literarische Central- 
 blatt of L,eipsic says, "that they are now the best in 
 Syria." 3 Therefore, that the Order is doing very 
 great work for civilization, is evident. Of the 15,160 
 members of the Order (in 1900) about 4000 were 
 laboring in foreign missions ; and this work, in most 
 cases, means also work directed toward the education 
 of the native people. 
 
 In this connection we may quote the striking 
 tribute, paid by an American politician to the educa- 
 tional work of the Jesuits among the Indians. On 
 April 7, 1900, Senator Vest of Missouri, during the 
 
 1 See chapter III, pp. 8998. 
 
 2 See above pp. 104106. 
 
 1 Braunsberger, /. c., p. 115. 
 14 
 
210 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 discussion of the Indian Appropriation Bill before the 
 United States Senate, made the following remarkable 
 statements : { ( I was raised a Protestant ; I expect to 
 die one ; I was never in a Catholic church in my life, 
 and I have not the slightest sympathy with many of 
 its dogmas ; but, above all, I have no respect for this 
 insane fear that the Catholic church is about to over- 
 turn this Government. I should be ashamed to call 
 myself an American, if I indulged in any such igno- 
 rant belief. I said that I was a Protestant. I was 
 reared in the old Scotch Presbyterian Church ; my 
 father was an elder in it, and my earliest impressions 
 were that the Jesuits had horns and hoofs and tails, 
 and that there was a faint tinge of sulphur in the 
 circumambient air whenever one crossed your path. 
 Some years ago I was assigned by the Senate to 
 examine the Indian schools in "Wyoming and Montana. 
 I visited every one of them. I wish to say now what 
 I have said before in the Senate, and it is not the pop- 
 ular side of the question by any means, that / did not 
 see in all my journey a single school that was doing any 
 educational work worthy the name of educational ivork, 
 unless it was under the control of the Jesuits. I did not 
 see a single Government school, especially these day 
 schools, where there was any work done at all. . . . 
 The Jesuits have elevated the Indian wherever they 
 have been allowed to do so without interference of 
 bigotry, and fanaticism, and the cowardice of insec- 
 tivorous politicians who are afraid of the A. P. A. 
 and the votes that can be cast against them in their 
 district and States. They have made him a Christian 
 and, above even that, have made him a workman able 
 to support himself and those dependent upon him. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE IQth CENTURY. 211 
 
 Go to the Flathead Reservation in Montana .... and 
 look at the work of the Jesuits, and what is seen? 
 You find comfortable dwellings, herds of cattle and 
 horses, intelligent, self-respecting Indians. ... I am 
 not afraid to say this, because I speak from personal 
 observation, and no man ever went among these 
 Indians with more intense prejudice against the Jesuits 
 than I had when I left the city of Washington to 
 perform that duty. . . . Every dollar you give to these 
 [Government] day schools might as well be thrown 
 into the Potomac River under a ton of lead. ' ' l 
 
 When men who have been able to achieve the 
 almost impossible, the education and civilization of 
 the Indian, undertake the task of secondary education 
 among civilized nations with the same zeal and energy, 
 must we not expect that they will perform this success- 
 fully? If we add that, owing to their studies, special 
 training and natural inclinations, they are even better 
 fitted for the work of higher education, than for that 
 of civilizing the Indian, is it then likely that they are 
 so inefficient as some represent them ? 
 
 Let us, then, see the results of a number of Jesuit 
 colleges. I wish to remark, however, that the account 
 in no respect can be called complete, or even satisfac- 
 tory. What is given on the next pages, was found, 
 sometimes accidentally, in various publications. More 
 material was available about the schools of the British 
 Empire, where the relative efficiency of a school can 
 be fairly tested b}' the University Examinations. 2 
 
 1 From the Congressional Record for April 7, 1900, page 
 4120 (Italics ours). 
 
 2 The data, unless stated otherwise, were communicated 
 to the Woodstock Letters. 
 
212 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The Tablet (T v ondon), April 26, 1902, prints the 
 following : 
 
 "The following Catholic names appear on the 
 Classical Honours list issued in April by the Modera- 
 tors at Oxford. The names appear in alphabetical 
 order. 
 
 CLASS I. J. W. Glassson, Corpus Christi ; C. C. 
 I/attey, Pope's Hall ; I. C. Scoles, Pope's Hall. 
 
 CLASS II. H. E. Tulford, Balliol ; E. J. Kylie, 
 Balliol ; C. D. Plater, Pope's Hall. 
 
 From this it will be seen that the Jesuit students 
 from Pope's Hall, formerly Clarke's Hall, achieved a 
 success which, considering the size of the Hall, is 
 probably a record in the history of the University. 
 The Hall which has room for only a dozen students, 
 divStributed over the whole four years' course, was re- 
 presented by three candidates at the recent examina- 
 tion, and all these were successful. Indeed, the Hall, 
 which was opened by the late Father Richard Clarke, 
 S. J. , only six years ago, has had a history during that 
 time of which very large colleges in the University 
 might be justly proud. Starting with four students 
 in 1896, of whom two broke down in health, the first 
 examination at which the Hall presented candidates 
 was Moderations in 1898, when one of the two ob- 
 tained ist class honours, and the other 2nd class 
 honours in Classics. In 1899 the Hall secured one 
 ist class honours in Mathematical Moderations, one 
 2nd class honours and one 3rd class honours in Clas- 
 sics. In 1900 the score was one ist class and one 
 2nd class honours in Classical "Greats" the final 
 degree examination ; one ist class in Mathematical 
 Moderations, and one 2nd class in Classical Modera- 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9tll CENTURY. 213 
 
 tions. In 1901, one ist in Mathematical Greats, and 
 one ist and one 2nd in Classical Moderations. As 
 nearly all these young Jesuits have been educated 
 either at Stonyhurst, at Beaumont, or at Mount St. 
 Mary's, such excellent results, as soon as they are 
 brought into open competition with the picked students 
 of all the leading public schools, who are the holders 
 of the innumerable scholarships in the University, go 
 to show that after all our Catholic colleges are, to say 
 the least, not so very far behind the best Protestant 
 schools in the country, either in the soundness of their 
 general education, or in the special culture of the 
 classics. ' ' 
 
 In Ireland there are several richly endowed Prot- 
 estant foundations : the Queen's Colleges of Cork, 
 Galway, and Belfast, the last, one of the best equipped 
 institutions of learning in the British Empire ; the 
 three Colleges draw an annual revenue of about $125,- 
 ooo to support a score of distinguished Professors in 
 each. The Jesuits conduct the University College of 
 Stephens Green, Dublin. For many years University 
 College routed from the field the Queen's Colleges of 
 Cork and Galway, and was surpassing gradually that 
 of Belfast, although this one made a noble fight. In 
 the two examinations of the Royal University of 1895, 
 the Jesuit college won 67 distinctions, while the 
 Queen's College of Belfast gained a total of 57. Uni- 
 versity College bore off all the first places in mathe- 
 matics, the first two places in English, and the first 
 honors in mathematical physics and chemistry, in 
 classics the first place in First Arts, and the first and 
 second places in Second Arts. Of the sixteen medical 
 honors awarded, University College secured nine, the 
 
214 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 remaining seven were divided between her Majesty's 
 privileged institutions. This despite the many dis- 
 advantages of University College through the lack of 
 laboratories and museums, which the Government at 
 lavish expense has provided for the Protestant rivals. 1 
 The success of the following year was equally brilliant. 
 In the first and second Arts Examination of 1897 
 University College gained 51 distinctions, Belfast 46, 
 Gal way 18, Cork 6. Of the 51 distinctions 32 are in 
 the first class (only 16 of Belfast's), and among them 
 first place in no fewer than 9 subjects. In the M. A. 
 Examination three out of the four studentships 
 awarded, five out of the six first class honors awarded, 
 the only two special prizes awarded, two out of the 
 three gold medals, all went to University College. It 
 bore away 13 out of the 18 distinctions conferred. 
 In the B. A. Examinations : 
 
 1st Honors. 2nd Honors. Total. 
 
 University College. 4 13 17 
 
 Queen's College, Belfast 3 13 16 
 
 " " Cork nil. nil. nil. 
 
 " " Galway.... nil. 4 4 
 
 Taking the whole of the arts examination for the 
 Academic year, we find University College first on the 
 list with 82 distinctions, as compared with 63 for Bel- 
 fast, 25 for Galway, and 7 for Cork. And University 
 College has a comparatively small number of students, 
 many of whom can attend only the night classes. 
 
 In Autumn 1898 once again the little unendowed 
 University College of the Jesuits outdistanced the 
 endowed rivals, and this time more than ever. But it 
 is not merely in the number of distinctions, though 
 that exceeds the combined results of all its three 
 
 1 Woodstock Letters, 1895, p. 504. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 215 
 
 rivals, but in their quality that University College 
 stands pre-eminent. The College got first and second 
 places over all competitors in classics and mathematics, 
 first place in history and political economy, and in 
 modern literature. This last distinction is enhanced 
 by the fact that the standard has been growing higher 
 year after year, and this year the papers exceeded in 
 difficulty any hitherto set. 
 
 The following list tells best the result : 
 
 AUTUMN: JL .& 
 
 _r] .pgj TH 
 
 Honors and Exhibitions. 
 
 ^ cfl ^ 
 
 "~lst Class. 2nd Class? . * a 3 
 
 f_) J3 (L) Q 
 
 CO CO PH H 
 
 University 
 
 College 13 4 3 1 1 22 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Belfast 4 6 1 1 1 13 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Galway 3 0104 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Cork 2 1003 
 
 JUNE AND AUTUMN COMBINED: .& .& 
 
 Honors and Exhibitions. S 
 1st Class. 2nd Class. " :U 3 
 
 O f O 
 
 CO CO fe {H 
 
 University 
 
 College 35 37 31 L 77 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Belfast 25 37 1 1 1 65 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Galway ,. 4 9 1 14 
 
 Queen's 
 
 Coll., Cork 23 1 24 
 
 In 1896 the Jesuit college of Clongowes, in the 
 Intermediate Examination, where 8877 students pre- 
 
2l6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sented themselves, held the foremost place of all the 
 schools and colleges of Ireland with a total of 45 dis- 
 tinctions. Also in 1897 ft outdistanced all competitors 
 in the highest grade, winning the "Blue Ribbon" of 
 the examination, the highest honor in the senior grade. 
 From India similar results are reported from various 
 Jesuit colleges, for instance from St. Xavier's College, 
 Calcutta, the College of Darjeeling, St. Francis 
 Xavier's College, Bombay. Last year (1901), the 
 number of candidates for "matriculation examination" 
 in the whole Presidency of Bombay was 3806; of these 
 only 1217 passed (32 per ct.). The Jesuits of St. Fran- 
 cis Xavier's, Bombay, had sent for the examination 43; 
 of these 34 passed (79 per ct.). In 1899 St. Joseph's 
 College, North Point, Darjeeling, secured the only 
 vacancy, at the "Opium Examination," and the first 
 place at the "Accounts Examination," with these 
 two ten first places at the Public Examinations, which 
 is all the more creditable as the College is but seven 
 or eight years old. Most gratifying successes are 
 reported also from the Jesuit colleges in Australia. 
 
 Coming nearer home, we have to speak of little 
 St. Boniface College, Manitoba. In 1897 ft could 
 insert the following advertisement in the "North- West 
 Review," which is carefully read by the Protestants of 
 Winnipeg, who could not challenge the advertise- 
 ment' : 
 
 "St. Boniface College. The only Catholic 
 College in America that competes annually with 
 half a dozen Protestant Colleges and Collegiate 
 Institutions. In proportion to the number of 
 its pupils, St. Boniface College has won more 
 scholarships than any of its Protestant com- 
 petitors. ' ' 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE I9tll CENTURY. 217 
 
 The Governor's Bronze Medal has been awarded 
 twenty-two times from 1879 to 1900. Seven out of 
 these twenty-two times it has been won by a student 
 from St. Boniface College. Considering that, during 
 all these years, the candidates from St. Boniface Col- 
 lege were in an extremely small minority about one 
 in twenty-two, or four and one-half per cent on an 
 average, this proportion of seven out of twenty-two, 
 almost a third, struck every one, especially the op- 
 ponent, as very extraordinary. Had St. Boniface 
 won that medal, the most highly valued of all the 
 University distinctions, once in twenty-two years, the 
 Catholic college would have been doing well, would 
 have had its fair share of success. Manitoba College 
 (Presbyterian), the largest of all the colleges, which 
 sometimes boasts of as many students as all the other 
 colleges put together, has won the medal only three 
 times. Then the proportionate value of Latin and 
 Greek was lowered ; the classics were a strong point 
 at St. Boniface. But St. Boniface nevertheless secured 
 the medal two years in succession. Then Greek, 
 hitherto obligatory on all, was made optional after a 
 long fight, in which St. John's College (Anglican) 
 sided with St. Boniface against this innovation. The 
 result of this move, coupled with the preponderance 
 of mathematics and chemistry over Latin alone, pre- 
 vented St. Boniface from winning the medal for seven 
 years, although its students often headed the list in 
 special subjects. But 1899 an d 1900 the St. Boniface 
 students forged ahead again, and won the medal two 
 years running. 
 
 During the vacation of 1900, a change has occurred 
 in the statute that concerns the University scholar- 
 
21 8 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ships. Hitherto the winners of scholarships had been 
 listed in the order of merit, with the mention of the 
 college or school to which they belonged. Now all 
 the winners were to be arranged alphabetically, with 
 no mention of the institutions to which they belong. 
 Several reasons were given for this change, but the 
 suspicion has been expressed that the real motive was 
 to prevent the Jesuit college from occupying so large 
 a place in the public eye. 1 It may appear unfair to 
 make such a charge ; however, such suspicions have 
 been expressed by men who are not Jesuits, nor biased 
 towards the Society. Thus, about twenty years ago, 
 Albert Duruy said of the movement against religious 
 orders in France and the Jesuits in particular: ' With- 
 out proofs, without thorough inspection, they slander 
 and accuse the congregations. . . They do not try to 
 compete with them, they find it simpler to suppress 
 them." 2 In fact, the recent movement in France 
 against religious orders has been ascribed, undoubtedly 
 with good reasons, to the same motive. 
 
 A few years ago there was an attempt made in France 
 to introduce a Bill to suppress the religious schools, 
 which (at the expense of the State schools) were gaining 
 more and more in public favor. A Parliamentary com- 
 mission was then appointed which was presided over by 
 M. Ribot, and which took a quantity of very valuable 
 evidence from various witnesses. Nothing, however, as 
 may be seen from M. Ribot 's report, 3 was established 
 against the Jesuits or any other religious schools ; on 
 
 1 From the North- West Review, August 22, 1900. 
 
 2 Revue des Deux Mondes, 1880, I. 
 
 3 La reforme de V enseignement secondaire. Armand 
 Colin, Paris. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE IQth CENTURY. 219 
 
 the contrary, they were in several respects held up as 
 an example to the State schools, even by distinguished 
 adherents of the latter. Such results were naturally 
 deemed highly unsatisfactory by the anti-religious 
 party, and accordingly for the time being the con- 
 templated legislation was shelved. When M. Waldeck- 
 Rousseau undertook it and enlarged it, he was careful 
 to avoid anything so dangerous to his designs as an- 
 other judicial inquiry into the facts. 1 Now, if any 
 proofs could have been found showing the inefficiency 
 of the Jesuit schools, it is certain that M. Waldeck- 
 Rousseau would have made the best of such evidence. 
 
 The fact that he says nothing of it, is a sure sign 
 that no such proofs are procurable even by the minutest 
 examinations. Hence it follows that the Jesuit schools 
 were, at the very least, as efficient as the State schools. 
 
 Instead of proofs, such hollow and absurd declara- 
 tions were made: " Religious possess an independence 
 which gradually will lead to the usurpation of all 
 authority. They dare even the dignitaries of the 
 Church. The education which they give separates a 
 part of youth from the rest, and thus the moral unity 
 of the country is rent. ' ' 2 The question ought to have 
 been: "Are the youths, educated by religious, by 
 Jesuits, less instructed, less moral, less patriotic?" 
 To this question the answer has been given decidedly 
 in the negative. We shall have occasion to speak of 
 the patriotism of French Jesuit pupils ; their morality 
 has been most favorably compared to that of pupils of 
 other schools whereas in M. Ribot's report a dis- 
 
 1 The Tablet, Nov. 2, 1901, p. 698. 
 
 ! Speech of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, quoted by du Lac, 
 pp. 88 sq. 
 
220 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 tinguished adherent of the State school system de- 
 clares that in these State schools the pupils are "mo- 
 ralemenl abandonnfa" . As regards the intellectual 
 ability shown by Jesuit pupils, it will suffice to see the 
 lists of the successes obtained by them in the Ecole 
 Centrale, the Poly technique, the Military Academy of 
 Saint-Cyr, and the Ecole Navale. 1 
 
 The following statement will illustrate how the 
 anti-clerical press fabricated proofs of the inefficiency 
 of Jesuit colleges ; it shows also that Jesuit pupils are 
 not behind others in branches other than classics, 
 mathematics and sciences. In 1875 a student in the 
 law school at Poitiers published these facts : "A short 
 time ago the journal of M. Gambetta, the R6publique 
 frangaise, had taken the trouble to occupy itself with 
 the Law Faculty at Poitiers and its students. Accord- 
 ing to M. Gambetta the said school comprises two 
 clearly distinct classes of students : those from the 
 Lycees, and those from the Jesuit colleges. The latter 
 are good for nothing and obtain no prizes, whereas 
 the former carry off all the laurels. Now in point of 
 fact, at the distribution of prizes in the lav/ school for 
 1874-75, which took place last Thursday, the reports 
 show the following results : In the 3rd year, the 2nd 
 prize for French Law and the 2nd prize for Roman 
 Law were awarded to a Jesuit pupil. In the 2nd year, 
 of the four distinctions two were given to Jesuit pupils. 
 In the ist year, all five distinctions, two medals and 
 three honorable mentions, were awarded to Jesuit 
 pupils." 2 
 
 1 Du Lac, Jesuites, p. 250 foil. 
 
 2 Univers, Paris, December 2, 1875. For high praise 
 bestowed oil Jesuit pupils by University Examiners in France, 
 
KDUC ATION IN THK igth CENTURY. 221 
 
 Within the last two or three decades, neither the 
 Jesuit colleges nor the schools of the other Congrega- 
 tions in France were inferior to the State schools. 
 The very contrary is true, as may be seen from the 
 remarkable testimony of an anti-clerical writer in the 
 Contemporary Review. 1 The article, ' 'Monastic Orders 
 up to Date," is filled with virulence against the re- 
 ligious orders, the Roman Congregations, and the 
 Catholic Church in general. Yet the superiority of 
 the schools of the religious over the State schools is 
 candidly admitted. Speaking of the charges brought 
 against the religious orders in France, the writer 
 says : "The members of these communities have, it is 
 said, taken elementary, intermediate, and technical 
 education into their own hands, are successfully pre- 
 paring youths for schools, professions, and university 
 degrees, and supply both army and navy with officers. 
 The official report on the Budget of Instruction for 
 1899, querulously affirms that they and their schools 
 act as a sort of drain upon the natural clients of the 
 University. But why should they not? They are 
 more successful than their lay competitors, and more 
 deserving of success. If the education which they 
 give be very imperfect, and it is sometimes this and 
 more, it is on the whole the best that is to be had in 
 the country. I^ay instruction in France is purely 
 mechanical, that given by the Congregations is living 
 and human. Both aim at cramming, but the religious 
 teachers do their work efficiently and successfully, 
 their rivals with a degree of slovenliness which is in- 
 
 see Figaro, April 5 and June 2, 1879 ; De Badts de Cugnac, 
 Les Jesuites et V education, pp. 17, 19 foil. 
 1 March, 1900, p. 441. 
 
222 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 credible. . . Under such conditions one is not sur- 
 prised to learn that the Congregations supply one- 
 fourth of the pupils of the famous Ecole Poly technique, 
 one-third of the students of Saint-Cyr, and one-half of 
 the graduates of the Naval School. The religious 
 communities have fairly won these triumphs by dint 
 of hard work under conditions laid down by their 
 enemies and applied by their opponents." 
 
 Twenty years ago the London Times had made a 
 statement to the same effect, when Ferry tried to 
 suppress the Jesuit schools in France. "We should 
 have liked to see a frank admission on the part of 
 prominent members of the L,eft, of the real causes of 
 the success of the ecclesiastical schools. It is no use t 
 of putting it down to wiles and artifices of any kind. 
 The perversity, or bad taste, or stupidity of the multi- 
 tude will not explain it. The simple truth seems to 
 be that the schools of the Jesuits and other religious 
 bodies are better in many respects than their com- 
 petitors. They satisfy parents and boys more than 
 the Lyctes do. The traditional skill in teaching of 
 the Jesuits is not extinct. They are, as a rule, at 
 more pains than lay professors, with many interests to 
 occupy them, to know and study the nature of their 
 pupils. It is their habit to pay attention to the morals 
 as well as the intellectual training of the lads com- 
 mitted to their charge." 1 Such admissions, coming 
 from such sources, speak volumes for the schools of 
 the religious and of the Jesuits in particular. 
 
 These are a few facts about the results obtained by 
 Jesuit colleges in recent years. As they concern 
 colleges in various countries over -the globe, directed 
 
 1 London Times, July 8, 1879, p. 9. 
 
JKSUIT EDUCATION IN THE igth CENTURY. 223 
 
 by Jesuits of different provinces of the Order, they 
 bespeak certainly no inefficiency of the Jesuits' teach- 
 ing. Can we not conclude that, were there a similar 
 system of public examination in this country, the 
 Jesuit colleges in the United States would exhibit 
 similar success? 
 
 On December 12, 1900, the Juniors of a Jesuit 
 Institution, of Holy Cross College, Worcester, Massa- 
 chusetts, defeated in a debate the Juniors of Harvard. 
 The victory of Holy Cross was all the more remarkable 
 as Harvard a week before had won the debate from 
 Yale on the very same question, "On the permanent 
 retention of the Philippine Islands." On April 8, 
 1901, the Freshmen and Sophomores of the same 
 College again came off victorious in a debate with a 
 Freshman-Sophomore team of Brown University. 1 
 Although we do not want to draw from such debates 
 any conclusions for the superiority of the Jesuit col- 
 lege, still they deserve to be recorded, because the 
 Jesuit college was victorious over Harvard, shortly 
 after the President of Harvard University had charged 
 the Jesuit colleges with inefficiency. 2 
 
 1 The judges of the debate were G. Stanley Hall, Presi- 
 dent of Clark University ; Hon. John R. Thayer, member of 
 Congress, and Professor Charles F. Adams of the Massachu- 
 setts State Normal School. President Abercombie of Worces- 
 ter Academy presided. None of these gentlemen is a Catholic^ 
 
 2 The unqualified slurs of President Eliot against the 
 Jesuit colleges were ably refuted by Rev. Timothy Brosnahan, 
 S. J., Professor of Ethics at Woodstock College, Maryland^ 
 in his pamphlet: President Eliot and Jesuit Colleges, Mes- 
 senger Press, New York, p. 36. The reception given to this 
 booklet was remarkable. We refer the reader to a criticism 
 in the Bookman, April 1900, by Professor Peck of Columbia 
 University, N. Y. We quote only one little passage from 
 
224 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The American Ecclesiastical Review , August 1900, 
 gave an account of the controversy between President 
 Eliot and the Jesuit colleges, in which it was proved 
 that the President's charges were not based on any 
 facts which could justify his measures against the 
 Jesuit institutions. Professor Eliot had declared, "we 
 have had experience at the L,aw School of a consider- 
 able number of graduates of Holy Cross and Boston, 
 and these graduates have not, as a rule, made good 
 records at the School." Now the truth is that in the 
 ten years preceding the time of the final decision of 
 the L,aw School regarding Boston College (March, 
 1898), there were only three graduates of Boston Col- 
 lege in the L,aw School, of whom one left after two 
 years, one left with an excellent record after one year 
 on account of ill-health, and one completed the course 
 and received his diploma. In all the time before these 
 
 Prof. Peck's article : " Altogether we have not in a long time 
 read anything which compacts into so small a compass so 
 much dialectic skill, so much crisp and convincing argument, 
 and so much educational good sense. We hope that President 
 Eliot has been reading this over very carefully himself. He 
 has been so long an autocrat in his own particular microcosm 
 as apparently to make him somewhat careless when he 
 addresses a larger public. In this case he has certainly been 
 evolving argumentative material out of his inner conscious- 
 ness, in the spirit of the person who first said tant pis pour 
 les faits ; and it is just as well that for once in a way he 
 should have been brought up with a good round turn. As the 
 information would probably never reach him from Harvard 
 sources, we may gently convey to him the information that 
 throughout the entire country professional educators, and 
 men and women of cultivation generally, are immensely 
 amused at the cleverness with which his alleged facts and his 
 iridescent theories have been turned into a joke." 
 
JKSUIT EDUCATION IN THE} 1 9th CENTURY. 225 
 
 ten years, only two or three graduates of Boston Col- 
 lege entered the I,aw School. The facts in the case, 
 therefore, do not bear out President Eliot's statement 
 that "a considerable number of Boston College gradu- 
 ates have been at the Law School and have made poor 
 records. ' ' President Eliot has at several times given 
 as his reason for the rejection of Boston College and 
 Holy Cross, that their students were inferior. This 
 charge has been answered by Father Brosnahan in his 
 paper on The Relative Merits of Courses in Catholic and 
 non-Catholic Colleges for the Baccalaureate, read before 
 the conference of Catholic Colleges April 1901 at 
 Chicago. 1 From the preceding data we may certainly 
 conclude that so far the " inferiority" of Jesuit schools 
 has not yet been proved, and that the facts do not 
 warrant the assertions about the "inefficiency of the 
 Jesuit system for modern times. ' ' 
 
 In connection with the educational labors of the 
 Jesuits in the nineteenth century, we must not fail to 
 mention briefly their literary and scientific work during 
 that period. There are several reasons .for treating of 
 this in a work on Jesuit education. First, because the 
 Jesuit scholars are a product of the Jesuit system; 
 secondly, because some of them were teachers in col- 
 leges during the greater part of their lives, and all for 
 at least five or six years ; thirdly, because their case 
 proves how highly the Society values, and how freely 
 it cultivates the various departments of science. It is 
 easy to understand that the frequent persecutions and 
 expulsions from many countries are most injurious and 
 
 This paper has been published separately with the 
 title The Courses leading to the Baccalaureate in Harvard 
 and Boston Colleges. 
 15 
 
226 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 unfavorable to the cultivation of science, which requires 
 above all what the Romans called otium. Moreover, 
 as the Jesuits lost in several expulsions even their 
 libraries, museums, and observatories, v. g. the famous 
 Museo Kircheriano in Rome, and the observatory where 
 Seech i had served the cause of science for so many 
 years, they were greatly hampered in their researches. 
 It is all the more remarkable to see that the Jesuits 
 achieved so much in the various fields of science, in 
 spite of these difficulties. It betokens almost a heroic 
 enthusiasm for science that these men patiently con- 
 tinue their investigations and start new enterprises, 
 even in countries where the hostile attitude of legis- 
 lative assemblies is like the sword of Damocles hang- 
 ing over them. 
 
 In this brief sketch of Jesuit scholars we mention 
 only such as were distinguished for productive scholar- 
 ship within the last twenty -five or thirty years. 
 Among the scientists of this period we mention first 
 Father Angelo Secchi, who was one of the foremost 
 astronomical observers of the nineteenth century. 
 Educated and trained from early youth by the Jesuits, 
 he soon became known by his publications on solar 
 physics and meteorology. l He wrote several impor- 
 tant works, among them Le Soleil, a standard work 
 on the sun, Les Etoiles, UUnitb des Forces physiques, 
 and more than eight hundred articles in scientific 
 periodicals of Italy, France, England and Germany. 2 
 He has been called "the Father of Astro-physics", on 
 
 1 See Nature, London 1878, vol. XVII, p. 370. 
 
 2 Bibliography in SommervogePs Bibliotheque , vol. VII, 
 columns 993 1031. Biography and criticism of Secchi's 
 greater works, by Moigno, Vie de Pere Secchi, Paris, 1879. 
 Pohle, P. Angelo Secchi, Cologne, 1883. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THK I9tll CENTURY. 227 
 
 account of his spectro-scopical observations of the sun 
 and the fixed stars. The ingenious meteorographic 
 apparatus, a self-recording instrument for meteoro- 
 logical observations, which Father Secchi constructed, 
 caused a sensation in the Paris exposition of 1867, and 
 received the first prize ( 100,000 francs). The interest- 
 ing instrument is now in St. Ignatius College, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, where it is used by Father Odenbach, 
 S. J. , for meteorological observations. When the Pied- 
 montese took Rome in 1870, the Roman College and 
 its observatory were taken from the Jesuits. The new 
 government did all in its power to separate Father 
 Secchi from the cause of the Pope and from his Order. 
 He was offered the position of Director-General of all 
 astronomical observatories in Italy, the dignity of 
 senator, etc. But all these flattering offers could not 
 estrange the noble priest from his benefactor Pius IX. , 
 and his persecuted Order. He preferred to remain 
 loyal to them, although he had to suffer mean and 
 paltry annoyances. For the rest, the indignation 
 roused in Italy and all over Europe, prevented the 
 government from expelling Father Secchi from his 
 beloved observatory. During an earlier expulsion of 
 the Jesuits from Italy 1848-9, Father Secchi had been 
 Professor of physics and astronomy in Georgetown 
 College, Washington, D. C. This College possesses 
 at present in Father Hagen a scholar who is highly 
 esteemed in mathematical and astronomical circles. 
 His great works, the Atlas Stellarum Varidbilium and 
 his Synopsis der hoheren Mathematik, are most favor- 
 ably spoken of by scientists. 1 
 
 1 Father Hagen's Synopsis has been called a * 'splendid 
 contribution to the history and progress of mathematics," 
 
228 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Another prominent astronomer was Father Perry, 
 Professor of higher mathematics and Director of the 
 observatory of Stonyhurst College, England. He is 
 especially known, as was Father Secchi, for his labors 
 in the domain of solar pl^sics. The English Govern- 
 ment and learned societies sent him frequently on 
 scientific journeys, and at the time of his death it was 
 stated that he had been employed on more scientific 
 expeditions than any living astronomer. He was sent 
 as Father Hell in 1769 to observe the Transit of 
 Venus (in 1874 and 1882), further, to observe the 
 total eclipses in 1870, 1886, 1887, and 1889. It was 
 on the expedition of 1889, on H. M. S. Comus, that 
 Father Perry died, a martyr for the cause of science. 
 Scientific men spoke with admiration of the pains- 
 taking preparations of his expeditions, his accuracy 
 and skill in observations, and his enthusiastic love for 
 
 Nature, London, June 7, 1894; "a colossal enterprise," Re- 
 vue Bibliographique Beige, Sept. 30, 1891; "a really grand 
 work," Professor Cantor, in Zeitschrift fur Mathematik und 
 Physik (hist.-lit. Abth.), XXXVII, 4, p. 151. "One must be 
 astonished how one man can master such an amount of learn- 
 ing," Zeitschrift fur math, undnaturzv. Unterricht, XXVII, 
 p. 43. The American Annals of Mathematics (1893, vol. VII, 
 No. 3) call it a "monumental work" and say: "A more use- 
 ful labor than this in the present condition of mathematical 
 literature can hardly be imagined ; moreover, it calls for all 
 but the very highest, that is creative mathematical power; 
 in particular, for immense erudition ; an unerring logical 
 instinct..., but above all for untiring industry, etc." 
 Father Hagen's Atlas Stellarum Variabilium was also highly 
 praised, v. g. in the Bulletin Astronomique, 1900; in the 
 Vierteljahrsschrift, XXXV ; in the Leipzig Litterarische 
 Centralbfatt, 1900, No. 4, and 1902, No. 26. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 229 
 
 Among the living astronomers in England 
 Fathers Sidegraves and Cortie deserve to be men- 
 tioned. 
 
 In recent years the Society has extensively gone 
 into the field of meteorology. Seventeen stations 
 are devoted exclusively to meteorology, or at least 
 making it a prominent feature. They are : Stony- 
 hurst (England), Jersey (Channel Islands), Rome, 
 Kalocsa (Hungary), Malta, Burgos, Manila, 
 Zi-ka-wai (China), Calcutta, Ambohidempona (near 
 Tananarive, Madagascar), Bulawayo, Boroma, La 
 Granada, Havana, Cleveland (Ohio), Saltillo, 
 Puebla (Mexico). Some of them have a name. 
 A few details about the observatory of Manila 
 will interest American readers. It consists of four 
 departments: astronomical, meteorological, seismical, 
 and magnetic. The scientific publications of this ob- 
 servatory have been praised in scientific journals (v. g. 
 American Meteorological Journal, vol. X, June 1893, 
 p. 100 ; id., vol. XII, Febr. 1896, p. 326. Meteoro- 
 logische Zeitschrift, Nov. 1887, p. 366; Oct. 1898, 
 p. 64, etc.). The commercial world in Eastern Asia 
 appreciates its typhoon warnings. During the Spanish- 
 American War, Dr. Doberck, Director of the Observa- 
 tory at Hongkong, addressed the Weather Bureau of 
 the United States Government, saying that "the Ob- 
 servatory of Manila is in the hands of men who pos- 
 sess very little scientific education and cause scandal 
 by communicating sensational typhoon warnings to 
 the newspapers in Hongkong/' The effect of this 
 
 1 See the encomiums bestowed on him by Protestant 
 writers in the English Mechanic (Jan. 25, 1890); Nature, 
 vol. XXXXI, pp. 279-280. The Observatory, Monthly Notices 
 flhe Royal Astronomical Society y vol. L, n. 4, 
 
230 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 accusation was that the Jesuits were forbidden to send 
 out any such warnings. When matters were investi- 
 gated, it turned out that the Manila warnings had 
 indeed very often contradicted those of Mr. Doberck, 
 but that the events invariably proved the correctness 
 of the Manila observations. The Eastern newspapers: 
 The Hongkong Telegraph, China Mail, Manila Times, 
 Daily Press, strongly denounced Dr. Doberck, and 
 rendered a brilliant testimony to the labors of the 
 Jesuits, and especially their invaluable typhoon warn- 
 ings. On November 2, 1898, the Rev. Jos. Algue, 
 Director of the Observatory, received the following 
 notice: "Rear- Admiral Dewey desires me to thank 
 you for your courtesy in giving him such complete 
 information concerning your t}^phoon predictions, 
 which he has found in every case to be correct. 
 (Signed) Flag Secretary." On February 2, 1899, 
 a letter was sent to the Director of the Observatory, 
 from the Flag-ship Olympia, which concludes: "I trust 
 that the United States Government will make the 
 necessary provisions for the continuance of the institu- 
 tion which you conduct in such an able manner, and 
 which has proved itself to be so great a benefit to 
 maritime interests in this part of the world. Very 
 truly yours, George Dewey, Rear- Admiral U. S. N." 1 
 The work done by the Jesuits at the Manila Obser- 
 vatory and all over the islands, may be seen from 
 two volumes with accompanying atlas of thirty maps. 2 
 
 1 . From a letter of Father Algue, Woodstock. Letters, 1899, 
 pp. 213-225. 
 
 2 A Collection of Geographical, Statistical, Chronologi- 
 cal, and Scientific Data relating to the Philippine Isles, 
 either collected from former works, or obtained by the per- 
 sonal observation and study of some Fathers of the Society 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 231 
 
 The work treats of the geography [of the islands, 
 climatology, seismology, and terrestrial magnetism. 
 Professor Henry S. Pritchett, the Superintendent of 
 the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, tells us that 
 "to the admirable work of the Jesuits is due practical- 
 ly all of our present knowledge of the interior of 
 Mindanao." Father Algue's work on the cyclones of 
 the Philippine Archipelago is the standard work on 
 that subject. 1 
 
 In 1891 the French Academy of Sciences awarded 
 prizes to the Jesuits in Madagascar, in recognition of 
 their great service rendered by their astronomical and 
 meteorological observations. Two years previous an- 
 other Jesuit had received a prize of ten thousand francs 
 for his geographical maps of the interior of the island; 
 and last year, 1901, the very year which witnessed 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Republic, another 
 Jesuit, Father Stanislaus Chevalier, by unanimous 
 vote of the commission of the French Academy, re- 
 ceived the prize of 3000 francs for his meteorological 
 
 of Jesus. Printed at the Government Press, Washington, D. 
 C., 1900. 
 
 1 The best recommendation for this work is the fact 
 that the French Ministry of Marine had it immediately trans- 
 lated into French. In 1900 there appeared an Knglish and a 
 German work (Bremen and Shanghai) on the same subject, 
 "based on that of J. Algu6," as the preface has it. But as 
 the name of the author is given that of Professor Bergholz. 
 Now this work it sounds almost incredible is nothing but 
 an abridged translation of Father Algue's work. This has 
 quite recently been pointed out by Professor Nippoldt of the 
 Magnetical Observatory of Potsdam, in Petermanrf 's Mitthei- 
 lungen, September 1902. {Kolnische Volkszeitung, Wochen- 
 ausgabe, Oct. 23, 1902, p. 3.) This is evidently a proof of 
 what we said above, p. 154, note 2. 
 
232 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and astronomical publications. ] In a recent work, 
 "Kiautschou", published with the co-operation of the 
 German Emperor, a high tribute is paid to the scien- 
 tific labors, especially the astronomical and meteorological 
 observations, of the Jesuits in Zi-ka-wei, and the German 
 official who bestows this eulogy on them, declares that 
 he is not a friend of the Jesuits. 
 
 In other fields of natural sciences, the Jesuits are 
 working most diligently, and their labors are appre- 
 ciated by the scientific world. "The best book on 
 mechanics is that of the Jesuit Jullien," so says a 
 Protestant scholar. 2 Another writes of an Austrian 
 Jesuit: "Father Braun, the distinguished Director of 
 the Observatory of Kalocsa in Hungary, furnished 
 some of the most ingenious experiments for establish- 
 ing the density of the earth. His works are a remark- 
 able proof for the scientific energy of the man, and the 
 spirit of sacrifice for the sake of science. ' ' 3 In June 
 1900, Father Hillig of Canisius College, Buffalo 
 (New York), published a catalogue of the most prom- 
 inent Jesuit museums. He enumerates about sixty, 
 scattered all over the world. 
 
 Several Jesuits are distinguished biologists, among 
 them the German Father Erich Wasmann, one of the 
 foremost entomologists of modern times. His numer- 
 ous publications on the beetles living commensally 
 with ants and termites, have been styled "classic" by 
 the leading English, German and French scientific 
 
 1 Kolnische Volkszeitung (Wochen-Ausgabe), January 2, 
 1902. 
 
 2 Budde, Allgemeine Mechanik, vol. II, p. 496. (Berlin, 
 1892.) 
 
 3 Himmel nnd Erde, Berlin, June 1898. 
 
EDUCATION IN THE IQth CENTURY. 233 
 
 reviews. 1 Of his work on ' ' Arthropoda' ' the Canadian 
 Entomologist says: "Dr. Wasmann has given us the 
 greatest contribution on this interesting subject ever 
 made, and one that must become a classic in Ento- 
 mology. ' ' 2 Other prominent biologists are the French 
 Father Panthel who received the prix de Thore from 
 the Institut de France for an anatomical work pub- 
 lished in 1898; the Dutch Father Bolsius, an authority 
 in microscopic anatomy; the Belgian Father Dierkx, x 
 whose important researches on morphology are pub- 
 lished in La Celulle (L,ouvain, 1890 1900). These 
 names suffice to prove that the Jesuits are by no means 
 "enemies of progress and intolerant of everything 
 new," as M. Compayre represents them. 
 
 Other departments of modern science are success- 
 fully cultivated by Jesuits. We mention only" Father 
 Strassmaier, who by experts is called one of the first 
 Assyriologists. 3 Recently Father Dahlmann is be- 
 coming very prominent by publications on Indian and 
 Chinese philosophy. His works have been greatly 
 praised by Professor Max Miiller of Oxford and other 
 Orientalists. On the field of literature we call atten- 
 tion to a recent production of the German Jesuit 
 Baumgartner : History of Universal Literature.* Sel- 
 
 1 See, v. g., Nature, London 1901, Dec. 12, p. 136; and 
 Professor Wheeler of Texas University in the American 
 Naturalist, 1901, vol. XXXV, 414418. 
 
 2 Canadian Entomologist, January 1895, p. 23. 
 
 3 See Oppert in Le Telegraphe, Nov. 27, 1887. Dr. 
 Bezold in Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kunde des Morgenlandes, 
 vol. II, p. 78. Hugo Winkler in the Berliner philosophische 
 
 Wochenschrift, 1888, p. 851. 
 
 4 Geschichte der Weltliteratur. Up to 1900 four volumes 
 were out: 1) Literature of Western Asia and the Countries 
 of the Nile. 2) Literature of India and Kan fern Asia (China 
 
234 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 dom has a work been praised so highly by men of the 
 different creeds and nationalities. Protestant reviews 
 have been, we may say, as enthusiastic as those of 
 Catholics, on this "opera gigantesca" , as an Italian 
 reviewer has styled it. One Protestant Review ( Wester- 
 mann's Monatshefte) says: "No similar work can be 
 compared to Baumgartner's in thoroughness, variety, 
 and above all in directness. ' ' l The same author has 
 published some splendid volumes on Goethe (3 vols.), 
 Lessing, Calderon, Jost van den Vondel, and Long- 
 fellow. Father L,onghaye's Histoire de la literature 
 franqaise au XVII e si&cle (2 volumes) was awarded a 
 prize by the French Academy in 1901. 
 
 A very distinguished historian is Father Ehrle, 
 Prefect of the Vatican Library, author of the great 
 Historia Bibliothecae Pontificum and co-editor of the 
 Archiv filr mittelalterliche Geschichte und Litteratur. 
 Father Grisar is a leading author on Christian 
 Archaeology. His latest work on the History of Rome 
 is a worthy rival of Gregorovius's famous work. 2 
 The Belgian Jesuits continue the colossal work of the 
 Old Society, the "Bollandists", or Ada Sanctorum, a 
 work of prime importance for the history of the whole 
 
 and Japan). 3) Greek and Latin Literature of Classical An- 
 tiquity. 4) Latin and Greek Literature of Christian Nations. 
 The coming volumes will treat of the Literature of Italy, 
 Spain, Portugal, France, Poland, Russia, Holland, Sweden, 
 Norway, Iceland, England, Germany. 
 
 1 See some other criticisms of leading Protestant papers 
 in The Review, St. Louis, June 6, 1901 : ' 'Protestant Criticism 
 of a Recent Catholic Work." 
 
 2 Geschichte Roms und der Pdpstc, "a publication of the 
 very first rank, as indispensable as the work of Gregorovius." 
 {Allgemeine Zeittmg, Munich 1899, No. 45.) Neue Preussi- 
 sche Zeitung, Berlin 1900, No. 608. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE 1 9th CENTURY. 235 
 
 Christian Era. Of the sixty-two folio volumes of this 
 gigantic collection, nine were published since I845. 1 
 
 As writers on Ethics we mention Father Castelein 
 and Father Cathrein 2 ; on philosophy the English 
 Jesuits Clarke, Rickaby, Maher (Stonyhurst Series). 
 Father Maher 's Psychology recently received the note 
 "Special Excellence" by the University of lyondon, 
 and the author, the degree of "Doctor of Literature". 
 And this in spite of the fact that the book contains a 
 very energetic criticism of the works most favored by 
 the University, including, indeed, the writings of both 
 the examiners themselves. We could add scores of 
 distinguished writers on theology, but we wish to con- 
 fine ourselves to publications which have favorably 
 appealed to Protestants. In 1900 the Society con- 
 ducted more than one hundred periodicals. Although 
 a great number of them are chiefly religious magazines 
 (as the ably written Messenger, New York), there are 
 also several scientific periodicals. Some reviews, as the 
 Month in England, the Etudes religieuses in France, 
 the Civilta Cattolica in Italy, the Stimmen aus Maria- 
 Laach (with valuable scientific supplements), the 
 Theologische Zeitschrift (Innsbruck), the Razdn y Fe 
 in Spain, the Analecta Bollandiana in Belgium, are 
 representative literary and scientific periodicals. 
 
 A splendid tribute was paid, in January 1902, to 
 the scientific activity of the German Jesuits. Deputy 
 
 1 See above p. 161. 
 
 2 Cathrein, Moralphilosophie, 2 vols. Socialism. The 
 English translation of the latter work is by Father James 
 Conway, S. J. Cathrein's works are highly praised by Cossa- 
 Dyer, Political Economy, London, 189B, where it is said that 
 "they cannot easily be valued too highly/' 
 
236 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Spahn, Judge of the Supreme Court of the Empire, 
 and a prominent member of the German Parliament, 
 pleaded in the Reichstag for the re-admission of the 
 Jesuits into Germany. In the course of his brilliant 
 speech he spoke thus of the literary and scientific work 
 of the German Jesuits: "In whatever branch scien- 
 tific progress has been made during the nineteenth 
 century, the German Jesuits are distinguished con- 
 tributors. In history we have Father Ehrle, Prefect 
 of the Vatican Library, one of the editors of the 
 Archives for Medieval History and Literature, and author 
 of the great Historia Bibliothecae Pontificum ; Father 
 Braunsberger, whose Epistulae et Ada Canisii have 
 been called by Protestant historians a most valuable 
 contribution to the history of the Reformation. Then 
 we have Father Beissel's numerous publications on 
 Christian art ; Father Baumgartner's magnificent 
 History of Universal Literature, and many other liter- 
 ary productions by the same author. Father Kreiten's 
 critical essays ; the many volumes of the Analecta 
 Hymnica Medii Aevi by Fathers Dreves and Blume ; 
 the five volumes on Aesthetics by Fathers Gietmann 
 and Sorensen ; the philological writings of Father Fox 
 on Demosthenes. Father Strassmaier, the Assyrio- 
 logist, deciphered over three thousand Babylonian 
 cuneiform, inscriptions, more than any German Acad- 
 emy has ever done in that line. Father Epping found 
 the key to the astronomical computations and observa- 
 tions of the Babylonians, and his work is successfully 
 continued by Father Kugler. Father Dahlmann is 
 one of the very first authorities in the field of antiqui- 
 ties of India. In natural sciences we have the famous 
 Father Wasrnann, the entomologist. In physics Father 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION IN THE iqttl CENTURY. 237 
 
 Dressel is eminent, and in pure mathematics and 
 astronomy Father Hagen, director of the Georgetown 
 Observatory, author of the Synopsis of Mathematics 
 and of the Atlas Stellarum Variabilium. We find 
 among these Jesuits several prominent writers on 
 geography, and it is only a few months ago that 
 Father Fischer, Professor of geography at Feldkirch, 
 discovered the map on which the New World bears 
 for the first time the title 'America'. The well-known 
 moralist Father L,ehrnkuhl has written an excellent 
 commentary on the new code of Germany, and was 
 one of the first to advocate this new code. The various 
 publications of the German Jesuits on the social 
 question are continually working for the maintenance 
 of the existing social and political order. ' ' 
 
 Many other names deserve to be added to these 
 mentioned by Deputy Spahn. Father Meyer, by his 
 German writings, has exerted a great influence on 
 Catholic writers in Ethics. Father Cathrein has pub- 
 lished various important works on the same subject, 
 and one of the very best works extant on the social 
 question. On the latter subject we possess several 
 excellent works from the pen of Father Henry Pesch. 
 Father Stiglmayr's critical studies of the writings of 
 Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita (he assigns these works 
 to the fifth century), have recently been called <( bril- 
 liant researches which have definitely settled this long 
 discussed question. ' ' 1 
 
 Between 1881 and 1900 the German Jesuits alone 
 published six hundred and seven books, some of which 
 are, as we heard before, classics in their respective 
 fields. Three of these writers have, within the last 
 
 1 Bardenhewer, Patrologie (1901), p. 474. 
 
238 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 few years, been elected members by celebrated Acade- 
 mies of Science : Father Wasmann by the Russian 
 Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg ; Father Baum- 
 gartner by the Belgian Royal Academy of Ghent ; and 
 Father Ehrle, in November 1901, by the Prussian 
 Royal Academy of Gottingen. 
 
 The favorable criticisms on Jesuit publications, 
 quoted on the preceding pages, are almost exclusively 
 by Protestant scholars of highest repute. Are these 
 facts unknown, or are they studiously ignored, by 
 certain writers who are so loud in belittling Jesuit 
 education and scholarship ? We readily confess that 
 Jesuit scholarship has not yet regained that brilliant 
 position which it enjoyed in the first centuries of the 
 existence of the Order ; the reasons for this have been 
 mentioned. We also admit that the eulogies bestowed 
 on the literary and scientific success of the older Jesuit 
 institutions are not a sufficient guarantee that the 
 Jesuit system is equally efficient in modern times. 
 But we think this last point is proved by what has 
 been said in this present chapter. It certainly proves 
 that the Jesuits do not rest satisfied with the laurels 
 of their predecessors, but that they strenuously struggle 
 to keep abreast with the scientific progress of the 
 nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The testimonies 
 adduced are all the more remarkable, if we keep in 
 mind the most discouraging circumstances under 
 which the Jesuits had to labor, and the coldness and 
 antipathy with which the works of the Jesuits are 
 ordinarily viewed by non-Catholic writers. This leads 
 us to a rather sad chapter in the history of Jesuit 
 education, in which we have to speak of the opposition 
 which the educational work of the Society had to en- 
 counter in all centuries. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 Opposition to Jesuit Education. 
 
 Nothing in the whole history of education after the 
 Reformation is more striking than the difference of 
 opinions about, and the attitude assumed towards, the 
 educational system of the Society. We have heard 
 that the Protestant King Frederick II. of Prussia, and 
 the Schismatical Empress Catharine II. of Russia, 
 protected the Jesuit schools, at a time when the Bour- 
 bon Kings ruthlessly destroyed all Jesuit colleges 
 within their realms. In the nineteenth century the 
 Jesuits were repeatedly expelled from Catholic coun- 
 tries, as from France, and were allowed to labor un- 
 disturbedly within the vast British Dominion and in 
 other Protestant countries. However, this tolerant 
 attitude was not always taken by Protestant rulers. 
 The penal laws of England against the Catholics are 
 well known. The Jesuits were always mentioned as 
 particularly hateful. Thus one statute under Elizabeth 
 (27 EHz. c. 2), provided that "all Jesuits and other 
 priests, ordained by the authority of the See of Rome, 
 should depart from the realm within forty days, and 
 that no such person should hereafter be suffered to 
 come into or remain in any of the dominions of the 
 crown of Great Britain, under penalties of high 
 treason. ' ' 
 
 Special laws were enacted to prevent Catholics 
 from sending their children to foreign schools. "Any 
 other of her majesty's subjects," says the same statute, 
 (239) 
 
240 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 "who hereafter shall be brought up in any foreign 
 popish seminary, who within six months after pro- 
 clamation does not return into the realm, shall be ad- 
 judged a traitor. Persons, directly or indirectly, con- 
 tributing to the maintenance of Romish ecclesiastics 
 or popish seminaries beyond the sea incur the penalties 
 of praemunire. And still further this statute enacts, 
 that no one during her majesty's life shall send his 
 child or ward beyond the sea, without special license, 
 under forfeiture of one hundred pounds for every 
 offence. ' ' l James I. had a law passed providing that 
 "persons going beyond sea to any Jesuit seminary 
 were rendered, as respects themselves, incapable of 
 purchasing or enjoying any lands etc." 2 The same 
 laws were enacted again under William III. 3 The 
 schools of the Jesuits on the continent which were 
 chiefly affected by these laws, were the great colleges 
 of St. Omer and L,iege. 
 
 In various places on the continent laws were made 
 forbidding parents to send their children to Jesuit 
 schools. Thus Duke Ulrich of Brunswick, "moved 
 by his paternal care and affection for all his subjects, 
 high and low, in order to counteract the cunning 
 plans and bloody designs of the enemies of the Gospel, 
 particularly of the Jesuits," issued a decree in 1617, 
 strictly forbidding his subjects to send their children 
 to Jesuit schools, as not a few had done before. Those 
 who should in future "act so inconsiderately," were 
 threatened with confiscation of all their property and 
 
 1 The History of the Penal Laws enacted against the 
 Roman Catholics, by R. R. Madden, L,oiidoii 1847, p. 154. 
 
 2 /., p. 169. 
 s Ib., p. 232. 
 

 OPPOSITION TO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 241 
 
 other penalties. 1 Similar laws, enacted in Branden- 
 burg and Prussia, have been mentioned in a previous 
 chapter. 2 
 
 But the difference in public opinion is not less 
 remarkable than that manifested by the attitude of 
 governments and rulers towards the Society. No 
 other institution has been so often the theme of the 
 most high-flown panegyric and of the most bitter in- 
 vective as the Society of Jesus. Its admirers, and not 
 a few Protestants\were among these, have proclaimed 
 it as an establishment of the utmost utility to learning, 
 morals, religion, and state. It may even be admitted 
 that some have been extravagant in their praises of 
 the Society and its labors. On the other hand, its 
 enemies see in it an assemblage of ambitious men 
 who, under the disguise of hypocrisy, aim at nothing 
 but universal dominion, which they endeavor to ob- 
 tain by most odious and criminal means, to the detri- 
 ment of morality, religion and society. "Perhaps no 
 body of men in Europe," says Quick, "have been so 
 hated as the Jesuits. ' ' 3 
 
 So many accusations have been advanced against 
 the Jesuits that it would take a volume of considerable 
 size merely to enumerate them. Years ago Bishop 
 Ketteler of Mentz publicly remonstrated against ' 'that 
 continued crime of systematic calumny against the 
 Society. " The Jesuits have been defended and ex- 
 
 1 Koldewey, Braunschweigische Schulordnungen, in 
 Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica, vol. VII, pp. 138 139. 
 
 2 See pp. 146148. However, it is but fair to add that 
 Catholic rulers, v. g. the Dukes of Bavaria, forbade their sub- 
 jects to send their sons to foreign Protestant schools. Janssen, 
 vol. IV, (16. ed.) p. 464. 
 
 8 Educational Reformers, p. 64. 
 16 
 
242 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 onerated of the charges by thousands of prominent 
 Catholics and by distinguished Protestants, and yet 
 the muddy stream of calumny flows on ; the old 
 charges are repeated and new ones are fabricated 
 almost daily, and believed. It is customary now-a- 
 days to sneer at the credulity of former ages, at the 
 superstition of the Middle Ages, and the witch panic 
 of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. However, 
 our age has little reason to look down superciliously 
 on the benighted people of times gone by, for there is 
 among us, and even in circles that lay claim to en- 
 lightenment, a great deal of superstition and credulity; 
 only the forms and the objects of credulity are different 
 from those of former ages. In fact, the "Jesuit panic" 
 has been called a chronic disease of modern times, and 
 the credulity manifested in accepting implicitly the 
 most absurd charges against the Society is stupen- 
 dous. 
 
 Whenever a person is indicted for a crime we 
 demand that he be given a fair trial; we want to hear 
 and examine impartially the whole of the evidence 
 against him, before we pronounce him guilty. In the 
 case of the Society of Jesus, we have a body of fifteen 
 thousand men, who devote their lives to the propaga- 
 tion of Christianity, the civilization of savages, and 
 the education of youth. Almost every day they 
 are maligned in books, papers and public speeches. 
 No evidence is asked for; the ordinary demands of 
 prudence and justice are set aside; it is enough to 
 hurl accusations against the Jesuits, and thousands 
 and tens of thousands willingly believe them. This 
 is no exaggeration. One need only read the most 
 popular books on education to become convinced of 
 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 243 
 
 this fact. The open calumnies and malicious insinua- 
 tions against that work of the Society, which is especi- 
 ally dear to every Jesuit, viz. the education of youth, 
 are simply appalling. 
 
 It is impossible for us to mention all the charges 
 made against the educational system of the Jesuits; 
 nor do we think it necessary. For, some accusations 
 are so ridiculous that to hear them stated, should be 
 enough for any thoughtful man to disbelieve them. 
 Further, they are so clearly opposed to the fundamen- 
 tal principles of the Order, and so emphatically contra- 
 dicted by its official documents, that it is difficult to 
 see how men can, for a moment, consider them even 
 probable. Lastly , they are so varied and so contradictory 
 that they easily elude us. What one says, is direct^ or 
 indirectly denied by another. It will be very instruc- 
 tive to put a few statements in parallel columns. 
 
 "They [the Jesuits] "They were indeed far 
 completely revolutionized too much bent on being 
 education by fearless in- popular to be innovators. * ' 
 novations. ' ' Rev. W. M. Quick, Educ. Reformers, 
 Sloane (Princeton), The p. 506. 
 French Revolution and Re- 
 ligious Reform, p. n. 
 
 The curriculum of Jes- "The shrewd disciples 
 
 uit colleges "has remained of L,oyola adapt them- 
 
 almost unchanged for four selves to the times, and 
 
 hundred years, disregard- are full of compassion for 
 
 ing some trifling conces- human weakness. ' '-Cotn- 
 
 sions made to natural sci- payre, Hist, of Fed., p. 140. 
 
 ences." President Eliot, Since 1832 "in mathe- 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, October matics and natural scien- 
 
 1899. ces proper attention is to 
 
244 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 be given to the recent 
 progress made in those 
 branches. In the lower 
 classes new provisions are 
 made for learning modern 
 languages, both the ver- 
 nacular and foreign, and 
 for the study of history. ' ' 
 Kiddle and Scheni, The 
 Cyclopedia of Education, 
 article ''Jesuits," p. 492. 
 
 " Another instance of 
 uniform prescribed educa- 
 tion may be found in the 
 curriculum of Jesuit col- 
 leges". . . . But "the im- 
 mense deepening and ex- 
 panding of human know- 
 ledge in the nineteenth 
 century and the increas- 
 ing sense of the sanctity of 
 the individual's gifts and 
 will-power have made uni- 
 form prescriptions of study 
 in secondary schools im- 
 possible and absurd." 
 President Eliot (in 1899). 
 
 ''The Ratio Studiorum 
 is antiquated and difficult 
 to reform. . . . We have 
 little to hope for them in 
 the improvement of edu- 
 
 "A uniform course of 
 study for all schools of a 
 particular grade, and a 
 common standard for pro- 
 motion and graduation, 
 can be made most ser- 
 viceable in a national 
 scheme of education." 
 Dr. Russell, Columbia 
 University, (in 1899), 
 German Higher Schools, p. 
 409. 
 
 "A republic is a field 
 far more inviting than a 
 monarchy for the agency 
 of an organization so vast, 
 so able, so secret, so adap- 
 
OPPOSITION TO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 245 
 
 cation at present. ' ' Oscar 
 Browning, Encyclopedia 
 Britannica,) article "Edu- 
 cation. ' ' 
 
 live as that of the Jesuits. ' ' 
 Prof. N. Porter, (Yale 
 College) , Educational Sys- 
 tems of the Puritans and 
 Jesuits compared, p. 79. 
 
 "For the Jesuits, edu- 
 cation is reduced to a 
 superficial culture of the 
 brilliant faculties of the 
 intelligence. ' '-Compayre, 
 1. c.j p. 139. 
 
 "To write in L,atin is 
 the ideal which they pro- 
 pose to their pupils .... 
 the first consequence of 
 this is the proscription of 
 the mother tongue. ' ' 
 Compa3^re, //. of P., p. 
 144. 
 
 "The Jesuits were hos- 
 tile to the mother tongue, 
 and distrusting the influ- 
 ence of its association they 
 studiously endeavored to 
 supplant it." Painter, A 
 Hist, of Ed., p. 120. 
 
 "Thoroughness in work 
 was the one thing in- 
 sisted on." Quick, I. c., 
 p. 46. 
 
 "With such standards 
 of scholarship the methods 
 of instruction will natur- 
 ally be rigorous and 
 thorough. " Cf . Porter, 
 1. c., p. 55. 
 
 "Instruction in the ver- 
 nacular language was in- 
 corporated with the course 
 of instruction in 1703, and 
 in 1756 the colleges in 
 Germany were advised to 
 devote as much attention 
 to German as to Latin 
 and Greek. ' 'Kiddle and 
 Schem, The Cyclopedia of 
 Education, p. 493. 
 
 "Preoccupied before all 
 else with purely formal 
 
 "In mathematics and 
 the natural sciences, he 
 
246 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 studies, the Jesuits leave 
 real and concrete studies 
 in entire neglect. History 
 is almost wholly banished 
 from their programme. ' ' 
 Compayre, I, c., p. 144. 
 
 ' 'The sciences and phil- 
 osophy are involved in 
 the same disdain as his- 
 tory." Ib., p. 145. 
 
 "The Jesuits maintain 
 the abuse of the memory. ' 7 
 Ib.j p. 140. 
 
 "What the Jesuits did 
 in the matter of secondary 
 instruction, with immense 
 resources and for the pu- 
 pils who paid them for 
 their efforts, I^a Salle at- 
 tempted ... for pupils who 
 did not pay. ' 'Compayre, 
 Z. c., p. 258. 
 
 "They sought to reach 
 sons of princes, noblemen 
 and others who constituted 
 
 [the Jesuit pupil] will be 
 the master of what he 
 professes to know. ... In 
 logic and grammar, in 
 geography and history he 
 will be drilled to such a 
 control of what he learns, 
 that it shall be a posses- 
 sion for life." Porter, /. 
 c-y P- 55- 
 
 "The Jesuits wished the 
 whole boy, not his mem- 
 ory only, to be affected by 
 the master. ' '-Quick, Edu- 
 cational Reformers, p. 507. 
 
 "Their instruction was 
 always given gratuitous- 
 ly." Quick, ib.j p. 38. 
 
 The Jesuit schools "were 
 gratuitous. The instruc- 
 tion was imparted freely, 
 not only to pupils of the 
 Romish faith, but to all 
 who chose to attend upon 
 it." Porter, 1. c., p. 29. 
 
 "Finally they imparted 
 their instruction gratui- 
 tously. ' ' Ranke, History 
 of the Popes, vol. I. 
 
 "Faithful to the tradi- 
 tions of the Catholic 
 Church, the Society did 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 247 
 
 the influential classes. " 
 Seeley, History of Educa- 
 tion, p. 185. 
 
 "They administer only 
 the aristocratic education 
 of the ruling classes, 
 whom they hope to retain 
 under their own control. ' ' 
 Compayre, History of Ped- 
 agogy, p. 143. 
 
 not estimate a man's worth 
 simply according to his 
 birth and outward circum- 
 stances. The constitu- 
 tions expressly laid down 
 that poverty and mean 
 extraction were never to 
 be any hindrance to a pu- 
 pil's admission .... and 
 Sacchini says: 'Do not let 
 any favoring of nobility 
 interfere with the care of 
 meaner pupils, since the 
 birth of all is equal in 
 Adam, and the inher- 
 itance is Christ. ' ' ' 
 Quick, 1. c., p. 39. 
 
 These quotations may suffice to show how little the 
 adversaries of the Jesuits agree in their estimations of 
 most important points of the educational system of the 
 Society. We need not examine all charges in detail; 
 we can leave them to themselves, reminding the reader 
 of a passage in the Gospel of St. Mark (14, 56): 
 "Many bore false witness against him, and their 
 evidences were not agreeing." If in no other point, 
 at least in this one, the Jesuits resemble him whose 
 name they bear, and whom they profess and endeavor 
 to follow. 
 
 A few accusations, however, must be examined 
 here on account of their serious character. The first 
 is that the Jesuits did not care for the instruction of 
 the people, because they thought "the ignorance of 
 the people the best safeguard of faith;" that they "ad- 
 
248 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ministered only the aristocratic education of the higher 
 classes." 1 This is utterly false. That the Jesuits 
 could not devote themselves extensively to elementary 
 education has been accounted for in a previous chap- 
 ter. 2 As to the other charge, in their higher schools 
 there were always many poor pupils; it is frequently 
 inculcated in the documents of the Society to treat the 
 poor pupils with equal, if not with greater, care than 
 the rich. 3 Father Jouvancy exhorts the teacher "to 
 exhibit a parent's tender care particularly towards 
 needy pupils." 4 Further, the Society had special 
 boarding schools for poor scholars; domus pauperum, 
 or conv ictus pauperum, were attached to nearly all 
 larger colleges ; in Germany and Austria at Wiirz- 
 burg, Dillingen, Augsburg, Munich, Prague, Olmiitz, 
 Briinn etc. 5 The Jesuits not unfrequently begged 
 money for poor scholars. Peter Canisius in one year 
 supported two hundred poor boys. Moreover, they 
 had vSpecial libraries to supply books for poor students 
 and fed poor day scholars. In several places the 
 Jesuits were at times severely censured "for favoring 
 too much poor students and the sons of the lower 
 classes," as was said in Graz in 1767. In 1762 they 
 were ordered by the Bavarian government to admit in 
 future fewer poor scholars. 6 The judgment of Quick 
 
 1 Compayre, History of Pedagogy -, p. 143; similarly 
 Seeley, History of Education > p. 185. 
 
 2 Chapter III, pp. 104106. 
 
 3 Ratio Studiorum, Reg. Prof. Sup. Fac., u. 20; Reg. 
 com. mag. class, inf. 50. Monumenta Paedagogica, p. 814 
 foil. 
 
 4 Ratio Docendi, ch. Ill, art. 1, n. 2. 
 
 5 Duhr, Studienordnung y pp. 46 53. 
 
 6 Documents iii Duhr, Jesuitenfabeln, 2d edition, pp. 
 8693. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 249 
 
 echoes the real spirit of the Society on this point: 
 "Faithful to the traditions of the Church, the Society 
 did not estimate a man's worth simply according to 
 his birth and outward circumstances. The constitu- 
 tions expressly laid down that poverty and mean ex- 
 traction were never to be any hindrance to a pupil's 
 admission . . . and Sacchini says: 'Do not let any 
 favoring of nobility interfere with the care of meaner 
 pupils, since the birth of all is equal in Adam and the 
 inheritance is Christ'." l 
 
 It is said that the Jesuits " labored for those pupils 
 who could pay them for their efforts. " 2 In the Con- 
 stitutions of the Society it is laid down as a strict rule 
 that "no one is to accept anything which might be 
 considered as a -compensation for any ministry," [edu- 
 cation included]. 3 How this principle was applied to 
 the colleges can be best seen from the following regula- 
 tions made by Father Nadal : "The Rector cannot 
 receive anything either for any instruction, or degree, 
 or matriculation; nothing as a remuneration for the 
 teacher, nor any present from a scholar. In short, 
 nothing can be received, not even as alms or on any 
 other grounds. Should the Rector hear that any one 
 else has accepted anything, be he a teacher or an offi- 
 cial of the school, he must see that it is returned to 
 the person who gave it; and he must severely punish 
 the person who received it. " 4 
 
 L Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 39. 
 
 ! Compayrc, Hist of Fed., p. 258. 
 
 5 Summary of the Constit. 27, where allusion is made to 
 the words of our lyord: "Freely 3-011 have received, freely 
 give." 
 
 4 Monumenta Paedagogica, p. 102. 
 
250 JESUIT KDUCATION. 
 
 In fact, this regulation caused the Society many 
 serious difficulties. The rival faculties of other schools, 
 who received payments from the pupils, saw in the 
 gratuitousness of instruction in the Jesuit schools a 
 great danger. By various machinations the Jesuits 
 were forced in some cities to accept fees from the 
 students. 1 It is well known that at present most 
 Jesuit schools are compelled by sheer necessity to 
 accept a tuition fee, because few of their colleges are 
 endowed. But it was different in former centuries, 
 when the liberality of princes, ecclesiastics and cities 
 furnished all that was necessary for the maintenance 
 of the colleges. Nearly all historians testify that the 
 Jesuits imparted all instructions gratuitously; some 
 even blame the Jesuits for thus using an unfair means 
 of competing with other schools. 
 
 The accusation of estranging the children from 
 their families is as ungrounded as the former charges. 2 
 It is also refuted by the fact that the Jesuits opened 
 boarding schools unwillingly and only where it was 
 absolutely necessary. 3 They everywhere preferred 
 day schools, because they appreciated the importance 
 which the home influence provided it was good and 
 religious has on the training of the character. Aside 
 
 1 Duhr, Studienordnung, p. 47. Hallam,/,.^/"^ 1 ., I, 256. 
 
 2 Compayre, Hist, of Fed. y p. 146. "The ideal of the 
 perfect scholar is to forget his parents.'' This is a calumny; 
 and the example which M. Compayre adduces of a pupil of 
 the Jesuits who showed an eccentric behavior towards his 
 mother, and the words of the biographer, do not express the 
 principles and practices of the Jesuit schools. 
 
 3 Thus, for instance, of the 83 colleges which the Society 
 had in Germany in 1710, only 12 admitted boarders. Du L,ac, 
 Jesuites, pp. 297298, and 390. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 251 
 
 from cases in which a boy has to go to a boarding 
 school for want of a higher school near his home, 
 especially in the country, it cannot be denied that 
 other cases are rather numerous in which it is better 
 for young people to receive their education away from 
 home. In not a few families the father has no time to 
 look after the education of his sons; mothers are 
 frequently too indulgent to control self-willed lads. In 
 such cases it is a blessing for a boy to be entrusted to 
 a good boarding school in which not only the intellec- 
 tual, but, above all, the moral and religious training 
 receive due attention. Besides, much may be said of 
 the advantages derived from the discipline and sub- 
 ordination insisted on in good boarding schools. 1 
 
 Of all the charges and imputations heaped upon 
 the Jesuit schools, the most formidable is that they 
 seek only the interest of the Order, cripple the intellect 
 of their pupils, and teach them a corrupt morality. 
 I am almost ashamed to refute such charges ; for any 
 such attempt seems to be an insult not only to the 
 Society, but to the Catholic Church herself, who has 
 so often praised and recommended the educational 
 labors of the Society. However, as such charges are 
 made in historical and educational works used exten- 
 sively in this country, I think it necessary to say a 
 few words about them. Hallam says : "The Jesuits 
 have the credit of first rendering public a scheme of 
 false morals, which has been denominated from them 
 and enhanced the obloquy that overwhelmed their 
 order." 2 And von Raumer, in his History of Peda- 
 
 1 See Mr. Whitton's discussion : The Private School in 
 American Life (a reply to Mr. Edward's strictures). Educat. 
 Rev., May 1902. 
 
 ! Literature of Europe, etc. (ed. 1842, New York), vol- 
 ume II, p. 121. 
 
252 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 gogy, frightens the readers with a dreadful picture of 
 the "dismal and perfidious colleges of the Jesuits, of 
 these men of wickedness, with their dark, treacherous 
 tendencies, so fatal to the souls of the young. " Dr. 
 Huber, the inveterate enemy of the Society, remarks 
 on this charge : l< Raumer condemns Jesuit education 
 from the specifically 'confessional' \_i. e. Protestant] 
 point of view." l On the other hand, the accusations 
 which Dr. Huber himself made against the Society, 
 are not more justified, and they have been discredited 
 by a leading Review in Germany: "The opinion of 
 some 'Old-Catholic' scholars, that the education of the 
 Jesuits is a sort of diabolical system, tending to enslave 
 the conscience and suppress every free movement of 
 the mind, can no longer be maintained. " 2% f* =5 
 
 Mr. Painter's charges are among the worst and 
 unfairest that have ever been hurled against Jesuit 
 education ; summing up his criticisms on the Jesuit 
 system, he says, it is "based not upon a study of man, 
 but on the interests of the order . . . the principle of 
 authority, suppressing all freedom and independence 
 of thought, prevailed from beginning to end. Religious 
 pride and intolerance were fostered. While our baser 
 feelings were highly stimulated, the nobler side of our 
 nature was wholly neglected. L,ove of country, fidel- 
 ity to friends, nobleness of character, enthusiasm for 
 beautiful ideals were insidiously suppressed. ' ' 3 These 
 
 1 DerJesuiten-Orden, p. 377. 
 
 2 Jahresbericht fur klassische Altertumswissenschaft, 
 Berlin, 1891, p. 45 (quoted by Pachtler, /. c., vol. IV, p. VIII). 
 
 2 History of Education, p. 172. Similar opinions were 
 expressed recently by Mr. Frank Hugh O'Dounell, in his 
 book, The Ruin of Education in Ireland, L,ondon, 1902. He 
 would advise the commission on Irish University Education 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 253 
 
 terrible charges are made, but not proved. We can 
 only ask with astonishment : How can a critical 
 scholar, a cultured gentleman, a truth-loving Christian 
 act in such manner? Who does not think of the 
 striking parallel instance in ancient history, when the 
 great teacher of Athens, whose life work it was to 
 elevate and ennoble the youths of his city, was ar- 
 raigned before a court for corrupting youth ? He was 
 condemned and had to drink the cup of hemlock. 
 How many modern writers on Jesuit education are 
 faithful imitators of the unjust accusers of Socrates 
 and the unjust judges of Athens? They cannot 
 despatch the hated Jesuits out of the world, but they 
 poison public opinion and the minds of non-Catholic 
 teachers. But there is another question which we 
 cannot suppress here : How is it possible that en- 
 lightened American educators put any faith in such 
 monstrous imputations? And how can they trust 
 books which contain such frightful misrepresentations 
 and calumnies? Wise people should suspect such 
 charges, because of their very enormity ; and they 
 
 to "refuse every public endowment and public monopoly to 
 the Order of St. Ignatius. Their individual virtues and 
 scholarship do not diminish the formidable hostility of their 
 brotherhood to independence, to progress, to liberty, to tolera- 
 tion and concord between citizens of different creeds. They 
 are the pretorians of religious despotism. . . . Catholic ruin 
 and Catholic ignorance have attended everywhere the Jesuit 
 monopoly. Where the Jesuit plants, the crops are indiffer- 
 ence, emasculation, and decay. . . . Their system is ruin to 
 the Catholic religion. They belong to an age before modern 
 times. . . . They can stimulate fanaticism. They cannot 
 develop reason. They supplant, and call it assistance and 
 direction. They suck the brain of the lay-people," etc. 
 Quoted in The Month y September 1902, pp. 253-254. 
 
254 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 should naturally think that, when some charges are 
 so ridiculous, others may turn out equally groundless. 
 Those who are so positive in asserting that the aim 
 of Jesuit education was 4i the interest of the Order," 
 might well be advised to ponder over a page or two of 
 the work of a scholar of the first rank, we mean 
 Professor Paulsen who at present is equalled by few 
 as a writer on pedagogy, and who has studied the 
 Jesuit system more carefully than any of those writers 
 who have the hardihood to raise such charges. In 
 spite of his opposition to the fundamental principles of 
 the Society, this writer severely censures those who 
 represent the Society as a body of egoists and ambitious 
 schemers. " It would be a gross self-deception," he 
 writes, * 'to imagine that the members of the Society 
 were attracted to, or kept in the Order by any selfish 
 motives or personal gratifications. He who should 
 have sought a life of ease and pleasure in this Order, 
 would soon have been disappointed. What was put 
 before them on entering, was first a humble novitiate, 
 then a prolonged course of rigorous studies, finally, 
 the toilsome work of the classroom, or the self-sacrific- 
 ing labors of preaching or giving missions. Suppose 
 the powerful and influential position of the Order 
 whetted the ambition of some individual ; but he would 
 soon have found out that, for every one without ex- 
 ception, not commanding but life-long obedience was 
 the summary of the Jesuit's career. He had to be 
 ready to accept any position without murmur, and give 
 it up the moment the Superior should command. This 
 law of absolute obedience was enforced in the case of 
 men of such merit and consideration as Canisius, the 
 first German Provincial. . . Besides, the Order would 
 
OPPOSITION TO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 255 
 
 never have been persecuted and prohibited, had it 
 served the ease of its members ; associations for such 
 purposes have never been considered dangerous; those 
 societies only are dangerous that try to realize ideas. 
 The author then adds : "Why do I insist so much on 
 this? Because it disgusts me to hear again and again 
 that men who, with the sacrifice of all personal in- 
 terests, live for an idea, are accused of selfishness and 
 ambition, and that by dull Philistines, who through- 
 out their lives were seeking their own comfort and 
 pleasure, or by ambitious place-hunters who think of 
 nothing else but how to please those in power and to 
 flatter public opinion. ' ' l These words sound severe ; 
 but have the men, whom they are meant for, not pro- 
 voked this severity by unjust and venomous ac- 
 cusations ? 
 
 Not a few writers call the Jesuit schools dangerous 
 to the public welfare ; one styles the whole Order 
 " international and anti-national." 2 By the way, the 
 same slander has been hurled against the Catholic 
 Church ; moreover, we know that long ago a great 
 Teacher arose and founded a society. A certain class 
 of learned men wanted to get rid of him, but did not 
 dare to come forth with the real motive. Then they 
 denounced the teacher as "anti-national": "He for- 
 bids to give tribute to Caesar ; he makes himself king 
 and opposes Caesar." And the judge was told that 
 ' 'if he acquitted that man, he was not Caesar's friend. ' ' 
 The disciples of this Teacher were told that they 
 would ever share the fate of their Master, and more 
 than once in history the same futile accusations were 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, vol. I, pp. 410-411. 
 
 2 Ziegler, Geschichte der Pddagogik, p. 119. 
 
256 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 made against those who professed to follow the great 
 Master. 
 
 Not a shadow of proof has ever been advanced that 
 the Jesuits in their principles and teaching are un- 
 patriotic, but more than one testimony has been given, 
 proving that they possess true patriotism and instil it 
 into the hearts of their pupils, and that Jesuit students 
 yield to none in ardent and self-sacrificing love of 
 country. Of course, there is no lack of assertions to 
 the contrary. But recently Sir Henry Howorth stated 
 that the English Jesuits shared the anti-English views 
 of their brethren on the continent, and he entreated 
 English parents to keep their children away from 
 Jesuit schools where they imbibed hatred against their 
 own country. 1 A Roman Catholic layman in England 
 wrote to the L,ondon Times, December 4, 1901, with 
 reference to this attack on the Jesuits : ' 'The moral 
 
 1 The case of Sir Henry Howorth furnishes a good illus- 
 tration of the "trustworthiness" of the attacks against the 
 Jesuits. This gentleman asserted {Tablet, Nov. 23, 1901), 
 that he had often read, in the Civilta Cattolica and in two 
 German Jesuit publications, "abominable slanders of England 
 and its people." Sir Henry was challenged repeatedly to 
 produce one passage from the two German publications con- 
 taining a slander of England. One of these periodicals, the 
 Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, has very often praised England 
 and its liberal institutions ; and the other (the Theologische 
 Zeitschrift of Innsbruck) is a purely scientific paper which 
 never touches political questions. After many evasions Sir 
 Henry at last wrote ( Tablet, March 15, 1902), that he had read 
 the "abominable slanders" in the Berlin Germania, "which, 
 as he was informed, was largely owned and written by the 
 Jesuits." But the Jesuits have nothing to do with the Ger- 
 mania. And yet, for three months Sir Henry had maintained 
 that he had read with his own eyes the slanders in the two 
 mentioned Jesuit publications! 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 257 
 
 and religious teaching of the Jesuits is the same in 
 England as on the Continent, but it does not follow 
 that their political opinions or their estimate of public 
 affairs in this country are identical. The English 
 Jesuit is a loyal subject of his Majesty, and all his 
 sympathies are .with his own country. Sir Henry 
 Howorth informs English fathers and mothers that it 
 is nearly time they considered how much longer they 
 are going to permit their fresh and ingenuous children 
 to imbibe hatred and contempt for their country at 
 Jesuit establishments. Here I can speak from personal 
 experience of the hatred and contempt for their country 
 which my three sons imbibed at the Jesuit College of 
 Beaumont, near Windsor, and how it has influenced 
 their after lives. The principles which the Jesuits 
 inculcated upon them may be summed up in five 
 words 'Fear God ; honor thy king. ' The result in 
 after life was that they all three volunteered to fight 
 for England and her Sovereign in her hour of need. 
 One of them has fallen on the battlefield ; the other 
 two have survived to serve their country, and our 
 name is known to-day to most loyalists in South 
 Africa." In fact, more than one hundred students 
 from the Jesuit College of Stonyhurst fought in the 
 South African war ; three have received the Vic- 
 torian Cross, and many of them have lost their lives ; 
 and more than one hundred have gone from the College 
 of Beaumont. 1 Another utterance, and that from a non- 
 Catholic Review, deserves to be quoted in this con- 
 nection. In the last number of the Westminster Review, 
 .Mr. Reade, speaking of the appointment of Dr. Parkin 
 to draw up the scheme for the Rhodes Scholarships, 
 
 1 The Messenger, New York, 1902, July, p. 127. 
 17 
 
258 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 adds: "It is just possible that, if lie will pay any 
 
 attention to the teachings of history, he may find food 
 
 for meditation in the system on which the Propaganda 
 
 Fide and the English College at St. Omers [Jesuit 
 
 College] were recruited during their best years. The 
 
 latter school (now Stony hurst) kept the English 
 
 Catholics loyal English Gentlemen during the worst 
 
 times of the Penal Laws. Many of them accompanied 
 
 James II. into his exile at St. Germain, but it would 
 
 be hard to find one who held a commission, as the 
 
 Irish and Scotch exiles did, in the French service, 
 
 when France was at war with his own country. We 
 
 had no Regiment de Howard firing on the English 
 
 Guards at Fontenoy, as the Regiment de Dillon did, 
 
 and Wellington's chief secret agent in Spain was a 
 
 Stony hurst boy." 1 
 
 The whole history of the Society refutes the im- 
 putation of want of patriotism. Is it not significant 
 that the two shrewdest monarchs of the eighteenth 
 century, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Cath- 
 arine II. of Russia, protected the Jesuits? Would 
 they have done so if there had existed even the slight- 
 est doubt about their patriotism? And, as to France, 
 Dr. Huber admits that "the greatest generals, as 
 Conde, Bouillon, Rohan, Luxembourg, Montmorency, 
 Villars, and Broglie, have come from the schools of 
 Jesuits. ' ' 2 The same may be said of many great men 
 in Austria, Bavaria, and other countries where the 
 Jesuits conducted schools. Also in the nineteenth 
 century their patriotism has been publicly acknow- 
 ledged. We quote the words addressed to the Jesuits 
 
 1 Westminster Review, October 1902, p. 325. 
 
 2 Der Jesuiten-Orden, p. 384. 
 
 I 
 
OPPOSITION TO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 259 
 
 by King Leopold I. of Belgium. Visiting their col- 
 lege at Namur he praised them especially for giving 
 the youth under their charge a truly national educa- 
 tion. "I am much pleased," he said to the Fathers, 
 "to be among you. I know that you give the students 
 a wise direction. Youth needs sound principles. 
 There is nothing more important in our days, when 
 men endeavor to stir up the passions. It is of the 
 greatest moment strenuously to fight against the spirit 
 of lawlessness which now threatens all order and the 
 very existence of the states. What pleases me most 
 in your work is that yon impart to the young a truly 
 national education. If you continue to educate them 
 in this spirit, they will become the support and the 
 mainstay of the country. ' ' 1 
 
 When in 1846 the French Minister Thiers publicly 
 attacked the education of the Jesuits on similar 
 grounds, six hundred former pupils of the Jesuits, 
 who then held high positions in the administration, 
 in literary and industrial circles, came forth with the 
 solemn declaration : "Our Jesuit professors taught us, 
 that God and His religion have to enlighten man's 
 intellect and guide his conscience ; that all men are 
 equal before God and before the law which is an ex- 
 pression of God's will ; that the public powers are for 
 the nations, not the nations for the public powers ; 
 that every one has the sacred duty to make all sacri- 
 fices, even that of property and life, for the welfare of 
 the country; that treason and tyranny alike are sins 
 against God and crimes against society. Would that 
 all France knew that this calumniated education is 
 solid and truly Catholic, and that we, by learning to 
 
 1 Ami de Vordre de Namur, 1843, July 31. 
 
260 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 unite our Catholic faith with patriotism, have become 
 better citizens, and more genuine friends of our liber- 
 ties. 5>1 In 1879, Ferry introduced new laws to sup- 
 press the Jesuit schools. In the Revue des Deux 
 Mondes (1880), Albert Duruy asked Ferry whether 
 the Jesuit pupils had less bravely fought against the 
 Germans in the war of 1870, or whether more Jesuit 
 pupils had taken part in the Commune ; whether 
 especially the ninety pupils of the one Jesuit school in 
 Rue des Posies, Paris, who had fallen in the battles of 
 that war, had been bad citizens, devoid of patriotism? 2 
 The same question may be asked in every country 
 where Jesuits are engaged in educating youth : Have 
 Jesuit pupils ever shown less patriotism, less heroism, 
 less self-sacrifice for their country than pupils of sec- 
 ular institutions? Was Charles Carroll of Carrollton 
 less patriotic than the men who were educated at 
 Harvard and Yale ? Was Bishop John Carroll lacking 
 in patriotism? And yet, John Carroll had been a 
 Jesuit himself, and both had been educated in Jesuit 
 Colleges in Europe. And we may safely challenge 
 any one to prove that the American Jesuits and their 
 pupils are less patriotic, less attached to the interests 
 of their country, and less solicitous for its fair name 
 among the nations than the teachers and pupils of 
 other institutions. And we should like to know the 
 facts on which the American writer has based the 
 
 1 Similar protests of Jesuit pupils were published in 
 1879, when Ferry had cast suspicion on the patriotism of 
 the Jesuits. See De Badts de Cugnac, Le patriotisme des 
 /^suites. 
 
 2 Of the pupils of St. Clement (Metz) 31 died on the 
 battlefield, of the College of Saiute-Genevi&ve 78; of the 
 College of Vannes 20, etc. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 261 
 
 terrible indictment, that in Jesuit schools "love of 
 country was insidiously suppressed. ' ' l However, if 
 such a calumny must deeply wound the hearts of all 
 American Jesuits, they will know, too, that other 
 Americans, and such whose words count a thousand 
 times more than the uncritical assertions of certain 
 writers, have thought and spoken differently on the 
 influence of Jesuit education. On February 22, 1889, 
 at the centennial celebration of Georgetown College, 
 Mr. Cleveland, President of the United States, said 
 among other things : "Georgetown College should be 
 proud of the impress she has made upon the citizen- 
 ship of our country. On her roll of graduates are 
 found the names of many who have performed public 
 duty better for her teaching, while her Alumni have 
 swollen the ranks of those who, in private stations, 
 have done their duty as American citizens intelligent- 
 ly and well. I cannot express my friendship for your 
 college better than to wish for her in the future, as she 
 has had in the past, an army of Alumni, learned, 
 patriotic, and useful, cherishing the good of their 
 country as an object of loftiest effort, and deeming 
 their contributions to good citizenship a supremely 
 worthy use of the education they have acquired within 
 these walls. ' ' 2 
 
 If the old saying holds : ' * Quails rex, talis grex, J ? 
 and vice versa, then we must conclude that the teachers 
 themselves cannot be devoid of patriotism. Fortu- 
 nately, we are not confined to this a priori argument. 
 Numerous instances are on record that Jesuits, espe- 
 cially at the time of war, sacrificed themselves in the 
 
 1 Painter, History of Education, p. 172. 
 
 2 History of Georgetown College, p. 422. 
 
262 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 service of the sick and wounded and on the battle- 
 fields. Not to say a word of the many cases recorded 
 of former centuries, we mention one of more recent 
 date. In the Franco-German war of 1870-71, the 
 Maltese Society of Rhineland and Westphalia sent, 
 besides the 1567 Sisters, 342 male religious to the 
 service of the sick and wounded. Among these 342 
 were 159 Jesuits. Of the 81 volunteer army chaplains 
 sent by the same organization, 33 were Jesuits. l No 
 less than 80 Jesuits received decorations, and two of 
 them were honored with the "Iron Cross," the highest 
 distinction for heroic conduct on the battlefield. The 
 patriotism of the French Jesuits is not less conspicuous. 
 In every war which was waged by France, a number 
 of Jesuits accompanied the army as chaplains. In 
 1870-71 several were wounded on the battlefield, and 
 one died at L,aon. 
 
 The attitude of the Society towards national and 
 political questions has been clearly stated by Father 
 Beckx, General of the Society : "The public and the 
 press busy themselves much about the Society's atti- 
 tude towards the various forms of government. . . . 
 Now the Society, as a religious Order, has nothing to 
 do with any political party. In all countries and 
 under all forms of government, she confines herself to 
 the exercise of her ministry, having in view only her 
 end the greater glory of God and the salvation of 
 souls, an end superior to the interests of human 
 politics. Always and everywhere the religious of the 
 Society fulfils loyally the duties of a good citizen and 
 a faithful subject of the power which rules his country. 
 Always and everywhere she tells all by her instructions 
 
 1 Braunsberger, /. c., p. 37. 
 
UNIVERS 
 
 OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 263 
 
 and her conduct : ' Render to Caesar the things that 
 are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's'/' 1 
 In recent years the attacks on the educational sys- 
 tem of the Jesuits chiefly insist on the fact that it is 
 "antiquated and unable to cope with modern con- 
 ditions." We quoted the words 2 of Mr. Browning, 
 that "little is to be hoped for the Jesuits in the im- 
 provement of education at present, whatever may have 
 been their services in the past. ' ' A similar verdict is 
 passed by Buckle. "The Jesuits, for at least fifty 
 years after their institution, rendered immense service 
 to civilization, partly by organizing a system of educa- 
 tion far superior to any yet seen in Europe. In no 
 university could there be found a scheme of instruction 
 so comprehensive as theirs, and certainly nowhere was 
 there displayed such skill in the management of youth, 
 or such insight into the general operations of the 
 human mind. . . The Society was, during a consider- 
 able period, the steady friend of science, as well as of 
 literature, and allowed its members a freedom and a 
 boldness of speculation which had never been permitted 
 by any monastic order. As, however, civilization ad- 
 vanced, the Jesuits began to lose ground, and this not 
 so much from their own decay as from a change in the 
 spirit of those who surrounded them. An institution 
 admirably adapted to an early form of society was ill 
 suited to the same society in its mature state." 3 We 
 think this charge has been sufficiently refuted by what 
 was said in the preceding chapter. 
 
 1 VUnivers, Paris, Jan. 20, 1879. See De Badts de Cug- 
 nac, L * expulsion des fesuiies, p. 51. 
 
 2 Page 16. ' 
 
 History of Civilization in England, vol. I, chapter 
 XVI. 
 
264 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 How is this hostility to the Jesuits to be ex- 
 plained? It is not so difficult to find some reasons 
 which account for the aversion of Protestants to this 
 Order. Time and again they have been told that 
 Ignatius of L,oyola founded this Society in order to 
 crush Protestantism. Although it has been proved 
 that such a view of the Society is entirely contradicted 
 by the Constitutions and the history of the Order, 1 
 most non-Catholics still cling to their old prejudices 
 and traditional views of the Jesuits. Even now many 
 see in the Society the "avowed and most successful 
 foe of Protestantism, and the embodiment of all they 
 detest. ' ' 2 The Jesuits have been represented to them 
 as notoriously dishonest and unscrupulous men, who 
 teach and practise the most pernicious principles; 
 they have been denounced as plotters against the lives 
 of Protestant rulers, Queen Elizabeth, James L, Wil- 
 liam of Orange, Gustavus Adolphus. The mention of 
 the Gunpowder plot, and the Titus-Oates conspiracy, 3 
 conjures up the most horrible visions of those black 
 demons who dare to call themselves companions of 
 Jesus. Then it has been said that the Jesuits were 
 the cause of the Thirty Year's War, of the French 
 Revolution, of the Franco-German War of 1870, of the 
 Dreyfus affair. 4 All such and similar silly slanders 
 
 1 See above chapter III, pp. 7778. 
 
 2 Canon L,ittledale in the Encyclopedia Britannica, art. 
 "Jesuits". 
 
 3 "That lie about the Titus-Oates Conspiracy," as the 
 Protestant historian Gardiner says (Hist, of En gland ', vol. II, 
 pp. 483 and 615). An apostate priest, Chinicquy, has charged 
 the Jesuits even with the assassination of President Lincoln ! 
 
 4 Quite recently the suspicion was expressed in French 
 anti-clerical papers that the Jesuits were the cause of the 
 coal strikes. Any one who wishes to see to what extreme of 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 265 
 
 have gradually formed that popular idea according to 
 which the Jesuit is the embodiment of craft, deceit, 
 ambition, and all sorts of wickedness. "It began to 
 be rumored up and down," complains Bunyan, "that 
 I was a witch, a Jesuit, a highwayman, and the like. " 
 Last year it was very correctly stated by Mr. Andrew 
 Lang, the celebrated Scotch scholar, that this popular 
 idea and the Protestant dislike of the Jesuits is not 
 based on historical facts, but largely on works of 
 fiction. There is a certain picturesqueness about the 
 mythic Jesuit which makes him highly important in 
 works of fiction. Accordingly, a number of writers 
 have introduced him with great effect, as Charles 
 Kingsley, Mrs. Humphrey Ward, and even Thackeray. 
 Mr. Lang himself rises above that vulgar conception 
 of the Jesuits, and he freely confesses : "The Jesuits 
 are clever, educated men ; on the whole I understand 
 their unpopularity, but with all their faults I love 
 them still. ' ' l And the words of another Protestant 
 deserve to be meditated on by all fair-minded Protes- 
 tants : "Why should a devoted Christian find a diffi- 
 culty in seeing good in the Jesuits, a body of men 
 whose devotion to their idea of Christian duty has 
 never been surpassed?" 2 
 
 But some Protestants will say : The Jesuits have 
 always been the most strenuous and most successful 
 supporters of the Catholic Church; hence they weaken 
 the Protestant cause. To men who argue thus apply 
 
 absurdity the calumniators of the Society have gone, may 
 read Janssen, vol. VII, pp. 530 584. Dublin Review ', vol. 
 XU, pp. 6086 ("Curiosities of the Auti-Jesuit Crusade"); 
 vol. Iv, pp. 329340. 
 
 1 The Pilot, Oct. 12, 1901. 
 
 2 Quick, Educ. Ref., p. 54. 
 
266 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the words of the great Master; " You know how to 
 discern the face of the sky, and can you not know the 
 signs of the times?" 1 Indeed, the signs of the time 
 point to dangers quite different from those dreaded 
 from " Jesuitism". The dangers of our age arise from 
 infidelity, immorality, and anarchy. What has become 
 of the belief in the fundamental truth of Christianity, 
 in the Divinity of Christ? That there are still millions 
 of real Christians in the world, is chiefly due to the 
 Catholic Church, to what they call the stubborn "con- 
 servatism" of the Romish Church. And the Jesuits 
 make it the centre of their educational work and of all 
 their labors, to strengthen the faith in the Divinity of 
 Christ, and to propagate the Kingdom of God. They 
 teach the lofty morality, the generous self-denial, 
 which was preached to the world by the words and 
 example of Jesus. They inculcate assiduously the 
 most important civic virtue, obedience to all lawful 
 authority. Therefore, all those who still believe in 
 the Divinity of Christ, who zealously labor for the 
 moral betterment of their fellow-men, who have the 
 true interest of their country at heart all those men 
 should heartily welcome the Jesuits as helpful allies 
 in their noble enterprise. There is, in our days, 
 surely no reason for antipathy against the Society 
 of Jesus. 
 
 However, considering the force of long cherished 
 prejudices, we understand the dislike and the dread with 
 which less enlightened Protestants view Jesuit schools. 
 Their feelings spring from ignorance, and they are to 
 be pitied rather than blamed. And every Jesuit will 
 pray with Jesus: "Father forgive them, for they know 
 
 1 Matth. 16, 3. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 267 
 
 not what they do. ' ' But what should we say of men 
 who lay claim to critical ^scholarship, if they, instead 
 of examining conscientiously the documents and the 
 history of the Order, unscrupulously copy the slanders 
 of virulent partisan writers, as is done by so many 
 modern historians and educationists? Some seem 
 studiously to neglect to acquire that information which 
 is necessary and easily available, in order to under- 
 stand this system. Of others one has reason to sus- 
 pect that they write against their better knowledge, 
 from fanatical hatred, not so much of the Society as 
 of the Catholic Church. But then let them at least be 
 honest ; let them say that they are fighting against 
 the "Anti-Christ in Rome," against the "Scarlet 
 Woman," as their leaders were pleased to express 
 themselves; let them confess that it is the odium Papae, 
 the old "no-Popery" arid "Know-nothing" feeling 
 which inspires them. Well has a non-Catholic peri- 
 odical recently observed: "We end inevitably by 
 recognizing that all the reproaches with which we 
 may feel entitled to load the Jesuits, in the name of 
 reason, of philosophy, etc., etc., fall equally upon all 
 religious orders, and upon the Church herself, of 
 which they have ever been the most brilliant orna- 
 ment. Why then address these reproaches to the 
 Jesuits only?" 1 
 
 History has proved the correctness of these state- 
 ments. In the eighteenth century the Jesuit colleges 
 were suppressed. Not long after the monasteries of 
 other orders were "secularized". In 1872 the Jesuits 
 were expelled from Germany; two or three years after, 
 the other religious orders had to leave the fatherland, 
 
 1 The Open Court, Chicago, Jan. 1902, p. 28. 
 
268 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and then the secular priests were persecuted, and 
 bishops imprisoned. Since 1879 there was a continued 
 agitation in France against the Jesuits and their 
 schools. This campaign has now issued in a general 
 war against all teaching congregations, in fact against 
 all religious orders. 
 
 But this is not all ; of late radical papers begin to 
 proclaim the real intentions of the persecutors of the 
 religious orders. One paper wrote recently: "Now 
 we must not forget the Cur 6s (Parish priests); after 
 the monks let us attend to them." Hostility to 
 the Church, nay, to all religion, is at the bottom 
 of the unjust and tyrannous proceedings against the 
 Jesuits and other religious orders in France. For, 
 whilst to the ordinary reader of newspapers the recent 
 laws "appear to be a mere measure of self-defense 
 forced upon the Republican Government by the reputed 
 political intrigues of the Clerical party in France, it is 
 in reality a systematic attempt to discredit religion, 
 and to remove its checking influence upon the atheistic 
 movement of the controlling party. ' ' 1 That influence 
 was chiefly felt to come from the religious orders, 
 particularly from the teaching congregations. Hence 
 they must go. The hypocritical assertion : "We com- 
 bat Jesuitism, not the Church, not religion," is a mere 
 ruse de guerre, a stratagem, used to deceive more fair- 
 minded Protestants, and short-sighted or lukewarm 
 Catholics. That this is no exaggerated party state- 
 ment, is evident from the discussions in the French 
 Senate during the last three years. It is also frankly 
 
 1 American Ecclesiastical Review, Sept. 1902, p. 324. 
 See especially the Dublin Review, October 1902: "The Power 
 behind the Freiich Government," where it is clearly set forth 
 who the real instigators of this new persecution are. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JKSUIT EDUCATION. 269 
 
 admitted by the more candid advocates of the new 
 persecution, and by not a few far-seeing Protestants. 
 
 Here, however, a serious objection is raised : Have 
 not Catholics, even high dignitaries of the Church, 
 opposed the Jesuits? How is this? ''Protestants are 
 not ignorant that the Society of Jesus has been the 
 object of suspicion and attack from influential men in 
 the Church of Rome itself ; that no worse things have 
 been said of it by Protestants than have been said by 
 Romanists themselves ; that Romish ecclesiastics have 
 in all generations of its history, directed against it 
 their open attacks and their secret machinations ; that 
 Romish teachers have dreaded it as a rival and in- 
 triguer. " x However, such Protestants should not fail 
 to examine who these "Romanists" are, and especially 
 from what motives they act when attacking the Jesuits. 
 We do not wish to say more on this subject, but quote 
 only the words of a distinguished French writer, M. 
 lyenormant, who said : "Outside the Catholic Church 
 opinions regarding the Jesuits, as regarding other re- 
 ligious orders, are free, but within the Catholic 
 Church the war against the Jesuits is the most mon- 
 strous inconsistency. ' ' 2 
 
 The opposition of Catholic schools to the Society 
 is frequently looked upon by non-Catholics as the 
 surest proof of the dangerous character of Jesuit edu- 
 cation. They point to the hostility of the Alma Mater 
 of the Society, the once famous University of Paris, 
 to the Jesuits. But a German Protestant, a pro- 
 
 1 Professor Porter of Yale, Educational Systems of the 
 Puritans and Jesuits compared ', p. 90. 
 
 "Endedans du catholicisme , la guerre aux Jesuites est 
 la plus monstrueuse des inconsequences." De Badts de Cugnac, 
 L* expulsion des Jesuites^ p. 6. 
 
270 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 fessor in the University of Strasburg, not in the least 
 partial to the Jesuits, writes on this subject: "This 
 hostility evidently arose from jealousy, as the youths 
 of Paris flocked to the schools of these dangerous and 
 dexterous rivals, while the lecture rooms of the Uni- 
 versity were empty." l The same opinion is held by 
 M. Jourdain, the historian of the University of Paris. 
 He describes the scientific .stagnation of the University 
 in the seventeenth century, and the frightful licen- 
 tiousness of the students, in consequence of which 
 parents did not dare to send their sons to this school, 
 but were anxious to have them educated by the Jesuits. 
 The University combated this competition not so much 
 by raising the intellectual and moral standing of the 
 University, as by acts of Parliament, expelling the 
 Jesuits or closing their colleges. The colleges of the 
 University were on the point of being deserted, and 
 this time the danger was all the more grievous, as 'a 
 part of the Professors could attribute to themselves the 
 decadence. 2 Still the members of the University never 
 ceased from accusing the Jesuits of being corrupters of 
 youth and disturbers of the public peace. It is ad- 
 mitted also that the teaching in the University was 
 most defective. But they reproached the Jesuits for 
 inefficiency and faulty methods. The University, 
 although tainted with Jansenism, charged the Jesuits 
 with spreading doctrines prejudicial to the Catholic 
 faith, with "rendering faith a captive to vain human 
 reason and philosophy." The historian here justly 
 exclaims: "How often, in later days, has the Society 
 
 1 Ziegler, Geschichte der Padagogik, 1895, p. 121. 
 
 2 Jourdain, Histoire de V University de Paris an XVII. 
 et au XVIII. stecle. Paris 1888, vol. I, pp. 159. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 271 
 
 reversely been accused of being the implacable foe of 
 philosophy and reason !" 1 
 
 The hostility of the Paris University was, therefore, 
 merely the outcome of jealousy. At all times mono- 
 polies were jealous. Richelieu had perceived, that 
 clearly. Frequently urged to expel the Jesuits from 
 Paris, he did not yield ; on the contrary, towards the 
 end of his life he handed over to the Jesuits the Col- 
 lege de Marmoutiers. "The Universities/' he said, 
 "complain as if a wrong were done them, that the in- 
 struction of youth* is not left to them exclusively. But 
 as human frailty requires a counter-balance to every- 
 thing, it is more reasonable that the Universities and 
 the Jesuits teach as rivals, in order that emulation 
 may stimulate their efforts, and that learning being 
 deposited in the hands of several guardians, may be 
 found with one, if the others should have lost it." 2 
 In another passage Jourdain does not hesitate to state 
 that the competition of the Jesuits soon turned into a 
 blessing for the University itself, as it was forced to 
 exercise a more active supervision over masters and 
 students, which was beneficial both to discipline and 
 instruction. 3 
 
 In Germany also and in other countries the Jesuits 
 had to encounter the opposition of the old universities. 
 The reason has been given by Professor Paulsen: 
 "The old corporations at Ingolstadt, Vienna, Prague, 
 Freiburg, Cologne, resisted with might and main, but 
 it was all in vain; the Jesuits were victorious every- 
 where. The old corporations who were in possession 
 
 1 Ibid., p. 282. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 272. 
 
 3 Ibid., vol. II, p. 299. 
 
272 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of the universities have often raised the charge of 
 "imperiousness" of "desire of ruling 1 ' against the 
 Jesuits, and many historians of these institutions have 
 passionately repeated this charge, certainly not with- 
 out g9od cause. But it must be added that it was not 
 the desire of ruling that springs from arrogance and 
 rests on external force or empty titles, but the desire 
 that arises from real power which is eager to work, 
 because it can work and must work. ' ' 1 
 
 Another reason for the cold treatment of the Society 
 by Catholics must be sought in unfair generalizations 
 of individual cases. The Jesuits had always the 
 privilege or the misfortune of being the subject 
 of the constant pre-occupation of the public mind. 
 They are watched closely, and they are, too often, 
 watched with a magnifying glass. But if faults are 
 discovered in an individual, is it fair to censure the 
 whole body? Well has an English writer said: "The 
 most splendid and perfect institution, if it grow, and 
 occupy a large space, if many join it, will have among 
 its members imprudent and therefore dangerous men 
 men who offer so fair a pretext to the malevolent 
 for attacking it, that the combined learning and 
 prudence of many years will hardly make good the 
 damage done. The mass of men do not make fine 
 distinctions; to distinguish with them, means casuistry, 
 and casuistry they consider to be next door to system- 
 atized imposture. Point out some telling scandals 
 against some member of a large organized body; be 
 they only three or four, or true or false, repeat them 
 often enough and the public will pass the verdict of 
 
 1 Paulsen, /. c. y p. 281 (vol. I, p. 407). 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 273 
 
 guilty upon the whole, and condemn both the system 
 and him who sins against it. " l 
 
 Sometimes, indeed, it may be that individual 
 Jesuits have, by their unfaithfulness to the principles 
 of their order, deserved the ill-feeling with which they 
 have been regarded. But in a large majority of cases, 
 it is due either to prejudice or ignorance on the part of 
 their adversaries, or else to an imperfect grasp of the 
 Jesuit system, especially to the false impression that 
 the Jesuits exercise an influence which interferes with 
 the work of others and that they are a rival power in 
 the government of the Church. 2 
 
 The utter falsity , of the impression referred to 
 has been proved more than once. In 1880 all the 
 French Bishops, with two or three exceptions, ad- 
 dressed letters of protest to the President of the Re- 
 public against the decree of expulsion of the Jesuits. 
 These letters form a splendid testimony, not only to 
 the educational success of the Jesuits, but also to 
 their loyalty to the ecclesiastical authorities. 3 The 
 Cardinal Archbishop of Paris uttered these striking 
 words about the Jesuits, so many of whom labored in his 
 diocese: "Among the religious institutes, there is one 
 which has been more before the world than the others; 
 which has done splendid service in education, which 
 has shed lustre on literature, which has formed savants 
 of the first rank in every branch of science. . . Marked 
 
 1 R. B. Vaughan, Life of St. Thomas, vol. I, p. 629. 
 
 2 See Father Clarke, S. J., in the Nineteenth Century, 
 August 1896. 
 
 3 See Dublin Review, 1880, July, pp. 155183. Again 
 in October 1902, of 79 French Bishops 72 (in a joint petition 
 to the Senate) declared their solidarity with the religious 
 orders. 
 
 18 
 
274 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 out by its importance and .success as an object of the 
 hatred of the enemies of religion, the Society of Jesus 
 has always confounded calumny by the splendor of its 
 virtues, its intellectual power and its work. . . . To 
 zeal, these generous priests have always united 
 prudence. In the midst of the dissensions which 
 trouble the country, just as the whole of the clergy 
 have kept themselves rigorously within the limits of 
 their spiritual ministry, the Society of Jesus has been 
 scrupulously exact in avoiding all interfering with 
 politics. Those who deny this, make assertions with- 
 out proof. A Bishop like myself who has under his 
 jurisdiction the chief Jesuit establishments in France 
 is in a position to know the truth in a matter like 
 this." 
 
 Cardinal Bonnechose testified as follows: "The 
 Jesuits devote themselves to the laborious and often 
 thankless task of education. They open colleges; ex- 
 perience justifies their efforts; families entrust their 
 children to them with the utmost confidence; year by 
 year, public opinion and the government itself, testify 
 to their success; year by year, they send forth into 
 every career young men who have been taught to 
 respect authority, who are penetrated with the idea of 
 duty; who are fitted to become brave soldiers, con- 
 scientious functionaries, and honorable and useful 
 citizens, and who are, every one, devoted to their coun- 
 try and ready to die for France. ' ' The Archbishop 
 of Cambrai, Cardinal Regnier, spoke in the same 
 strain: "Here I must make particular mention of the 
 Jesuit Fathers, who are to be treated with special 
 severity. On my conscience and in the name of truth, 
 President of the French Republic, I bear witness that 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 275 
 
 these religious men, who have so long been abused, 
 spit upon, and calumniated by the anti-Christian 
 press with a malice which no authority has ever 
 attempted to restrain who are devoted day by day to 
 the hatred and violence of the mob, as though they 
 were an association of malefactors that these religi- 
 ous are esteemed and venerated in the highest degree 
 by the clergy and by every class of the faithful, and 
 that they are in every way most worthy of it. Their 
 conduct is exeniplary; their teaching can only be 
 blamed by ignorance and bad faith. Many of them 
 belong to the most distinguished families of the coun- 
 try. The house of superior education which they 
 carry on with such brilliant success at lyille, was en- 
 trusted to them I may almost say, forced on them 
 by fathers of families who had themselves been 
 brought up by them, and who were determined to 
 provide for their children an education which their 
 own experience taught them to value. I fulfil a duty 
 of conscience and of honor in addressing to you these 
 simple and respectful observations. ' ' 
 
 The testimony of the Archbishop of Lyons will be 
 of special interest. Cardinal Caverot writes: "It is 
 the privilege of the children of St. Ignatius to be in 
 the front of every battle. I know how hatred, and 
 still more how ignorance and prejudice, have accum- 
 ulated calumnies against the Society. But I owe it to 
 the truth to declare here, that in the course of a 
 ministry of well-nigh fifty years twenty as priest, 
 thirty as bishop I have been able to satisfy myself, 
 and I know that these worthy and zealous servants of 
 God have well deserved the distinction given to the 
 Society by the Church, when she proclaimed it, in the 
 
276 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Council of Trent j a 'Pious Institute, approved by the 
 Holy See.' I admire these men in their work of 
 teaching, and in the labors of their apostleship. 
 Nowhere have I met ivith priests more obedient to ecclesi- 
 astical authority, more careful of the laws of the country, 
 more aloof from political conflict; and I affirm without 
 fear of contradiction, that if these decrees which strike 
 at them have not made any charge whatever against 
 their life and teaching, it is because not a charge 
 could be made which would survive an hour's discus- 
 sion. ' ' 
 
 There m no room for further extracts from these 
 letters. The Dublin Review remarks that these mani- 
 festoes of the French hierarchy are precious documents 
 for the religious orders; "but the Jesuits, in particular, 
 will be able, from these utterances, to collect a body of 
 episcopal testimony to their ability, devotedness, and 
 deference towards the Bishops such as perhaps they 
 have never before received from a great National 
 Church during the whole course of their existence. ' ' l 
 
 In modern times it has sometimes been said that 
 religious orders, in general, were admirably equipped 
 for former ages, but time has progressed so fast that 
 the orders were left behind and are now "out of date." 
 One Philip Limerick, who, as he affirms, was at one 
 time himself in a monastery, states this view plainly 
 in the Contemporary Review (April 1897). This writer 
 admits that the Monks were the benefactors of man- 
 kind, by teaching the arts of civilization to the rude 
 tribes of the North, and that the monastic institutions 
 were the homes, for a long time even the only ones, of 
 learning. But, he says, u omnia tempus habent, and 
 
 i L. c.,p. 175. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 277 
 
 monks are now rarely met with, and of the later 
 orders, the Regular Clerks, only one has left a deep 
 impression on the Latin Church and obtained a place 
 in history the Society of Jesus. This Society owes 
 its still vigorous life to its wider scope and more effici- 
 ent administration. ' ' Although this writer assigns an 
 exceptional position to the Society, others include also 
 this Order in the general doom. "We can do without 
 the Jesuits," was a saying of Dr. Del-linger, and his 
 opinion is shared by some so-called Liberal Catholics. 
 That the present Pope Leo XIII. has other senti- 
 ments about religious orders in general is evident 
 from his numerous letters. In his letter to the Arch- 
 bishop of Paris, December 23, 1900, he enumerates all 
 the benefits religion and society receive from their 
 hands. He says that "the religious are the necessary 
 auxiliaries of the bishops and the secular clergy. " 
 "In the past their doctors shed renown on the univer- 
 sities by the depth and breadth of their learning, and 
 their houses became the refuge of divine and human 
 knowledge, and in the shipwreck of civilization saved 
 from certain destruction the masterpieces of ancient 
 wisdom. Nor is their activity, their zeal, their love of 
 their fellovj-men, diminished in our own day. Some, 
 devoted to teaching, instruct the young in secular knowl- 
 edge and the principles of religious virtue and duty, on 
 which public peace and the welfare of states absolutely 
 depend. Others are seen settling amongst savage 
 tribes in order to civilize them. Nor is it an uncom- 
 mon thing for them to make important contributions to 
 science by the help they give to the researches which 
 are being made in such different domains as the study 
 of the differences of race and tongue, of history, the 
 
278 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 nature and products of the soil, and other questions. 1 
 Of course we are not unaware that there are people 
 who go about declaring that the religious congrega- 
 tions encroach upon the jurisdiction of the Bishops 
 and interfere with the rights of the secular clergy. 
 This assertion cannot be sustained if one cares to con- 
 sult the wise laws published on this point by the 
 Church, and which we have recently re-enacted/' 2 
 
 On more than one occasion I^eo XIII. gave expres- 
 sion to the high esteem in which he holds the educa- 
 tional work of the Jesuits, from whom he himself had 
 received his early training. In the year 1886 he 
 solemnly confirmed once more the Institute of the 
 Society and its ecclesiastical privileges, exhorting the 
 sons of Ignatius courageously to continue their work 
 in the midst of all persecutions. 3 
 
 Before closing this chapter we may mention one 
 explanation for the widespread animosity against the 
 Society at which some may be inclined to smile. It 
 is recorded that the founder of the Society, St. Ignatius 
 of Loyola, used to beg of God continually that his 
 sons might always be the object of the world's hatred 
 and enmity. He knew from the words of Our Divine 
 Master: "If the world hate you, know that it hated 
 me before you," and from the history of the Church 
 that this persecution for the sake of Jesus has always 
 
 1 On the services rendered by Catholic missionaries, 
 mostly religious, to the knowledge of languages, especially 
 to Comparative Philology, see Max Miiller's Lectures on the 
 Science of Language, vol. I, and Father Dahlmann: Die 
 Sprachkunde und die Missionen, (Herder, 1891). 
 
 2 Translation from The Messenger, New York, February 
 1901. 
 
 3 Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 581. 
 
OPPOSITION TO JESUIT EDUCATION. 279 
 
 been an essential condition for every victory won for 
 the sacred cause of Christianity. No doubt, this 
 prayer of St. Ignatius has been heard. Whether it be 
 the Courtiers of Queen Elizabeth, or the Reformers in 
 Germany, the infidel Philosophers of the eighteenth 
 century, or the Atheists of our own days, the Com- 
 munists of Paris, or the Revolutionary party in Italy, 
 the Bonzes in Japan, or the fanatical followers of 
 Mahomet, all who hated the name of Catholic concen- 
 trated their deadliest hatred on the unfortunate Jesuits. 
 And what was more painful to them, even within the 
 pale of the Catholic Church, they have sometimes met 
 with misunderstanding and opposition. The Jansen- 
 ists in France were their bitter enemies. The Liberal 
 Catholics invariably stood aloof from them. At times 
 even Bishops and Archbishops treated them coldly. 
 Still, these persecutions were not without some good 
 results. They kept the sons of Ignatius ever on the 
 alert; and for this reason, the prayer of St. Ignatius 
 manifests a wonderful insight into human affairs. 
 Constant attacks prevent a body of men from stagna- 
 tion and security. 
 
 "And you all know security 
 Is mortal's chiefest enemy." 1 
 
 1 Macbeth 3, 5. 
 
PART SECOND. 
 
 The Principles of the Ratio Studiorum. Its 
 
 Theory and Practice Viewed in the Light 
 
 of Modern Educational Problems. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Adaptability of the Ratio Studiorum. Prudent 
 Conservatism. 
 
 In the "Introductory Chapter" we quoted this 
 remark of a biographer of St. Ignatius: "The Ratio 
 Studiorum is a plan of studies which admits of every 
 legitimate progress and perfection, and what Ignatius 
 said of the Society in general may be applied to its 
 system of studies in particular, namely that it ought 
 to suit itself to the times and comply with them, and 
 not make the times suit themselves to it. " 1 We assert, 
 then, that this is the first principle of the Jesuit 
 system : that it should adapt itself to the different 
 times and countries. We do not treat here of single 
 colleges; it is possible that some have not adapted 
 themselves sufficiently. The question to be discussed 
 here is a general one: namely about the system as 
 such. 
 
 That the Jesuit system has not suited itself to the 
 times is the criticism of some. Others go even further, 
 maintaining that it cannot be suited to the times, or 
 only with great difficulty, as it is altogether "anti- 
 
 J Genelli, Life of St. Ignatius, part II, ch. VII. 
 
 (280) 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THK RATIO STUDIORUM. 281 
 
 quated. " Here we may be allowed to ask whether 
 men who make such assertions are sufficiently 
 acquainted with Jesuit education. Some of them 
 seem to have seen Jesuit colleges only from the out- 
 side ; but an educational system cannot be fairly 
 judged unless one has watched its practical working. 
 It is very easy to make a caricature of a system which 
 one does not know. 
 
 But let us, for fairness sake, assume that the 
 opponents of the Jesuit system take the trouble of 
 reading the Constitutions of the Society and the Ratio 
 Studiorum, even then they may be led into serious 
 mistakes, unless they pay attention to a few regula- ' 
 tions which are usually overlooked. To say: the 
 Jesuits teach only what is mentioned in the Ratio 
 Studiorum and neglect what is not put down there, is 
 altogether false. The Constitutions and the Ratio 
 Studiorum leave great liberty in the matter of changes 
 and adaptations. In his Constitutions Ignatius him- 
 self says: "Let public schools be opened wherever it 
 may conveniently be done. In the more important 
 studies, they may be opened with reference to the cir- 
 cumstances of the places where our colleges exist. And 
 because in particular subjects, there must needs be much 
 variety j according to the difference of places and per- 
 sons, we shall not here insist on them severally; but 
 this may be declared that rules should be established 
 in every college which shall embrace all necessary 
 points. ' ' l 
 
 Conformably to this fundamental law of St. Igna- 
 tius, the Ratio Studiorum emphasizes the lawfulness, 
 
 1 Part IV, ch. VII. The translation is that of the Prot- 
 estant translator (L,ondon, 1838). 
 
282 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 nay, the necessity of changes and adaptations. In the 
 first part of the Ratio, in the Rules for the Provincial 
 Superior, it is expressed not less than six times. Thus 
 one rule reads: "As according to the difference of 
 country, time and persons, there may be a variety in 
 the order of studies, in the hours assigned to them, in 
 repetitions, disputations and other school exercised as 
 well as in the vacations, if he [the Provincial] should 
 think anything more conducive to the greater ad- 
 vancement of learning in his province, he shall inform 
 the General in order that, after all, special regulations 
 be made for all the particular needs; these regulations 
 should, however, agree as closely as possible with our 
 general plan of studies. ' ' 2 This is evidently a most 
 important regulation, proving that the arrangement of 
 studies is practically committed to the Provincial Su- 
 perior. A distinguished commentator on the Institute 
 of the Society, in a recent work, could write: "We do 
 not deny that in their methods of teaching, the mem- 
 bers of the Order differ in many points from the Ratio 
 Studiorum as we have explained it. It cannot be 
 otherwise, since in the various provinces, owing to 
 different conditions, it is necessary to make different 
 regulations, without interfering with the general prin- 
 ciples on which the Institute rests. We have already 
 mentioned that St. Ignatius not only permitted but 
 ordered various regulations to be made, according to 
 the various conditions of time and place. This is 
 much more necessary in our days, when so many edu- 
 cational schemes, good ones and bad ones, have been 
 advanced. The Society, far from considering her own 
 system absolutely perfect and unalterable, on the con- 
 1 Rules of the Provincial, 39. 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF TH RATIO STUDIORUM. 283 
 
 trary grants that many things are merely temporary and 
 can be improved.' J 1 
 
 This is what the Society itself thinks of its educa- 
 tional system. . If the system has not been changed 
 for three hundred years it existed three hundred 
 years, not, as President Eliot thinks, four hundred, 
 the* Society has proved false to the principles of its 
 founder. That the Society has changed its teaching 
 in the course of time, is proved by its history. We 
 referred in a previous chapter to the Revision of 1832 
 and later additions, and showed that the revision of 
 1832 was not considered final. But this general change 
 is slight as compared with the many important 
 changes, which were made in the different provinces. 
 The four volumes of Father Pachtler's work exhibit 
 a considerable number of adaptations made in the 
 provinces of Germany in the old Society. As an in- 
 stance of such a change we must consider the system- 
 atic teaching of geography and history, which was 
 gradually introduced in the iyth century, although it 
 was not expressly prescribed by the Ratio. 2 Greater 
 in number and more far-reaching were the changes 
 made in the new Society. 
 
 In this regard the demands and suggestions for a 
 revision of the old Ratio Studiorum, sent to Rome 
 before 1832, are highly instructive. There we read: 
 "As the philosophy of Aristotle is no longer suited for 
 our age, it should not be introduced into our schools. . . 
 Natural sciences were formerly taught as part of 
 philosophy; but in order to conform with the exigen- 
 cies of our times, all these sciences must be taught 
 
 1 Oswald, S. J., Commentarius , 110. 204, nota. 
 
 2 See above ch. IV, pp. 125129. 
 
284 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 separately. . . Ethics are not to be treated according 
 to the commentaries on Aristotle, but according to the 
 best modern works. . . The elements of Euclid do 
 not suffice now-a-days, but in our age we must teach 
 algebra, geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, dif- 
 ferential and integral calculus, and the scientific 
 applications of all parts of mathematics. . . In the 
 lower classes special care must now be had of the 
 mother-tongue ; the pupils must be diligently exercised 
 in the use of their native language, and must be 
 acquainted with the best authors in the vernacular. . . 
 In our times it will not suffice to explain the principles 
 of rhetoric according to the precepts of Aristotle and 
 Cicero, but according to modern authors ; besides, 
 now-a-days it is necessary to give instruction in 
 aesthetics. . . In the lower classes we must now teach 
 history, geography, as well as mathematics; in the 
 higher classes also archaeology. ' ' l These demands were 
 attended to in the Revised Ratio. This may suffice to 
 show that the Jesuits do not shut their eyes to the 
 needs and exigencies of the times. In 1830 the Gen- 
 neral of the Society wrote to the superiors of the dif- 
 ferent provinces that they should not fail to call atten- 
 tion to the commendable practices of other schools in 
 their countries; they should also be careful to mention, 
 whether certain things were to be introduced in their 
 respective places, even if they were contrary to the 
 common customs of the schools of the Order. 2 
 
 The Society has never denied that vast progress 
 has been made in all branches of learning, especially 
 in natural sciences, history, and philology. It does 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 392444. 
 
 2 /., p. 407. 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THE RATIO STUDIORUM. 285 
 
 not wish a return of the conditions of former centuries, 
 but gladly makes use of the advantages afforded by 
 modern science, in order to qualify the pupils for the 
 necessities of our times. If one compares the curricula 
 of Jesuit schools in America, England, France, Bel- 
 gium, Austria, and other countries, he will find the 
 greatest variety. He will discover that it is a ground- 
 less charge against the Jesuits, that they cling with 
 blind stubbornness to every detail of their Ratio. No, 
 as far as it is compatible with thorough education, 
 they have adapted their teaching to the customs of the 
 respective countries in which they are laboring. As 
 was said before, these changes and modifications are 
 not added to the printed Ratio as amendments or by- 
 laws ; this is not necessary, since, as was stated above, 
 the Ratio itself admits the necessity of having " dif- 
 ferent regulations as regards studies, according to the 
 different conditions of time and place. " The changes 
 and modifications are laid down in the customs and 
 directives for the different Provinces or Missions. Now, 
 the writers outside of the Society are, as a rule, utterly 
 ignorant of the particular regulations of the various 
 provinces; hence, they are easily led into the same 
 mistake which a foreigner, coming to the State of 
 New York, would make if he imagined there existed 
 no law except the Constitution of the United States. 
 As the General, and to a great extent the Provincial 
 Superiors, by the Constitution of the Order, are em- 
 powered to make all changes which they deem neces- 
 sary, it cannot be said that the Ratio Studiorum is so 
 difficult to reform. 
 
 But it may be objected here, that what remains is 
 no longer the Ratio Studiorum. This is not correct. 
 
286 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 AH the essential points remain ; it is only important 
 to know what is essential. The assailants of the Ratio 
 usually suppose that it is the preponderance given to 
 certain subjects, especially the classics, or the order 
 and succession in which the different subjects are 
 taught. Others again seem to find the essentials of 
 the Ratio in minor details, concerning the manner in 
 which the subjects are taught. We admit that it 
 would be altogether impracticable to carry out the 
 prescriptions of the Ratio in their entirety. Thus the 
 L,atin idiom can no longer be insisted on as the lan- 
 guage of conversational intercourse among the students, 
 as was done in the iyth century, nor is it possible to 
 use it as the medium of instruction in all the lectures. 
 Neither is it possible to devote the same number of 
 hours to the classics, as much time and labor is requi- 
 site for the study of modern literature, mathematics, 
 and the sciences. We admit further that some 
 details of the Ratio, for instance the system of decurio- 
 nes (boy supervisors and assistants of the teacher), 
 certain solemnities at the distribution of prizes, the 
 use of the grammar of Alvarez, etc., are really anti- 
 quated. But they are exactly those points which have 
 been abandoned long ago, and which have never been 
 regarded as essential. 
 
 The present General of the Society, Father Martin, 
 who, if any one, is unquestionably warranted to speak 
 authoritatively on this subject, declared on January i, 
 1893: "There are men who think that the Ratio 
 Studioruni was good formerly, but that it is no longer 
 so in our times. He who maintains this position does 
 not understand the Ratio Studioruni ; he looks only at 
 the mattery not at the form [the spirit] of the system. . . 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THK RATIO STUDIORUM. 287 
 
 But the matter is not the essential feature of this 
 system." 1 Neither is. the order, the sequence, in 
 which the different branches are taught. The subject 
 matter as well as the order is in many countries pre- 
 scribed by^fhe governments. Although this prescribed 
 order may not always be the best, still it can be 
 adopted, as the order is not the characteristic feature 
 of the system of the Society. 
 
 Now, may it not be said that modern conditions 
 merely forced the Society and its General to this broad 
 interpretation of the Ratio, to make, as President Eliot 
 would express it, some further ' 'trifling concessions" ? 
 By no means. The utterances of Father Martin are 
 neither novel nor alien to the Ratio or the Constitu- 
 tions of the Society, as is shown by a comparison with 
 the quotations we gave before from these two docu- 
 ments. One point is made clear, viz., that the Ratio 
 admits of a very broad interpretation, and leaves es- 
 pecially ample room for innovations as regards various 
 branches of study. If it is useful and advisable to 
 teach a new branch : economics, civics, local history, 
 biology, or Spanish, or any other subject, there is no 
 difficulty on the part of the Ratio Studiorum. If the 
 Jesuits exclude certain branches from their curriculum, 
 it is not because they are not mentioned in the Ratio, 
 but because they consider these branches of less edu- 
 cational value ; if they uphold certain other branches, 
 as the classics, it is because they expect the most from 
 them for the training of their pupils ; if they defend 
 the successive teaching of different branches in pre- 
 ference to the simultaneous treatment of a multitude 
 
 1 The Woodstock Letters, vol. XXII (1893), p. 106. - 
 Quoted also by Chossat, Les Jesuites & Avignon, p. 258, n. 3. 
 
288 jKsuii; EDUCATION. 
 
 of unconnected subjects, they act according to ap- 
 proved pedagogical principles; if they do not admit 
 the extravagant electivism of some modern school- 
 reformers, it is because they consider it injurious to 
 solid education, not because it is opposed to their sys- 
 tem. We venture to say, they could adopt electivism 
 to a very great extent, without entirely abandoning 
 the fundamental principles of their Ratio. We shall 
 speak of these principles in the next chapter. Suffice 
 it to quote here the words of a writer in a first class 
 literary review in Europe on the Ratio : "The regula- 
 tions and principles of that system of studies, viewed 
 in the light of modern exigencies, need not shun any 
 comparison, and the pedagogical wisdom contained 
 therein is in no way antiquated. ' ' 1 
 
 Although the teaching of the Jesuits has not re- 
 mained unchanged for centuries, it is true, on the other 
 hand, that the Society was never rash in adopting 
 new methods. The Jesuits did not experiment with 
 every new-fangled theory, with every pedagogical 
 "fad", no matter how loudly praised and held up as 
 the system of our age. Herein they acted wisely. 
 For, first of all, there may be several systems, equally 
 good, and- the Jesuits possessed a system of their own, 
 which had been approved by a remarkable success in 
 former centuries. And that in recent times the teach- 
 ing of the Society has not been unsuccessful, is suffici- 
 ently proved by what we said in the preceding chapter. 
 
 Whilst the efficiency of her old and approved sys- 
 tem justifies the conservative spirit of the Society in 
 educational matters, another striking proof of its wis- 
 dom in this respect is furnished by the fate of the 
 
 1 Oesterreichisches Litteraturblatt, Vienna, 1897, No. 4. 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THE RATIO STUDIORUM. 289 
 
 modern school reforms themselves. No sooner has 
 one startled the world, than it is followed and over- 
 thrown by a newer, later, more modern system. To 
 each of them may be applied the words of St. Peter to 
 Saphira, which a German philosopher used with ref- 
 erence to modern philosophical theories : "Behold the 
 feet of them who have buried thy husband are at the 
 door, and they shall carry thee out." 1 We have an 
 instance in Germany. In 1892, a new plan of studies 
 was introduced in Prussia, and at about the same time 
 in the other states of Germany. 2 The classical studies 
 lost a great number of hours. Although this plan was 
 introduced at the urgent wish of the young Emperor 
 and through his ' 'energetic personal interference," 3 
 it met with great opposition on the part of the majority 
 of teachers. No party was satisfied. The strict ad- 
 vocates of the ancient classics complained of the 
 reduction in the classical instruction. The friends of 
 the scientific schools were not satisfied with the con- 
 cessions made them. 4 On all sides the cry was heard: 
 "Reform the Reform of 1892." 
 
 In 1895 the Ministry of Instruction allowed the 
 directors of the gymnasia to add, in the three higher 
 classes, one hour a week, which should be devoted to 
 
 1 Acts 5, 9. 
 
 2 A very good account of this reform is given by Dr. 
 Russell, German Higher Schools, ch. XX. See also Educa- 
 tional Review, September, 1900. The best and most compre- 
 hensive sketch of the ' 'Berlin Conference of 1890'* is contained 
 in the Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1889 90, 
 vol. I, pp. 343398, by Charles Herbert Thurston of Cornell 
 University. 
 
 3 Report of the Comm. of Ed., 1. c., p. 363. 
 
 4 Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1. c., p. 398. 
 
 19 
 
290 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the old grammatical and stylistic exercises. 1 Still 
 more complaints were heard in the following years. 
 In 1899 even Professor Virchow, one of the most 
 determined opponents of the gymnasium in its old 
 form, admitted that the graduates after the reform 
 manifested a notable decline in grammatical and logical 
 training. It was found necessary to convoke a new 
 conference, which met in Berlin, June 1900. Here 
 some of the ablest schoolmen were outspoken in 
 demanding a partial return to the system existing 
 before 1892. Dr. Matthias, the referee of the Ministry, 
 stated that all official reports and the most experienced 
 men of the Kingdom complained about the serious 
 decline of L,atin scholarship which had manifested 
 itself after 1892. The cause of this decline he suspected 
 to be the excessive use of inductive methods, so much 
 encouraged by the reform. Kfforts were to be made 
 to check this decline; above all it was necessary to 
 secure again greater grammatical knowledge, and it 
 seemed better to introduce again some of the old 
 methods, especially frequent translations from the Ger- 
 man into L,atin and speaking L,atin. 2 He thus recom- 
 mended what the most zealous of the reformers 
 had ridiculed as antiquated. Professor Kiibler and 
 Professor Harnack were not less outspoken on this 
 point. The latter said that writing Latin was to be 
 insisted on, and that the discarding of this exercise in 
 1892 was a mistake. 3 The result of these discussions 
 was a strengthening of the Latin course, by adding 
 
 1 Messer, Die Reformbewegung y p. 155. 
 
 2 Verhandlungen uber die Fragen des hohern Unterrichts, 
 Berlin, June 1900, p. 128. 
 
 3 /., p. 294. 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THE) RATIO STUDIORUM. 29 1 
 
 one hour weekly from the third class on, therefore an 
 increase of seven hours L,atin weekly in the whole 
 gymnasium. The new "School Order" of 1901 de- 
 manded most emphatically a thorough grammatical 
 training. Books for translating from German into 
 I,atin, which in 1892 had been done away with almost 
 entirely, were again introduced into all the classes. 1 
 By these regulations, the Prussian Ministry, taught by 
 the experience of nine years, and convinced by the 
 arguments of the foremost schoolmen of the Kingdom, 
 acknowledged that the "reform" of 1892, in several im- 
 portant points had been a mistake, a deterioration. It 
 was thus proved that some of the much decried old 
 methods were, after all, the best and safest. 
 
 Within the last decade a novel experiment has been 
 made in Germany, that of the "Pioneer Schools'" or 
 "Reform Gymnasia." These schools are to be the 
 common foundation of all higher schools : Gymnasium 
 (classical), Real- Gymnasium (L,atin scientific), Real- 
 Schule (scientific). During the first three years one 
 modern language is taught, French in the schools of 
 the Frankfort-type, English in those of the Altona-type. 
 In the fourth year the schools separate. Latin is 
 begun in the Gymnasium and Real- Gymnasium, English 
 in the Real-Schule. In the sixth year the Gymnasium 
 introduces Greek, the Real - Gymnasium English. 2 
 Whilst a great number of educators vigorously oppose 
 this system some say "the experiment should never 
 have been allowed" the most advanced "reformers 
 of the universe" expect great things of it ; to them it 
 
 1 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hohern Schulen 
 in Preussen, 1901. pp. 2830. Messer, /. c. y p. 157. 
 
 2 See Russell, German Higher Schools, ch. XX. Vier- 
 eck, in Educational Review, Sept. 1900. 
 
292 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 is ' 4 the school of the future. " Be it remarked, as a 
 curious fact, that this modern system is not new at 
 all, but a mere revival of the system of Comenius 
 (1592 1671). * The future has to show whether this 
 system is practicable or not. So far its value has not 
 been sufficiently demonstrated. 
 
 Our own country furnishes significant phenomena, 
 similar to those witnessed in Germany. People 
 had been told that our educational system was well 
 nigh perfect. American children, at the age of ten or 
 twelve years, now learn things of which in former 
 generations men of twenty-five knew little or nothing, 
 be it physiology, biology, hygiene, civics or what not. 
 And all this they learn without exertion and coercion ; 
 for, agreeably to the free spirit of the country, the 
 young citizens are to be given, as early as possible, 
 full liberty of choosing those branches which suit their 
 good pleasure, or, as our moderns express it, their 
 natural abilities. Indeed, what system can be more 
 perfect ? Now on a .sudden people are rudely awakened 
 from their pleasant dreams by most distinguished men, 
 who tell the people that there is something wrong, 
 some say "radically wrong, " in our educational 
 system. Not a few of these critics begin to point out 
 that one of the fundamental defects of American 
 vSchools is the very thing which was vaunted as our 
 greatest educational achievement: the elective system 
 in secondary schools. Others discover the greatest 
 danger in the hasty experimenting, in the rash accep- 
 
 1 "No less a person than Comenius, the father of our new 
 philosophical education, outlines in his Great Didactic a 
 system which in its principal features agrees with that now 
 in vogue in our pioneer schools." Educational Review, 
 Sept. 1900, p. 173. 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THE) RATIO STUDIORUM. 293 
 
 tation of novelties so common in our modern schools. 1 
 14 There is too much agitation, unceasing change, and 
 consequent uncertainty in the operations of our Amer- 
 ican schools. There is too much individualism in lay- 
 ing plans and arranging courses and in methods of 
 teaching, too burning a desire to say something new 
 or to do something novel for the sake of prominence in 
 the teaching body. Of course it will be said that this 
 has brought us where we are. But we might be quite 
 as well off if we were not exactly where we are." 2 
 
 Within the last month (October 1902) severe stric- 
 tures were made on some of the very latest educational 
 "improvements," and that not by Jesuits, nor by pro- 
 fessional philologians, who stubbornly defend their 
 long-cherished classics, but by such as may eminently 
 be called men of affairs. The Electrical World spoke 
 of President Eliot's efforts to lift the American college 
 to the plane of a foreign university. "The chief effect 
 has been to push the college into the existing dilemma. 
 It is crowded from above by the necessity for more 
 time in the professional schools, and for a nether mill- 
 stone it finds the secondary school that its own hands 
 have fashioned. And truth to tell, the college is losing 
 heart. It has virtually surrendered its last year to 
 professional electives, but the sacrifice has not served its 
 purpose. The latest suggestion from no less eminent 
 a source than that of Professor Butler, of Columbia, is 
 
 1 . "In America we are unfortunately too prone to view 
 with favor any new idea, educational or other, and to embark 
 precipitately in experiments which involve serious con- 
 sequences." Professor Bennett of Cornell University, in The 
 Teaching of Latin in the Secondary School, p. 80. 
 
 2 President Draper of the University of Illinois. Edu- 
 tional Review, May 1902, p. 457. 
 
294 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 for a two-year college course, leading to post-graduate 
 training, and a parallel four-year course for such as 
 may desire it. We hope this experiment may not be 
 tried, for its success would mean the disintegration of 
 the college as it has been, and the introduction of 
 nothing to take its place. ... If the American col- 
 lege is still to remain a part of our educational system, 
 it must stand by its old ideals and neither retreat nor com- 
 promise. ... If the college would do the greatest pos- 
 sible service to education it should sharpen its ax, not 
 to decapitate itself according to the present program, 
 but to hew out of its curriculum the courses that 
 demand a diffuse preparation in the secondary schools/ 
 and out of these latter the time-wasting requirements. ' ' 1 
 The utterances of another man deserve to be quoted in 
 this connection, I mean Mr. Cleveland, the former 
 President of the United States. On October 25, 1902, 
 at the inauguration of the new President of Princeton 
 University, he earnestly warned against ' 'false educa- 
 tional notions," "a new-born impatience which de- 
 mands a swifter educational current and is content 
 with a shallower depth." Mr. Cleveland declared 
 "Princeton's conservatism is one of her chief virtues, and 
 that we of Princeton are still willing to declare our 
 belief that we are better able to determine than those 
 coming to us for education, what is their most advan- 
 tageous course of instruction, and surely every phase 
 of our history justifies this belief." 2 It is hardly 
 necessary to point out what ' 'false educational notions' ' 
 are hinted at. Prom these criticisms of the latest 
 
 1 Electrical World, October 25, 1902. 
 
 2 From the Evening Bulletin, Philadelphia, October 25, 
 1902. (Italics are ours, also those of preceding quotation.) 
 
ADAPTABILITY OF THK RATIO STUDIORUM. 295 
 
 "school reforms we are justified in drawing the fol- 
 lowing inferences: 
 
 First, not all school changes and innovations are 
 real improvements. Secondly, a great deal of sound 
 pedagogy was contained in the old systems, which 
 was rashly and wantonly abandoned by many modern 
 school reformers. Thirdly, the Jesuits acted prudently 
 in not accepting in their totality these new methods 
 which, to a great extent, are but haphazard experi- 
 ments. 
 
 The Society believes in a sound evolution in educa- 
 tional matters, but is averse to a precipitous revolution. 
 Those who recently have called the educational system 
 of the Society antiquated or absurd, because it repudi- 
 ates their own pet theories, have acted very rashly, 
 all the more so that these very theories have been 
 condemned by many competent judges. The man 
 who lives in a glass house should not throw stones at 
 other people. 
 
 In every important movement, the ardent desire of 
 progress must be tempered and controlled by a goodly 
 amount of conservatism. Otherwise the rerum novarum 
 studiosi will sacrifice much of what is of fundamental 
 importance. At the time of the famous Gaume con- 
 troversy in France about the classical studies, an 
 English Catholic writer characterized the attitude of 
 the Jesuits in the following words: ' 'Though essen- 
 tially conservative, that remarkable Society has never 
 held itself so far behind the current of Catholic 
 thought, as to lose its influence over it; nor has it 
 placed itself so much in the advance, as to become an 
 object of general observation. It has, as a rule, 
 firmly, cautiously, and with a practical wisdom, mani- 
 
296 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 fested to so great an extent by no other order in the 
 Church, kept pace with the general movement, and 
 influenced its direction; and when it has not been 
 able, through the unmanageable nature of the elements 
 with which it has had to do, to lead, it has had the 
 sagacity to bide its time and follow. It is this instinct 
 which, though it may to 'carnal men' savor of human 
 prudence, to men who see things through a spiritual 
 eye, manifests the workings of a governing Providence 
 through one of the most able human instruments 
 which has ever undertaken God's work upon the 
 earth." 1 
 
 The extent and limit of the Society's progressive- 
 ness and conservatism in educational matters, has 
 been clearly enunciated by Father Roothaan, General 
 of the Society, in 1832: "The adaptation of the Ratio 
 Studiorum means that we consult the necessities of the 
 age so far as not in the least to sacrifice the solid and 
 correct education of youth. " Accordingly, the Society 
 will ever adapt its system in all and to all that is con- 
 ducive to the great end of its educational labors: the 
 thorough intellectual and moral training of its pupils. 
 
 i Dublin Review, 1866, vol. VII, (p. 208): "The Gauine 
 controversy on Classical Studies," by R. B. V. I think the 
 writer is Roger Bede Vaughan, O. S. B., later on Archbishop 
 of Sydney, Australia. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 The Intellectual Scope. 
 
 In the preceding chapter we mentioned a statement 
 of the present General of the Society, "that the char- 
 acteristics of the Ratio Studiorum are not to be sought 
 in the subject matter or in the order, but in what may 
 be called the form or the spirit of the system. ' ' Father 
 Martin explained in what this form consists : "It con- 
 sists chiefly in the training of the mind, which is the 
 object, and in the various exercises, which are the 
 means to attain this object. ' ' In these words we have 
 the intellectual scope of the Ratio Studiorum, in fact 
 the intellectual scope of every rational system of edu- 
 cation. This training of the mind means the gradual 
 and harmonious development of all the higher faculties 
 of man, of memory, imagination, intellect, and will. 
 
 The very meaning of the word confirms this view: 
 to " educate " signifies to exercise the mental faculties 
 of man, by instruction, training and discipline in 
 such a way as to develop and render efficient the nat- 
 ural powers ; to develop a man physically, mentally, 
 morally, and spiritually. 1 The mind is educated when 
 its powers are developed and disciplined, so that it can 
 perform its appropriate work. In speaking of one as 
 educated, we imply not merely that he has acquired 
 knowledge, but that his mental powers have been 
 developed and disciplined to effective action. Educa- 
 tion is, consequently, the systematic development and 
 
 1 The Standard Dictionary. 
 (297) 
 
298 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 cultivation of the mind and faculties. In these defi- 
 nitions we see that education signifies development, 
 and rightly so, as its original meaning is to ''draw 
 out." The fundamental mistake of many modern 
 systems is the utter disregard of this truth. / Father 
 Bowling, S. J. , of Creighton University, has expressed 
 this very well in the following words l : " Unfortunately 
 education, which ought to signify a drawing out, has 
 come to be regarded as the proper word to denote a 
 putting in. Properly it supposes that there is some- 
 thing in the mind capable of development, faculties 
 that can be trained, implicit knowledge which can be 
 made explicit, dormant powers which can be awakened. 
 The main end of education should be to unfold these 
 faculties. \ It means not so much the actual imparting 
 of knowledge, as the development of the power to gain 
 knowledge, to apply the intellect, to cultivate taste, 
 utilize the memory, make use of observations and facts. 
 It is not essential that the studies which produce these 
 results should be directly useful in after life any more 
 than it is necessary for the athlete in the development 
 of his powers to wield the blacksmith's hammer, 
 instead of using dumb-bells or horizontal bars, none 
 of which play any part in his subsequent career ; he 
 puts them all aside when the physical powers have 
 been developed. " 
 
 The Germans express the same idea admirably by 
 the name they give to their colleges. They call a 
 college a gymnasium. Indeed, this is what a college 
 should be, a place of mental gymnastics, of training, 
 
 J The Catholic College as a Preparation for a Business 
 Career, p. 7. See also The Month, February, 1886: Educa- 
 tion and School, by the Rev. John Gerard, S. J. 
 
THE INTEI^ECTUAI, SCOPE. 299 
 
 not for the muscles, but the mind. Education ought 
 not to be merely an accumulating of knowledge, of 
 data from various sciences, of bits of learning gathered 
 here and there. This, alas, it now is in too many 
 modern systems. "Give the pupils facts, broad infor- 
 mation, varied instruction, " is their watch-word. And 
 yet, facts, information, instruction, are only a means 
 of educating, not education itself ; they are, to use the 
 above mentioned metaphor, the dumb-bells, the hori- 
 zontal bars, the pulleys of this mental gymnasium, by 
 the use of which the mind acquires that agility and 
 nimbleness, that quickness of action, and last, but not 
 least, that gracefulness and refinement which we call 
 taste, the noblest result of a well balanced education. 
 A mind thus trained and developed may then take up 
 any special study. A young man thus educated has 
 his intellectual tools sharpened and ready for use. He 
 will accomplish more, and will do more thorough and 
 successful work, in any line of professional or practical 
 work, than the one who from the beginning took up 
 special studies. Undoubtedly, the latter will get an 
 earlier start in life ; when twenty-five years old he is 
 earning money, while the former has just finished his 
 long course of training. But wait until they are 
 thirty-five, then, ceteris paribuSj the one who laid a 
 deeper and broader foundation of general education, 
 will be known as the more successful lawyer, physi- 
 cian, or teacher, perhaps even the more prosperous 
 business man, and certainly the more cultured and 
 more refined gentleman, one who exercises an elevat- 
 ing and ennobling influence on all who come into 
 contact with him. 
 
 It may safely be said that one of the worst features 
 
7 
 
 300 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of modern educational systems is the tendency to cram 
 too much into the courses of study, too much that is 
 considered " practical' ' in one way or other. As Pro- 
 fessor Treitschke of Berlin has expressed it, * 'the 
 greatest danger that threatens the education of modern 
 man lies in the infinite distraction of our inner life, in 
 the superabundance * of mental impressions of every 
 sort that rush upon us and hamper the one prerequisite 
 of all great work : recollection of soul, concentration 
 of mind. ' ' Hence he thinks it absolutely necessary 
 that youths should be educated as simply as possible, 
 and should not be mentally overfed by many and 
 various things. 1 \It is, indeed, a most serious mistake 
 to think that a person who knows all sorts of things is 
 educated ; no, sciolism is not culture. Consequently, 
 that school is by no means the right one which 
 "coaches" or "crams" for the future profession, we 
 are not speaking of the professional schools, but 
 that which trains the man, trains the mental faculties, 
 develops clear logical thinking, cultivates the imagina- 
 tion, ennobles the sentiments, and strengthens the 
 will. This, indeed, is educating, that is, "drawing 
 out" what lies hidden and undeveloped in the soul. 
 Instead of this, many modern schools aim at further 
 expansion, which, considering the limited capacity of 
 the youthful mind, is inseparable from shallowness. 
 What is gained in extent of knowledge, is necessarily 
 lost in depth, thoroughness, and mastery of the know- 
 ledge acquired. What is sadly needed now-a-days is 
 concentration, a wise restriction of subjects which 
 leads to depth and interior strength. 
 
 The educational system of the Society always aimed 
 1 Neue Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VIII, p. 474. 
 
THK INTELLECTUAL SCOPE. 301 
 
 at a thorough general training in a few branches. 
 Four characteristic points are discernible in this train- 
 ing : it is to be thorough, prolonged, general, simple. 
 It is to be thorough; for superficial knowledge, smat- 
 tering, is not training. It must be prolonged; for 
 thoroughness cannot be effected in a short time. Time 
 is as essential for maturing a man's mind and charac- 
 ter, as it is for ripening a choice fruit ; one may bake 
 an apple in a few moments, but one cannot ripen it in 
 that time. Kducation must, in this regard, follow the 
 laws of nature. Time and prolonged and patient 
 efforts are absolutely necessary in order to produce 
 any success in education. In the third place this 
 training is to be general, not professional ; its aim is 
 the man, not the specialist; it is the foundation on 
 which the professional training is to be built up. It is, 
 in other words, a liberal training ; it has to cultivate 
 the ideal, that which is really human and permanent 
 in life. What is useful and practical will be cared for 
 in time, and, as a rule, is sufficiently looked after. 
 Lastly, this training must be simple, that is, it must 
 be based on a few well-related branches ; if too many 
 disconnected subjects are treated, thoroughness becomes 
 absolutely impossible. 
 
 The modern tendency in education is in the op- 
 posite direction. It aims at the useful and practical 
 rather than the general training, or, at best, allots too 
 short a time to the general education. Hence the 
 very foundation of the practical training is weak. 
 Besides, it comprises too many various subjects, the 
 consuming of which does not effect a healthy mental 
 growth, but an intellectual hypertrophy. 1 It is showy 
 
 1 "The educational system [of America] is undertaking 
 too much, at least in the grades below the college. 'Research' 
 
302 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 in the extreme, and dazzles the eye of the public, and 
 even of some whose education and position in the 
 world of culture should be a safeguard against such 
 delusion. For these very reasons it is most detrimen- 
 tal to true progress. Far-seeing men, in this country 
 as well as in Europe, realize the dangers of this ten- 
 dency, and warn all educators against them most 
 emphatically. 
 
 In an address on the occasion of the 2jih annual 
 commencement of the Jesuit College, Buffalo, N. Y., 
 1897, the Right Rev. James E. Quigley, D. D., Arch- 
 bishop of Chicago, said: ' 'We Americans are a practical 
 people, but we are also impatient. We cannot arrive 
 at our goal quickly enough. We send the boys to a 
 high school for three or four years, and then we call 
 them away and send them to the study of law or med- 
 icine. Now I would tell the parents : if you want to 
 make a lawyer or a doctor of your son, let him finish 
 the college course, he will be the better for it in his 
 profession. We have now lawyers and doctors enough, 
 what we need is better lawyers and better doctors. ' ' 
 
 Dr. McCosh, for twenty years President of Prince- 
 ton College, says: "There is a loud demand in the 
 present day for college education being made what 
 they call practical. I believe that this is a mistake. 
 A well known ship-builder once said to me : ' Do not 
 try to teach my art in school ; see that you make the 
 youth intelligent, and then I will easily teach him 
 ship-building. ' The business of a college is to teach 
 scientific principles of all sorts of practical application. 
 
 is attempted where drill is what is needed . ' ' President Draper 
 of the University of Illinois, Educational Review^ May 1902, 
 p. 455. See also the words of Ex-President Cleveland, re- 
 ferred to on p. 294, and the Electrical World, I. c. 
 
THK INTEIvWCTUAI, SCOPE. 303 
 
 The youth thus trained will start life in far better 
 circumstances than those who have learned only the 
 details of their craft, which are best learned in offices, 
 stores and factories, and will commonly outstrip them 
 in the rivalries of life. He will be able to advance 
 when others are obliged to stop. ' ' 1 
 
 Professor Miinsterberg of Harvard University, in 
 his article on School Reform, 2 speaks admirably on the 
 same subject. He points out the various fallacies 
 underlying the system that advocates the earliest 
 possible beginning of specialization. He ably proves 
 that the pretensions of this system are wrong, and its 
 calculations superficial, even from the merely utilita- 
 rian and mercenary standpoint. But above all, this 
 system is to be condemned from the standpoint of 
 liberal education. The Harvard Professor writes : 
 "The higher the level on which the professional 
 specializing begins, the more effective it is. I have 
 said that we German boys did not think of any special- 
 ization and individual variation before we reached a 
 level corresponding to a college graduation here. In 
 this country, the college must still go on for a while 
 playing the double role of the place for the general 
 education of the one, and the workshop for the pro- 
 fessional training of the other ; but at least the high 
 school ought to be faithful to its only goal of general 
 education without professional anticipations. More- 
 over, we are not only professional wage earners ; we 
 live for our friends and our nation ; we face social and 
 political, moral and religious problems ; we are in 
 
 1 The Life of James McCosh, edited by W. M. Sloane, 
 p. 204. 
 
 2 Atlantic Monthly, May 1900, p. 662 foil. 
 
304 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 contact with nature and science, with art and litera- 
 ture ; we shape our towns and our time, and all that 
 is common to every one, to the banker and the 
 manufacturer, to the minister and the teacher, to the 
 lawyer and the physician. The technique of our pro- 
 fession, then, appears only as a small variation of the 
 large background of work in which we all share ; and 
 if the education must be adapted to our later life, all 
 these problems demand a uniform education for the 
 members of the same social community. The division 
 of labor lies on the outside. We are specialists in our 
 handiwork, but our heart work is uniform, and the 
 demand for individual education emphasizes the small 
 differences in our tasks, and ignores the great similar- 
 ities. And, after all, who is able to say what a boy 
 of twelve years will need for his special life work? 
 It is easily said in a school programme that the course 
 will be adapted to the needs of the particular pupil 
 with respect to his later life, but it would be harder to 
 say how we are to find out what the boy does need ; 
 and even if we know it, the straight line to the goal 
 is not always the shortest way. ' ' 
 
 Mr. Clement L,. Smith is not less outspoken on 
 this topic 1 : " An education which aims to equip men 
 for particular callings, or to give them a special train- 
 ing for entering upon those callings, however useful it 
 may be, is not the liberal education which should be 
 the single aim of the college. It should be the aim of 
 the secondary school, too, if not for all pupils, cer- 
 tainly for those who are going to college. For those 
 who turn away, at the end of the school course, to 
 
 1 "The American College in the 20th Century," Atlantic 
 Monthly, Feb. 1900. 
 
INTEU^CTUAI, SCOPE. 305 
 
 train themselves for some .technical pursuit, let ap- 
 propriate technical schools be provided, and let them 
 be held in all honor. But they should not masquerade 
 as institutions for liberal education. Above all, they 
 should not invade the province of the college, intro- 
 ducing confusion, and turning it into a place where 
 there are a number of unconnected and independent 
 educations going on at the same time, instead of a 
 place where, though there are many paths, they all 
 lead to a single goal. lEor the essence of a liberal 
 education lies in the aim, not in the studies pursued, 1 
 not in letters, not in science. These are the mate- 
 rials with which it works; and employs them, not to 
 make professional or technical experts, but to make 
 men and women of broader views, of greater intellec- 
 tual power, J- better equipped for whatever profession 
 or employment they may undertake, and for their 
 equally important function of citizen and neighbor. ' ' 
 The Honorable James Bryce, a man excellently 
 fitted to express his opinion on American, as well as 
 on European, questions, a few years ago, while ad- 
 vocating a special commercial training, warns against 
 shortening the time allotted to general education, 
 whether elementary or secondary. On the contrary, 
 the further the general education can be carried, the 
 better for the young man, and more would be lost by 
 curtailing the time spent on the subjects which every- 
 body should learn, than would be gained by any special 
 preparation for a particular employment. He reminds 
 the people of England and the United States that the 
 demand for a commercial education might do more 
 
 1 Almost literally what Father Martin declared to be the 
 essence of Jesuit education. See above p. 286 and 297. 
 20 
 
306 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 harm than good, " were it -to lead to a shortening or 
 to a commercializing of general school education, or 
 were it to dispose us to ignore the supreme importance 
 of securing that the teaching of the commercial sub- 
 jects themselves shall be so directed as to arouse and 
 stimulate the faculties no less than to inform the mem- 
 ory of the learner. ' ' l 
 
 Long before this, Arnold had spoken in similar 
 terms: "It is no wisdom to make boys prodigies of 
 information, but it is our wisdom and our duty to 
 cultivate their faculties, each in its season, first the 
 memory and the imagination, and then the judgment, 
 to furnish them with the means and to excite the de- 
 sire of improving themselves. ' ' 2 The most enlightened 
 and experienced German educators insist on this point 
 as strongly as any of those whose authority is cited 
 above. 3 It is needless to point out the fact that these 
 writers clearly and strikingly express the same opinion 
 about the intellectual scope of education as the 
 Jesuits, namely, that real education does not consist 
 in merely imparting information, but in training the 
 mental faculties, in the efformatio ingeniij as the Gen- 
 eral of the Society called it in 1893. 
 
 In this country the question about the intellectual 
 scope of education is closely connected with the 
 other most important question : What is the function 
 
 1 North American Review, June 1899. 
 
 2 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 61. 
 
 3 See especially Weissenfels, Die Bildungswirren der 
 Gegenwart, Berlin, 1901. Matthias, Aus Schule, Unterricht 
 und Erziehung, 1901. Professor Weissenfels, throughout 
 his book, expresses his deepest anxiety at the ever increasing 
 spirit of utilitarianism in German schools. 
 
THK INTEI^KCTUAI, SCOPK. 307 
 
 of the high school and college ? Aside from the cham- 
 pions of extreme electivism, there is no educator of 
 note who does not consider general culture the function 
 of the high school. A great number of prominent 
 educators do not hesitate to assign the same function 
 to the college, relegating specialization, the acquisition 
 of scholarship, or professional skill, entirely, or for 
 the main part, to the university. The college should 
 concern itself with the final stage of secondary educa- 
 tion; it ought to stimulate general culture and to train 
 character, rather than to impart specific instruction. 
 A college President declared that the first step towards 
 a betterment is the reassertion of the aim and nature 
 of college life. The university, demanding for en- 
 trance a bachelor's degree, is the crown of our educa- 
 tional system. Its province is higher education, the 
 cultivation of advanced scholarship and research. But 
 * 'the college should give itself no airs. It should not 
 pretend to be a university. ' ' 1 
 
 It needs scarcely be stated that the Jesuits' view 
 of the college is exactly the same. They assign no 
 other function, no other aim to it than general culture, 
 harmonious training of the mind. 
 
 1 President Jones of Hobart College, in the Forum, 
 January 1901 : Is the College Graduate Impracticable 1 The 
 greatest difficulty in this country lies in the fact that pupils 
 go too late to the high school or college. The study of Latin 
 should be commenced at the age of ten or twelve years, in- 
 stead of thirteen or fourteen. See Dr. Stanley Hall, Forum, 
 Sept. 1901; and below ch. XVI, 1. The same is advocated 
 by Professor Nightingale in the Report of the Conference on 
 English, read before the National Association of Education, 
 at Ashbury Park, N. J., 1894. German boys begin with nine 
 or ten years, why should not the clever American boy be able 
 to begin with ten or eleven ? 
 
308 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 How is this training of the mind to be obtained ? 
 The Jesuit answers : By exercise, that is, by the dif- 
 ferent exercises, such as are laid down in the Ratio 
 Studiorum : exercises of the intellect translations, 
 compositions ; exercises of the memory recitations 
 and declamations ; debates (academies) , etc. These 
 exercises have sometimes been styled "mechanical"; 
 still how can any training be effected except by devices 
 according to strict rule ? Certainly not by the mere 
 lecture of the teacher, however scholarly or interesting 
 it may be. No one becomes an athlete by attending 
 lectures on gymnastics, and no one becomes a perfect 
 soldier by reading the U. S. Infantry Drill Book ; but 
 practice, drill, exercise is required. No one's mental 
 faculties will ever become really developed, unless he 
 is trained and drilled. The insisting on this funda- 
 mental principle is probably the most characteristic 
 point in the educational system of the Society. Prac- 
 tice and exercise run all through the different grades, 
 beginning from the teaching of the elements of Latin 
 up to the highest course of theology. It is the same 
 great principle of the necessity of self -exertion, self- 
 activity which Ignatius so forcibly insists upon in that 
 admirable little book, which he justly calls the "Spir- 
 itual Exercises. ' ' As there the exercitant is exhorted 
 to act for himself, and not merely to suffer himself to 
 be acted upon, so here the pupil is required from the 
 beginning to act, not merely to listen, to exert himself 
 in the various prescribed exercises. 
 
 As these exercises will be spoken of in a later 
 chapter of this book, l we need not discuss them here. 
 Suffice it to say that the ablest educators of the nine- 
 
 1 Chapter XVI. 
 
THK INTKUvECTUAI, SCOPE. 309 
 
 teenth century have recommended exercises which 
 are essentially the same as those of the Society. So 
 Dr. Arnold, the famous head-master of Rugby; Dr. 
 Wiese, for decades one of the most influential men in 
 the Prussian Ministry of Education ; Dr. M. Seyffert, 
 the great Latinist. In the introduction to his excellent 
 Scfycdae Latinae, Dr. Seyffert has the following : 
 "I thought this work, the fruit of twenty-five years 
 experience, was something new. However, I had 
 scarcely finished, when through the information of a 
 friend of mine, I found out that there was nothing new 
 under the sun. The merit and honor of the invention 
 belongs, as I know now, to the seventeenth century, 
 and, as hardly can be expected otherwise, to the dili- 
 gence of the Order of the Jesuits, who w r ere unwearied 
 in preparing pedagogical helps and means. I shall 
 be satisfied if my work finds only one tenth of the 
 approval which their work found, and as I think, 
 most deservedly found. ' ' Another great educator of 
 Germany, K. L,. Roth, said : "Exercise was the secret 
 of the old college-systems ; it forced the pupil daily to 
 use for the formation of his judgment the material 
 accumulated to excess in his memory." T - ; 
 
 1 Iu his Gymnasial-Padagogik; see Duhr, p. 119. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 Prescribed Courses or Elective Studies? 
 
 Intimately connected with the subject of the last 
 chapter is a question now much discussed in pedagog- 
 ical' circles, namely, whether the " old-fashioned 
 prescribed courses are the best way of attaining the 
 object of education, the training of the mind, or 
 whether the elective system should claim the mono- 
 poly in the education of our nation. 
 
 Not many years ago the secondary school pro- 
 grammes offered a single course of study, or at most 
 two courses which were to be pursued in order to 
 obtain the diploma of the school. The principal course 
 consisted of Latin, Greek, history and mathematics. 
 At present we find in most secondary schools a num- 
 ber of parallel courses, and the disposition is growing 
 to regard the different courses as of equal value and 
 dignity. It has been said by advocates of the new 
 system that "the old narrow course, with its formal 
 contents and mechanical routine, is doomed ; and a 
 richer course of study, with a broader and more in- 
 spiring conception of the elementary school-teacher's 
 responsibilities and opportunities, is taking its place. " l 
 
 Whence these changes ? Not from the conviction 
 of teachers that the old system was bad and inefficient; 
 but, as Professor Hanus says, these changes are 
 chiefly the result of external demands of parents and 
 
 1 Hanus, Educational Aims and Educational Values 
 (1900), pp. 76, 78. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 311 
 
 sons and daughters. They have not been stimulated 
 by the marked encouragement of the colleges ; for, at 
 the present day, several important colleges still decline 
 to regard any pre-collegiate course of study as com- 
 parable in value to the traditional classical course. 1 
 Would it not have been the duty of the ' 'leading" 
 schools of the country to lead public opinion, and not 
 allow themselves to be guided by it? When some 
 large and influential schools adopted many par- 
 allel courses, the majority of the smaller and less 
 important schools imitated the larger ones, or were 
 practically forced to do so. After these schools had 
 yielded to external demands, it was but natural that 
 there "has also come a desire on the part of all to 
 justify such programmes by an appeal to reason. " 2 
 
 This appeal has been made most forcibly by Presi- 
 dent Eliot on various occasions. We have heard that 
 his most serious charge against Jesuit colleges is 
 their adherence to prescribed courses. To this indict- 
 ment the President added : "Nothing but an unhesi- 
 tating belief in the Divine wisdom of such prescrip- 
 tions can justify them ; for no human wisdom is equal 
 to contriving a prescribed course of study equally good 
 for even two children of the same family, between the 
 ages of eight and eighteen. Direct revelation from 
 on high would be the only satisfactory basis for a uni- 
 form prescribed school curriculum. The immense 
 deepening and expanding of human knowledge, in the 
 nineteenth century, and the increasing sense of the 
 
 1 Ibid.> p. 78. However, a writer in the Electrical 
 World (Oct. 25, 1902) maintains that "the present anomalous 
 status of the college is due perhaps more to its own laudable 
 but ill-judged ambition than to the pressure of the times." 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 26. 
 
312 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sanctity of the individual's gifts and will power, have 
 made uniform prescriptions of study in secondary 
 schools impossible and absurd. We must absolutely 
 give up the notion that any set of human beings, 
 however wise and learned, can ever again construct 
 and enforce on school children one uniform course of 
 study. The class system, that is, the process of in- 
 structing children in large groups, is a quite sufficient 
 school evil, without clinging to its twin evil, an in- 
 flexible programme of studies. Individual instruction 
 is the new ideal. ' ' l 
 
 If this new ideal of individual instruction should 
 be carried out consistently and the patrons of this 
 electivism certainly ought to work at the realization of 
 this ideal state we might in the twentieth century 
 see the day, when for five thousand students at Har- 
 vard there will be no less than five thousand instruc- 
 tors. No wonder that all these pupils will turn out 
 geniuses, such as the world has never seen before. 
 It seems certain that great results are anticipated by 
 President Eliot. For he concludes his paper with the 
 words: * 'These gains are noiseless but persuasive; 
 they take effect on five hundred thousand pupils every 
 year. Have we not here some solid ground for hope- 
 fulness about the Republic, both as a form of govern- 
 ment and as a state of society ?" 
 
 Not less amusing is the absolute certainty with 
 which President Eliot affirms that electivism is the 
 only system which can claim a right to exist. He 
 says: " Direct revelation from on high would be the 
 only satisfactory basis for a uniform prescribed school 
 curriculum, and nothing but an unhesitating belief in 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly, Oct. 1899, p. 443. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 313 
 
 the Divine wisdom of such prescriptions can justify 
 them." Does not the President himself claim almost 
 a superhuman infallibility when he straightway asserts: 
 "Uniform prescriptions in secondary schools have 
 been made impossible and absurd. We must absolutely 
 give up the notion that any set of human beings, how- 
 ever wise and learned, can ever again construct and en- 
 force on school children one uniform course of study. ' ' l 
 Could any one, whether prophet or pope, speak with 
 more certainty, than President Eliot does in this pas- 
 sage? How can uniform prescriptions be styled im- 
 possible and absurd, when they are exacted in whole 
 countries, and not only among half-civilized Moslems, 
 or "decaying" Latin races, but also in "Teutonic" 
 States, for instance in Germany, a country which 
 leads in scholarship and of late years has so rapidly 
 advanced also in industrial and commercial enterprise, 
 that it is considered a formidable rival of American 
 industry and commerce? The absolute certainty with 
 which President Eliot proclaims his views is all the 
 more unwarranted if we compare them with what 
 other distinguished scholars think on this subject. 
 
 We quoted before the words of Professor Russell of 
 Columbia, that the experience of Germany can teach 
 us much, especially that "a uniform course of study 
 for all schools of a particular grade, and a common 
 standard for promotion and graduation, can be made 
 most serviceable in a national scheme of education. ' ' 2 
 Mr. Canfield, in his interesting book The College 
 Student and Ms Problems, cautions the student in the 
 following terms: "The more specialized your course, 
 
 1 The Italics are ours. 
 
 9 German Higher Schools, p. 409. See above p. 9, 
 
314 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the more certain ought you to be that the end is that 
 which you desire. It is quite necessary, therefore, 
 that you know yourself and your purposes, something 
 quite definite of your capacity and powers, if you are 
 to make a wise selection of your work. In the ineffi- 
 ciency or inexactness of such knowledge the college 
 finds one weakness and one danger in multiplying 
 courses or in enlarging the number of electives within 
 a course. For very few young men know themselves 
 at the age at which they enter college, and I think 
 that others know them less. ... It is because of this 
 uncertainty of purpose and this ignorance of self 
 that the wisest educators and the most thoughtful 
 students of mankind have always given such loyal ad- 
 herence to the general culture courses, and especially 
 to the classical courses. This adherence does not 
 mean that all culture power is denied to other courses. 
 It is simply an insistence upon that broad and human- 
 izing work which has been and which ever will be 
 one of the best and surest foundations for large and 
 generous life. ' ' l Nothing less is contained in these 
 statements than a condemnation of President Eliot's 
 electivism. For, if a choice of a specialized course 
 without perfect knowledge of self is a great danger to 
 the college student, how much more to the pupil in 
 the high school? Or, if very few know themselves 
 when entering college, how many can be expected to 
 know themselves when entering the high school? 
 Another remark is most significant. President Eliot 
 asserts that "Moslems and Jesuits" uphold the old 
 
 1 The College Student and his Problems, by J. H. Can- 
 field, formerly chancellor of the University of Nebraska and 
 President of Ohio State University. (New York, MacMillan, 
 1902) pp. 4446. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 315 
 
 prescribed courses; the former President of Ohio State 
 University does not hesitate to say, that for the most 
 weighty reasons, " the wisest educators and the most 
 thoughtful students of mankind have always given 
 loyal adherence to the general culture courses, and 
 especially to the classical courses," that is practically, 
 to the old prescribed courses. 
 
 But to return to the Jesuit system. President Eliot 
 is perfectly correct in stating that it defends a pre- 
 scribed curriculum. However, it does not exclude, 
 but in many places admits distinct parallel courses; 
 beside the classical course there may be offered an 
 English course, consisting chiefly in English, history, 
 modern languages, some of the natural sciences and 
 mathematics; or a Scientific course in which mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences are the principal subjects 
 taught. But these courses have to be followed as laid 
 down, at least in the main subjects. Nor do the 
 Jesuits exclude a certain amount of election in second- 
 ary branches. We say secondary, as there can be no 
 reasonable doubt that not all branches are of the same 
 educational value. For who would have the hardi- 
 hood to say, that music and drawing, or even botany 
 and zoology, are as well fitted to develop the mental 
 faculties as the old-fashioned course of classics and 
 mathematics? The Society at least does not dare to 
 affirm it, and in this she is at one with the best edu- 
 cators of all ages, our own not excepted. Dr. McCosh 
 said years ago in the famous debate with President- 
 Eliot : "At Harvard a young man has two hundred 
 courses from which he may choose, and many of these 
 courses, I am compelled to call dilettante. I should 
 prefer a young man who has been trained in an old- 
 
31 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 fashioned college, in rhetoric, philosophy, Latin, 
 Greek, and mathematics, to one who had frittered 
 away four years in studying the French drama of the 
 eighteenth century, a little music and similar bran- 
 ches." l Again Dr. McCosh maintains "there should 
 be required studies for all who pursue a full course for 
 a degree, and the required studies should be disciplin- 
 ary, affording true mental training. Such studies are 
 English, Greek, L,atin, German, French, history, 
 mathematics and physical science. ' ' 2 
 
 The objections of the Jesuits to the extreme 
 electivism are mainly two. The first is that they 
 apprehend serious dangers for the intellectual training 
 from this new system. As was said in the preceding 
 chapter, the intellectual scope of the Jesuit system is a 
 thorough general training of the mind. There are the 
 gravest reasons to fear that this training can scarcely 
 be expected from the elective system as practised 
 in many schools. The second objection arises from 
 the conviction that the moral training of the students 
 will be injured if the choice of studies is to any great 
 extent left to them, especially if they are allowed to 
 change the branches which they find difficult and dis- 
 agreeable. For, greatly as the Jesuits value the in- 
 tellectual training of their pupils, they attach far 
 greater importance to the moral training, to the train- 
 ing of the will and the development of character. 
 
 President Kliot implicitly asserts that the Jesuits, 
 as upholders of prescribed courses, violate the sanctity 
 of the individual's will-power. This is a serious 
 charge. In answer to it we may first quote the words 
 
 1 Life of James McCosh y p. 201. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 200. 
 
PRESCRIBKD COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 317 
 
 of a prominent educator who in the strongest terms 
 makes the same charge against systems like that of 
 President Eliot. Professor Weissenfels of Berlin wrote 
 in 1901: *'In our times the moment comes relatively 
 early when the special gifts and abilities of the in- 
 dividual try to assert themselves. But let it not be 
 forgotten that there are brilliant abnormities. The 
 talent for a special science, particularly mathematics, 
 or for a special art, particularly music, even in child- 
 hood, gets a tyrannical ascendancy over everything 
 else. Shall we give free play to it * and foster it? Or 
 shall we at first endeavor to counteract it, or at least 
 keep from it all that could stimulate still more the in- 
 clination which is in itself too strong? Among the 
 tolerably intelligent there is but one opinion: they 
 
 distrust precociousness It is justly considered 
 
 want of common sense, nay more, a sin against the 
 child's soul, to make advances to the impatience with 
 which the special aptitude is trying to assert itself, 
 and thus to add fuel to the fire. ' ' l The author further 
 calls this system a criminal mutilation of the soul, and 
 maintains that the special talent, if unduly and pre- 
 maturely fostered will be like a rank weed that stifles 
 every other inclination and thus destroys all harmony 
 of mind and character. 
 
 We hear now-a-days so much about the " sanctity 
 of the individual's will" that one's idea of human 
 nature may easily get confused. True, there is some- 
 thing sacred in human nature, because it is the image 
 and likeness of its Maker. Still, that sanctity of man 
 is not pure and unalloyed, that image is not altogether 
 
 1 Weissenfels, Die Bildungswirren der Gegenwart, pp. 
 324329. 
 
31 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 intact and spotless. Divine revelation, the world's 
 history, daily experience and our innermost conscience 
 tell us that there are disorders and derangements, that 
 there are not only holy and divine, but also animal 
 desires, not only upward, but also downward tenden- 
 cies in our nature. The great Apostle testifies to this 
 truth, when he exclaims: "For I know that there 
 dwelleth not in me, that is to say, in my flesh, that 
 which is good. For to will is present with me; but to 
 accomplish that which is good, I find not. For the 
 good which I will, I do not; but the evil which I will 
 not, that I do." 1 Now this "law of sin which fights 
 against the spirit' ' manifests itself differently according 
 to the different dispositions and the age of the in- 
 dividual. In youth, it assumes generally the shape of 
 love of pleasure and enjoyment together with a ten- 
 dency to idleness, and "idleness is the fruitful mother 
 of many vices. ' ' The old educational systems believed 
 in Allopathy, and thought that these moral diseases 
 could be cured effectively only by means which directly 
 attack the root of the evil. So they tried seriously to 
 occupy a boy's mind, to accustom him to hard, steady 
 work, to fight against his dislikes, to do his duty and 
 -to break his will. But, we are told, that was all 
 wrong, it was only the outcropping of the severe and 
 gloomy asceticism of former ages. Our modern peda- 
 gogues have discovered that Homoeopathy alone will 
 do in education. * 'The poor children are overburdened, 
 make it easy for them. Give full vent to the pupil's 
 inclinations and do not force him to anything he dis- 
 likes. For this would be interfering with the sanctity 
 of the individual!" 
 
 1 Romans 7, 18. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 319 
 
 If the old view of life and youth and education 
 savors of asceticism, the new one is sheer materialism. 
 But setting aside all supernatural considerations, we 
 must condemn . the extreme electi vism of the modern 
 system on merely natural grounds. Nor is this attitude 
 peculiar to the Society of Jesus; it is firmly maintained 
 by educators who in their religious tenets differ widely 
 from ourselves. Professor Miinsterberg has well pointed 
 out the damage which results from this system to the 
 character of the child, to the ' 'formal side of educa- 
 tion," as he styles it. "A child who has himself the 
 right of choice, or who sees that parents and teachers 
 select these courses according to his tastes and inclina- 
 tions, may learn a thousand pretty things, but never 
 the one which is the greatest of all: to do his duty. 
 He who is allowed always to follow the paths of least 
 resistance never develops the power to overcome 
 resistance; he remains utterly unprepared for life. To 
 do what we like to do, that needs no pedagogical 
 encouragement: water always runs down hill. Our 
 whole public and social life shows the working of this 
 impulse, and our institutions outbid one another in 
 catering to the taste of the public. The school alone 
 has the power to develop the opposite tendency, to 
 encourage and train the belief in duties and obliga- 
 tions, to inspire devotion to better things than those to 
 which we are drawn by our lower instincts. Yes, 
 water runs down hill all the time; and yet all the earth 
 were sterile and dead if water could not ascend again 
 to the clouds, and supply rain to the field which 
 brings us the harvest. We see only the streams going 
 down to the ocean; we do not see how the ocean sends 
 up the waters to bless our fields. Just so do we see in 
 
320 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the streams of life the human emotions following the 
 impulses down to selfishness and pleasure and enjoy- 
 ment, but we do not see how the human emotions 
 ascend again to the ideals, ascend in feelings of 
 duty and enthusiasm; and yet without this upward 
 movement our fields were dry, our harvest lost. That 
 invisible work is the sacred mission of the school; it is 
 the school that must raise man's mind from his likings 
 to his belief in duties, from his instincts to his ideals, 
 that art and science, national honor and morality, 
 friendship and religion, may spring from the ground 
 and blossom. ' ' 
 
 According to Dean Briggs of Harvard, 1 no people 
 lay themselves more recklessly open to reductio ad ab- 
 surdum than advocates of the elective system. They 
 wish to put enjoyment into education, without being 
 sure that such education is robust enough. He quotes 
 the example of Dr. Martineau, who gave double time 
 to the studies he disliked, in order to correct the weak 
 side of his nature rather than to develop its strong 
 side. Now it is not necessary to go to such length ; 
 studies need not be imposed because they are difficult 
 and unpleasant, but if they are of real educational 
 value they should be imposed although they are hard 
 and unpleasant. Still, no branch is of any educational 
 value, unless it presents difficulties; the mental powers 
 are called into action and are trained only if they have 
 to overcome obstacles. 
 
 Some pedagogists sneer at the idea that resistance, 
 the overcoming of obstacles, plays an important part 
 in education. Herein, however, they manifest their 
 shortsightedness. The old adage, "Fast gotten, fast 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly, October 1900. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 321 
 
 gone, ' ' might be expressed in somewhat different form: 
 ''Easily gotten, easily gone." Dr. Stanley Hall, 
 President of Clark University, whose fame as an 
 educator is widely acknowledged, has well said : 
 "Only great, concentrated and prolonged efforts in one 
 direction really train the mind, because they alone 
 train the will beneath it. ' ' President Jones of Hobart 
 College speaks to a like purpose : "The college must 
 not always follow the line of least resistance. The in- 
 tellectual life has also its athletic exercises, and mental 
 slouchiness is no less to be regretted than physical 
 insufficiency. The youthful will needs cultivation no 
 less than the growing body. ' ' 1 
 
 On the same head Mr. Townsend Austen wrote 
 most appositely in the North American Review (May 
 1898). He severely censures those systems of educa- 
 tion which attempt to remove as far as possible the 
 obstacles from the course of study. He rightly main- 
 tains that the finest nature is the one out of which the 
 dross has been squeezed by painful pressure, and the 
 precious metal has been hammered and beaten into 
 shape. The human being rarely works more than he 
 has to. He appreciates by instinct an easy thing 
 what college students call a 'snap'. Some of the 
 strongest points of our nature are best called out by 
 resistance. This element in education should never 
 be overlooked. To eliminate the element of difficulty 
 from a study is an act of dishonesty; it deceives the 
 student. The practice side of almost any study is not 
 interesting, but is often rather tedious and must be so: 
 for instance, to spell correctly, to write good English, 
 to draw well, to reason clearly. This repugnance 
 
 1 The Forum, January 1901, p. 592. 
 21 
 
322 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 constitutes one of the numerous forms of resistance 
 offered to success in human endeavor; drudgery is the 
 bridge to success. The honors of this life must be 
 won, as the Germans say (and how well the progress 
 of that nation illustrates it), "mil saurem Scliweiss," 
 and by the application of another German proverb : 
 "Geduld bricht Eisen" (patience breaks iron). In 
 the development of character in the youth the wise 
 instructor finds the application of this principle most 
 useful and efficient. Will power is acquired. The 
 acquisition of self-control, by which I mean not only 
 the ability to control the passions, but also to compel 
 the action of the mental powers upon a given subject, 
 is aided. The German historian, von Ranke, has 
 stated as a principle in human development, that "all 
 progress is through conflict. ' ' The results become of 
 value, because they have a value in work. 1 
 
 Now this last principle was the favorite one of the 
 founder of the Society of Jesus, which he used to in- 
 culcate on every occasion, quoting the words of 
 Thomas a Kempis : Tantum proficies, quantum tibi ipsi 
 vim intuleris "The greater violence thou offerest to 
 thyself, the greater progress thou wilt make." But 
 the "make-it-easy" method and such is the elective 
 system as advocated by its foremost champions is 
 pernicious to the formation of the character. 
 
 Not less serious is the harm done to instruction, as 
 distinguished from moral education. If the choice of 
 subjects is left to the personal likings of the pupils, in 
 many, if not in most cases, such branches will be 
 chosen which seem to be the easiest, no matter what 
 
 1 Peter Townsend Austen: "The Educational Value of 
 Resistance," North Am. Rev. y May 1898. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 323 
 
 their educational value is. No one who knows human 
 nature will deny this. But that the subjects left to the 
 choice of the students are not all equally capable of 
 giving a thorough mental discipline, is quite evident ; 
 and the easier the subject, the less is, as a rule, its 
 educational value. 
 
 There are several false assumptions in the conten- 
 tions of the advocates of electivism. They state with- 
 out hesitation that the first and foremost object of 
 modern education is to develop the special aptitudes of 
 the pupils, and they apply this not only to college but 
 also to high school education. But this is a most 
 serious mistake. The application of the pupil's talent 
 to specialties belongs to the university and the profes- 
 sional school ; but in the secondary schools, and even 
 in the college, special aptitudes may and should be 
 left to themselves. They will assert themselves when 
 the occasion offers, and the wise teacher will be more 
 solicitous to prevent them from warping the whole 
 course of education than to promote their abnormal 
 development. l Special aptitudes must be developed 
 after the general education is completed. 
 
 The premature and excessive development of such 
 special aptitudes will invariably result in products 
 which have been called "lop-sided". It is lyOwell 
 who said : "I had rather the college turn out one of 
 Aristotle's four-square men, capable of holding his 
 own in whatever field he may be cast, than a score of 
 lop-sided ones developed abnormally in one direction. ' ' 
 The outcome of such education, or rather instruction, 
 is a sort of mental deformity : one faculty is over- 
 
 1 See Francis J. Barnes, M. D., Catholic Education. A 
 lecture delivered at Boston, April 28, 1901. 
 
324 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 developed, while the others are suffering from atrophy. 
 If the ' 'special aptitude'* of the student lies in the 
 field of natural sciences or technics, he is liable to 
 neglect altogether literature, history and philosophy, 
 branches which are indispensable for the real culture 
 of the mind. He becomes a narrow specialist, he 
 swells the host of those men who even now afflict the 
 community, men who are incapable of forming a sane 
 opinion on any question which cannot be decided by 
 a laboratory experiment. Such men have no percep- 
 tions of the relations and interrelations of the various 
 branches of knowledge ; they lack all appreciation of 
 what is noble and sublime ; above all they are most 
 liable to ignore, or even to deny, that beyond the 
 narrow limits of natural science lie truths of the utmost 
 importance, unattainable by any process of synthetic 
 reasoning. It is such warped specialists that Goethe 
 ridicules in the famous passage in Faust (part 2, act i): 
 
 "Herein you learned men I recognize : 
 What you touch not, miles distant from you lies ; 
 What you grasp not, is naught in sooth to you ; 
 What you count not, cannot you deem be true ; 
 What you weigh not, that hath for you no weight ; 
 What you coin not, you're sure is counterfeit." 
 
 There is always a danger that science leads to pride, 
 particularly to that kind of pride which the Germans 
 call Gelehrtenstolz and Professorendiinkel. This danger 
 is especially great in the case of specialists. Professor 
 Paulsen quotes a passage from Kant, in which the 
 philosopher of Konigsberg speaks of "Cyclopses of 
 science," who carry an immense weight of learning, 
 a "load of a hundred camels," but who have only one 
 eye, namely that of their own specialty. 1 They lack 
 
 1 Die deutschen Universitdten y Berlin 1902, p. 219. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 325 
 
 entirely the "philosophic eye," with which they see 
 the relations of things to one another. Of such men 
 Schopenhauer, in his wonted forcible but not over- 
 polite manner, has said : "The man who, disregarding 
 everything else, studies one branch, will in this branch 
 be superior to the rabble (yulgus), but in all the rest 
 he will belong to it. If to this specialization is added a 
 thing which now-a-days becomes more and more com- 
 mon, namely, the neglect of the ancient languages, 
 in consequence of which the general humanistic cul- 
 ture is dropped, then we shall see scientists who, 
 outside their special branch, are real oxen." This 
 danger can be obviated only by a solid general train- 
 ing. But the earlier the specialization begins, the 
 greater shall be the temptation to disregard all other 
 branches, and to despise all those who know little 
 about this special subject, no matter how much they 
 know in other branches. This is intellectual pride, 
 as contemptible as it is ridiculous. 
 
 After having described some of the effects which 
 must necessarily result from elect ivistn, as defended 
 by some, we now turn to a plain question, which has 
 been well stated by Professor Miinsterberg. "Are 
 elective studies really elected at all? I mean, do they 
 really represent the deeper desires and demands of the 
 individual, or do they not simply express the cumula- 
 tion of a hundred chance influences? I have inten- 
 tionally lingered on the story of my shifting interests 
 in my boyhood ; it is more or less the story of every 
 half-way intelligent boy or girl. A little bit of talent, 
 a petty caprice favored by accident, a contagious craze 
 or fad, a chance demand for something of which 
 scarcely the outside is known, all these whir and buzz 
 
326 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 in every boyhood ; but to follow such superficial 
 moods would mean dissolution of all organized life, 
 and education would be an empty word. Election 
 which is more than a chance grasping presupposes 
 first of all acquaintance with the object of our choice. 
 Even in the college two thirds of the elections are 
 haphazard, controlled by accidental motives ; election 
 of courses demands a wide view and broad knowledge 
 of the whole field. The lower the level on which the 
 choice is made, the more external and misleading are 
 the motives which direct it. A helter-skelter chase 
 of the unknown is no election. If a man who does 
 not know French goes into a restaurant where the 
 bill of fare is given in the French language, and points 
 to one and to another line, not knowing whether his 
 order is fish, or roast, or pudding, the waiter will 
 bring him a meal, but he cannot say that he has 
 'elected his course. ' From whatever standpoint I view 
 it, the tendency to base the school on elective studies 
 seems to me a mistake, a mistake for which, of 
 course, not a special school,. but the social conscious- 
 ness is to be blamed. ' ' l 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly, May 1900, pp. 665-666. To judge 
 from numberless commeuts in newspapers and magazines, 
 Prof. Miiusterberg's article seems to have caused a great stir, 
 as coming from one of the most prominent Professors of 
 Harvard, the centre of the movement towards electivism. 
 The New York Nation, on May 17, page 379, said as follows : 
 "If Professor Miinsterberg's article on 'School Reform* in 
 the Atlantic cannot be answered effectively, something is 
 radically wrong with our scheme of education." Various 
 attempts were made to answer the Professor's indictments of 
 the elective system, v. g. in the Educational Review, June 
 and September 1900. But the answers were anything but 
 effective. The Nation had said, "what we are most curious 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 327 
 
 The same truth has been expressed in very plain 
 language by other American educators. We mention 
 a few utterances of more recent date. President 
 Draper, of the University of Illinois, declared recently: 
 "Children are being told that they should elect their 
 studies. They cannot elect. ' ' 1 Professor Peck of 
 Columbia University, reviewing Father Brosnahan's 
 answer to President Eliot's charges, speaks of the lat- 
 ter's "theories which have made Harvard into a 
 curious jumble of college and university, and which 
 President Eliot would like to see carried down into the 
 schools, in the apparent belief that babes and suck- 
 lings have an intuitive and prophetic power of determ- 
 ining just what is going to be best for them in all their 
 after life/' 2 Mr. Tetlow, of Boston, calls the elective 
 system ' 'elective chaos, and philosophical anarchism, ' ' 
 and he lays down these propositions : the students are 
 not competent to direct their own studies ; most of the 
 parents are utterly incompetent to make an intelligent 
 choice, too many will readily accept the choice made 
 
 to know is what they thiuk about it at Harvard." A Grad- 
 uate Student wrote soon after from Harvard : "I wish to call 
 attention to a result of the elective system which he [Prof. 
 Miinsterberg] has not mentioned, and which might even 
 strengthen his argument a result most disgraceful, yet most 
 common, and whose truth cannot be ignored. I refer to the 
 undisguised custom of electing 'snap courses,' courses in 
 which, for various reasons, good marks can be made without 
 much work. For the desire for honors, and the fear of being 
 thought a 'dig', are two very potent factors in determining 
 a choice." (Nation, May 24, p. 396.) This statement is not 
 at all surprising ; it confirms what intelligent men had ex- 
 pected from such a system. 
 
 1 Educational Review, May 1902, p. 455. 
 
 2 Bookman, April 1900. 
 
328 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 by the children ; the principals and teachers are in 
 most cases incompetent to make a wise choice for the 
 pupils, as they are hardly ever sufficiently acquainted 
 with the individual scholars. 1 Indeed, to make such 
 a choice for the individual would require nothing less 
 than " direct revelation from on high," as no man 
 knows sufficiently the talent and possibilities that may 
 lie dormant in the mind of a young student. If this 
 system is the outcome of the much vaunted child study 
 and pedagogical psychology, we have little reason to 
 boast of this modern science. And we think those 
 are amply justified who, against this "apotheosis of 
 individual caprice," defend the old system which 
 prescribes those branches that give a solid general 
 training and thereby prepare the mind for taking up 
 successfully any specialty in due time. The phil- 
 osophical basis of this system is undoubtedly sound, 
 whereas the elective system fully deserves the stigma 
 of ' 'philosophical anarchism". 
 
 We have purposely dwelt longer on the question 
 of "electives," as a serious charge has recently been 
 raised against the educational institutions of the 
 Jesuits for not accepting the electivism of some modern 
 reformers. After having quoted the opinions of 
 leading educators on that subject, we may ask : Was 
 
 1 Educational Review, January 1901. We may be ex- 
 cused for quoting the following lines from the same Review, 
 May 1900, which not unaptly travesty the elective system : 
 Most pupils, like good-natured cows, 
 Keeping browsing and forever browse ; 
 If a fair flower come in their way, 
 They take it too, nor ask, "what, pray ?" 
 Like other fodder it is food, 
 And for the stomach quite as good. 
 
PRESCRIBED COURSES OR ELECTIVE STUDIES? 329 
 
 that charge justified? It is superfluous to ask, 
 whether the Society will ever adopt that excessive 
 electivism advocated by several educationists. The 
 Society considers this system as destructive of thorough 
 education. 
 
 As early as 1832 the General of the Order, in an 
 encyclical letter on education addressed to his subjects, 
 thus spoke of new inventions: "As to the methods, 
 ever easier and easier, which are 'being excogitated, 
 whatever convenience may be found in them, there is 
 this grave inconvenience : first, that what is acquired 
 without labor adheres but lightly to the mind, and 
 what is summarily gathered is summarily forgotten ; 
 secondly, and this, though not adverted to by many, 
 is a much more serious injury, almost the principal 
 fruit of a boy's training is sacrificed, which is, accus- 
 toming himself from an early age to serious application 
 of mind, and to that deliberate exertion which is 
 required for hard work. " l A comparison with former 
 quotations shows an almost literal identity of these 
 remarks with those of Prof. Miinsterberg and other 
 American educators. This agreement, in our humble 
 opinion, is no discredit to either party. Before con- 
 cluding this chapter, we repeat once more that the 
 Jesuits are not absolutely opposed to the election of 
 courses or branches. But they think with many other 
 educators that the elective system could work well 
 only with many limitations and safeguards. Such 
 limitations are nothing else but prescriptions of certain 
 branches. 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 291. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 Classical Studies. 
 
 Much has been written within the last few decades 
 for and against the value of the study of the classical 
 languages and literature. l Some writers, especially 
 fanatical advocates of "modern" culture, see in the 
 humanistic school only a gloomy ruin of the 
 time of the renaissance, which stands in the 
 midst of the grand structures of modern culture, half 
 monastery, half pagan temple. Latin and Greek 
 philologists have built their nests in its dilapidated 
 walls, like owls that shun the bright light of day, 
 and in the dusk they flutter about to frighten and 
 torment poor children with their cries of monstrous 
 L,atin and Greek forms. Others, the one-sided ad- 
 
 1 There exists a vast literature on this subject. Of more 
 recent publications we mention only those of a man whose 
 opinions must be of special interest to American educators, 
 viz. those of the United States Commissioner of Education, 
 W. T. Harris: A Brief for Latin On the Function of the 
 Study of Latin and Greek in Modern Education Place of 
 the Study of Latin and Greek in Modern Education, and 
 Herbert Spencer and what to Study (Educational Review, 
 September 1902) . In this last article Commissioner Harris 
 very ably refutes Spencer's attacks on the study of the clas- 
 sics. Of older works we wish to call attention to one of an 
 American ecclesiastic, which is almost unknown : Bishop 
 England* s Address on Classical Education (Bishop England* s 
 Works, vol. V, pp. 13 31), in which the advantages of a 
 classical education are set forth with admirable force and 
 lucidity. 
 
 (330) 
 
CLASSIC AI, STUDIES. 331 
 
 mirers of the "practical" studies, above all of the 
 natural sciences, decry the classical studies as useless, 
 because they do not teach the rising generation how 
 to build bridges or war vessels, how to make aniline 
 colors, or how to utilize best the oil fields of Texas, or 
 the Western prairies. These men do not appreciate 
 classical studies because, to use the words of Brown- 
 son, they cannot reduce them immediately to any cor- 
 responding value in United States currency. They 
 would rather fill their pockets with Attic oboli and 
 drachmae than their brains with Attic thought. In a 
 word, to them education is only the wild race after 
 the hen that lays the golden eggs. All other require- 
 ments they count for nothing. Such views are based 
 on an utter misconception of the intellectual scope of 
 education, and on sheer ignorance of the educational 
 value of the classics. This point we endeavor to 
 illustrate in the present chapter. 
 
 The Society of Jesus has always valued classical 
 studies most highly. In the preface to his Ratio 
 Discendi et Docendi, Father Jouvancy says: "Any 
 one acquainted with the Society of Jesus knows how 
 highly she always esteemed the classical studies. " 
 Of late the Society has even been censured for cling- 
 ing tenaciously to them, as to a venerable, but now 
 out-of-date, curriculum. Be it remarked from the 
 very outset, that the Society upholds the classical 
 curriculum not because this is the old traditional 
 system, but because it has so far proved the best means 
 of training the mind, which is the one great end of 
 education. The various branches of studies are the 
 means to this end. Should other means prove better 
 than the classical languages, the Jesuits would not 
 
332 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 hesitate to accept them. They would teach, let us say 
 French and German, instead of Latin and Greek. 1 
 They would not have to change their system, they 
 would apply it only to the new branches. And the 
 much lauded new method of teaching modern lan- 
 guages by practice and exercise, is essentially what 
 the Ratio Studiorum has insisted on all along. How- 
 ever, the Jesuits are not so short-sighted as to claim 
 for the classical studies the educational monopoly 
 which these studies held in former ages. It cannot 
 be denied that the so-called modern high school, 
 which has a curriculum of English, some other mod- 
 ern languages, mathematics, and natural sciences, 
 answers to particular needs of our age. It is especially 
 fitted for those who want to devote only a few years 
 to study after the completion of the elementary course. 
 For this reason the Jesuits have opened in various 
 countries such ''modern high schools/' v. g. the 
 Institut St. Ignacej Antwerp. In some of these 
 schools they employ. for many branches secular pro- 
 fessional teachers, for instance in the successful 
 "army class" attached to the College at Wimbledon, 
 England. Still they think that the best preparation 
 for the professions and for all who wish to exert a far- 
 reaching influence on their fellow-men, is the complete 
 classical course, together with mathematics, history, 
 and a certain amount of natural sciences. They think, 
 and with much reason, that the classical studies even 
 at present should form the backbone of liberal ecluca- 
 
 1 As early as 1843 in the College of Freiburg, Switzer- 
 land, besides Latin and Greek, French, German, Knglish, 
 Italian, and Spanish were taught, some as obligatory, others 
 as optional branches. Pachtler, vol. IV, pp, 5-46 ff. 
 
CLASSICAL, STUDIES. 333 
 
 tion. They think, with many other prominent educa- 
 tors, that the humanistic studies train the man, whereas 
 the sciences train the specialist. 
 
 This is not the place to discuss fully the question 
 of the value of the study of L,atin and Greek for liberal 
 education or general culture. Still, we cannot refrain 
 from enumerating a few testimonies in their favor; 
 and that they may be the more effective, we shall ex- 
 clude those of professors of classical languages, who 
 in this matter might be looked upon as prejudiced 
 witnesses who speak pro domo sua. Many interesting 
 statements were made some ten years ago by the ablest 
 schoolmen of Germany in the famous Berlin Con- 
 ference preparatory to the "New Plan of Studies" for 
 the Higher Schools of Prussia, which was promul- 
 gated in 1892. 1 The relative educational value of the 
 various branches was discussed most thoroughly, and 
 it is surprising to find what professors of mathematics, 
 natural sciences, and medicine have to say in favor of 
 classical studies. Dr. Holzmiiller, Director of a com- 
 mercial and industrial school, said: "I am a mathe- 
 matician and professor of mathematics, a thorough 
 Realist, but I sound a warning against exaggerating 
 the educational value of mathematics in higher schools. 
 The range of thought and ideas in mathematical 
 Studies is narrow ; whereas the linguistic studies have 
 many more forms of thought at their disposal." 2 
 Professor Helmholtz of the University of Berlin, one 
 of the leading scientists of the nineteenth century, 
 
 1 See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1889 90, 
 vol. I, pp. 343 398 ; and especially Schmid, Geschichte der 
 Erziehung, vol. V, Abteilung I, pp. 357422. 
 
 2 Duhr, p. 89 foil. 
 
334 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 said in the same conference: ' 'The study of the ancient 
 languages alone has so far proved to be the best means 
 of imparting the best mental culture. ' ' 1 As a proof 
 he gives his own experience in the physical laboratory 
 of the Berlin University, where the students that had 
 made the classical course, after one year's laboratory 
 work surpassed those who had made the so-called 
 science course (Realschulen) , although the latter had 
 studied much more natural science than the former. 
 Professor Virchow, one of the greatest medical author- 
 ities, although strongly opposed to the then prevailing 
 methods of the gymnasium, made a plea for the classi- 
 cal studies, saying that "the dropping of Latin would 
 prove most dangerous and injurious to the medical 
 profession." It is a well known fact that this famous 
 pathologist, who died but a few months ago, was an 
 enthusiastic student and admirer of Greek Literature. 
 The verdict of these scholars was based on personal 
 experience made at the University of Berlin some 
 years before. In 1899, seven years after Latin had 
 suffered a severe loss in consequence of the School 
 Order of 1892, Professor Virchow bitterly complained 
 in the German Parliament, that "grammar had been 
 kicked out of the gymnasia, and with it logic." 2 
 
 The graduates of the German schools which deal 
 with practical subjects, and prepare students for com- 
 mercial pursuits, or for entrance into polytechnic 
 institutes, were at first debarred from entrance into 
 the universities, being considered unqualified for 
 university work ; but in 1870 they were admitted, on 
 equal terms with the graduates of classical schools, to 
 
 1 Schinid, /, c. y p. 379. (Rep. of C. of Ed., L c. y p. 372.) 
 
 2 Schmid, /. c., p. 443. 
 
CLASSICAL, STUDIES. 335 
 
 the philosophical department of the universities. 
 After ten years trial of this plan the philosophical 
 faculty of the University of Berlin addressed to the 
 Ministry of Instruction a memorandum, which is de- 
 clared to be the most powerful plea ever made in 
 behalf of classical studies. They declared unhesitat- 
 ingly that the students of the practical schools were 
 not fitted to pursue a university course on a par with 
 the graduates of the classical schools, and that, if the 
 plan was reversed, German scholarship would soon be 
 a thing of the past. Even the representatives of 
 science and modern languages in the faculty joined 
 heartily in this judgment. In specifying the reasons 
 why the admission of the non-classical graduate was 
 injurious to the interests of higher education, the 
 thirty-six professors mentioned slower development, 
 superficial knowledge, lack of independent judgment, 
 inferiority in private research, less dexterity, want of 
 keenness, and defective power of expression. 
 
 Since 1890 new and significant results were ob- 
 tained in Germany, which prove that the classical 
 course, besides the better liberal training which it 
 imparts, is no less fitted as a preparation for technical 
 studies than the courses pursued in the Real- Gymna- 
 sium and the Oberrealschule. This was attested in the 
 last Berlin Conference (1900), by professors of the 
 Technical Institutes. The Professors of the Technical 
 Institutes, v. g. of Aix-la-Chapelle, adduced statistics 
 to this effect from their respective schools. 1 Professor 
 
 1 Verhandlungen uber Fragen des hoheren Unterrichts y 
 1902, pp. 10, 18. Be it said, however, that Professor Slaby of 
 Charlottenburg maintained that the graduates of the Gymna- 
 sium in his school were not as successful in the sciences as 
 those of the scientific schools. Ibid., p. 378. 
 
336 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 L,aunhart of the Technical Institute (Hochschule) of 
 Hanover stated that, from 1890-99, 1209 candidates 
 were examined ; 583 from the humanistic gymnasium, 
 588 from the Real- Gymnasium, and 31 from the Ober- 
 realschule. The results of the examinations proved 
 that the different courses had been equally efficient 
 in preparing pupils for the technical studies. Be it 
 remembered that the humanistic gymnasium devotes 
 less time to mathematics and natural sciences, studies 
 specially required for the technical schools, than the 
 other two kinds of schools. This result, therefore, 
 speaks very well for the solid mental training of the 
 classical schools. 
 
 Still more interesting are the statements of Dr. 
 Vogt, who is professor of mathematics in parallel 
 classes of the humanistic Gymnasium and the Reform- 
 Gymnasium at Breslau. This position gives him an 
 exceptional opportunity to compare the results of the 
 two systems. In the lower classes of the Reform- 
 School French is taught, in the humanistic gymnasium 
 L,atin. Professor Vogt and his colleagues made the 
 following observations in the third class (Quarta): In 
 124 hours of the Reform-School they could not achieve 
 more than in the 84 hours of the I^atin course. Age, 
 talent, and other conditions of the students were com- 
 pared, and it was found that all in all the two classes 
 were equal. Does it not necessarily follow from this 
 fact that French does not afford the same mental train- 
 ing as lyatin? Professor Vogt maintains in general, 
 that the pupils of the gymnasium acquire less in 
 mathematics than those of the Real-Schulen, if the 
 extent of knowledge is considered, but that their 
 knowledge of mathematics is more intense, more 
 
STUDIES. 337 
 
 thorough. This he ascribes to the more intense and 
 more thorough training that L,atin affords. 1 In fact, 
 this contention is amply proved by the above men- 
 tioned results obtained in the Technical Institutes. 
 
 The following testimony of a distinguished German 
 writer, who had a large experience in this matter, may 
 claim the attention of all educators. Dr. Karl Hilde- 
 brand writes : ' ' If it were conceivable that a youth 
 should entirely forget all the facts, pictures, and ideas 
 he has learned from the classics, together with all the 
 rules of L,atin and Greek grammar, his mind would 
 still, as an instrument, be superior to that of one who 
 has not passed through the same training. 2 To give 
 an example, I may state that in my quality of inspec- 
 tor it was my duty to visit a very large number of 
 French lyces and colleges, each of which is usually 
 connected with an ecole speciale or professionelle, and 
 here I found that the classical pupils, without excep- 
 tion, acquired more English and German than the 
 others, in less than a quarter of the time. (The time 
 devoted to living languages was six hours a week for 
 four years in the special, and only one hour and a half 
 a week for three years in the classical schools. ) The 
 same fact struck me in my visits to the German, 
 
 1 Die Mathematik im Reform - Gymnasium. Neue 
 Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VIII, pp. 190218. 
 
 2 The same idea is well expressed by Edw. Tliring in his 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching : "The trained mind is like 
 a skilled workman with his tools, the mind merely stocked 
 with knowledge is like a ready made furniture shop. The 
 one needs but a small outlay to equip, and when equipped he 
 can always produce the things he wants. The other is costly 
 to provide, and when provided is good only for the exact 
 articles it contains." The Month, February 1886. 
 
 22 
 
338 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Belgium, Dutch, and Swiss colleges. ... A similar 
 experience may be gathered from practical life. One 
 of the first bankers in a foreign capital, lately told me 
 that in the course of a year he had given some thirty 
 scholars who had been educated expressly for com- 
 merce in commercial schools a trial in his offices, 
 and was not able to make use of a single one of them, 
 while those who came from the grammar schools, 
 although they knew nothing whatever of business 
 matters to begin with, soon made themselves masters 
 of them." 1 
 
 The same evidence may be given for England. 
 English papers, on the experience of leading English 
 firms, combated the idea that a universit}^ degree was 
 of no use to a man intended for business. 2 Mr. Bryce, 
 no mean authority on this subject, concludes the 
 article in which he advocates a special commercial 
 training, with this significant remark : "This paper is 
 not designed to argue on behalf of what is called a 
 modern or non-classical education. I am not one of 
 those who think that either the ancient languages, or 
 what are called 'literary' or 'humanistic' subjects, 
 play too large a part in our schools, either in England 
 or in the United States. On the contrary, I believe 
 (basing myself on such observations as I have been 
 able to make) that Latin and Greek, when properly 
 taught, are superior as instruments of education to any 
 modern language, and that 'literary' subjects, as his- 
 tory, are on the whole more efficient stimulants to the 
 mind (taking an average of minds) than mathematics 
 or natural science. ' ' 3 
 
 1 Contemporary Review, August 1880. 
 
 2 See The Month, Febr. 1886, pp. 170176. 
 
 3 North American Review, June 1899. 
 
Cl,ASSICAl, STUDIES. 339 
 
 If Mr. Huntington, the late railroad king, dis- 
 approved of colleges, because their training unfitted 
 the young men for practical life, and discounted their 
 chances for becoming millionaires, the right answer 
 seems to have been given by President Jones of Hobart 
 College. "Boys who have followed science, mathe- 
 matics, and literature to their best results, are not, 
 upon graduation, anxious to be brokers' runners or 
 bank clerks at five or ten dollars per week, and do not 
 exhibit a dawdling inaccuracy, whatever their pur- 
 suits. The fresh graduate Mr. Huntington complained 
 of has usually 'skinned through college,' and has been 
 unsatisfactory there also. ' ' l He was one of the 
 "students" who found football reports more enticing 
 than the Latin and Greek classics; hence ' 'their short- 
 comings and their commercial inefficiency are evi- 
 dently not the results and handicaps of scholarship. ' ' 
 
 Here we must add that the popular argument 
 against the classical studies is very superficial. We 
 
 1 The Forum, Jan. 1901, p. 584. However, in the Report 
 delivered at the Commencement of Yale 1902, President 
 Hadley could quote the following words of a leading employer 
 of railroad labor: "When I want a college man, I want a man 
 who knows that it is hard work to use books that are worth 
 anything ; and, as a preparation for railroad service, I would 
 rather have a man who has used one hard book without lik- 
 ing it a Greek dictionary if you please than a man who 
 thinks he knows all the experimental science and all the 
 shop work which any school can give him, and has enjoyed 
 it because it is easy.'* The Yale Alumni Weekly r , July 31, 
 1902, p. 433. And the Electrical World said recently (Octo- 
 ber 25) in the article "The College and Business": "In our 
 profession such doubts are settled once for all by the great 
 electrical companies in demanding a college education in 
 those who cast their lot with them for technical training." 
 
34 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 hear it often said : Of what use are these studies? 
 Men in after life mostly throw aside I^atin and Greek ; 
 there are exceedingly few who after leaving school 
 take a classical author into their hands. L,et us grant 
 it. But does it not follow, then, that the study of 
 mathematics and natural sciences is equally useless 
 except for those who become engineers or chemists ? 
 Or who, except a professional mathematician, ever in 
 after life looks at logarithms, equations and the like? 
 But there are many instances on record of men in 
 prominent positions who with pleasure returned to 
 the classics, which they had learned to cherish in 
 college. We may quote one instance of a Jesuit 
 pupil, whose name is indelibly engraved in the annals 
 of American history, we refer to Charles Carroll, of 
 Carrollton. Bishop England says of him : "I have 
 known men who, during protracted lives, found in the 
 cultivation of the classical literature that relaxation 
 which improved, whilst it relieved the mind. The last 
 survivor of those who pledged their lives and fortunes, 
 and nobly redeemed their sacred honor in the achieve- 
 ment of our glorious inheritance of liberty, was a 
 striking instance of this. When nearly fourscore 
 years had passed away from the period of his closing 
 the usual course of his classical education after the 
 perils of a revolution, after the vicissitudes of party 
 strife, when the decay of his faculties warned him of 
 the near approach of that hour when he should render 
 an account of his deeds to that Judge who was to 
 decide his fate for eternity, from his more serious 
 occupations of prayer and self-examination, and from 
 the important concern of managing and dividing his 
 property, would Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, turn 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIKS. 341 
 
 for refreshment to those classic authors with whom he 
 had been familiar through life : his soul would still 
 feel emotion at the force of Tully's eloquence, or melt 
 at Virgil's pastoral strain. " l 
 
 This much is certain from what has been said so far, 
 that the advocates of * 'practical" studies indulge in a 
 grave delusion when they object to the classical studies. 
 Their usefulness even for a commercial and political 
 career is undeniable, as President Stryker of Hamilton 
 College pointed out in 1901. He said, it should be 
 remembered that the best preparation for a practical 
 and useful life is in the high development of the 
 powers of the mind, and that, commonly, by a culture 
 that is not considered practical. The great parliamen- 
 tary orators in the days of George III. were remark- 
 able for the intellectual grasp and resource they dis- 
 played in the entire world of letters, in the classics, in 
 ancient and modern history. Yet all of them owed 
 their development to a strictly classical training in the 
 schools. And most of them had not only the gift of 
 imagination necessary to great eloquence, but also had 
 so profited by the mental discipline of the classics, 
 that they handled the practical questions upon which 
 they legislated with clearness and decision. The 
 great masters of finance were the classically trained 
 orators, William Pitt and Charles James Fox. Such 
 an education puts no premium upon haste, nor does it 
 discount future power by an immature substitution of 
 learning for training. It is structural towards the 
 whole man, and seeks to issue him, not "besmeared, 
 but bessemered. ' ' It considers the capable metal more 
 
 1 The Works of Bishop England, vol. V, p. 35. 
 
342 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 than the commercial false edge. Self-realization is 
 the end. l 
 
 The testimonies given so far undoubtedly outweigh 
 the contemptuous charges which sometimes are hurled 
 against colleges and higher education, by a few "self- 
 made" men, who boast of their ignorance and proudly 
 point to the millions which they were able to amass 
 without any liberal education. These men and some 
 other worshippers of the 'golden calf frequently ask : 
 "Of what use is the study of the classics? What can 
 I do with Greek ? ' ' We have heard that the study of 
 the classics is of very great use, also for practical life, 
 and the fact that a few have become rich without 
 them, does in no way prove against their usefulness. 
 But let us for a moment entirely abstract from the 
 utilitarian point of view and rise to higher conceptions 
 of life. Too much has the spirit of the market place 
 invaded the field of education ; and the interests of a 
 liberal training have too often been sacrificed to an 
 insatiate commercialism. Is the highest goal of in- 
 tellectual and social life nothing but the rearing of a 
 few millionaires ? No, there must be a higher aim of 
 education, for the nation as well as the individual. 
 A nation that aims at nothing but industrial and com- 
 mercial expansion, neglecting the higher ideals of 
 mankind, may flourish for a time, but will not con- 
 tribute much to real civilization. History has proved 
 this. Take the Carthaginians; for a considerable 
 length of time they held the commercial supremacy 
 among the nations. Even intellect there was in the 
 service of capital. The economical principles of a 
 later and more advanced epoch are found by us in 
 
 1 See Buffalo Commercial, June 29, 1901. 
 
CI^ASSICAI, STUDIES. 343 
 
 Carthage alone of all the more considerable states of 
 antiquity. 1 But not this " nation of shop-keepers" has 
 civilized the world, but poor Greece, whose culture, 
 continued into the literature of Rome, together with 
 the studies which it involves, has been the instrument 
 of education, and the food of civilization, from the first 
 times of the world down to this day. 2 May we not 
 find a lesson in this fact? This country has made 
 marvellous strides in industrial and commercial enter- 
 prise, but should it not aim at becoming a leader in 
 the world of science, literature and art? In order to 
 assume this leadership, the country must aim at 
 thoroughness in education, and at solid, productive 
 scholarship. 3 Now, so far the classical studies have 
 proved the best basis of thorough education and solid 
 scholarship, and doubtless will continue to do so in 
 the future. The inference from this seems to be 
 evident. 
 
 Fortunately, in this country, a reaction seems to 
 have set in against the realistic tendency of our secon- 
 dary schools, and people who have the real education 
 of the nation at heart, are more and more converted to 
 the conviction that the classical studies are most use- 
 ful, if not necessary, for a liberal culture. It will be 
 interesting to hear what the great journalist, Charles 
 A. Dana, thought of the relation of classical studies 
 to journalism. In a lecture delivered at Union Col- 
 lege, Schenectady, N. Y., October 13, 1893, he said : 
 "Give the young man (who is entering upon journal- 
 ism) a first class course of general education : and if 
 
 1 Mommsen, History of Rome, vol. II, ch. 1. 
 
 2 Newman, Idea of a University. 
 
 3 See Professor Miinsterberg's article in the Atlantic 
 Monthly, May 1901. 
 
344 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 I could have my own way, every young man who is 
 going to be a newspaper man, and who is not ab- 
 solutely rebellious against it, should learn Greek and 
 Latin after the good old fashion. I would rather take 
 a young fellow who knows the Ajax of Sophocles, 
 and who has read Tacitus, and who can scan every 
 Ode of Horace I would take him to report a prize- 
 fight, or a spelling match, for instance, than to take 
 one who has never had these advantages. ' ' l 
 
 Professor West of Princeton University stated in 
 1899 that a change of profound significance is taking 
 place in our secondary schools. 2 This change is an 
 improvement, but in reality it is a return to the 'old- 
 fashioned' classical courses, and the writer aptly styles 
 it a 'New Revival.' As one important cause of the 
 change now in progress he assigns dissatisfaction with 
 former school programmes of study. There were too 
 many studies crowded into the programme. In other 
 words, American opinion is moving steadily, and 
 irresistibly, toward the sound elementary and elemen- 
 tal conviction that the best thing for the mass of pupils 
 in secondary schools is a programme consisting of a 
 few well-related studies of central importance, instead 
 of a miscellany. 
 
 Is there sufficient evidence, then, that this ten- 
 dency of things is becoming strongly marked among 
 us? Is attention being more and more concentrated 
 on a few well-related leading studies which have been 
 important in the best modern education ? Let us see. 
 Take out all the secondary studies for which statistics 
 are available from 1889-90 to 1897-98 : 
 
 1 Buffalo Courier, Oct. 16, 1893. 
 
 2 Educational Review, 1899, October. 
 
STUDIES. 345 
 
 Studies. 
 
 1. Latin 100,144 274,293 174 
 
 2. History (except U. S.) 82,909 209,034 152 
 
 3. Geometry 59,781 147,515 147 
 
 4. Algebra 127,397 306,755 141 
 
 5. German 34,208 78,994 131 
 
 6. French 28,032 58,165 107 
 
 7. Greek 12,689 24,994 94 
 
 8. Physics > 63,644 113,650 79 
 
 9. Chemistry 28,665 47,448 65 
 
 The importance of the figures is the more evident 
 when we bear in mind that the rate of increase in the 
 total enrollment of pupils from 297,894 in 1889-90 to 
 554,814 in 1897-98 is 86 per cent. But certain studies 
 are growing faster than this; some of them much 
 faster. Latin, to the surprise of many r , heads the list with 
 its literally enormous gain of 174 per cent. , a rate fully 
 double the 86 per cent, which represents the eight year 
 increase in the total number of pupils. Next comes 
 history with 152 per cent., then the two mathematical 
 disciplines (geometry with 147 and algebra with 141), 
 and then German with 131. After these we find 
 French with 107, and Greek with 94. All these and 
 only these exceed the average. Physics and chemistry 
 close the list somewhat below. Prominent educators 
 all the world over hail this "new revival" as one of 
 the most promising signs of the educational movement 
 in America. 
 
 The foregoing pages contain sufficient proof that 
 the Ratio Studiorum does not need any defence for 
 giving such prominence to the study of the classical 
 
346 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 languages, especially to L,atin. On the contrary, it 
 speaks well for the educational wisdom of the Jesuits 
 that for about a century, despite the sneers of many 
 modern school reformers, they firmly upheld that 
 method to which the more prudent educators stead- 
 fastly adhered, and to which others, after roaming 
 about far and wide, now wish to return. 
 
 It may be asked why the study of the classical 
 languages is the best means of intellectual training 
 and universal culture. The reasons are manifold. 
 The first is the very fact for which this study is fre- 
 quently attacked, namely, that these languages are 
 dead languages. "They are not the language of com- 
 mon life. They are not picked up by instinct and 
 without reflection. Everything has to be learned by 
 system, rule, and formula. The relations of grammar 
 and logic must be attended to with deliberation. 
 Thought and judgment are constantly exercised in 
 assigning the exact equivalents of the mother tongue 
 for every phrase of the original. The coincidence of 
 construction is too little, the community of idiomatic 
 thought too remote, for the boy's mind to catch at the 
 idea, by force of that preestablished harmony which 
 exists among most modern tongues. Only the law of 
 thought and logic guides him, with the assistance of 
 a teacher to lead the way, and reassure his struggling 
 conception. ' ' 1 
 
 This, then, is the first point of the study of the 
 classical languages: logical training, training that leads 
 to correct and clear thinking, to close and sharp 
 reasoning. 2 The study of L,atin is better adapted to 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 251. 
 
 2 See above, pp. 333339. 
 
CI^ASSICAI, STUDIES. 347 
 
 accomplish this effect than any other language ; for, 
 whereas Greek is more delicately organized, more 
 beautiful and poetic, the Latin is perhaps the more 
 systemically elaborated tongue. In its severe syntax 
 it participates in some of the striking qualities of the 
 Roman character, which seems to have been fitted to 
 legislate, to govern, and to command, as the great 
 poet has it : 
 
 "O Rome, 'tis thine alone with awful sway 
 To rule mankind and make the world obey." 3 
 
 The study of Latin requires such application of 
 various rules and laws that it forces the student to 
 the closest attention, to rigorous mental discipline. 
 The processes of reasoning which are, at least im- 
 plicitly, to be gone through, in translating an English 
 sentence into Latin, are ample proof of this statement. 
 Suppose a pupil has to render the following sentence 
 into correct Latin: "As soon as you arrive at Phil- 
 adelphia, give him the letter, to prevent him from 
 going to New York." He will probably start: As soon 
 as: ubi primum; arrive is pervenire, or advenire. Now 
 what tense? Ubi primum, together with postquam, 
 etc., is construed with the Perfect Indicative. But 
 wait, does it always take the Perfect? No, only when 
 a single past fact is related ; is this the case here ? 
 That depends on the tense of the verb in the principal 
 clause: it is give. What tense? It is properly the 
 present tense, but has reference to the future. There- 
 fore, the whole clause does not express a past but a 
 future fact. In English arrive is present tense, but 
 in Latin the use of tenses is much more accurate ; if 
 the action of principal and dependent clauses are both 
 
 3 Virgil's Aeneid, VI. 
 
348 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 future, they must be expressed by a future tense. Now 
 arrive has a future meaning ; therefore a future tense. 
 But which of the two ? First or second ? That depends 
 on the nature of the action ; if the verb of the depen- 
 dent clause denotes an action antecedent to that of the 
 principal clause, it must be put in the tense which 
 denotes antecedence. Now, let us see : the arriving 
 at Philadelphia necessarily antecedes the giving of the 
 letter; consequently I have to use the second future, 
 the futurum exactum : ubi primum venio y Perfect veni 
 well: perveneris. At Philadelphia; at is in; how- 
 ever, names of cities are construed without a preposi- 
 tion, they are used in the locativus, which in singular 
 nouns of the ist and 2nd declensions is like the Geni- 
 tive case, therefore Philadelphiae. But is there not a 
 rule about advenire, pervenire, congregari, etc. ? They 
 mean going towards, into, therefore I must use the 
 construction answering the question : whither, there- 
 fore Philadelphiam. Very well. Now : give him the 
 letter; give: trade, da; him: eum, but stop eum is 
 direct object, while in the given sentence him is in- 
 direct, so it must be ei, trade ei epistolam. To prevent, 
 is the infinitive, here it expresses a purpose. Clauses 
 denoting purpose are not expressed by the infinitive in 
 L,atin prose, but by ut, causa with the gen. of the 
 Gerund, or ad with the accusative, etc.; take ut: but 
 attend to the sequence of tenses! impedias eum; 
 from going : a proficiscendo ? No ! but : quominus or 
 ne proficiscatur. To New York Neo - Eboraco ? 
 Very often pupils use the Dative, not having been 
 instructed from the beginning about the difference of 
 to, meaning towards, into, and to, meaning for the 
 benefit, in the interest of; here Neo-Eboracum. Now the 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES. 349 
 
 sentence is complete : Ubi primum Philadelphiam ad- 
 venerisj epistolam ei trade ut impedias eum, quominus 
 Neo-Eboracum proficiscatur. 
 
 Is it not surprising how much intellectual labor is 
 spent, and well spent, in translating that little sen- 
 tence? 1 How many syllogisms were formed, or are 
 at least implied? Pere Pabri, a French Jesuit teacher, 
 wrote in 1669: "Besides literary accomplishments 
 gained from the study of the classical languages there 
 are other advantages to be derived, especially an ex- 
 quisite power and facility of reasoning. For in the 
 writing of verses, in the examination of words and 
 contents, a constant analysis and combination is re- 
 quired which helps the mind wonderfully to sound 
 reasoning/* 2 Indeed, the study of these languages 
 is a course of applied logic. Immanent logic has been 
 called the characteristic of the Latin language and its 
 grammar. 3 "Latin grammar," says Dr. Karl Hilde- 
 brand, "is a course of logic presented in an almost 
 tangible form. L,et us only remember how an idea 
 so abstract as that of subject and object is rendered 
 palpable by the s and m." We said, the labor was 
 well spent. For, a student who has thus been trained 
 will acquire the habit of clear thinking. When a 
 doctor, he will in a given case reason similarly, though 
 not in that cumbrous form, but pass in a moment, 
 unconsciously, because from habit, through various 
 syllogisms, and examine whether this or that remedy 
 will have the desired effect. A patient should natur- 
 
 1 Professor Bennett, in his Teaching Latin in the Second- 
 ary School, pp. 1222, points out the mental processes to be 
 gone through in translating from the Latin into English. 
 
 2 Euphyander, p. 157; Chossat, /. c. y 295. 
 8 Willmann, Didaklik, vol. II, 115. 
 
350 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ally have much more confidence in such a doctor, 
 than in one who has not had the advantage of the same 
 logical training. The results will be similar in the 
 case of a lawyer, a politician, a business man, a writer. 
 The father in the fable told his sons that there was a 
 treasure hidden in his vineyard. They began to dig 
 the vineyard once, twice, and oftener, in the hope of 
 finding the treasure. No chests of gold, no bags filled 
 with good coin, appeared ; but in the following year 
 the vineyard yielded irnmeasurabty more than ever 
 before. Here was the treasure the wise father meant 
 them to seek after. The same holds good in educa- 
 tion. The man in later life may never again use his 
 Latin or Greek, still the study of these languages has 
 turned up the soil in the field of his intellect, fertilized 
 it, and if now it yields a rich harvest, the result is to 
 a great extent due to that patient digging, although 
 he himself may not, and in most cases does not, realize 
 to what source his success in life is to be ascribed. 
 
 But the logical training acquired by translating 
 from or into the ancient languages, although a most 
 important result, is by no means the only benefit of 
 the study of those languages. There is, besides this 
 formal side, the historical. The Latin and Greek 
 literatures present to us at first hand all the great 
 masterpieces of antiquity, which have inspired directly 
 or indirectly most of what is really great and noble in 
 modern literature. Most deservedly, therefore, have 
 the classical studies been styled the ABC of all higher 
 studies. 1 Latin especially is, as Professor Paulsen 
 styles it, * 'the gate to the great historical world. No 
 
 1 Verhandlungen . {Transactions of the Berlin Con- 
 ference zSoo.) See Duhr, p. 91. 
 
CLASSICAL, STUDIES. 351 
 
 one who wishes to move in wider circles of historical 
 life can do without L,atin." For similar reasons 
 Director Jager maintained the necessity of classical 
 lore for the man who wishes to possess a title to real 
 scientific preparation for higher studies. In the last 
 Berlin Conference on higher education, 1900, there 
 was probably no point so strongly insisted on as the 
 necessity of Latin for all men who lay any claim to 
 culture. Professor Harnack claimed that the human- 
 istic training seemed to him especially necessary for 
 all who had any great influence on their fellow-men 
 and on the social and political life of a nation. l 
 Arnold had expressed a similar opinion when he said: 
 " Expel Greek and I^atin from your schools, and you 
 confine the views of the existing generation to them- 
 selves and their immediate predecessors, you will cut 
 off so many centuries of the world's experience, and 
 place us in the same state as if the human race had 
 first come into existence in the year 1500." 2 
 
 There is, in the third place, what we may call 
 the literary and aesthetic momentum. When through 
 means of grammatical studies the -pupil is sufficiently 
 prepared, he begins to read the greatest masterpieces of 
 literature. Gradually he becomes intimately acquainted 
 with some of the maturest minds of all ages, pro- 
 vided the teaching is carried on in the proper form, 
 i. e. if the authors are read not to furnish merely 
 material for grammatical drill, but in such a manner 
 that the contents of the authors form the central part 
 of the whole instruction, that the author begins to 
 live, that the persons seem to act and speak before the 
 
 1 Verhandlungen, 1900, p. 17. 
 
 2 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 35. 
 
35 2 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 eye of the student. He is thus introduced to one 
 great author after another. First comes Caesar, whose 
 plain but vigorous style is the true image of the great 
 Roman general and statesman, who changed the 
 greatest of republics into an Empire. Then appears 
 Xenophon with his lifelike descriptions ; L,ivy with 
 his eloquent history of Rome, full of ardent patriotism; 
 then Cicero, the most gifted and versatile of all the 
 Romans, with his brilliant style, his sparkling wit, his 
 cutting irony and stern denunciation of corruption. 
 Then the student admires Ovid's elegant verses, 
 Virgil's grand and stately lines, Horace's refined and 
 tasteful stanzas. Then rises before him the great 
 philosopher Plato, who portrays in fascinating dia- 
 logues the wise man of heathen antiquity, Socrates. 
 If properly taught, but then only, the student is sure, 
 after the struggle of a few months, to form an intimate 
 friendship with the 'Father of Poetry', immortal 
 Homer. He will soon realize the greatness of the 
 blind old man, who lived in the mouths of a hundred 
 generations and a thousand tribes ; who, as Cardinal 
 Newman says, "may be called the first apostle of 
 civilization ; ' ' whose Odyssey and Iliad formed a 
 source of purest enjoyment to many of the greatest 
 men of history: to Alexander the Great, Napoleon, 
 Newman, Gladstone, and countless others. We could 
 continue and mention the powerful harangues of the 
 prince of orators, Demosthenes, the grand and soul- 
 stirring tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles. But 
 we have enumerated enough to show what wealth and 
 variety of intellectual food is placed before the classical 
 student in the course of a few years. By these studies 
 his aesthetical sense is developed, he acquires imper- 
 ceptibly that precious gift, which we call taste. 
 
CLASSICAL, STUDIES. 353 
 
 Sometimes we hear it said that a good translation 
 of these Greek authors would give us all the advan- 
 tages we may derive from the study of the original. 
 Any one acquainted with classical literature knows 
 what to think of this assertion. Translations are, at 
 the best, what the reproduction of a grammophone is 
 compared to the original concert or solo. Father 
 Jouvancy has well observed : "Translations of Greek 
 authors, even if they are accurate, seldom render the 
 force, beauty, and other striking qualities of the orig- 
 inal. It is always better to draw drinking water from 
 the source ; the further it runs from the source, the 
 more it is contaminated, and the more it loses its 
 original taste. ' ' l 
 
 This opinion is confirmed by the judgment of many 
 modern writers. Thus Sterne says: "The most ex- 
 cellent profane authors, whether Greek or I,atin, lose 
 most of their graces whenever we find them literally 
 translated. In the classical authors, the expressions, 
 the sweetness of numbers, occasioned by a musical 
 placing of words, constitute a great part of their 
 beauties." 2 Mr. Genung, Professor of Rhetoric in 
 Amherst College, speaks thus of the "Untranslatable" 
 in literature : "In all the higher achievements of lit- 
 erature there must necessarily remain a great deal 
 that, in spite of the utmost skill, cannot be adequately 
 reproduced in another language. The thought may 
 indeed survive, though marred and mutilated, but the 
 subtle spiritual aroma, the emotional essence perishes 
 in the transmission. This is preeminently true of 
 
 1 Ratio Discendi, cli. I, art. I. 
 
 2 Quoted by Cardinal Newman in his Idea of a Univer- 
 sity, p. 271. 
 
 23 
 
354 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 poetry. George Henry Lewes, in his Life of Goethe, 
 says: 'In its happiest efforts, translation is but ap- 
 proximation; and its efforts are not often happy. 
 A translation may be good as translation, but it cannot 
 be an adequate reproduction of the original. ' ' ' l To 
 single out one instance : there exist numerous trans- 
 lations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in prose and 
 verse. And yet, any one familiar with the most im- 
 portant poetical monument existing 2 can trace but few 
 remains of the graces which charmed him in the 
 original. Cowper and Wright have failed in render- 
 ing Homer's rapidity; Pope and Sotheby have failed 
 in rendering his plainness and directness of style and 
 diction; Chapman has failed in rendering his plain- 
 ness and directness of ideas ; and for want of appre- 
 ciating Homer's nobleness, Newman has failed 
 more conspicuously than any of his predecessors. 
 Some passages of Pope's translation exhibit the trata- 
 lator's prodigious talent. But as Bentley said : "You 
 must not call it Homer." Chapman's translation is 
 praised by Coleridge, who, however, is forced to add: 
 1 ' It will give you a small idea of Homer. ' ' Dr. 
 Maginn's Homeric Ballads are vigorous poems in their 
 own way, but as a Homeric translation very often 
 nothing more than a travesty. 3 Similar objections 
 may be raised against any of the other translations of 
 classical poems. 
 
 A fourth advantage which the classical studies 
 possess over mathematics and natural sciences, con- 
 sists in the moral or ethical element, in the many 
 examples they present of the natural virtues, examples 
 
 1 Practical Elements of Rhetoric, p. 320. 
 
 2 Matthew Arnold : On Translating Homer. 
 
 3 Arnold, /. c. 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES. 355 
 
 of heroic patriotism, of filial devotion, and dutiful- 
 ness. The example of Socrates, dying in obedience 
 to what he considers the voice of God, of chaste Pen- 
 elope, of faithful Eumaeus, and of many other char- 
 acters depicted so vividly and graphically with the 
 inimitable simplicity and skill of the ancient writers, 
 cannot fail to produce an elevating, ennobling and 
 purifying effect on the hearts of the young; these 
 examples show us that the sense of moral beauty was 
 left in mankind even in the midst of the darkness and 
 corruption of paganism. What have the other 
 branches of study, mathematics and natural sciences, 
 to offer that could be compared to this ? Mathematics 
 is an excellent means of developing logical thinking, 
 but there its efficiency stops, it has, as professors of 
 mathematics have said, "a narrow range of thoughts 
 and ideas/' It certainly does not inspire, does not 
 ^levate. Or whose heart has ever become warmed or 
 ennobled by fully grasping the Pythagorean system, 
 or by developing (a+fr) 3 or any other algebraic for- 
 mula? Whose aesthetic or moral sense has been 
 refined by analyzing FeS+H 2 SO 4 = FeSO*+H 2 S, or 
 other chemical equations ? Mathematics and natural 
 sciences are justly called by the Germans Realfdcher; 
 they impart practical, useful knowledge, but not ideal, 
 not liberal culture. Newman has well expressed this 
 difference : "When an idea, whether it is real or not, 
 is of a nature to interest and possess the mind, it is 
 said to have life, that is, to live in the mind which is 
 the recipient of it. Thus mathematical ideas, real as 
 they are, cannot be called living, for they have no in- 
 fluence and lead to nothing. ' ' * The same applies 
 
 1 Newman, Development of Christian Doctrine, cli. 1. 
 
356 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 more or less to the natural sciences, whereas the very 
 opposite holds good of the study of literature and 
 history. 
 
 In the fifth place we mention the gain classical 
 studies yield to the mother- tongue. This is very im- 
 portant for a thorough and scholarly understanding of 
 the English language, as two thirds or more of the 
 English vocabulary are words derived from Latin. 
 But the principal gain in knowledge of the mother- 
 tongue is derived from careful, idiomatic translations 
 into the vernacular. If translations are made regularly 
 and accurately, there is little need of giving special 
 instructions on English grammar and style. In the 
 Berlin Conference of 1890 some of the leading men, 
 among them Professor Helmholtz, emphasized this 
 point, saying that "good and idiomatic translations 
 are an instruction in the German language, which 
 cannot be appreciated highly enough. ' ' : The great 
 Prussian schoolman Dr. Wiese had long before ex- 
 pressed himself to the same effect, referring to the 
 example of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, who saw in good 
 translation the best preparation for writing excellent 
 English. "Whenever it is attended to," says Dr. 
 Arnold, "it [translation] is an exercise of exceeding 
 value ; it is in fact one of the best modes of instruction 
 in English composition, because the constant com- 
 parison with the different idioms of the languages, 
 from which you are translating, shows you in the most 
 lively manner the peculiar excellence and defects of 
 your own." 2 In another passage he writes : "Every 
 lesson in L,atin and Greek may, or ought to be made 
 
 1 Transactions; see Duhr, p. 117. 
 
 2 Stanley, Life of Arnold, vol. II, p. 112 ; and Fitch, 
 Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 44. 
 
CI.ASSICAI, STUDIES. 357 
 
 a lesson in English ; the translation of every sentence 
 in Demosthenes or Tacitus is properly an exercise in 
 extemporaneous English composition ; a problem how 
 to express with equal brevity, clearness and force in 
 our own language the thought which the original 
 author has so admirably expressed in his." "The 
 practice of translating," says James Russell lyowell, 
 1 'by making us deliberate in the choice of the best 
 equivalent of the foreign word in our own language, 
 has likewise the advantage of schooling us in one of 
 the main elements of a good style precision. ' ' 1 
 * 'The old theory is now reviving that the teaching of 
 English in the modern fashion is of little value, and that 
 the old method of teaching L,atin grammar, and allow- 
 ing English to take care of itself, is really sounder and 
 more practical. ' ' 2 
 
 Similar are the words of a prominent schoolman of 
 this country, Mr. Nightingale, Superintendent of 
 High Schools, Chicago. In the Report of the Con- 
 ference on English, read before the National Association 
 of Education at Ashbury Park, N. J., 1894, he says: 
 "I would have children at the age of ten or eleven 
 years commence the study of that language which in 
 the fields of persuasion and philosophy, of literature 
 and law, is so largely the progenitor of the English 
 the incomparable I^atin. If we would be strong we 
 must contend with something resist something 
 conquer something. We cannot gain muscle on a bed 
 of eiderdown. Toying with straws will only enervate 
 
 1 Democracy and Other Addresses, p. 126; quoted by 
 Geninig, Practical Elements of Rhetoric, p. 320. 
 
 2 Professor Mahaffy, Irish Endowed School Commission 
 Report, p. 244, 
 
358 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the faculties. The blacksmith's arm becomes mighty 
 through his ponderous strokes of the hammer on the 
 anvil. The very facility of the acquisition of the 
 modern languages precludes the possibility of dis- 
 cipline. Put L,atin into our common schools, and the 
 puzzling problem of English Grammar will be nearing 
 its solution, for the why that meets the pupil at every 
 step, the very laboriousness and difficulty of the task, 
 will open the intellect, develop the powers of dis- 
 crimination and adaptation, enlarge the vocabulary, 
 enable the student to write a better English essay, use 
 a more terse and trenchant style of speech, and grasp 
 with more avidity and keenness any promulgated form 
 of thought, than if he should spend quintuple the time 
 on the study of the English Grammar alone. ' ' 
 
 Is it not significant that nearly all the great English 
 writers and orators were ardent admirers and students 
 of the classical languages? A Pope, a Dryden, an 
 Addison, a Milton, a Burke, a Pitt, a Tennyson and 
 a Newman, and others? The younger Pitt gives 
 a student the following advice : "The practice of ren- 
 dering the Greek and Roman classics into English, 
 and of committing to memory the most eloquent pas- 
 sages which occur in reading, is the best exercise in 
 which the young student can engage. It imparts a 
 command of language, aids him in acquiring a forcible 
 style, affords the best mental discipline, strengthens 
 the memory, cultivates his taste, invigorates his in- 
 tellect, and gives him a relish for the sublime and 
 beautiful in writing/' Further, the whole of English 
 literature is so saturated with classical allusions, that 
 without a fair knowledge of the more important works 
 of Greek and Roman writers, it is impossible to ap- 
 
CI,ASSICAI, STUDIES. 359 
 
 preciate fully, or even to understand the finest produc- 
 tions of English literature. This being the case, we 
 have another proof that our modern pedagogists, by 
 exaggerating the claims of the natural sciences beyond 
 all reasonable bounds, are doing great harm to litera- 
 ture and liberal culture. 
 
 Having reviewed the various advantages which the 
 study of the classics affords, we may well say with one 
 of the greatest minds of the nineteenth century : 
 Modern methods and sciences, and ' 'their inestimable 
 services in the interest of our material well-being, have 
 dazzled the imaginations of men, and since they do 
 wonders in their own province, it is not unfrequently 
 supposed that they can do as much in any other prov- 
 ince also. But to advance the useful arts is one 
 thing, and to cultivate the mind another. The simple 
 question to be considered is how best to strengthen, 
 refine, and enrich the intellectual powers ; the perusal 
 of the poets, historians and philosophers of Greece 
 and Rome will accomplish this purpose, as long 
 experience has shown ; but that the study of experi- 
 mental sciences will do the like, is proved to us as yet 
 by no experience whatever. Far indeed am I from 
 denying the extreme attractiveness, as well as the 
 practical benefit to the world at large, of the sciences 
 of chemistry, electricity, and geology; but the question 
 is not what department of study contains the more 
 wonderful facts, or promises the more brilliant dis- 
 coveries, and which is in the higher and which is in 
 the inferior rank ; but simply which out of all provides 
 the most robust and invigorating discipline for the un- 
 formed mind. . . . Whatever be the splendors of the 
 modern philosophy, the marvelldusness of its dis- 
 
360 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 closures, the utility of its acquisitions, and the talents 
 of its masters, still it will not avail in the event, to 
 detrude classical literature and the studies connected 
 with it from the place which they have held in all 
 ages in education." 1 Goethe, realizing what debt he 
 himself owed to the classics, exclaimed : "Would that 
 the study of Greek and Roman literature forever re- 
 mained the basis of higher education." 2 
 
 These are the reasons why the Society of Jesus 
 always gave such prominence to classical studies. 
 She considers them to be among the "few well-related 
 studies of central importance ; " 3 to them she would 
 apply the words of Dr. Stanley Hall, quoted before : 
 "Only great, concentrated and prolonged efforts in one 
 direction really train the mind. ' ' The mind can never 
 be trained by that miscellany of studies crowded into 
 the programme of our modern systems. Their effects 
 on youth were ably pointed out seventy years ago by 
 the General of the Society, Father Roothaan. 4 "In 
 the lower schools [he means grammar schools and 
 colleges], the object kept in view is to have boys learn 
 as many things as possible, and learn them in the 
 shortest time and with the least exertion possible. 
 Excellent ! But that variety of so many things and 
 so many courses, all barely tasted by youth, enables 
 them to conceive a high opinion of how much they 
 know, and sometimes swells the crowd of the half 
 instructed, the most pernicious of all classes to the 
 sciences and the State alike. As to knowing anything 
 
 1 Cardinal Newinau, Idea of a University, p. 263. 
 
 2 Spruche in Prosa. 
 
 3 See page 344. 
 
 4 Letter of 1832. Hughes, Loyola, p. 290. 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES. 361 
 
 truly and solidly, there is none of it. Ex omnibus ali- 
 quid, in toto nihil: Something of everything, nothing 
 in the end. In the method of conducting the lower 
 studies, some accessory branches should have time 
 provided for them, especially the vernacular tongues 
 and literatures. But the study of Latin and Greek 
 must always remain intact and be the chief object of 
 attention. As they have always been the principal 
 sources of exhibiting the most perfect models of liter- 
 ary beauty in precept and style, so are they still." 
 
 Here it is necessary to meet some objections to 
 the Jesuit system. It is said that, however much the 
 Jesuits insisted on the classical studies, they directed 
 them to a wrong end. They aimed only at "formation 
 of style." "To write in Latin is the ideal they pro- 
 pose to their pupils. . . They direct the pupil's atten- 
 tion, not to the thoughts, but to the elegancies of 
 language, to the elocutionary effort ; in a word, to the 
 form." Thus M. Cornpayre. 1 Mr. Painter tells us 
 even that the Jesuits' "plan" says: "The study of 
 classic authors can have for us only a secondary end, 
 namely, to form the style, we wish nothing else. Style 
 will be formed essentially after Cicero. ' ' 2 What answer 
 can be given to this serious charge ? The answer is 
 a very simple one: the first sentence of Mr. Painter's 
 quotation is untrue. That statement of his is nowhere 
 contained in the whole Ratio, neither literally nor 
 equivalently. 3 The Ratio and its commentator Jou- 
 
 1 History of Pedagogy, p. 144. 
 
 ! History of Education, p. 169. 
 
 3 I do not wish to imply that Mr. Painter has consciously 
 committed this blunder. I suspect it is based on an entirely 
 false translation of the first Rule for the Professor of Rhetoric, 
 which says that I^atin style should be modeled chiefly after 
 Cicero. 
 
362 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 vancy state expressly that various things are to be 
 considered in these studies : knowledge of language, 
 of grammar, of syntax, precepts of rhetoric, style, and 
 varied erudition. 1 Jouvancy, in the schemata for ex- 
 plaining the authors, has five or six points, the first is 
 always the interpretation of the meaning, the contents, 
 the linguistic and logical explanation ; then rhetorical 
 or poetical precepts, then general erudition, and lastly 
 L,atinity. 2 This proves how untrustworthy are the 
 quotations of Mr. Painter and of other critics of 
 the Ratio. The perusal of the commentary of Jou- 
 vancy refutes also in general the charge of "mere 
 formalism." However, if by "formal" is meant the 
 general linguistic training, 3 the Society has always 
 laid great stress on it. Many scholars begin to 
 deplore the fact that this "formal" training is being 
 neglected too much in the new schools. ".The great 
 linguistic and logical training which results from solid 
 and properly conducted instruction in grammar, espe- 
 cially in another language, particularly in L,atin and 
 Greek, has of late been undervalued the nemesis for 
 it has come already. ' ' 4 
 
 It is true that in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries the Jesuits did not enter as fully into the ex- 
 planation of the contents as is demanded at present. 
 But who can blame them for this ? It is true also that 
 
 1 See below chapter XVI, also Reg. Prof. Rhet. I. - 
 Reg. Hum. /., etc. 
 
 2 Ratio Docendi, ch. II, art. 4. See below ch. XVI, 1. 
 
 3 This is the meaning of the term "formal" in many 
 letters of the Generals, as in that of Father Beckx quoted by 
 M. Cotupayre, page 145, where this author misinterprets the 
 phrase "pure form". 
 
 4 Dr. Hirzel, in Neue Jahrbilcher, 1902, vol. X, p. 53. 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES. 363 
 
 they insisted very much on speaking and writing 
 Latin, much more than is advisable in our days. But 
 so did the Protestant schools. 1 For this mastery of 
 Latin was at that time of foremost practical importance, 
 as Latin was the universal language of Western 
 Christendom, the language of law and science, and the 
 necessary organ of international intercourse. As it 
 was necessary, therefore, to teach Latin in such a 
 manner as to enable the pupils to write it, the Jesuits 
 endeavored to do this as well as possible ; hence they 
 insisted much on a good Latin style, and imitated most 
 of all that of Cicero, a choice which only some radical 
 critics of the school of Mommsen can condemn. If 
 even at present the writing and speaking of Latin is 
 one of the exercises in the Jesuit schools, it is not for 
 the same practical purpose as formerly, but these ex- 
 ercises are directed towards the logical training of the 
 mind. Besides, much less time is devoted to these 
 exercises now than heretofore. That the writing and 
 speaking of Latin was never the only object of teach- 
 ing this language, is proved from the manner in which 
 the authors were explained ; it is also sufficiently clear 
 from the fact that Greek was always taught in the 
 Jesuit schools, certainly not for the practical purpose 
 of speaking it, but for purposes of general training. 
 One of these purposes was to acquaint the pupils with 
 the classical writers, with their thoughts and ideas. 
 
 But here M. Cornpayre has discovered another 
 defect in the Jesuit system. ' 'It is to be noted, besides, 
 that the Jesuits put scarcely more into the hands of 
 their pupils than select extracts, expurgated editions. 
 
 1 See Paulsen, Gesch. des gel. Unt., vol. I, p. 352 and 
 passim. 
 
364 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 They wish in some sort to efface from the ancient 
 books whatever marks the epoch and characterizes the 
 time. They detach fine passages of eloquence and 
 beautiful extracts of poetry, but they are afraid, it 
 seems, of the authors themselves ; they fear lest the 
 pupils find in them the old human spirit the spirit of 
 nature." 1 There are several fallacies in this asser- 
 tion. First of all the terms ' 'select extracts" and 
 ''expurgated editions" apparently are used by M. 
 Compayre as synonymous ; but this is not correct. 
 An expurgated edition, v. g. of the Iliad, the Odyssey, 
 the Aeneid, gives the whole work with the omission 
 of but a few objectionable passages. Such editions 
 are certainly not to be called select extracts from these 
 authors. The Jesuits used to read select extracts from 
 some authors, whose works are of such a character as 
 to make it impossible to read them entire, as Juvenal, 
 Tibullus, Catullus, etc. But they read the great 
 works, the Odyssey, the Iliad, the Aeneid, some of 
 Plato's Dialogues, the works of Cicero, etc., in expur- 
 gated editions in which only a few indecent passages 
 were left out. These editions did not efface what 
 characterized the time, or marked the spirit of the 
 authors. On the contrary, it would have been directly 
 against the principles of the Jesuits to suppress all 
 this. For, whereas the Protestant Reformers and the 
 Jansenists taught that man, unaided by grace, was 
 utterly corrupt and unable to do anything good, that 
 the seeming virtues of the pagans, of a Socrates and 
 others, were but gilded vices, the Jesuits always main- 
 tained firmly that fallen man remained capable of per- 
 forming some good works. The Jesuits were more. 
 1 History of Pedagogy, p. 144, 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIKS. 365 
 
 than once styled Pelagians or Semipelagians, because, 
 as their adversaries said, they extolled human nature 
 too much. The Jesuits could, consistently with their 
 philosophical and theological doctrine, propose to their 
 pupils the example of the natural virtues of the pagans. 
 
 On the other hand, they were most anxious to show 
 the immense superiority of the religion of Christ to 
 the philosophical systems of the ancients; they pointed 
 out the helplessness of Greek philosophy to raise man 
 above the baser elements of nature, and they showed 
 into what an abyss of corruption the human race, left 
 to itself, had fallen. All this instruction they could 
 impart only if they left in the authors what was char- 
 acteristic of their time and spirit, except such passages 
 as on account of their obscenity were not fit to be 
 read by youths. Here we have the meaning of the 
 saying frequently used by Jesuit educators: " So in- 
 terpret pagan authors as to make of them heralds of 
 Christ." The religious and moral principles of the 
 ancients were to be judged by the standard of Chris- 
 tian principles ; what manifested the human spirit in 
 its divine likeness, the testimony of the Anima natura- 
 liter Christiana, as Tertullian says so beautifully, w r as 
 approved and recommended ; what exhibited that 
 spirit of nature which is "the enemy of Christ," was 
 condemned. If M. Cornpayre reprehends the Jesuits 
 for doing this, they must be proud of such reproach ; 
 for it is a contumely suffered for defending the teach- 
 ing of Christ against the doctrine of rank naturalism. 
 
 The Jesuits were never afraid of the ancient authors 
 themselves. History has proved this. If they had 
 been afraid, they would have introduced the Christian 
 L,atin and Greek authors instead of the pagan classics. 
 
366 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 As they possessed almost an educational monopoly in 
 Catholic countries for about two centuries, it is certain 
 that they would have succeeded, had they attempted 
 such a change. But they never attempted this change; 
 on the contrary, they strongly opposed such attempts. 
 It suffices to allude to the famous controversy carried 
 on with so much vigor by Abbe Gaume in France, 
 about fifty years ago. This zealous scholar main- 
 tained that the pagan classics infected the schools with 
 pagan ideas ; indeed, he saw in their use in the 
 schools the * 'fatal cancer which preys upon the vitals 
 of Christianity. ' ' 1 Christian L,atin and Greek authors 
 should, therefore, be substituted for the pagan classics. 
 Many distinguished Catholic scholars and writers, 
 such as Montalembert, L,ouis Veuillot, Donoso Cortes 
 and others sided with Abbe Gaume. Among those 
 who most strenuoUvSly defended the classics were the 
 Jesuits, foremost among them Father Daniel. In a 
 most elegant and learned book 2 this Jesuit proved 
 overwhelmingly that, from the earliest centuries, the 
 majority of the great Doctors of the Christian Church 
 were not opposed to the classics, on the contrary that 
 most of them favored their study, and that the severe 
 language of a few Fathers is directed not against the 
 classics as such, but against the idolatry and obscenity 
 contained in many of them. 3 
 
 1 Gaume, Paganism in Education, translated by Robert 
 Hill, London, Dolman, 1852. 
 
 2 Charles Daniel, S. J., Des Etudes classiques dans la 
 societ^ chretienne. Paris 1853. 
 
 3 On this subject see two interesting articles in the Dub- 
 lin Review: "The French Controversy on the Use of Pagan 
 Literature in Education," vol. XXXIII, Dec. 1852, pp. 321 
 336; and "The Gaume Controversy on Classical Studies," 
 vol. VII (new series), 1866, pp. 200228. 
 
STUDIES. 367 
 
 There was, as far as I can ascertain, only one Jesuit 
 writer who ranged himself prominently on the side of 
 Abbe Gaume in this controversy. 1 The Jesuits, 
 as a body, "the greatest of all educational communi- 
 ties," as a writer at the time called them, 2 stood up 
 for the defence of the classics. They did not deny 
 that the classics contained dangerous elements, which 
 could work evil in men of bad hearts, or weak 
 heads. But they thought that it was the vicious 
 organization of the individual, or a pernicious system 
 of teaching, as that of many humanists, that extracted 
 the poison from the classics and rejected the sound 
 aliment of intellectual food contained in the ancient 
 literature. This danger cannot exist for all, and it can 
 be effectively remedied by wise teaching. As the 
 afore-mentioned writer declared, "put education into 
 proper hands, and the greatest step [towards obviating 
 
 1 La Natura e la Grazia, Rome 1865. The fact that 
 this Jesuit publicly opposed the views held generally by 
 his fellow-religious, may furnish material for an important 
 reflection. It is so often asserted that the Jesuits have to 
 follow, like humble sheep, a certain system or set of opinions 
 prescribed for them, and that any utterance of individual views 
 is practically excluded. The whole history of the Order 
 proves the contrary. Even in theological opinions, as Car- 
 dinal Newman said, the Order is not over-zealous about its 
 traditions, or it would not suffer its great writers to be en- 
 gaged in animated controversies with one another. {Histor- 
 ical Sketches > vol. II, p. 369.) We shall have more to say on 
 this subject in chapter XV, when we treat of the training of 
 the Jesuit teacher. Whenever the Jesuits as a body defend 
 certain opinions, they do so on the intrinsic strength of the 
 arguments for these opinions, not for the extrinsic reason 
 of a tradition of their Order. 
 
 2 Dublin Review, December 1852, p. 322. 
 
368 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 possible evils] is achieved. The present position of 
 the Jesuits in France is for us a more hopeful sign 
 than would be the introduction of the very system 
 called for by Abbe Gaume. ' ' l 
 
 In 1894 M. Jules lyemaitre renewed the attacks on 
 the classics, directing his accusations especially against 
 the Jesuit schools. "I find," he writes, "in the pagan 
 authors read in schools voluptuous naturalism, Epi- 
 curean principles, or that Stoicism which is not virtue 
 but pride. The consequences of this anomalous state 
 of affairs are incalculable. We cannot wonder that 
 the Jesuit colleges have produced so many pagans and 
 freethinkers, among them Voltaire." 2 Now this is 
 very amusing. This writer accuses the Jesuits of 
 fostering a heathen, free-thinking spirit, by means of 
 teaching the classics; and M. Compayre charges them 
 with suppressing the characteristic spirit of the classi- 
 cal writers. This is one of the numberless contradic- 
 tions into which the opponents of the Society have 
 been betrayed. If the classics were taught in the 
 spirit of M. Compayre, there is little doubt that, as 
 Abbe Gaume and M. L,emaitre apprehended, free- 
 thinkers would be produced. But the Jesuits teach 
 them in quite a different spirit. Hence the charges of 
 these writers are wide of the mark. Nor did the 
 Jesuits give mere anonymous fragments, mere traves- 
 ties of the classics, as M. Compayre claims. They 
 expunged obscene passages from their editions, as 
 conscientious non-Catholic editors have done, and that 
 is all. 3 The reasons for doing this are so obvious that 
 
 1 Ibid., p. 335. 
 
 2 Revue bleue y Jan. 1894. Chossat, /. c., p. 330. 
 
 3 We do not intend by any means to say that all Jesuit 
 editors of such texts have kept to the golden mean. On the 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES. 369 
 
 there should be no need of defending this practice. 
 However, we shall say more on this subject when 
 speaking of the "Moral Scope of Education." (Chap- 
 ter XVII.) 
 
 One more word about selected extracts. One of 
 the greatest Greek scholars of our age, Professor von 
 Wilamowitz-Moellendorf of the Berlin University, has 
 just published, at the recommendation of the Prussian 
 Ministry of Instruction, a Greek reader consisting of 
 selected extracts from different authors and different 
 kinds of literature. 1 The object of this book is to give 
 the students of the higher classes of the gymnasium, 
 by means of characteristic selections from various 
 kinds of writings, a conspectus of the whole range of 
 Greek literature. We do not wish here to attempt a 
 criticism of such a plan; what we want to state is that, 
 even at present, great scholars think selected extracts 
 of great value especially for acquainting the students 
 with the spirit of a great nation, as expressed in its 
 literature. If, then, the Jesuits had read chiefly 
 selected extracts which is not the case M. Compayre 
 would not be justified in blaming the Jesuits in par- 
 ticular for doing this, unless he could prove that their 
 selections were destitute of all educational value. 
 
 contrary, we admit that some have gone to extremes. But we 
 do not deal here with individual cases, but with the general 
 principle. 
 
 1 GriechischesLesebuch. Berlin, Weidmaun, 1902. Two 
 volumes text, two volumes commentary. See on this reader, 
 Transactions of the Berlin Conference, 1900, pp. 205-215. - 
 Neue Jahrbucher, 1902, vol. X, pp. 270-284. Monatschrift 
 fur hohere Schulen, Berlin, March 1902, pp. 158-160, and 
 October. In the April number of this new educational re- 
 view, p. 301, it is stated that an English edition of this work 
 is in preparation. 
 21 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 Syllabus of School Authors. 
 
 i. General Remarks. 
 
 The Ratio Studiorum divides the literary curricu- 
 lum into five classes. Father Jouvancy speaks of six, 1 
 adding that the sixth is sometimes combined with the 
 fifth. Father Kropf in 1736, in his programme, has 
 six. Most Jesuit colleges in this country have six 
 classes in the literary course, to which are added two 
 years of philosophy with higher mathematics, natural 
 sciences and economics. These eight classes cor- 
 respond to the high school and the college course. 
 The four lower or grammar classes are equivalent to 
 the high school, whereas the four higher classes: 
 Humanities (Freshman), Rhetoric (Sophomore), 
 Junior and Senior Philosophy, correspond to the 
 American college, with one essential difference, 
 "that the work of the Jesuit college is not profes- 
 sional study, but general culture and preparation for 
 professional study. ' ' 2 
 
 When in the following pages we speak of the study 
 of the authors, it is understood that a systematic study 
 of grammar has preceded and partly accompanies the 
 reading of the authors. Of late there is a tendency to 
 begin reading too early, almost from the beginning, 
 
 1 Ratio Docendi, ch. II, art. 7. 
 
 2 Rev. F. Heiermanii, S. J., in Woodstock Letters, 1897, 
 p. 376: "The Ratio Studiorum and the American College." 
 
 (370) 
 
OF SCHOOIy AUTHORS. 37! 
 
 and to study the whole grammar inductively. Such 
 reading cannot be fruitful. L,et us hear two German 
 schoolmen on this question. Director Jager of Cologne 
 said in the 4ist Conference of the German Philologi- 
 ans and Educators (Munich, 1891): "The reading of 
 the authors should remain the principal object of the 
 classical training, but it must be an intelligent read- 
 ing, reading that is understood because of solid gram- 
 matical training imparted previously. Only thus can 
 the study of a language become a means of scientific 
 knowledge. Therefore, sufficient time must be devoted 
 to the grammatical training." Professor Seeliger 
 makes the following very timely observations : "One 
 point in the linguistic training must not be lost sight 
 of: namely, that the understanding of the authors 
 must be solid ; but a solid appreciation of the authors 
 can be built only on the foundation of a knowledge of 
 grammar. Teachers now-a-days try too much to keep 
 this end out of sight for fear of public opinion; some 
 weakly yield to the Zeitgeist and hush it up altogether, 
 to proclaim the more loudly that the reading of the 
 authors is the only object of classical instruction. But 
 I think grammatical discipline is very salutary, even 
 for the youth of the present age, indeed, a remedy 
 against many dangers of our time. And any one of 
 us teachers who conscientiously endeavors to make 
 instruction effective should fearlessly profess to be a 
 grammaticus, and act according to this profession. ' ' * 
 
 The Ratio Studiorum prescribes the authors to be 
 studied in the various classes, and in Jouvancy's com- 
 mentary and similar documents, other authors are 
 mentioned which may be read alongside or instead of 
 
 1 Neue Jahrbucher, 1898, vol. II, p. 83. 
 
372 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 those enumerated by the Ratio. As we have seen, 
 the matter and the order in which the different sub- 
 jects are to be taught are not essential to the Ratio. 
 Consequently it is not necessary to follow strictly the 
 given list. If in any point the Ratio can and must be 
 adapted to the times, it is in the choice of authors. 
 Therefore, those which are generally read in other 
 classical institutions of the country, should be pre- 
 ferred and taught according to the spirit and method 
 of the Ratio. In fact, all authors read in the modern 
 classical schools are mentioned in the Ratio or by 
 Jouvancy. 
 
 In different ages we find different tastes and 
 opinions. We must not, therefore, be surprised to 
 find authors recommended as school books which do 
 not suit our taste. We give here a list of authors as 
 contained in different documents of the Society. 1 
 When the Ratio enumerates many authors for one and 
 the same class, it is understood that the choice was 
 left to provincial or local superiors. 
 
 FIRST GRAMMAR CLASS (first high school class): 
 Latin: easy selections from Cicero, if possible in 
 separate editions; Fables of Phaedrus, Lives of 
 Nepos. 
 
 SECOND GRAMMAR CLASS. Latin: Ratio Studio- 
 rum: the same as preceding. Jouvancy: somewhat 
 more difficult letters of Cicero, Virgil's Bucolics, 
 selections from Ovid and other poets. Greek: Fables 
 of Aesop. 
 
 THIRD GRAMMAR CLASS. ^Latin: Ratio Studio- 
 rum: Letters of Cicero, Caesar's Commentaries, easy 
 poems of Ovid. Jouvancy: Cicero's Somnium Scipio- 
 
 1 From various rules of the Ratio Studioruni, and Jou- 
 vancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. II, art. 7. 
 
OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 373 
 
 nis, Virgil's Georgics, especially books I and IV. 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses. Greek: Fables of Aesop; 
 the Tablet of Cebes; select dialogues of Lucian. 
 
 FOURTH GRAMMAR CiyASS. Latin: more impor- 
 tant letters of Cicero; De Senectute, De Amicitia etc. ; 
 select elegies and epistles of Ovid, or selections from 
 Tibullus, Catullus, Propertius, and Virgil's Eclogues; 
 or the fourth book of Virgil's Georgics, the fifth and 
 seventh book of the Aeneid etc. Jouvancy: Caesar, 
 Cicero's De Officiis. Greek: St. Chrysostom (select 
 Homilies) , Xenophon. Jouvancy : Orations of 
 Isocrates. 
 
 HUMANITIES (Freshman). Latin.- Cicero, especially 
 ethical writings and easier orations. Caesar, Sallust, 
 L,ivy, Curtius etc.; of the poets, above all Virgil 
 (Aeneid); Odes of Horace, etc. Greek: Orations of 
 Isocrates, St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, Epistles of 
 Plato, 1 and Synesius, selections from Plutarch; of the 
 poets: Homer, Phocylides, Theognis etc. Nadal pre- 
 scribes besides: Aristophanes. 
 
 RHETORIC (Sophomore). Latin: Rhetorical works 
 and orations of Cicero; Quintilian; historians. Jouv- 
 ancy: lyivy, Tacitus, Suetonius etc.; poets (not 
 specified by the Ratio); Jouvancy: Seneca, Juvenal 
 etc. Greek: Demosthenes, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, 
 Hesiod, Pindar etc. ; also St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. 
 Basil, and St. Chrysostom. Jouvancy: Sophocles or 
 Euripides. Nadal prescribes Demosthenes, Thucy- 
 dides, the tragedians, Pindar, and " all the more im- 
 portant and more difficult authors. ' ' 2 
 
 1 Now universally considered spurious, although even 
 in the 19th century scholars were not wanting who defended 
 their genuineness, as Griinm and Grote. 
 
 2 Monum. Paed., p. 92. 
 
374 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 From this last statement, and in fact from the whole 
 list, it appears that all the important authors were in- 
 cluded in the Jesuit plan, and that those who made 
 the sweeping assertion that "the greatest Greek 
 authors were all excluded from the Jesuit schools/' l 
 have not looked at the documents of the Society. All 
 the most important authors were explicitly prescribed. 
 It is evident that not all the authors which are men- 
 tioned could be read. The different provinces of the 
 Society drew up lists, or catalogues of authors, which 
 varied in different years. Thus in the Province of 
 Upper Germany in 1602 1604 a catalogue perpetuus 
 was drawn up, i. e. a list of authors to be read every 
 four or five years. We subjoin the list of the books 
 for Rhetoric class. 2 
 
 A. D. 1604: Cicero, Orator ad Brutum; orations, 
 vol. II. The Annals of Tacitus. The 
 Tragedies of Seneca. The Philippics of 
 Demosthenes. The e/xya KO.I ^/>cu of Hes- 
 iod. 
 
 A. D. 1605: Cicero, Partitiones Oratoriae; orations, 
 vol. III. lyivy, I. decade. Juvenal 
 The Olynthiacs of Demosthenes. Homer, 
 Iliad, books I and II. 
 
 A. D. 1606: Cicero, De Oratore, three books; orations, 
 vol. I. lyivy, III. decade. Statius, 
 Thebaid. Isocrates, Panegyric. Euri- 
 pides, Hecuba. 
 
 A. D. 1607: Cicero, De Optimo Genere Oratorum; ora- 
 tions, vol. II. Tacitus, Historiae. Clau- 
 dian and Herodian. Aristotle, Rheto- 
 ric. Sophocles. 
 
 1 See above p. 8, note 1. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 129. 
 
SYU<ABUS OF SCHOOIy AUTHORS. 375 
 
 A. D. 1608: Cicero, Partitioned Oratoriae; orations, vol. 
 
 III. Statius, Sylvae. Xenophon, Cyro- 
 
 paedeia. Homer, Odyssey, I and II. 
 In the Province of the Rhine in Rhetoric class 
 were read: 
 A. D. 1629: Cicero, Partitioned; orations, vol. I. De 
 
 Claris Oratoribus. Horace, Odes, b. III. 
 
 Seneca, Hercules furens. lyivy, I. decade. 
 
 Demosthenes, Olynthiacs. Chrysos- 
 
 toni, DeSacerdotio, b. IV. Homer, Iliad, 
 
 b. IV. Greek epigrams. 
 A. D. 1630: Cicero, orations, vol. IV. De Inventione; 
 
 Orator. Horace, b. IV. and Epodes. 
 
 lyivy, III. decade. Seneca, Thyestes. 
 
 Homer, Iliad, b. V etc. 
 
 These lists represent a considerable amount of 
 reading from the best authors. Modern writers ob- 
 ject to some of the authors recommended by the 
 Ratio. However, to avoid unfairness, it should not 
 be forgotten that the opinions held in former ages 
 about certain authors were different from those cur- 
 rent at present. The same objections can be made 
 against Protestant school plans of former centuries. 
 Thus Melanchthon, as well as the Jesuits, considered 
 the smaller poems formerly attributed to Homer, v. g. 
 the Batrachomyomachia, as a fit school classic. Also 
 Hesiod, Aratus, Plutarch, and L,ucian are recom- 
 mended by Melanchthon. 1 
 
 Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, the Disticha Cato- 
 nis, Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, L,ucan, Pliny, Pru- 
 
 1 Hartfelder, Philipp Melanchthon als Praeceptor Ger- 
 maniae^ vol. VII of the Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica. 
 Berlin 1889, pp. 360397. 
 
37 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 dentius, Publilius, Sedulius, Seneca, Severus, Vel- 
 lejus, Aelian, Aesop, Cebes, Hesiod, Lucian, Phocy- 
 lides, Plutarch, Pythagoras, Theognis etc. , were read 
 in the Protestant schools of Brunswick and other 
 countries. 1 Besides, in these schools the works of the 
 Neo-Latinists, as Buchanan, Castalio, Eobanus Hes- 
 sus, Erasmus, Lotichius, Sabinus, Sleidanus and 
 others, were read more extensively than in the Jesuit 
 schools, which confined themselves almost exclusively 
 to the ancient classics. As the ancient authors possess 
 a far superior educational value, the choice of the 
 Jesuits betokens great pedagogical wisdom. 
 
 It is evident that authors like Theognis, Phocyli- 
 des, etc. are not read in modern Jesuit schools. In 
 fact the Jesuits have, in the choice of authors, suited 
 their schools to the times. 
 
 It may also be questioned whether it is advisable 
 to read selections from Cicero's letters in the lowest 
 classes, as they can be given only piecemeal; they 
 furnish an excellent subject for higher classes, after 
 the students have become acquainted with Roman 
 history. For the lowest class good connected pieces, 
 short stories from history, mythology etc., as found in 
 Latin Readers, will serve the purpose better than 
 Cicero's letters. In the next class the lyives of Nepos 
 may be taken up, followed by the study of Caesar's 
 Commentaries in the third. Such a plan was suggested 
 by the German province as early as 1830. In the 
 propositions sent to Rome in that year it was said that 
 Cicero's letters, with very few exceptions, require a 
 considerable knowledge of Roman history and should 
 
 1 Koldewey, Braunschweigische Schulordnungen, vol. I 
 and VIII of the M&numenta Germaniae Paedagogica y passim. 
 
SYI<I,ABU$ OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 377 
 
 be replaced by select historical passages etc. from the 
 writings of the same author. 1 
 
 Father Jouvancy, in several chapters of his Ratio 
 Discendi, gives brief notes on the most important 
 L,atin and Greek authors and their characteristics, "to 
 show," as he says, "in what order they should be 
 read and what fruit may be derived from their study. ' ' 2 
 A few of his remarks, as is to be expected, cannot 
 stand in the light of modern philological and histor- 
 ical criticism. However, for the greater part his ob- 
 servations are most judicious and correct. We shall 
 embody the substance of these chapters of Jouvancy 
 in the following notes on the authors, supplementing 
 them from the splendid History of Universal Literature 
 of Father Baumgartner, 3 and comparing them with 
 the opinions of other prominent scholars. 4 
 
 2. Latin Prose Writers. 
 
 CICERO is first and preeminently prescribed by the 
 Ratio for every grade. And rightly so, if we except 
 the lowest classes. For he is the master of the L,atin 
 language and the best representative of ancient cul- 
 ture, indeed, as regards Latin oratory, the only repre- 
 sentative. 5 In former times, particularly during the 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 442. 
 
 2 Ratio Discendi, ch. I, art. 1, 2 ; art. 2, 5; ch. II, 
 art. 2, 7, and art. 3, 3. 
 
 3 Geschichte der Weltliteratur, especially vol. Ill, which 
 deals with the classical literature of Greece and Rome ; on 
 this work see above p. 233234. 
 
 4 We quote cbiefly from Nagelsbacb, Gymnasial-Pdda- 
 gogik (3. ed.)- K Dettweiler, Didaktik und Methodik des Latei- 
 nischen and Didaktik und Methodik des Griechischen; Will- 
 man 11, Didaktik als Bildungslehre\ Antbon, Class. Dictionary. 
 
 5 Dettweiler, Did. des Lat. y p. 193. 
 
378 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Renaissance, Cicero was overestimated; now, after the 
 sweeping condemnations of Drumann, Froude, and 
 Mommsen, it lias become the fashion to treat him 
 with contempt. Cicero finds a more sympathetic, and 
 we think more just, treatment at the hands of the 
 great Cardinal Newman, in his Personal and Literary 
 Character of Cicero, 1 where the life of this gifted 
 Roman, his works, and his style are admirably 
 described. Cicero's style is so splendid and masterly 
 that the greatest of the Romans, Caesar, could not 
 help admiring his inventive powers, which, as New- 
 man says, "constitute him the greatest master of com- 
 position that the world has seen." Of late years a 
 healthy reaction has set in against the vagaries of 
 such radical critics as Mommsen and Froude. Quite 
 recently Professor von Wilamowitz of the University 
 of Berlin, stated emphatically: "In spite of Mommsen, 
 Cicero must remain the centre of L,atin instruction. ' ' 2 
 Which works of Cicero are to be read? The Ratio 
 Studiorum and other documents mention his epistles, 
 orations, philosophical and rhetorical works. Some 
 specimens of all these should be studied. 
 
 I. Of his orations the following deserve especially 
 to be read. 3 
 
 i. Verrinae I, IV, V; in the fourth, De Signis, the 
 marvellous grouping of the material is highly in- 
 structive. 2. De Imperio Cn. Pompei (De Lege Mani- 
 lla}, has a most lucid disposition. 3. In Catilinam, 
 
 1 Historical Sketches, vol. I, pp. 239300. 
 
 2 Transactions of the Berlin Conference 1900, p. 207. - 
 See alse Weisweiler, Cicero als Schulschriftsteller, and Zie- 
 linski, Cicero ini Wandel derjahrhunderte, Leipsic, Teubner. 
 
 3 Cf. Dettweiler, /. c., p. 193 sq. Nagelsbach, Gymna- 
 sial-Padagogik, p. 123. 
 
SYU,ABUS OF SCHOOIv AUTHORS. 379 
 
 especially the first and third exhibit a splendid elo- 
 quence. 4. Pro Milone, distinguished by masterly 
 argumentation. 5. One or other of the Philippicae 
 (the second seems to be the best). 6. Pro Ligario. 
 7. Pro Mar cello. 8. Pro Archia Poeta (contains a 
 magnificent passage on the Liberal Arts). Cicero's 
 invectives (against Catiline and Anthony) are some- 
 times wanting in gravity, and are too declamatory; his 
 laudatory orations, on the other hand, are among his 
 happiest efforts. But all abound in descriptions full 
 of life and nature, and his skill in amplification is un- 
 surpassed. 
 
 II. Philosophical writings: 
 
 i. The finest part is his Somnium Scipionis, on the 
 immortality of the soul, (in his De Republica, which 
 cannot well be read on account of the many gaps in 
 the text). 1 2. Cato Major, or De Semctute, is clear 
 and easy, and is better than Laelius: De Amicitia. 2 
 
 3. De Officiis is well fitted for the highest classes. 
 
 4. The Disputationes Tusculanae, especially lib. i, 
 form good and relatively easy reading. 3 
 
 III. Rhetorical Works. De Oratore, Orator ad 
 Brutum etc., are read in Rhetoric class (Sopho- 
 more). 
 
 IV. The Letters of Cicero form the most valuable, 
 as well as the largest, collection of letters (870 pieces) 
 
 1 There exist good separate editions of the Somnium 
 Scipionis, for instance, Reid's (Pitt Press Series). 
 
 2 In the introduction to his excellent commentary on 
 the latter work, Professor Seyffert says: "De Senectute may 
 be read in Tertia (fourth class), De Amicitia should not be 
 taken up before Upper-Secunda (sixth class)." 
 
 3 See Dettweiler, p. 200. On Cicero's philosophy see 
 also Dollinger, The Gentile and the Jew, vol. II, p. 118 sq. 
 
380 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 we possess of any of the ancients. They are the most 
 important source for the history of this remarkable 
 period. In a very pleasant manner the writer exposes 
 all his good and weak points: his honest, although 
 short-sighted patriotism, his affectionate heart, his 
 fickleness, inconstancy and vanity. Drumann and 
 Mommsen, who take his naive confessions in a wrong 
 light, are too severe on Cicero. Professor Mommsen 
 is altogether biased against Cicero in favor of his hero 
 Caesar. Mr. T. Rice Holmes has well said with 
 reference to Mommsen: "Historical imagination is a 
 great quality, but it should not be allowed to run 
 riot." 1 
 
 These letters are an excellent subject for study in 
 the middle or higher classes. A selection can easily 
 be made so as to illustrate Cicero's stormy career from 
 62 43 B. c. , as well as to reflect the whole history of 
 that period fraught with events, which were to change 
 the world's history. For this purpose the following 
 selection used to be read in a Jesuit college of this 
 country: Ad Fam. V, i; V, 2; Ad Att. II, 22; Ad 
 Fam. XIV, 4; Ad Att. IV, i; Ad' Fam. VII, i; 
 XIV, 4; Ad Att. VII, ii- 9 Ad Fam. XVI, 12; Ad 
 Att. VIII, 3 (Cicero's opinion of Pompey and Caesar); 
 Ad Att. IX, 18 (a highly interesting description of 
 Cicero's interview with Caesar); Ad Att. XII, 18; 
 Ad Fam. IV, 5 and 6; Ad Att. XIV, 12; Ad Fam. 
 XI, 27 and 28; XI, i; IX, 14; XII, 4; X, 28, etc. 2 
 
 1 Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, p. 755 (see also p. 803). 
 
 2 On "Cicero's Letters as Class Reading," see the excel- 
 lent article of Dr. O. K. Schmidt in Neue Jahrbucher, vol. 
 VIII, pp. 162 174. This author wishes them to be read, after 
 the orations against Catiline, De Senectute, or De Amicitia 
 have been studied. He adds also a plan for a new selection 
 of the letters. 
 
SYI^ABUS OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 381 
 
 The translation of Cicero should be exquisite and 
 polished, as is the noble and refined diction of the 
 original. 1 
 
 CAESAR. Of the character of this ' 'greatest of the 
 Romans," Mommsen has given a splendid delineation 
 in his Roman History, although this sketch is over- 
 drawn and entertaining rather than convincing. We 
 have here to do with Caesar only as historian, par- 
 ticularly as the writer of the Commentaries on the 
 Gallic War. For simple straightforward historical 
 style these commentaries remain up to this day, an 
 unsurpassed model. 2 Caesar's style is remarkable for 
 clearness, ease, perfect equality of expression, and a 
 simplicity bordering on severity. There is something 
 of the imperator or the dictator in his very language. 
 He commands style and language as he does his 
 legions. After the first difficulties are overcome, the 
 reading ought to be quick, as that of all histories and 
 epics in general. Continual references are to be made 
 to the maps. Drawings and plans, illustrating the 
 descriptions of battles and sieges, will arouse interest 
 and facilitate the understanding of the text. The 
 translation of this author, quite different from that of 
 Cicero, should be plain and forcible, like the original 
 itself. From the historical standpoint it must not be 
 overlooked that Caesar's Commentaries are not an un- 
 biased historical work, but one written for a political 
 purpose, viz., the justification of his proceedings in 
 Gaul. The great general was also a skilled strategist 
 in writing, a master in the art ot grouping events, so 
 
 1 See also various works on Cicero, by Middleton, For- 
 syth, Trollope, Collins, Boissier, etc. 
 
 2 Father Bauingartuer, vol. III. p. 383, 
 
382 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 as to represent his measures as justified without losing 
 the appearance of strict historic objectivity. In par- 
 ticular the speeches are frequently clever partisan 
 writings. From the ethical point of view it will be 
 also necessary to indicate occasionally the brutality of 
 this great imperialist in dealing with the Gallic and 
 German tribes. Roman military antiquities should be 
 studied in connection with the reading of the Com- 
 mentaries, 1 while the civil, political and social anti- 
 quities are best treated in connection with the study 
 of Cicero. So it was done in the Jesuit schools under 
 the name of ''general erudition." 
 
 LEVY'S great history of Rome is not a critical 
 work, but a popular narrative, written with the 
 warmth of an enthusiastic patriot. His Latin is not 
 as elegant and grand as Cicero's, but is, as Jouvancy 
 says, "forcible and dignified." 2 In a period of moral 
 decadence he upheld the old virtus Romana which had 
 made Rome the queen of the world. Of special beauty 
 are the speeches which I<ivy makes his heroes deliver 
 in important moments. They form part and parcel of 
 his narrative and dramatically exhibit the inner feel- 
 ings of the principal personages. Books I and II 
 should be read; but above all XXI and XXII, the 
 glowing account of the second Punic War, especially 
 Hannibal's daring exploit in crossing the Alps. Care 
 must be taken to analyze his periods and to render 
 them into shorter English sentences. 
 
 S AUGUST, in his Bellum Jugurthinum and Conjura- 
 tio Catilinae, of which latter event he was a contem- 
 
 1 A magnificent and most helpful work for the study of 
 the Commentaries is T. Rice Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of 
 Gaul. London, Macmillau, 1899. 
 
 2 Rat. Disc., ch. 1, art. 2, 5. 
 
SYW<ABUS OF SCHOOIv AUTHORS. 383 
 
 porary, gives an insight into the political machina- 
 tions and the corruptions of Roman society. His 
 style is carefully formed after that of Thucydides, and 
 is distinguished for vigor and conciseness, but becomes 
 sometimes sententious and abrupt. He is also cen- 
 sured for archaic expressions, and on the whole, lacks 
 graceful ease and smoothness. The delineations of 
 character, (e. g. of Catiline, Jugurtha, Marius), have 
 always been considered masterpieces. Jouvancy 
 rightly says: "Sallust exhibits an abundance of 
 material and a wealth of ideas. ' ' 
 
 TACITUS is the greatest historian of Rome, if not 
 of antiquity. 1 He was a stern Roman of the old 
 stamp, an enthusiastic admirer of the virtus Romana, 
 which in his time had almost totally vanished. But 
 the sad condition of his time made him gloomy, pes- 
 simistic, and one-sided. "Tacitus and Juvenal paint 
 the deathbead of pagan Rome ; they have no eyes to 
 see the growth of new Rome, with its universal 
 citizenship, its universal Church (first of the Em- 
 perors, afterwards of Christ). . . . The Empire out- 
 raged the old republican tradition, that the provincial 
 was naturally inferior to the Roman : but this, which 
 is the greatest crime in the eyes of Tacitus, is pre- 
 cisely what constitutes its importance in the history of 
 the world." 2 Tacitus' sympathetic description of the 
 simple and incorrupt manners of the Germans, in his 
 Germania, was intended to set the Roman corruptions 
 in a more glaring light, and is evidently too much 
 idealized. In psychological depth, warmth of feeling, 
 and vigor of expression, Tacitus surpasses even Thu- 
 
 1 See Father Baumgartner, vol. Ill, pp. 531538. 
 
 2 Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, p. 175. 
 
384 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 cydides. His style is dignified, rnanly, studiously 
 devoid of everything feminine and merely ornamen- 
 tal; it is so brief and concise, as to be often obscure. 
 Jouvancy says most appropriately: ''His sentiments 
 are striking and profound, so that only deep reflection 
 can fathom them, and mere reading is not sufficient." l 
 For these reasons his Annales and Historiae are the 
 proper reading only for the highest classes and for 
 mature men. 
 
 Of other L,atin prose authors not much need be 
 said. CORNEUUS NEPOS' Biographies of Great Gener- 
 als, written in a simple style, form easy and instruc- 
 tive reading for the lowest classes. During the 
 Middle Ages, as well as in the first centuries of the 
 Christian era, one of the favorite authors was SENECA. 
 The reason is obvious. No philosopher of antiquity 
 has approached the Christian view of life as closely 
 as Seneca, so that a legend sprang up that the 
 Roman had become acquainted with St. Paul and 
 Christianity. Tertullian says: Seneca saepe nosier , and 
 Augustine, Jerome, and L,actantius appeal to his 
 testimony. His letters contain the loftiest moral 
 sentiments, in sharp contrast with the author's 
 life ; " whole letters, with few changes, might have 
 been delivered in the pulpit by Bourdaloue and 
 Massillon. " 2 However, it is questionable whether 
 Seneca's works are suitable reading for young 
 pupils. A distinguished critic says: "Seneca is not 
 to be read. His every sentence must have a sharp 
 
 1 Father Baumgartner, l.\c. y vol. Ill, p. 534, speaks of the 
 "markige, lapidare, ur-romische Stil des Tacitus" 
 
 2 De Maistre, Soirees de St. Petersbourg> IX. On the 
 spurious Letters of Seneca to St. Paul, see Barden hewer, 
 Gesch. der altkirchl. Literatur, vol. I (Herder, 1902), p. 470. 
 
OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 385 
 
 point, a striking antithesis. This is no wholesome 
 food for boys." 1 Jouvancy seems to say the same, 
 when he speaks of the " abruptness and ruggedness of 
 Seneca's style." 
 
 3. Latin Poets. 
 
 PHAEDRUS wrote several books of fables, partly 
 translations, partly imitations of the famous fables of 
 Aesop. The gracefulness, precision, elegance, and 
 simplicity of style, make the fables of Phaedrus ex- 
 cellent reading to start with in lower classes. Besides, 
 his sound moral precepts afford other pedagogical ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 OVID is the most gifted of Roman poets, more 
 brilliant than Virgil, unsurpassed in his power of 
 describing and ' 'painting," and in his ease and 
 fluency of versification. Father Jouvancy, in a few 
 words, expresses the best judgment that can be passed 
 on this writer: " Would that he were as chaste and 
 pure as he is elegant and pleasing." This is only too 
 true. Therefore, his works must be read with great 
 caution. There are some of his productions of whose 
 existence young students should be ignorant. The 
 Amoves, Ars Amandi, Remedia Amoris, cannot be con- 
 demned in too strong terms. The poet himself con- 
 fesses: "Nil nisi lascivi per me discuntur amores." 
 Critics, who cannot be suspected of squeamishness or 
 religious prejudice, have severely censured the erotic 
 poems of Ovid, as "gems of frivolousness, handbooks 
 of lasciviousness, which on young readers must pro- 
 duce the effects of sweet poison that enters into the 
 
 1 Nagelsbach. 
 25 
 
386 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 very marrow. " l In vSome parts of the second and third 
 book of the Ars Amandi, the poet burns a firework, 
 the stench of which leaves no doubt as to where we 
 are. The poison is all the more dangerous as it is 
 offered sweetened with the virgin honey of genuine 
 poetic diction. 2 But even the Metamorphoses contain 
 many seductive passages, for which reason only selec- 
 tions should be in the hands of the pupils. 
 
 The Metamorphoses are the most important work 
 for class reading. There is, on the whole, not very 
 much depth of feeling or thought, but myth after 
 myth is related, in a marvellous variety of detailed 
 description, in a most fascinating style, and in a truly 
 Homeric naivete. Indeed Ovid has little of the stern 
 Roman character; he has more of the gay, imaginative 
 Greek. As regards his style, the elegance and un- 
 labored ease of his versification is unrivalled. He 
 says himself of his facility in writing verses: Et quod 
 temptabam dicere, versus erat. 3 The brilliancy of his 
 imagination, the liveliness of his wit, the wonderful 
 art of bringing every scene distinctly before the eye, 
 whether he describes the palace of the Sun-God or the 
 cottage of Philemon, have been universally admired. 
 If properly treated, Ovid will please and delight boys. 
 Above all, the account of the primeval chaos and 
 creation should be read. It is, as Father Bauni- 
 gartner says, "clear and grand and forms the noblest 
 and most beautiful cosmogony which classical anti- 
 quity and the pagan Orient have handed down." 
 
 1 O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung^oi. 
 II, pp. 217, 265. 
 
 2 Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Literatur, vol. II, 
 p. 147; see Baumgartner, vol. Ill, pp. 466488. 
 
 3 Tristia IV, 10, 26. 
 * Vol. Ill, p. 478. 
 
SYU.ABUS OF SCHOOIv AUTHORS. 387 
 
 Then should be read the four ages of the world, the 
 war with the giants, the deluge, Phaeton (perhaps 
 the most splendid and highly poetical of his efforts), 
 Niobe, and the lovely idyl Philemon and Baucis. 
 
 The translation of Ovid should be easy and fluent. 
 The students should be encouraged to translate Ovid 
 into English verse. The study of Greek and Oriental 
 mythology can easily be connected with the study of 
 the Metamorphoses. Father Jouvancy, in an appen- 
 dix to his edition of select stories from the Metamor- 
 phoses, gives a short, but useful account of the various 
 deities. 
 
 Nagelsbach thinks it foolish to torment boys of 
 fourteen or fifteen years with the Tristia or Epistolae 
 ex PontOj as a youthful mind could not take interest in 
 those perpetual lamentations. A few pieces, how- 
 ever, may be read with advantage, v. g. the departure 
 from Rome, or the poet's autobiography (Ep. ex Ponto 
 IV, 10), etc. 
 
 VIRGIN is "the Prince of L,atin poets" (Jouvancy), 
 "the greatest poet of the Augustan age, the most 
 celebrated imitator of Homer, the master and model 
 of Dante, 1 the favorite of Augustus and Maecenas, the 
 friend, whom Horace calls 'the half of my soul', 2 and 
 the anima Candida, the stainless soul, the ' Virgin 
 poet', as he was styled in Naples." 3 His language is 
 not as easy and as fluent as that of Ovid, but is grand, 
 noble and stately; but in his ideas and lofty senti- 
 ments, Virgil is infinitely superior to Ovid. 
 
 In modern times Virgil has been severely censured 
 
 1 Dante, Inferno, I.: "Lo mio maestro et lo mio autore" 
 
 2 Odes I, 3 : animae dimidium meae. 
 
 3 Baumgartner, vol. Ill, p. 415. 
 
388 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 for not being Homer. Indeed, he is inferior to 
 Homer in many, in very many points. But let it not 
 be forgotten that his epic is an entirely different 
 species of poetry, it belongs to the artistic or literary 
 epic, whereas Homer.' s is primitive epic. Hence it 
 would be unfair to judge both according to the same 
 standard. Virgil is an imitator of Homer, and did not 
 come up to his master. For this the critics censure 
 him, but they should remember the words of Voltaire: 
 "Homer has made Virgil, they say; if this be true, 
 it is undoubtedly his finest work. ' ' l 
 
 In his Eclogues or Pastorals Virgil imitates the 
 Greek idyls of Theocritus. But he is not as varied, 
 lively and natural at the same time not as coarse 
 as his Greek model. Theocritus' Idyls are genuine 
 Pastorals, full of rural simplicity of thought and un- 
 adorned style, whereas Virgil's Pastorals are rather 
 political allegories. For a full appreciation they 
 require much learning, and hence they are less fitted 
 for younger boys. The first, however, and above all 
 the celebrated fourth Eclogue, should be read. On 
 account of this fourth Eclogue, the poet was con- 
 sidered as a prophet during the Middle Ages. The 
 mysterious prediction of the son, with whose birth 
 as the Sybils foretold , the golden age was to return, 
 naturally reminds us of the prophetic passages of 
 Isaias. Virgil evidently refers to the son of a noble 
 Roman, most probably of Asinius Pollio; but it is 
 highly probable that he borrowed the idea and some 
 details from Old Testament writings, whose contents, 
 especially the expectation of a Redeemer, had become 
 
 1 Hom&re a fait Virgile, dit-on; si cela est, c'est sans 
 doute son plus bel ouvrage. 
 
SYU,ABUS OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 389 
 
 known through the Jews in the dispersion. 1 Pope's 
 Messiah, a Sacred Eclogue, should be read in connec- 
 tion with this fourth Eclogue of Virgil. 
 
 The four books of the Georgics are the best didactic 
 production in Roman literature. They have been 
 styled poetical essays on the dignity of labor, as set 
 against the warlike glory, that was the popular theme 
 of the day. This is Virgil's most characteristic work, 
 which breathes the genuine air of Italy. The lan- 
 guage is magnificent, superior to that of the Aeneid. 
 The work abounds in beautiful descriptions and con- 
 tains charming episodes. It is not advisable to read 
 the whole work, as the student will not be satisfied 
 with such a topic. Select passages, however, may be 
 studied in class, especially from book II, and book IV 
 (the life of the bees: their little state, character, pur- 
 suits, and wars). 
 
 Virgil 7 s greatest work, the Aeneid , is in many 
 points an imitation of both Iliad and Odyssey; but in 
 its spirit it is a national poem in the best sense of the 
 word, "a reflection and an echo of all the grandeur of 
 the history of Rome," 2 a prophetia post factum. By a 
 most ingenious device, the poet succeeded in exhibit- 
 ing, and, as it were, foreshadowing the greatness of 
 historical Rome in its legendary history. How bold 
 and successful, for instance, is it to connect the 
 legendary ancestor of the Roman rulers with Dido, 
 
 1 See Neue Jahrbucherfur das klassische Altertum etc., 
 1898, vol. I, pp. 105 128: "Bvery unbiased mind must admit 
 that Hellenistico Jewish sources furnish the best explanation 
 of this eclogue." Cf. Isaias 11, 6-8. L/actantius, Div. Inst., 
 VII, 24, 11. Josephus, Bell. Jud., VI, 312. Suetonius, 
 Vesp., 4. 
 
 2 Nagelsbach. 
 
39 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the foundress of Carthage. Her imprecation: "Exoriare 
 aliquis nostris ex ossibus niter," is the most clever and 
 most poetical conception of the Punic wars. Then 
 take the sixth book, where Aeneas, in a grand vision, 
 sees all the future splendor and glory of Rome, and 
 show in Homer's poems, or in any other work, a 
 passage of nobler, more majestic and more poetical 
 character. It is true, the hero of the poem, Aeneas, 
 does not inspire the reader. He lacks the fiery passion 
 and impetuous vigor of Achilles, the chivalrous spirit 
 of Hector, the inventiveness and cunning of Odysseus. 
 But he is more than all that: he is the chosen instru- 
 ment of Divine Providence for bringing about the 
 greatest achievement in human history: "the settle- 
 ment of that race in Italy, from which were to spring 
 the founders of Rome." Only narrow prejudice, 
 therefore, can depreciate Virgil's immortal work. 
 Rightly has a Jesuit said: "This grand picture 
 warmed with strong national and religious enthusi- 
 asm, elevated by the consciousness of Roman majesty 
 and dignity, illumined by the light of a higher world, 
 outweighs many a beautiful passage of the Iliad. This 
 is not merely frosty imitation, not studied artifice, this 
 is poetry, as it can well forth only from the inspired 
 heart of a true poet. This noble idealism and genuine 
 enthusiasm is the soul and the life-inspiring principle 
 of the whole poem. ' ' * 
 
 I think it is Nagelsbach who says, that every 
 classical scholar should study carefully all the works 
 of Virgil. For the pupils, of course, selections must 
 suffice. But, as far as possible, these selections should 
 give a view of the whole poem. The I. book, the II. 
 
 1 Baumgartner, vol. Ill, p. 436. 
 
SYI,IyABUS OF SCHOOIy AUTHORS. 39! 
 
 (compare Lessing's L,aokoon), theV., and above all 
 the VI. , should not be omitted. In reading the sixth 
 book, references to Dante's Inferno should be given 
 throughout. The translation of Virgil is no easy 
 task; it ought to be noble and dignified. 
 
 HORACK is the great lyric poet of Rome. His 
 Epistles and Satires, carefully selected, make good 
 reading for Freshman Class, his Odes for Sophomore. 
 There is a great variety in his poems. All show 
 good sense, clear judgment, extraordinary taste and 
 elegance. His descriptions of nature are true, por- 
 trait-like, vivid and very effective. With the greatest 
 candor he opens his heart to his friends, without dis- 
 guising his weaknesses. His shorter poems are light, 
 graceful and tender. The patriotic Odes are very 
 different. They show the poet's aim at effecting some 
 large social or political purpose and consequently rise 
 to a grander and more dignified tone. Although 
 reckoning himself among the followers of Epicurus 
 (Epicuri de grege porcum), he rises above the coarser 
 tenets of that school, and many of his sayings contain 
 much practical wisdom. He is, as L,ord L,ytton says, 
 the most " quotable" of authors. 1 He is not easy of 
 translation. 
 
 The comedies of PI^AUTUS and TKRKNCK, as Jou- 
 vancy says, are written in pure L,atin, but contain 
 many impure things, for which reason they should be 
 studied in expurgated editions. This point is strongly 
 insisted on by the Ratio Studiorurn. 
 
 1 See Father Bauingartner's sympathetic sketch, vol. IHj 
 pp. 437457. 
 
392 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 4. Greek Prose Writers. 
 
 Before speaking of the Greek authors, it may be 
 well to make a few observations of fundamental im- 
 port. There is a difference between the study of 
 Greek and of L,atin, which seems to be well expressed 
 in the ' 'Prussian School Order" of 1892 and 1901. 
 There we find as the object of studying L,atin: "The 
 understanding of the principal authors and logical 
 training; " as the object of the study of Greek: "The 
 understanding of the principal classical authors. ' ' A 
 similar distinction was made centuries ago by the 
 Jesuits. As early as 1669 Father Fabri wrote: "To 
 write and to speak Greek is not necessary. An edu- 
 cated man must, according to the adage, speak L,atin, 
 understand Greek, and read Hebrew. Latine loqua- 
 tur, Graece intelligat, Hebraice legal." 1 It is evident that 
 the study of Greek contributes also to the logical 
 training of the mind, but it ought not to be sought so 
 directly as in Latin. The Latin language with its 
 rigorous syntax seems to be better fitted for that pur- 
 pose. It is different with Greek. In a former chap- 
 ter, 2 we mentioned that Latin grammar was eminently 
 logic, and its study a course of applied logic. "Greek 
 on the other hand, might almost be called a course of 
 aesthetics, by means of which we learn to distinguish 
 a thousand gradations of meaning which our barbarous 
 languages will not allow us to accentuate. ' ' 3 How- 
 ever, the principal object of the study of Greek is the 
 
 1 Fabri, Euphyander (1689). Chossat, Les Jesuites a 
 Avignon, p. 286. 
 
 2 Chapter XII, Classical Studies* p. 347. 
 
 3 Dr. Karl Hildebrand ; see The Month, 1886, Feb., 
 p. 167. 
 
SYW,ABUS OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 393 
 
 reading of the Greek classics. "The Greeks are for 
 us not one of the civilized nations of antiquity, but the 
 civilized nation (das Kulturvolk), which has given us 
 the models for all kinds of literary productions. ' ' l 
 And Father Baumgartner observes: "The intellectual 
 culture of the Greeks became a power which not only 
 survived their political decadence, but for all coming 
 centuries exercised a decisive influence on the develop- 
 ment of the world's culture." 2 
 
 In order to attain this object of the study of Greek, 
 the reading of authors should be begun as soon as 
 possible. Etymology should be limited to the essen- 
 tials occurring in the authors which form the staple 
 reading in colleges. The old grammars contain many 
 forms which never or quite exceptionally are met with 
 in the course of reading. To this class belong many 
 rare forms of declension, comparison, exceptional 
 augments and reduplications, and, above all, numerous 
 irregular verbs. They should be left out, as has been 
 done in the best modern grammars. 3 The Jesuits 
 always favored brief textbooks, "perquam breves," says 
 a document in 1829.* This was in accordance with 
 their fundamental principle: Pauca praecepta, multa 
 exempla, exercitatio plurima. 
 
 Greek syntax may at first not be taught system- 
 atically but inductively, incidentally, as the rules are 
 
 1 Dettweiler, Didaktik und Methodik des Griechischen, 
 p. 11. 
 
 2 Baumgartner, vol. Ill, p. 5. 
 
 3 Perhaps one of the best modern grammars is the 
 Small Greek Grammar by Professor Kaegi, which has been 
 recently translated into English by J. Kleist, >S. J. (Herder, 
 St. I/mis, 1902.) 
 
 4 Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 404. 
 
394 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 met with in reading. Then the various rules are to be 
 put together systematically. Important rules (the use 
 of Subjunctive and Optative, the position of the article, 
 and the like) should be learned with the practice of 
 the forms. The various conditional clauses, the 
 meaning of tenses (especially of the Aorist), and the 
 use of the participles must be well explained. These 
 points are the whole Greek Syntax in nuce. 1 The 
 study of vocables should be a direct preparation for 
 the future reading of authors. Many vocables, found 
 in exercise-books in vogue during the last century, 
 are altogether useless to this end. This evil arose 
 from the system of confining Greek reading for two 
 years to translating unconnected sentences. According 
 to the spirit of the Ratio, the reading of connected 
 pieces, easy narratives and easy authors, should be 
 begun as soon as possible. 
 
 The best author to begin with is XKNOPHON. For 
 the sweetness and graceful simplicity of his language 
 he was styled the "Attic Bee. " In former times his 
 Cyropaedia was the favorite book, also in Jesuit col- 
 leges. But this work is not as easy, nor as interesting 
 as the Anabasis. The Anabasis^ or The Retreat of the 
 Ten Thousand , is a book most fit for youth, 2 and a 
 good preparation for Herodotus. The speeches which 
 are interwoven with the narrative prepare for the 
 reading of Demosthenes. The geographical and eth- 
 nographical details about Asia Minor will prove use- 
 
 1 "Also the epic dialect should not be studied systemat- 
 ically before reading Homer, but incidentally, and afterwards 
 systematized." {Prussian School Order.) 
 
 2 "Bin rechtes Jugendbuch." Dr. Dettweiler. See this 
 author on Xenophon, Didaktik des Griechischen y p. 29 ; also 
 Willmaim's Didaktik, vol. II, p. 519. 
 
SYI^ABUS OF SCHOOIy AUTHORS. 395 
 
 ful for the study of the Acts of the Apostles (Travels of 
 St. Paul) and of the Crusades. Books I IV should 
 be read with maps, and with the plans of battles 
 drawn on paper or on the blackboard. If this is done, 
 and the reading is not too slow, the boys will take a 
 real interest in the clear and simple narrative of battles 
 and marches through the countries of hostile tribes. 
 Boys delight in warfare and travels. Whether the 
 Memorabilia should be read is questionable, as a better 
 picture of Socrates will afterwards be given in Plato's 
 works. After the Anabasis selections may be read 
 from the Cyropaedia and the Hellenica. 
 
 HERODOTUS, the "Father of History", as Cicero 
 styles him, is a most attractive author. He seems not 
 to have been read in the colleges of the Old Society. 
 In modern times, in many plans of study, he receives 
 more attention ; some selections may well be read, 
 especially such stories as have been taken into the 
 literatures of all civilized nations. In their original 
 garb they will exercise a special charm on account of 
 their naive character. 
 
 THUCYDIDKS, the "Father of Pragmatic and Politi- 
 cal History," wrote the history of the first part of the 
 Peloponnesian War. He ranks very high as historian, 
 being distinguished for critical spirit, accurate re- 
 search, and severe impartiality. His style is concise, 
 often so concise as to degenerate into obscurity. This 
 conciseness and the depth of thought make him a 
 difficult author for young students. In the highest 
 class, choice passages may be read : v. g. the plague 
 in Athens, the funeral oration of Pericles. Demos- 
 thenes was an ardent admirer of the harangues of 
 Thucydides, and the two great Roman historians, 
 Sallust and Tacitus, have taken him for their model. 
 
39 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 PiyATo. Plato is recommended in the Ratio as one 
 of the authors for Rhetoric class ; in modern Jesuit 
 colleges Plato is mostly read in Freshman class, for 
 which he is an excellent author. In the words of a 
 Jesuit critic, ''Greek philosophy is one of the choicest 
 fruits of Greek culture which, together with Greek 
 poetry, history and oratory, was destined to form the 
 basis of the culture of the Western nations." l Plato, 
 one of the greatest thinkers of all ages, vaguely felt 
 and presaged some of the grand religious and moral 
 truths which were to be clearly revealed by Christ. 
 Thus he became the Traidaywyfc els Xpurr6v. No philoso- 
 pher, in fact no writer of antiquity, exerted a greater 
 influence on the early Christian writers. His many 
 errors, mixed with some Christian truth, gave rise to 
 numerous heresies in the earlier centuries, and misled 
 even gigantic intellects like that of Origen. On the 
 other hand, as Father Baumgartner observes, "numer- 
 ous minds, searching after truth, have through his 
 writings been raised out of the depths of materialism 
 to the purer heights of idealistic speculations. ' ' 2 
 
 In Plato, there is, in the words of his disciple 
 Aristotle, "a middle species of diction, between prose 
 and verse," and Cicero said: "If Jupiter were to speak 
 in the Greek tongue, he would use the language of 
 .Plato." 3 Some of his dialogues are so sublime, so 
 harmonious, so rhythmical, that they may truly be 
 
 1 Father Baumgartner, vol. Ill, page 268. Further ref- 
 erences see in Histories of Philosophy, v. g. by Zeller, 
 Brandis, Ueberweg, Windelband; Willnianu, Geschichte des 
 Idealismus. Dollinger, The Gentile and the Jew, vol. I, 
 pp. 304332. 
 
 2 Father Baumgartner, vol. Ill, p. 277. 
 
 3 Brutus 31 \ Orator M. 
 
SYI^ABUS OF SCHOOIv AUTHORS. 397 
 
 styled poetical. There are not many which, both for 
 contents and style, can be read in colleges. Best 
 suited for this purpose are the Apology and Crito. 
 The Apology, or Defense of Socrates, the only work of 
 Plato which is not in the form of a dialogue, probabty 
 contains the substance of the answer Socrates made to 
 the insidious charges of his accusers. The tone is 
 throughout fearless, at times even defiant, the accused 
 merely pleading that, whatever he did, was done at 
 the bidding of the divinity, who spoke to him through 
 a mysterious inner voice, and that all his doings were 
 directed towards improving the minds and morals of 
 his fellow-citizens. It is, on the whole, grand and 
 elevating reading. A Jesuit professor and distin- 
 guished critic, Father Stiglmayr, wrote recently: 
 "What a pity, if youths should no longer drink in- 
 spiration from such a source ! ' ' 1 
 
 In the Crito we find Socrates in prison, during the 
 interval between his condemnation and death. Crito 
 advises him to fly, Socrates refuses, "as it was not 
 allowed a good citizen to withdraw from proper author- 
 ity and violate the laws of the state. ' ' The dialogue 
 contains very fine passages. 
 
 The Phaedo is one of the most remarkable of Plato's 
 dialogues. It relates a conversation held shortly before 
 the death of Socrates, in which the great Athenian 
 undertakes to prove the immortality of the soul. The 
 last chapters narrate in a touching manner, how, when 
 
 1 A beautiful appreciation of the Apology is given by 
 this Professor in two articles in the Stimmen aus Maria- 
 Laachy vol. TyXII, 1902. Professor Bristol, in his Teaching 
 of Greek in the Secondary School t thinks the Apology not a 
 suitable introduction to the study of Plato. His arguments 
 are not convincing. 
 
39 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the summons came, Socrates with much composure 
 and tranquillity of mind, drank the fatal cup, in the 
 midst of his weeping friends. This dialogue may be 
 read, as Nagelsbach says, with a good class of students. 
 It is always advisable to read the Apology, then the 
 Crito, and finally the last chapters of the Phaedo. 
 Thus the students will get a clear picture of the whole 
 life and the heroic death of the most remarkable man 
 of antiquity. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. Rhetorical talent was a gift com- 
 mon to all Greeks. The splendid speeches in Homer's 
 poems are not accidental fictions, but the expressions 
 of old traditions, of national manners and peculiarities. 
 The diplomatic Agamemnon, the subtle Odysseus, the 
 passionate Achilles, the conciliatory Nestor are oratori- 
 cal types which were renewed in the life of the Greeks 
 from generation to generation. l Greek oratory reached 
 its zenith in Demosthenes, the ' 'prince of orators". 
 The Ratio Studiorum assigns his masterly orations to 
 the highest class of the literary curriculum, which is, 
 indeed, the proper place for this author. One or 
 other of the Olynthiacs or Philippics should be studied, 
 as was done early in Jesuit colleges. It may be 
 questioned whether it is possible to do justice to the 
 oration On the Crown, except with a very good class 
 of pupils. This speech is not only the masterpiece of 
 Demosthenes, but is regarded as the most perfect 
 specimen that eloquence has ever produced. 
 
 A word must here be said on the reading of the 
 GREEK NEW TESTAMENT. Professor Bristol says that 
 the present ignorance of the Greek New Testament on 
 
 1 See Father Baumgartner, vol. Ill, p. 257. As a con- 
 firmation of this statement take the IX. book of the Iliad with 
 its magnificent speeches. 
 
SYU,ABUS OF SCHOOIv AUTHORS. 399 
 
 the part of the people who have had a classical educa- 
 tion is little short of disgrace, and he wishes that it 
 should be read an hour a week. 1 This is exactly what 
 was done in many colleges of the Old Society, as may 
 be seen from Father Kropf's programme of 1736, in 
 which the reading of the Greek Gospel (chiefly that of 
 St. L,uke), is prescribed for every Saturday in the 
 fourth and fifth classes, and the Acts of the Apostles for 
 Rhetoric (Sophomore). 2 
 
 5. Greek Poets. 
 
 HOMKR is "the Father of Poetry." He was truly 
 the "educator of Greece" and influenced the literature 
 of all coming ages as no other writer ever has done. 
 To dwell on his excellence, would merely be, as the 
 Greek adage has it, y\a\)K ets f A^ws. The Odyssey and 
 Iliad should be read so as to give the pupil a perfect 
 view of the whole. There are but few passages which 
 cannot be read with boys. Homer is very naive and 
 outspoken, as, in general, ancient literature is more 
 honest, direct, and straightforward than modern lit- 
 erature, which often merely suggests what is offensive. 
 But this very suggestiveness makes modern writings 
 more insidious, as the mind is set thinking to find out 
 what is meant. Homer is never licentious ; the song 
 in the Odyssey which is most objectionable is put into 
 the mouth of another bard, and even in this song there 
 is no glorification of sin, no mistake as to what is right 
 or wrong. This straightforwardness in delicate mat- 
 ters must not offend the mature reader, or he must also 
 
 1 The Teaching of Greek in the Secondary School, pp. 
 267268. 
 
 2 Kropf in Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Padago- 
 gik, vol. X, pp. 341-344. See above pp. 123124. 
 
400 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 object to Holy Scripture. It is evident that not all 
 passages of Scripture are to be read by the young, no 
 more than many of the profane writers. As to Homer, 
 Jouvancy says very appositely: "A few comparisons 
 which are somewhat low, and other traces of primeval 
 simplicity and of a naivete no longer known, must not 
 shock any one. Kvery sensible reader will also make 
 allowances for the lies and other crimes which the 
 pagan writer imputes to his gods. " l If single lines 
 with rather objectionable contents occur, the only way 
 is to translate them correctly, but in careful and decent 
 expressions, which have to be thought out beforehand; 
 to omit them would almost surely lead some pupils to 
 study them out at home. To give a wrong translation 
 is dishonest, and ' 'the end does not justify the means. ' ' 
 Besides, as all sorts of translations may be had from 
 our public libraries, and actually are in the hands of 
 the students, such a fraud would be detected and 
 would surely undermine the confidence of the pupils 
 in their teacher. When the first passage is met with, 
 the teacher may call attention to the above mentioned 
 characteristics of ancient literature, sacred as well as 
 profane. If a few prudent and grave remarks of this 
 kind are made, the pupils will not surfer any harm 
 from such reading. 
 
 We have said above that the epic dialect is to be 
 studied inductively. When the first difficulties are 
 overcome, the pupils will begin to like Homer, pro- 
 vided the teacher is what he ought to be. The intro- 
 ductions of the Odyssey and Iliad, as also other pas- 
 sages from Greek and Latin poetry, should be learned 
 
 1 'Ratio Disc., ch. I, art. 1, 2. See also Nagelsbach's 
 Homeric Theology. 
 
SYI^ABUS OF SCHOOL AUTHORS. 401 
 
 by heart. As of Virgil's Aeneid, so also of the Odyssey 
 and Iliad, the whole cannot be studied. But care 
 should be taken that the selections are such as to give 
 the pupils a clear view of the whole work. 1 The 
 translation of Homer must be simple and natural. 
 Anglo-Saxon words ought to prevail. 2 It has been 
 previously stated, and it is self-evident, that the teach- 
 ing of antiquities, descriptions of the life and manners 
 of the heroic age, should accompany the reading of 
 Homer. 3 
 
 It is not necessary to dwell on the GREEK TRAGE- 
 DIES, and their importance for the higher classes of 
 the literary curriculum. The Ratio does not mention 
 them in particular ; but Sophocles and Euripides are 
 recommended by Jouvancy, and they were read in the 
 colleges, as appears from the catalogues given on 
 previous pages. 4 The amount of the world's best 
 literature, with which the student in the Jesuit 
 Colleges was made acquainted, is certainly not in- 
 significant. 
 
 1 Professor Bristol, in his excellent work The Teaching 
 of Greek in the Secondary School, suggests that books IX 
 XII of the Odyssey should be read first, then V, VI, VII, VIII, 
 and part of book XIII. I must confess that such an inversion 
 seems not advisable. Why not follow the author? I doubt 
 also whether of book I. not more than the first 79 verses 
 should be read. The whole first book is interesting and im- 
 portant for the correct appreciation of the whole. 
 
 2 A good help for class translation is found in the prose 
 translation of the Odyssey by Butcher and I/ang ; of the Iliad 
 by L,ang, Myers and L,eaf. 
 
 3 Works by Jebb, Gladstone, Mahaffy, Grote, Nagels- 
 bach, etc A splendid literary appreciation of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey ', see Baumgartner, vol. Ill, pp. 19 63. 
 
 4 See pp. 373 374 ; see also Baumgartner, vol. Ill, pp. 
 133244. 
 
 26 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Scholarship and Teaching. 
 
 The aim proposed by the Ratio Studiorum is a great 
 and noble one, which tasks the undivided energy of 
 able and experienced men. Does the Society fit the 
 teachers for this work? This is a most important 
 question. However good and excellent a system may 
 be, it is of little avail if the teachers know not how to 
 apply it, or if they apply it badly. Professor Miinster- 
 berg rightly insists on the truth that all effective school 
 reform must start with a reform of teachers. ' 'Just as 
 it has been said that war needs three things, money, 
 money, and again money, so it can be said with much 
 greater truth that education needs, not forces and 
 buildings, not pedagogy and demonstrations, but only 
 men, men, and again men, without forbidding that 
 some, not too many of them, shall be women. The 
 right kind of men is what the schools need ; they have 
 the wrong kind. They need teachers whose interest 
 in the subject would banish all drudgery, and they 
 have teachers whose pitiable unpreparedness makes 
 the class work either so superficial that the pupils do 
 not learn anything, or, if it is taken seriously, so dry 
 and empty that it is a vexation for children and 
 teachers alike. To produce anything equivalent to 
 the teaching staff from whose guidance I benefited in 
 my boyhood, no one ought to be allowed to teach in 
 a grammar school who has not passed through a col- 
 lege or a good normal school ; no one ought to teach 
 
 (402) 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TKACHING. 403 
 
 in a high school who has not worked, after his college 
 course, at least two years in the graduate school of a 
 good university; no one ought to teach in a college 
 who has not taken his doctor's degree in one of the 
 best universities; and no one ought to teach in a 
 graduate school who has not shown his mastery of 
 method by powerful scientific publications. We have 
 instead a misery which can be characterized by one 
 statistical fact : only two per cent of the school 
 teachers possess any degree whatever. ' ' l 
 
 It would certainly be an ideal state, if all teachers 
 came up to the Professor's requirements, as laid down 
 in this proposition ; but one may justly object to the 
 importance assigned to the doctor's degree and the 
 scientific publications, as necessary requisites for 
 teaching. Although this degree and productive 
 scholarship are very desirable, still we must consider 
 it a mistake to expect from them alone or even chiefly 
 the men needed in our educational institutions. The 
 present writer, in his own school days, had some 
 teachers who neither possessed the doctor's degree 
 of course they all had undergone the " State examina- 
 tions" nor had published any books, and yet as 
 teachers were far superior to others who possessed the 
 doctor's degree and had published books. Scholarship 
 and capability for teaching are by no means identical. 
 Too much weight has been given of late to scholarship 
 in preference to practical experience, combined, as is 
 understood, with a sufficient knowledge of the matter 
 to be taught. The documents of the Society insist 
 strongly that the teacher should thoroughly master the 
 subject which he is to teach. Father L,edesma wrote 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly, "May 1900, p. 667. 
 
404 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 three hundred years ago : "In all classes the teachers 
 should be such that they could teach a much higher 
 class" [than that which is actually assigned to them], 1 
 and Father Nadal said : "All the professors should be 
 distinguished in their respective branches, and no one 
 can teach in the classes of Humanities and Rhetoric 
 (Freshman and Sophomore) who is not a Master of 
 Arts. " 2 In these words Father Nadal virtually lays 
 down as a postulate what Professor Miinsterberg wants, 
 namely, that the professors in the college course should 
 have the doctor's degree. But the Society attached 
 still greater weight to skill in teaching than scholar- 
 ship, and we think rightly so. 
 
 Within the last two years this question of the re- 
 lation of scholarship to teaching has received more 
 attention than before, and some articles in leading 
 reviews and periodicals found one of the reasons of the 
 decline of teaching exactly in the excess of scholarship. 
 It was especially the New York Nation which in the 
 spring of 1900 brought the topic before the eyes of the 
 public. On March 8, 1900, the Nation had an editorial 
 011 The Decline of Teaching, in which we find this 
 statement: "It is at least a curious coincidence that 
 the development of the modern science of pedagogy, 
 with its array of physiological and psychological data, 
 should have been accompanied by a distinct decline 
 in the prominence of the teacher. No one, we sup- 
 pose, will question that the number of great teachers 
 is less now than it once was, and that the depleted 
 ranks are not being adequately filled up. While this 
 dearth of teaching power, notwithstanding the persis- 
 
 1 Monumenta Paedagogica, p. 156. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 104. 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING. 405 
 
 tent efforts to overcome it, is characteristic of all de- 
 partments of education, it is especially noticeable in 
 the colleges and universities ; perhaps in no single 
 respect, indeed, does the average college of the present 
 day contrast more sharply with the college of a genera- 
 tion or two ago." On March 22, the Nation published 
 the following correspondence. "Your editorial upon 
 the Decline of Teaching ought to arouse very general 
 solicitude throughout the profession : it gives notable 
 emphasis to the condition which some of us have per- 
 ceived for several years, although, so far as I am 
 aware, stress has not hitherto been laid upon it in any 
 public way. Your statement of the facts implies, 
 without directly asserting, both the magnitude of the 
 evil and its causes. Possibly both of these should 
 receive, at the proper time and place, more extended 
 and more exhaustive consideration. ... In the upper 
 schools high schools and colleges the evil which 
 has brought about the decline of teaching is an entire- 
 ly different one. There is no evidence that the pseudo- 
 pedagogy has won any hold on these men, except as 
 subjects for wise admonitions to elementary teachers. 
 The evil here is that original research has been con- 
 founded with true teaching. Original research is an 
 independent profession, worthy of all honor and re- 
 spect, but its processes are not in any essential or 
 fundamental way those of education. We can never 
 bring back to our colleges the nobler ideals of character 
 and culture until we separate them from an ideal 
 which is purely that of a trade or profession. We 
 should have a very analogous confusion if our lawyers 
 were to contend that education consisted in mastering 
 the process and methods of the law. In so far as our 
 
406 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 colleges are converted into workshops where 'the 
 bounds of knowledge' are widened, their real and 
 greater function becomes restricted, if not forgotten." 1 
 Dean Briggs of Harvard College shortly after wrote as 
 follows: "Another doubt about the new-fashioned 
 education concerns the abnormal value set on the 
 higher degrees. That a teacher should know his 
 subject is obvious; but the man of intelligence and 
 self-sacrifice who bends his energy to teaching boys 
 will soon get enough scholarship for the purpose ; 
 whereas no amount of scholarship can make up for 
 the want of intelligence and self-sacrifice. ' ' 2 
 
 Many years ago Arnold had expressed the same 
 opinion. In a letter of inquiry for a master he wrote : 
 "What I want is a Christian and a gentleman an 
 active man, and one who has common sense and 
 understands boys. I do not so much care about 
 scholarship, as he will have immediately under him 
 the lowest forms [classes] in the school ; but yet, on 
 second thoughts, I do care about it very much, because 
 his pupils may be in the highest forms ; and besides, 
 I think that even the elements are best taught by a 
 man who has a thorough knowledge of the matter. 
 However, if one must give way, I prefer activity of 
 mind and an interest in his work to high scholarship, 
 for the one can be acquired more easily than the 
 other/' 3 
 
 The views of prominent German educators are not 
 less pronounced on this subject and yet, no nation 
 insists more on scholarship than the German. Says 
 
 1 Mr. Frederick Whitton, Michigan Military Academy. 
 
 2 Atlantic Monthly, October 1900. 
 
 3 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold ', p. 69. 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING. 407 
 
 one: "We have no more educators in the true sense 
 of the word. ' ' 1 The opinion of Professor Paulsen is 
 especially worthy of notice. We summarize what he 
 says on this subject in his History of Higher Educa- 
 tion. It cannot be doubted that scholarship of the 
 teacher, as a rule, tends towards raising teaching. 
 But it should not be overlooked that the success of a 
 teacher depends not only upon the amount of his 
 scientific knowledge, but as much on his inclination 
 and practical skill for teaching. Do the latter qual- 
 ities increase in proportion with the teacher's scholar- 
 ship? This is not always the case. It should be 
 expected that, the richer, the clearer and the deeper 
 the knowledge is, the stronger the inclination, and the 
 facility of imparting it to others. But between philo- 
 logical scholarship proper and elementary instruction 
 in L,atin grammar and style, we find rather the reverse 
 proportion. Scholarship can become an obstacle to 
 teaching. First, it weakens the liking for it, or rather 
 it strengthens the aversion to it. For the "drilling" 
 in the elements of a language is undoubtedly one of 
 the least attractive tasks to a man who feels in himself 
 an inclination to educate the souls of the young. 
 Secondly, scholarship easily leads to introducing into 
 class-instruction things that are important for the 
 teacher's own scientific grasp of the subject. Hence 
 the common complaint : the more grammar and the 
 study of antiquities increase, and the more deeply the 
 teachers enter into these sciences, the less the pupils 
 learn ; or rather the more the pupils learn of these 
 things, the less thoroughness and facility they acquire 
 
 1 Lehmann, Erziehung und Erzieher, Berlin, Weid- 
 mann, 1901. Neue Jahrbiicher, 1901, vol. VIII, p. 237. 
 
408 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 in reading and writing ; but this last is exactly what 
 they need. From this it appears that it was in part 
 disadvantageous to replace theologians in the gymnasia 
 by philologians and mathematicians, a change which 
 for a long time was wished for, undoubtedly not with- 
 out good reasons. The theologian, owing to his whole 
 training, had a tendency towards caring for the souls ; 
 an interest in the whole man was the centre of his 
 calling, if indeed he was an honest theologian, 
 not an interest in science, nor an interest in the student 
 as student. Everything leads the theologian and the 
 true philosopher to be an educator ; the scholar, the 
 learned specialist, may content himself with being an 
 instructor. Add to this that the theologian through 
 his studies was everywhere led to view things philo- 
 sophically. And, after all, it is philosophy and religion 
 alone that impel a man to communicate what he knows. 
 He who has no philosophic views of life and of the 
 world, has nothing to communicate ; it is only the 
 relation to some such ultimate object which gives 
 learning pedagogical power and motives. 1 Be it re- 
 membered that the man who says this is no ecclesias- 
 tic, but a layman, one of the foremost professors of the 
 University of Berlin. 
 
 In his latest important work, 2 he speaks still more 
 emphatically on the drawbacks and dangers that men- 
 ace teaching, even in the university, from scholarship. 
 The professor, he says, considers himself in the first 
 place not so much a teacher as a scholar, as the man 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, pp. 628629. 
 (2nd ed., vol. II, pp. 389391.) 
 
 2 Die deutschen Universitdten und das Universitats- 
 Studium, Berlin 1902, pp. 213222. 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING. 409 
 
 of science, and so scientific research appears to him 
 nobler and more important than instruction. Con- 
 sequently, it happens very easily that he becomes 
 indifferent about perfecting himself as teacher, he 
 devotes scarcely the necessary time to preparing his 
 lectures, he loses interest in teaching, which is an 
 unwelcome interruption of his researches. It is evi- 
 dent that no great success is to be expected from such 
 teaching or lecturing. There are also dangers on the 
 part of the students. Not unfrequently they are intro- 
 duced too early to the specialized treatment of the 
 sciences, before they have acquired general information 
 about their subject. This danger is the greatest for 
 the most talented and zealous students. If afterwards 
 they are teachers in a gymnasium, they feel altogether 
 out of place; nearly all they had to study in the univer- 
 sity is inapplicable in this present position, and it takes 
 very long before the mental equilibrium is found again. 
 The author then points out the dangers for science. 
 If manifestation of scholarship is required for obtain- 
 ing a position as teacher, the unavoidable consequence 
 will be a kind of * 'pseudo-productivity' ' and other evils. 
 Of recent utterances from England the following 
 of the Hon. George C. Brodrick (Warden of Merton) 
 will suffice. In an article, " Amateur Nation," he 
 says: "Strange to say, the higher branches of the 
 great educational profession in England are strong- 
 holds of amateurism. The masters and mistresses of 
 elementary schools are now well trained, and even 
 when they teach mechanically, they teach as persons 
 who have grasped the difficulties of teaching, and 
 mean business, as most professionals do. But what of 
 masters at the great public schools, grammar schools, 
 
410 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and private academies, or of the great multitude of 
 private tutors who keep boarding houses or 'coach' 
 pupils in their own houses ? Not a twentieth of them 
 have received any training whatever, or have the 
 smallest idea that anything beyond a certain amount 
 of scholarship and a certain power of commanding 
 attention is required for teaching young people. ' ' The 
 writer then states what he thinks is needed: "It is 
 teachers of average ability instructing pupils of average 
 industry, not individually, but in classes, who specially 
 need training not of necessity in training colleges, 
 but through close attention at lessons given by masters 
 of tried experience." 1 
 
 This is exactly the idea of the Ratio Studiorum. 
 The aim is to provide teachers, who are "men of in- 
 telligence and self-sacrifice, who possess, besides an 
 excellent general culture, a good knowledge of their 
 subject, and who are trained through close attendance, 
 by masters of tried experience. " Before attempting to 
 prove this from the Constitutions of the Society and the 
 Ratio Studiorum, we beg to make one remark. The 
 Society does not undervalue scholarship, but, on the 
 contrary, appreciates it highly and wishes always a 
 considerable number of her members to possess it to 
 an eminent degree. This is proved beyond doubt by 
 the list of distinguished Jesuit writers given in two 
 preceding chapters (V and VII). The Society recog- 
 nizes also the value of university studies. We have 
 quoted previously the decree of the 23rd General Con- 
 gregation of the Order (1883, Decretum XXI): "It is 
 
 1 The Nineteenth Century -, October 1900. Italics ours. 
 As early as 1880 Father Pachtler had enunciated, almost lit- 
 erally, the same principles, in the Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, 
 vol. XIX, p. 167. 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING. 411 
 
 expedient to send select members to the universities 
 to obtain trie degrees which empower them to teach 
 in the public [i. e. Government] schools. " l We learn 
 that the English Jesuits in late years have opened a 
 Hall at Oxford (Pope's Hall), to afford young mem- 
 bers an opportunity of attending the university lec- 
 tures and of taking the degrees. We learn further 
 that a number of Jesuits from other countries are there 
 pursuing linguistic and scientific studies. The same 
 is done in Ireland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, France 
 and other countries. In some places, as in Austria, 
 several Jesuit colleges are wholly under the super- 
 vision of the government, and all the teachers have 
 made the prescribed studies at the universities and 
 passed the rigid ' 'state examinations''. One of the 
 professors of the Jesuit college at Feldkirch, Austria, 
 has been chosen as "one of the seven prominent 
 Latinists who are working at the great Historical 
 Grammar of the Latin Language." 2 It is evident that 
 in all professional schools conducted by Jesuits, as in 
 the Medical and I^aw Departments of Georgetown 
 University, Washington, D. C., the instructors and 
 professors are able professional teachers. 
 
 As far as America is concerned there existed pecu- 
 liar handicaps to the cultivation of scholarship espe- 
 cially in Catholic institutions. Throughout the nine- 
 teenth century missions had to be established, chapels 
 and churches built, and missionaries found to care for 
 the spiritual wants of a rapidly increasing population. 3 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. I, p. 123. See above pp. 198199. 
 
 2 Korting, Handbuch der romanischen Philologie (Leip- 
 zig 1896), p. 247. 
 
 3 See the remarks of the Right Rev. Th. Conaty in the 
 Catholic University Bulletin, July 1901, p. 305. 
 
41 2 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 This work claimed the greatest part of the interest of 
 the Catholic Church in general, and a comparatively 
 large share of the time and energy of the members of 
 the Society. But a teacher overburdened with work 
 cannot devote himself to original research. Add to 
 this the general poverty of the Catholic population, 
 who had to support not only their churches, but also 
 their schools, and it will be easy to understand that 
 Catholic colleges had serious difficulties in acquiring 
 the libraries, museums and laboratories which are 
 essential for higher studies, and much more so for 
 scholarly work. How much better situated are the 
 secular institutions of learning in this country! "The 
 National Government has, from the very beginning, 
 made enormous grants of land and money in aid of 
 education in the several states. The portion of public 
 domain hitherto set apart by Congress for the endow- 
 ment of public education amounts to 86,138,473 acres 
 or 134,591 English square miles. This is an area 
 larger than the New England States, New York, New 
 Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware added together, as 
 great as the kingdom of Prussia. The aggregate value 
 of lands and money given for education by the Na- 
 tional Government is nearly $300,000,000.* Besides, 
 of the three hundred and fifteen million dollars given 
 by private individuals within the last nine years for 
 educational purposes, 2 very little has gone to Catholic 
 institutions. 
 
 1 Education in the United States. Edited by Professor 
 Butler of Columbia University, Albany 1900, pp. VII VIII. 
 
 * See Educational Revieiu, May 1902, p. 492. In 1901 
 the educational gifts were not less than 73 million dollars. 
 Mrs. Stanford leads the list with SO 1 ^ million to the Leland 
 Stanford Jr. University. In 1900 the private gifts amounted 
 to 48 million, and in 1899 to 63 million dollars. 
 
SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING. 413 
 
 In spite of the liberal national and private assis- 
 tance granted, the public institutions have, until a 
 short time ago, not been overconspicuous for scholar- 
 ship, as is openly declared in a number of recent 
 articles on this subject, by Professor Miinsterberg of 
 Harvard, 1 Mr. Carl Snyder, 2 and Professor Simon 
 Newcomb of the Naval Observatory, Washington. 3 
 These writers repeat the complaints which Professor 
 Rowland of Johns Hopkins had uttered more than 
 twenty-five years ago. 4 Professor Miinsterberg, in the 
 said article of the Atlantic Monthly, repudiates the 
 charge that America has no scholarship at all ; he 
 affirms that the situation is infinitely better than 
 Europeans suppose it to be in certain branches of 
 knowledge excellent work has been done. Neverthe- 
 less the author is compelled to continue: "And yet 
 I am convinced that the result stands in no proper 
 relation to the achievements of American culture in 
 all the other aspects of national life, and the best 
 American scholars everywhere frankly acknowledge 
 and seriously deplore it. ... American publications 
 cross the ocean in a ridiculously small number ; in the 
 world of letters no Columbus has yet discovered the 
 other side of the globe." 5 Years ago, Dr. McCosh 
 had passed a similar verdict : "The scholarship of the 
 great body of the students is as high in America as in 
 Europe ; but they rear in Great Britain and Germany 
 a body of ripe scholars to whom we have nothing 
 equal in the New World. " 6 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly, May 1901. 
 
 2 North American Review, Jan. 1902. 
 
 3 North American Review, February 1902. 
 
 4 See Popular Science Monthly, June 1901. 
 6 Atlantic Monthly, 1. c., p. 615. 
 
 6 Life of James McCosh, p. 204. 
 
414 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Can we, then, be surprised to find that the 
 Catholic institutions could not yet develop productive 
 scholarship ? However, as was said by many distin- 
 guished writers, productive scholarship is by no means 
 the first requisite for an efficient teacher, much more 
 essential are "intelligence, self-sacrifice, and close 
 attention to lessons given by masters of tried ex- 
 perience/* In the next chapter we shall show that 
 the training prescribed by the Ratio Studiorum for the 
 young Jesuit is excellently suited to furnish him with 
 these requisites, and thus to make of him a good 
 teacher. l 
 
 1 On p. 409 it is said that a sort of "pseudo-productivity" 
 is likely to attend the excessive emphasis laid on scholar- 
 ship. This statement finds a striking confirmation in the 
 latest Report of the Com. of Ed. (1901, vol. I, pp. 127128). 
 In a brief article * 'Higher Education made in Germany, " we 
 read among other things: "To deplore the fact that our 
 scholarship has a strong German tinge would be like apolo- 
 gizing for the loins from which we sprang. And yet it is a 
 question if of recent years we have not followed German 
 methods too exclusively and too unintelligently." The Ger- 
 mans themselves often misuse the scientific method on trivial 
 subjects. "Scholarship suffers from an enormous over- 
 production of monographs in which an ambitious method 
 stretches a thin substance to the cracking point. There is a 
 craze not to prove something valuable, but to prove some- 
 thing. " A few remarkable instances of such "scholarly" 
 productions of American graduate students are given in the 
 same article. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 Training of the Jesuit Teacher. 
 
 It is generally admitted that even at present the 
 Jesuits exercise considerable influence in the world. 
 What is the secret of their hold on Catholics? What 
 the source from which their power springs? The real 
 secret of the Jesuits* influence is to be found in their 
 training. Dr. Freytag in his review of Father Duhr's 
 work on the Ratio Studiorum remarked: "After the 
 perusal of this learned work, one will understand that 
 only highly talented young men can join that Order; 
 for what is demanded of them [in the line of studies] 
 is extraordinary." 1 We have to see how far this 
 training of a Jesuit is a satisfactory preparation for 
 his work as teacher in high schools and colleges, how 
 far it tends to make the Jesuit teacher in the words 
 of the Hon. G. C. Brodrick "a man of self-sacrifice," 
 and whether it gives him a " solid knowledge of his 
 subject and the art of teaching, through close atten- 
 dance from a master of experience. ' ' 
 
 The first requisite is, that the original material, 
 the candidate for the Order, is good. The statue, 
 however deftly carved, will not be a success if the 
 marble has serious defects. Therefore, such only are 
 to be admitted into the ranks of the Society, as are 
 capable of receiving the Jesuit 'form,' only those who 
 show a capacity for imbibing its spirit and submitting 
 
 1 In the Centralorgan fur die Interessen des Realschul- 
 wesens. Berlin. 
 
 (415) 
 
416 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to its discipline. 1 The Constitutions of the Society 
 are quite explicit on this point. They say that the 
 person having the power of admission "should not be 
 turned by any consideration from that which he shall 
 judge most conducive in the L,ord to the service of God 
 in the Society; to promote which he should not be too 
 eager to grant admission." 2 The Provincial Superior 
 is further exhorted "to watch that his subjects are not 
 too anxious (ne nimii sint) to attract people to the 
 Society, but by their virtues they should endeavor to 
 lead all to Christ. ' ' 3 The teachers in particular are 
 told "even in private conversations to inculcate piety, 
 but without attracting any one to the Order. ' ' 4 Now 
 what qualities does the Society require of those 
 applying for admission? The Constitutions want men 
 endowed with the highest gifts of nature. In order 
 that they may be able to benefit their fellow creatures, 
 the candidates of the Society should be endowed with 
 the following gifts: as regards their intellect, they 
 should possess good judgment, sound doctrine, or the 
 talent to acquire it. As to character, they must be 
 studious of all virtue and spiritual perfection, calm, 
 steadfast and strenuous in what they undertake for 
 God's service, and burning with zeal for the salvation 
 of souls. In externals, facility of language, so needful 
 for the intercourse with fellow men; besides, the 
 applicant should possess good health and strength to 
 undergo the labors of the Institute. 5 
 
 1 See Father Clarke's article in the Nineteenth Century, 
 Aug. 1896. 
 
 2 Const. Soc.Jesu y Pars I, cap. 1, 4. 
 
 3 Reg. Prov., 33. 
 
 4 Reg. com., 6. 
 
 6 Constitutions of the Society, P. I. c. 2. 
 
TRAINING OF THK JKSUIT TKACHKR. 417 
 
 Such is the material of the future Jesuit; no mean 
 material indeed. How does the Society carry out the 
 modelling of the young members ? How does she 
 to confine ourselves to the question of training teachers 
 train them to become efficient instructors and edu- 
 cators? To understand this better, it will be good to 
 follow a young Jesuit through the course of his train- 
 ing. Take a young man, a student of a college, per- 
 haps of a university. May be, he has been educated 
 in a Jesuit college, he has seen the Jesuits working 
 for education, has heard them preaching and lectur- 
 ing, he feels attracted by their work: he wants to 
 become one of them. Perhaps he has never seen a 
 Jesuit, but he has heard of them, has read of the 
 great achievements of the famous missionaries of the 
 Order, beginning from St. Francis Xavier down to our 
 days; he has come across a book written by a Jesuit, 
 he hears how much they have done in the defense of 
 Christianity, above all how they are hated and per- 
 secuted by the enemies of the Church: the ideal in- 
 spirations of his heart grow stronger, and he inquires 
 where he can find these men so much spoken of. It 
 is a fact that during the Kulturkampf in Germany, the 
 German Province of the Society almost doubled its 
 numbers. Many students, who had never seen a 
 Jesuit, left the gymnasium or university to join the 
 exiles, just because of the singular hatred of which the 
 outlawed Order was the object. They concluded that 
 a body of men thus singled out, must possess some- 
 thing extraordinary, something especially praise- 
 worthy, as they could not believe that the calumnies 
 spread by the enemies of the Jesuits could have any 
 foundation. The student, frequently the brightest of 
 27 
 
4l8 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 his class, travels to the nearest place, perhaps to a 
 foreign country, where he finds a house or a college of 
 the Order. 1 He is introduced to the Superior, to 
 whom he expresses his desire of joining the ranks of 
 the sons of St. Ignatius. He is strictly examined as 
 to his studies, his character, the motives which led 
 him to apply for admission to the Society, and above 
 all, whether any one, especially a Jesuit, has influ- 
 enced him to take this step, which latter fact would 
 be considered an impediment to his admission. The 
 hardships of the religious life, the long course of 
 studies prescribed by the Society, the sacrifices to be 
 undergone, the obedience to be rendered, all this is 
 explained to him. But suppose these representations 
 do not deter him, then after a careful examination 
 conducted by several Jesuits, if the student is thought 
 to possess sufficient talent, and a good moral disposi- 
 tion, he is received as a novice of the Society. 
 
 Perhaps the young candidate expected soon to be 
 sent to the missions, or to be employed in teaching or 
 writing, but the Society holds to the old principle that 
 he who is to teach, is first to learn. Above all, he 
 has to learn the most necessary science, expressed by 
 the old Nosce tfypsum: "Know thyself," and that not 
 in a merely speculative, but in a severely practical 
 manner. By this intense self-knowledge, the young 
 religious is enabled to understand the characters of 
 others and to deal with them successfully. During 
 the first two years, in strict seclusion from the world, 
 
 1 The entrance into religious life and the happiness en- 
 joyed in the novitiate, is beautifully told by the German 
 Jesuit Denis, translator of Ossian's poems, and by the French 
 Jesuit Ravignan, famous for his conferences at Notre Dame, 
 Paris. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 419 
 
 he learns that self-knowledge, self-control, and "self- 
 sacrifice, ' ' which are necessary to the future missionary ; 
 and no less so, to the future teacher. .It is a religious, 
 a spiritual training which the future educator receives 
 first as the foundation of all other training. Educa- 
 tion and reform must begin at home. The teacher is 
 to instruct his pupils in the principles of true and 
 solid morality. If he does not possess and practise 
 these principles himself, he will be a corrupter of 
 youth instead of a father and friend, "a blind leader 
 of the blind, and both shall fall into the pit," as the 
 Divine Teacher expresses it. If without practising 
 these principles he endeavors to teach them, he is a 
 hypocrite; his deeds will belie his words, and the 
 eyes of the young are sharp and their perception is 
 keen; they will soon discover the discord between the 
 teacher's action and his precepts, and the former will 
 have a more powerful influence on them, than the 
 latter, as the L,atin adage has it: Verba, movent, exempla 
 trahunt. Even the pagan rhetorician Quintiliaii in- 
 sists on this point: Ipse (magister) nee habeat vitia, nee 
 ferat: "The teacher should neither have nor tolerate 
 faults. ' ' * The teacher is daily for hours with his 
 pupils, speaking to them, moving before them, his 
 every word, his every gesture, his every smile is 
 watched by a set of keen critics. All this must imper- 
 ceptibly exercise a deep influence on the youthful 
 mind. How perfect, therefore, ought the teacher to 
 be, how faultless, how exemplary! But this moral 
 perfection cannot be acquired except by severe self- 
 control, by rigorous self -discipline, the acquirement of 
 which forms the great end of the religious noviceship. 
 
 1 De Inst. Orat., II, 2. 
 
420 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 It was St. Ignatius' oft-repeated maxim, not only: 
 Nosce te ipsum, but, Vince te ipsum: "Conquer thy- 
 self." This is the way of training men, characters, of 
 whom there is greater need than of scholars. 
 
 In frequent meditations on the end of man,' on the 
 life of the Divine Master, the young religious beholds 
 the true dignity of man, the true "sanctity of the in- 
 dividual," which consists in his relation to God, his 
 Creator. These truths brought home to the religious 
 by daily reflection will inspire him with that genuine 
 zeal, that pure love of man, which is ready to undergo 
 any hardship, to spend time, talent, health, and life, 
 in order to make his neighbor's soul good and noble 
 on earth and happy throughout eternity. To the 
 practical study of the character, of the life, of the 
 words and actions of the Divine Master, not only the 
 novice, but every Jesuit, devotes an hour every day in 
 his morning meditation. In this school he learns to 
 deal with pupils, seeing with what patience, kindness 
 and love Christ dealt with little ones and with His 
 disciples whose "slowness of grasp and understand- 
 ing" (L,uke 24, 25) would have been too much for 
 any teacher, except him who was so "meek and 
 humble of heart" (Matt, n, 29). From Christ, the 
 poor, and the friend of the lowly, he learns to "slight 
 110 one, to care as much for the progress of the poor 
 pupils as of the rich," as his rule enjoins him. 1 From 
 Christ, who sacrificed the most tender relations on 
 earth to the will and service of God, in order to be 
 "about his father's business" (Luke 2, 49), the future 
 teacher must learn how to control the affections of his 
 heart, so as not to show any partiality, any special 
 
 1 Reg. com. mag. schol. inf., 50. 
 
TRAINING OF TH JESUIT TKACHER. 421 
 
 love to particular pupils. All these qualities and 
 virtues, so necessary for the teacher, the young religi- 
 ous endeavors to acquire during the time of his prepa- 
 ration. The new school of educators may sneer at 
 this "asceticism," still we know that godliness, 
 although not sufficient for everything, is nevertheless 
 profitable for everything, 1 especially so for education. 
 
 The first two years of the life of the young Jesuit 
 are principally devoted to this religious and moral 
 training. However, his future life work is not lost 
 sight of even during this time. Many exercises and 
 practices of the novitiate have a direct bearing on his 
 scientific preparation. As a rule, the students are ad- 
 mitted only after they have finished their classical 
 course, in Germany and Austria for instance after, 
 completing the gymnasium, which is a classical 
 course of nine years; in this country, after Sophomore 
 class, which amounts to four years academic or high 
 school work and two years of college properly so- 
 called. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule, 
 not a few enter after having finished a course of philo- 
 sophy or after having taken special courses at a uni- 
 versity, in addition to their classical studies, while 
 sometimes students are admitted who have not com- 
 pleted the whole college course. During the first two 
 years, novices have frequent oratorical exercises, they 
 receive theoretical instructions on explaining Christian 
 doctrine, and still more frequently in accordance 
 with the fundamental maxim of the Society, that 
 practice and exercise are most important means of 
 training they have to give catechetical instructions. 
 This exercise is an excellent preparation for explain- 
 
 1 I Tim. 4, 8. 
 
422 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ing any subject in a simple and intelligent manner, a 
 thing most valuable for instructors in lower classes. 
 Their conversations throughout a great part of the day 
 are to be carried on in Latin. Besides, there are 
 several hours a week devoted to regular schools in 
 L,atin, Greek, and the mother tongue; thus the knowl- 
 edge of languages is at least kept alive, if not per- 
 fected. 
 
 After the two years novitiate, the young Jesuits 
 have to repeat the classical studies for one, two or 
 three years the time varies according to the studies 
 made previous to admission to the Society. Special 
 attention is paid to the precepts of aesthetics, poetics, 
 and rhetoric, and to various practical applications of 
 these precepts. Then follows a three years' course of 
 philosophy, mathematics and natural sciences, especi- 
 ally physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, astron- 
 omy and geology. The system pursued is entirely 
 different from that followed at our universities, where 
 the student listens to the lectures of the professor, 
 takes down notes and studies them at home, and then 
 goes up for exami nation at the end of the year. Not 
 
 so with the Jesuits. The lectures of the professor are 
 
 not the only, perhaps not even the most important 
 part in the philosophical and scientific training. 
 Characteristic and most essential are again the exer- 
 cises, foremost among them the disputations, for which 
 three or four times a week a full hour is set apart. 
 In what do they consist? One of the students has to 
 study carefully a thesis previously treated in the 
 lectures, in order to expound and defend it against the 
 objections which are being prepared in the meantime 
 by two other students. On the appointed day the 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 423 
 
 defender takes his place at a special desk in front of 
 the class, opposite him the two objectors. The defender 
 states his proposition, explains its meaning, and the 
 opinions of the adversaries, ancient and modern, then 
 gives proofs for it, in strictly syllogistic form, all this 
 in Latin. After a quarter of an hour, the first objector 
 attacks the proposition, or a part of it, or an argument 
 adduced in its proof, all this again in syllogisms. The 
 defender repeats the objection, then answers in a few 
 words to major, minor and conclusion, by conceding, 
 denying, or distinguishing the various parts of the 
 objector's syllogism. The opponent urges his objec- 
 tion, by offering a new subsumptive syllogism to the 
 defender's solution. After a quarter of an hour the 
 second objector does the same for fifteen minutes. 
 During the last quarter, either the professor, or any 
 student present, may offer objections against the 
 defender's proposition. 
 
 These disputations are regular intellectual tourna- 
 ments, the objectors trying to show the weak points of 
 the thesis, the defender striving to maintain his pro- 
 position. "This system of testing the soundness of 
 the doctrine taught, continued as it is throughout the 
 .theological studies, which come at a later period of 
 the young Jesuit's career, provides those who pass 
 through it with a complete defense against difficulties 
 which otherwise are likely to puzzle the Catholic con- 
 troversialist. It is a splendid means of sifting truth 
 from falsehood. Many of those who take part in it 
 are men of ability and well versed in the objections 
 that can be urged against the Catholic teaching. Such 
 men conduct their attack not as a mere matter of form, 
 but with vigor and ingenuity. . . . Sometimes the 
 
424 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 objector will urge his difficulties with such a sem- 
 blance of conviction as even to mislead some of those 
 present. ... So far from any check being put on the 
 liberty of the students, they are encouraged to press 
 home every sort of objection, however searching and 
 fundamental, however bold and profane (e. g. against 
 the existence of God, free will, immortality of the soul, 
 Divinity of Christ, the Catholic Church etc.), that 
 can be raised to the Catholic doctrine. In every class 
 are found to be men, who are not to be put off with 
 an evasion, and a professor who was to attempt to sub- 
 stitute authority for reason, would very soon find out 
 his mistake. This perfect liberty of disputation is one 
 of the many happy results of the possession of perfect 
 and unfailing truth/^J 
 
 Every six or eight weeks, all the more important 
 theses discussed during the preceding time, are 
 defended in the monthly disputations, at which all the 
 different classes of the institution and all the profes- 
 sors of the faculty are present. Sometimes more 
 solemn disputations are held, to which frequently 
 professors from other institutions are invited, and any 
 one is free to offer objections which the defender has 
 to solve. There can be no doubt that this method has 
 many great advantages. First of all, it forces the 
 student to study his proposition most thoroughly; for 
 he is not aware what objections shall be made. There- 
 fore, both defenders and objectors have to prepare 
 most carefully, to examine closely the proposition on 
 all sides, to know its exact meaning, to understand 
 the arguments, and to discover its weak points. The 
 professor, of course, is present, sees that strict syl- 
 
 1 Father Clarke in the Nineteenth Century, August, 1896. 
 
TRAINING OF THB JKSUIT TEACHER. 425 
 
 logistic form is kept, and in case the defender is un- 
 able to solve the difficulties, has to give the final 
 decision. At the same time it forces the professor to 
 be most careful and accurate in the opinion he holds, 
 and especially in the arguments which he proposes, 
 as fullest liberty is given in attacking every point, and 
 as the students, frequently mature men and highly 
 gifted, try their very best to show any weak point in 
 the argumentation of the text book, or in the profes- 
 sor's propositions. Professor Paulsen observes on the 
 disputations of the medieval schoolmen, of which the 
 disputations of the Jesuit schools are a modification: 
 "As regards the disputations, it may be said that the 
 Middle Ages were hardly mistaken. They were un- 
 doubtedly fitted to produce a great readiness of knowl- 
 edge and a marvellous skill in grasping arguments. ' ' l 
 
 It has frequently been asserted that this uniform 
 training of the Jesuits crushes out all individuality. 
 Professor Paulsen says : "Great individualities do not 
 appear in the history of the Order," and Cardinal 
 Newman writes: "What a great idea, to use Guizot's 
 expression, is the Society of Jesus! what a creation of 
 genius in its organization; but so well adapted is the 
 institution to its object that for that very reason it 
 can afford to crush individualities, however gifted; so 
 much so, that, in spite of the rare talents of its mem- 
 bers, it has even become an objection to it in the 
 mouth of its enemies, that it has not produced a 
 thinker like Scotus or Malebranche !" * 
 
 Does uniform training necessarily result in uni- 
 formity of character? Certainly not. If all those 
 
 1 Geschichte des gel. Unt., vol. I, p. 38. 
 
 2 Newman, Historical Sketches y III, p. 71. 
 
4 2 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 trained had the same disposition, the same nature to 
 be worked upon, perhaps it would. Does the same 
 nourishment given to a number of children produce 
 the same result, the same complexion, the same color 
 of hair, the same seize? Why should mental food? 
 Does the same training in a military academy produce 
 a perfect likeness in all ? The military system of the 
 "Great Powers" gives the most uniform training in 
 the world. Does it crush out individuality of the 
 generals and officers in tactics and strategy? Jesuit 
 pupils will be surprised at being told that their teachers 
 have all the same mould of character and are destitute 
 of individuality. But no one smiles more at the above 
 mentioned assertion than Jesuit Superiors, whose hard- 
 est task it is to unite all the different characters in one 
 common effort, without interfering too much with their 
 individuality. They know too well that the crushing 
 out of the individuality would mean the crushing of 
 energy and of self-activity so much insisted on by St. 
 Ignatius in his Spiritual Exercises. It was St. Ignatius 
 who told those who have charge of the spiritual training 
 of the members of the Order: "It is most dangerous to 
 endeavor to force all on the same path to perfection ; 
 he who attempts this does not know how different and 
 how manifold the gifts of the Holy Ghost are. ' ' l 
 
 If one studies the works of the great writers of the 
 Society, he will be struck by the variety and difference 
 of opinions held by professors and writers of the same 
 period, v. g. Suarez and Vasquez. 2 It is amusing to read 
 
 1 Selectae S. Ignatii Sententiae y VIII. 
 
 2 However, these two theologians did not teach together 
 in the same university, as is often said. See the dates given 
 by Fathers Frius, S. J., and Kneller, S. J., in the Kirchen- 
 lexikon, XI, 923, and XII, 634. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 427 
 
 how one attacks and refutes the other, speaking of 
 "the opinions of a certain modern author which can- 
 not be maintained at all" etc. Cardinal Newman 
 says in his Historical Sketches: "It is plain that the 
 body is not over-zealous about its theological tradi- 
 tions, or it certainly would not suffer Suarez to contro- 
 vert with Molina, Viva with Vasquez, Passaglia with 
 Petavius, and Faure with Suarez, de Lugo andValen- 
 tia. In this intellectual freedom its members justly 
 glory; inasmuch as they have set their affections, not 
 on the opinions of the Schools, but on the souls of 
 men. ' ' 1 Professor Paulsen seems to have forgotten 
 his own statement: "Greatest possible power of the 
 individual is* preserved without derangement of the 
 organism of the Order, spontaneous activity and per- 
 fect submission of the will, contrasts almost irrecon- 
 cilable, seem to have been harmoniously united in a 
 higher degree by the Society, than by any other 
 body." 2 A recent English writer, 3 speaking of the 
 "crushing of individuality practised by the Jesuits," 
 seems to trace it to the pernicious influence of the 
 spirit of the Latin races. The Latins "keep men in 
 leading strings;" "liberty to Latins means license;" 
 "true Latins cannot understand the principle of per- 
 sonality. ' ' The Spaniards, in particular, are regarded 
 with special horror. The Roman Curia is said to 
 have adopted the system used by the Spaniards, "who 
 could not endure discussion or publicity; centralization 
 
 1 Hist. Sketches, vol. II, p. 369. Does not this great 
 writer, by so true a statement of facts, refute what, in another 
 passage, he quoted about crushing out individuality ? 
 
 2 See above p. 18. 
 
 3 Father Tauuton, A History of the Jesuits in England, 
 1901. See Month, May 1901, p. 505. 
 
428 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 was the ideal; routine the practice," and so on. "The 
 Jesuit system of blind obedience was founded to bring 
 about the absolutism of authority;" this ' 'makes them 
 akin (strange though it may seem) to that Puritan 
 strain so often found in those doing or desirous of 
 doing great things. " This is strange indeed, but far 
 stranger are the absurdities and contradictions into 
 which prejudiced men are led. The Jesuits are said 
 to be deprived of personality and individuality, and in 
 the same breath it is sometimes asserted that every- 
 where they know how to adapt themselves to the most 
 different circumstances: In England, America, Ger- 
 many, Spain, France, Russia, China, Japan, Para- 
 guay, Abyssinia. It is said the General wants a man 
 for some secret mission. He opens his list and there 
 he finds a man especially fitted to influence the court 
 of St. Petersburg, or the Padisha in Constantinople; 
 then one who knows so well how to ingratiate himself 
 with Cromwell as to become his friend, dine at his 
 table, play chess with him; l then one who is fitted 
 for guiding his Celestial Majesty in Pekin; here one 
 to rouse the starving peasants of Ireland to enthusiasm 
 for their 'Romish' faith, then one who by all sorts of 
 devices tames the savages of Paraguay ; one who 
 disputes with the bonzes in Japan, or becomes a Brah- 
 min in India, as the famous Robert de Nobili; there is 
 one who is best suited to conquer the refractory Pro- 
 fessors at the University in L,ouvain, and the Doctors 
 of the Sorbonne, then another who wins the con- 
 fidence of the townspeople and villagers in Switzer- 
 land, the Tyrol, and Germany in short men for 
 
 1 Tauuton, /. c. 
 
TRAINING OF THE: JESUIT TEACHER. 429 
 
 every possible mission. 1 Such are the opinions of the 
 adversaries of the Society. But is not the greatest 
 variety of characters needed for all these employ- 
 ments? And yet, they are supposed to be deprived of 
 individuality! Or is that unpersonal trait which is 
 infused into every Jesuit so universal that all other 
 individualities are contained in it, as the scholastic 
 philosophers express it, eminenter, in a subtle and 
 mysterious form ? Is every Jesuit a sort of Proteus, 
 who could change himself into a lion, a serpent, a 
 pard, a boar, a tree, a fountain? A wonderful system 
 of training, indeed, for which the diplomats of our 
 modern courts might envy the Jesuits. To be serious, 
 that depriving of personality, attributed to the Jesuit 
 system, is nothing but one of the numerous Jesuit 
 myths. 
 
 We have left our young Jesuit in his philosophical 
 course. But what becomes in the meantime of the 
 study of the classical languages? It is not neglected 
 during the course of philosophy, at least the Ratio 
 Studiorum provides special means to foster and pro- 
 mote this important branch of study. The lectures in 
 mathematics and natural sciences are given in the 
 mother tongue, but the lectures and disputations in 
 philosophy are all conducted in L,atin, so that the 
 young Jesuit is in the habit of speaking L,atin and 
 may speak it with ease and fluency. It is true, the 
 Latin of these disputations and lectures in not exactty 
 Ciceronian, still it is by no means as barbarous as the 
 
 1 There was a time "when behind every Roman Catholic 
 Court in Europe there stood a Jesuit confessor, and a Jesuit 
 emissary ascended the back stairs of every Protestant 
 palace." English Review ', vol. V, 1846, p. 65. 
 
43 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 opponents of this system represent it. Some of the 
 lyatin text books on philosophy are written in accurate 
 L,atin. 2 It is not, however, this custom of speaking 
 Latin which we wished to adduce as a provision of 
 the Ratio Studiorum, to advance the study of Latin 
 during the course of philosophy. But we find in the 
 Ratio, among the rules for the Prefect of the higher 
 studies, the following clause: "He shall give every 
 student of philosophy a classical author and admonish 
 him not to omit reading it at certain hours. ' ' 2 
 
 1 ' 'Monkish Latin" has become a byword from the days 
 of the humanists on to our age. The technical terms in- 
 troduced by the scholastics are, it is true, not found in the 
 writings of the ancients. Still we cannot deny that the 
 schoolmen had a right, for the sake of greater brevity and 
 precision, to form new words, from old roots, in order to 
 avoid the cumbrous circumlocutions of a Cicero. Many 
 modern scholars view the scholastic Latin much more favor- 
 ably than was customary a few decades ago. Thus Mr. Leach, 
 who is anything but friendly to the scholastics, says: "The 
 medieval schoolmen sinned no more against pure Latinity, 
 than the modern scientific writer sins against English un- 
 defiled, if such there be." And Mr. Rashdall writes: "Among 
 the students of a University and among the clergy generally 
 much villainous Latin was no doubt talked, just as much 
 villainous French is or was encouraged by the rule of French- 
 speaking in English Seminaries for Young Ladies. But the 
 Latin which was written by the theologian, or historian . . . 
 was not as bad as is c^mea^iriy^Trpjaosed by those who have 
 only heard it abusd(. J. S. Mill j^as rightly praised the 
 schoolmen for their imnvTrrtel--caacity in the invention of 
 technical terms. The Latin language originally rigid, in- 
 flexible, poor in vocabulary, and almost incapable of ex- 
 pressing a philosophical idea, became in the hands of medi- 
 eval thinkers, flexible, subtle, rich." Univers. of the M. A., 
 vol. II, pp. 595-596. See also Paulsen, /. c., vol. I, pp. 45-48. 
 
 2 Reg. Praef. Stud. 30. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TKACHER. 431 
 
 In this manner six or seven years of training have 
 been spent in the Society in addition to about the 
 same number of years devoted to higher studies 
 previous to the admission into the Order; thus, before 
 the Jesuit begins his work as teacher, twelve years, 
 on the average, have been spent in studies after the 
 completion of the elementary or public school course. 
 The Jesuit teacher is then employed in the academical 
 or high school department. His training compares 
 favorably to that of the high school teachers in this 
 country, at least as far as the length of time is con- 
 cerned. In Massachusetts (1897) one P er cen ^ of 
 high school teachers were graduates of scientific 
 schools, thirteen per cent of normal schools, sixty-six 
 per cent of colleges, twenty per cent unclassified. 
 In the State of New York (1898) there were thirty- 
 two per cent college graduates, thirty-nine per cent 
 normal school graduates, nineteen per cent high school 
 graduates, ten per cent had other training. 1 Thus the 
 average of higher studies is certainly not more than eight 
 years, against the twelve years of the Jesuit teacher. 
 
 It may be asked how far the Jesuit's studies are 
 preparatory to his work as teacher? The repetition of 
 the classics in the two years "Juniorate" previous to 
 the study of philosophy, is not only considered as 
 part of the general culture, but is especially viewed as 
 a preparation for the Jesuits' work as teachers. Quick 
 has correctly said that the Juvenats or Juniorates were 
 the training schools where the young Jesuit learned 
 the method of teaching. 2 That this was the aim of 
 this course is apparent from what the General Visconti 
 
 From Education in the United States, vol. I, p. 190. 
 Educational Reformers, pp. 3637. "^ 
 
432 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 said: "Immediately after their novitiate they [the 
 young Jesuits] must have the most accomplished 
 professors of Rhetoric [by which word is understood 
 general philological knowledge], men, who not only 
 are altogether eminent in this faculty, but who know 
 how to teach and make everything smooth for the 
 scholars; men of eminent talent and the widest ex- 
 perience in the art; who are not merely to form good 
 scholars, but to train good masters." l 
 
 But there are other most important regulations 
 concerning the direct training for teaching. Towards 
 the end of the philosophical course, before going to the 
 colleges, there should be an immediate preparation for 
 those who in the near future are to enter on the mo- 
 mentous careerof teaching boys. The outline of the 
 Ratio Studiorum of 1586 demands the following 
 \course: 2 "It would be most profitable for the schools, 
 if those who are about to be preceptors were privately 
 / taken in hand by some one of great experience, and 
 for two months or more were practised by him in the 
 method of reading, teaching, correcting, writing, and 
 managing a class. If teachers have not learned these 
 things beforehand, they are forced to learn them after- 
 wards at the expense of their scholars ; and then they 
 will acquire proficiency only when they have already 
 lost in reputation ; and perchance they will never 
 unlearn a bad habit. Sometimes such a habit is neither 
 very serious nor incorrigible, if taken at the beginning; 
 but if the habit is not corrected at the outset, it conies 
 to pass that a man, who otherwise would have been 
 most useful, becomes well-nigh useless. There is no 
 describing how much amiss preceptors take it, if they 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. Ill, pp. 130131. Hughes, p. 184. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. II, p. 154. See Hughes, p. 160. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 433 
 
 are corrected, when they have already adopted a fixed 
 method of teaching; and what continual disagreement 
 ensues on that score with the Prefect of Studies. To 
 obviate this evil, in the case of our professors, let the 
 Prefect in the chief college, whence our professors of 
 Humanities and Grammar are usually taken, remind 
 the Rector and Provincial, about three months before 
 the next scholastic year begins, that, if the Province 
 needs new professors for the following term, they 
 should select some one eminently versed in the art of 
 managing classes, whether he be at the time actually 
 a professor or a student of theology or philosophy; 
 and to him the future masters are to go daily for an 
 hour, 1 to be prepared by him for their new ministry, 
 giving prelections in turn, writing, dictating, correct- 
 ing, and discharging the other duties of a good 
 teacher. " 2 * Professor Ziegler, commenting on this 
 regulation, says: "To the Jesuits must be given the 
 credit of first having done something for the pedagogi- 
 cal preparation of the future teachers in higher schools; 
 and of having paved \he wafer for the Probe- uiid 
 Semin&rjahr of our days/ ? 3 \ 1 
 
 Another regulation laid down in the Ratio of 1599, 
 as a duty of the Provincial, 4 is of the greatest impor- 
 tance : "In order to preserve the knowledge of classi- 
 cal literature, and to keep up a Seminary of teachers, 
 he shall try to have in his Province at least two or 
 
 1 In the final Ratio Stud, of 1599, it was laid down as 
 a duty of the Rector to see that this was done, but the time 
 was limited to three hours a week. {Reg. Rect. 9.) 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. II, p. 154, no. 6. Hughes, p. 160. 
 Duhr, p. 39. 
 
 3 Geschichte der Pddagogik, p. 111. 
 
 4 Reg. Prov. 22. 
 
 28 
 
434 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 three men distinguished in these branches. This he 
 shall accomplish, if, from time to time, he takes care 
 that some of them who have a special talent and in- 
 clination for these studies, and are sufficiently trained 
 in other branches, devote themselves exclusively to 
 this vocation, so that, through their efforts and in- 
 dustry, a stock of good teachers is formed." 
 
 In order to give the young teachers, who were to 
 be trained in this Seminary, a reliable guide, the gen- 
 eral aSvSembly of the Society, in 1696-97, passed a decree 
 that, "besides the rules whereby the masters of 
 literature are directed in the manner of teaching, they 
 should be provided with an Instruction and proper 
 Method of I/earning, and so be guided in their private 
 studies even while they are teaching. ' ' 1 Father 
 Joseph de Jouvancy (L,atinized Juvencius), one of the 
 greatest authorities on education of his age, was ordered 
 to revise, and adapt to the requirements of this decree, 
 a work which he had published five years previously. 
 This book, after a careful examination by a special 
 commission, appeared in 1703, as the authorized hand- 
 book for the teachers of the Society, under the title : 
 Magistris scholarum inferiorum Societatis Jesu de ratione 
 discendi et docendi. 2 The General Visconti in 1752 
 wished the little book to be in the hands of all Jesuit 
 
 1 Pachtler, I, pp. 101-2. Duhr, p. 40. Hughes, p. 162. 
 
 2 A German translation of this work, with introduction 
 and notes, by Robert Schwickerath, S. J., was published in 
 1898, in Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Padagogik y 
 vol. X, pp. 207-322. An excellent sketch of the life and the 
 works of this "model of a Jesuit Professor" is contained in 
 the Etudes religieuses, Paris, November and December 1872. 
 The correct form of the name is Jouvancy ', not Jouveucy, 
 which latter originated from the Latinized Juvencius. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 435 
 
 teachers. 1 The little work has been styled a peda- 
 gogical gem, and it was highly praised by Rollin and 
 Voltaire. 2 Dr. Ernst von Sallwiirk said of it a few 
 years ago that its importance reaches far beyond the 
 Jesuit schools. "We may consider it a reliable source 
 for information of what Jesuit pedagogy at his time 
 aimed at and achieved. Besides, this book is one of 
 the most prominent works on college pedagogy (Gym- 
 nasial-Pddagogik)." 3 In the following chapters we 
 shall frequently refer to this excellent work of Father 
 Jouvancy. 
 
 The account we have given so far of the training 
 of the Jesuit teacher furnishes an answer to the charge, 
 which is brought forward now and then, that the 
 Jesuit teachers were too young. No matter how things 
 stood in the Old Society, at present, according to the 
 above data, the average age of the Jesuit teacher when 
 he begins teaching cannot be less than twenty-four 
 years. Besides, every college, according to the Ratio 
 Studiorum, ought to possess a number of magislri 
 perpetui, permanent teachers, i. e. of men who spend 
 their whole lives in teaching. This is clearly stated 
 in the rules of the Provincial: "He shall procure as 
 many as possible permanent teachers of grammar and 
 rhetoric. This he shall effect if, at the end of the 
 casuistic or theological studies, some men who are 
 thought to fulfil the duties of the Society better in this 
 ministry than in any other, are resolutely (strenue) 
 destined for it, and admonished to devote themselves 
 wholly to so salutary a work, to the greater glory of 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. Ill, p. 132 ; IV, pp. 401, 435. 
 
 2 See above page 163, note 1. 
 
 3 In Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. IV, Ab- 
 teilung I, pp. 460 and 538-543. 
 
436 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 God. ' ' 1 Father Sacchini devotes the fourth part of his 
 Protrepticon to encouraging the members of the Society 
 first, to offer themselves to the arduous but noble work 
 of education: "The education of youth for many 
 reasons deserves to be preferred by a zealous Jesuit to 
 all the other ministries of the Order. ' ' He quotes the 
 words of Pope Paul III., in the Bull of the confirma- 
 tion of the Society: "They [the members of the 
 Society] shall have expressly recommended to them 
 the instruction of boys and ignorant people. . . . For 
 it is most necessary that the General and his council 
 diligently watch over the management of this business; 
 seeing that the edifice of faith cannot be raised in our 
 neighbors without a foundation, and there may be 
 danger among ourselves lest, as each is more learned, 
 he may endeavor to evade this duty [of instructing the 
 young] , as at first sight perhaps less engaging : whilst 
 in fact none is more productive, either of edification to 
 our neighbors or of the practice of the duties of charity 
 and humility to ourselves. ' ' 2 Father Sacchini says 
 that this volunteering and application for the w T ork of 
 education, far from being in any way opposed to obed- 
 ience, on the contrary, is the most beautiful flower and 
 
 1 Reg. Prov. 24. By a very curious mistake some 
 writers (as Professor Miiller in Schmid's Geschichte der 
 Erziehung, vol. Ill, Abteilung I, page 41) represent these 
 "permanent teachers" as a separate and inferior grade in the 
 vSociety, "who received only a special drill in pedagogical 
 courses and were not much esteemed." And yet the Ratio 
 Studiorum, in the rule just quoted, states explicitly that the 
 members of the Society should be appointed as magistri per- 
 petui after the completion of their theological course. There- 
 fore the priests are meant. 
 
 2 English transl. from Constitutions of the Society of 
 Jesus, London, 1838. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 437 
 
 perfection of that virtue, which St. Ignatius recom- 
 mended when saying, one should not wait for the 
 Superior's command, but should anticipate his very 
 suggestions and silent wishes. 
 
 In the second place Father Sacchini exhorts the 
 teacher to devote generously his whole life to this 
 great work. Some writers on the history of education 
 have stated that the Jesuits, after having been admitted 
 to Priest's Orders, did not teach the grammar classes, 
 but gave only the higher instruction. L Compayre goes 
 so far as to assert that "in their establishments for 
 secondary instruction they entrust the lower classes to 
 teachers who do not belong to their Order, and reserve 
 to themselves the direction of the higher classes." 2 
 This is utterly false. L,ay teachers are only employed 
 when the insufficiency imthe number of Jesuits makes 
 it necessary; or for certain branches, as commercial 
 branches, or in professional courses, as in the faculties 
 for L,aw and Medicine, preparatory schools for Army 
 and Navy, in short, wherever lay experts are needed. 
 The history of Jesuit schools, old and new, refutes the 
 statement of Compayre and other writers. Many priests 
 have taught the lower classes for many years, some for 
 their whole lives. Besides, if priests did not teach 
 these classes, the regulations of the Ratio about "per- 
 manent teachers," the earnest appeals of Sacchini and 
 other Jesuit writers, would be altogether meaningless. 
 
 Father Sacchini, in order to encourage the Jesuits 
 to devote their whole lives to this noble work, enum- 
 erates the various emoluments accruing from this 
 perseverance to the teacher himself, as it gives him 
 
 1 Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 36, note a. 
 
 2 History of Pedag., p. 143. 
 
JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 facility, interest, and experience in his work. He 
 further points out the advantages of this stability for 
 the pupils and for the Society. He cites in this con- 
 nection the words of Ecclesiasticus 1 : "Be steadfast in 
 the covenant, and be conversant therein, and grow 
 old in thy work. Trust in God and stay in thy place. ' ' 
 The Greek text has, instead of* place", TTWOS, i. e. 
 "hard work, toil, drudgery," a word admirably suited 
 to express the toilsome labor of education. Therefore: 
 "stay in thy place, bear patiently the toil and drud- 
 gery necessarily connected with teaching," is the 
 advice given to the teacher of the Society. In fact, 
 numerous Jesuits have heeded this advice, and have 
 spent thirty, forty, fifty, and more years in college 
 work. Not to speak of times long gone by, or of for- 
 eign countries, we mention the following fact. In 
 1888, died at Spring Hill College, near Mobile, Ala- 
 bama, Father Yenni, author of a Latin and a Greek 
 grammar, who for fifty years had been teaching boys, 
 and, at his special request, always in the lowest 
 classes. 
 
 The Ratio speaks more explicitly of the training 
 *of the teachers for the literary curriculum ; it is under- 
 stood that those who have to teach mathematics, 
 sciences, etc., receive a special training in their re- 
 spective branches. Other documents of the Society 
 state this principle in the clearest terms. In the 
 memorandum of Father Clavius, written more than 
 three hundred years ago, it is said : "In order to have 
 always in the Society able teachers of these sciences, 
 some who are especially fitted for this task should be 
 selected and trained, in a private course, in the various 
 
 1 Eccli. 11, 21, 22. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 439 
 
 mathematical branches. " l In another document we 
 read : "The best way, perhaps, is that those who are 
 chosen for this office [teaching mathematics] should, 
 after the course of philosophy, study for a whole year 
 the branches which they will have to teach. ' ' 2 This 
 special course, in addition to the general training in 
 mathematics received in the course of philosophy, was 
 certainly a sufficient preparation for the amount of 
 mathematics which was taught in former centuries. 
 
 It is evident, then, that both the general and special 
 training of the Jesuit teacher were well attended to 
 before he was sent out to teach. 
 
 Several weeks before the beginning of a new 
 scholastic year, .the young Jesuit arrives at the college 
 which is to be the first field of his educational labors. 
 After some time, during which the Rector of the col- 
 lege and the Prefect of Studies have formed acquain- 
 tance with the new-comer, a certain class is assigned 
 to him for the next year. It is according to the spirit, 
 not only of the Ratio Studiorum, but of the whole 
 Institute of the Society, that great care be taken that 
 the positions in colleges, as well as elsewhere, are as- 
 signed according to the talent, the knowledge and the 
 practical abilities of the individuals. To quote only 
 a few regulations of the Institute, the Constitutions 
 declare: "Every one should be trained according to 
 his age, talent, and inclinations," of course always 
 considering * * where the common good can be advanced 
 best." 3 The Provincial is told "to take care that 
 those who have a special inclination for a certain 
 
 1 Monumenta Paedagogica, p. 471. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 475. 
 
 3 Pars IV, cap. V, Declar. C. 
 
44 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 branch of study, in which they can distinguish them- 
 selves, spend more time in this branch," 1 certainly 
 for no other reason than that they should use this 
 knowledge for teaching, or if circjinistances require, 
 writing on this special subject. \Specialization is, 
 accordingly, no new invention of modern times, but 
 was recognized as important centuries ago, but a 
 specialization whick presupposes the solid foundation 
 of general culture, j Unless this be done, the educa- 
 tional structure becomes "top-heavy"; "time, money, 
 and labor are put on the superstructure at the expense 
 of the foundation," as an American writer complains 
 of modern educational systems. 2 The specialties to 
 be provided for by the selection and fostering of special 
 talents, are, in the terms of the second last general 
 assembly of the Order (in 1883), "ancient languages, 
 "philosophy, ethnology, history, higher mathematics, 
 and all the natural sciences. ' ' 3 The Institute empha- 
 sizes the necessity of selecting the teachers according 
 to their abilities: "In universities and colleges learned 
 and able professors are to be appointed," 4 and the 
 Provincial Superior is exhorted "to consider in due 
 time what teachers are to be taken for the single 
 branches, and look, out for those that seem best fitted, 
 who are learned, studious, and assiduous (docti, dili- 
 gentes, assidui), and intent upon the progress of the 
 pupils." 5 Now, there is scarcely any studiousness or 
 
 1 Reg. Prov. 55 (No. 55 of the Rules in the Institute, 
 not of the Rat. Stud.}. 
 
 2 Is our Educational System Top-heavy? By Elliott 
 Flower, in the North American Review, February 1898. 
 
 3 See Pachtler, vol. I, p. 123. 
 
 4 Reg. Prov. 47. (Institute.) 
 
 5 Rat. St., Reg. Prov. 4 and Const., Pars IV, cap. VI, 6. 
 
TRAINING OF THK JESUIT TBACHKR. 441 
 
 assiduity possible, unless a man takes a natural interest 
 in the subject which he has to study or teach. True, 
 the Jesuit is told by his Institute to do everything 
 from a supernatural motive ; still in the special field 
 of studies " great success is hardly possible if one 
 possesses no natural liking for such work," as a dis- 
 tinguished living Jesuit used to tell the younger mem- 
 bers' of the Order. 
 
 Different documents of the Society state the same 
 principle most emphatically. We have heard that 
 those men were to be appointed as teachers of mathe- 
 matics, who were especially fitted for this task, and 
 who felt an inclination and a liking for this branch. 1 
 A second document says: " Those should be chosen 
 who, all other things being equal, are superior to all 
 others in talent, diligence, inclination for these sub- 
 jects, and in the method of teaching. . . . For it hap- 
 pens sometimes that some, proficient enough in other 
 branches, are not mathematicians, be it for want of 
 study or of natural talent for this branch. ' ' 2 The same 
 principle was, of course, applied to other subjects. 
 Father Nadal had laid it down as a general rule of the 
 Prefect of Studies, to see that all the younger members 
 of the Society receive a solid general training, and that 
 special talents should be diligently cultivated. "He 
 must take pains to discover what talent our young 
 men have, and endeavor to advance them accordingly. 
 If one is fitted for the study of rhetoric, see that he is 
 
 1 "Necessariunt etiam videtur, nt praeceptor habeat in- 
 clinationem quandam et propensionem ad has scientias prae- 
 legendas" In the treatise: Modus quo disciplinae mathe- 
 maticae in scholis Societatis possent promoveri. See Monu- 
 menta Paedagogica, p. 471. 
 
 2 De re mathematica instructio. (Mon. Paed., p. 476.) 
 
442 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 given a longer and more accurate training in the 
 humanistic studies and oratory. The same care must 
 be taken if one is thought to have a talent for poetics, 
 for Greek, for philosophy, theology, Sacred Scripture, 
 the Fathers of the Church, the Councils, and Canon 
 I^aw. On the other hand, if one seems not to be fitted 
 for a certain branch of study, he should not be detained 
 therein longer than is necessary for acquiring an 
 ordinary knowledge. ' ' 
 
 Thus it is clear that the Constitutions of the Society 
 and the documents directly concerning the studies, 
 from the very beginning, insisted on the necessity of 
 assigning each teacher's work according to his natural 
 abilities. The General of the Society, Father Visconti, 
 inculcated this principle later on, saying that " special 
 care should be taken to assign the classes to the 
 teachers according to their talent, knowledge and 
 practical skill." 2 This must be emphasized much 
 more in our days. For in the sixteenth century, the 
 subjects taught in colleges were fewer, and it was not 
 so difficult to appoint teachers. But in our times, 
 other branches must be taught. This cannot be done 
 effectively by the same man who teaches languages 
 and literature. There are exceedingly few men who 
 can excel in many branches, or can be good teachers 
 in several of them. 
 
 Here, however, there is another danger which must 
 
 1 Ordo Studiorttm, in Mon. Paed., p. 133. It appears 
 from the whole context that by '-'talent" a "special" talent is 
 meant. Be it added that by "oratory" and "poetics" we have 
 to understand all the studies pursued in the two classes 
 "Humanities" and "Rhetoric". 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. Ill, p. 131. 
 
TRAINING OF THE; JESUIT TKACHKR. 443 
 
 be avoided : that of splitting up too much the work of 
 teaching in the same class. This is most injurious to 
 education properly so-called, especially in the lower 
 and middle classes. One teacher should have a prom- 
 inent position in the class ; he should be the teacher, 
 and, in the first place, the educator of his pupils. For 
 this reason he should teach as many subjects as possible 
 in his class provided he masters them , all those 
 branches which are more closely connected, as L,atin, 
 Greefk, also English, in short, languages and literature. 
 With I^atin and Greek it is natural to combine also 
 Roman and Greek history. Medieval and modern 
 history may be taught by a special teacher. Mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences go well together and can 
 easily be taught by the same teacher. In a word, the 
 Society wishes to have class teachers preferably to 
 branch teachers. As is well known, the class system 
 is, to a certain extent, prevalent in Germany. For 
 some time the branch system had been favored, but 
 experience proved that the old class system was un- 
 questionably better. So the "New School Order" for 
 Prussia, 1901, strongly recommends the strengthening 
 of the influence of the class teacher as distinct from 
 the branch teacher, in order to secure, above all, better 
 education. "The splitting up of the teaching in the 
 lower and middle classes among too many teachers, 
 as well as frequent changes of teachers, are considered 
 an obstacle to any enduring educational influence. 
 To put a stop, as far as possible, to these evils, the 
 provincial school authorities are strictly bound to see 
 to it that a professor proposed as a class teacher be 
 suitable for the position, and that he teach in his class 
 as many subjects as possible, so far as his scholastic 
 
444 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 attainments and practical experience allow it. " l The 
 advantages of this system for education need not be 
 demonstrated. It is the only system which gives the 
 teacher a thorough knowledge of the pupil and in- 
 fluence on the formation of his character. 2 
 
 There is another practice of Jesuit colleges which 
 had for its end the strengthening of the educational 
 influence of the teacher. According to the Ratio 
 Studiorum, it was customary that the teacher should 
 not always remain in the same grade, except the pro- 
 fessors of the two highest literary classes, of Humanities 
 and Rhetoric, where more erudition is required. But 
 the young teacher should begin with the lowest class, 
 then year after year advance with the better part of his 
 pupils to the next higher grade, at least for three or 
 four years. Thus the students have not to pass so 
 often from one master, and consequently from one kind 
 of management, to the other; master and pupil under- 
 stand each other, and if the teacher is a good religious 
 and a fairly efficient teacher, he will have won the 
 esteem, the affection, and the confidence of the pupils, 
 all which gives him inestimable advantages for the 
 real and thorough education of his charges. On the 
 other hand, frequent changes interfere considerably 
 with the training of the pupils. As early as 1583, 
 Father Oliver Manare, visiting the colleges of the 
 German provinces by the General's authority, laid it 
 down as a directive that " frequent changes were bur- 
 densome to the students, because they were forced to 
 
 1 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben^ 1901, p. 75. See Mes- 
 senger, New York, Sept. 1901. 
 
 2 On this subject there is a splendid article, written by 
 Father Pachtler in the year 1880, in the Stimmen aus Maria- 
 Laach, vol. XVIII, pp. 4966. 
 
TRAINING OF THE; JESUIT TBACHEX 445 
 
 accommodate themselves often to new teachers and 
 prefects. ' ' 1 
 
 If, for want of a sufficient number of men, some of 
 the regulations laid down for the training of the 
 teacher, were, perhaps, not everywhere and always 
 complied with, the Ratio Studiorum is not to be cen- 
 sured on that account, nor the Society as such, as by 
 wise legislation she endeavored to obviate any such 
 shortcomings. 2 Moreover, the uniformity of the pre- 
 vious training of the Jesuit teachers, as well as the 
 uniform system of teaching in the colleges of the same 
 province, has the effect that, although teachers are 
 changed, there is no change in the method of teach- 
 ing. Besides, is not every institution, secular or 
 ecclesiastical, however well organized, open to such or 
 similar temporary defects? Exceptional shortcomings 
 must naturally be expected in any system, as there is 
 nothing on earth altogether perfect and ideal. De- 
 ficiencies in individual Jesuit teachers, or in single 
 colleges, do not prove anything against the system, 
 no more than the inefficient administration of one 
 Governor or President proves the worthlessness of the 
 constitution of a State or the Republic. Our contention 
 is only that excellent teachers are trained if the regu- 
 lations of the Jesuit system are followed. 
 
 The young teacher has received his appointment, 
 let us say for one of the high school classes, to teach 
 L,atin and Greek. He knows his grammar well, he 
 
 1 Pachtler I, 415. Father Ledesma made the regulation 
 that in the beginning of the scholastic year substitutes should 
 be appointed, who had to be ready to step in if a teacher 
 should, by sickness or some other cause, be compelled to dis- 
 continue teaching. Mon. Paed. y p. 144, 156. 
 
 2 Reg. Provinc. 4, 22, 24, 28, 30, etc. 
 
44 6 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 has in the course of years read many classical authors. 
 Is anything still wanting? Indeed very much: an 
 intimate acquaintance with the authors, facility in 
 handling their languages, skill in explaining the 
 grammar and the authors. All this he has to acquire 
 by a system of continued self-training, under the direc- 
 tion of the Rector or Prefect of Studies. Above all 
 he must study the classic authors themselves. Second- 
 hand knowledge will not suffice for the teacher. 
 Reading over the regulations of the Society in former 
 centuries concerning the preparation of the teachers, 1 
 one must be surprised to see what an amount of read- 
 ing was required of the young teacher, in L,atin, Greek, 
 and history. Thus the teacher of the second lowest 
 Grammar class (Media Grammatica) had to study, 
 besides the authors he explained in class, all the 
 philosophical writings of Cicero (the epistles he had 
 read the year before), and some of the orations of the 
 same author; the poets Claudian, Catullus, Tibullus, 
 Propertius, Martial, the first ten books of Livy, Justin, 
 Valerius Maximus, Velleius Paterculus, and the whole 
 of Caesar. In Greek, Aelian, Aesop, and Xenophon's 
 Cyropaedia. Various books on style, poetry, and 
 rhetoric. 2 The teacher of the third class was to study 
 all the orations of Cicero with a commentary; Horace, 
 Seneca, and other poets; some more books of I/ivy, 
 Curtius, Sallust ; the Philippics of Demosthenes. 
 Every minute was to be utilized in order to master 
 these authors. Catalogues of books on philology and 
 antiquities were printed from which the young teacher 
 might find assistance in studying and explaining the 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 175235. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 203204. 
 
TRAINING OF THK JKSUIT TKACHBR. 447 
 
 authors. 1 The young teacher has to look not so much 
 for pedagogical theories, as for practical knowledge. 
 He is to read carefully the authors, closely observe 
 peculiarities of their style, accurately translate and 
 intelligently expound their meaning. It is exactly 
 the system, according to which Professor Hermann of 
 L,eipsic trained his philologians. This practical method 
 of self-activity and self-training we find explained in 
 the first part of Jouvancy's commentary on the Ratio 
 Studiorum, in The Method of Learning. 
 
 As the object of this training is to form practical 
 teachers, not a word is said about higher criticism and 
 the like ; but Father Jouvancy urges the teacher to 
 acquire in the first place a thorough mastery of three 
 languages : Greek, Latin, and the vernacular. The 
 means of gaining this mastery are plentiful reading of 
 the best authors, and practising compositions of various 
 kinds : letters, orations, essays. 
 
 The second part of the learning proper to the 
 master of literature consists, according to Jouvancy, 
 in the thorough knowledge of certain sciences. "The 
 erudition of a master is not confined to mere command 
 of languages ; it must rise higher to the understand- 
 ing of some sciences which it is usual to impart to 
 youth in the classical schools. Such are rhetoric, 
 poetry, history, chronology, geography, philology." 2 
 
 1 See Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 12 19, where lists of such 
 books, recommended in the Old Society, are given. 
 
 2 Ratio Discendiy ch. II. It has been proved in chapter 
 IV, pp. 124 129, that history and geography were never 
 neglected in the colleges of the Society. In the mean time 
 I found that the Protestant writers of Schmid's great 
 Geschichte der Erziehung (1884-1901), in sharp contrast with 
 the assertions of M. Compayre, candidly admit the services 
 
448 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 As regards history, it is superfluous to speak of its 
 usefulness for a higher education. History is, indeed, 
 a magistra vitae, a teacher and mirror of life, a school 
 of practical wisdom. Of particular importance for 
 the teacher is the thorough knowledge of the history 
 of Greece and Rome. A scholarly appreciation of the 
 classics is impossible without an intimate acquaintance 
 with the history : political, social, religious, and lit- 
 erary, of these nations. 
 
 Here we must say a few words on the teacher's 
 attitude towards ancient history. The religious teach- 
 er's viewpoint of history is radically different from 
 that of the agnostic. To the religious teacher histori- 
 cal events are not merely the products of natural 
 agencies. He sees rather in history, to use the words 
 of the Jesuit Kropf, " the wonderful manifestation of 
 God's power and a revelation of the wisdom of a 
 
 rendered to history and geography by Jesuit schools and 
 scholars. Thus Dr. von Sallwiirk says : "The study of history 
 was considerably advanced by Jesuit writers, but the colleges 
 of the University [of Paris] did not imitate the example of 
 the Jesuits." Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. IV, Abtei- 
 lung I, p. 436. "The Fathers Sirmond, Petavius, and Labbe 
 have well deserved of historical studies and of the teaching 
 of history in the schools. . . . Geography was henceforth 
 zealously cultivated by the Jesuits. ... Of great practical 
 importance were the labors of the remarkably diligent Father 
 Buffier; especially on geography and grammar he has written 
 good books, in which the traditional scholastic tone is hap- 
 pily avoided. . . . His Philosophy and Practical Grammar 
 was for a long time considered the only useful grammar of 
 the French language. ... In the schools of the Oratory we 
 find geography as a branch of study ; but to the Jesuits must 
 be allowed the merit of having taught this branch before the 
 Oratorians. In their College at Amiens was trained Nicolas 
 Saiison, the 'Father of Geography'/* Ibid., p. 456 and 466. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JKSUIT TEACHER. 449 
 
 Divine Providence." History, in this sense, is a 
 record of the development of mankind under the pro- 
 vidential guidance of God; or, more precisely, a record 
 of the systematic training and improvement of the 
 human race by divinely appointed means as a prepara- 
 tion for the birth of Christ, that God might, through 
 the coming of His Son, secure from man a spontaneous 
 homage, a worship worthy of Himself. The coming 
 of Christ, in this view, gives a definite character to 
 history, and the periods both before and after that 
 event the greatest in history constitute its two 
 grand divisions, 2 the one the preparation for the com- 
 ing of Christ, the other the spread and struggle of 
 Christ's kingdom, to the final triumph on the day of 
 Judgment. Christ, therefore, is the central figure of 
 all history, "the stone which was rejected by the 
 builders, which is become the head of the corner. " 3 
 
 From this standpoint, then, the Jesuit masters will 
 study and teach the history of Greece and Rome. Of 
 this viewpoint he will not lose sight when reading 
 and explaining the classic authors. It need not be 
 feared that this view will prevent the teacher from 
 doing full justice to these two great nations. On the 
 contrary. In the Greeks he will acknowledge those 
 brilliant gifts of nature which made them the foremost 
 promoters of human art, human knowledge, and 
 human culture. In the history of Rome he will. ad- 
 mire that wonderful talent for ruling the world, and 
 
 1 Ratio et Via, chapter V, art. 9. (German translation 
 p. 423.) The new Prussian School Order of 1901 uses the 
 same words in regard to Church history, p. 16. 
 
 2 Alzog, Church History, vol. I, p. 6. 
 
 3 Acts 4, 11. 
 
 29 
 
450 JBSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 that system of jurisprudence which exercised so potent 
 an influence on the formation of later codes of laws. 
 However, the Christian view of history will prevent 
 the teacher from sharing that one-sided admiration of 
 antiquity which was so disastrous among the humanists 
 during the Renaissance, and which is found sometimes 
 in the ranks of professional philologists. The Greeks 
 were indeed a race endowed with exceptional gifts of 
 body and mind. However, we need not and cannot 
 shut our eyes to their many moral defects, especially 
 to that frightful kind of immorality which has received 
 its name from the Greeks, and which manifests itself 
 even in the finest pieces of their literature. 
 
 Nor is the Christian teacher's attitude towards 
 imperial Rome very different. At the time when 
 Christ appeared on earth, Rome under Augustus had 
 risen to the zenith of her glory, and the poets sang 
 that the golden age had returned on earth. But under 
 a glittering surface lay hidden the misery of slavery, 
 universal corruption, scepticism and despair. In the 
 midst of this darkness appeared the "L,ight to the re- 
 velation of the Gentiles. ' ' l Yet the darkness did not 
 surrender without a fierce struggle, the greatest which 
 the world has ever seen. The history of this struggle 
 between Christ and Caesar, between Christianity and 
 paganism, between faith and infidelity, is the keynote 
 of the first three centuries, nay more, of the nineteen 
 hundred years which have since elapsed. 
 
 The Christian historian, although objecting to 
 Gibbon's explanation of the spread of Christianity 
 from merely natural causes, 2 admits that, apart from 
 
 1 Luke 2, 32. 
 
 2 Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 
 XV. See Newman's criticisms on these chapters in Gram- 
 mar of Assent. 
 
TRAINING OF THK JESUIT TKACHKR. 451 
 
 the intrinsic worth and positive character of Christi- 
 anity as a divinely revealed religion, external circum- 
 stances also contributed to the rapid propagation of 
 the religion of Christ. He discovers that the coming 
 of the Desired of Nations had been prepared directly, 
 through "the L,aw and the Prophets," among the 
 chosen people of Israel, indirectly also among the Gen- 
 tiles. This indirect preparation was first a negative 
 one; the ancient world had to realize the limitation of 
 the natural powers; it had to experience that all 
 progress in philosophy, art and politics could neither 
 quiet the mind nor satisfy the heart, and was utterly 
 unable to save either the individual or the family, the 
 state or society. 1 But there was also a more positive 
 preparation of the Gentile world. The Greek methods 
 of philosophy, especially those of Plato and Aristotle, 
 in spite of their many shortcomings, became efficient 
 means with which the early champions of the Church 
 successfully combated the errors and absurdities of 
 paganism and logically defended the doctrines of 
 Revelation. Thus Plato, in the words of Clement of 
 Alexandria, was a TraiSaycoyos ets Xptcn-dv, a teacher who 
 prepared the way for Christ. Origeii, Eusebius and 
 St. Augustine see a special providence of God in the 
 conquest of the world by the Roman Empire. It is 
 this tracing of God's working in history which Father 
 Kropf suggested to the teacher, and it is in this light 
 that he has to study the history and literature of 
 Greece and Rome. 
 
 With ancient history and the classics, the teacher 
 has to connect the study of antiquities. Those who 
 have heard it said again and again that the Jesuit 
 
 1 Alzog, Church History, vol. I, pp. 127135. 
 
45 2 JKvSUlT EDUCATION. 
 
 system aims at nothing but ''mere formalism, at 
 cleverness in speaking and disputing," will naturally 
 ask in surprise, whether the Jesuits had any place for 
 these subjects in their course of instruction. How- 
 ever, a mere glance at the Ratio, the commentary of 
 Jouvaiic}^ and other sources will convince any one 
 that the teaching of antiquities is even prescribed in 
 the colleges of the Society. Under the name of 
 eruditio, i. e. general erudition or general learning, the 
 study of antiquities forms an essential part of the ex- 
 planation of the authors. The professor of Rhetoric 
 (Sophomore) is told that "one of the three principal 
 points of this grade consists in general erudition. 
 This is to be drawn from the history of the nations 
 and their culture, from the best authors and from 
 every field of learning; but it is to be imparted spar- 
 ingly and according to the capacity of the pupils." 
 The fifteenth rule of the professor says that "for the 
 advancement of erudition, sometimes, instead of read- 
 ing the historical author, other subjects might be 
 treated, e. g. hieroglyphics, and symbolic signs, 
 epitaphs, 1 the Roman or Athenian Senate, the military 
 systems of the Romans and Greeks, the costumes, 
 gardens, banquets, triumphs, sibyls, etc. , in short 
 as the Revised Ratio has it archaeology. The first 
 rule of the professor of Humanities mentions the 
 same. But that it was intended for all classes, though 
 naturally not to the same extent, is evident from 
 Jouvancy's treatise "On the Explanation of Authors," 
 which we shall give in substance in the next chapter. 
 There it will also be explained why antiquities, 
 
 1 Iu 1830 the German Jesuits declared these three points 
 to be antiquated. (Pachtler IV, 439.) 
 
TRAINING OF THK JESUIT TKACHKR. 453 
 
 according to the Ratio, should be imparted (< spar- 
 ingly. " 
 
 If antiquities are to be taught in Jesuit colleges, 
 the teacher must carefully study them. This is done 
 partly in the two years of philological studies which 
 follow the novitiate. One of the great teachers of the 
 first century of the Society, Father Bonifacio, who for 
 more than forty years labored in the Spanish colleges, 
 writes: "In the philological seminaries, our young 
 men, besides studying Latin, Greek and Hebrew, 
 should acquire an intimate knowledge of history and 
 classical antiquities." 1 However, this archaeological 
 learning has to be acquired chiefly throughout the 
 course of teaching. It will always form a part of 
 the preparation of the authors which are, at the time, 
 read in class. Father Jouvancy advises the young 
 teacher to devote especially the holidays to this study, 
 which he calls a useful and, at the same time, pleasant 
 change. 2 
 
 In the Old Society there existed special lists or 
 catalogues of various works, from which historical and 
 antiquarian information could best be obtained. Very 
 interesting in this regard is the Catalogue of the 
 province of Upper Germany of the year i6o4. 3 In an 
 introductory remark it is stated that the list of phil- 
 ological helps is not made for the old and experienced 
 professors, but for the young masters, for the begin- 
 ners; and a great number of works is given that every 
 
 1 Father Bonifacio's pedagogical works lately appeared 
 in a German translation, together with those of Father Per- 
 piuian and Father Posseviu : in the Bibliothek der kathol. 
 Padagogik, vol. XI. Herder, Freiburg, and v St. Louis, 1901. 
 
 2 Ratio Discendi, ch. Ill, art. 2. 
 
 3 Pachtler, vol. IV, pp. 1219. 
 
454 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 one might suit his own taste and select those authors 
 whom he likes best. The first part of the catalogue 
 contains the best commentaries on the classical 
 authors. The second enumerates works on Roman 
 Law, which will help towards a better understand- 
 ing of the writings of Cicero. The third gives the 
 titles of about sixty works on antiquities: Roman 
 and Greek games, triumphs, chronology, religion and 
 sacrifices, mythology, banquets, costumes, the army 
 and navy, numismatics, measures and weights, archi- 
 tecture, the triumphal arches, the circus, the amphi- 
 theatre, topography, geography, etc. 1 Several works 
 on these subjects were written by Jesuits. It will 
 appear, then, that although antiquities were to be 
 taught but sparingly, the information of the teacher 
 on these subjects was supposed to be thorough. 
 Jouvancy, at the end of his Method of Learning, 
 reminds the young master that "he must beware of 
 superficiality; he must not be satisfied with a smatter- 
 ing but should endeavor to master thoroughly, to 
 exhaust, if possible, that branch to which, by his 
 natural gifts and God's will, he is destined to apply 
 himself. Above all he must be constant in his studies 
 and devote all his time to earnest self-training. Should 
 he trifle away his time, he would seriously fail in 
 
 1 These works were in the 17th century of the same im- 
 portance as at present the standard works on antiquities, 
 such as Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans; 
 Schomann, The Antiquities of Greece; Mahaffy, Social Life 
 in Greece; Ramsay, Antiquities; and the works of Mommsen, 
 Becker, lyang, I,anciam, Boissier, Friedlander, Marquardt 
 etc. They took also the place of our modern Classical Dicti- 
 onaries and of such great collections as Iwan von Miiller's 
 valuable Handbuch der klassischen Alterlumsivissenschaft. 
 
TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. 455 
 
 his religious obligations; for God's glory and the 
 honor of the Society demand of him as much progress 
 in learning as he can possibly attain, and one day 
 God will ask of him a rigorous account of his time 
 and his work. ' ' 
 
 This is the training which the Society gives its 
 young teachers. It is a solid and practical training, 
 one, we think, fitted for forming competent teachers. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 The Method of Teaching in Practice. 
 
 It was said before that the intellectual scope of the 
 Jesuit system is the general training of the mind ; 
 the means for obtaining this end are the various exer- 
 cises. In this chapter we shall treat the exercises of 
 the literary course, and this for several reasons. First, 
 because the study of languages and literature should 
 form the backbone of, at least, the secondary schools 
 and of part of the college course. Secondly, because 
 the Ratio Studionim treats the exercises in languages 
 and literature very minutely, whereas it makes only 
 a few suggestions concerning the exercises in mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences. Thirdly, because it is 
 especially in the literary studies that there exists a 
 danger to neglect the exercises, as is, in fact, the 
 case in some modern systems. No one will doubt for 
 a moment that for the successful teaching of mathe- 
 matics continual exercises are absolutely necessary. 
 In natural sciences, particularly in physics and chem- 
 istry, the equivalent of the exercises are the experi- 
 ments and especially the laboratory work. 1 On teach- 
 ing physics and chemistry the Ratio has one very 
 important remark, viz. , the professor should not treat 
 
 1 On this 4^|ect see the able article : The Teaching of 
 Science ', by FatiHr De Laak, S. J., Professor of Physics in the 
 St. Louis University, in the Report of the Commissioner of 
 Education, 1901, vol. I, pp. 904916. 
 
 (45^) 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 457 
 
 them merely theoretically and mathematically, so that 
 no time is left for the experiments ; nor should he, on 
 the other hand, spend so much time on the experi- 
 ments that the teaching seems to be purely experimen- 
 tal ; but sufficient time should be devoted to the 
 principles, systems, theories, and hypotheses. 1 The 
 object of all these exercises, be they scientific or liter- 
 ary, must be clear from what has been said in previous 
 chapters, especially in the chapter on the Intellectual 
 Scope. There we compared the different branches 
 of study to the tools of the artisan or the dumb bells 
 of one who takes a course of physical training ; the 
 exercises are the practical handling of these instru- 
 ments, not by the teacher, but by the pupil. The 
 teacher has to show how they are to be handled, but 
 then the pupil has to lay hold of the intellectual tools 
 and handle them himself. Thus, and thus only, not 
 by merely listening to the lectures of a teacher, will 
 the youthful mind be trained and acquire that readi- 
 ness and nimbleness which is the object of true educa- 
 tion. The literary exercises laid down in the Ratio 
 Studiorum shall be treated under four headings : the 
 11 prelection", memory lessons, compositions, and 
 contests. 2 
 
 i. The Prelection or Explanation of the Authors. 
 
 The typical form of Jesuit instruction is called 
 praelectio. This word is largely the equivalent of 
 "lecturing" in the higher faculties; 3 of "explanation" 
 
 1 fiules for the Professor of Physics ^34. 
 
 2 For many observations contained in^pp chapter I am 
 indebted to the Woodstock Letters, especially the valuable 
 papers in volumes XXIII XXV, 189496. 
 
 3 Its equivalent is used in German, Vorlesung y for the 
 lectures in the universities. 
 
45 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 in the lower. In either case, however, it is something 
 specific. 1 For this reason the word may be used in 
 an English dress, as "prelection". We are here not 
 concerned with the lecture in the higher faculties, 
 but with the prelection or explanation in the literary 
 or classical course. This prelection is two-fold : one 
 is upon the authors, the other upon the precepts of 
 rhetoric, poetry, and style in the higher classes, of 
 grammar, prosody, etc., in the lower classes. The 
 Ratio gives some useful hints as to teaching the prin- 
 ciples of rhetoric in connection with the reading of the 
 authors. Taking up a passage, let us say of Cicero, 
 the professor will, in the first place, make clear the 
 sense of the text ; secondly, analyze the artistic struc- 
 ture; thirdly, explain the force and meaning of the 
 rhetorical precept contained in the passage ; fourthly, 
 adduce other examples which are similar in thought 
 or expression, especially famous and striking ones; 
 cite other orators or poets, whether in the classics or 
 the vernacular, in which the same principles are em- 
 ployed ; lastly, weigh the words singly, comment upon 
 the propriety of their use, their rhythm, variety, 
 beauty. The comparison of L,atin and Greek authors 
 with those of the vernacular, that treat of similar sub- 
 jects, was especially recommended by the Jesuits in 
 Germany, in 1830. 2 
 
 The method of explaining authors is sketched ad- 
 mirably in the 2yth of the common rules. The first 
 thing the professor is told to do is to read the whole 
 passage through, unless it be too long. There is a very 
 good reason for this. It makes an impression on the 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 232. 
 
 2 See Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 439. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 459 
 
 ear of the pupils, and accustoms them to the rhythm 
 of the language. Again, the reading is calculated, 
 better than the rules of prosody, to impress on them 
 the correct quantity of Latin syllables. Remember 
 that the boys are understood to be employing L,atin 
 words a year, two years, before they learn the prosody; 
 they are surely not supposed to be pronouncing in- 
 correctly all that time. How, then, do they acquire 
 accuracy in this important detail ? Simply by imitat- 
 ing their professor. He reads every lesson for them 
 before explaining; they read every lesson before 
 translating, when they repeat next day. The rules of 
 prosody afterwards only complete the work. Jouvancy 
 observes that the teacher should accustom the pupils 
 from the very beginning to distinct and articulate 
 reading 1 ; the same holds good of the recitations. 
 From the first lesson in L,atin and Greek the teachers 
 should insist on the correct quantity, particularly of 
 the final syllables (os, es, is, etc.). If in the lowest 
 classes the students acquire a faulty pronunciation, 
 they will never get rid of it in later years. Some mod- 
 ern teachers go to an extreme in insisting too much 
 on quantity and other points. This is affectation. 
 Years ago many colleges used the English pronuncia- 
 tion of Latin : pueri = pyueray, etc. ; others follow 
 more or less the (European) continental system; of 
 late the high schools and most colleges have adopted 
 the ancient or Roman pronunciation: Cicero = Kikero, 
 etc. This is not the place to enter on a discussion 
 
 1 Ratio Docendi, ch. II, art. 3, 2. The same is incul- 
 cated in other documents, v. g. in Mon. Paed., page 297: 
 "Germanam pronunciationem iam turn ab ipso literarii 
 aedificii vestibulo a discipulis suis praeceptorum qnisque 
 exigat." 
 
460 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 about the relative value of the different systems. The 
 opinions of leading educators differ considerably. 1 
 
 The reading of the text is not merely intended for 
 correctness of pronunciation ; the passage should be 
 so read that the sense may fully appear, and that the 
 sentiment may be rendered expressively. Inflection, 
 tone, quality of voice, all the elements of elocution 
 applicable to reading should be carefully attended to, 
 and represented faithfully. A distinguished Jesuit 
 professor even went so far as to employ gesture in this 
 part of his prelection. What is easier in an oration 
 than to put that spirit into the reading which shows 
 the pupils that they are not examining a dead series 
 of words, but a living organism with life and feeling 
 in it, that they are studying the actual expression of 
 real human feelings? One would not be too venture- 
 some in asserting that the reading of the passage well 
 done is the very best introduction to the matter studied. 
 Of course, the repetition of this excellent reading 
 should be exacted immediately, as often as possible ; 
 the next day at all events. It will prove the easiest 
 and surest means of teaching elocution. The Rule 
 
 1 President Eliot says : "A second interesting result of 
 effective leadership in a few American colleges and schools 
 is to be seen in the adoption of the so-called Roman pronun- 
 ciation of Latin, which being recommended by two or three 
 Professors of Latin in leading institutions, spread rapidly 
 over the whole United States, and is now the accepted pro- 
 nunciation in most schools and colleges." Educational 
 Reform, p. 298. But Professor Bennett of Cornell University 
 calls it a "fundamental blunder and its retention a serious 
 mistake." The Teaching of Latin in the Secondary School, 
 p. 66. See Latin Pronunciation, a Brief Outline of the 
 Roman, Continental and English Methods, by D. E. King 
 (Boston, Ginn and Company, 1889. The Roman Pronun- 
 ciation of Latin, by Francis Lord (Boston, Ginn, 1895). 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 461 
 
 does not say legal, nor recitet, but pronunciet; legal 
 or recitet would be satisfied by any reading, monoton- 
 ous or not ; pronunciet necessarily implies delivery, the 
 attempt at elocutionary finish. 
 
 The delivery of the passage well done and, when 
 possible, exacted immediately, the professor pro- 
 ceeds to sketch the argumentum, or gist of the passage. 
 This he does briefly. Father Jouvancy, in his Odes 
 of Horace, gives us examples of argumenta which are 
 all that could be desired ; other instances, found in the 
 Ratio Docendi, will be given below. Of course, the 
 professor gives the argument mostly from his notes, 
 and he usually, or often, dictates it, a reason for his 
 writing it out at home. It should be brief, pithy, 
 striking, and clear, and given in L,atin in the higher 
 classes, in the vernacular in the lower classes. 
 
 Then, when the passage is connected with the pre- 
 ceding, the professor has to set forth the nature of the 
 connection ; this refers especially to points of history, 
 and, in general, to such references as come under the 
 head of eruditio. It will seldom be necessary when, 
 as often occurs in the lower grades, the passage for 
 prelection is the whole of a short story. In Freshman 
 class and Sophomore, on the contrary, it may require 
 some time to explain this connection. 
 
 The professor next passes on to consider each 
 sentence by itself. He explains each one, shows the 
 grammatical or rhetorical connection or dependence of 
 its successive members and phrases, and, in general, 
 clears up any obscurities or difficulties which the words 
 contain. If the explanation is in the vernacular, 1 he 
 
 1 "In our times, besides the Latin interpretation, there 
 is to be added the interpretation in the vernacular, also in the 
 class of Rhetoric." Pachtler, vol. IV, p. 435. 
 
462 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ivS careful to keep at first, as far as possible, the order 
 of the Latin words, to accustom the ear to the numerus 
 of that language. If this cannot be done, then he first 
 translates nearly word for word, almost regardless of 
 vernacular excellence, then afterwards returns and 
 gives a version, with all attention to the elegancies of 
 diction. This last translation must be a model of the 
 vernacular, the very best the professor can do. Jou- 
 vaiicy says that all translations and dictations in the 
 vernacular must be in strict accord with the most 
 exact rules of the language, and free from any defect. 1 
 The Ratio of 1832, in the eighteenth rule for the 
 teachers, insists on the same. 
 
 By all odds the better way for the teacher, as Jou- 
 vancy has said, is to elaborate his version for himself. 
 It is a risky thing to rely on printed translations; 
 many of them, especially the "Handy Library Trans- 
 lations" and the like, are frequently done in awkward 
 and slovenly English. Further, as now-a-days the 
 pupils have easy access to libraries, they will soon de- 
 tect what sort of translation the teacher uses. In 
 consequence the professor will lose a great part of his 
 authority, the first element of which is esteem for the 
 teacher's learning. Besides, as soon as the students 
 have discovered the source of the- teacher's trans- 
 lation, the careless and lazy ones will no longer pay 
 any attention in class. Of course, the most conscien- 
 tious and painstaking teacher has sometimes to have 
 recourse to translations. But he should procure the 
 most scholarly translations, and use them with dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 There can be no objection to the teacher's reading 
 
 1 Ratio Discendi, ch. I, art. 3. 
 
MKTHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE). 463 
 
 the translation from his paper ; by which means he 
 will be ensured against slips and sins against idiom, 
 such as otherwise can hardly be avoided. If he 
 chooses, after his own version, he may read a printed 
 translation, which is especially useful in the case of 
 such works as Butcher and L,ang's Homer. 
 
 Notes and remarks are now to be given. Many 
 professors prefer the alternative suggested in the Rule, 
 of putting these in here and there, where they belong, 
 in the course of the explanation. This plan, and that 
 of presenting all the remarks together at the end, have 
 both their own advantages. The former is more in 
 keeping with unity, the latter affords a good oppor- 
 tunity of going over the passage again, and gives the 
 pupils an occasion to make a little review of what has 
 been done so far. Repetition is always good : it im- 
 presses and enforces. It is for this reason that the 
 second rule of the several classes orders that immed- 
 iately after the prelection a short repetition be " ex- 
 acted' ' of the students. While the matter is still fresh, 
 this can be done more easily and will have a more 
 lasting effect. 
 
 The notes given should be made brief and striking 
 and should be carefully worded. Littera scripta manet. 
 The Grammar classes are not to write unless bidden. 
 This evidently supposes that the higher classes may 
 write when they choose. They are considered to 
 have acquired discretion enough to guide them in 
 their choice of what to note down from the professor's 
 explanation. The lower grades are not to do this for 
 themselves, because, as Father Hughes 1 says, "it 
 happens now and then that, with much labor, waste 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola, p. 239. 
 
464 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of time and to no good purpose whatever, the boys 
 take down and preserve with diligence a set of notes 
 which have not been thought out very judiciously 
 nor been arranged very carefully, notes simply trivial, 
 common, badly patched together, sometimes worse 
 than worthless, and these notes they commit to paper 
 in wretched handwriting, full of mistakes and errors. 
 Therefore let the dictation be only of a few points and 
 those extremely select. ' ' 
 
 The Trial Ratio of 1586 bids the professor and the 
 Prefect look over the students' note books occasi- 
 onally. 1 This examination ensures the notes being 
 written neatly and in order. It must not be forgotten 
 that one great advantage of notes in general is the 
 habit of system which they tend to foster; hence they 
 must be diligently seen to. The teacher leads the 
 way, as in every other detail of class work, by being 
 orderly himself ; he exacts the same care of his 
 pupils. 
 
 The Ratio strongly recommends careful preparation 
 on the part of the professor. He is not to give the 
 prelection ex tempore, but after careful thought and 
 even writing. What a splendid thing it would be if 
 every teacher could so thoroughly make himself 
 ready as to go to class with nothing but the text of the 
 author and give his prelection, reading, argument, 
 explanation, version, notes, dictation and all without 
 so much as looking on his book before the boys! This 
 would be the perfection of preparation and has been 
 attained in the Society, old and new, but would pos- 
 sibly require too much time of professors of but a few 
 years' teaching. At any rate, the one who wishes to 
 
 1 Pachtler, vol. II, p. 165. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 465 
 
 be successful in his work and do it faithfully, will not 
 only have taken the pains to have studied carefully 
 beforehand the long vacation is the best time to do 
 this the book or oration which he is to explain, but 
 will never come to class without having prepared, at 
 the very least, some notes put in order as he designs 
 to give them to the pupils. 
 
 These notes may be more or less in extenso: if the 
 professor has sufficient fluency in expressing himself, 
 they can be simple jottings, mere hints of what he is 
 to say, and in what place. He will also have care- 
 fully fixed such points as he means to dictate. It will 
 seldom be necessary for one to write out the entire 
 prelection word for word. Such a practice would be 
 good at times, no doubt, by way of exercising oneself 
 in neatness and accuracy, and in style; but ordinarily 
 mere notes will suffice. What will they consist of? 
 That will depend largely on the passage under discus- 
 sion. Now they will include a bit of history, the 
 narration of which is called for by the passage for 
 prelection; now geography; at other times archaeology; 
 oftener grammatical or rhetorical precepts will enter, 
 and similar passages from other authors, ancient and 
 modern, may be quoted. When possible, these notes 
 should embrace such moral hints as may be brought 
 in naturally. The teacher will depend to a great 
 extent on such occasional hints for his moral influence 
 on his pupils. 
 
 A prelection written one year, even if the same 
 author is read, will rarely do another if not modified. 
 The circumstances of the class will have changed. A 
 prelection has this in common with an oration, that it 
 must suit the present audience. Contemporary events, 
 30 
 
466 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to which reference is at times in order, will differ. 
 These and other circumstances will naturally make 
 the prelection matter different, even on the same pas- 
 sage. Each lesson should, therefore, be prepared for 
 each class especially. This is the chief work which a 
 teacher has to attend to during his free hours each 
 day. It is rarely good to make this preparation a 
 week ahead of time ; unless the professor reviews and 
 adapts his notes shortly before delivering them. It is 
 evident that to prepare a prelection in this manner is 
 a serious thing, a work by no means trifling; but easy 
 or not, it must be gone through. It supposes that the 
 professor spends his hours free from class in honest 
 preparation. 
 
 Repetition has been called the mater studiorum, and 
 in truth, few points are of more vital importance. The 
 Ratio insists on repetition throughout the course, but 
 particularly in the lowest classes. Without constant, 
 steady, persistent drilling on the same matter in the 
 beginning of the student's career, no solid foundation 
 for the future literary edifice can be hoped for. Per- 
 haps it is owing to inadvertence to this necessity that 
 in some instances the fruit does not correspond to the 
 labor of the professor. It has been well said that 
 young teachers think mainly of stimulating their 
 pupils' minds, and so neglect the repetition needed for 
 accuracy .* 
 
 The 25th rule enjoins explicitly two distinct repe- 
 titions, one of yesterday's lesson, the other of the 
 lesson just explained. A short repetition should im- 
 mediately follow the prelection. This is of great 
 importance ; it shows the professor whether his mean- 
 
 1 Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 506. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 467 
 
 ing has been well grasped by the pupils, and, moreover, 
 brings home to their yet untrained minds the salient 
 points of the previous explanation. This particular 
 repetition should not be omitted in the lower classes. 
 It does not require much time, ordinarily a very few 
 minutes will suffice. The chief result to be gained is 
 that the pupils should really understand what has just 
 been said. In this it differs from the repetition of the 
 lesson which was explained on the preceding day; for 
 the principal end of this exercise is so to fix the 
 matter in the boys' minds that it may really become 
 their own. The more advanced students may be 
 called to give the short repetition at the end of the 
 prelection, whereas the duller, or perhaps the more 
 indolent ones should be asked especially for the fuller 
 repetition of the lesson of the previous day. But 
 never should the teacher follow the order in which 
 the pupils are seated, or the alphabetical order of the 
 names. Jouvancy thinks that the teacher, before 
 going to school, should go over the names of the boys 
 and reflect whom he is to call up for repetition. 1 
 Every one should have his turn, but duller and in- 
 dolent ones should be called more frequently, as they 
 need it most. 
 
 The 26th rule establishes an excellent principle, 
 namely "to repeat on Saturday everything that was 
 seen during the week. ' ' Monday or any other fixed 
 day will do as well. By everything is understood a 
 thorough and careful review of the more important 
 parts of the matter taught, especially the rules of 
 grammar, precepts of style and rhetoric. 
 
 Jouvancy has drawn up several schemata or speci- 
 
 1 Rat. Doc., c. II, art. Ill, 1. 
 
468 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 mens of a prelection on Cicero, Virgil and Phaedrus 
 as adapted to different classes. 1 We give the sub- 
 stance of two. Be it remarked, however, that the 
 same order need not and cannot be followed strictly in 
 all details in every prelection. They are specimens 
 exhibiting a general rule, which is to be applied with 
 discretion. Professor Willmann has well observed: 
 "As all similar schemata also Jouvancy's canon expla- 
 nationis is useful if applied properly, whereas if it is 
 carried through pedantically in all subjects and with 
 stereotyped regularity, it makes instructions mechan- 
 ical/' 2 
 
 A. Explanation of a Passage from Cicero in 
 Rhetoric (Sophomore). Take the exordium of Cicero's 
 second Philippic from Quonam meo fato to GUI prius- 
 quam. We distinguish five parts in the explanation. 
 
 I. Argumentum. (Willrnann: "In this part Jouv- 
 ancy recommends a paraphrase of the contents, whose 
 place is now taken by the translation.") When 
 Cicero had delivered his first Philippic , Mark Anthony 
 attacked him vehemently. To this attack Cicero 
 replied in this oration, the second Philippic, showing 
 that Anthony's invectives were groundless, and that 
 Anthony himself, because of his crimes, deserved the 
 severest reproaches. 
 
 We explain the exordium of the oration in which 
 Cicero declares that he has incurred the enmity of 
 many; but that Anthony's animosity was unfair and 
 less called for, than that of his other adversaries, as 
 he had never offended him as much as by a single 
 word. But Anthony believes he could demonstrate 
 
 1 Rat. Doc., c. II, art. IV. 
 
 2 Didaktik,vo\. II, p. 387. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 469 
 
 his enmity to the Republic by being an opponent of 
 Cicero. 
 
 II. Explanatio. (Willmann: "Linguistic and 
 logical.") Quonam meo fato. This may have a double 
 meaning; either: to what misfortune shall I say that I 
 have been born; to what destiny of mine is it owing, 
 by what fate of mine does it come to pass, that on me 
 alone light all the arrows with which our enemies try 
 to harm the country; or: what a happy and enviable 
 lot that all who attack the Republic believe they must 
 become my enemies. Either meaning is apt to gain 
 the good will of the audience. His annis viginti, i. e. 
 from the beginning of his consulship, the year 690 
 A. u. c. Nee vero etc. Cicero points to men like 
 
 Catiline, Clodius, Piso, etc Tuam a me aliena- 
 
 tionem commendationem tibi ad impios cives fore putavisti. 
 Construe: Putavisti alienationem tuam a me fore tibi 
 commendationem \_gloriae~] ad impios; literally: You 
 thought your alienation from me would be a recom- 
 mendation for you to the wicked, i. e. : You thought 
 to gain in the estimation of the destructionists, if you 
 turned away from me and became my enemy. 
 
 III. Rhetorica. Attention is called to all that 
 pertains to rhetoric in the highest class, to poetry in 
 the next, to grammar, syntax in the other classes. 
 For the class of Rhetoric this explanation may run as 
 follows: This is the exordium of an excellent oration. 
 The exordium or introduction has to prepare the 
 audience for the coming speech. It has to gain their 
 good will, and to make them attentive and docile. 
 L,et us see how Cicero complies with these three 
 requirements of the exordium. 
 
 Good will may be gained in three ways. First, by 
 
470 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 showing that the speaker is possessed of a respectable 
 character. Secondly, by manifesting interest for his 
 hearers' welfare. Thirdly, by cleverly predisposing 
 them against his adversaries. The firs^ Cicero effects 
 by pointing to his character to which all feeling of 
 revenge is alien, to his previous career, and to the 
 flattering testimony of the senate with regard to his 
 consulship. The seconcLhe effects by stating that all 
 enemies of the Republic had ever become his personal 
 enemies. The third, by imputing to Anthony a 
 passionate character, hatred against his country, and 
 intimate friendship with the very dregs of the popula- 
 tion. 
 
 The orator gains attention by telling how important 
 the point at issue is: how the enemies of the country 
 have become his enemies, etc. 
 
 He makes his hearers docile by briefly stating 
 what he is going to speak about: little in his own 
 defense, much against Anthony. 
 
 Fine exordiums of other orations may be men- 
 tioned, and also the faults which are easily made in 
 the introduction. The rhetorical figure of subjectio: 
 Quid putem, its force and use, may be explained. 
 
 IV. Eruditio ("General learning;" Willmann trans- 
 lates it appropriately by "antiquarian and subject-ex- 
 planation, antiquarische, also Sacherklarung.") In the 
 beginning occurs the word fato. Explain what the 
 pagans understood by this and what we Christians 
 have to think of it. His viginti annis. Say (or 
 better: ask) in what year Cicero was born, when he 
 was made consul, when he died. Bellum indixerit. 
 Explain how the Romans used to declare war. (The 
 solemnities of the Petioles). The word maledictum 
 
MP:THOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 471 
 
 affords an opportunity to show the difference between 
 maledictum, convicium and contumelia. Mihi poena- 
 rum plus etc. A few words may be said on revenge, 
 how little it becomes a noble character. For this end 
 copious material may be taken from the i3th Satire of 
 Juvenal and from the Adagia of Erasmus. Illustra- 
 tions may also be taken from the treasure of Christian 
 doctrine and Church History. 
 
 V. Latinitas. (Willmann: ''The gain for vocab- 
 ulary and phraseology, in short the proper technics 
 of the pupils."). 
 
 Bellum mihi indixerit, add a few other meanings of 
 this verb. Mention the indictiva funera, i. e. funerals 
 which were publicly announced. Perhorrescere, give 
 a few examples illustrating the force and meaning of 
 compound words. 
 
 Verbo violatus, similarly: corpus violare vulnere, ebur 
 ostro; fidenij foedus, jura sacra violare. 
 
 The second specimen is on Virgil's Aeneid XII, 
 425 440. At its close Jouvancy adds: "In the second 
 highest class, called Poetry or Humanities (Fresh- 
 man), the same order is observed except that here 
 more attention is paid to poetics. The strictly rhetor- 
 ical part should be sparingly dealt with. In the 
 highest Grammar class, grammar and beauty of ex- 
 pression claim more attention. In the two lowest 
 classes the difference is still more striking. Here the 
 teacher has to sail along the coast and only seldom 
 may he venture out into the sea (of longer explana- 
 tions). He must beware of the reefs along the shore, 
 i. e. he must not become disgusted at, nor neglect, 
 what they call trifles. To explain even one little fable 
 will require great skill and is a sign of considerable 
 talent." 
 
472 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The third specimen is the explanation of a little 
 fable of Phaedrus in the lowest Grammar class. The 
 fable is: "Personam tragicam forte vulpes viderat: 
 quanta species, inquit, cerebrum non habet." The 
 teacher explains in the vernacular. 
 
 I. Contents of the Fable. 
 
 II. Explanation: Vulpes, a fox; viderat (translate), 
 forte (translate); personam. Persona now means ' 'per- 
 son," but originally meant a "mask," as used in car- 
 nival masquerades, and at mask -balls, (per through; 
 sonare, sound, speak; speak through); tragicam, as it 
 was used by the players in Greek and Roman trag- 
 edies. Similarly explain all the other words, and not 
 once only, but twice or three times, if necessary. 
 
 III. Grammar. Give declension, gender of nouns 
 and adjectives; conjugation, tense, mood etc. of every 
 verb. This should be done as much as possible by 
 putting questions to the pupils. Vulpes is a noun of 
 the third declension; like .... ? Proles, clades, etc. 
 mention such as are known already to the pupils. 
 Then give the rules of declension, gender. Viderat, 
 is a verb. What form ? Third person singular Plu- 
 perfect Active. Present tense? video. L,ike? doceo. 
 .... Perfect: Vidi. Conjugate: Vidi, vidisti, etc. 
 Why third person ? Forte : is an adverb. Adverbs 
 are words which . . . . Personam. What case? 
 Why accusative? Because it is the direct object of 
 viderat. 1 Tragicam, why not tragicum, or tragicaf 
 Explain the rule. . . . 
 
 1 English speaking students have at first great difficul- 
 ties in grasping the rule of the object, because neither the 
 article nor the noun shows any case ending. However, it 
 can be explained easily with pronouns. Thus say: "Who is 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 473 
 
 IV. General Erudition. Could not a short descrip- 
 tion of the cunning fox be given? Or could not a 
 littte story be told? Or the adage: cum vulpe vulpinan- 
 dum, be explained? 
 
 Tragicam. A short easy explanation of tragedy 
 might be given. Cerebrum. The L,atin words for 
 other parts of the head should be added. 
 
 V. Latinity. Show the order of words and let the 
 pupils imitate it in other sentences, e. g. Fratrem tuum 
 nuper videram, which is better than Fratrem tuum 
 videram nuper. 
 
 A short theme may be written in L,atin : Fratrem 
 tuum nuper videram. quanta eruditio, dixi, merce- 
 dem non habet. 
 
 VI. Morals. The teacher may show that prudence 
 and common sense are preferable to other natural pos- 
 sessions. A short story illustrating this may be told, 
 which could be translated into L,atin and repeated by 
 one of the better pupils. 
 
 For the sake of comparison we add a schema drawn 
 mostly from the writings of Nagelsbach and Willmann. 
 A careful examination will prove that it is not so differ- 
 ent from that of Jouvancy , as might appear at first sight. 
 
 I. Preparation. i. The passage which is to be 
 prepared by the pupils for the following day, is assigned 
 in class. The teacher gives extensive hints on difficult 
 points, on which the pupils otherwise might lose too 
 much time. (In the lower and middle classes the 
 whole text should be translated. See p. 478. ) 
 there ? Who is subject. Whom did you see ? Whom is ob- 
 ject. He is there. I saw him. It would be bad English to 
 say: Who did you see, or I saw he. So it is bad I/atin to say: 
 Vulpes viderat persona." These examples of whom arid him 
 are especially fitted, as they show au euding similar to the 
 Latin. 
 
474 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 2. At home the pupil tries to find out the meaning 
 of the whole text. Dots on the margin should mark 
 the passages which he could not make out. 
 
 3. In class the text is read by a student. 
 
 II. Translation. i. The boy who has read 
 the text translates, the teacher and the other pupils 
 correct the translation. 
 
 2. Explanations, linguistic and logical, are given 
 to understand the text fully. 
 
 3. A correct and fluent translation is repeated by 
 a boy with the help of the teacher and other boys. 
 The translation has to be different according to the 
 authors : plain in Caesar and Xenophon ; simple and 
 direct in Homer ; elaborate and dignified in Virgil 
 and Cicero, etc. 
 
 III. Handling of the Text. 
 
 1. Explanation of contents. (Realerklarung. Ex- 
 planatio and eruditio of Jouvancy.) 
 
 2. Pointing out of ethical momenta (quae ad mores 
 spectant. Jouvancy). 
 
 3. Technics of rhetoric, poetry and style. (Rhetorica 
 of Jouvancy.) 
 
 4. Latinity etc. : vocabulary, phrases, grammatical 
 rules. (Latinitas. Jouvancy.) 
 
 IV. Repetition. i. I^et the student translate and 
 explain the text. 
 
 2. Frequently let the pupil, instead of a strict 
 translation, give the contents in Latin, in a simple 
 clear style. 
 
 3. Always see whether everything is understood. 
 
 4. Put questions of such a kind as force the boys to 
 group and view things in a new manner. Thus they 
 are led to reflect on the subject at home. This advice 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 475 
 
 is also given by the Jesuit Kropf in his Ratio et Via 
 (ch. V, art. 9): "The repetition ought to be con- 
 ducted partly in the form of an examination etc. ' ' 
 A few remarks about the prelection must be added: 
 
 1. After the ivhole work has been studied, a retrospec- 
 tive view is to be taken ; the work is to be estimated 
 as a whole, with its leading ideas ; as a masterpiece of 
 art ; as a product of a certain age or school, from the 
 aesthetical, philosophical, and historical point of view. 
 This should be done especially in higher classes ; 
 but ne quid nimis, and everything, in the words of the 
 Ratio: "sparingly and according to the capacity of the 
 pupils. ' ' 
 
 2. Longer explanations should not interrupt the 
 translation, but should be put off to the end; occasion- 
 ally, however, they might be given earlier in the pre- 
 lection, if the text without the explanation would be 
 hardly understood. 
 
 3. The first preparation done by the pupils at home 
 ought not to be the principal part of the work ; the 
 principal part consists in the handling of the text 
 in class. 
 
 This principle of the prelection of the Ratio Studio- 
 rum is also advocated by an able English schoolman. 
 Sir Joshua Fitch says in his Lectures on Teaching, that 
 home work should be "supplementary rather than 
 preparatory. ' ' It should have a bearing on the school 
 teaching of the previous day, "the best part of it is 
 supplementary," and the chief value of home lessons, 
 also of written exercises, is to give definiteness to 
 lessons already learned (in class), and to thrust them 
 home into the memory rather than to break new 
 grounds." l And Professor Bain of Aberdeen Univer- 
 
 1 American edition, pp. 147 149. 
 
476 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sity writes : "I hold to this principle, in a still severer 
 view of it namely, that the teacher should not ask 
 the pupil to do anything that he himself has not led 
 up to, has not clearly paved the way for. The pupils 
 should not be called upon for any species of work that 
 may not have been fully explained beforehand that 
 their own faculties, co-operating with each one's 
 known attainments, are not perfectly competent to 
 execute. A learner should not be asked even to show 
 off what he can do, outside the teaching of the class. ' ' l 
 Dr. Stanley Hall said recently 2 : "As to the dead lan- 
 guages, if they are to be taught, L,atin should be 
 begun not later than ten or eleven, and Greek never 
 later than twelve or thirteen. Here both object and 
 method are very different. These languages are 
 taught through English, and the one-hand circuit 
 should have much more prominence. Word matching 
 and translation are the goal. The chief reason why 
 the German boy of fifteen or sixteen in Unter- Secunda 
 does so easily here what seems to us prodigious, is be- 
 cause he is taught to study; and the teacher's chief 
 business in class is not to hear recitations, but to study 
 with the boys. One of the best of these teachers told 
 me that the boy should never see a dictionary or even 
 a vocabulary, but the teacher must be a 'pony'. The 
 pupil should never be brought face to face with an 
 unknown sentence, but everything must be carefully 
 translated for him ; he must note all the unknown 
 words from the teacher's lips, and all the special 
 grammatical points, so that home study and the first 
 
 1 On Teaching English, ch. 3, p. 27. (N. Y., Appleton, 
 1887.) 
 
 2 In The Forum, September, 1901. Article: "The Ideal 
 School as based on Child Study." 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 477 
 
 part of the next lesson will be merely repetitions of 
 what the teacher has told and done. ' ' 
 
 The statement that this is the practice of the 
 German schools, needs considerable modification. It 
 may be partly so at present, but it certainly was not 
 common before 1890. On the contrary, in German 
 higher schools, throughout the greater part of the 
 nineteenth century, it was generally insisted on that 
 the students should prepare the translations without 
 any or much help from the teacher. In fact, most 
 professors 1 assigned some chapters in the author 
 which were to be prepared for the next lesson without 
 giving as much as a hint about a difficult passage. 
 The next day a fairly good translation was expected, 
 and by many teachers exacted rather rigorously. It 
 was said that this system stimulated self-activity and 
 independent thought ; and more than once the opposite 
 system, as followed by the Jesuits, was condemned, 
 because, as it was asserted, it did not develop inde- 
 pendence and the spirit of research. But did the 
 results of the German system come up to expectations ? 
 The less diligent pupils had recourse to all sorts of 
 1 'ponies", in fact, the less talented were often 
 practically forced to use other helps, as it was impos- 
 sible for them to give a translation of many passages. 
 In this way a spirit of dishonesty was fostered. The 
 more scrupulous and eager students lost much time on 
 difficult passages, often without finding a satisfactory 
 translation. All this time might have been spared by 
 
 1 These remarks are based on the writer's own exper- 
 ience. Of all his professors none ever called attention to a 
 difficult passage, but the students had to do all by themselves 
 at home. This was before the reform of 18901892. To judge 
 from educational publications things have changed of late. 
 
47$ JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 a few remarks of the teacher, pointing to the solution 
 of the difficulty. Above all, too much time was wasted 
 unprofitably by thumbing the dictionary. No wonder 
 that at length serious complaints were made. Besides 
 the six hours spent in class, the average student had 
 to devote at least four hours to hard home work, if he 
 wanted to do all his tasks conscientiously. 
 
 Of late years there is a decided change of opinion 
 among educators, and this change is, to a great ex- 
 tent, a return to principles which were always followed 
 in the Jesuit system. Thus writes Professor Schiller, 
 Director of the Pedagogical Seminary in Giessen, one 
 of the most celebrated German educators: "In the 
 middle classes the preparation of the new translation 
 is to be done in class, and even in the higher grades 
 this can be done usefully. ' ' Further, ' 'the more diffi- 
 cult passages, and those which contain many unknown 
 words, should be explained beforehand. " l In general 
 1 'new material is added only in class; the object of 
 home work is to strengthen, practise and apply, what 
 has been given by the class instruction. ' ' 2 The new 
 Prussian School Order of 1901 has laid down the 
 general rule, that "directions for the preparation of 
 new and difficult passages are to be given in all 
 classes ; even in the higher grades the preparation of 
 a new author is, for some time, to be done entirely in 
 class." 3 Is not this a striking justification of the 
 wise conservatism of the Jesuit system ? After a cen- 
 
 1 Schiller, Handbuch der praktischen Pddagogik fur 
 hohere Lehranstalten, Leipzig, Reislaud (3rd edition 1894), 
 pp. 456 and 476. 
 
 2 Ibid., pp. 42 and 152; see also Willmann, Didaktik 
 vol. II, p. 391. 
 
 8 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben, pp. 24, 25, 32, 34. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 479 
 
 tury of severe criticism and condemnation, it is thought 
 necessary to return to what is essentially the Jesuit 
 method of preparing the authors. And this return 
 has been made in the country that prides itself on its 
 school system. 
 
 According to the Jesuit method the teacher studies 
 with the pupils, and thus shows them how to study. 
 We need now no longer defend the Ratio against the 
 charge frequently raised in former years, that it does 
 too much, in fact everything for the pupil. It does 
 not do everything ; neither does it overtax the pupil's 
 abilities. It follows the wise middle course, which 
 will effect a solid training without giving reasonable 
 cause to complaints of overwork. 
 
 However, some preparation of the new text, on the 
 part of the pupil, is useful and stimulates self -activity, 
 especially in the upper grades. It is prescribed for 
 the higher studies by the Ratio which enjoins the 
 students of the Society "to be diligent in praevidendis 
 lectionibus," i. e. in preparing the new lesson of the 
 day. 1 
 
 Before concluding the discussion on the prelection, 
 I quote a passage from the Woodstock Letters (1898). 
 The question had been put : Has the method of pre- 
 lection advocated by the Ratio, especially the plan of 
 translating the author for the student, been used in any 
 of our American Colleges not belonging to the Society? 
 If so, with what success ? On October 31, 1898, the 
 Kditor of the Letters, the Reverend Samuel Hanna 
 Frisbee, S. J., a graduate of Yale (1861), and a pupil 
 of the matchless scholar, Professor Hadley, answered 
 as follows : 
 
 1 Reg. Scholasticorum 4. 
 
480 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 "The professor who used the method of the Ratio, 
 and especially the prelection, was Arthur Hadley, well 
 known as the author of Hadley 'S Greek Grammar. 
 He was professor of Greek for many years at Yale and 
 was known as a fine Greek scholar. Though he was 
 the professor of Greek there were several tutors in 
 Greek and far the best Greek scholar in the univer- 
 sity, he was appointed to teach the Freshmen during 
 the first term, from the middle of September to 
 Christmas. It was thought best they should have an 
 experienced teacher, one who would train them thor- 
 oughly and thus give them a good start. During the 
 rest of the scholastic year he taught Greek to the 
 Junior class. What concerns us at present is the 
 method he adopted for training these Freshmen. It 
 was as follows, and from its description you can easily 
 judge how much it resembled the method of the Ratio. 
 
 The author to be read was Homer's Iliad, and in 
 our year, 1857, tne fourteenth book of the Iliad was 
 the book assigned. The students used to say that 
 some book after the first six was chosen, because 
 Anthon's copious notes to these six books amounted 
 to a translation. The real reason which was given to 
 us at the time I have forgotten, but it was doubtless 
 because this book is one of the most characteristic of 
 the Iliad. Whatever was the reason, the Freshmen 
 of our year were told that the fourteenth book was to 
 be read. The class numbering 1 20 was divided 
 into three divisions. The first division went into 
 Greek for the first hour, 7 A. M. , the second division 
 at 1 1 , and the third at 5 P. M. Professor Hadley had 
 thus three hours of class daily, but to each division he 
 explained the same matter. 
 
MHTHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 481 
 
 We came to class, then, with the fourteenth book 
 of Homer, and to our amazement, Prof. Hadley asked 
 no recitation for we had been already told to pre- 
 pare some lines of this i4th book but, after giving 
 a short history of Homer, and of the places which 
 claimed him as their son, he carefully read through 
 the first five lines, reading according to the accent, 
 and then scanning them. Then he gave a literal 
 translation of these five lines, and coming back to the 
 first word he parsed it, gave the different dialectic 
 forms of it and, if it was a geographical word, he ex- 
 plained where it was to be found on the map, and if 
 the name of a person, he gave a short account of his 
 life. This occupied a half hour and then the class 
 was dismissed. The next day a half hour was spent 
 in recitation. One was called up to scan, another to 
 translate, and several to parse the different words, 
 nothing being asked which had not been explained 
 the preceding day. Then the second half hour was 
 taken up by the professor who translated five more 
 lines, parsing and explaining each word. It is an old 
 Yale custom to repeat each day the lesson of the 
 preceding day, so that we really had ten lines to trans- 
 late and parse, five which some students had already 
 recited in class. This second translation was recom- 
 mended to be more elegant than the first which was 
 literal, and only the important words were asked for 
 parsing, etc. This manner of teaching was continued 
 all the term three months only five lines of new 
 matter being translated and explained each day. 
 Besides we were made to review thoroughly the im- 
 portant parts of the grammar. A small book of a few 
 pages containing the declensions, conjugations and a 
 31 
 
482 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 few rules, was given to each student, and it was 
 repeated till it was known by heart. The students 
 used to call it 'Hadley's Primer.' 
 
 As the results of this method, those who studied 
 for you know only about ten per cent of the students 
 are really studying in earnest, the honor men 
 acquired such a facility in reading Homer that they 
 could read the rest of the Iliad with comparative ease, 
 while the moderate students had no difficulty in pre- 
 paring the lesson assigned during the second term, 
 which was fifty lines daily in another book of the 
 Iliad, the eighteenth, if I mistake not. Then we took 
 up Herodotus, at the rate of two pages a day, after an 
 introduction about the author and his book. This 
 was also accompanied on some days of the week by 
 recitations from an excellent book on Greek History 
 Wheeler's if I mistake not. 
 
 Professor Hadley was the only one in the Univer- 
 sity to follow the method of the prelection of the 
 Ratio, but he followed it most thoroughly. He was 
 regarded in his time as one of the very best professors 
 in the University, and he merited this reputation." 
 
 It remains for us to investigate how much is to be 
 read. The first question which presents itself is: 
 Should the reading of the classics be slow or quick, 
 stationary or cursory? It has been said that in station- 
 ary reading the boys read little, in cursory they learn 
 little or nothing. What, then, is to be done? 
 
 It all depends first, on the text, whether difficult or 
 easy; secondly, on the character of the book. Epics 
 and historical works, as a rule, should be read more 
 rapidly, because they are in themselves slowly pro- 
 gressing, whereas lyrics and drama should be dwelled 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 483 
 
 upon. The Ratio Studiorum of 1599 expresses quite 
 clearly the principle enunciated by schoolmen of the 
 nineteenth century. The 28th rule says: "The 
 historical books [and epic poetry is of a historical 
 character] should be read more rapidly (celerius excur- 
 rendus)." Thirdly, in every case it depends on the 
 pupils' knowledge, capacity, practice and age. But 
 above all these two principles should not be forgotten: 
 in medio est virtus, and non multa, sed multum. 
 
 How much, then, is to be read in one prelection? l In 
 many modern institutions, in fact in most of them, 
 the students are to read and translate whole pages of 
 the classics for a single lesson. The Ratio calls for a 
 thorough study of a few lines. In the 6th rule for 
 the lowest class, the old Ratio says four lines should 
 be explained in one lesson, for the next class seven 
 lines of course the teacher should not stop in the 
 middle of the phrase. In the Revised Ratio no num- 
 ber of lines is mentioned. If we keep in mind that in 
 these classes the pupils are gradually to be initiated 
 into the reading of authors there is nothing surprising 
 about this small number of lines. They are to be ex- 
 plained to perfection, learned by heart for the follow- 
 ing day and to be employed for an imitation theme. 
 For the higher grades the old Ratio did not state the 
 exact number of lines, neither does the Revised Ratio. 
 Still, on reading the rules for the prelection it becomes 
 evident that fifty or sixty lines cannot be studied so 
 thoroughly in one hour. But are ten lines all that 
 must be read in class? Is this to be understood as the 
 full demand of the Ratio? "At the rate of ten lines a 
 
 1 On this question we take some suggestions from an 
 article in the Woodstock Letters, 1898, p. 185 sq. 
 
484 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 day it would require fourteen months to translate 
 Cicero's oration Pro Milone, so that to finish even the 
 single speech within a year many parts of it must be 
 run over more or less rapidly. At this rate of ten 
 lines a day, it would require more than five years to 
 translate the Aeneidj and twelve years to translate the 
 Iliad, or two years longer than the siege of Troy 
 lasted. The Ratio cannot, therefore, wish to bind the 
 student and professor down to these few lines. " l It 
 wishes merely to show the student how to read and 
 study the classics, how to do thorough work. Many 
 more lines are to be read in a lesson, but the few 
 should serve as the model. The schemata of Father 
 Jouvancy do not want more. Nor is it to be inferred 
 that all the lines are to be explained with the same 
 thoroughness and at the same length. This would be 
 impossible. 
 
 Moreover, we are led to the same conclusion from 
 the programmes of some of the celebrated colleges of 
 the old Society. They prove with certainty that the 
 thorough study of a limited number of lines was not 
 considered sufficient to make a student a classical 
 scholar. In the history of the college of L,a Fleche, 2 
 we find programmes of the astounding work done by 
 the students. Perhaps the plan of the Ratio has never 
 been carried out more thoroughly than it was at this 
 college, which for a long time was a rival of the great 
 University of Paris. Here, too, one of the best com- 
 mentators of the Ratio, Father Jouvancy, taught and 
 
 1 Woodstock Letters, 1898, p. 186. 
 
 2 Un college de Jesuites aux XVII et XVIII siecles. 
 Le college Henri Quatre de la Fleche ', par le Pere Camille de 
 Rochemonteix. See vol. IV, pp. 165 and 388403. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 485 
 
 wrote. When, therefore, we see the students of this 
 college, studying hundreds of pages of the classics in 
 one year, we must grant that such a method comes 
 within the scope of the Ratio. 1 For the rest, it 
 remains unintelligible how any real benefit can be 
 derived from the reading of hundreds of lines in one 
 hour. Jouvancy well observes, the teacher should 
 remember that the minds of young pupils are like 
 vessels with a narrow orifice. If you pour water in 
 great quantity upon them, it quickly runs off ; if you 
 pour it upon them slowly, they will be filled in a 
 shorter time. Recently German schoolmen speak to 
 the same effect : "We must limit the amount of read- 
 ing matter and work on less material, but must try to 
 make capital out of it by a thorough and exhaustive 
 treatment. Only in this way can the ' intellectual 
 growth' be expected. Limitation is the first principle 
 of our art. A clear understanding of the classical 
 authors must be obtained by labor (das Verstdndniss 
 ist zu erarbeiten). For this reason the modern ten- 
 dency of increasing the amount of reading excessively 
 must be combated." 2 This holds good of English 
 reading as well as of L,atin and Greek. 
 
 One part of the prelection is called "eruditio". 
 We heard that Professor Willmann translated it, and 
 rightly so, by "antiquarian explanation. " For some 
 time past there was a tendency, particularly in Ger- 
 man schools, to devote too much time to the explana- 
 tion of antiquarian allusions, a method which was 
 detrimental to the linguistic and literary study of the 
 
 1 Woodstock Letters, 1. c., p. 190. 
 
 2 See Neue Jahrbucher, 1898, vol. II, p. 82. 
 
486 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 authors. Last year a writer 1 said that it was about 
 time to recover again the real authors, Virgil, Horace, 
 etc., who were almost lost in a mass of archaeological, 
 historical, and critical details. In fact, the "Homeric 
 Question" absorbed the interests of some teachers to 
 such a degree that the grand poems themselves were 
 nearly lost sight of. Antiquities should not be taught 
 in high schools and colleges ex professo, for this be- 
 longs to the university, but incidentally, as some 
 antiquarian subject occurs in the reading. Thus, 
 while reading Caesar, Roman military antiquities are 
 explained : the legion, weapons, military roads, etc. 
 Xenophon's Anabasis affords an opportunity for giv- 
 ing details on Greek and Persian warfare. Cicero's 
 various works will call for explanations of the Roman 
 constitution, courts, elections, of the different offices 
 of Consul, Praetor, Tribune, Aedile, Pontifex ; for 
 descriptions of the forum, villas, family life, etc. 
 Plato's Dialogues demand a fair knowledge of Athen- 
 ian life and manners ; Homer's epics can be made 
 interesting by details of the life and customs of the 
 heroic age of the Greeks, which may be compared 
 with similar traits found in the epics of other nations : 
 the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and the German Nibelungen- 
 lied (a good translation should be read). 
 
 The practical method of teaching antiquities in 
 Jesuit schools we learn from Jouvancy. Thus speak- 
 ing of the word fatum, which occurs in a sentence, he 
 says : explain the meaning which this word had with 
 the ancients, and what we Christians have to think of 
 it. Bellum indixerit. Explain the manner in which 
 
 1 Professor Pliiss, in Neue Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VII, 
 page 74. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 487 
 
 the Romans declared war. This is described in Rosi- 
 nus, 1 Abram, 2 and Cantel, 3 etc. Speaking of an 
 explanation of Virgil's Aeneid XII, 425-440, Jouvancy 
 says : "In the fourth place, as to erudition : Major egit 
 Deus : Explain which gods were called Dii majores or 
 majorum gentium, which minorum gentium. When 
 you come to the word clypeus, describe the different 
 kinds of shield, show the difference between parma, 
 pelta, scutumj etc., and explain how the soldiers 
 formed the testudo, etc. Speaking of the ninth 
 chapter of Cicero's De Senectute, he wants some ex- 
 planation of the Roman warship and navy, descriptions 
 of how the votes were taken in the senate, etc. 
 
 Another very instructive document shows how 
 much was comprised under the term "general erudi- 
 tion/' In 1710, the text book of the third class 
 (suprema grammatica) of the College of Aix in France 
 was Cicero's De Senectute. The pupils had to answer 
 the following questions : Who and what was Cicero ? 
 What is the subject of his book on Old Age f Why 
 was Cato chosen as speaker on this topic? Which 
 motives induced Cicero to compose this work ? Who 
 was Atticus, and how did he obtain this name ? Who 
 was Flaminius? What victory is recorded of him? 
 Who were Titon and Ariston ? What does the legend 
 say of the former? What did the Stoics mean by say- 
 ing that we must follow nature? What were the 
 consuls, praetors, aediles, and quaestors among the 
 
 1 Lutheran preacher, died at Naumburg, Germany, 1626, 
 author of Antiquitates Romanae. 
 
 2 Jesuit, died at Pont-Ji-Mousson, 1655. 
 
 3 Jesuit, died at Paris 1684, wrote De Repnblica Romano, 
 ad explicandos Scriptores antiques. 
 
488 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Romans? What the tribunes of the people, and the 
 augurs? What opinions were held about omens? 
 What was the Lex Cincia f By whom and on what 
 occasion was it made ? What do you know about the 
 war to which Cato urged the Romans so persistently ? 
 What was the senate? What is the derivation of the 
 word? Who was Naevius? Relate what you know 
 about his poems, his exile, and his death. Who was 
 Cyrus ? Narrate the foundation of the Persian king- 
 dom, etc. What was the Summus Pontifex, the dicta- 
 tor, the military tribune ? Describe the legion. What 
 did the Romans understand by clients? What were 
 the sentiments of the Romans about patriotism ? What 
 do you know about Thermopylae, Tarentum, Capua, 
 Mount Etna, Picenum, Cisalpine Gaul? What was 
 the Rostra ? What do you know about the Olympian 
 games ? etc. , etc. 1 
 
 It is clear, then, that the history of literature, the 
 history of manners, customs, and political institutions, 
 biography, mythology, and geography, found a place 
 in the explanation of authors. This field was so wide 
 and so attractive that there was a great danger lest the 
 teachers, especially the younger, should spend too 
 much time in antiquarian details, to the detriment of 
 the less interesting, but more necessary linguistic and 
 literary training of the pupils. It is for this reason 
 that both the Ratio and Jouvancy exhort the teacher 
 to give such explanations but "sparingly". By this 
 it is not implied that the information should be meagre, 
 but that it should be moderate, not excessive. The 
 preceding testimonies prove also how unjustly Huber, 
 Compayre, and others have asserted that the Jesuits 
 
 1 Chossat, /. <:., pp. 337339. 
 
OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 489 
 
 aim at mere literary dilettantism, cleverness of speech; 
 that they direct the pupil's attention not to the thought 
 but to form. 1 This is what they call "Jesuitical 
 formalism. " However, it is not Jesuitical at all. The 
 above-cited questions certainly were directed towards 
 the understanding of the thoughts of the authors. 
 This method of questioning the pupils about the con- 
 tents, the ideas of a literary work, was also eminently 
 fitted to stimulate in the pupils self-activity and inde- 
 pendent thinking. For this reason Quick's judgment 
 on the Jesuit system is not correct, when he says that 
 it "suppressed originality and independence of mind, 
 love of truth for its own sake, the power of reflecting 
 and of forming correct judgments." 2 Should he, 
 however, take independence of thought in the sense 
 now usually attached to it, as unrestrained rationalism 
 which places private judgment above the teaching of 
 the Bible and the whole deposit of Divine Revelation, 
 then we admit that the Jesuits are opposed to this in- 
 dependence of thought; for it is the proud spirit of re- 
 bellion against God. Yet this is no longer an educa- 
 tional, but rather a philosophical and theological 
 question, and those authors have unwarrantably 
 dragged this discussion into their books on the history 
 of educational methods. 
 
 We stated before that the linguistic training must 
 always remain a more prominent part of the prelection 
 than the antiquarian and other information. Here, 
 however, another mistake must be avoided, which 
 easily creeps into the teaching of the classics, a mis- 
 take which was not uncommon in the German schools 
 
 1 Compayr, Hist, of Fed., p. 144. 
 
 2 Educ. Ref., p. 50. 
 
490 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 before the recent reforms, namely, to make the authors 
 the means of studying, repeating, or * 'drilling" the 
 rules of grammar, etymology, and syntax. This 
 makes the reading unpleasant, as every now and then 
 a grammatical rule is asked, paradigms are repeated, 
 etc. , so that the author merely becomes subservient to 
 the grammar, whereas the very contrary ought to be 
 the case, especially in the higher classes. This faulty 
 practice is altogether opposed to the Ratio, which 
 assigns a special time every day for repeating, study- 
 ing, and drilling grammar or the precepts of rhetoric 
 and poetry. l The 2yth rule of the teachers, which 
 lays down the method of explaining authors, does not 
 even mention among the various suggestions the ask- 
 ing of grammatical rules. Nor is this grammatical 
 drill contained in the schemata of Jouvancy for the 
 higher classes among the five or six points to be ob- 
 served in the prelection of authors. There is one 
 called Latinitas, but an examination of what is said 
 there shows that it is not a repetition of grammar, but, 
 as Professor Willmann says, it deals with the technique 
 of language, phraseology, .etc. Jouvancy remarks that 
 in the lower classes more attention is to be paid to 
 grammar, which at this stage is not yet mastered by 
 the pupils. This is in perfect accordance with the 
 Ratio. The teacher of the lowest class is told when 
 repeating the lesson of the previous day, "often to 
 have words declined, or conjugated, and to ask ques- 
 tions about grammar in various directions. ' ' 2 The 
 teacher of the next following class should sometimes do 
 the same. 3 This is a wise prescription, as in the low- 
 
 1 See the second rule of all the classes. 
 
 2 Reg. 5. 3 Reg. 5. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 491 
 
 est classes the pupils are to be introduced slowly into 
 the reading of the authors, and the grammatical part 
 must be treated more extensively. But the correspon- 
 ding rules of the third class no longer mention this 
 point. Certainly in the higher classes, particularly 
 Freshman and Sophomore, it is an abuse to make the 
 classics the vehicle of teaching grammar. An occa- 
 sional question is, of course, not excluded, on the 
 contrary necessary, whenever it appears from the 
 student's translation that he does not understand the 
 etymology, or the syntax of a phrase. But this is by 
 no means the abuse to which we referred. 
 
 This, then, is the prelection, the most important 
 and most characteristic point in the practical applica- 
 tion of the Ratio Studiorum. It is scarcely necessary 
 to add that the Society needs no apology for this part, 
 nor has she any reason to attempt any change of it. 
 
 As this manner of explaining authors is so much 
 in accord with sound reason, we cannot be surprised 
 that the Ratio insists on following the same system 
 of course, mutatis mutandis in the teaching' of the 
 mother-tongue. The authors in the mother-tongue 
 should be explained in nearly the same manner as the 
 ancient writers. l The very same principle is em- 
 phasized by some of the best teachers of English, as 
 for instance by Professor Bain. This writer distin- 
 guishes two methods of teaching higher Knglish. The 
 one a systematic course, in which "an exemplary 
 lesson would consist in the statement and illustration 
 of some rhetorical point or rule of style say, the 
 figure of hyperbole, the quality of simplicity, or the 
 art of expounding by example. This, however, 
 
 1 Ratio Studiorum: Reg. com. 28, 2. 
 
492 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 I deem a superfluous lesson ; it would be little better 
 than making an extract from a rhetorical treatise. 
 There is another kind of lesson which does not exclude 
 the methodical teaching of rhetoric, but co-operates 
 with that in the most effectual way. It is the criticism 
 of authors, with a view to the exhibition of rhetorical 
 merits and defects as they turn up casually. An out- 
 line of rhetoric is almost essential to the efficiency of 
 this kind of lesson ; yet with only an outline it may 
 successfully be carried out. It suffices to raise the 
 questions most proper to be considered in English 
 teaching. ' ' l 
 
 The second method which this writer advocates is 
 that of the Ratio. Professor Bain illustrates his prin- 
 ciple by various examples from leading authors : 
 Macaulay, Samuel Bailey, Carlyle ; and he develops 
 these examples exactly as Jouvancy did in the case of 
 Cicero and Virgil. The Scotch Professor finds fault 
 with the "too much" of explanation on archaic forms, 
 sources of the play, etc., in the modern editions of 
 Shakespeare. 2 Is not this again the principle of the 
 Ratio which insists on such details being given spar- 
 ingly? Naturally the treatment of passages varies 
 according to the character of the book, that of a sketch 
 from Irving must be quite different from that of a play 
 of Shakespeare, just as a chapter from Caesar or Nepos 
 is explained differently from an Ode of Horace, or a 
 Chorus of Sophocles. We may add a schema for read- 
 ing an English author. 3 The principles are the same 
 as those in the preceding schemata. 
 
 1 On Teaching English, ch. V, p. 48 foil. 
 
 2 Ibid., ch. VI, page 85 foil. 
 
 3 See Fitch, Lectures on Teaching. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 493 
 
 How to read English authors , v. g. a drama of Shake- 
 speare? 
 
 i. Read first the whole piece, quickly, uncritically, 
 to gain a knowledge of its contents ; or induce the 
 pupils to do it at home, but in this case examine 
 whether they do so. 2. Explain then part after part: 
 all archaic words, difficult constructions, until every- 
 thing is understood. 3. Explain historical and liter- 
 ary allusions. 4. Explain the plot, the tragic idea, 
 the chief characters (in an oration, the proposition 
 and the argumentation). 5. Criticise the work as a 
 whole. Show its excellences and shortcomings. 
 6. Have choice passages learned by heart, and de- 
 livered well. Besides, for each lesson make the pupils 
 write something on the lesson previously explained : 
 let them give the contents of a scene, write a synopsis, 
 criticise a passage, or explain a beautiful sentence. 
 Otherwise there is a danger that some will not even 
 look at the author at home. 
 
 2. Memory Lessons. 
 
 The nineteenth rule prescribes the regular recita- 
 tion of memory lessons. These frequent practices of 
 the memory in Jesuit schools have often been cen- 
 sured by modern writers. 1 But renowned teachers as 
 Dr. Arnold of Rugby, 2 in fact, all educators that are 
 not mere theorizers, strongly insist on the necessity of 
 these exercises. 
 
 Why should we exercise the memory of the pupils ? 3 
 The answer to this question in general is : because we 
 
 1 "The Jesuits maintain the abuse of memory." Corn- 
 pay re", /. ., p. 140. 
 
 2 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 50. 
 
 3 See Woodstock Letters, 1894, p. 325 sq. 
 
494 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 must train the whole man. An old adage has it : 
 "Tantum scimus quantum memoria retinemus." Boy- 
 hood is the best season for memory work, and also the 
 time when that* faculty should be thoroughly drilled. 
 Professor Sclinell, quoted by Father Kleutgen, 1 says: 
 "The school of the second period of childhood (10 to 
 14) is before everything else a school of memory, and 
 during it more will and must be given to and absorbed 
 by the memory than during any other period of life." 
 And Father Pachtler 2 observes : "The lower the class 
 the more is exercise of the memory to be insisted on. ' ' 
 Again: "The mental power which is first developed 
 is the memory. It is the strongest in boyhood and in 
 the first years of youth, and decreases gradually with 
 the development of the body, until, in old age, it is 
 confined to the impressions produced in youth, and is 
 remarkably weak in retaining impressions fixedly. 
 We must strike the iron whilst it is hot, and so make 
 use of boyhood for the acquisition of those subjects 
 which require the most memory, the learning of gram- 
 mar and the languages which are the foundation of a 
 college career. " 
 
 If it is asked what should be learned by heart, it 
 is not easy to give an adequate answer. This much 
 is certain that the more important rules of grammar 
 must be committed to memory; then choice passages 
 from the best authors in English and Latin, and a few 
 from the Greek. Among the finest loci memoriales in 
 Latin are the orations of L,ivy, v. g. that of Hannibal 
 to his soldiers, the exordia of the orations of Cicero, 
 striking passages from Virgil, some odes of Horace, 
 
 1 Alte und neue Schulen, p. 57, note. 
 
 2 Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, vol. XVIII, p. 242. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE, 495. 
 
 the account of the "four ages' 7 from Ovid's Metamor- 
 phoses, etc. In Greek it will be well to have the 
 exordia of the Odyssey and Iliad learned by heart; 
 Greek gnomes are also x/aucra 1^ truly "golden words"; 
 they may serve to fix easily certain important rules of 
 syntax in the mind of the pupils. At the same time, 
 they well illustrate as in fact the adages and proverbs 
 of every nation the most common ethical and every 
 day life principles. To make clear what we mean, 
 we may be allowed to quote a few of these Greek 
 gnomes ; they should be compared with similar Eng- 
 lish proverbs, if such exist, or with those of other 
 nations, or with the sayings of Scripture and great 
 authors. 
 
 '0 /XT; Sapeis dvOpajTros ov TraideveTcu. 
 ZiJ<rets fttov /cpdrurroj', &v 6v/M>v Kparys. 
 
 (A friend in need, a friend indeed.) 
 
 OVTOI 7T00' &\j/L rC)V OLKp&V &VV Tr6vOV. 
 
 (Per aspera ad astra. No pains no gains.) 
 fjLa\\ov r) TT\OVTOV Aca\6j>. 
 
 rbv 0eov <f>6(3ov. l 
 
 It is not necessary to give specimens from the 
 English. In general, such passages should be chosen 
 whose contents are worth remembering, be it from the 
 ethical, aesthetical, poetical, or historical point of 
 view. The most beautiful and most elevating thoughts 
 from the world's literature, treasured up in the mem- 
 ory, will also afford considerable help for the writing 
 of essays. 
 
 1 The excellent Greek Exercise Book by Professor Kaegi 
 (English edition by James Kleist, S. J. Herder, St. Louis, 
 1902) contains a great number of such gnomes. 
 
49 6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 A few suggestions may be added about the manner 
 of learning by heart. Passages from good authors 
 are to be known word for word. The same will 
 ordinarily apply to the rules of grammar; the precepts 
 of rhetoric and of poetry may either be gotten in the 
 same way, or the sense simply may be exacted. The 
 matter which is to be committed to memory should be 
 understood. It will be most useful to instruct the 
 pupils how to memorize. They should not try to 
 learn the lesson as one whole, but rather they should 
 memorize one or two lines at a time, a sentence, or a 
 clause ; then the second sentence or line of poetry. 
 After two are well known they should be repeated 
 together. Then a third sentence is learned and again 
 united with those learned previously. The principle 
 of the old Romans : Divide et impem, will here be 
 applied. These suggestions may appear minute, and 
 it may be objected that each individual has a way 
 of his own which is just right for him. However, 
 a little questioning of pupils will show that their 
 method of memorizing is very frequently erroneous, 
 and that instruction on such matters will be far from 
 amiss. One great mistake of students is to try to learn 
 by heart when their minds are bothered and distracted. 
 Memory work is best done when body and mind are 
 quiet; impressions then made are deeper and will last. 
 This is the fundamental secret of the various much 
 vaunted systems of memory which have been paraded 
 about in different times. Concentrate the mind, is 
 their motto, and then you will memorize with ease 
 and tenaciously. Very few people, boys or not, have 
 the self-control to concentrate their minds when they 
 are disturbed. This is one of the reasons why it is 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE). 497 
 
 best to learn by heart in the early morning, before the 
 thoughts and feelings of a new day crowd upon one. 
 Father Sacchini 1 recommends the pupil to go over his 
 task when walking or alone, the same principle, as is 
 clear, being involved. 
 
 When should the lessons be recited f By looking into 
 the Ratio, in the second rule for the several classes, 
 we find that the beginning of both sessions is set aside 
 for the recitation of memory lessons. On Saturday 
 the lessons of the whole week are to be repeated. 
 Father Sacchini 2 speaks of monthly and yearly re- 
 petitions by heart. He adds an exhortation to the 
 professor never to omit the recitation of memory les- 
 sons, and to exact them to the letter. It is hardly 
 possible, in this case, to hear everything from every- 
 body, so the professor may call on a few only, or ask 
 but a part from each. It is very useful to have, say a 
 whole exordium, or an entire description, thus repeated. 
 Another such recitation is held when a whole speech 
 or book has been seen. This public recitation is to 
 take place from the platform ; it might be made an 
 item in the entertainments given one another by the 
 different classes. It is incomparably more advantageous 
 to the pupil to deliver thus by heart and declaim with 
 the pomp and ceremony of public elocution a master- 
 piece of literature which he has been taught through 
 and through, than to fit gestures and modulate his 
 voice to some half-understood and often inferior com- 
 position which he has not had the time, nor the 
 patience, nor the ability to make his own. 
 
 The habit of giving memory lines, for punishment, 
 
 1 Paraenesis, art. 8, sec. 3. 
 
 2 Paraenesis y ib. y sect. 2. 
 
 32 
 
498 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 from passages which the offender does not understand 
 is to be seriously deprecated. If it produces no other 
 evil effect, it at least is a great loss of time, seeing that 
 the hours so spent might have been devoted to learn- 
 ing something that would educate all the faculties. 
 
 It seems very important that the pupils should be 
 directed to be careful to give their memory lessons 
 according to the sense and feeling ; in reciting poetry 
 attention is to be paid to the quantities and, above all, 
 to the caesuras; then the lines will sound like music. 
 This is unquestionably the surest way of making good 
 speakers, and is far superior as an elocutionary practice 
 to any weekly or less frequent class of elocution. It is 
 also for this reason of the utmost importance that the 
 professor should read the authors well, and see that 
 the pupils read according to the sense of the passage. 
 
 3. Written Exercises. 1 
 
 Themes, in the broadest sense, including imitation 
 exercises and free essays, are of the greatest impor- 
 tance. They force the pupils to concentration of 
 thought, and give them patience and facility in writ- 
 
 1 In a recent article in the Fortnightly Review, Novem- 
 ber 1902 ("Are the Classics to Go?"), Professor Postgate, 
 a distinguished English scholar, writes: "If the 'dead* lan- 
 guages and literatures are not to retire into the background, 
 they must be taught as if they were alive" (p. 878). "Trans- 
 lations from English into I/atin or Greek is a most valuable 
 traiiiing and necessary part of classical training ; but it ought 
 not to have superseded original composition. . . . From the 
 first, speaking and writing I^atin should go hand in hand with 
 reading" (pp. 879-880). Professor Postgate calls these "im- 
 proved methods"; improved, surely, if he speaks of nearly 
 all systems in vogue during the last century, not however in 
 regard to the system of the Society of Jesus, which always 
 practised this system, as will appear from the next pages. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 499 
 
 ing. As we said before, it is most advisable, also in 
 the teaching of English, to make the students write 
 at least some sentences every day. A short Latin 
 theme should be given almost daily, and a Greek 
 theme at least once a week. It is a good custom in 
 many Jesuit colleges in this country to give an Eng- 
 lish composition for Monday. If the principle main- 
 tained by St. Ignatius in the ''Spiritual Exercises" is 
 true, that one advances according to the amount of 
 his own self -exertion, not that of his director merely, 
 then these provisions for much and frequent written 
 work were well made. It is not easy to conceive, in 
 the light of this rule, how any one can complain that 
 in the Jesuit system the pupil has nothing to do. He 
 rather has everything to do ; the professor goes before 
 him, indeed, and shows him how, but then demands 
 personal application, and that of not the lightest kind, 
 from the pupil who means to advance. 1 
 
 The subject of L,atin and Greek themes, whether 
 they are a translation of the teacher's dictation or a 
 free work of the pupils, should be taken, as far as 
 possible, from the authors read in class. Shorter 
 single sentences must be translated especially in the 
 lower classes, in order to apply and practise the rules 
 of grammar. But the exercises should as early as 
 possible consist of connected pieces, descriptions, nar- 
 rations etc. and should contain the vocables of the 
 Latin and Greek authors read during that period; in 
 short, the exercises should be based on the authors 
 read in class. During the greater part of the last cen- 
 tury there was an excessive use of so-called exercise- 
 books, consisting either of unconnected sentences, or 
 
 1 Woodstock Letters, 1894, p. 329. 
 
500 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of such connected pieces as had no relation to the 
 authors studied at the time. Of late years this practice 
 is condemned more and more, and we think rightly so. 
 The new " Prussian School Order" prescribes the for- 
 mer system. 1 And recently an American writer could 
 state that "the grammatical training is now brought 
 into more vital connection with the study of classic 
 literature. The writing of L,atin verse is generally 
 discarded. Prose composition is receiving increased 
 attention, and is now more imitative in its character 
 than formerly, being commonly based on the L,atin 
 and Greek masterpiece which the class is studying at 
 the same time." 2 Is this a new invention? It is 
 'exactly the method prescribed by the Ratio. Thus 
 the 3oth of the Common Rules reads: "The theme 
 should be dictated not off-hand but after careful con- 
 sideration and generally from a written copy. It 
 ought to be directed, as far as possible, to the imita- 
 tion of Cicero." Two things are contained in this 
 rule : First, the teacher is to write out the dictation 
 himself, not to take it from an exercise book; secondly, 
 the dictation is to be based on the author studied at 
 the time. Cicero is mentioned because he was for- 
 merly the, author read with preference. Besides, other 
 rules say that the dictation may follow other authors, 
 especially historians. 3 The rules for the teachers of 
 the different classes enjoin that the same method be 
 followed. 4 Thus the professor of Humanities is told 
 that "it is often advantageous so to compose the 
 
 1 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben, 1901, pp. 23, 25, 29, etc. 
 
 2 Education in the United States, (1900), vol. I, p. 185. 
 
 3 Reg. Prof. Rhet. 1. Reg. Prof. Hum. 6. 
 
 4 Reg. Prof. Rhet. 9. Prof. Hum. 6. Prof. Supr. 
 Gram. 6. 
 
MKTHOD OF TK ACHING IN PRACTICK. 50 1 
 
 theme that the whole may be gathered here and there 
 from passages already explained. ' ' 
 
 Indeed, this system affords many great advantages. 
 The reading is made useful for the writing, and the 
 writing helps considerably for the thorough under- 
 standing of what has been read. The students will 
 have to ponder over the author, to examine the words, 
 the figures, the phrases, and so they imbibe little by 
 little the genius of the language. Thus imitation- 
 exercises are made useful and easy at the same time. 
 The dictionary need not be consulted for every ex- 
 pression, a custom which entails much waste of time 
 with relatively little fruit. We quoted Dr. Stanley 
 Hall's words, 1 that "one of the best German teachers 
 told him that the boy should never see a dictionary or 
 even a vocabulary, but the teacher must be a 'pony'." 
 This is the old principle of the Ratio. The teacher is 
 told that "after the dictation of the theme he should 
 straightway call for the reading of the theme. Then 
 he should explain anything that may be difficult, 
 suggest words, phrases and other helps. " 2 Is not 
 here the teacher, what modern educators want him to 
 be in their 'ideal school,' the boy's dictionary, vocab- 
 ulary and 'pony'? But above all this practice pro- 
 duces unity in the various exercises. It is needless to 
 say that the same principle can be followed with best 
 success in the teaching of English. The compositions 
 ought to be based on the work studied in class. 3 
 
 1 From The Forum, Sept. 1901 ; "The Ideal School." 
 
 2 Reg. com. 30. 
 
 3 How this can be done may be seen from a little book 
 recently published by a Jesuit: Imitation and Analysis; 
 English Exercises based on Irving" s Sketch Book, by F. Don- 
 nelly, S. J. (Boston, 1902, Allyu and Bacon.) 
 
502 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The imitation exercises should, however, not be a 
 slavish imitation of the author; there may be a great 
 variety in these exercises. Father Jouvancy gives 
 some valuable hints on this subject. 1 " Translate, " 
 he writes, "a passage, say from Cicero, into the native 
 tongue; afterwards, without looking at Cicero, retrans- 
 late it into Latin. Then compare your Latin with 
 that of Cicero and correct yours wherever it is neces- 
 sary. Experience has proved that many have greatly 
 benefited by this excellent practice. Another time 
 you may write out a sketch of an argument or write 
 down the train of thought found in the original 
 author, then work it out, clothe, as it were, this 
 skeleton with flesh and nerves. This being finished 
 the new production is to be compared with the 
 original ; not only will the difference appear but also 
 many improvements will be suggested. There is a 
 third way of imitating authors. Take a beautiful 
 passage from an author, change the subject matter 
 into one similar or opposite. Then, following in the 
 foot-steps of the author, use, as far as possible, the 
 same figures, periods, connections, transitions. Thus 
 in the oration against Piso, Cicero shows that a 
 seditious mob is not to be honored with the name of 
 the ' Roman people.' In a similar manner it may be 
 shown who really deserves to be styled a Christian, a 
 gentleman, a scholar." Jouvancy justly remarks that 
 this method of self -training is the best substitute, if 
 another instructor and guide cannot be obtained. 
 For the great authors themselves become the teachers, 
 guides and correctors of the student. 
 
 1 Ratio Discendi, ch. 1, art. 2, 4. Cf. Quintilian, Inst. 
 Or. X, 2. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 503 
 
 That such imitations may be masterpieces in them- 
 selves, is proved by more than one instance. A great 
 number of the works of L,atin writers are imitations of 
 Greek types. And many * fiery harangues of the 
 speakers of the French Revolution are fashioned after 
 Cicero's invectives against Catiline and Anthony. 
 
 Every one sees that this excellent method of 
 imitating good authors can be applied to the study of 
 English with the greatest advantage. 2 He who takes 
 a descriptive passage from Washington Irving, or an 
 argument from Burke, Pitt, or Webster and works it- 
 out according to these rules of Jouvancy, will surely 
 improve his style provided he keeps for a long time 
 to the same author. For changing from one author to 
 another, as a butterfly flits from flower to flower, like 
 all desultory work, will produce very little result. 
 
 The correction of the written exercises is a very 
 troublesome and uninteresting work, the worst 
 drudgery of the teacher's daily life. But it is, as the 
 2ist rule says, of the greatest importance and there- 
 fore to be done conscientiously. The Ratio advises 
 the teacher to correct the exercises in class, while the 
 boys are writing or studying for themselves. One boy 
 after the other is called up to the teacher's desk, and 
 his mistakes are pointed out to him; he may himself 
 be asked why it is wrong and correct it himself ; par- 
 ticular instructions may be given, a word of praise or of 
 rebuke may be added. Such private corrections afford 
 many advantages. But much time may be lost to 
 teaching and for this reason the rule says "those 
 
 1 See Zielinski, Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte. 
 
 2 Compare the excellent observations on the value of 
 the "Reproduction of the Thought of Others," in Genung's 
 Practical Rhetoric, pp. 301325. 
 
504 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 themes which, owing to the great number, cannot be 
 corrected in class, should be corrected at home." 
 Many teachers have the following system. They 
 correct all themes at home and return them to the 
 students the following day, with the mistakes marked. 
 Then, if it is a dictation, a boy is called up to trans- 
 late, the other boys correct him, all comparing their 
 own translations. The pupils will see in most cases 
 why their translations are marked, if not, they should 
 ask immediately, and the teacher may ask other boys 
 why such and such a translation is a mistake. A 
 correct copy should then be made, dictated by the 
 teacher; in lower classes it may be well to have it 
 written by someone on the blackboard. 
 
 It is evident that great neatness is to be insisted on 
 in the themes. It is easier to keep paper neat and 
 clean if the themes be exacted on single sheets. But 
 the boys will, as a rule, be more careful, if they have 
 copy books, which are to be used until they are filled. 
 They do not like to see many mistakes in their copy 
 books. In the German and Austrian gymnasia there 
 exists an admirable system. Every exercise in the 
 copy-book has at the top the running number, opposite 
 on the margin the date. Corrections of the teachers 
 and marks are made in red ink : the pupils' correc- 
 tions are to be added at the end. Every month one 
 review in L,atin and one in Greek, written in ink 
 on single sheets of the same size and kind, marked by 
 the teacher, are to be handed in to the Director of the 
 institution, who at any time may also ask for the 
 copy-books of the class. The Government- Inspectors, 
 who from time to time visit the colleges, carefully 
 examine the copy-books, thus controlling the work of 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 505 
 
 teachers and pupils alike. This system has many and 
 great advantages. It requires hard and conscientious 
 work on the part of the teacher especially, but is 
 producing admirable results. A similar system exists in 
 some Jesuit colleges. During the semi-annual exam- 
 inations all the copy-books are exhibited in the class 
 room or wherever the examination is conducted, to be 
 inspected by the President, and the Prefect of Studies. 
 It is very important that the copy-books be returned 
 as soon as possible, as the work done by the pupils is 
 still fresh in their mind. An exception to this rule 
 must necessarily be made in the case of English com- 
 position, especially longer essays, the correction of 
 which naturally requires more time. 
 
 This exercise of writing L,atin and Greek themes, 
 particularly free L,atin compositions, has within the last 
 decades met with great opposition. And yet, no exer- 
 cise is more useful and more necessary if a solid know- 
 ledge of these languages is to be obtained. The read- 
 ing of authors alone will not suffice. This is the 
 conviction of the most experienced schoolmen. Even 
 Greek exercises must be written, that a firmer hold 
 may be obtained on the facts of accidence, of syntax, 
 and of idiom. 1 And without any practice in writing 
 the understanding of the classical authors will scarcely 
 be more than superficial. 2 Even the writing of L,atin 
 verse may not be so useless as some represent it. Quite 
 recently one of the most distinguished scholars of 
 Germany, Professor von Wilamowitz, of the Berlin 
 University, made a strong plea for this much decried 
 
 1 Bristol, The Teaching of Greek, p. 301. See on pp. 
 298 307 some excellent remarks on Greek compositions. 
 Bennett, The Teaching of Latin, p. 172. 
 
506 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 exercise. 1 Similarly Dr. Ilberg of Leipsic, who wrote 
 last year: "The 'antiquated' art of writing L,atin 
 verses does not deserve the contempt and the sneers 
 with which it has been treated. It is an exercise 
 which requires not only knowledge of the language, 
 but also exertion of the imagination. The writing of 
 Latin verses belongs to those exercises which challenge 
 the pupil to produce something of his own, and which 
 make him enjoy the pleasant sensation of having 
 achieved something. ' ' 2 Hence Sir Joshua Fitch goes 
 beyond the bounds of moderation when he asserts that 
 "enormous injury is done to the rank and file of boys 
 by this antiquated and soulless exercise ; which inevi- 
 tably produces weariness and disgust, and sets a false 
 and ignoble ideal of scholarship before the pupils. ' ' 3 
 There is in this sweeping condemnation, as in most 
 similar indictments of old customs, a false supposition. 
 We doubt whether any one considers the * 'manufacture 
 of I/atin verses the ultimate test, the ideal and crown 
 of scholarship." Still, it is one of the many means, 
 although a very subordinate one, of acquiring an 
 accomplished and all around scholarship. Above all, 
 the writing of verses will help to appreciate more fully 
 the classical poets. 
 
 In this connection we must say a few words on 
 another exercise, much insisted on by the Ratio, viz. 
 speaking L,atin. Few points of the Ratio have been 
 more misrepresented and derided than this. But this 
 without good cause. Facility in speaking L,atin is not 
 the principal aim of the Jesuit system. This follows 
 
 1 Reden mid Vortrdge, Berlin, 1901. 
 
 2 Neue Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VII, p. 71. 
 
 3 Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 39. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE). 507 
 
 from the tenor of the whole Ratio, and is sufficiently 
 proved by our former statement that branches of study 
 are merely the means to attain the one object of all 
 instruction, the cultivation of the mind. A language 
 so our modern educators say is learned much 
 more quickly, if spoken ; it becomes easy and familiar 
 and, in a way, natural. That the speaking of Latin 
 is, after all, not so absurd, may be seen from the fact 
 that some of the ablest scholars of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury have advocated it. Thus the great Latinist, Dr. 
 Seyffert, says: "Without speaking, the writing of 
 Latin will always remain a half-measure and patch- 
 work." Also Dr. Dettweiler, one of the best modern 
 authorities on the study of Latin, recommends the 
 speaking of this language. 1 However, the attitude of 
 the Society in this point has changed. The Society 
 adapts itself in this respect, as in many others, to the 
 tendency of the times. This may be inferred from a 
 comparison between the Ratio of 1599 and that of 
 1832. The old Ratio enjoins the teacher to insist 
 rigorously that the boys speak Latin in all matters 
 pertaining to school work, except in the lowest class, 
 where they do not know Latin. 2 The corresponding 
 rule in the revised Ratio reads as follows: ' 'The teacher 
 should take great care that the pupils acquire practice 
 in speaking Latin. For this reason he should speak 
 Latin from the highest grammar class on, and should 
 insist on the use of Latin, especially in explaining the 
 precepts, in correcting Latin compositions, in the con- 
 certationes (contests between the boys), and in their 
 
 1 Didaktik des Lat. Unt., page 110. See also Rollin, 
 Traite des etudes, livre II, ch. Ill, art. 3. 
 
 2 Reg. mag. schol. inf. 18. See Woodstock Letters, 1894, 
 p. 322 foil. 
 
508 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 conversations. ' ' The revised rule does not prescribe 
 the colloquial use of Latin as early as was done in 
 former days. But still it must be remembered that the 
 practice of speaking Latin must be gradually intro- 
 duced, and, therefore, the lower classes are supposed 
 also to have Latin in use, although not so extensively. 
 
 Be it remarked, however, that the colloquial use of 
 Latin is, by no means, insisted on in the Ratio for its 
 practical value ; for Latin is no longer the universal 
 language of the educated world, as it was some cen- 
 turies ago. From time to time, indeed, we hear of 
 efforts being made to restore Latin to its old place. 
 Thus in the oration at the Leibnitz celebration of the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, May 29, 1899, 
 the chief speaker advocated the introduction of Latin 
 as the international language of learned men. How- 
 ever, vSUch efforts are too few, too sporadic, to influence 
 the wider circles, at least for the near future. Nay 
 more, it seems almost certain that Latin will never 
 acquire that domineering influence which it formerly 
 exercised. In those days the national languages and 
 literatures were not fully developed. But now they 
 have attained a high degree of perfection, and have 
 gained a stronghold on the mind of the people. Be- 
 sides, most of the books of great scientific value are 
 either written in German, English, or French, or are 
 speedily translated into one of these languages, and in 
 our days, no one can lay claim to scholarship who 
 does not master one or other of them besides his 
 mother-tongue. The Society of Jesus has simply, in 
 the words of the Jesuit Ebner, watched the trend of 
 events, and adapted herself and her teaching in this 
 point, as in others, to the new conditions. 1 She strives 
 
 1 Jesuiten-Gymnasien in Oesterreich. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 509 
 
 to teach Latin thoroughly, and therefore urges the 
 colloquial use of Latin as a most valuable means to 
 that end, although at present not in the same degree 
 as in former centuries when facility in speaking Latin 
 had, moreover, a directly practical purpose. 
 
 The educational experiments of Germany during 
 the last ten years afford an interesting illustration of 
 what has been said in this chapter. It is known that, 
 after the Berlin Conference of 1890, Latin lost fifteen 
 hours a week in the nine classes of the gymnasium. 
 The Latin compositions particularly were reduced 
 considerably, almost completely abolished. What was 
 the result? Very soon complaints were heard from 
 all sides that in consequence of these changes the 
 teaching of Latin had been greatly injured. 1 It be- 
 came evident that more extensive writing of Latin was 
 necessary to obtain the linguistic and logical training 
 of the mind, which is one of the foremost objects of 
 Latin instruction. Only these exercises, the practical 
 application of the rules of etymology and syntax, the 
 careful examination of the peculiarities of style in the 
 higher classes, and constant comparison with the 
 mother-tongue, by means of translations and re-trans- 
 lations, give a thorough knowledge and insight into 
 the language. 2 
 
 These are the principles on which the Ratio and 
 Jouvancy had insisted centuries ago, and which were 
 emphasized by tke General of the Society in 1893, at 
 the very time when the German schools saw fit to 
 
 1 See Verhandlungen, 1901, pp. 282 foil. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 286: "Vielfache Uebungen bin und her, die ein 
 stetes Umdenken der Vorlagen erfordern, sollen sein (the 
 pupil's) Wissen gelaufig, sein Konneu gewandt machen und 
 ihn allniahlich zu eiuem sicheren Sprachgefiihl verhelfen." 
 
5 1 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 abandon them. But experience soon forced the Ger- 
 man authorities to revert to what had been thrown 
 overboard. In 1895 permission was granted to add 
 one hour weekly in the higher classes, which was to 
 be devoted to practice in writing and to the application 
 and repetition of rules of grammar and style. For, as 
 Professor Fries declared, 1 the curtailing of these exer- 
 cises had proved to be the weakest point of the changes 
 made after 1890. In the second conference, in 1900, 
 the opinion of the most distinguished scholars was 
 most positive in demanding a further strengthening of 
 these exercises. 2 It was proposed 3 that a L,atin com- 
 position should again be required for the last examina- 
 tion. Nay more, Dr. Kiibler advocated one would 
 have thought it impossible after the vehement denun- 
 ciations of this exercise the practice of speaking 
 L,atin. "It has been exceedingly gratifying to me," 
 he said, "to learn that the Ministry of Instruction 
 will grant greater liberty for these exercises, especially 
 that the speaking of L,atin shall no longer be proscribed 
 as heretofore. ' ' 4 Before him the commissary of the 
 Government, Dr. Matthias, had declared that besides 
 more frequent translations into L,atin, more time and 
 attention should be devoted to the practice of speaking 
 L,atin, a practice which in the Goethe-Gymnasium in 
 Frankfurt (Reform-School) was carried on with most 
 gratifying results. 5 
 
 1 Verhandlungen y 1901, p. 288. 
 
 2 Verhandlungen, pp. 21, 129, 139. 
 
 3 By Director Kiibler and Prof. Harnack, ibid. y pp. 140 
 and 294. The latter declares Latin compositions to be ab- 
 solutely necessary for a satisfactory instruction in this 
 language. 
 
 4 /., p.139. 5 /., p. 129. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 511 
 
 In this reaction we may justly find a vindication 
 of the principle maintained all along by the Society, 
 in spite of the censures of some modern reformers. 
 
 4. Contests. 
 
 Among the various school exercises mentioned 
 by the Ratio Studiorum, we find the so-called concerta- 
 tioneSj or contests between boys of the same or of 
 different classes on matter that has been studied 
 previously. These contests have the same end in the 
 lower classes as the disputations in the higher : accus- 
 toming the boys to speak on the subject matter of the 
 class, giving them readiness of reply in answering 
 questions, in a word, making them masters of their 
 subjects. Ribadeneira speaks of them as follows : 
 "Many means are devised, and exercises employed, 
 to stimulate the minds of the young, assiduous dis- 
 putation, various trials of genius, prizes offered for 
 excellence in talent and industry. As penalty and 
 disgrace bridle the will and check it from pursuing 
 evil, so honor and praise quicken the sense wonder- 
 fully to attain the dignity and glory of virtue. ' ' l 
 
 All opponents of the Jesuits try to make a capital 
 point of "emulation" as recommended by the Ratio. 2 
 This "fostering of ambition" was styled "the charac- 
 teristic of the corrupt Jesuitical morality. ' ' We may 
 first ask : are the Jesuits the only educators that used 
 this means? Professor Paulsen answers our question 
 
 1 Hughes, Loyola , p. 90. 
 
 2 See v. g. Compayr^, p. 146. Seeley, p. 186. Painter, 
 p. 171-172, where the Jesuit system is stigmatized as "stimu- 
 lating baser feelings," "appealing to low motives," etc. 
 In France the Jesuits were attacked on this point also by M. 
 Michel Bre"al, in his Quelques mots snr V instruction publique. 
 
512 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 most appositely : <( The Jesuits know better, perhaps, 
 than others how to use declamations, contests, pre- 
 miums, etc. , effectively. Protestant educators are wont 
 to express their indignation, and to inveigh against 
 the Jesuits, for having made emulation the moving 
 power in learning. The practice of Protestant schools 
 never shared the disgust of these theorizers at the 
 use of emulation, and I do not know whether this 
 practice should be censured. It is true that the good 
 emulation is closely related to the bad, but without 
 the former there has never been a good school. ' ' l 
 
 That these exercises were by no means intended to 
 develop the bad emulation, or false self-love in the 
 young, is evident ; this would have been little to the 
 purpose with religious teachers. ' 'I,et them root out 
 from themselves, in every possible way, self-love and 
 the craving for vain glory," says the oldest code of 
 school rules in the Society, probably from the pen of 
 Father Peter Canisius. 2 What is appealed to, is the 
 spirit of good and noble emulation, honesta aemu- 
 latiOj as the Ratio says, and that by a world of 
 industry which spurs young students on to excellence 
 in whatever they undertake, and rewards the develop- 
 ment of natural energies with the natural luxury of 
 confessedly doing well. This makes the boys feel 
 happy in having done well, however little they enjoyed 
 the labor before, and will rouse them to new exertions. 
 Gradually they may then be led to have higher mo- 
 tives in their endeavors. Does not the Divine teacher 
 of mankind act similarly? He demands great sacri- 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 286. (First 
 edition ; the passage has been somewhat changed in the 
 second edition, I, p. 430.) 
 
 - Hughes, Loyola, p. 90. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 513 
 
 fices and arduous exertions of man : purity, humility, 
 meekness, patience, self-denial, but he always points 
 also to the reward, "theirs is the kingdom of heaven/' 
 "your reward in heaven is exceedingly great." God 
 promises also earthly blessings to those that observe 
 his commandments : ' ' Honor thy father and thy 
 mother, that thou mayest be long lived upon the land 
 which the Lord thy God will give thee. " Why, then, 
 should it be unlawful and immoral to employ rewards 
 in the education of the young, who are not yet able to 
 grasp the highest motives of well-doing? Or is it 
 probable that young pupils will readily be diligent, 
 when told that they ought to do their work ? Kant's 
 teaching of the autonomy of human reason is not only 
 deficient, but positively erroneous 1 ; but least of all 
 will the rule, you ought because reason tells you so, have 
 any effect on the young. On this point also Professor 
 Kemp, in his otherwise fair treatment of Jesuit edu- 
 cation, has been led into an error, when he states that 
 "emulation was carried to such extremes that, appar- 
 ently, it must have obscured the true ends of study 
 and cultivated improper feeling among the students. " 2 
 Such a priori conclusions are very dangerous; and the 
 "must have" is frequently only "apparent." Kant, 
 indeed, said: "The child must be taught to act from a 
 pure sense of duty, not from inclination." Still, in 
 another place he declares that "it is lost labor to 
 speak to a child of duty." Children must be treated, 
 as St. Paul says: "as little ones in Christ, to whom I 
 gave milk to drink, not meat; for you were not able 
 as yet." 3 This milk, in education, is some sort of 
 
 1 See Rickaby, S. J., Moral Philosophy, pp. 115118. 
 
 2 History of Education, p. 191. 
 
 3 1 Cor. 3, 1-2. 
 
514 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 reward, a means not at all immoral. For the desire 
 of honor is inborn in man and lawful as long as it 
 does not become inordinate. 1 Honest emulation is 
 therefore lawful; it is also productive of great deeds. 
 "In all the pursuits of active and speculative life, the 
 emulation of states and individuals is the most power- 
 ful spring of the efforts and improvements of man- 
 kind. " (Gibbon.) 
 
 In speaking of reward we do not mean necessarily 
 prizes or premiums. These are indeed more open to 
 objections. The jealousy of pupils is more easily 
 aroused and sometimes even the dissatisfaction of 
 parents. However, this can not justify the general 
 condemnation of prizes. There is hardly an appoint- 
 ment made to any position of honor in a city or state, 
 but a few disappointed individuals will feel and ex- 
 press their disapproval, no matter how just and fair 
 the promotion has been. Should the appointment for 
 such adverse criticism be omitted ? Further, premiums 
 for excellence in learning, in military valor, in politi- 
 cal ability are as old as history. The Greeks rewarded 
 the conqueror in their national games with a wreath; 
 the Romans had various crowns for citizens who in 
 different ways had deserved well of their country. 
 And now-a-days no one objects if a victorious general 
 or admiral is offered a token of public recognition, in 
 the form of a precious sword, or even a more useful 
 object. The soldiers of our generation are justly 
 proud if their bravery is rewarded by a badge, and 
 even the scholars of modern Europe, perhaps such as 
 strongly denounce the corrupting influence of premi- 
 
 1 See Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae y 2, 2, qu. 131 
 and 132: "On Ambition and Vain Glory." 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 515 
 
 urns in Jesuit schools, do not hesitate to accept a 
 decoration, or the title of nobility in recognition of 
 their labors for the advance of science. Why, then, 
 should this principle of rewarding success be so rigor- 
 ously excluded from the schools? No, it is at least 
 exceedingly difficult to prove that prizes have gener- 
 ally evil results, provided all injustice and even all 
 suspicion of unfairness in the distribution is avoided. 
 However, when speaking of reward we mean in 
 general some public recognition, be it a word of praise 
 or something else. 1 
 
 Emulation may be fostered in various ways. The 
 Ratio gives one in the contests. Each pupil may 
 have his aemulus or rival. The professor questions 
 A, while B, the aemulus of A., is on the alert to 
 correct his rival. Or the boys question each other 
 mutually, while the professor merely presides to see 
 that all goes on fairly. The whole class may be 
 divided into two sides, which are frequently called 
 camps or armies, as boys naturally delight in any- 
 thing military. Boys of the one camp, let us say the 
 " Carthaginians," question some of the rival camps of 
 the "Romans," and vice versa. The leaders of the 
 two sides keep the record of the points gained, of the 
 corrections made by their respective side. The leaders 
 ought to be pupils distinguished by talent, industry 
 and good character. Different classes may also chal- 
 lenge each other for an extraordinary and more solemn 
 contest, to which other classes may be invited as 
 witnesses. 
 
 1 The rewarding of prizes is ably vindicated by Father 
 R. de Scoraille, S. J., in the Etudes religieuses, Paris, August 
 and September 1879. "Les distributions de prix dans les 
 colleges. " 
 
516 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 It is not easy to make such contests successful, 
 and it may require great skill 'and experience on the 
 part of the teacher; and if he lacks this skill he 
 may be a very good teacher in other respects it is 
 better to find some other means of encouraging fair and 
 successful emulation. It should not be forgotten that 
 this emulation, in the words of Fathers Hughes and 
 Duhr, is only one of the "subordinate elements in the 
 Jesuit method," : or "only a trifling detail," as Father 
 de Scoraille says, not the predominant element as its 
 adversaries represent it. In general, these contests 
 work better in the lower classes; especially in Northern 
 countries, they will not be found as suitable for higher 
 classes. Much of the pomp and the ceremonies which 
 are mentioned in the Ratio and by Jouvancy, do not 
 suit modern taste and have long ago been discarded in 
 Jesuit colleges. But these were accidental details; the 
 fundamental principle is sound. Father Duhr well 
 observes: "The literary contests of the pupils brought 
 life and action into the schools of olden times. We 
 have become colder in such things, whether to the 
 benefit of lively youths is another question. ' ' 2 
 
 We quoted above the statement of Professor Paul- 
 sen to the effect that the practice of Protestant schools 
 in regard to emulation is by no means what should be 
 expected from their severe censures of this point in 
 the Jesuit system. In fact Mr. Quick, writing about 
 competitions and "class matches," says: "With young 
 classes I have tried the Jesuits' plan of class matches 
 and have found it answer exceedingly well. " 3 In the 
 
 1 Hughes, p. 89. Duhr, p. 61. 
 
 2 Studienordnung > p. 125. 
 
 3 Educational Reformers (I/ondon edition of 1868), 
 p. 297. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 517 
 
 revised edition of 1890 the same author declares, in 
 general, that there are many forms of emulation which 
 he did not set his face against. 1 And not long ago, in 
 1901, Dr. Beecher of Dresden recommended for the 
 lower classes of the gymnasium contests among the 
 pupils, which resemble very much the concertationes 
 of the Ratio. He calls them ' 'dainties of a harmless 
 character which make the boys relish better the dry 
 forms of Latin grammar." 2 Still more remarkable is 
 the fact that in the Berlin Conference, June 1900, one 
 of the most distinguished members of that assembly, 
 Professor Munch, pleaded for introducing a system 
 which is not much different from the Jesuit system of 
 the aemuli. He says: ''It must come to it in our 
 schools that not only the teacher asks the pupils but 
 also that the pupils question one another. ' ' 3 
 
 Other exercises intended to rouse the activity of 
 the pupils are oratorical contests and other public ex- 
 hibitions. 4 The rules for the teachers prescribe that 
 the original productions of the pupils must be care- 
 fully corrected and polished by the teacher, but the 
 latter should not write them in their entirety. 5 A 
 skilful teacher can do much in stimulating interest in 
 such entertainments, if he proposes an interesting 
 subject and knows how to use the literary and histor- 
 
 1 On pp. 529532. There he also states that the New 
 England Journal of Education gives an account of some inter- 
 class matches at Milwaukee, and the New York School Jour- 
 nal of contests in the McDonough School No. 12, New 
 Orleans. 
 
 2 Neue Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VIII, p. 98. 
 
 3 Verhandlungen, p. 135. 
 
 4 See especially Father Kropf, Ratio et Via, chapter V, 
 art. II. (German edition p. 426 f.). 
 
 5 Reg. com. 32. 
 
51 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 ical material treated in the class. The best entertain- 
 ments will be those that treat one subject under 
 various aspects. 
 
 In the philosophical course the contests consist in 
 the disputations. The disputations of the students of 
 philosophy in most Jesuit colleges are conducted in 
 the same fashion as those described in a previous 
 chapter. 1 
 
 In the last place we must mention an exercise 
 which has been styled a ' 'better kind of rivalry," 2 
 namely the so-called academies. These are voluntary 
 associations of the students, literary societies in the 
 middle classes, and scientific societies in Philosophy. 
 In Philosophy, according to the rules for the academy, 
 essays are read by the students on some scientific 
 topic, preferably on subjects which are in some way 
 connected with the matter studied in class, but which 
 could not be treated there at length. At times these 
 subjects may be given in the form of free lectures. 
 After the essay has been read all the members of the 
 academy are free to enter on a discussion and attack 
 the assertion of the essayist. 3 It is clear that academies 
 conducted in this manner afford the greatest advan- 
 tages. In the essayist, the spirit of research is stim- 
 ulated, and in all those who take part in the discus- 
 sion, in fact, in all those present, scientific criticism 
 is developed. 
 
 The subjects treated in the academy of the pupils 
 of Rhetoric and Humanities are, naturally, of a literary 
 character: criticism of rhetorical and poetical topics 
 
 1 See above pp. 422425. 
 
 2 Quick, Educ. Ref. t p. 42. 
 
 3 Reg. A cad. Theolog. et Philos., 3. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 519 
 
 not treated fully in class, 1 which may be illustrated 
 from various authors ; a literary and critical apprecia- 
 tion of a striking passage from an author; the reading 
 of an essay or poem composed by the pupil himself; a 
 ^discussion of a disputed question of literature, and 
 other interesting and useful subjects, which are recom- 
 mended by the rules of this academy. 2 An academy 
 is to be held every week in Philosophy, and every 
 week or every fortnight in Rhetoric and Humanities. 
 Even the Grammar classes are to have their acade- 
 mies, in which similar discussions are carried on, of 
 course less scientific than in the higher classes. At 
 any rate, these academies are excellently fitted to 
 stimulate the activity of the pupils. 
 
 In one Jesuit college in the United States the 
 essays prepared in the middle classes, sometimes 
 treated of archaeological subjects which had been 
 alluded to in the course of the reading of the classics. 
 This seems quite in accord with the spirit of the rules 
 for the academy. The pupils took a great interest in 
 such subjects and undoubtedly derived great profit 
 from them. 
 
 When the pupil read his essay, not unfrequently 
 drawings on the blackboard, maps and pictures served 
 to illustrate the lecture. Then followed a short dis- 
 cussion of the subject and further queries of the boys, 
 which were answered by the teacher. The following 
 subjects were treated in this manner : The Roman 
 Coliseum, Roman military roads, Roman aqueducts, 
 a Roman triumph, the Romans' daily life, the Roman 
 
 1 Aliquid de praeceptis magis reconditis rhetoricae vel 
 poesis, as the 2d rule has it. 
 
 2 Reg. Acad. Rhet. et Hum. 2. 
 
520 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 family, Roman agriculture, the number and rank of 
 early Christians, character of Greeks and Romans 
 compared, Greek sculpture, pagan and Christian art, 
 this last essay was read in connection with the 
 study of Cicero's fourth oration against Verres, "On 
 the Statues," in which many Greek masterpieces of 
 art are described or mentioned. Similar subjects 
 are: The Roman (or Greek) house, Roman (or Greek) 
 temples, feasts, costumes, weapons, magistrates, 
 games, theatres, slavery, education, navy, travels etc. 
 It may be easily understood that much is requisite to 
 conduct such "Academies" successfully, above all on 
 the part of the teacher. For he must discuss the sub- 
 ject with the young writer, suggest reliable sources 
 from which to draw material, direct the writer in his 
 work, and lastly revise and correct the essay. But 
 the work will be amply compensated by the result, 
 especially by the increased interest with which the 
 pupils study the classics. 
 
 Such, then, are the exercises of the Ratio. They 
 are distinguished for variety: a short recitation of the 
 memory lesson is followed by the thorough repetition 
 of the prelection of the previous day, or of the precepts 
 of rhetoric, poetry, and grammar. Then comes the 
 principal work of the day, the prelection of the new 
 passage of the author, followed by a brief repetition. 
 Some time is devoted every day to the writing of a 
 little theme; and lastly the contests rouse the pupils to 
 new attention, in case the other exercises should have 
 caused some drowsiness. Certainly this change and 
 variety of the exercises is calculated to break the 
 monotony which, especially with younger pupils, is 
 apt to give rise to weariness and disgust. At the 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING IN PRACTICE. 521 
 
 same time, the exercises are of such a character that 
 they call into play all the faculties of the mind: 
 memory, imagination, reasoning. Thus they are 
 excellent means for attaining the end of education, 
 namely the thorough and harmonious training of the 
 mind. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 The Moral Scope. 
 
 The object of education is the harmonious develop- 
 ment of the whole man. So far we have spoken of the 
 development of the intellect. Yet the will needs 
 training even more than the intellect, and the higher 
 schools ought not to neglect this most important part 
 of the work of education. It cannot be gainsaid that 
 the emphasis laid upon moral training forms the most 
 marked distinction between the true educator and the 
 mere instructor, of whatever creed he may be. At the 
 same time it is one of the most disquieting features of 
 our age that so many teachers in the higher schools 
 have lost sight of this fundamental principle of educa- 
 tion. "I hold/' writes Dr. McCosh, "that in every 
 college the faculty should look after, not only the 
 intellectual improvement, but also the morals of those 
 committed to their care by parents and guardians. I 
 am afraid that . both in Europe and America all idea 
 of looking after the character of the students has been 
 given up by many of our younger professors. ' ' 
 
 The inevitable consequence of this method must 
 be a decline of morality among the rising generation, 
 or to put it more mildly, and to use the expression of 
 some writers, a lamentable disproportion between the 
 intellectual and moral progress. The existence of this 
 disproportion is attested to by men who have hitherto 
 
 1 Life of James McCosh, p. 224, 
 (522) 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPE. 523 
 
 been rather optimistic about the educational con- 
 ditions of this country. Thus President Eliot has 
 quite recently expressed himself very frankly on the 
 "failure of our popular education." In spite of the 
 greatest efforts of various agencies towards checking 
 vice in every shape, he sees small results. His prac- 
 tical conclusion is that "we ought to spend more 
 money on schools, because the present expenditures 
 do not produce all the good results which were ex- 
 pected and may be reasonably aimed at." l Still, it is 
 more than doubtful whether an increased expenditure 
 is the needed remedy; it is not lack of money, but 
 lack of the true method of education, which is at the 
 root of the failure of education. This has been cor- 
 rectly observed in several comments on President 
 Eliot's indictment. The defects of our people, says 
 the Chicago Chronicle, lie "in morals rather than in 
 intelligence," And the Columbia State remarks: "It 
 will at least be difficult to point at any fatal exaggera- 
 tion in this arraignment. But is it fair to charge all 
 of it up to education? Would it not be better for 
 Harvard's President to revise his views as to the 
 power of education? ^earning of itself, the mere 
 accumulation of knowledge, can not make morally 
 better an individual or a society. It is unfair to 
 expect so much. Education of the mind may be a 
 help, since it does fit the individual to understand, to 
 distinguish right from wrong and to apprehend the 
 consequences of evil. But education ought never to 
 have been regarded as an insurance against immoral- 
 ity, a preventive of crime, a cure for cupidity, or a 
 guaranty that the Golden Rule will be observed. The 
 
 1 The Literary Digest, November 22, 1902, p. 669. 
 
524 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 education that brings this about must be more than a 
 mere mental training; it must be moral and spiritual." 
 These comments touch the sore spot in modern edu- 
 cation. The capital error of most school reformers lies 
 in this that they expect too much from intellectual 
 accomplishments for the moral and social improve- 
 ment of mankind. Every second word of theirs is: 
 culture, knowledge, science, information; and yet, 
 what is far more needed is a reform of character by 
 training the will. 1 The plausible assertion : "In- 
 struction is moral improvement," a principle which is 
 repeated in many variations, is false. The neglect of 
 the religious and moral training is the result of a false 
 philosophy; for, there exists the closest connection 
 between philosophy and pedagogy, so much so that a 
 false philosophy necessarily leads to a false pedagogy, 
 and that a false pedagogy is always the outcome of a 
 false philosophy. 2 Pedagogy, according to the very 
 derivation of the word, means "the guiding of chil- 
 dren;" in order to guide them properly it is necessary 
 to know clearly the end and goal which is to be 
 reached. The end of man can be known only from 
 his true nature, and this knowledge is supplied by 
 philosophy. Philosophy, then, which is to be the 
 foundation of sound pedagogy must correctly answer 
 the important questions: Whence and Whither ? If as 
 the foundation of education a philosophy is chosen 
 which gives a wrong answer to these momentous 
 
 1 See the splendid lecture of Bishop Keppler: "Reform, 
 True and False," (translated by the Rev. B. Guldner, S. J., 
 in The Catholic Mind, No. 1, January 1903, pp. IB 14). 
 
 2 On the "Relation of Philosophy to Pedagogy" see five 
 articles by Father Christian Pesch, S. J., in the Stimmen aus 
 Maria- Loach t volumes XIV and XV. 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPK. 525 
 
 questions, the children will be led in a wrong direc- 
 tion. Now, that philosophy which considers man 
 merely a highly developed animal, which sees in the 
 human mind nothing but another "aspect" or "phase" 
 of the body (Bain, Spencer, and others), and con- 
 sequently denies the spirituality and immortality of 
 the soul such a philosophy (if it deserves this 
 name) cannot assign any other end and object of 
 man's life than some form of hedonism or utilitarian- 
 ism. Unfortunately this philosophy has exerted a 
 disastrous influence on many modern educational 
 theories. It has led to the separation, more or less 
 complete, of education from religion, and as we shall 
 show hereafter, a solid moral training is impossible 
 without religion. There is only one system of 
 philosophy which can form the sound basis of true 
 pedagogy, and that is Christian philosophy, that 
 philosophy which is in harmony with the revealed 
 truths of Christianity. This philosophy alone gives 
 the correct answer to the all-important Whence and 
 Whither? It tells us that the soul of the child is a 
 spirit, created by a personal God to His own image 
 and likeness, and destined for an eternal happiness in 
 heaven; it tells us that this life is not the final stage 
 of man, but a journey to another, higher life; that 
 "we have not here a lasting city, but seek one that is 
 to come. " l A system of education based on this 
 Christian philosophy will widely differ from those 
 systems which are built up on "modern" philosophy, 
 be it German pantheism, French positivism, or Eng- 
 lish and American agnosticism. The most essential 
 difference will be this that in a Christian system the 
 
 1 Hebr. 13, 14. 
 
526 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 intellectual training is considered secondary aijd sub- 
 ordinate to the moral and religious training, whereas 
 all other systems aim at a purely secular education, 
 and in this again lay special stress on the intellectual, 
 to the neglect of the moral training. 
 
 It has frequently been observed that the spirit of 
 our age manifests many pagan tendencies. The 
 utilitarian trend of modern education is undoubtedly 
 a sort of neo-paganism. To the artistic mind of the 
 Greek the "Beautiful" (/aAw) and the "Good" 
 (dya0ov) were terms almost synonymous. Greek edu- 
 cation, accordingly, aimed at the harmonious develop- 
 ment of body and intellect for this life. In the eyes 
 of the Roman, the Eternal City was destined to con- 
 quer and rule the whole world. To make useful and 
 devoted members of that mighty political fabric was 
 the sole aim of the education imparted to Roman 
 youths. But the aim of Christian education must be 
 far different. Christ's life and teaching cannot be 
 ignored and disregarded. His "seek ye first the 
 Kingdom of God and His justice," 1 must be the 
 foundation of all educational principles, "for what 
 doth it profit a man if he gain the whole world and 
 suffer the loss of his own soul?" 2 Therefore, if "the 
 fear of God is the beginning of all wisdom," 3 the 
 moral and religious training of the young must claim 
 the special attention and care of the teacher. Whereas 
 Greek education affected only the intellect 
 mens), Christian education affects the soul, 
 spiritus) as contrasted with the body, the "flesh" 
 
 1 Matthew 6, 33. 
 
 2 Matth, 16, 26. 
 
 3 Ecclesiasticus 1, 16. 
 
THE MORAL SCOPE. 527 
 
 (o-a/o, caro). Pagan education aimed at mere for- 
 mation (Ausbildung) , at the evolution and develop- 
 ment of the natural man; Christian education aims at 
 transformation ( Umbildung), at change, at elevation. 1 
 Every one, free or slave, rich or poor, white or black, 
 is a child of God and destined to be an heir of heaven.' 
 Therefore, he is to seek first heavenly things: i ' Quae sur- 
 sum sunt quaerite, quae sursum sunt sapite, non quae super 
 terrain." 2 He must "put off the old man who is cor- 
 rupted, and put on the new man who, according to 
 God, is created in justice and holiness of truth." 3 He 
 must listen to Christ's commendation of humility, 
 meekness and purity, and follow His stern command: 
 "Abnega temetipsum, tolle crucem et sequere me: Deny 
 thyself, -take up thy cross and follow me." 4 But this 
 is not in accord with the natural inclinations of man; 
 therefore, transformation is needed. The work of 
 transformation must begin from the awakening of 
 reason and must be the principal object in all educa- 
 tion. For, as the Following of Christ has it, "when 
 Christ our Master, comes for the final examination, 
 he will not ask how well we spoke and disputed, but 
 how well we lived, non quid legimus, sed quid fecimus, 
 non quam bene diximus, sed quam religiose viximus." 5 
 
 In the "school of the heart" at Manresa, Ignatius 
 had thoroughly grasped these sublime lessons. He 
 had carried them out in his own life and made them 
 the guiding principles of his Society. In his Spiritual 
 Exercises, Ignatius has laid down a brief, but most 
 
 1 Willmann, Didaktik, vol. I, ch. V. 
 
 2 Col. 3, 1, 2. 
 
 3 Ephes. 4, 22, 24. 
 
 4 Matth. 16, 24. 
 
 5 Book I, ch. Ill, 5. 
 
528 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 comprehensive epitome of Christian philosophy. There 
 he has expressed the whole purpose of man's life in 
 these few lines: "Man is created to praise, reverence 
 and serve God, and thus to save his own soul. All 
 other things are created for the sake of man, and to 
 aid him in the attainment of his end; therefore he 
 should use them only with this object, and withdraw 
 himself from them, when they would lead him from 
 it." Apply this principle to learning, to knowledge, 
 and you must admit that these are not man's ultimate 
 end, they are only means to that end. Throughout 
 the educational system of the Society, we find the 
 application of these truths. Thus the Fourth Part of 
 the Constitutions says: "Since the object at which 
 the Society directly aims, is to aid its members and 
 their fellow-men to attain the ultimate end for which 
 they were created, learning, a knowledge of the 
 methods of instruction, and living example are neces- 
 sary. ' ' In the Ratio Studiorum the first rule of the 
 Provincial reads: "It is one of the most important 
 duties of the Society to teach all the sciences, which 
 according to our Institute may be taught, in such a 
 manner as to lead men to the knowledge and love of 
 our Creator and Redeemer Jesus Christ. " Of like 
 import are the first rules of the Rector, the Prefect of 
 Studies and the professors of the various grades. This 
 great care which the Society has always bestowed on 
 the moral and religious training of its pupils, is 
 probably the reason that accounts for the popularity 
 of its schools. Christian parents felt assured that the 
 spiritual welfare of their sons would be most diligently 
 attended to, and so sent them with the greatest con- 
 fidence to Jesuit colleges. More than once have 
 

 THE: MORAI, SCOPE. 529 
 
 parents give expression to their sentiments on this 
 point. The testimony of one American father, the 
 distinguished convert from Protestantism, Orestes 
 Brownson, may be given as an instance among many. 
 "We ourselves have four sons in the colleges of the 
 Jesuits, and in placing them there we feel that we are 
 discharging our duty as a father to them, and as a 
 citizen to this country. We rest easy, for we feel they 
 are where they will be trained up in the way they 
 should go; where their faith and morals will'be cared 
 for, which with us is a great thing. It is more 
 especially for the moral and religious training which 
 our children will receive from the good fathers that 
 we esteem these colleges. Science, literature, the 
 most varied and profound scholastic attainments, are 
 worse than useless, where coupled with heresy, in- 
 fidelity or impurity. ' ' l 
 
 However, the Society has been blamed by some 
 for insisting too strongly upon moral and religious 
 training, and for subordinating to it everything else. 
 But how can any one who believes in the existence of . 
 God and an eternal life, find fault with this principle? 
 If there is a God, if man has an immortal soul, if there TVr^* 
 is an eternity of happiness awaiting the good, and an * 
 eternity of punishment the wicked, then the "one 
 thing necessary" on earth, and to be aimed at above 
 everything else, is the salvation of the soul. Hence 
 it is that men, who in their religious tenets widely 
 differ from the Jesuits, could not help praising the 
 latter for the attention they paid to the moral and 
 religious education of their pupils. From numerous 
 testimonies we may be allowed to quote a few. "As 
 
 1 Brownson^ s Review, Jan. 1846, p. 87. 
 34 
 
53 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 might be expected," writes Quick, "the Jesuits were 
 to be very careful of the moral and religious training 
 of their pupils. . . . Sacchini writes in a very high 
 tone on this subject. Perhaps he had read of Trotzen- 
 dorf's address to a school." ] In 1879 an anti-clerical 
 paper wrote about the Belgian higher schools: "Could 
 not our teachers do a little more for discipline? Could 
 they not watch more diligently over the manners and 
 morals of the students? How often do we hear people 
 say: 'What, I send my son to the Athentesf 2 God 
 forbid ! Fine manners he would learn there I' Now 
 there is no reason why the young should acquire worse 
 manners in the Athenfas than in the Jesuit schools 
 on the contrary. However, in point of fact, only the 
 Jesuits look after education, whereas our Athenees busy 
 themselves only about instruction. I know full well 
 that the education imparted by the clergy is bad, even 
 dangerous. Our lay teachers should pay more atten- 
 tion to education, as it is exactly this training, however 
 detestable, which brings to the men in the soutane the 
 patronage of so many parents." M. Cottu, a bitter 
 enemy of the Jesuits, had to acknowledge the same. 3 
 
 1 Educational Reformers (1890), page 47. It is worth 
 noting that Sacchini is supposed to have learned from 
 Trotzendorf to esteem highly moral and religious training 
 by the way, Quick's edition of 1868 ascribes that address to 
 Melanchthon ! Everything good in the Jesuit system must 
 be traced to Protestant sources I As though Sacchini, in the 
 teaching of the Bible and the most explicit principles of the 
 Constitutions of his Order, had not better sources than in a 
 school address of Melanchthon or Trotzendorf, of which he 
 probably knew nothing ! 
 
 2 The public higher schools of Belgium. 
 
 3 Journal de Gand and La Chronique, quoted by De 
 Badts de Cugnac, Les Jesuites et V education, p. 54. 
 
THE MORAI, SCOP3. 531 
 
 Professor Kern of the University of Gottingen, a Prot- 
 estant, wrote years ago : "The Jesuits attack the evil 
 at its root : they educate boys in the fear of God and 
 in obedience. Has it ever been heard that from Jesuit 
 schools doctrines come forth similar to those of our 
 modern schools? History has proved that irreligious 
 and anarchistic doctrines spread rapidly after the sup- 
 pression of the Society. Faith and science were no 
 longer united. Reason with all its errors, and what 
 error is so absurd that has not had its defenders was 
 given the preference, faith was abandoned, ridiculed, 
 and spoken of only under the name of superstition. ' ' l 
 By what means do the Jesuits endeavor to effect 
 the moral training of their pupils ? We may classify 
 the means they employ under four heads: the example 
 of a virtuous life, reasonable supervision, ethical in- 
 struction, and certain means provided by the Church, 
 especially the sacraments. As to the first we all 
 know that example is much more powerful than words, 
 particularly so with the young. There is a great 
 truth in the old L,atin adage : Verba movent, exempla 
 trahunt. Every teacher, therefore, should lead such 
 a life as to be able to say with the great teacher of the 
 Gentiles: "Be ye followers of me as I also am of 
 Christ. ' ' 2 Above all ought this to be the case with 
 teachers who make a profession of religion. The life 
 of a religious is one of continual self-denial. St. 
 Ignatius seems to have thought that daily contact with 
 men of this stamp would be good for boys. He seems 
 to have thought that in course of time they would 
 assimilate some of that spirit of conscientious devotion 
 
 1 Quoted by ~Bfcnzr t Jesuiten-Gymnasien. 
 
 2 1. Cor. 11, 1. 
 
53 2 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 to duty, of generous readiness to go far beyond the 
 limits of mere duty, of the manful and noble spirit of 
 self-control and self-sacrifice, of that spirit which seeks 
 not self but the good of its neighbor, that spirit which 
 the pupils cannot help seeing exemplified in their 
 masters, if those masters are such men as St. Ignatius 
 intended them to be. 1 Now, St. Ignatius was very 
 explicit on the necessity of setting a good example, 
 and the Ratio inculcates the same in exhorting the 
 teacher to edify the pupils by the example of a virtuous 
 life. 2 Have the sons of Ignatius come up to the ex- 
 pectation of their father? Even the enemies of the 
 Order could not help expressing their admiration for 
 the moral purity of the lives of the Jesuits. 3 Nor can 
 we wonder at this. The solid training in religious 
 life, which we described in a previous chapter, and the 
 daily practice of mental and vocal prayer, must give 
 the religious teacher a self-control that preserves him 
 from the more serious outbreaks of passion, which may 
 prove detrimental to his authority and ruin all salutary 
 influence over his pupils. 4 Professor Paulseii observes 
 
 1 See Father Lucas, S. J., in The Spiritual Exercises 
 and the Education of Youth (London, 1902). 
 
 2 Reg. com. mag. cl. inf. 10. 
 
 3 Thus the Protestant Sir Henry Howorth, who attacked 
 the Jesuits so bitterly in recent years, must confess: "The 
 Jesuits have been a very powerful agency in framing history. 
 They have some things to be proud of. So far as I know, the 
 austerity and purity of their lives was one of the greatest, 
 probably the greatest of all, reforming agencies in the purify- 
 ing of the clergy of the sixteenth century, and they stren- 
 uously leavened religious life with the stricter rules of life, 
 which the Council of Trent tried hard to introduce into the 
 religious world. (The London Tablet, Nov. 23, 1901, p. 817.) 
 
 4 On this whole subject it is worth while to read De 
 Badts de Cugnac, La morale dcs Jesuites (Lille, 1879). 
 
THE MORAI, SCOPE. 533 
 
 in regard to the Jesuit teacher : "According to an old 
 saying, he is strongest who overcomes himself. This 
 may mean not only that the greatest effort is needed 
 to rule one's self, but that he who is able to do so pos- 
 sesses the greatest strength. Now it is my conviction 
 that there was never a body of men who succeeded 
 better in controlling natural inclinations, and in check- 
 ing individual desires, than the Jesuits. True, such 
 qualities do not make one amiable ; no one is amiable 
 who is without human weaknesses. Perfect absence 
 of passion in a man makes him awe-inspiring and 
 causes others to feel uncomfortable in his presence." 
 Then he adds: "That the Jesuits up to this day are , 
 masters in the great art of checking anger, and thus 
 masters in the great art of ruling over men's souls, the; 
 reader may learn from a book written by a pupil of the \ 
 Jesuit college of Freiburg and of the Collegium Ger- 
 manicum in Rome, who afterwards became a Protestant 
 minister, and who vividly and truthfully describes the 
 impression made upon him in these Jesuit institu- 
 tions." 1 
 
 In addition to these testimonies, it will not be 
 superfluous to cite the testimony of prominent men 
 who as pupils in Jesuit colleges had an opportunity of 
 watching the Jesuits closely. The first witness is 
 Voltaire: "During the seven years," he writes, "that I 
 lived in the house of the Jesuits, what did I see among 
 them? The most laborious, frugal, and regular life, 
 all their hours divided between the care they spent on 
 us and the exercises of their austere profession. I at- 
 
 1 Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, pp. 282283 
 (I, 408 409). The work referred to is 4 Erinnerungen eines 
 ehemaligen Jestiitenzoglings {Recollections of a former Jesuit 
 pupil). Leipzig, 1862. 
 
534 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 test the same as thousands of others brought up by 
 them, like myself; not one will be found to contradict 
 me. Hence I never cease wondering how any one 
 can accuse them of teaching corrupt morality. " 1 
 From Germany three men may be quoted who are 
 considered, by friend and enemy, as equally distin- 
 guished for gifts, for noble character, and for genuine 
 patriotism: von Ketteler, von Mallinckrodt, and Count 
 Ballestrem. It was in the early days of the Kultur- 
 kampf, when the laws for expelling the Jesuits horn 
 Germany were being discussed, that among others, 
 these three stood up to defend the persecuted Order. 
 Freiherr von Ketteler, the celebrated Bishop of Mentz, 
 testifies : "As a youth I was sent by my parents to an 
 educational institution of the Jesuits, where I spent 
 four years. From home I brought with me such inde- 
 pendence of character and such purity of morals, that 
 had I noticed a shadow of what the world styles 
 Jesuitical principles, I would have turned away from 
 them with loathing and disgust. My parents, who 
 enjoyed an entirely independent position in life, and 
 who were filled with the purest and strongest love for 
 their children and their true welfare, would not for a 
 moment have left me in that institution, had they 
 apprehended anything of the kind. There I witnessed 
 nothing that ever shocked my youthful spirit trained 
 in the purest principles of Christianity. I took leave 
 of all my teachers with deepest reverence and with the 
 firmest conviction that they were men who daily made 
 on themselves the demands of severest morality. ' ' 
 Similar testimonies were rendered by Herr von Mal- 
 linckrodt, that chivalrous spirit who, with perhaps the 
 
 1 Lettre, 7 tevrier 1746. Hughes, Loyola, p. 105. 
 
MORAI, SCOPE;. 535 
 
 exception of Windthorst, was the greatest man in that 
 grand Catholic organization, the German Centre Party. 
 And Count Ballestrem, now for several years President 
 of the German Reichstag, commenced one of his 
 speeches before that assembly with the following 
 words : "The last time I had the honor to address you 
 here, I defended an institution which has become dear 
 to me, and in which I have spent a great part of my 
 life, the Prussian Army. To-day I come to defend an 
 institution which I have known from the days of my 
 childhood, and with whose excellences I am ac- 
 quainted in every detail. I come to bear witness for 
 my venerable teachers, for my highly esteemed friends: 
 for the religious of the Society of Jesus. ' ' l 
 
 Undoubtedly the testimony of these men, who with 
 the keen eyes of boys that so readily find fault with 
 their teachers watched the Jesuits and scrutinized 
 their every word and action, outweighs a thousand 
 calumnies of prejudiced pamphleteers, who, in many 
 cases, have never seen a Jesuit or any other religious. 
 Moreover, these witnesses refute the oft -repeated 
 charge of "the corrupt moral teaching of the Jesuits." 
 Fair-minded Protestants have long since branded this 
 charge as a slander. Thus the German Protestant 
 Korner says in his " History of Pedagogy 772 : "It is the 
 fashion to represent the Jesuits as heartless beings, 
 malicious, cunning, and deceitful, although it must be 
 known perfectly well that the crimes imputed to them 
 
 1 Duhr, Jesuiten-Fabeln, ch. 5 (2nd ed.), pp. 102103. 
 
 2 Geschichte der Pddagogik (Leipzig, 1857), page 12. 
 Quoted by Shea; History of Georgetown College, page 86. 
 Italics are ours. See also the splendid testimony rendered 
 to the Jesuits by M. Albert Duruy in the Revue des Deux 
 Monde s, January 1, 1880. 
 
536 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 are historically groundless, and the suppression of the 
 Order in the last century was -due entirely to the tyran- 
 nical violence of Ministers of State. It is only our 
 duty to justice to silence the folly of such as declare the 
 Jesuit system of education to be nothing but fanatical 
 malice and a corruption of the young. The Jesuits 
 were the first educators of their time. Protestants must 
 with envy acknowledge the fruitfulness of their labors; 
 they made the study of the ancient classics a practical 
 study, and training was with them as important as 
 education. They were the first schoolmasters to apply 
 psychological principles to education ; they did not 
 teach according to abstract principles, but they trained 
 the individual, developed his mental resources for the 
 affairs of practical life, and so imparted to the educa- 
 tional system an important influence in social and 
 political life. From that period and from that system, 
 scientific education takes its rise. The Jesuits succeeded 
 in effecting a moral purity among their pupils which 
 was unknown in other schools during the sixteenth and 
 seventeen th centuries . ' ' 
 
 Indeed, the Society has ever been most anxious to 
 preserve her pupils from the taint of impurity, the vice 
 to which youth most easily falls a prey. She takes 
 most effective means to preserve what Chaucer calls 
 the " sweet holiness of youth." She will inexorably 
 expel a boy whose presence is dangerous to others, 
 especially in the matter of purity. "There are some 
 faults," says Shea, 1 "for which the Jesuit system of 
 discipline has no mercy, and in the first place is found 
 the vice of impurity. For this crime the only punish- 
 ment is expulsion, since contamination is looked upon 
 
 1 History of Georgetown , p. 85. 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPE. 537 
 
 as the greatest evil that can be spread among the 
 young. Hence the virtue of purity is fostered with 
 all possible care and solicitude, and even Protestants 
 have borne witness to the high moral purity of Jesuit 
 students." (See, v. g. , Mr. Korner's words quoted 
 above.) So also another writer, the German Protes- 
 tant Ruhkopf : "In Jesuit colleges a moral purity 
 prevailed which we look for in vain in Protestant 
 schools and universities. Such as were totally cor- 
 rupt, the Jesuits did not tolerate among their pupils, 
 but sent them away. In their colleges, impurity and 
 demoralization could not easily arise, as with the 
 utmost care they kept away everything that could 
 taint the imagination of the youth committed to their 
 charge. ' ' l 
 
 Boarding schools, in particular, may easily, and, 
 if precautions are not taken, will almost invariably 
 become hot-beds of immorality. 2 Hence the anxiety 
 of the Jesuits in guarding their pupils. Yet they have 
 been attacked more than once for these very precau- 
 tions. Great educators, however, have been one with 
 the Jesuits on this important question. Thus we read 
 in the life of President McCosh : "The notion that a 
 professor's duty began and ended with the instruction 
 and order in the class room, was abhorrent to him. 
 He thought it the most serious problem of the higher 
 
 1 Janssen, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, vol. VII, 
 page 82. 
 
 2 See, for instance, what Arnold said on this subject, in 
 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold, page 77; further, the 
 Dublin Review, October 1878, p. 294 foil., in the highly in- 
 structive article: "Catholic Colleges and Protestant Schools." 
 Also "Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby," especially the 
 Preface to the Sixth Edition, will furnish interesting material. 
 
538 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 education to secure the oversight and unremitting care 
 of students, without espionage or any * injudicious 
 interference with the liberty of the young man. ' With 
 the fine language about treating students as capable of 
 self-government, and responsible for their own con- 
 duct, Dr. McCosh never felt the slightest sympathy, 
 believing that the formation of good habits was more 
 than the half of education, and that the morals of the 
 young, like their intellect and judgment, required 
 constant attention from the instructors. ' ' l 
 
 Now let us listen to what the head of an important 
 department in one of the large institutions in this country 
 thinks on this subject : "One way to deal with these 
 strange, excited, inexperienced, and intensely human 
 things called Freshmen is to let them flounder till they 
 drown or swim ; and this way has been advocated by 
 men who have no boys of their own. It is delightfully 
 simple, if we can only shut eye and ear and heart and 
 conscience ; and it has a kind of plausibility in the 
 examples of men who through rough usage have 
 achieved strong character. 'The objection,' as the 
 master of a great school said the other day, 4s the 
 waste ; and he added, ' it is such an awful thing to 
 waste human life !' This method is a cruel method, 
 ignoring all the sensibilities of that delicate, high- 
 strung instrument which we call the soul. If none 
 but the fittest survived, the cruelty might be defended; 
 but some, who unhappily cannot drown, become 
 cramped swimmers for all their days. Busy and worn 
 as a college teacher usually is, thirsty for the advance- 
 ment of learning as he is assumed always to be, he 
 cannot let hundreds of young men pass before him, 
 
 1 Life of James McCosh, pp. 33 and 35. 
 
THE MORAI, SCOPE. 539 
 
 unheeded and unfriended. At Harvard College, the 
 Faculty, through its system of advisers for Freshmen, 
 has made a beginning ; and though there are hardly 
 enough advisers to go round, the system has proved 
 its usefulness. At Harvard College, also, a large 
 committee of Seniors and Juniors has assumed some 
 responsibility for all the Freshmen. Each undertakes 
 to see at the beginning of the year the Freshmen 
 assigned to him, and to give every one of them, besides 
 kindly greeting and good advice, the feeling that an 
 experienced undergraduate may be counted on as a 
 friend in need. ' ' This is excellent, but all the more 
 surprised will the reader be to find that this author 
 continues in the following strain : "Whether colleges 
 should guard their students more closely than they do 
 whether, for example, they should with gates and 
 bars protect their dormitories against the inroads of 
 bad women is an open question. For the delib- 
 erately vicious such safeguards would amount to 
 nothing ; but for the weak they might lessen the dan- 
 ger of sudden temptation. " l As to the "open ques- 
 
 1 Atlantic Monthly ', March 1900. A somewhat sim- 
 ilar principle is stated in an article on Eton, in the Edinburgh 
 Review, April 1861: * 'It was the fashion in Sydney Smith's 
 days it is so still to maintain that the neglect to which 
 boys are necessarily exposed at our public schools, in con- 
 sequence of the insufficient number of assistant masters, ren- 
 ders them self-reliant and manly; and that the premature 
 initiation into vice, which too often results from that cause, 
 imparts to them an early knowledge of what are apologetical- 
 ly called 'the ways of the world'; and prevents their running 
 riot when subsequently exposed at the universities to still 
 greater temptations than those offered them in their boyhood 
 by the public-houses and slums of Eton and Windsor." 
 Quoted in the Dublin Review ', October 1878, p. 308. This 
 
540 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 tion" we hold rather that it is a shocking principle. 
 Must not fathers and mothers, who have sons in such 
 schools, shudder at the thought that their children 
 will scarcely be protected against the worst and most 
 disgraceful of moral dangers, since the school authori- 
 ties think it an "open question" whether such protec- 
 tion is advisable? In too many cases are youths "left 
 to flounder till they drown or swim. " And the major- 
 ity will drown, or become cramped swimmers for all 
 their days ; that is, become moral, and perhaps phys- 
 ical wrecks. This is the end of all that specious but 
 senseless talk about "the sanctity of the individual," 
 "advantage of rough usage," "dangers of guarding 
 sternly or tenderly," "free spirit of our country," and 
 the like. The Divine Teacher of mankind, the friend 
 of children, has clearly and sternly expressed His 
 "views" upon these points: "He that shall scan- 
 dalize" and we may add, he that allows others to 
 scandalize, or does not prevent from being scandalized 
 "one of these little ones that believe in me, it were 
 better for him that a millstone were hanged about his 
 neck, and that he should be drowned in the depth of 
 the sea. ' ' Neglect of watchfulness in this regard is 
 nothing less than treason ; treason towards the souls 
 of the pupils who should be guarded against their 
 worst foes, their own corrupt inclinations ; treason 
 against parents who demand that their children be not 
 exposed to such experiments. 
 
 The Jesuits do not let their pupils "flounder till 
 they drown or swim." They consider it their most 
 
 * 'premature initiation into vice" was, accordingly, a frequent 
 result of the system of the great English public schools; 
 moreover, it was considered a positive benefit. A sad prerog- 
 ative of these schools, indeed ! 
 
THE MORAL SCOPE. 541 
 
 sacred obligation to prevent, as far as possible, their 
 charges from coming into contact with moral contam- 
 ination. "But," it is objected, "what good comes 
 from all your protection? It usually happens that 
 your pupil on leaving the place where he was pro- 
 tected against all dangers, falls the more quickly and 
 the more shamefully. And why? For the very reason 
 that he was shielded on all sides and never struggled 
 with dangers and temptations. He is not prepared, 
 he is caught unawares, and yields unconditionally 
 and hopelessly, whereas had he been trained by daily 
 encounter with temptation his character would have 
 been hardened." 1 If the case were frequent, if the 
 deeper fall inevitably followed the purer boyhood, 
 then we may as well despair of all education and all 
 virtue. Happily, we have here one of those sweeping 
 generalizations and exaggerations, so common with 
 certain writers. We answer: First, not all fall away 
 after leaving the sheltering precincts of the college. 
 Many remain good among the greatest dangers and 
 temptations. And this perseverance they owe to the 
 precautions taken in the college and to the virtuous 
 habits acquired through the daily practice of observing 
 the regulations of these institutions. The continued 
 moral efforts required for doing this are as effective for 
 
 1 Such objections have sometimes been made even by 
 short-sighted Catholics who, dazzled by the outward brilliant 
 successes of the great Protestant schools, wished some of 
 their features to be introduced into Catholic colleges. These 
 views have been ably refuted in various articles of the Dublin 
 Review. See e. g. July and October 1878. On the other hand, 
 not long ago President Jones of Hobart plainly advocated 
 greatly increased supervision in student life. He does not 
 think that more stringent regulations would keep the students 
 "milksops." The Forum, Jan. 1901, 592593. 
 
542 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 producing strength of character as the "rough usage" 
 and, at the same time, less dangerous. Secondly, 
 many of those who afterwards disgrace themselves, 
 would have done so even had they never been inside 
 college walls, in many cases much earlier, and per- 
 haps more irreparably. It was college discipline that 
 prevented them from earlier ruin. St. Ignatius used 
 to say: "To have prevented one sin is worth all the 
 troubles and labors of this life. ' ' Thirdly, many come to 
 Catholic academies and colleges from public and pri- 
 vate schools, where they have acquired such a knowl- 
 edge of life and of the "ways of the world," that edu- 
 cators are sometimes horrified at discovering what boys 
 of fourteen and sixteen years have heard and experi- 
 enced. For such boys the quiet and seclusion of a 
 Catholic college and its strict discipline are of the 
 greatest benefit, and the spirit of piety and modesty 
 pervading the whole atmosphere acts upon those poor 
 boys as the healthy, pure air of Colorado and New 
 Mexico upon consumptives. If the spiritual consump- 
 tion has not progressed too far, two or three years 
 spent in thoroughly Christian surroundings, often 
 restore such youths to complete health of soul and 
 body. There is scarcely a Jesuit teacher who could 
 not recount many instances of boys whose reformation 
 was so thorough, that they became most excellent 
 men. Without this salutary influence their souls 
 would have sunk into the abyss of vice and crime, 
 and their bodies very likely into an early grave. 
 Fourthly, boys who were 'thus protected in college, 
 and afterwards go astray will in most cases return. 
 Their hearts will not be happy in their pleasures and 
 excesses; for the religious and moral principles im- 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPE. 543 
 
 planted in them can never be totally destroyed. After 
 a brief experience they become disgusted with their 
 lives and begin to loath their vices. A young man 
 without any previous religious training sees no way 
 out of the quagmire of vice; he easily abandons him- 
 self the more to his evil passions. But it is very 
 different with the young man who grew up under 
 religious influences. In moments of disgust and 
 remorse, at a sudden calamity that befalls him or those 
 near him, he remembers not only the happiness of his 
 childhood but also the salutary advice of his teacher, 
 to whom he used to look up as a fatherly friend. Such 
 recollections have saved more than one young man 
 who had gone astray. Finally, are those young men 
 who from early years and during college life were left 
 to their "own experience and rough usage" of temp- 
 tations, later on, in the battles of life, better and of 
 purer morals, then those * 'sheltered' ' against dangers? 
 An honest inquiry will assuredly be met with a 
 decided answer in the negative. 
 
 The idea of supervision and restriction seems to be 
 especially repugnant to people in England and 
 America. Undoubtedly, the character of the Amer- 
 ican and English youth differs in several points from 
 that of the youth of other countries. For this reason 
 we may admit, with a writer in the Dublin Review, 1 
 that in dealing with English and we add: with 
 American youths, it will be found beneficial to exer- 
 cise a somewhat less minute supervision than that 
 practised in some other countries. This seems to be 
 demanded by the peculiar character and the spirit of 
 the public and private life of the English and Amer- 
 
 1 Dublin Review, October 1878, p. 285, note. 
 
544 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 lean people. On the other hand, these differences 
 have frequently been exaggerated, and conclusions 
 have been drawn from these discrepancies of character 
 which are altogether unjustified. Opinions have been 
 uttered which seem to imply an intrinsic superiority 
 of the American youth over those of the rest of the 
 world, a superiority which renders laws that are 
 necessary for good education everywhere else, super- 
 fluous in this country. Some seem to think that 
 restrictions are little compatible with republican insti- 
 tutions. Professor Edward J. Goodwin, of New York, 
 said recently: "German children are taught to submit 
 to authority, but our boys must be taught to govern 
 themselves." l We readily admit that the principle of 
 submitting to authority can be carried to extremes, in 
 education as well as in political life. But we think 
 that boys will learn to govern themselves only by sub- 
 mitting first to authority, as in early years they possess 
 neither the sufficient knowledge nor the necessary 
 strength of will to govern themselves reasonably. We 
 fasten the young tender tree to a pole, lest it grow 
 crooked or be bent and broken by the storm; the same 
 is necessary, and to a much higher degree, in the case 
 of the frail human sapling in which so many perverse 
 inclinations are hidden which tend to foster a growth 
 in the wrong direction. Above all, educators should 
 not forget that there is one authority to which the 
 youths of every country must submit unconditionally, 
 and that is the authority of the Divine Lawgiver as 
 expressed in the precepts of morality and obedience 
 is one of these precepts. The same Divine authority 
 
 1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, vol. I, 
 p. 249. 
 
THE; MORAI, SCOPE. 545 
 
 imposes the sacred duty on educators to watch over 
 their charges, and to remove, as far as lies in their 
 power, all that endangers their morality. The Chris- 
 tian educator fears lest any neglect in this matter may 
 draw upon him the dreadful words addressed to the 
 ''watchman to the house of Israel": "If thou declare 
 it not to him [the wicked man], nor speak to him, 
 that he may be converted from his wicked way and 
 live: the same wicked man shall die in his iniquity, 
 but I will require his blood at thy hand." l Indeed, 
 it is the fatherly love and care for the welfare of their 
 pupils which leads the Christian educator to exercise 
 supervision over his pupils. He has received from 
 the parents that treasure which is to them more 
 precious than anything on earth ; their own dearly 
 beloved children, for whom they toil and labor, over 
 whom they anxiously watch and pray lest they should 
 suffer shipwreck in regard to their faith and virtue, 
 especially the virtue of purity which is so beautiful, 
 so priceless, and yet so difficult of securing in youth. 
 The teacher would be guilty of the basest breach of 
 confidence, did he not strain every nerve to avert a 
 calamity from those so sacredly entrusted to him. We 
 can well understand that at times this or that particu- 
 lar method may justly be censured, as, in reality, not 
 being conducive to the end which is sought; but that 
 the whole system, the very principle, should be 
 ridiculed and condemned, spoken of in terms of in- 
 vective and indignation, and stigmatized by such 
 opprobrious names as "espionage" and the like 
 this, we say, is startling. 2 It can be explained only 
 
 1 Ezech. 3, 18. 
 
 2 Dublin Review, April 1878, p. 330. 
 
 35 
 
546 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 from the false philosophical notions of such critics; 
 particularly from their wrong conception and very 
 low valuation of the human soul. 
 
 Many, especially such as have never stepped inside 
 the doors of a Jesuit college, are filled with an absurd 
 dread of the supervision exercised, as they fancy, by 
 the Jesuits. From time to time, however, when some 
 appalling scandals are discovered within the walls of 
 a college where the students enjoy pretty nearly full 
 liberty, or when scores, if not hundreds of students, 
 exhibit most disgraceful scenes of disorder on the 
 public streets, then the eyes of many are opened and 
 they see that, after all, some supervision, and a pretty 
 strict one, is necessary in a place where hundreds of 
 hot-blooded youths live together. In 1891, an Eng- 
 lish non-Catholic paper, speaking about scandalous 
 disclosures on board the school-ship Britannia, said 
 there were two kinds of public schools, Jesuit and 
 Gaol-bird school. "The Jesuit idea of school life is 
 that a boy at school should, as far as possible, be in 
 the same position as he will afterwards be in as a man 
 in the world, that is to say, the position not of a wild 
 beast in an African jungle, free to do what he pleases, 
 but of a human being in a civilized country, living 
 under the eye of the law. The Jesuits in fact police 
 their schools, that is, what it comes to. This policing 
 is called by people who don't like it (i. e. don't like 
 the trouble of enforcing it) espionage and other ugly 
 names. As a matter of fact, it amounts to no more 
 than that ordinary care which a commonly decent and 
 commonly sensible father exercises in his own house: 
 It means simply reasonable supervision, aided of 
 course by rationally constructed school buildings 
 
THE MORAI, SCOPE. 547 
 
 massing of boys for school as well as for play living 
 in the light of day, in fact. Now, neither a boy nor a 
 man does much harm or has much harm done to him, 
 so long as he lives in the light of day, and the con- 
 sequence is that although, of course, many boys who 
 leave Jesuit schools become bad men afterwards, yet 
 they get no harm while they stay at school. They 
 leave as good as they come and, moreover, if they do 
 not come pretty reasonably good, they do not stay 
 long. The father gets a letter to say 'the boy is doing 
 no good at school and had better be removed. ' The 
 Goal-bird system is simplicity itself. The head 
 master draws his salary, attends to the teaching of 
 Greek and L,atin and shuts his eyes firmly, deliber- 
 ately, conscientiously, like an English gentleman, as 
 he would say himself, to everything else going on 
 around him. ' ' l This is very severe language. May 
 it not partly apply to a number of " educators" in this 
 country, who denounce so strongly any "paternalism" 
 exercised over the pupils ? 
 
 As regards the charges against the precautions 
 taken in Jesuit colleges, they are usually founded 
 upon wrong suppositions. It is believed that the 
 Jesuit pupil is watched every moment. This is not so; 
 he has liberty enough within a certain reasonable 
 limit. Of course, it is a most delicate and difficult 
 question how this limit is to be determined. It is not 
 possible to lay down any particulars on this subject, 
 because, in this as in other matters, there exists con- 
 siderable variety in different Jesuit colleges, and 
 Superiors assign that measure of liberty which, con- 
 
 1 Truth, November 1891 ; quoted in the Tablet, Novem- 
 ber 14, 1891. 
 
548 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sidering the difference of places and circumstances, 
 especially the age and character of the pupils, seems 
 not to expose them to great dangers. It is also 
 falsely supposed that no word of necessary explanation 
 is given concerning the dangers that await the pupil 
 outside the college walls; that educators imperatively 
 forbid any inquiry about matters which the students 
 may be anxious to ask; that they never give advice and 
 instruction on matters which at a certain age a young 
 man may, and considering the circumstances, should 
 know, in order not to be caught unawares by dangers 
 and temptations, which are sure to come. 1 Necessary 
 instruction and advice, according to age and other cir- 
 cumstances, will be given, above all, by the confessor; 
 the teacher also, with moderation and discretion, will 
 do the same. Many occasions will offer in the ex- 
 planation of the catechism, of the authors, and in 
 private conversations. 
 
 A few words must be said about the private talks 
 with boys so much recommended in the Jesuit system. 
 Father Jouvancy says the teacher should speak in 
 private more frequently with those who seem to be ex- 
 posed to worse and more dangerous faults. 2 Father 
 Sacchini remarks that he should study the character 
 and disposition of each pupil, to discover the bad out- 
 croppings on the tender plant and nip them in the 
 bud. 3 Father Kropf advises the teacher to go care- 
 fully over the names of his pupils every Sunday and 
 to recommend them in prayer to our Lord and His 
 Blessed Mother. While doing this he should reflect 
 
 1 On this important point see P&re Rochemonteix, vol. 
 II, p. 55 foil. 
 
 2 Ratio Docendi, ch. 1, art. 2. 
 
 3 Paraenesis, art. 18. 
 
THE MORAL SCOPE. 549 
 
 especially whether it is advisable to see this boy or 
 that in private, to correct him, to warn him against a 
 danger, or whether it is well to communicate with his 
 parents. 1 What should be treated of in these private 
 conversations is plain from Jouvancy and Sacchini. 
 And the 47th rule of the teachers says briefly, they 
 should treat only of serious matters. 2 Speaking of 
 conversation with the students, the Father General 
 Vitelleschi, in 1639, gave characteristic directions: "It 
 will be very useful if from time to time the professors 
 treat with their auditors, and converse with them, not 
 about vain rumors and other affairs that are not to the 
 purpose, but about those that appertain to their well- 
 being and education; going into the particulars that 
 seem most to meet their wants; and showing them 
 how they ought to conduct themselves in studies and 
 piety. Let the professors be persuaded that a single 
 talk in private, animated with true zeal and prudence 
 on their part, will penetrate the heart deeper and work 
 more powerfully, than many lectures and sermons 
 given to all in common. ' ' 3 This keeping in touch with 
 the individual pupil has always been considered as 
 one of the sources of the success of the Jesuits in their 
 educational labor. Protestant educators have not 
 failed to recognize this and to speak of it with 
 approval. Thus Sir Joshua Fitch writes of Arnold: 
 "Much of the influence he gained over his scholars 
 influence which enabled him to dispense in an in- 
 creasing degree with corporal punishment was 
 attributed to his knowledge of the individual char- 
 
 1 Ratio et Via, ch. IV, art. 1, 6. 
 
 2 See also Woodstock Letters, 1896, p. 251. 
 
 3 Monumenta Gennaniae Paedag., Pachtler, vol. Ill, 
 p. 59. Hughes, Loyola, p. 108. 
 
55 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 acteristics of boys. . . . This is a kind of knowledge 
 which has long been known to be characteristic of the 
 disciplinary system of the Jesuits, but has not been 
 common among the head masters of English public 
 schools. " l It is almost altogether absent in most 
 modern systems, consistently with their principle of 
 separating training from teaching, education from in- 
 struction, a principle which, as M. Brunetiere said, 
 ''our forefathers would not have been able to under- 
 stand." 2 
 
 Supervision and exhortation are powerful means 
 for preserving the good morals of youths, but much 
 more powerful are the divinely appointed means, Con- 
 fession and Communion. Although they are practised 
 in all Catholic colleges, the Jesuits, following the 
 example and advice of their founder, worked most 
 zealously for the spread of frequent confession and 
 communion. By doing so they incurred the special 
 hatred of the Jansenists, whose rigorous views they 
 vigorously opposed. We need not here refute the 
 Protestant views of auricular confession. Every Cath- 
 olic knows that it is not a "torture chamber of con- 
 science," not an "unwarrantable invasion of the 
 privacy of the individual," not an "intrusion into the 
 sacred domain of domestic life," not a "source of 
 weakness to the will," not a "dangerous and demor- 
 alizing practice." To men who use such language 
 and hold such opinions may be applied the words of 
 the Epistle of St. Jude the Apostle: "Blasphemant 
 quod ignorant, they blaspheme things which they 
 know not." Apart from the divine institution, the 
 
 1 Thomas and Matthew Arnold, p. 102. 
 
 2 Revue des Deux-Mondes> 15 fevrier 1895. 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPK. 551 
 
 Catholic knows that confession, the " ministry of 
 reconciliation, " the "sacrament of peace," is a source 
 of unspeakable blessings, of consolation in distress, of 
 encouragement in despair, of advice in perplexities. 
 With reference to our object, the English Jesuit Father 
 Clarke (Oxford), in an article entitled "The Practice 
 of Confession in the Catholic Church," l points out 
 the special advantages of confession for the moral 
 training of the young. The passage is so beautiful 
 and so much to our purpose that it is well to quote it 
 in its entirety. 
 
 "It has probably occurred to the mind of most 
 Catholics, as it has often occurred to my own, that if 
 there were no other proof of the paramount claims of 
 the Catholic Church, we should find a sufficient one 
 in the elaborate care with which she watches over the 
 innocence of the young. To guard from evil and cor- 
 ruption the lambs of the fold is one of her chief duties 
 and privileges. This loving care she inherits from 
 her Divine Founder, Who was the friend and lover of 
 little children. Now, I do not think that it is possible 
 for any unprejudiced and well-informed person, who 
 compares the practical working of the Catholic system 
 with that of any other religious system in the world, 
 to deny her unrivalled and unapproachable superiority 
 in this respect. She shields her little ones in their 
 early childhood with all the jealous care of the most 
 tender mother, and when the time comes for the safe 
 seclusion of the parental roof to be exchanged for a 
 freer intercourse with their fellows, she provides safe- 
 guards for their purity that are unknown, or almost 
 unknown, outside her fold. For the due education of 
 
 1 North American Revieiu, December 1899. 
 
552 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 boys, large schools, and for those of the upper class, 
 large boarding schools are a practical necessity. Then 
 comes the dangerous time, and how great the dangers 
 of that time are is well known to every one who has 
 had an experience of the inner working of English 
 public schools. To keep boys safe from a most peril- 
 ous, if not fatal, contact with vice and sin, is a problem 
 which has exercised the mind and troubled the con- 
 science of every one who has taken part in the 
 management of any of our large schools and colleges; 
 and those among Protestant educators who have studied 
 the subject most deeply, and who have had long ex- 
 perience to guide them, have had to admit, with 
 sorrow and grief, that the task was a hopeless one. l 
 They have had to submit to what they considered an 
 inevitable evil, and their best hope has been by per- 
 sonal influence to mitigate to some extent that which 
 they knew they were powerless to prevent. But is the 
 evil one for which no remedy can be provided? God 
 forbid! The Catholic Church provides an effective 
 remedy for this as for every other evil incident to 
 human life. Here I can speak from a large experience, 
 and with a full knowledge of the subject. Again and 
 again I have been assured by boys who have passed 
 through Catholic colleges, from the lowest to the 
 highest form, that during the whole of their time there 
 they never heard one immodest word, or came into 
 
 1 Compare with this the passage quoted by Arnold : 
 "Public schools are the very seats and nurseries of vice. It 
 may be unavoidable, or it may not, but the fact is indisput- 
 able. None can pass through a large school without being 
 pretty intimately acquainted with vice, and few, alas ! very 
 few, without tasting too largely of that poisoned bowl." 
 Fitch, /. c. y p. 77. 
 
MORAL SCOPE. 553 
 
 contact with any sort of temptation to evil from those 
 with whom they associated. I have known some who 
 at the end of their school course w r ere as innocent of 
 moral evil as on the day they entered, and were utterly 
 shocked and disgusted when they were thrown into 
 the vortex of the world outside, and had to listen to 
 the kind of talk that too often forms the common staple 
 of conversation among those who have had a Protes- 
 tant education. ... I do not say that the Church is 
 always successful in her endeavors. It is quite pos- 
 sible that, even in a Catholic school, evil may for a 
 time run riot. One sinner may destroy much good. 
 But the evil never lasts long, and the Catholic system 
 brings about a speedy recovery. What I do assert is 
 that the moral perils, to which a boy is exposed in a 
 Catholic school, are infinitesimal as compared with 
 those which will surround him in any of the Protestant 
 public schools and colleges. 
 
 * ( In all this the chief engine for the good work is 
 the confessional. There are, of course, many others. 
 There is the personal influence and the keen sense of 
 responsibility of those who are in authority; there is 
 the close and intimate friendship existing between the 
 teacher and the taught, which is something utterly 
 different from the comparatively cold relations and 
 official reserve which make the Protestant master far 
 more of a stranger to his boys. But it is the weekly 
 or fortnightly confession that is the real safeguard. 
 It is in the confessor that he has his trusted friend, to 
 whom he freely talks of all his dangers and tempta- 
 tions; it is confession that keeps the moral atmosphere 
 healthy and pure ; it is confession that maintains the 
 high standard of life and conversation prevailing, 
 
554 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 through God's mercy, in our Catholic schools and 
 colleges; it is confession that enables the Catholic 
 parent to entrust his boy to the good priests, whether 
 secular or regular, who devote themselves to the work 
 of education, without any of those qualms or fears, 
 that anxiety and foreboding about the future, that fill 
 the heart of the Protestant parent when he bids fare- 
 well to his innocent child on his first plunge into the 
 vortex of a Protestant public school. 
 
 1 'But there is one charge, one false and cruel charge, 
 which some Protestant writers bring against confession. 
 They say that it introduces the young and innocent to 
 a knowledge of subjects which are sacro digna silentiOj 
 and even suggests to them evil of which they would 
 otherwise be ignorant. I can only assure my readers 
 (in answer to this gratuitous calumny), on the word 
 of an honest man, that during the twenty years and 
 more that I have been constantly hearing confessions 
 of men and women, boys and girls, of every class and 
 in various countries, I have never known of a single 
 instance of any knowledge of evil having been im- 
 parted in the confessional. I am sure that I may 
 speak for all my fellow priests all over the world, when 
 I say that I would, with God's help, far rather be torn 
 in a thousand pieces than say one word in the confes- 
 sional that could endanger the purity of the young, or 
 impart a knowledge of evil to one previously ignorant 
 of it. 
 
 * ' But if there should be any of my readers who are 
 not willing to accept my own personal assurance, there 
 is another consideration which ought to convince 
 them. If there were in this accusation the smallest 
 element of truth, every good mother would, in her 
 
THE MORAI, SCOPE. 555 
 
 tender care for her children's innocence, have the 
 greatest horror of seeing her little ones kneeling before 
 the priest, and every careful father would forbid his 
 boys and girls from incurring the risk of such con- 
 tamination. Is this the case? Do we find good 
 Catholic parents dreading the influence of the con- 
 fessional for their children ? On the contrary, there is 
 nothing that gives them more hearty satisfaction than 
 to know that their sons and daughters are, from their 
 earliest years, regular in making their confession 
 month by month, or week by week. They regard it 
 as the best possible safeguard for their innocence and 
 virtue. They are alarmed and anxious if, when boy- 
 hood emerges into youth, their sons grow irregular in 
 frequenting the tribunal of penance. They fear there 
 must be something wrong. They urge and entreat 
 them not to fall away from the practice of confession. 
 Joy fills the mother's heart when she sees her son once 
 more returning, it may be after long absence, to that 
 fount of mercy and of grace, where she knows that he 
 will obtain pardon for the past, and strength and help 
 for the struggles of the future. ' ' 
 
 It would be presumption on our part to make 
 further comment on these beautiful words. Every 
 Catholic will testify to the truth of Father Clarke's 
 description of the salutary influence confession exer- 
 cises over the young during the most dangerous period 
 of life. Now let us contrast with this description 
 a picture drawn from the life of a Protestant, New- 
 man, in the introduction of Loss and Gain, describes 
 a clergyman of the Church of England, who has just 
 decided to send his son Charles to one of the large 
 public schools. "Seclusion", he says to himself, "is 
 
55$ JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 no security for virtue. There is no telling. what is in 
 a boy's heart ; he may look as open and happy as 
 usual, and be as kind and as attentive, when there is 
 a great deal wrong going on within. The heart is a 
 secret with its Maker. No one on earth can hope to 
 get at it, or to touch it. I have a cure of souls ; what 
 do I really know of my parishioners? Nothing ; their 
 hearts are sealed books to me. And this dear boy, he 
 comes close to me ; he throws his arms around me, 
 but his soul is as much out of my sight as if he were 
 at the antipodes. I am not accusing him of reserve, 
 dear fellow ; his very love and reverence for me keep 
 him in a sort of charmed solitude. I cannot expect to 
 get at the bottom of him. 
 
 'Bach iu his hidden sphere of bliss or woe, 
 Our hermit spirits dwell.* 
 
 It is our lot here below. No one on earth can know 
 Charles's secret thoughts. Did I guard him here at 
 home ever so well, yet, in due time, it might be found 
 that a serpent had crept into the Eden of his inno- 
 cence. Boys do not fully know what is good and what 
 is evil; they do wrong things at first almost innocently. 
 Novelty hides vice from them ; there is no one to 
 warn them or give them rules; and they become slaves 
 of sin while they are learning what sin is. " 
 
 Is not this a most pathetic confession of a great 
 shortcoming of the Protestant system which renounces 
 all inward government and direction of the soul ? It 
 leaves all to the private judgment of the individual. 
 And yet, what a blessing for young people to have one 
 to whom they can securely disclose "their secret 
 thoughts." Then this friend of their souls can "warn 
 them and give them rules." The evil will be dis- 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPE. 557 
 
 covered and counteracted before the young are slaves 
 of sin. The Catholic youth has all this advantage in 
 the confession. What could an Arnold, a Thring, 
 a McCosh do here? Indeed, does not this reserve of 
 the Protestant system frustrate in many educators 
 talent, zeal, kindliness, and keen-eyed affection, of 
 their best fruits ? 
 
 On the educational influence of the reception of the 
 Holy Eucharist, a beautiful passage is found in the 
 diary of the first American Cardinal, Archbishop Mc- 
 Closkey of New York, written when sojourning in 
 Rome as a young priest. u Feast of St. Aloysius, 
 Rome, June 21, 1835. This is the peculiar festivity of 
 the students of Rome. It is observed with the greatest 
 solemnity at the Church of the Roman College, S. 
 Ignazio [under the care of the Jesuits]. Nearly all 
 the students of the college, amounting to the number 
 of 1500, receive Holy Communion together on this 
 day. Being anxious to witness so interesting and 
 edifying a spectacle, I took care to be at the Church 
 of S. Ignazio at a seasonable hour. When I arrived, 
 the students had just entered and had taken their 
 places in ranks forming an aisle in the middle, and 
 extending from the altar along the nave of the church 
 to the very door. The Community Mass, a low one, 
 was celebrated by a Cardinal, and the choir was com- 
 posed of some of the choice singers among the 
 pupils. It may have been owing to the numberless 
 youthful associations that were connected with the 
 scene before me, but I must confess it was to me the 
 most edifying and most affecting ceremony I have yet 
 witnessed in Rome. It was one which I shall never 
 forget. To behold that spacious and beautiful edifice 
 
558 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 almost exclusively occupied by such a number of 
 students of every rank and almost every age, arranged 
 in such beautiful order, their countenances bespeaking 
 a deep sense of the act they were about to perform in 
 receiving into their bosoms their Divine lyord and 
 Saviour, and to hear, at the same time, the solemn 
 strains of music which filled the place with pious 
 harmony, was certainly enough to fill a far less sensi- 
 tive breast with holy enthusiasm. The moment of 
 Communion arrived. It was a moment in which I felt 
 the holiness and sublimity of my religion with a pecu- 
 liar force. Fifteen hundred young men and boys 
 approached the table of their Divine Master with a 
 modesty and a fervor most marked and sincere, and, 
 it is to be supposed, with a corresponding purity of 
 mind and heart, all of them in the heyday of life, arid 
 most of that age, and in those exterior circumstances, 
 which lead the youth, particularly of Protestant col- 
 leges, to the most dangerous vices. This, assuredly, 
 I thought was a triumphant evidence of the superior 
 moral influence of the Catholic religion. Call it 
 Jesuitism, call it priestcraft, call it what you please, 
 no candid mind contemplating such a spectacle can 
 deny that as edifying a one has never been, and never 
 will be, presented by the same number, nor one tenth 
 of the number, of Protestant youth in any part of the 
 world." 1 
 
 Besides these two principal means employed for the 
 religious and moral training of youth, there are others 
 which are used with the most salutary results. Among 
 them are certain devotions recommended to, and en- 
 
 1 Historical Records and Studies, vol. II, part I: "Car- 
 dinal McCloskey," by Archbishop Farley. 
 
THE: MORAiv SCOPE. 559 
 
 couraged among, the students. Non-Catholics do not 
 view the Catholic devotions very favorably, but their 
 antipathy springs, for the most part, from a misunder- 
 standing of the true nature of these devotions. Prot- 
 estants think that Catholics consider these practices 
 as the essence of religion; further, they have the 
 opinion that these devotions are merely mechanical 
 recitations of certain set prayers. In this they are 
 seriously mistaken. l To the Catholic the religious 
 devotions are not the essence of religion, but they are 
 practical manifestations of religion and, at the same 
 time, valuable helps to obtain and strengthen what is 
 essential in religion, namely, the perfect subjection of 
 the intellect and will to the will of God. Nor are they 
 merely mechanical recitations of prayers; they are, if 
 performed according to the mind of the Church, power- 
 ful means of lifting up the understanding, the imagi- 
 nation, the feelings and the will to the contemplation 
 and active love of God. They all contain most potent 
 motives for the moral elevation and betterment of man. 
 L,et us take that devotion which Jesuit educators 
 recommend so much to their pupils : the devotion to 
 St. Aloysius, the "L,ily of Gonzaga." In this devo- 
 tion the picture of the highest Christian perfection 
 
 1 Far worse misrepresentations of Catholic devotions are 
 due to gross ignorance of Catholic teaching. Thus we find in 
 so learned a work as Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung 
 (vol. Ill, parti, page 91) the assertion that "the Society of 
 Jesus, according to the idea of its founder, sees the end and 
 object of all religious exercises in the adoration of Mary." 
 Every Catholic child of seven years could have told the Leip- 
 sic Professor who wrote this calumny, that Catholics do not 
 adore > but venerate Mary and the Saints; nor do Catholics see 
 in the veneration of Mary and the Saints the end and object 
 of all religious exercises. 
 
560 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 attainable in youth is placed before the eyes of the 
 students. They see in this Saint a noble youth who, 
 in the midst of wealth and luxury and the allurements 
 of a courtly life, preserved unsullied the white robe 
 of innocence ; a youth who from early childhood 
 measured all things, as he himself expressed it, secun- 
 dum rationes aeternas, non secundum rationes temporales, 
 i. e. according to the value which they possess for his 
 final destination ; a youth who always followed the 
 dictates of conscience with a chivalrous energy and 
 steadfastness, and who heroically spurned the plea- 
 sures that prove so fatal to many young men ; a youth 
 who renounced the inheritance of a principality in 
 order to follow the evangelical counsels, and to devote 
 himself to the glory of God and the service of his 
 fellow-men. Surely, a devotion which places before 
 the admiring gaze of students such a type of youthful 
 holiness for imitation, is a practical devotion, one that 
 cannot fail to elevate the character of the students and 
 make their lives purer and holier. Here we may also 
 mention another most salutary exercise, namely, the 
 annual retreat in which, following the directions of 
 St. Ignatius, the end of man, the means of attaining 
 this end, and the motives for striving after Christian 
 sanctity are set before the mind of the pupil. What 
 untold blessings result from these exercises, only he is 
 able to realize who has made them. 
 
 Then there exist in every Jesuit college the Sodali- 
 ties of the Blessed Mother of God, pious associations 
 originated by the Jesuit Scholastic L,eon, and solemnly 
 recognized and highly eulogized by many Popes, 
 beginning from Gregory XIII. (1584) down to L,eo 
 XIII. It is worth while to read the high commenda- 
 
THE MORAI, SCOPE. 561 
 
 tion bestowed on them by the learned Pope Benedict 
 XIV. , who, as a former Jesuit pupil and member of 
 the sodality, could well form a competent judgment 
 upon their value. The influence of these sodalities 
 on the moral life of the pupils cannot be valued too 
 highly. Their members are usually the leaders in 
 setting good example to others. The decline of sodali- 
 ties was frequently followed by a decline of morality 
 in Catholic colleges. In 1871 the sodalities in the 
 thirty higher schools in Rhenish Prussia were ham- 
 pered by government interference; it was said that 
 the good they might do to individuals, should be 
 accomplished by the schools without them. A year 
 after, in 1872, Dr. Falk, Minister of Instruction in 
 Prussia, ordered the dissolution of the sodalities in all 
 higher schools in the kingdom. Not eight years had 
 elapsed when Dr. Falk's successor, von Puttkamer, 
 on the 2oth day of May 1880, had to warn the heads 
 of the same institutions against associations formed by 
 the students with the avowed purpose of practising 
 drink, dishonesty and immorality. 1 
 
 These sodalities, instituted to advance the students 
 in true and solid piety as well as learning, effected in- 
 estimable good. The members were exhorted to 
 cherish above all that virtue which is the most beauti- 
 ful ornament of youth, purity. They created a lofty 
 moral tone in the colleges and sustained a healthy, 
 manly public opinion. Thus these pious associations 
 exerted a most powerful formative influence on the 
 character of the students. 2 Their piety, too, was active 
 
 1 Centralblattfur die Unterrichtsverwaltung, 1880, p. 572. 
 
 2 See Coleman, "Old Stonyhurst" in Messenger, New 
 York, 1894, p. 797 foil. 
 
 36 
 
562 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 in works of charity. The sodalists of early colleges 
 united in bands to purchase articles of food and 
 clothing for distribution among the poor; they visited 
 prisoners, and consoled and instructed them; they 
 went to the hospitals and to the squalid quarters of 
 the city to look after the sick. 1 What the students 
 thus began to practise in college, was by many con- 
 tinued throughout their lives. 
 
 Nor have the sodalities ceased to achieve the same 
 excellent results in our days. As a modern model 
 sodality we mention that of Barcelona, consisting of 
 seven hundred members, mostly students of the Uni- 
 versity, or members of the professions. Its Academia 
 encourages excellent literary and scientific work. 2 
 
 Another point concerning the moral training that 
 deserves particular mention is the care of the Society 
 with regard to reading. The press is a mighty instru- 
 ment for good and evil. With it heaven and hell are 
 contesting for a priceless treasure the soul of man. 
 St. Ignatius and the framers of the Ratio Studiorurn 
 knew this full well. They tell the teacher to en- 
 courage good and wholesome reading, but even more 
 earnestly to warn the students against dangerous 
 books, which St. Augustine calls "the hellish stream 
 into which the children of men are daily cast. ' ' 3 
 Ignatius feared lest the reading of classic authors 
 should introduce into young minds pagan tastes and 
 
 1 Details may be read in the History of the Sodalities, 
 Boston, Noonan & Co., 1885. See also Rochemonteix, 
 vol. II, p. 121 foil., where the charitable work of the Sodali- 
 ties at La Fl&che is related. 
 
 2 See The Pilgrim of our Lady of Martyrs, New York, 
 Sept. 1893 and Jan. 1894. 
 
 3 Confess. I, c. 16. 
 
MORAI, SCOPE. 563 
 
 morals. Nor was his fear groundless in view of the 
 disastrous results that had followed the one-sided study 
 and admiration of the classics during the latter period 
 of the Renaissance, when people not only imitated the 
 beautiful style of the writers of antiquity but also their 
 shocking principles. 1 About the year 1550 Ignatius, 
 who had thought long and 'deeply upon this subject, 
 wrote to a prelate: "Seing that young people are so 
 disposed to receive and retain first impressions, 
 whether good or bad . . . and considering that books, 
 especially classics as they are taught to boys, as 
 Terence, Virgil, and others, contain amongst many 
 things to be learnt, and not useless but profitable 
 rather for life, some other things very profane and 
 injurious even if only heard . . . and so much the 
 more, if these are placed before them in books in 
 which they study habitually, having them in their 
 hands this considered, it has seemed to me, as it 
 does still seem, that it would be very expedient if we 
 were to remove from these classic works all the parts 
 that are unedifying or noxious, and replace them by 
 others of a better sort, or, without adding anything 
 leave only what is profitable. And this appears to me 
 up to these last years most desirable for the good 
 Christian life and good training of our youth." 2 
 
 1 See above chapter II, ? 2 : pp. 50 52 and ch. V on the 
 theatrical performances, pp. 165 167. Vittorino da Feltre 
 and other representatives of the Christian Renaissance dif- 
 fered radically on this point from the Pagan Humanists. 
 Thus Vittorino read certain authors to his pupils only with 
 many excisions. Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre, pp. 47 
 and 57. 
 
 2 In Stewart Rose, St. Ignatius Loyola, p. 515. Obscene 
 passages are meant. But substitutions cannot be recommended. 
 
564 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The principles of St. Ignatius found a practical 
 expression in the Constitutions of the Society, 1 and 
 later in various parts of the Ratio Studiorurn. 2 There 
 it is laid down that in the authors given into the 
 hands of the pupils all dangerous passages should be 
 omitted, or if certain authors, as Terence, could hardly 
 be expurgated they ought rather not to be read at all. 
 Many modern educators or writers on education con- 
 sider this anxiety of the Jesuits mere prudery. Others 
 who have studied the question more thoroughly and 
 conscientiously, admit that many reasons can be given 
 for the practice of the Jesuits. Others again declare 
 themselves unable to speak decisively on this "per- 
 plexing" question. Thus a writer in the St. James's 
 Gazette j after having mentioned the "castrated edi- 
 tions of the classics" used in the Jesuit college at 
 Stonyhurst, England, says: "Our public schools go 
 upon another principle ; the argument being that the 
 shock of introduction on entering the world, to what 
 has been so zealously excluded would only lead to a 
 sudden and fatal downfall. For my part I find the 
 question a perplexing one." 3 
 
 To those who see in the caution of the Society 
 nothing but prudery, we may reply that even pagan 
 writers, and those of the very highest standing, as 
 Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian, denounced 
 emphatically the reading of certain authors of their 
 own language and race. Quintilian well said: "As 
 regards reading, great care is to be taken, above all 
 things, that tender minds, which will imbibe deeply 
 
 1 Constit. P. IV, c. 5. Decl. E. 
 
 2 Reg. Prov. 34. Reg. com. 8. 
 
 8 I,ittell's Living Age, vol. CLXX (1886), p. 248. 
 
THK MORAL SCOPE. 565 
 
 whatever has entered them when they are ignorant 
 of everything and, as it were, resemble empty vessels, 
 may learn not only what is well written, but, still 
 more, what is morally good. The reading of tragedies 
 is beneficial, the lyric poets nourish the mind, pro- 
 vided that you select from them, not merely authors, 
 but portions of their works; for the Greeks are licen- 
 tious in many of their writings, and I should be loath 
 to interpret Horace in certain passages." 1 And even 
 Ovid, that licentious writer, warns his readers if they 
 want to be free from the consequences of disorderly 
 passion, not to read, nay, not to touch frivolous 
 poetry: Teneros ne tange poetas, and he includes in this 
 class some of his own works. The language of the 
 Fathers of the Church is unmistakable on this sub- 
 ject. In fact, the terms of condemnation used by some 
 Fathers against pagan writings, are actually directed 
 against the idolatry and immorality contained therein. 
 It would be useless to multiply quotations. 
 
 There are modern educators, also Protestants, who 
 on this point are at one with the Society. Thus writes 
 Quick: "It is much to the credit of the Jesuit Fathers 
 that, though Plautus and Terence were considered 
 very valuable for giving a knowledge of colloquial 
 Latin and were studied and learned by heart in the 
 Protestant schools, the Jesuits rejected them on 
 account of their impurity. ' ' 2 Later on expurgated 
 editions of Plautus, Terence, Horace, Juvenal, Per- 
 sius and others were published by Jesuits, especi- 
 ally by Father Jouvaiicy. The words of Professor 
 
 1 Inst. I, c. 8. 
 
 2 Educational Reformers, p. 507. See also vou Rau- 
 iner's statements above p. 166. 
 
566 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Paul Barth of Leipsic, written a year ago, are also 
 well worth being summarized here. 1 ''One of the 
 truest sayings of Goethe is: 'Let no one imagine that 
 the first impressions of youth can be effaced. ' There 
 are striking examples recorded in history how per- 
 verse reading in early years caused the greatest harm. 
 Of course there will be wise people, even educators, 
 who say: 'It is true, there are some offensive passages 
 in this work, but their effect is counteracted by other 
 instruction. Don't let us be pedantic. Don't let us 
 make so much noise about such trifles. ' These gentle- 
 men must be answered that in education there are no 
 trifles; that nothing is so little that it may be over- 
 looked. For every trifle has an influence on many, 
 very many souls of children, and in every one of these 
 souls it can work its effect for a long time, perhaps for 
 a whole life. Others, advocates of a 'sound realism,' 
 as they style themselves, will say: 'Evil is after all a 
 component part of this world, and so it is beneficial to 
 free the young of the illusion that there is no evil in 
 the world. ' To this we reply: Belief in the moral order 
 in this world is an energizing factor in the life of the 
 young, and the man who robs the child of this belief, 
 weakens its moral energy, consequently does an im- 
 moral act. Others again, granting all this, will say: 
 'Although there is some danger in such reading, still 
 it gives an insight into the life and the history of the 
 nations.' Such historians we answer: The history of 
 
 1 Neue Jahrbucher, 1901, vol. VIII, pp." 57 59. See 
 also Schiller, Handbuch der praktisclien Padagogik, 1894, 
 p. 172, where it is said that some satires of Horace and some 
 passages in Homer should be left out in the school editions. 
 The same author's opinion about the use of unabridged Bibles 
 in schools will be quoted in the next chapter. 
 
THK MORAL SCOPE. 567 
 
 civilization can be learned in other ways ; at any rate, 
 it is too dearly bought if it ruins the character of 
 children. " 
 
 That no prudishness is advocated by our remarks 
 on reading the classics, is sufficiently proved from 
 what has been said on Homer. 1 Nor do we deny that 
 some editors of school- texts, as well as teachers, may 
 not have gone too far in expurgating. Here, as in 
 other matters, the golden rule is: Medio tutissimus ibis. 
 It will always remain a delicate and difficult question 
 to decide what is to be omitted or what may be read 
 without danger. The tact of the teacher and skill in 
 handling such passages will often give the proper 
 solution. But about the correctness of the general 
 principle laid down in the Ratio Studiorum there can 
 be no doubt. 
 
 The same principle holds good not only of the 
 classical authors of Greece and Rome, but of the 
 moderns as well, if not in a higher degree. 2 The 
 ancients are direct, outspoken and straightforward, 
 even in their obscenity; the moderns are more indirect 
 and insinuating. The latter method is not the more 
 harmless as might appear to the superficial, but is by 
 far the more dangerous, since it stimulates curiosity, 
 sets the mind thinking and leaves the reader to reflect 
 and dwell on an unsavory and prurient subject. The 
 Jesuit teachers are exhorted not only "not to read in 
 class any obscene author or any book which contains 
 matter dangerous to good morals, but also to deter 
 most energetically their pupils from reading such 
 
 1 See above pp. 399400. 
 
 2 The Rules of the Provincial 34, 2, say : "Still greater 
 caution is needed in regard to the vernacular authors. " 
 
568 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 books outside of class." l This advice about deterring 
 pupils from bad reading, is far more necessary now-a- 
 days than at the time when the Ratio was drawn up. 
 How many popular books and magazines, openly, or 
 secretly under the name of ''modern science," are ad- 
 vocating principles which in reality are agnostic and 
 irreligious? How many of the novels that flood the 
 literary market, are filled with ill-disguised nasti- 
 ness? How many books are borrowed by the young 
 people from libraries, which should never be permitted 
 to fall into their hands? God alone knows all the 
 harm done to faith and purity by these books. For 
 many a talented youth, the pride and joy of a happy 
 home, the indulging in filthy novels has been the 
 beginning of a career of sin and crime. 
 
 As a rule it is not advisable to say this or that book 
 is bad or indecent; for some boys, either through 
 viciousness or curiosity, will for that very reason read 
 the book. But should an evil publication circulate 
 among the boys, then it should be denounced in the 
 strongest terms. 
 
 Boys should be likewise cautioned against over- 
 indulgence in the reading of newspapers, especially of 
 the sensational kind. There is no worse school for 
 the mind than such papers. They not unfrequently 
 swarm with infamous advertisements; scandalous 
 happenings, whose very possibility ought to be un- 
 known to young people, are there discussed in a 
 frivolous manner and with the omission of not a single 
 disgusting detail. If these newspapers form the daily 
 mental food of a boy, they will dull and blunt all 
 sense of delicacy and modesty, and disable his mind 
 
 1 Reg. com. 8. 
 
THE MORAL SCOPK. 569 
 
 for serious application to hard study. In his "Book 
 of the Spiritual Exercises," St. Ignatius pictures the 
 inveterate enemy of mankind seated on a throne on 
 the plains of Babylon, despatching innumerable demons 
 all over the world, to every city and every person in 
 order to ensnare and deceive men. This wily fiend 
 has undergone a marvellous metamorphosis. He 
 makes use of the doctrine of evolution, adapting him- 
 self to new circumstances. He is no longer the horned 
 and hoofed monster of olden legends, but a polished, 
 well-read gentleman, who manages thousands of 
 printing establishments. And every mail carries 
 countless demons, in the shape of bad novels, maga- 
 zines and papers, to every city, every town, every 
 village, every dwelling, no matter how secluded or 
 remote. Shall we expect these envoys of Satan, 
 "transformed into angels of light," to overlook our 
 schools and colleges? Alas, how often do they sneak 
 in, unnoticed by porter or janitor, to work their deeds 
 of darkness among the young. Naught but the ut- 
 most vigilance on the part of school authorities will be 
 able to counteract these evils. Certainly the principle 
 of St. Ignatius and the Ratio Studiorum need not be 
 further vindicated. 1 
 
 We must make some remarks about sports, which 
 take so important a part in our modern schools. We 
 do this in connection with moral education for various 
 reasons. First, because a moderate use of athletics 
 helps to develop certain moral qualities. Secondly, 
 because some moderns see in it a remedy for nearly all 
 
 1 On reading see also Sacchini : On Dangerous Reading 
 (In Latin); a new translation in Herder's Bibliothek der 
 katholischen Padagogik, vol. X, pp. 186 205. Jungmann, 
 S. J.: Gefahren der belletristischen Lecture. 
 
570 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 vicious habits of youth. They rejoice that "muscular 
 Christianity," "a sound, practical, sensible, worldly 
 basis of life has taken the place of the morbid asceti- 
 cism and unreal superstitions and transcendentalism 
 of former generations, which considered the flesh a 
 burden, a clog, a snare." l Thirdly, because excess 
 in athletics leads to serious damage, moral as well as 
 intellectual. 
 
 The physical culture of the pupils forms a most 
 important feature in a good system of education: sit 
 mens sana in corpore sano. Athletics, out-door sports 
 and gymnastics do much for the physical health of 
 the students. Besides, they demand, and consequently 
 help to develop, quickness of apprehension, steadiness 
 and coolness, self-reliance, self-control, readiness to 
 subordinate individual impulses to a command. This 
 is all valuable for education. Still, "in the reaction 
 from the asceticism of our early college life there is 
 little doubt our athletics have gone too far; so far as 
 to direct in a noticeable degree the student's attention 
 from his studies." 2 Indeed, it has come to pass that 
 among students base-ball, foot-ball, boat-races and 
 other sports form almost the exclusive topic of con- 
 versation. The favorite reading is the sporting sheet 
 of the newspaper. Some college periodicals give 
 almost more space to athletics than to literature. 
 <4 Pray," said an Oxford Don to President McCosh, 
 after reading several numbers of the Princetonian, 
 "are you the president of a gymnastic institution?" 3 
 
 1 See General Walker's address in Report of Commis- 
 sioner of Education, 189697, I, p. 705 foil. 
 
 2 Prof. West of Princeton University, in Education in 
 the United States, vol. I, p. 222. 
 
 3 Life of James McCosh, p. 208. See also p. 223 foil. 
 
THE) MORAI, SCOPK. 571 
 
 The dangers arise not so much from athletic exercises 
 themselves, as from their publicity and the universal 
 admiration in which they are held. There is in our 
 days a morbid craving for notoriety; people wish to 
 be interviewed, to be talked about, to be kept before 
 the eyes of the public. Many a young man thinks he 
 cannot realize this ambition better than by athletic 
 triumphs. Thus by competitive games much time 
 and talent is wasted, much enthusiasm for higher 
 aspirations is stifled. Unfortunately, some colleges, 
 instead of checking this spirit have catered to it. No 
 wonder that boys have changed their views of the 
 ideal student. Their ideals are on the campus, no 
 longer in the domain of literature and science. The 
 hero to whom they look up with admiration is not the 
 leading boy in the class, not the one who at the end 
 of the year carries off the honors, but the one "who 
 breaks the world's record" in some athletic contest. 
 Many prefer the approving shout of thousands of 
 spectators on the foot ball field to the earning of class 
 honor. Indeed brain is no longer the highest human 
 gift in the eyes of a great number of students, but 
 muscles and muscular achievements. And a writer in 
 a periodical for September 1901, boasted that "we are 
 fast becoming a nation of athletes. ' ' The best educa- 
 tors are unanimous in condemning this excessive 
 spirit of athleticism. They foresee the serious dangers 
 that spring from it, to intellectual and moral culture. 1 
 
 1 On this keenly discussed question see : Findlay, Arnold 
 of Rugby, with an Introduction by the Right Reverend Lord 
 Bishop of Hereford. (1897), pp. 23 and 24. Fitch, Thomas 
 and Matthew Arnold, pp. 103108. There it is stated that 
 exaltation of physical powers to the same level as intellectual 
 distinction has in late years seriously debased the ideal and 
 
57 2 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The Jesuits have never neglected the care of the 
 health of their pupils. 1 Long ago they had introduced 
 various games into their colleges and did much to 
 interest all the pupils in them. This is mentioned as 
 a laudable feature of their educational system even by 
 men who wrote in a hostile spirit against the Society. 2 
 The Jesuits recognized the importance of games at a 
 period when they were little esteemed by others. 
 "The schools of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies are in general noted for their gloomy neglect of 
 
 hindered the usefulness of the great public schools in Bug- 
 land. "For the moment the type of school-boy and of man- 
 hood most in favor with the British public is Spartan rather 
 than Athenian." Mr. Fitch states also that the famous 
 romance of Thomas Hughes, Tom Browtfs School-days, gives 
 only one side and that not the best side of Rugby school 
 life. Some excellent remarks on athletics in college are 
 made by Mr. Canfield in his book The College Student and 
 his Problems, pp. 103 105. A very severe criticism of the 
 excessive admiration of sport among the Knglish public is 
 contained in the Contemporary Review, Jan. 1902. See also 
 Nineteenth Century, Jan. 1903, p. 46. 
 
 1 A document in Spanish, drawn up in the first years of 
 the Society, contains a most interesting chapter entitled 
 "The Preservation of Bodily Health and Strength. " In 
 seventeen paragraphs it lays down rules about moderation in 
 studies, about food, clothing, sleep, proper bodily exercises, 
 and sufficient recreation. Although this document was 
 primarily written for the younger members of the Order, its 
 principles were applied, as appears from other passages, to 
 the pupils of the colleges, of course with necessary changes. 
 See Monumenta Paedagogica, p. 68 sq. "Para Conservar la 
 Salud y Fuerzas del Cuerpo." 
 
 2 For instance in the Recollections of a Jesuit Pupil 
 (written by an apostate priest who had studied in Jesuit 
 colleges), p. 104 foil. Bode: Aus dem Kloster, vol. II, 
 p. 174 foil, quoted by Hubzr,Jesmten-Orden t p. 370 foil. 
 
THK MORAI, SCOPE. 573 
 
 this cheerful element in the education of youth. The 
 schools of the Jesuits were, in this respect, conducted 
 on more reasonable principles than most of the rest." l 
 It is a well-known fact that in Germany sport in the 
 higher schools, is, or was, until recently, neglected 
 more than is expedient for the general development of 
 the pupils. And yet, wherever German Jesuits 
 opened a college, be it in Freiburg (Switzerland), 
 Feldkirch ( Vorarlberg) , or Sao L,eopoldo (Brazil), 
 everywhere they introduced and encouraged plenty of 
 healthful games, an evident sign that it is the spirit 
 of the Society to give the pupils sufficient recreation. 
 Of the French Jesuits, the Figaro wrote years ago 
 (June 2, 1879): ' 'Games and amusements occupy an 
 important place in the schools of the Jesuits. They 
 are as much interested about the place of recreation as 
 about the study hall. The prefects induce the pupils 
 to join in the games with the same ardor they display 
 in stimulating them to work at their books. Two 
 prefects, Fathers de Nodaillac and Rousseau, have 
 written the history of games. . . . Fencing is honored 
 and encouraged in the Jesuit schools. In the three 
 institutions at Paris {rue de Madrid, de Vaugirard and 
 des Pastes) more than four hundred pupils take lessons 
 in fencing under the direction of the best instruc- 
 tors." 2 It is not necessary to prove that in English 
 speaking countries the Jesuit colleges do not neglect 
 this part of training. 
 
 1 Kiddle and Schem, The Cyclopaedia of Education , ar- 
 ticle < 'Games, " p. 330. 
 
 2 De Badts de Cugnac, Les Jesuites et ^education, 
 pp. 2531. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Religious Instruction. 
 
 The preceding chapter has shown how painstaking 
 the Jesuits are as regards the moral training of their 
 pupils. Other educators also insist on the necessity 
 of this training, but the Jesuits, in fact all Catholics, 
 differ from a great number of other educators in a most 
 essential point, namely in that they base the moral 
 training entirely on the religious education. They 
 consider a moral training without the religious as 
 defective and incomplete. Incomplete, because it dis- 
 regards one of the most important obligations of man. 
 Man's first and most sacred duty is to acknowledge his 
 dependence on God, his Creator and Lord, and to give 
 expression to this recognition by interior and exterior 
 acts of worship. This is religion. Religion is a 
 postulate of man's rational nature. This thought 
 stood clearly before the mind of the founder of the 
 Society of Jesus, when in his Spiritual Exercises he 
 wrote down this brief summary of religion : l ' Man is 
 created to praise God, to reverence and serve Him, 
 and, by doing so, to save his soul. ' ' No system of edu- 
 cation can be considered as harmonious which leaves 
 this first duty of man out of consideration, and fails to 
 implant religion into the hearts of the pupils. If it is 
 man's duty to worship God, it is his duty likewise to 
 know God ; he can know Him from the manifestation 
 of His works (Romans i, 19), and the revelation of 
 His word. Religion does not consist in mere senti- 
 
 (574) 
 
R3UGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 575 
 
 ment and pious emotions, but in the recognition of 
 certain truths and the subjection of the will to these 
 truths. Hence no religion is possible without the 
 knowledge of these truths, or let us plainly call them 
 what they are : dogmas, although this word is so hate- 
 ful to the ear of the rationalist and agnostic educator 
 of the day. Dogmas must be taught and believed as 
 the foundation of all true religion, as the Great Teacher 
 of mankind has said: "This is life everlasting that 
 they may know thee, the only true God, and Jesus 
 Christ whom thou hast sent." 1 It is, indeed, the 
 highest wisdom "to know Christ and him crucified," 
 "in whom are hid all the treasures of wisdom and 
 knowledge." 2 Christ, therefore, must be the centre 
 of all true education. 
 
 The knowledge of religious truths is necessary in 
 education for another reason, because it is the onl} r 
 sure foundation of morality, and without it no true 
 moral education is possible. This is the firm convic- 
 tion of Christian thinkers. I know the champions of 
 the "unsectarian" schools cry out against such an 
 assertion, and they ask indignantly: "Can we not 
 teach ethics without dogmas, moral principles without 
 religion?" Reason, history, daily experience, and our 
 innermost conscience give a stern and emphatic an- 
 swer to this question : ' 'You cannot teach it effectively 
 and with any satisfactory result." All motives of 
 self-respect, honor, sense of duty, welfare of the com- 
 munity, etc., may deter a man from certain more 
 revolting crimes, but they will not hold in times of 
 fierce temptation, when neither disgrace nor civil 
 
 1 John 17, 3. 
 
 2 1 Cor. 2, 2 ; and Col. 2, 3. 
 
576 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 punishment is to be feared. How well has the 
 " Father of this Country " expressed this, when he left 
 to his people as a sacred legacy these weighty words : 
 "L,et us with caution indulge the supposition that 
 morality can be maintained without religion. What- 
 ever may be conceded to the influence of refined 
 education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and 
 experience both forbid us to expect that national 
 morality can prevail in exclusion of religious prin- 
 ciple." Another great military and political leader 
 has spoken even more strongly on this subject. L,ord 
 Mahon writes of a conversation which he had with 
 the great Duke of Wellington: "I shall never forget 
 the earnestness and energy of manner with which he 
 [the Duke of Wellington] deprecated mere secular 
 education, adding, / doubt if the devil himself could 
 advise a worse scheme of social destruction." . . . ''Take 
 care what you are about," he exclaimed on Decem- 
 ber 23, 1840, when speaking of the new Education 
 Act; "for unless you base all this education on re- 
 ligion, you are only bringing up so many clever 
 devils. " 1 The educational legislation of the year 1902 
 proves that England, after many decades of experi- 
 menting, has at length realized the truth of the warn- 
 ing of her distinguished leader. 
 
 Alas, that the most important words of Washington 
 have been practically forgotten in this country, and 
 that the exclusion of religious teaching from the schools 
 has been made one of the fundamental principles of 
 the national system of schools, in such a degree that 
 the Catholic Church, which all along has insisted that 
 
 1 Lord Stanhope's Conversations with the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, London, 1888, p. 180. 
 
RKIJGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 577 
 
 it was its duty to educate the children of Catholic 
 parents in the truths of their religion, was denounced 
 as an enemy of the country. At present the more 
 thoughtful Protestants begin to acknowledge that this 
 idea is the only true one. The spread of immorality 
 and infidelity has opened the eyes of many. 1 
 
 We may be allowed to quote one or other recent 
 utterance of non-Catholics on this subject. Professor 
 Gates, of the Chicago Theological Seminary, writes in 
 the Biblical World, September 1902: "The great 
 problem of life is education. The mind of the race is 
 growing all the while, and it is for the educator to see 
 that these mental powers are developed in the right 
 direction. But no man's education is complete if 
 religious instruction be omitted. One may know all 
 mysteries of science and literature ; he may sweep the 
 heavens with the telescope, or peer into the secrets of 
 nature with the microscope ; but if in all this he see 
 not God, he is but poorly educated after all. Now 
 where do we find ourselves, as we confront this phase 
 of the national problem ? We have a system of public 
 education to be proud of. Never have the various 
 questions that meet the teacher been so well under- 
 stood as to-day. But what is this great system doing 
 
 1 On this subject see the following recent publications : 
 Father Poland, S. J., "True Pedagogics and False Ethics," 
 in Am. Cath. Quart. Review, April 1899 ; also as separate 
 pamphlet. Father Campbell, S. J., "The Only True Ameri- 
 can School System," Messenger, November 1901, and the 
 same author's article : "Moral Teaching in French Schools," 
 ib., May 1902. Further, Father Conway, S. J., The Re- 
 spective Rights and Duties of Family, State and Church in 
 regard to Education. New York, Pustet, 1890, pp. 34-60. - 
 Father Cathrein, S. J., Religion und Moral, oder Gibt es eine 
 
 Moral ohne Gottf Freiburg and St. Louis, Herder, 1900. 
 37 
 
57 8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 for the religious instruction of our children? Prac- 
 tically nothing." 
 
 It has been said time and again that religion should 
 be taught by the Sunday school and in the family. 
 Yet every thoughtful man must see that such instruc- 
 tion cannot be but insufficient. The Biblical World, 
 in an editorial, October 1902, asks whether the relig- 
 ious and moral education is adequately achieved 
 through the Sunday school and the home, and it gives 
 this answer : "It has been so assumed, but each pass- 
 ing year shows more clearly that this is not the case. . . 
 The home feels no longer the necessary responsibility, 
 and the Sunday school has neither the time nor the 
 instrumentalities for adequate instruction. And, in 
 addition, the divorcement of religious from secular 
 education destroys the vital relation between the two. 
 Therefore, it seems certain that the ideal of education, 
 as well as the only adequate method of education, is 
 to establish religious and moral instruction in the 
 common schools. And we shall then find ourselves 
 once more in accord with the status of instruction in 
 England and Germany. ' ' 
 
 A few years ago, Mr. Amasa Thornton spoke sim- 
 ilarly in the North American Review. There he said: 
 "The questions which we have to solve then are these: 
 How can the present decline in religious teaching and 
 influence be checked; and how can such teaching and 
 influence be increased to such a point as will preserve 
 the great cities of the next century from depravity, 
 degradation, and destruction? What can be expected 
 of the family?" Mr. Thornton rightly adds: "If the 
 adults of the present age are not as religious as the 
 needs of the hour and of the future require, will the 
 
RKUGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 579 
 
 children receive the proper religious training if they 
 receive none except in the home circle ?" In fact, 
 thousands of children do not even learn a short prayer 
 at home. The writer then declares that one of the 
 greatest blunders that have been made in this country 
 is the failure of teaching religion in the public schools. 
 He then pays a striking tribute to the Catholic Church. 
 4 'The Catholic Church has insisted that it is its duty 
 to educate the children of parents of the Catholic faith 
 in such a way as to fix religious truths in the youthful 
 mind. For this it has been assailed by the non- 
 Catholic population, and Catholics have been charged 
 with being enemies of the liberties of the people and 
 the flag. Any careful observer in the city of New York 
 can see that the only people, as a class, who are 
 teaching the children in the way that will secure the 
 future for the best civilization, are the Catholics; and 
 although a Protestant of the firmest kind, I believe the 
 time has come to recognize this fact, and for us all to 
 lay aside religious prejudices and patriotically meet 
 this question. M 1 
 
 Professor Coe of Northwestern University quite 
 recently said in a lecture delivered in Chicago : "The 
 position of Roman Catholics in regard to religion and 
 education, and their policy in the establishment of 
 parochial schools, are absolutely correct. For cor- 
 roboration of this opinion I refer you to the work 
 Philosophy of Education, by Dr. Arnold Tompkins, 
 principal of the Chicago Normal School, in which he 
 says religious character is the proper end of all 
 education. ' ' 2 
 
 1 North American Review, January 1898, pp. 126-128. 
 See also the Biblical World, November 1902, p. 323. 
 
 2 New York Freeman's Journal, January 24, 1903. 
 
580 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 The Catholics object to purely secular education, 
 because they consider it subversive of religion and 
 true morality, subversive of "the pillars .of human 
 happiness and national security. ' ' It is not so much 
 what is taught in the non-sectarian schools that renders 
 them objectionable to Catholics, as what is not taught 
 and cannot be taught. An education which omits 
 Christ as its central and informing principle is an un- 
 christian education. Such an education may not 
 directly teach wrong principles, nor directly under- 
 mine the faith of the pupils, yet it does nothing to 
 protect and strengthen it. The inevitable consequence 
 of this neglect must be the weakening of faith, 
 especially in an age in which literature and the whole 
 domestic and social life are infected by agnosticism and 
 a new paganism. As the non-sectarian school does 
 not and cannot counteract these baneful tendencies, 
 it is clear that the education which it imparts is a 
 defective, nay, a false one. 
 
 Not unfrequently, however, Catholics must also 
 object to what is taught in non-sectarian schools and 
 colleges. It is impossible to avoid in text-books and 
 oral instruction, in the teaching of history, literature, 
 and natural sciences, all allusions to questions most 
 closely connected with religion. How does the Cath- 
 olic Church fare in such references? One need only 
 examine the text-books used in many schools, to 
 become convinced that a Catholic parent must protest 
 against the statements contained therein about the 
 Church, its history, its worship, the Papacy, monastic 
 orders, etc. But if Catholic children grow weak in 
 their love of the Church, her institutions and prac- 
 tices, they will gradually neglect their religious 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 581 
 
 duties, and fall a prey to religious indifferentism and 
 moral ruin. How well has this been expressed in the 
 latest "School Order for the Higher Schools" of 
 Prussia: "Catholic religious instruction has the 
 specific task of grounding Catholic youth in the con- 
 viction of the truth and the divine origin of Christian- 
 ity and the Church, and to teach them to preserve, 
 foster, and steadfastly profess this conviction by living 
 in and with Christ and His Church. Only on the solid 
 foundation of a definite religious knowledge, of deep- 
 rooted conviction and loyalty to the Church, can 
 religious instruction try and expect to fulfil that other, 
 by no means last or least important, part of its task, 
 viz., to accomplish fully and permanently the religious 
 and the moral elevation of the pupil. According to 
 Catholic teaching, the truly moral life rests on obedi- 
 ence to the Church, as the divinely attested guardian 
 and exponent of God's ordinances, and herein is found 
 a special protection against the false and perverse 
 aspirations of the modern age, which endanger the 
 moral order. ' ' 1 
 
 For this reason, what an English Catholic said 
 about the schools of England has also an application 
 to our country. Dr. Windle (F. R. S. ), speaking of 
 the "Present Needs of Catholic Secondary Educa- 
 tion," said among other things: "By the fact that we 
 are Catholics, we are circumscribed in our choice of 
 schools to those of our own faith. ... I should like 
 to add one word on this subject from my own ex- 
 perience. Born and brought up a Protestant I was 
 educated at a great public school, for which I still 
 retain considerable respect, and even affection; but I 
 
 1 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben, 1901, pp. 15 16. 
 
582 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 wish to say with a due sense of responsibility, that the 
 Catholic parent who sends his son to a non-Catholic 
 public school deliberately and without a shadow of 
 justification exposes him to the almost certain loss of 
 his faith, and to the grave danger of the corruption of 
 his morals. ' ' 1 
 
 The attitude of Catholics towards the question of 
 religious instruction in school is, therefore, very clear. 
 Of those Protestants that now advocate religious in- 
 struction, not a few commit a serious mistake. They 
 recommend a sort of religious teaching which will 
 suit all and offend none, an "unsectarian, undenomi- 
 national religion," as they style it. Such a religion 
 does not exist, and what is taught as such does not 
 deserve the name of religion. This has been emphat- 
 ically stated by many distinguished Protestants of 
 widely differing religious opinions. Of American 
 educators we mention President McCosh who made 
 some very noteworthy statements on this subject. 2 
 Even men of most advanced liberal views condemn 
 the teaching of an "undenominational" religion. 
 Professor Ziegler of the University of Strassburg, who 
 is not in the least "clerically biased," wrote two years 
 ago in his General Pedagogy: "A knowledge of the 
 religion in which one is born forms part of general 
 culture, and the state would have to look after this 
 part of education, as after all the rest (sic/). But 
 here enters the Church as competitor, demanding that 
 the instruction in religion be imparted to her children 
 according to her views; an undenominational instruc- 
 tion in religion, which is advocated by some, is non- 
 
 1 The London Tablet, September 14, 1901. 
 
 2 See his remarks on "Boston Theology," in the sixth 
 chapter of Christianity and Positivism. 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 583 
 
 sense; for every religion is denominational." 1 It 
 would fill a large volume were we to collect the un- 
 sparing criticism passed within the last thirty years 
 on "unsectarian" religious teaching by the most en- 
 lightened men in England, among them statesmen 
 like Disraeli and Lord Salisbury. 2 An Knglish 
 agnostic, a member of the London School Board, thus 
 described the system adopted by this Board: "The 
 result of unsectarian teaching is to establish a new 
 form of religion which has nothing in common with 
 Historical Christianity or any other form of Christian 
 teaching. By taking away everything to which any 
 one objects, they leave something which is really 
 worthless. They say they will have no Creed and no 
 Catechism, and the result is that every teacher is his 
 own Creed and his own Catechism. The result of 
 unsectarian teaching is a colorless residuum, which I 
 should think would be as objectionable to the earnest 
 Christian as it is contemptible to the earnest un- 
 believer. " 3 Other English writers were even more 
 severe in their condemnations of this system, which 
 they called "a misshapen beast," "a moral monster," 
 "lifeless, boiled down, mechanical, unreal teaching of 
 religion." 4 Needless to say, Catholics will always 
 object to such a maimed teaching of religion. 
 
 Protestant advocates of religious instruction fre- 
 quently consider the reading of the Bible as sufficient, 
 and as the only admissible means of teaching religion 
 in the schools. However, in this principle there are 
 several serious errors. We must first mention recent 
 
 1 Allgemeine Pddagogik (Leipzig, 1901), p. 107. 
 
 2 Fortnightly Review, May 1896, p. 808 foil. 
 
 3 /., p. 814. 
 
 4 /., p. 815. 
 
584 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 utterances calling for the restoration of the Bible to 
 the schools as literature, as a means of literary culture. 
 The National Educational Association that met in 
 Minneapolis in the summer of 1902, adopted the fol- 
 lowing resolution: "It is apparent that familiarity 
 with the English Bible as a masterpiece of literature 
 is rapidly decreasing among the pupils in our schools. 
 This is the direct result of a conception which regards 
 the Bible as a theological book merely, and thereby 
 leads to its exclusion from the schools of some states 
 as a subject of reading and study. We hope and ask 
 for such a change of public sentiment in this regard as 
 will permit and encourage the English Bible, now 
 honored by name in many school laws and state con- 
 stitutions, to be read and studied as a literary work of 
 the highest and purest type, side by side with the 
 poetry and prose which it has inspired and in large 
 part formed." 1 Such a study is, of course, practically 
 useless from the religious point of view; moreover, 
 and this is a more serious objection against the 
 scheme advocated by the National Educational As- 
 sociation, it is wrong in principle and mischievous in 
 its consequences. It is a deplorable degradation of 
 the sacred volume to put it on a par with profane 
 writings, be they of the highest type, as the dramas of 
 Shakespeare or the poems of Tennyson. This scheme 
 would tend to destroy entirely the reverence due to the 
 Bible. Besides, no literary study is possible without 
 explanation of the contents of the works studied; but it 
 is absurd to attempt an explanation of the contents of 
 
 1 The Literary Digest, August 2, 1902. See also the 
 Rev. Thomas B. Gregory, in the New York American and 
 Journal, January 11, 1903. 
 
REUGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 585 
 
 the Bible without trespassing on religious ground. 
 Rightly has the Biblical World observed that culture is 
 not the chief end of man, nor the primary function of 
 the Bible. The biblical books are indeed master- 
 pieces of literature, but they have a much more im- 
 portant service to render to the world. The Bible is 
 first of all for religious and moral instruction, a guide- 
 book to religion and morality. 1 We perfectly agree 
 with the Biblical World so far, but not as to the 
 manner of reading the Bible which this review ad- 
 vocates. In an editorial, October 1902, we read: 
 1 'The fact that the Bible is generally excluded from 
 the public schools of the United States, where for- 
 merly it was used as a book of devotion and instruc- 
 tion, is not to be attributed to a growing disregard of 
 religion. . . . This situation has been created by the 
 friends of the Bible rather than by its enemies; for if 
 the friends of the Bible could have agreed among 
 themselves as to how the Bible should be taught in 
 the schools, their influence would have secured the 
 continuance of such instruction. But it came to pass 
 that the Bible was used in the schools, not only for 
 general and ethical religious instruction, but also for 
 the inculcation of sectarian and theological ideas. 
 Protestant teachers taught the Bible in a way which 
 antagonized the Roman Catholics; and teachers of the 
 several Protestant denominations interpreted the Bible 
 to the children from their own point of view. But the 
 public money which is raised by general taxation for 
 the support of the common schools comes from men of 
 widely differing ecclesiastical creeds and connections, 
 and cannot therefore be used for the dissemination of 
 
 1 The Biblical World, October 1902, p. 243 foil. 
 
586 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sectarian tenets." The writer then asks: "Can we 
 now teach religion and morals by means of the Bible 
 without at the same time teaching sectarian ideas? 
 The Bible is not sectarian; Roman Catholics and all 
 Protestant denominations equally claim it. The for- 
 mal creeds and the systems of government and wor- 
 ship which have grown up in the centuries of Christian 
 history are post-biblical; they are a superstructure, 
 built upon the fundamentals of Christianity as recorded 
 in the Bible. Can we get beneath ecclesiastical for- 
 mulations, regulations, and liturgies to a fundamental 
 religious belief and moral practice upon which all 
 Christians can agree, and which they can unite to 
 promote? . . . We believe that sectarianism is fast dis- 
 appearing, that an era of unity in essentials is near at 
 hand. ... In order to restore the Bible to the schools 
 it must be taught in the right way the way which 
 accords with the best modern knowledge of the Bible, 
 the best modern science of religion and ethical teach- 
 ing, and the best Christian spirit which recognizes 
 true Christianity wherever it exists, and is able to 
 distinguish between essentials and non-essentials. ' ' l 
 
 We do not want to comment on all the latitudinar- 
 ian statements contained in this quotation, but con- 
 fine ourselves to the following remarks. First, that 
 religion consisting of merely the "fundamentals of 
 Christianity without formal creeds," is no true 
 religion. It is a distillation or a dilution of Christian- 
 ity which deserves all the castigation inflicted by 
 English writers on the "moral monster of undenomi- 
 national religion." Secondly, it is said that "the 
 Bible is not sectarian, and that Roman Catholics and 
 
 1 Ibid., pp. 243 and 246247. 
 
REUGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 587 
 
 all Protestant denominations claim it. ' ' But how do 
 they claim it? Surely not merely as a source of 
 " general and ethical religious instruction," but as the 
 document which is supposed to prove their particular 
 religious tenets. It is as true now as centuries ago 
 what the Reformed theologian Werejiiels expressed in 
 his famous distich-* 
 
 Hie liber est in quo quaerit sua dogmata quisque; 
 Invenit et pariter dogmata quisque sua. 
 
 Within one book each seeks to read 
 The tenets of his private creed. 
 And, strange to tell, each reads so well 
 The selfsame words all doctrines spell. 
 
 Hence it is unreasonable to expect that the Bible will 
 ever be taught without "sectarian" bias, or that in 
 future it will be taught by Protestants without 
 " antagonizing the Roman Catholics." 
 
 The objections of Catholics to the reading of the 
 Bible in undenominational schools which are fre- 
 quented by Catholic children, may briefly be summed 
 up as follows: First, the Catholics must ask which 
 translation of the Bible is to be used. Is it to be the 
 Catholic Rheims and Douay version? To this the 
 Protestants would undoubtedly object. Then the 
 Protestant Bible? Against this the Catholics must 
 protest. For the Bible of King James contains 
 numerous errors of translation this was candidly 
 admitted by the authors of the Revised Version 3 
 errors by no means insignificant, errors which, to a 
 great extent, consist in rendering the Bible so as to 
 
 1 On this subject see the beautiful little book Chapters 
 of Bible Study, by the Reverend H. J. Heuser (New York, 
 1895), especially chapter XX. 
 
588 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 justify certain Protestant tenets and to antagonize 
 Catholic doctrines. The Revised Version has done 
 away with some of these objectionable translations, 
 but not with all that justly offend Catholics. Hence 
 the very version used in the public schools is " sec- 
 tarian." Besides, the Catholic acknowledges books as 
 canonical which are rejected in the Protestant Bibles 
 as apocryphal, and this is another reason why the 
 Catholic cannot approve the reading of the Protestant 
 Bible. Secondly ', the Catholic Church is opposed to 
 giving the complete and unabridged Bible into the 
 hands of children. The reason for this attitude is one 
 that testifies to the great pedagogical wisdom of the 
 Church. She cannot bear the thought that the most 
 sacred of books should become a stumbling-block to 
 the innocent, or a means of gratifying the unholy 
 curiosity of vicious youths. There are earnest Protes- 
 tants who in this matter side with the Catholic prac- 
 tice. It may suffice to quote one testimony, that of a 
 Protestant educator of the first rank, namely of Profes- 
 sor Schiller, Director of one of the best training 
 schools for teachers in Europe. Speaking of the 
 causes of impurity among students, he finds one in 
 the reading of the unabridged Bible. He affirms that 
 a large experience has proved that most deplorable 
 vicious habits among pupils, boys and girls, sprang 
 up in the first place from the reading of certain pas- 
 sages of the Bible, the selection and knowledge of 
 which were handed down as a tradition among the 
 pupils. This danger, he adds, can be so easily 
 avoided by preparing special school Bibles that the 
 opposite practice seems unpardonable. We think it 
 well to quote the instructive passage in the original in 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 589 
 
 a note, adding here that the Catholic Church all along 
 taught the Bible in such school editions. 1 There is a 
 third consideration which prompts Catholics to oppose 
 the reading of the Bible as advocated by most Protes- 
 tant educators. It is the following question: Is the 
 Bible to be read with or without comment? If with 
 comment, is this Protestant or Catholic? Evidently 
 either Catholic or Protestant would be offended. 
 Therefore, without comment and explanation! Now 
 this reading is almost useless, as the young will 
 understand very little of the meaning of the passage. 
 Disraeli, the English statesman, has justly ridiculed 
 this practice. "I cannot imagine, " he says, ' 'any- 
 thing more absurd than that a teacher should read 
 * without note and comment,' as it is called, a passage 
 from the Bible, and that children should be expected 
 to profit by it. The 'without note and comment' 
 people in their anxiety to ward off proselytism, seem 
 to have forgotten that, if there is any book in the 
 world which demands more explanation than another, 
 it is the Bible. And so, if nothing else is possible 
 
 1 "Es darf doch hier auf Grund einer reichen Erfahrung 
 nicht unerwahnt bleiben, dass iiamentlich die Bibel in ihrer 
 urspriinglichen Gestalt eine grosse Gefahr fur die Sittenrein- 
 heit der Jugend ist. Es ist mehrfach konstatiert worden, 
 dass die Onanie (self-abuse) in mannlichen und weiblichen 
 Schulen durchaus zunachst sich an die Lesung von Bibel- 
 stellen angelehnt hat, deren Auswahl und Kenntnis sich 
 traditionell unter der Jugend fortpflanzten. Man kaun dieser 
 Gefahr insofern leicht entgegentreten, als die Herstelluug 
 von Schulbibelu schon so erfolgreich geschehen ist, dass 
 man nicht begreift, wie man noch immer die ungekiirzte 
 Bibel den Schulern in die Hande geben kann." Schiller, 
 Handbuch der praktischen Pddagogik (Leipzig, 1894, 3. ed.), 
 
 PP. 171 m. 
 
590 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 than such a feeble and useless compromise as this, I 
 would, in the interest of the Bible itself, not have it 
 read at all. " And then he adds: "I am a great 
 believer in the old-fashioned Church-Catechism. I 
 wonder whether those that sneer at it, have always 
 read it. I fancy not. It is, rightly interpreted, a 
 most practical document, but without interpretation, 
 not worth teaching or learning. " l 
 
 As is to be expected, religious instruction in the 
 widest and fullest sense received a prominent place in 
 the educational system of the Society of Jesus. The 
 first rule of the Ratio calls it one of the most impor- 
 tant obligations of the Society "to teach all branches 
 of learning in such a manner that men should be led 
 to the knowledge and love of their Creator and 
 Redeemer;" 2 and in the rules of the Rector, the 
 Prefect of Studies, and the teachers, the same duty is 
 inculcated. As regards the reading of the Bible, the 
 old prejudice that the Church ever set her face against 
 it is unfortunately still alive among vast numbers of 
 non-Catholics. For our purpose it suffices to remind 
 the reader of what was said in a former chapter, 
 namely, that in Jesuit colleges the Gospels were 
 read, in the higher classes the Gospels and the Acts 
 of the Apostles in the original Greek. 8 
 
 But above all, the Jesuits were always "great 
 believers in the catechism. ' ' Catechetical instruction 
 was prescribed in all classes once a week. This may 
 seem rather little; however, it should be remembered 
 
 1 Reminiscences, quoted in the Fortnightly Review, 
 May 1896, p. 814. 
 
 2 Reg. Prov. 1. 
 
 3 See above pp. 121124. 
 
RKlylGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 591 
 
 that there were religious instructions in the weekly 
 meetings of the Sodalities, and, which is still more 
 important, that the whole teaching was permeated by 
 a religious spirit. Besides, it may be added that in 
 many modern Jesuit colleges two full hours are 
 devoted to religious instruction every week. In the 
 lower classes the catechism is explained, in the higher 
 classes a fuller explanation of the Catholic dogmas 
 and a course of apologetics is given. Such an apolo- 
 getical course was recommended by the German 
 province of the Society of Jesus as early as I82I. 1 
 That in our age an apologetical treatment of the 
 Christian religion is absolutely necessary need not be 
 demonstrated. The words of the Apostle St. Peter: 
 "Be ready always to satisfy every one that asketh you 
 a reason of that hope which is in you," 2 had, per- 
 haps, never before a more important bearing than in 
 this age of omnivorous reading. At a time when the 
 literature of the day is largely infected by naturalism 
 and agnosticism, and when the principles of Christi- 
 anity are attacked in so many subtle forms, it is cer- 
 tainly necessary to be well instructed lest one's own 
 faith be tainted by the prevalent scepticism, and to be 
 ready to defend this faith against the attacks made in 
 the name of progress, modern philosophy, and science. 
 This readiness can be obtained only by a solid cat- 
 echetical and apologetical training. 
 
 Catechetical instruction was, from the very begin- 
 ning of the Society, a special ministry and a labor of 
 love to the Jesuits. In the papal approbation of 1540 
 
 1 "Instruct catechistica, praecipue in Humanitate et 
 Rhetorica, sit ad praeservandam contra modernos errores 
 juventutem accommodata." Pachtler, IV, p. 360. 
 
 2 1 Peter 3, 15. 
 
592 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 it is said that the Society was instituted for "the prop- 
 agation of faith, and especially for the instruction of 
 children and ignorant people in Christian doctrine. " 
 Father Sacchini has a beautiful chapter on the "Teach- 
 ing of the Catechism," 1 in which he says the Jesuit 
 should teach languages and grammar with great dili- 
 gence, but with far greater devotion and alacrity cate- 
 chism, "which is the grammar of Jesus Christ." 
 
 An American prelate wrote recently on this subject: 
 "Among religious orders established with a special 
 view toward the religious education of youth, the first 
 place must undoubtedly be assigned to the Society of 
 Jesus. . . St. Ignatius himself set the example. The 
 first forty days after the papal approbation he devoted 
 himself to the instruction of children in Rome. When 
 told that no one would come to his class, he answered: 
 'If only one child comes to my catechism, it is enough 
 of an audience for me.' The Society followed the 
 example of its founder with a hitherto unheard of zeal 
 and enthusiasm. . . The Jesuits, moreover, developed 
 a most meritorious activity in writing catechetical 
 works, not less than one hundred and fifty having been 
 published during the first century of their existence. 
 The catechisms composed by Bellarmine and Canisius 
 soon displaced all others." 2 Indeed, the writing of 
 catechisms has been one of the glories of the Society 
 from the first decades of its existence. Dr. Knecht, 
 Coadjutor Bishop of Freiburg, an eminent writer on 
 catechetics, affirms that "the Jesuit Order has un- 
 
 1 Paraenesis, art. 13. 
 
 2 Spirago's Method of Christian Doctrine. Edited by 
 the Rt. Rev. S. G. Messmer, Bishop of Green Bay, Wis. (Ben- 
 ziger, N. Y., 1901.) 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 593 
 
 doubtedly produced the greatest catechists. ' ' 1 The 
 catechism of the celebrated Bellarmine 2 was used in 
 many countries for centuries, even at present among 
 Romanic nations. Of great fame were also the French, 
 L,atin and Greek catechisms of Father Edmund Auger. 
 But all were surpassed by that of Peter Canisius, the 
 first German Jesuit; this catechism was used exten- 
 sively all over Europe. The works of this eminent 
 writer and founder of many colleges deserve to be 
 treated at some length. 
 
 Catechetical instruction had been given from the 
 beginning of the Church, and there existed works 
 which guided the clergy in this sublime office. The 
 idea of placing a summary of Christian doctrine in the 
 hands of the people and children, appears to have been 
 first expressed in a letter of the great Gerson, chan- 
 cellor of the University of Paris (1363 1429). The 
 first known summary of this kind was the one pub- 
 lished at the order of the synod of Tortosa in Spain 
 (1429). The first German catechism, so far known, 
 was that of Dederich Coelde, a Minorite Friar of 
 Miinster in Westphalia, printed about 1470, then 
 published in many editions. 3 There existed, besides 
 this, other catechisms before the Reformation. Of the 
 Protestant works of this kind L,uther's "Great and 
 
 1 Kirchenlexikon, vol. VII, p. 310 (2nd ed.). 
 
 2 Pope Leo XIII., when still Cardinal Archbishop of 
 Perugia, published a revised and enlarged edition of Bellar- 
 mine's Catechism. At the Vatican Council (1869-70), it was 
 the wish of Pius IX. that a catechism, which should be essen- 
 tially that of Bellarmine, should be adopted as the uniform 
 and official catechism for the whole Catholic world. Mess- 
 mer, /. c. y p. 536. 
 
 3 Janssen, History of the German People, vol. I. f 17th 
 
 ed., p. 48 foil. English ed., vol. I, p. 45.) 
 38 
 
594 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Small Catechisms' ' were undoubtedly those that spread 
 most widely and had the greatest influence. Several 
 Catholic catechisms came out shortly after, but they 
 were, in point of language and arrangement, inferior 
 to that of Luther. They were also either too lengthy 
 or too difficult. The need of a new and better work, 
 adapted to the circumstances of the times, was felt 
 especially in Germany. Then it was, in 1554, that 
 Canisius began to publish his three catechisms. 1 The 
 first was the large catechism in I^atin for the use of 
 students in colleges. After this appeared a shorter 
 one, and finally his small catechism. This last estab- 
 lished his fame as a writer. There are about three 
 hundred different editions extant which appeared 
 before the death of the author in 1597. By that time 
 the work had been translated into English, French, 
 Greek, Italian, Bohemian, Spanish, Polish, Swedish, 
 and many other languages. Before 1623 there existed 
 Aethiopian, Indian, and Japanese translations. In 
 Southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, up to 
 the nineteenth century the name "Canisi" was synon- 
 ymous with catechism. 2 
 
 The merits of this work can best be judged from 
 the innumerable recommendations which it received 
 from Popes and bishops, and not less from the violent 
 
 1 See Kirchenlexikon, vol. VII, p. 302. Braunsberger, 
 S. J., Die Catechismen des Petrus Canisius. Herder, St. 
 Louis, Mo., 1893. Spirago's Method, pp. 532-534. Jansseii, 
 Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, vol. IV (15th ed.), pp. 436 
 foil. It is to be regretted that there exists no English bio- 
 graphy of this great Catholic reformer and educator. A sketch 
 of his labors was published recently in the Dublin Review, 
 January 1903, pp. 137158. 
 
 2 Janssen, vol. IV, p. 445. 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 595 
 
 attacks made upon it by Protestants. The Italian 
 historian Cesare Cantu styles it, "the most famous 
 Catholic catechism written since the time of L,uther." 
 Even the Protestant historian Ranke cannot help 
 praising and admiring it. And a distinguished Prot- 
 estant controversialist in Germany, Professor Kawerau, 
 says: "The catechism of Canisius is without doubt of 
 the same importance to the Catholic Church as 
 L,uther's was to the Church of the Reformation. It 
 is distinguished by its clear and lucid treatment of the 
 subject and particularly by the mild and conciliatory 
 tone in which it is written." l This "mild and con- 
 
 1 Also Chemnitz, one of the leading Reformers and a 
 violent antagonist of Canisius, acknowledges that "the cate- 
 chisms of this Jesuit are written with the greatest mildness 
 and moderation.'* See his words in Braunsberger, Canisii 
 Epistulae et Ada, vol. Ill, (Herder 1901) p. 811. In many 
 places of his numerous writings Canisius lays down his prin- 
 ciples about controversies with the Protestants. "The Prot- 
 estants heap the most frightful calumnies upon me. Would 
 that we loved them the better, the more they persecute us. 
 They deserve to be loved, although they hate us, because 
 most of them err from ignorance. I would gladly shed my 
 blood for them if I could thereby save their souls." He ex- 
 horts his brethren and Catholics in general to avoid all bitter- 
 ness in controversies ; they should argue with gravity and 
 modesty and suffer all attacks with holy patience for the love 
 of Christ. (See Janssen, /. c., vol. IV, pp. 408411.) This 
 moderation is all the more remarkable if contrasted with the 
 shocking insults and contumelious appellations with which 
 Canisius was loaded by his Protestant adversaries. Melanch- 
 thon calls him a "cynic." Others styled his catechism 
 "devil's dirt," the "cursed sacrilegious book of the dog 
 Canisius," a "heathenish work, and a product of hell." The 
 Jesuits are styled by Chemnitz and others "scoundrels, per- 
 jurers, beasts, hell-frogs spit up by the infernal dragon, a 
 brood of vipers born of the Babylonian ," epithets 
 
596 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 dilatory tone" was recommended to all Jesuit teachers. 
 Thus Father Nadal laid it down as a rule for all 
 teachers that "both in the subject for written exercises 
 and in the explanation of the catechism they should 
 proceed with the greatest moderation. Especially in 
 Germany, France, etc. , they should not use any con- 
 tumelious epithets against their opponents; nay they 
 should not even style them heretics although in 
 truth they may be such , but they should call 
 those who adhere to the Augsburg Confession, Protes- 
 tants, others Anabaptists etc. 1 How, then, is Mr. 
 Painter justified in asserting that the Jesuit system 
 fostered religious pride and intolerance ? 2 
 
 Father Canisius gave also beautiful instructions as 
 to the motives and methods of teaching catechism. 
 "We who are of the Society of Jesus," he writes, 
 "wish to provide the little ones of Christ with the 
 salutary milk of his doctrine. It is their welfare that 
 we love and seek to promote. To this end has our 
 Society been instituted, to instruct j'-outh in piety as 
 well as in learning, as far as with the grace of Christ 
 we can accomplish. ' ' 3 One of the most essential 
 qualities of a good catechist is kindness of heart and 
 manners. This quality was a marked feature of 
 Canisius' character, one which attracted the children 
 to his instructions. The summary of the catechetical 
 lectures which he gave in Augsburg has been pre- 
 
 which do not bear translation here. See Jaussen, /. c., pp. 
 411413, 441445. 
 
 1 Mon.Paed.,p.U3. Pachtler III, 470 (no. 12), 474 (no. 6). 
 Several other documents inculcate the same moderation and 
 spirit of Christian charity. See Janssen, /. c. y p. 411, note 1. 
 
 2 History of Education, p. 172; see above p. 252. 
 
 3 Canisii Epistulae et Ada, vol. Ill, p. 777. 
 
REUGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 597 
 
 served. Canisius began with the words of the Psal- 
 mist: "Come children hearken to me; I will teach 
 you the fear of the I^ord" (Psalm 33, 12). Then he 
 continued: "Christ, our Lord loved the children and 
 showed his affection for them in various ways. He 
 blessed and embraced them and defended them against 
 the Pharisees (Matth. 21, 15. 16) and against his own 
 disciples (Matth. 18, i-io). He said: 'Suffer little 
 children to come unto me'; yea come to me, to be in- 
 structed, and to be taught the science of salvation. 
 And to all those who are not well instructed I speak 
 with St. Paul: 'You have need to be taught again 
 what are the first elements of the words of God: And 
 you are become such as have need of milk and not of 
 strong meat.' (Hebr. 5, n. 12.) Following the 
 examples of the Prophets, of Christ, and of the Apos- 
 tles, I shall teach you not as wise and learned ones, 
 but as children and little ones. Come, then, with a 
 willing and cheerful heart ; be convinced that it is a 
 matter of the greatest importance for you to be justly 
 called and truly to be sons of God. On your part, 
 you must imitate the Child Jesus, who, in a manner, 
 has given you an example how to learn the doctrine 
 of salvation, when he set aside all else, left even his 
 parents, and remained in the temple. Watch him 
 there, see how he sits there quietly, listens to the 
 teachers, and asks them questions. His questions are 
 not about silly and useless matters, but about the great 
 things of salvation. You must imitate him in this, 
 now and ever in the future. ' ' This simple and hearty 
 manner of teaching found great favor with the people, 
 and we are not surprised to hear that after a few of his 
 catechetical instructions Canisius could write : "I am 
 
598 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 delighted at seeing the good will of the people. Even 
 men, among them persons of distinction, set aside all 
 other business and come to listen to the instruction for 
 children." 1 
 
 Throughout his life Canisius found a special delight- 
 in giving catechetical instructions. The son of a dis- 
 tinguished family, the celebrated Doctor of theology, 
 and author of many learned works, the founder of the 
 famous colleges of Prague, Ingolstadt, Munich, Dil- 
 lingen, Innsbruck, and Freiburg, the man whose 
 advice was sought by the Emperors of Germany, by 
 the Dukes of Bavaria, by Popes and Cardinals, by 
 Church Councils and Imperial Diets this man de- 
 voted every spare minute to the humble work of 
 instructing children, and that not only in the cities 
 where he resided, but on his many journeys, from one 
 end of Germany to the other, he performed the same 
 work of Christian charity among the simple country 
 people. In his old age, when worn out by incessant 
 toils, this was his favorite occupation. A year before 
 his death, in "his seventy-eighth year, he writes that 
 his time is spent in "instructing children and old 
 people. " 2 A touching testimony to this work of the 
 saintly Jesuit is still extant at the present day. In a 
 little village near Innsbruck (Tyrol) is to be seen, on 
 the gable of an old house, a picture which represents 
 Canisius sitting among children whom he is 
 instructing in their catechism. It was before this 
 house that, on his journeys to Innsbruck, he used to 
 perform the work which the picture has immortalized. 
 We have dwelt longer on the labors of this great 
 
 1 Canisii Epistulae et Acta, vol. Ill, pp. 623627. 
 
 2 Jausseii, vol. IV, p. 437. 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 599 
 
 man, because they represent so beautifully what thous- 
 ands of other Jesuits have done all the world over, in 
 their endeavors to spread the knowledge and love 
 of Christ. 
 
 Many other Jesuits wrote catechisms after Canisius. 
 But it will suffice to mention a more recent one, that 
 of the German Jesuit Deharbe. The merits of De- 
 harbe's catechism were soon recognized, and it was 
 introduced into nearly all dioceses of Germany, and 
 was translated into many languages. It obtained a 
 large circulation, especially in this country. 1 
 
 In order to give a solid and efficient religious in- 
 struction, it is not enough to teach catechism once or 
 twice a week. The General of the Society, Father 
 Beckx, in a letter addressed to the Austrian Minister 
 of Instruction, July 15, 1854, maintains the following: 
 " Religion should not only hold the first place among 
 the various branches, but permeate and rule all, and, 
 according to our Ratio Studiorum, the teacher should 
 treat all subjects in such manner that the truths of the 
 catechism are found in all branches. Now it is some 
 wise adage, then an inspiring thought, again a re- 
 markable incident, or a beautiful trait of character, 
 which gives the teacher occasion to instruct, to warn, 
 and to elevate to Christian sentiments; such hints 
 given incidentally and, as it were, accidentally, often 
 make an impression all the more vivid, the less they 
 were expected. In this manner religion is not a dry 
 and disagreeable branch, but vivifies all the rest of 
 instruction, gives it a higher, sacred character, and 
 
 1 See Spirago's Method, page 530 foil., where also the 
 shortcomings of this catechism are pointed out. 
 
600 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 makes the pupil not only more learned but also better 
 and more virtuous. ' ' l 
 
 The Fathers Jouvancy and Sacchini say that the 
 explanations of all authors, also of pagan writers, 
 should be conducted so that they become, as it were, 
 heralds of Christ. This is very important in our times, 
 when pagan ideas, principles, and tendencies are 
 praised as the spirit of the- progressing human mind, 
 as the precious fruit of modern research and civiliza- 
 tion. From the study of the ancients, particularly the 
 Greeks, the young may learn that mankind is on the 
 point of going again through a circle of errors, which 
 in a retrogressive movement shall lead our race through 
 all the aberrations which Christianity has long ago 
 overcome. Against the enticing sirens of ''modern 
 progress," "freedom of thought," and "independence 
 of morality," a most salutary lesson may be learned 
 from the ancients, who in spite of their accomplish- 
 ments in art, literature, and politics, could not find in 
 them the remedy for social evils, nor contentment of 
 mind and heart. Such suggestions, however, must be 
 made discreetly, with great tact and moderation, when 
 an occasion naturally offers. Here, too, the old ne 
 quid nimis is of the greatest import ; if the teacher too 
 often, in season and out of season, indulges in pious 
 exhortations, the pupils may easily conceive disgust 
 at them and a loathing for all kinds of spiritual and 
 religious instruction. Therefore, the teacher should 
 not only not molest the pupils by too frequent admoni- 
 tions, but should also observe prudence in those he 
 thinks fit to give. 2 
 
 1 Duhr, Studienordnung, p. 104. 
 
 2 Ratio Docendi, chapt. I, art. 2. 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 6oi 
 
 The principles laid down by the Jesuits, as to the 
 religious tone of all instruction, have recently been 
 emphasized by Pope Leo XIII., in the Encyclical 
 written in 1897, on occasion of the centenary of Peter 
 Canisius. There we read: "All schools, from the 
 elementary to the university, should be thoroughly 
 Catholic, and one of the main duties of the pastors of 
 the Church is to safeguard the rights of parents and 
 the Church in this matter. It is of the very greatest 
 importance that Catholics should have everywhere for 
 their children not mixed schools, but their own 
 schools, and these provided with good and well trained 
 masters. Let no one delude himself that a sound 
 moral training can be separated from dogmatic re- 
 ligious training. To separate the training in know- 
 ledge from all religious influence, is to form citizens to 
 be the bane and pest of society instead of being the 
 bulwark of their country. Moreover, it is not enough 
 for youths to be taught religion at fixed hours, but all 
 their training must be permeated by religious principles." 
 
 Some Protestant educators of the highest standing 
 have advocated a system which is practically that 
 defended by Catholics. Thus Professor Schiller 
 strongly insists on "concentration and unity in educa- 
 tion. ' ' As regards religious instruction he wishes it 
 to be given by one "who has in his hands the most 
 important branches of instruction, those which are 
 best suited to influence education," above all literature 
 and history. 1 The same view is also taken in the 
 Prussian "School Order" of 1892 and 1901, where it 
 is said that it is of the utmost importance that religious 
 instruction is not rent from the other branches, but 
 
 1 Handbuch der praktischen Pddagogik , pp. 237-238. 
 
602 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 intimately connected with other, particularly the 
 ethical branches. 1 From this principle we may draw 
 another argument for the advantages which can be 
 derived, if education is in the hands of the clergy, 2 
 especially in the higher classes, where a thorough 
 knowledge of theology is required in order to give 
 that religious training needed in this stage of educa- 
 tion. It is evident that such a course can be followed 
 only in denominational schools. For this reason Pro- 
 fessor Schiller deplores the fact that, in consequence of 
 religious differences, it is almost impossible to apply 
 this most important principle. 3 
 
 English and American educators are not wanting 
 who advocate the same principle on which the Jesuits 
 have insisted for centuries. Arnold's opinion on this 
 subject was quite explicit. Sir Joshua Fitch tells us 
 that he dreaded any theory which would tend to 
 view the life of the scholar as a thing apart from the 
 life of a Christian. He protested earnestly against 
 any attempt to divorce religious from secular instruc- 
 tion, or to treat them as distinct parts of an educational 
 scheme. "The device sometimes advocated in later 
 times for solving the religious difficulty in our common 
 and municipal schools by confining the functions of 
 the school teacher to secular instruction, and calling 
 in the aid of the clergy or other specialists to give 
 lessons on religion at separate hours, would have 
 seemed to him wholly indefensible, and, indeed, fatal 
 to any true conception of the relation of religious 
 knowledge to other knowledge. ' ' In one of his ser- 
 
 1 Lehrpldne, etc., p. 11. 
 
 : See the words of Professor Paulsen above, p. 100. 
 
 3 L. c. t p. 238. 
 
REUGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 603 
 
 mons he said : "It is clear that neither is the Bible 
 alone sufficient to give a complete religious education, 
 nor is it possible to teach history, and moral and polit- 
 ical philosophy, with no reference to the Bible, with- 
 out giving an education that shall be anti-religious. 
 For, in the one case, the rule is given without the 
 application, and in the other the application derived 
 from a wrong rule. ' ' 1 
 
 But a few months ago the same view was forcibly 
 expressed by a writer in the Chicago Biblical World,' 2 
 in a leading article which is said to be inspired by 
 the editor of this review, President Harper of the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago. 3 In this article we find the fol- 
 lowing most appropriate statements : "It is a serious 
 phase of the present situation that the religious and 
 moral instruction of the young is isolated from their 
 instruction in other departments of knowledge. The 
 correlation of the different elements of education is 
 incomplete, because the religious and moral instruction 
 is received in entire separation from the general in- 
 struction of the public schools. The facts and truths 
 of religion are the foundation and the imperative of 
 morality. Present civilization rests upon the religious 
 and ethical ideas of the past, and the civilization of 
 the future depends upon a due recognition of religion 
 and morality as essential factors in the growing wel- 
 fare of humanity. The knowledge and experience of 
 religious and moral truth must underlie and penetrate 
 all knowledge and experience. The events and the 
 ideas of the past, as of the present, must be viewed in 
 
 1 Fitch, Thomas and Matthew Arnold, pp. 95-96. 
 
 2 The Biblical World, November 1902, p. 324. 
 8 The Literary Digest, December 27, 1902. 
 
604 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the light of a divine hand as the creator of the uni- 
 verse, a divine power sustaining it, a divine wisdom 
 guiding it, and a divine purpose accomplished in it. 
 The physical world about us, our fellow-men, and our 
 own selves must all be interpreted by religion truly 
 conceived and morality properly understood. It is, 
 therefore, impossible to accomplish the ideal education 
 of the individual when the religious and moral element 
 is isolated from the other elements ; still worse when 
 it is not received at all by the majority of the children. 
 All the elements of education must be woven together 
 into an organic unity to produce a perfect result." 
 The writer then proposes an organization which "may 
 seek to show how to correlate religious and moral 
 instruction with the instruction in history, science, 
 and literature obtained in the public schools." 
 A comparison with the words of Father Beckx quoted 
 on a previous page (p. 599) will show the great sim- 
 ilarity of the views of the President of the University 
 of Chicago and the former General of the Society 
 of Jesus. But we think there is one essential differ- 
 ence : the Jesuit draws the logical consequences of his 
 principles, namely, that education should be imparted 
 in denominational schools ; for only in such schools 
 can the moral and religious training be harmoniously 
 united with the other elements of instruction. The 
 President of the University of Chicago has not drawn 
 this conclusion. Yet we fail to see how, except in 
 denominational schools, the proposed correlation of 
 religious education and instruction in the other bran- 
 ches is pOvSsible. However, for our present purpose it 
 suffices to have shown that this distinguished Ameri- 
 can scholar and educator agrees with the fundamental 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 605 
 
 principle of the Jesuits, namely, that religious instruc- 
 tion should be closely connected with the general 
 education. 
 
 We heard that Pope L,eo said all schools, from the 
 elementary to the university, should be under the in- 
 fluence of religion, not only the lower schools. The stu- 
 dent in the college and the university needs the saving 
 and elevating influence of Christianity as well as, and 
 perhaps even more than, the boy in the elementary 
 course. The man who receives a higher education is 
 to become the leader and adviser of his fellow-men. 
 This rdle he will not assume to the benefit of society 
 unless he possesses a thorough knowledge of religion. 
 Otherwise he will be "a blind leader of the blind, and 
 both shall fall into the pit." What dangers are to be 
 apprehended if the religious instruction does not keep 
 pace with the growth of secular knowledge, especially 
 in natural sciences, has been well stated by a Catholic 
 writer: "Catholics have the faith and a creed, but 
 it is not an easy thing for men to bear up against the 
 superciliousness with which high-sounding philosophy 
 treats the doctrine of truth as puerile, effete, and ob- 
 solete. The young man leaves school or college with 
 certain religious principles, and with certain ideas of 
 the Being and attributes of God; he is intended for a 
 profession to which physiological science is prepara- 
 tory. His theological knowledge is stationary ; his 
 scientific is progressive. L,ife and motion he learns to 
 trace to secondary causes, of which before he had 
 heard nothing. He had been taught that life is a gift 
 of God, and that it rests with Him to destroy or to 
 save ; but now he finds that life expresses but an 
 aggregate of properties, attached to organization, and 
 
606 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 dependent for their exercise on the perfection of the 
 organism and the presence of certain stimuli, as heat 
 and light and electricity. His scientific knowledge 
 grows into maturity; his religion is still that of his 
 boyhood or youth! He has found other causes of the 
 facts he sees, besides those that he knew before, and 
 the conceit of knowledge and superiority hides from 
 him the fact that these causes are themselves effects : 
 and then he ascribes a real power to his generaliza- 
 tions, personifies abstractions, and deifies nature/' l 
 
 For this reason the Irish Jesuit Father Delaney, 
 Rector of University College, Dublin, believes that 
 laymen should have a scientific training in theology. 
 "I should like," he said in his evidence before the 
 Royal Commission on University Education in Ireland, 
 "that educated laymen should be given an opportunity 
 of getting a scientific knowledge of their religion. At 
 present boys leaving school find newspapers and 
 pamphlets and reviews dealing with subjects vitally 
 affecting Catholicity and Christianity itself, with the 
 existence of a soul, and the existence of God, and 
 where are these men to get the training and knowledge 
 to enable them to meet difficulties which are suggested 
 to them in this way?" 2 
 
 Indeed, it would be not only incongruous, but even 
 scandalous, if a Christian place of higher education 
 imparted all sorts of secular knowledge and neglected 
 that which is the most important, the knowledge of 
 the Christian religion. A Catholic youth, when leav- 
 
 1 Dublin Review, Jan. 1847, p. 383. In this con- 
 nection we would beg the reader to see the beautiful exposi- 
 tion of the same principle in Cardinal Newman's Idea of a 
 University (pp. 372380): "General Religious Knowledge." 
 
 2 Quoted in The Review, June 19, 1902, p. 384. 
 
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 607 
 
 ing college, should be well prepared to defend his faith 
 against the numberless misrepresentations which are 
 prevailing among Protestants about things Catholic. 
 Half the controversies which go on in the world arise 
 from ignorance and misinformation; and educated lay- 
 men that are able to remove such prejudices by a cor- 
 rect statement of facts of history and doctrines and 
 numerous questions of this kind occur in social inter- 
 course not only vindicate the calumniated Church, 
 but also further peace and good feeling among men of 
 different creeds. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 School = Management. 
 
 Holy Job says: "Man's life upon earth is a war- 
 fare.'' The life of a teacher is eminently such. The 
 moment he enters his class-room where thirty pupils 
 await him, he has to face thirty enemies. Not that 
 the pupils cherish hostile or even unfriendly feelings 
 towards their master. God forbid ! but there is in 
 every one of them some one more or less prominent 
 defect or fault, which, in whole or in part, will frus- 
 trate the teacher's work in the class-room, and it is 
 with these defects and faults, as with so many deadly 
 foes, that the teacher must do combat. One pupil is 
 lazy; this one is fickle; that one stubborn ; and in all 
 there is a considerable amount of ignorance. Nor does 
 the teacher's struggle cease with the four or five hours 
 of class work. There are other trials awaiting him on 
 return home. The daily careful preparation of the 
 matter to be taught is a real drudgery, while the cor- 
 rection of themes and compositions is very fatiguing. 
 Over and above this there is the monotony of repeat- 
 ing the same matter year after year. At times, too, 
 there may come regulations from superiors which do 
 not suit the taste of the teacher, which, however, must 
 be complied with ; for in order to ensure unity and 
 harmony in any educational establishment some kind 
 of executive superintendence over persons and things 
 is indispensable. 
 
 (608) 
 
SCHOOL- MANAGEMENT. 609 
 
 This presupposes, on the part of the teachers, sub- 
 mission and obedience. The Jesuit teachers are told 
 by their rules to obey the Prefect of Studies in all 
 things pertaining to studies and school discipline. It 
 is well known that St. Ignatius insisted on nothing so 
 much as on obedience. 1 The obedience demanded by 
 the Society has frequently been censured by men who 
 do not as much as know what this obedience really 
 means. In an army, or in any department of govern- 
 ment, a similar obedience is exacted as being wholly 
 necessary for the maintenance of right order; why not 
 much more so in a religious community whose mem- 
 bers profess obedience to their superiors in whom they 
 seethe representatives of God? M. De Ladeveze said 
 recently: " Military obedience has had none but vig- 
 orous apologists, obedience in religious Orders, other 
 than the Society of Jesus, has had but rare and indul- 
 gent critics, whilst the obedience of the Jesuits has 
 ever been the butt for attacks as numerous as my 
 readers would not allow me to say impartial. ' ' 2 Does 
 
 1 "The Society of Jesus, " says Cardinal Newman, "has 
 been more distinguished than any before it for the rule of 
 obedience. . . . With the Jesuits, as well as with the religious 
 Communities which are their juniors, usefulness, secular and 
 religious, literature, education, the confessional, preaching, 
 the oversight of the poor, missions, the care of the sick, have 
 been their chief object of attention; bodily austerities and the 
 ceremonial of devotion have been made of but secondary im- 
 portance. Yet it may fairly be questioned, whether in an 
 intellectual age, when freedom both of thought and of action 
 is so dearly prized, a greater penance can be devised for the 
 soldier of Christ than the absolute surrender of judgment and 
 will to the command of another." In Development of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, ch. VIII. 
 
 2 The Open Court, Jan. 1902, p. 14. 
 
 39 
 
6 1 o JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 not St. Paul say: "L,et every one be subject to higher 
 powers: for there is no power but from God: and those 
 that are are ordained by God. Therefore, he that re- 
 sisteth, resisteth the power of God. M It must not be 
 forgotten that passion, especially pride, impetuosity, 
 and stubbornness frequently blind and deceive a man 
 to take his own conceits for absolute infallible wis- 
 dom. Therefore, St. Ignatius addresses his sons in 
 the words of Scripture : * ' Lean not upon thy own 
 prudence." Indeed, many mistakes will be avoided 
 by the teacher who conscientiously follows the regula- 
 tions of the school and the orders of the superiors. 
 On the other hand, the teacher who is lacking in sub- 
 mission will sooner or later blunder most seriously. 
 
 Further, how can a teacher honestly demand obed- 
 ience from his pupils unless he practises it himself ? 
 Surely, there is much truth in the old monastic 
 maxim: "No man securely commands but he who 
 has learned well to obey. ' ' 1 Personal obedience of the 
 teacher, therefore, is a means to secure him the most 
 necessary qualification for effective school - manage- 
 ment, namely, authority. 
 
 i. Authority. 
 
 Authority is power or influence over others derived 
 from character, example, mental and moral superior- 
 ity. How can the teacher obtain this influence? 
 Father Jouvancy and Father Kropf have two instruc- 
 tive chapters on this subject, from which we draw 
 most of the following observations. According to 
 Jouvancy, 2 three things especially conduce to the 
 
 1 Following of Christy I, ch. 20. 
 
 2 Ratio Docendi y ch. 3, art. 1. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 6 1 1 
 
 acquirement of authority by the religious teachers: 
 esteem, love, and fear. 
 
 i. The teacher must possess the esteem of his 
 pupils. They must respect him for his learning and 
 his character. He must thoroughly master the sub- 
 ject which he has to teach. Besides, a careful pre- 
 paration of the day's lesson should be made invariably 
 before. It is most ruinous for the teacher's authority, 
 if the pupils detect any deficiency in his knowledge 
 and they will discover it very soon if there is any. 
 The pupils cannot and will not listen to such a teacher 
 with the respect and willingness which are necessary 
 not only for a fruitful study, but also for school disci- 
 pline. Remarks will be passed about the teacher's 
 mistakes, or his inability to handle the subject; per- 
 haps bolder pupils call the teacher's attention to his 
 mistakes. In such cases the man who is master of his 
 subject can, and mostly will, calmly admit that a slip 
 has been made, whereas the teacher who is not sure of 
 his subject, and who blunders frequently, is inclined 
 to keep down any objections by frowns, scoldings or 
 even punishment. The result will be dissatisfaction 
 among the students, which may lead to serious 
 breaches of discipline. 
 
 As to his character, anything like passionate or 
 irritable behavior, abusive language, haughtiness, 
 levity, whims, fickleness, inconsiderate or idle talk, 
 mannerisms, peculiarities of gesture and expression 
 which will strike the pupils as ridiculous, and any 
 other defect of mind or character will at once be 
 detected by the keen eyes of the students and will 
 more or less weaken his authority. In a teacher who 
 is a religious, the virtues expected of a religious man 
 
6l2 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 should appear in all words and actions, and his whole 
 life should bespeak a mind thoroughly imbued with 
 the lofty principles of Christianity. Such a teacher 
 should remember the words of Christ: "So let 
 your light shine before men that they may see your 
 good works and glorify your Father who is in 
 Heaven." l Indeed, it is absolutely necessary for him 
 to endeavor to gain the sincere esteem of the students, 
 not in order to gratify his vanity, nor for any other 
 selfish purpose, but in order to manage successfully a 
 class of petulant and mischief-loving youths. 
 
 2. The teacher must strive to gain the affection of 
 his pupils.' 2 This he will obtain if they see him eager 
 for their advancement, if he possesses the mastery 
 over his own temper, if he never appears suspicious or 
 distrustful. While kind and obliging in private, he 
 must show himself earnest and grave before his class. 
 Besides, being always firm, he must moreover be 
 friendly and kind towards all, avoiding partiality, 
 favoritism and excessive familiarity towards individu- 
 als. 3 If the teacher yield to the not uncommon weak- 
 ness, and by any sort of favoritism tries to gain the 
 special affection of a few, he should be convinced that 
 he will estrange all the rest from him and thus 
 inevitably undermine his authority. In punishments 
 he must be considerate, just, moderate, and show that 
 he acts only from a sense of duty and genuine love, 
 not from passion or antipathy. 4 
 
 The affection of his pupils will be aroused by the 
 interest the teacher shows for their health, their diffi- 
 
 1 Matth. 5, 16. 
 
 2 Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, cli. 3, art. 1, no. 2. 
 
 3 See below 3. 
 * See below 2. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 6 1 3 
 
 culties, their joys and troubles, and by his ceaseless 
 efforts to help them by instruction and advice. 
 Jouvancy says the teacher should care particularly 
 for the more delicate, visit the sick, encourage the 
 backward, advise those that are in any embarrass- 
 ment, in short, display the earnestness of a father and 
 the devotion of a mother, especially towards pupils 
 recently enrolled, and those in need. He should also 
 notify the parents of progress or remissness on the 
 part of their children. However, in most Jesuit 
 colleges this is done by the Prefect of Studies or the 
 Prefect of Discipline. 
 
 The teacher will further gain the affection of his 
 pupils if he performs his duties conscientiously, but 
 without gloomy severity. A cheerful countenance 
 should greet the students when they arrive for the 
 morning session. For the teacher loses much of his 
 authority if his pupils are forced to make a daily in- 
 spection of his face, as they would of the bulletin of 
 the weather forecast. The teacher's lively disposition 
 and interesting way of speaking will act like a 
 pleasant sunny spring morning on all, and do away 
 with sleepiness and dullness, whereas sternness and 
 gloom on his part will influence the class like a 
 heavy fog on a winter's day. It is possible that a 
 whole class appears slow and spiritless, but the profes- 
 sor may be responsible for it, either by his own lack 
 of spirit and alacrity, by his tedious talk, or also by 
 his too excessive demands on the class. To be ever 
 reaching after the absolutely unattainable, is not par- 
 ticularly exhilarating, yet the professor may put his 
 pupils in such a plight by placing before them too 
 high a standard of excellence and never admitting 
 
6 14 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 that their best efforts bring them nearer the ideal. 
 Hence judicious praise is a powerful factor in the 
 management of a class; sometimes the effort may be 
 praised where the result cannot. "The office of a 
 good teacher," as Quintilian prudently remarks, "is 
 to seek and encourage the good ever to be found in 
 children, and to supply what is wanting, to correct 
 and change whatever needs it." 
 
 3. Fear, is the third element which contributes to 
 authority. 1 This fear must be as it is styled, timor 
 reverentialisj not timor servilis, i. e. the fear of a child, 
 not of a slave. Gravity, firmness and prudent con- 
 sistency, in a word, manliness, on the part of the 
 teacher, will instil this salutary fear into the pupils; 
 only few and wise regulations should be made, but 
 these must be firmly and prudently enforced. If this 
 is done, even the most recalcitrant will after some time 
 surrender. Another means of preserving this whole- 
 some fear consists in reporting to higher officials of 
 the school, or to the parents, breaches of conduct. 
 However, this should not be done for every trifle, but 
 only in case of a more serious misdemeanor. This 
 leads us to the question of punishments. 
 
 2. Punishments. 2 
 
 The saddest part of a schoolmaster's task is the 
 necessity of punishing. Offences must be treated 
 seriously, not lightly; but, at the same time, as they 
 
 1 Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 1, no. 3. 
 
 2 Ratio Stud., Reg. Praef. Stud. Inf. 38, 42. Reg. com. 
 40. Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 1, no. 2. Kropf, 
 Ratio et Via> ch. 6, art. 7. Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 11 
 and 12. Monumenta Paedag., chapter "Del Castigare," 
 p. 277 foil. Woodstock Letters, 1896, p. 244. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 615 
 
 are in most cases the effects of levity and weakness, 
 they must be treated with compassion and without 
 any harshness. The teacher should never be hasty in 
 punishing; if he is, it will appear that he is led by 
 passion. Often, and particularly when a pupil defies 
 the teacher and refuses obedience, it will be best to 
 wait patiently and assign the punishment later. For, 
 if the punishment be inflicted immediately, it will, in 
 all probability, be often unduly severe. 1 Anger and 
 impetuosity are bad counselors, and in such trying 
 situations it is especially true that ''silence is golden." 
 If the teacher merely lets it be seen how much he is 
 pained by such conduct and defers the punishment, 
 he will gain by his self-control in the eyes of the 
 whole class; and the offender himself, having got over 
 his excitement, will probably be in a better disposition 
 to accept the punishment. 
 
 The Ratio Studiorum says the teacher should not 
 be too eager to discover occasions for punishing his 
 pupils. 2 There are some teachers who seem always 
 on the watch to impose tasks. If they do not find 
 misdeeds on the surface, they make sure to ferret them 
 out. They were born to be detectives. This is not 
 the fatherly spirit the teacher should manifest. The 
 Ratio is opposed to this method. "See everything 
 but never have the appearance of prying." Know 
 all that regards your pupils, but do not always act on 
 your knowledge. If you can conceal your dis- 
 coveries without doing harm, conceal them. In 
 
 1 An old regulation for Jesuit schools, written in Italian, 
 well says: "Non convien castigar subito dopo la colpa per 
 non dar luogo alia passione die fa passar' la misura del 
 castigo. " Monum. Paed., p. 279. 
 
 2 Reg. coin. mag. cl. inf., 40. 
 
6l6 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 general: the fewer punishments the teacher inflicts, 
 the greater will be his success, always supposing that 
 he keeps order without punishing. Any just reasons 
 for pardoning, or lessening, the penance are to be wel- 
 comed. 
 
 There seems to be abroad a sentiment about cor- 
 poral punishments which is evidently beyond the 
 bounds of reason. Some contend that corporal punish- 
 ment is- merely a ' 'relic of the barbarism of former 
 ages," and that it should no longer be employed, but 
 that the young should be governed solely by moral 
 suasion, by an appeal to reason and the pupil's sense 
 of right. The inspired writers thought differently. 
 Thus we read: "He that spareth the rod hateth his 
 son; but he that loveth him correcteth him betimes." l 
 " Folly is bound up in the heart of the child, but the 
 rod of correction shall drive it away." 2 There are 
 some faults : flagrant violations of modesty and 
 decency, defiance of authority, impudent insults 
 offered to elderly persons, continued laziness, which 
 in a younger boy are best punished by the rod, 
 especially after exhortations have proved unsuccessful. 
 This was the principle and practice of Jesuit educa- 
 tors, and the best educators are again at one with the 
 Jesuits. 3 
 
 1 Proverbs 13, 24. 
 
 2 /., 22, 15. 
 
 3 See Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, IV: "The proud 
 notion of independence and dignity, which revolts at the 
 idea of personal chastisement is not reasonable and is cer- 
 tainly not Christian. After all it is sin which degrades, and 
 not punishment." On the views of Kclward Thring of 
 Uppinghain on this subject, see Life and Letters y by Parkin, 
 London 1898. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 617 
 
 The Ratio Studiorum allowed the infliction of 
 punishment only under rigid regulations; it forbids 
 the teacher absolutely to strike a boy. l Corporal 
 punishment, if, after calm deliberation, thought neces- 
 sary, is to be administered either by a trusty servant, 
 as was the custom in former times, or by the Prefect 
 of Discipline. 2 At any rate, this system prevents 
 many an indeliberate act of the teachers, as there is 
 always danger of excess in the immediate punishment 
 of an offence. Although the rod was applied in Jesuit 
 schools, its use was by no means as frequent as in 
 nearly all other schools. Compared to what was done 
 in the great public schools of England and in the 
 gymnasia on the European continent, the practice of 
 the Jesuit colleges was exceedingly mild. There was 
 never anything like the brutality practised in Eton, 3 
 or those debasing punishments, described in The 
 Terrors of the Rod (published in 1815), or in Cooper's 
 
 1 Reg. com. 40. 
 
 2 On this point modern views, at least in Northern coun- 
 tries, are different, and a punishment inflicted by a servant 
 is considered especially disgraceful. Therefore, the un- 
 pleasant task devolves on the Prefect of Discipline. In 
 some Jesuit colleges punishment was administered at fixed 
 'hours, and it was left to the lad that had offended to go to 
 apply for castigation. In this way he had an opportunity of 
 showing his manliness and taking his punishment with a 
 sense of having deserved it. An English writer in the St. 
 James's Gazette calls it "evidence of the skill and tact of the 
 Order to have devised this method." LittelVs Living Age, 
 Boston, 1886, vol. 170, p. 248. Of the ferula, the, instrument 
 used at Stonyhurst, the same writer says: "Few things are 
 more disagreeably painful and at the same time more harm- 
 less and transitory in its effects than the application of this 
 instrument." 
 
 3 See The Spectator, No. 168. 
 
6l8 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 History of the Rod. 1 In the higher schools of Saxony 
 it was the custom, even in the eighteenth century, for 
 all the members of the faculty to punish offenders 
 before the whole school. When, in 1703, the teachers 
 remonstrated against this, they were told by the 
 highest authorities to continue doing their duty. 2 
 Matters were different in Jesuit colleges. The offender 
 was punished in private and only few strokes were 
 administered. Father Nadal made a regulation in 
 Mentz, in 1567, to the effect that not more than six 
 strokes should be given with the rod. The boys were 
 not to be struck in any other way. 3 The above cited 
 Italian School Order adds that not only the poor boys 
 should be punished but the wealthy and noble as 
 
 1 As a curious illustration the case of the Suabian 
 schoolmaster may be mentioned, who kept a diary and jotted 
 down in the course of his fifty-one years' schoolmaster's 
 career the number of times he administered punishment to 
 his recalcitrant pupils. Schoolmaster John records that he 
 distributed 911,517 strokes with a stick; 240,100 "smites" 
 with a birchrod; 10,988 hits with a ruler; 136,715 hand 
 smacks; 10,235 slaps on the face; 7,905 boxes on the ears; 
 115,800 blows on the head; 12,763 tasks from the Bible, 
 catechism, the poets and grammar. Every two years he had 
 to buy a Bible, to replace the one so roughly handled by his 
 scholars; 777 times he made his pupils kneel on peas, and 
 5,001 scholars had to do penance with a ruler held over their 
 hands. As to his abusive words, not a third of them were to 
 be found in any dictionary. 
 
 2 Neuejahrbucher, 1902, vol. X, p. 296. 
 
 3 Pachtler, vol. I, p. 160, 207, 279; IV, 164170. It is 
 not improbable that the moderation required by the rules 
 was not always observed through the fault of some individuals. 
 Hence the one instance of excessive flogging quoted by Com- 
 payre, Hist, of Ped.> p. 14, was certainly an exception. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 619 
 
 well. These should be made to understand* that virtue 
 is more highly prized than nobility. 1 
 
 A word should be added about the famous "lines." 
 If lines are assigned to be committed to memory they 
 should not be such as are not fully understood. There 
 are so many useful things that have been read or 
 should be studied, why not give them ? Catechism or 
 Bible history should never be assigned as penalty; it 
 might make these sacred books an object of aversion. 
 It is advisable, however, to assign these books if the 
 pupil has neglected to study his catechism or his 
 Bible history. If lines are to be copied a punish- 
 ment of questionable worth at least the same lines 
 should not be copied more than once; it is sheer non- 
 sense to make a student copy the same line twenty 
 times, unless it be an exercise in penmanship for con- 
 tinued careless writing. The teacher should insist 
 that all extra tasks are neatly and carefully written. 
 It is most detrimental to the teacher's authority to 
 assign punishments and not to see that they are done; 
 or to assign excessive tasks and then be compelled to 
 desivSt from demanding them. If, in particular cases, 
 an extraordinary punishment is thought necessary, 
 Jesuit educators wisely refer the matter to a Superior, 
 either Prefect or Rector. These officials should also 
 decide on cases where punishment has been refused, 
 especially by older students. 
 
 3. Impartiality. 
 
 Another point, important for effective school- 
 management, is the necessity of showing strict fair- 
 ness and justice. A professor accused of favoritism is 
 
 1 Monumenta Paedagogica^ p. 278. 
 
620 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sadly hindered in his work. His kindly words of 
 good advice fall on deaf ears and his exertions for his 
 class are viewed with coldness and distrust. The 
 47th rule exhorts the Jesuit teacher not to be more 
 familiar with one boy than with the rest. Although 
 mischievous tongues of jealous pupils will never cease 
 to impute faults which may have no objective reality, 
 still a strict observance of this rule will be a precious 
 safeguard to the reputation of the teacher in a matter 
 which is of vital importance to the proper and success- 
 ful discharge of his duty. A uniform spirit of kindli- 
 ness and charity should be manifested towards all, 
 poor or rich, slow or highly gifted, uncouth or polite, 
 uncomely or attractive. No dislike is to be shown for 
 any pupil, no matter how great the natural aversion is 
 which one may feel towards him. The all-embracing 
 charity of our L,ord should ever be before the eyes of 
 the teacher, and he should strive to be "all things to 
 all." He must not forget that in every pupil there is 
 something good, a good side from which he may be 
 approached. And it happens not unfrequently that 
 in the poor workingman's son, diffident, shy, and un- 
 gainly as the boy may be, there is a nobler soul, 
 greater talent, more prospect of great work in the 
 future, than in the much more refined, courteous and 
 winning boy of wealthy parents. To neglect the poor 
 or ungainly lad would be not only unjust and cruel, 
 but also directly opposed to the spirit of the Society, 
 which, in the 4oth rule, tells the teacher "to despise 
 no one and to work as strenuously for the advance- 
 ment of the poor as of the rich." 
 
 Another danger frequently connected with undue 
 familiarity with some pupils has to be mentioned. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 sL 
 SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The teacher is easily inclined to speak more con- 
 fidentially to them about other pupils; he may be sure 
 that his remarks will be reported, most likely in a 
 distorted form, to those whom he has criticized. This 
 will destroy the good spirit among his pupils, cause 
 bitterness, ill-feeling, factions, and little conspiracies 
 among them, and the teacher will perhaps never be 
 able to detect and remedy the evil. 
 
 Undue familiarity and partiality is also very harm- 
 ful to the pupil himself who is thus singled out from 
 the rest. 1 If special affection is shown to one, if his 
 failings are tolerated more than those of the rest, if he 
 is not reproved where he deserves it, if he is praised 
 where he hardly deserves it, then an opening is made 
 for jealousy; the Benjamin of the class will receive all 
 sorts of names, as little flattering to him as to the 
 teacher; and his position among his companions may 
 become very unpleasant. The teacher's unreasonable 
 partiality has compromised him and has placed a 
 barrier between him and his classmates. A still more 
 serious consequence is usually connected with such 
 partiality : the real education of the favorite is 
 neglected. What training of character can be ex- 
 pected if his whims are indulged in, if his failings are 
 not corrected, if he is flattered and coddled, in short, if 
 he is spoiled? Besides, such partiality invariably 
 breeds vanity, self-conceit and stubbornness. The 
 teacher's favorite is soon aware of the preference 
 shown to him. He feels that he can venture what his 
 companions dare not to do; that class regulations, 
 class silence and the like are less severe for him than 
 
 1 See : The Little Imperfections, by Rev. F. P. Garesche, 
 S.J.; chapter on "Partialities." (Herder, St. Louis, 1901.) 
 
622 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 the others. He will soon think himself a privileged 
 being, superior to the rest: he will assume the air of 
 authority over others and pride is nourished in his 
 heart. Yet this is not all. The next year the pupil 
 may pass to a teacher who is different, who does not 
 tolerate his caprices any more than those of others 
 and who tries to eradicate the evils that were allowed 
 to root by his predecessor. But the spoiled child will 
 resent any strict treatment, will peevishly refuse to be 
 corrected. All this may lead to serious breaches of 
 discipline and obedience, and to disagreeable punish- 
 ments. 
 
 From this it should not be inferred that a teacher 
 is forbidden to take a greater active interest in some 
 than in others. On the contrary he must do this 
 especially in the case of those who need it most, for 
 instance, of those who are very bashful, and particu- 
 larly of those who are exposed to greater danger. Just 
 as a mother watches more anxiously over a delicate 
 child, so must a good teacher look more particularly 
 after those whose spiritual condition is more delicate. 
 "Not the healthy ones need the physician but the 
 sick. " On this subject it may be well to quote once 
 more the beautiful words of Father Jouvancy: "The 
 teacher should speak in private more frequently with 
 those who seem to be exposed to worse and more 
 dangerous faults. If he captivates them by a wise 
 and holy kindness, he attaches them not only to him- 
 self, but gains them for Christ. ' ' 1 
 
 1 Ratio Docendi, ch. 1, art. 2. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 623 
 
 4. Discipline in the Classroom. 1 
 
 The effectiveness of a teacher as teacher will 
 depend largely on his success as a disciplinarian. 
 This holds especially of the lower classes, where the 
 pupils are livelier and act more from their animal 
 propensities. A few good regulations concerning 
 order in class, as well as to the manner of entering 
 and leaving the class room, are to be firmly insisted 
 on. Determination is here the great factor. A class- 
 room yields, keeps silence, remains quiet, is attentive 
 and studious, if it learns that the professor means to 
 insist on these points. Of course, firmness can be 
 overdone. Too great persistence takes on the appear- 
 ance of tyranny and challenges opposition. On the 
 other hand, mildness easily gives place to weakness. 
 The teacher has to strike the mean, which is golden 
 here as in other things. However, it is a maxim of 
 Jesuit educators that it will be good to be more 
 reserved, and also stricter as to discipline, in the 
 beginning, until the teacher knows his class and has 
 it under perfect control. It is easy then to loosen the 
 reins a little, whereas it is nearly impossible to draw 
 them tight after a spirit of levity, noisiness and 
 general disorder has started through the teacher's 
 easy-going manner. 
 
 The following words of a French Jesuit educator 
 on this question are most instructive. The master in 
 charge of the boys, in his first intercourse with them, 
 has no greater snare in his way than taking his power 
 for granted and trusting in his strength and knowledge 
 of the world. That master who in the very first hour 
 
 1 Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 2. Kropf, Ratio 
 et Via, ch. 6, art. 3. Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 19. 
 
624 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 has already made himself liked, almost popular with 
 his pupils, who shows no more anxiety about his 
 work than he must show to keep his character for 
 good sense, that master is indeed to be pitied; he is 
 most likely a lost man. He will soon have to choose 
 one of two things, either to shut his eyes and put up 
 with all irregularities or to break with a past that he 
 would wish forgotten, and engage in open conflict 
 with the boys who are inclined to set him at defiance. 
 He wished to endear himself by acts of kindness, he 
 set about crowning the edifice without making sure of 
 the foundation. Accordingly, the first steps should 
 be characterized by an extreme reserve, without any 
 affectation of severity or diplomacy. 1 
 
 Some good principles on class discipline have been 
 laid down by Father Jouvangy. 2 The first is: Prin- 
 cipiis obsta: Resist the evil from the beginning. As 
 soon as the pupils grow restless, no matter how light 
 the disturbance may be, it must be checked immedi- 
 ately. When some few are especially giddy or mis- 
 chievous, they must gradually be wearied by various 
 devices: frequent questions, repeated calling up for 
 recitations etc. , so as to become gently accustomed to 
 bear the yoke* 
 
 Secondly: The place of the pupils in class should 
 not be a chance affair or left to their choice and 
 caprice. 3 If they are allowed to select their places, 
 the light-minded and petulant will be found together 
 in some corner, or in the rear, where they anticipate 
 full scope for mischief. By prudent tactics many a 
 
 1 Barbier, La discipline, Paris 1888. Quoted at greater 
 length by Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 60 62. 
 
 2 Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 2. 
 
 3 Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 19, no. 5. 
 
SCHOOIy-MANAGKMKNT. 625 
 
 teacher has gained the battle as before-hand, by 
 scattering the hostile forces, by separating the talkers 
 and mischief-makers. A petulant boy may be assigned 
 his seat near a quiet and reserved boy; one whose 
 morals are justly suspected near one of reliable virtue 
 taking care, however, lest the good boy be corrupted 
 by the one of doubtful character. 
 
 Thirdly: No noise or confusion is to be tolerated 
 when the students enter the class-room. 1 They should 
 be trained to consider this room as a sacred place, "a 
 temple of science," which ought to be entered in 
 silence and modesty. If any come in boisterously the 
 teacher should at the outset reprimand or punish 
 them. This will immediately quiet their exuberant 
 spirits. 
 
 Fourthly: The respect of the pupils for their 
 teachers and for one another will prompt them to 
 listen to the instructions in absolute silence. 2 
 
 Sometimes it may happen that either all the 
 scholars, or only a few, offend against good conduct 
 and attention. If the former should happen, the 
 cause of evil must be investigated and the instigators 
 must be punished. The teacher should very rarely 
 threaten the whole class, still less should a whole class 
 be subjected to punishment. Such an action irritates 
 the pupils and, feeling confidence in their number, 
 they will be inclined to conspire against the teacher. 
 Extraordinary tasks, like more weighty penalties, 
 should be imposed on only a few. " Frequent ail- 
 ments, unusual remedies, and continual funerals dis- 
 grace the physician," 3 as Jouvancy wisely observes. 
 - l Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 2, No. 4. 
 
 2 Reg. com. 43. 
 
 3 Jouvancy, Ratio Docendi, ch. 3, art. 2, 5. 
 J 40 y 
 
626 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Fifthly: The 44th rule gives wise directions for 
 maintaining order at the end of class. Here the dan- 
 ger is greater than at the beginning of the session. 
 The boys are not so eager to come to class as after 
 recitation hours to rush to the yard for a game of base- 
 ball, or to hasten home for dinner. But it makes 
 certainly a bad impression if the boys run out of class 
 like a pack of hounds turned loose. Therefore, the 
 teacher should be on hand and watch the boys at this 
 critical time. These are not the minutes for correcting 
 stray themes, or for conversation with another profes- 
 sor, or with one of the pupils. The teacher should, 
 as the rule says, take his station at his desk, or at the 
 door, and have his eye on the class room and the cor- 
 ridor. All are to leave the room in silence and order. 
 There is to be no hurry, no running about, no jostling. 
 If the teacher acts thus, all disorder will be prevented 
 far more effectively than by punishments. 
 
 5. Politeness and Truthfulness. 
 
 Another point intimately connected with discipline 
 consists in the attention given to politeness and good 
 manners. l There is nothing more attractive than a 
 class of boys who are lively and, at the same time, truly 
 polite. But the amusements of our boys, baseball and 
 football especially, easily lead to a certain roughness, 
 which is certainly the very opposite of refinement. 
 Further, however attractive frankness and freedom of 
 behavior may be, they frequently degenerate into want 
 of respect. Teachers, elderly persons, and others who 
 must claim the young man's respect, are sometimes 
 approached without due reverence. The greeting con- 
 
 1 Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 14. Kropf, Ratio et Via, 
 ch. 5, art. 1, 8. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 627 
 
 sists in a gracious or confidential nod, or a motion of 
 the hand in the direction of the head, without reach- 
 ing to its end ; then the "youngster" starts his con- 
 versation, hat on, hands in his pockets, if possible 
 sitting or leaning on a railing, or lolling against a wall. 
 Our boys hear so much of liberty that they easily mis- 
 take it for freedom from the obligations due to age and 
 position, which are everywhere recognized and rightly 
 insisted on, and which are justly considered the dis- 
 tinctive marks of true culture and refinement. Any- 
 thing servile, cringing, or affected is, of course, to be 
 avoided. 
 
 The teacher has many opportunities of inculcating 
 the rules of politeness. But a most important factor 
 is the teacher's example. Being before the eyes of his 
 pupils four or five hours a day, his personality will 
 naturally leave traces on their manners. He should 
 impress his pupils not only as a scholar and a pious 
 religious, but also as a perfect gentleman. Nor will 
 the Jesuit teacher ever fail in this respect, if he care- 
 fully observes the "Rules on Modesty," which are laid 
 down in the Institute, and were considered of the 
 greatest importance by St. Ignatius and all true 
 Jesuits. We shall quote a few of these rules: "In 
 general, it may be said that in all outward actions 
 there should appear modesty and humility, joined with 
 religious gravity. There should appear outwardly a 
 serenity, which may be the token of that which is 
 interior. The whole countenance should show cheer- 
 fulness rather than sadness or any other less moderate 
 affection. The apparel is to be clean, and arranged 
 with religious decency. In fine, every gesture and 
 motion should be such as to give edification to all 
 
628 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 men. When they have to speak they must be mind- 
 ful of modesty and edification, as well in their words, 
 as in the style and manner of speaking. ' ' 
 
 The Jesuits have always been most sedulous in 
 cultivating in their pupils politeness, not a mere ex- 
 ternal polish, but a politeness which is the choice fruit 
 and exterior manifestation of solid interior virtue, of 
 sincerity of heart, humility, obedience, and charity. 
 Protestant writers have paid homage to these endeav- 
 ors of the Jesuits. Ranke writes: "The Jesuits 
 educated well-bred gentlemen. ' ' And another Protes- 
 tant, Victor Cherbuliez, is almost extravagant in his 
 praise when he says : "However much one may detest 
 the Jesuits, when religion is allied to intellectual 
 charms, when it is gentle-mannered, wears a smiling 
 face, and does all gracefully, one is always tempted to 
 believe that the Jesuits have had a hand in the affair. ' ' l 
 Another point which deserves special care on the 
 part of the teacher is the cultivation of truthfulness in 
 the pupils. No one teaches even for a short time 
 without recognizing the necessity of fighting the evil 
 habit of mendacity. A boy is reprimanded for unmis- 
 takable talking, whistling, throwing paper, etc., and 
 how often is the quick and bold answer heard : "It 
 wasn't me," bad English being added to the moral 
 defect. A boy fails to hand in a task. How many 
 excuses are made which not unfrequently are more or 
 '< less palpable falsehoods. Now all this is more serious 
 than it may appear at first. How is this evil to be 
 combated ? 
 
 First by prudence. Many lies could be prevented 
 
 if the teacher acted more discreetly. If a boy has been 
 
 1 Quoted in the Chicago Open Court, January 1902, p. 29. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 629 
 
 noisy, and the teacher, especially one who has the 
 reputation of inflicting severe punishments, angrily 
 charges him with the offence, the boy will deny the 
 deed in sheer excitement. And one lie leads to many 
 more; the boy assures and protests, in order not to 
 expose his first prevarication. Therefore the master, 
 as a rule, should not insist on arguing the case, but 
 await a better chance, when the boy is calm. A teacher 
 who is patient, judicious in inquiries, just and reason- 
 able in punishments, will seldom be told a lie. If 
 noise is going on in class, such a teacher may safely 
 ask : Who made that noise? And in nearly all cases, 
 as the experience of many teachers has proved, the 
 offender will candidly acknowledge it. Sometimes 
 this confession, with an earnest but calm word of ad- 
 monition, will dispense with any further punishment. 
 Of course, if the pardon invariably follows the confes- 
 sion, there will be no good effects whatever. 
 
 There are boys who, from a long practice, have 
 acquired a most pernicious habit of lying. Such cases 
 are hard to deal with, and it is difficult to lay down 
 general rules. A few suggestions, however, may not 
 be out of place. Very rarely, and only on extreme 
 occasions, should there be shown any doubt of a 
 pupil's word on a matter of fact. All should know 
 that implicit confidence is placed in their assertions, 
 and that it is considered as a matter of course that they 
 speak the truth on facts within their knowledge. If 
 ever a lie is found out and proved, the punishment 
 should be severe. Dr. Arnold says, in such a case the 
 punishment should be the loss of the teacher's con- 
 fidence. But even then the teacher should try to save 
 the offender from discouragement by holding out to 
 
630 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 him the possibility of correcting even the habit of 
 lying. It has happened that boys given to lying, 
 when once thoroughly convinced of the disgracefulness 
 of their habit, conceived such a horror of it, that they 
 became disgusted with everything dishonest, and 
 turned out men distinguished for uprightness and 
 truthfulness. In this as in other defects, it will be 
 good if the teacher follows the example of the Divine 
 Master, of whom it was said : "The bruised reed he 
 shall not break, and smoking flax he shall not ex- 
 tinguish. Ml 
 
 Here again the teacher's example will exercise a 
 powerful influence. He must be open, truthful, 
 straightforward, strictly honest in his dealings with the 
 pupils, not sly, crooked, and political. If he is asked 
 a question which he cannot answer, he should say: 
 "I do not know it," or "I am not sure about it, I will 
 inquire and tell you next time. ' ' No one can reason- 
 ably expect the teacher to know everything, and by 
 such honest acknowledgements he will not lose a tittle 
 of his authority. If he has made a mistake in a state- 
 ment, or in reprimanding or punishing, he should 
 frankly admit it and apologize. No school master is 
 infallible. The teacher need fear no detriment from 
 such a candid retractation. On the contrary, such a 
 
 1 Matth. 12, 20. - Father Faber remarks in his Spiritual 
 Conferences: ' 'There is a peculiar clearness about characters 
 which have learned to be true after having been deceitful." 
 The humiliating consciousness of having been found guilty 
 of deceit, and the yearning desire to be trusted again, forces 
 them to renounce everything like untruth, and to keep guard 
 over themselves, lest they fall again into the old habit. See 
 the beautiful chapter (XII): "On being true and trusty" in 
 Practical Notes on Moral Training, with preface by Father 
 Gallway, S. J., London, Burns & Gates. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 63 1 
 
 teacher will gain in the esteem of his pupils, who will 
 be more disposed to accept his admonitions. 
 
 6. Some Special Helps. 
 
 The trials of the teacher are many and vexing. 
 A few general means to endure them successfully may 
 be suggested. One means is patience. Dr. Arnold, 
 referring to the years of boyhood, once said the teacher 
 should try to hasten out the growth of this immature 
 and dangerous age. But in this endeavor it will be 
 good to remember the Latin saying: Festina lente. 
 Impatience, vehemence, and rashness are signs that 
 a teacher lacks knowledge of the frail human heart. 
 He should learn from the supreme model of teachers, 
 who showed a Divine longanimity and forbearance in 
 the training of his Apostles and Disciples who were 
 not always very docile and quick of perception. From 
 him he should learn the virtues necessary to the 
 teacher : "L,earn from me, for I am meek and humble 
 of heart. ' ' l A distinguished Jesuit of our days used 
 to say: "No one likes to settle at the foot of a volcano. 
 And a wrathful, excitable teacher will do great harm. 
 The outbursts of his anger will destroy all around like 
 the eruptions of a volcano, whereas a meek, patient, 
 and prudent man is acceptable to God, wins the hearts 
 of men, and will work successfully." An old regula- 
 tion of Jesuit schools 2 recommends especially patience: 
 "The teachers of youths should ever remember the 
 one perfect teacher, Christ our Lord, that they may 
 imitate his benignity and kind forbearance toward the 
 simple ones, that they may be unwearied in teaching 
 and adapt themselves to the capacity of their auditors, 
 
 \ Matth. 11, 29. 
 
 2 Pachtler, vol. I, pp. 159160. 
 
632 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 admonish their pupils, practise them diligently and 
 zealously, and gradually advance them, as well those 
 of slower perception as those of ready perception, as 
 Paul the great Apostle says: 'We became little ones 
 in the midst of you, as if a nurse should cherish her 
 children.' "? 
 
 One should, therefore, never be surprised at mis- 
 takes or moral faults ; least of all should one be vexed 
 at fickleness, unsteadiness, fits of laziness. These are 
 defects of age, or weakness of character, not signs of 
 bad will, consequently they are to be treated kindly. 
 There are some things which the teacher should take 
 good-humoredly. Many teachers feel irritated on dis- 
 covering that the boys have given them a nickname. 
 Why not take it good-naturedly and heartily laugh 
 about it? In general, a cheerful disposition combined 
 with a great amount of patience will make many of 
 the troubles of school life more endurable. 
 
 Another most powerful means for overcoming the 
 trials of teaching, and at the same time for laboring 
 successfully, is prayer. The ''modern" systems have 
 little to say about it, and many educators may be in- 
 clined to sneer at such a pedagogical help. Still there 
 is a sublime truth in what Tennyson says in his beauti- 
 ful lines: 
 
 "Pray for my soul. 
 More things are wrought by prayer 
 Than this world dreams of." 2 
 
 One who believes in the fundamental truths of 
 Christianity cannot ignore our Savior 'swords: "With- 
 out me you can do nothing," 3 and the other: "What- 
 
 1 1. Thess. 2, 7. 
 
 2 Words of King Arthur in Morte & Arthur. 
 
 3 John 15, 5. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 633 
 
 soever you shall ask the Father in iny name, that will 
 I do," 1 and the words of St. Paul to the Corinthians, 
 who contended about the superiority of their teachers 
 in the faith: "I have planted, Apollo watered, but 
 God gave the increase;" 2 further the words of St. 
 James: "If any one of you want wisdom, let him ask 
 of God, and it shall be given him." 3 As we have 
 seen, the Jesuits consider education from a super- 
 natural point of view. They endeavor to lead the 
 children to the knowledge, love, and service of Christ, 
 according to Christ's words : "Suffer little children to 
 come unto me, for of such is the Kingdom of God." 
 This is an aim above man's nature, and can be obtained 
 only by supernatural means. God alone can give the 
 teacher's words the power to enter into the will, that 
 impregnable citadel of man's nature. This power 
 from on high is bestowed on him who humbly asks 
 for it in prayer. 
 
 We must expect that St. Ignatius did not think 
 lightly of this means. In the i6th rule of the Sum- 
 mary of the Constitutions, all Jesuits are exhorted "to 
 apply to the study of solid virtues and of spiritual 
 things ; and to account these of greater moment than 
 either learning or other natural or human gifts: for 
 they are the interior things from which force must 
 flow to the exterior, for the end proposed to us." 
 This trust in God's assistance in no way lessens the 
 earnest endeavors of the religious. As the old prin- 
 ciple of the great order of St. Benedict was: Or a et 
 labora, so St. Ignatius says: "L,et this be the first rule 
 
 1 John 14, 13. 
 
 2 1. Cor. 3, 6. 
 
 3 fames 1, 6, 
 
634 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of all your actions : trust in God, as if all success 
 depended on him, nothing on yourself ; but work, as 
 if you had to do all and God nothing. ' ' In the Ratio 
 Studiorum the teachers are admonished ' 'frequently 
 to pray for their pupils. " l The Jesuit Sacchini has a 
 special chapter on the importance of the teacher's 
 prayer, 2 and exhorts him to recommend his disciples 
 daily to Christ, and to invoke for them the inter- 
 cession of the Blessed Mother of God, of the Guardian 
 Angels and of the patrons of youth. Father Jou- 
 vancy 3 tells the teacher never to go to class without 
 having said a fervent prayer, if possible in the Church 
 before the Blessed Sacrament. He suggests a beautiful 
 prayer which is almost wholly drawn from Scripture: 
 "I,ord Jesus, thou hast not hesitated to meet the most 
 cruel death for these children; thou lovest them with 
 an unspeakable tenderness; thou wouldst that they 
 were led to thee (Mark 10, 14). Yea, whatever is 
 done to one of these thy least brethern, thou wilt con- 
 sider as done to thee (Matth. 25, 40): I beg and im- 
 plore thee, 'keep them in thy name whom thou hast 
 given me;' 'they are thine', 'sanctify them in truth' 
 (John 17, 6. 9. ii. 17). 'Give thy words in my 
 mouth' (Jerem. 1,9), open their hearts that they may 
 begin to love and fear thee. 'Turn away thy face 
 from my sins '(Psalm 50, n), and let not thy mercy 
 be hindered through my faults. Give me the grace to 
 educate these children, whom thou hast entrusted to 
 me, with prudence, piety and firmness, to thy glory, 
 which is all I ask." Truly, this is praying in the 
 
 1 Reg. com. mag. cl. inf. 10. 
 
 2 Paraenesis, art. 15. 
 
 3 Ratio Docendi, ch. I, art. 1. 
 
SCHOOL-MANAGEMENT. 635 
 
 name of Jesus. And if the teacher is a man of solid 
 piety and virtue, as the Society expects him to be 
 after a religious training of so many years, the grace 
 of God will surely lighten the burden of his work. 
 "For the continual prayer of a just man availeth 
 much. ' ' l 
 
 1 James 5, 16. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 The Teacher's Motives and Ideals. 
 
 The teacher's life is a most arduous one. L,ike 
 that of the scholar and scientist it presents few attrac- 
 tions. It has none of the external brilliant dramatic 
 quality that makes the soldier's and stateinan's career 
 attractive, and as its material remuneration is relatively 
 scanty, and the chance of promotion to a lucrative 
 position is almost excluded, it can make little impres- 
 sion on an age whose watchwords are exterior success 
 and material progress. 1 Still, the teacher's mission is 
 one of the greatest importance while touched with 
 sublimity. It is in a way a ' 'priestly" office, for the 
 material on which the teacher works is the mind, the 
 immortal soul of man; his object is truly ''sacerdotal," 
 namely to consecrate these souls to their Creator, to 
 make them more God-like in wisdom and moral 
 goodness. The teacher is also entrusted with the 
 destinies of society; the children and youths whom he 
 now trains will one day be the heads of families, the 
 parents of a new generation, the men that powerfully 
 influence public opinion for good or ill, in the press 
 and from the platform, the citizens whose vote will 
 make or mar their country. Surely, this is a profes- 
 sion that deserves the enthusiasm of noble hearts and 
 the absorbing interest of the ablest minds. 
 
 1 See Brownsorfs Review, 1860, pp. 303 and 314. 
 (636) 
 
THE; TEACHER'S MOTIVES AND IDEALS. 637 
 
 In the case of the Jesuit teacher there can be no 
 question of a material compensation. What he needs 
 for his sustenance is furnished by the Order; beyond 
 this he seeks no earthly reward. In this all members 
 of the Order are equally situated: the professor of 
 philosophy and the teacher of the lowest grammar 
 class, the President of the college, and the lay brother 
 who acts as porter. What, then, are the motives that 
 inspire him to undergo willingly and cheerfully the 
 labors and trials of his profession? They are in the 
 first place the consideration of the utility and the 
 dignity of his calling. He is convinced that teaching 
 is a grand and noble profession. St. Gregory Nazian- 
 zen says: "There is nothing more God-like than to 
 benefit others;" 1 and what benefit can be greater 
 than that of education, as we have described it in 
 previous chapters: the making of man, the harmonious 
 development of all his faculties, the fitting him for 
 best performing the duties of this life and the prepar- 
 ing him for the life to come? Is not this thought a 
 reward as well as a powerful incentive for the teacher 
 to exert himself most strenuously in his sublime voca- 
 tion? 
 
 The Jesuits Sacchini and Jouvancy have written 
 some beautiful passages on this subject. Their com- 
 parisons may seem to some far-fetched or even fan- 
 tastic, but they will appear natural and appropriate to 
 every person who views things in the light of the 
 teaching of the Great Master. These two Jesuits say 
 that the school may be considered as a garden, a 
 nursery, 2 in which the choicest trees and flowers are 
 
 1 Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. XXXV, 892. 
 
 2 Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 5, no. 1 2. 
 
638 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 cultivated, plants whose saplings are not brought from 
 the tropics, but from heaven, whither they are again 
 to be transplanted, when fully grown. They are, 
 under the tender and prudent care of the teacher, to 
 yield abundant fruit of virtues, of human and divine 
 wisdom. They are to become the ornaments of 
 Church, State and society. They are the plants of 
 which the Son of Sirach said: " Hear me, ye divine 
 offspring and bud forth as the rose planted by the 
 brooks of waters, give ye a sweet odor as frankincense. 
 Send forth flowers, as the lily, and bring forth leaves 
 in grace." 1 In this garden the teacher, like him 
 1 'who sowed the good seed," has to sow and to plant 
 by instruction, to dig and to water by practice and 
 exercise, to weed and to prune by salutary admoni- 
 tion, to fence and restrain by wi.se regulations. Be- 
 sides, the virtuous example of the teacher combined 
 with cheerfulness in performing all his duties, will be 
 the atmosphere in which the plants grow wonderfully. 
 However, the husbandman can plant and water, but 
 not prevent storms and hail and frost and drought, 
 and, therefore, implores heaven's protection for his 
 fields; so the teacher must see the necessity of divine 
 blessing for his class, a grace which will be given to 
 humble and fervent prayer. 
 
 The teacher may consider himself the shepherd of 
 the tender lambs of the flock of Christ. 2 The chil- 
 dren, in a special sense, may be called the lambs of 
 Christ's flock. The teacher's duty is to feed them, to 
 lead them to the wholesome pasture and to the clear 
 springs of divine and human knowledge. He must 
 
 1 Ecclesiasticus 39, 17 sq. 
 
 2 Sacchini, Paraenesis, art. 5, no. 3. 
 
THE TEACHER'S MOTIVES AND IDEALS. 639 
 
 protect them against the wolves, especially those that 
 "are clothed in sheepskins," that come in the garb of 
 agnostic and infidel science, or in the glittering dress 
 of pernicious reading. He must protect his flock 
 without sparing himself, not fly from dangers and 
 exertions like the hireling, but must be ready to "give 
 his life for his sheep," that means, he must sacrifice 
 himself, devote all his time and strength to his class. 
 He should ' 'go before his sheep' ' by his good example, 
 attract them by kindness and meekness, that they 
 may "know his voice and follow him, and fly not 
 from him as from a stranger whose voice they know 
 not." 1 
 
 Again, is not the teacher to be compared to a 
 sculptor, or a painter? 2 We admire the masterpieces 
 of Phidias, Praxiteles, Lysippus, of Michael Angelo 
 and Raphael. And yet, the teacher's art is far 
 nobler. Those artists produced likenesses of marble 
 or bronze, likenesses that are cold and lifeless, 
 whereas the teacher is working at living statues. 
 Those artists could produce only exterior likenesses of 
 men or of superior beings ; the teacher shapes the 
 innermost nature of man. Nay, more, the Christian 
 teacher endeavors to bring out more beautifully the 
 image of God. Christ, the true teacher of mankind 
 is his ideal and model. In prayer and meditation on 
 the life of Christ, he studies line after line of him 
 to whom he applies the words of the royal prophet: 
 "Thou art beautiful above the sons of men, grace is 
 poured abroad in thy lips. With thy comeliness and 
 beauty set out, proceed prosperously and reign." 3 
 
 > John 10, 4. 5. 11. 
 
 2 Sacchini, Protrepticon, Part I, art. 8. 
 
 3 Psalm 44, 3 sq. 
 
640 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Having grasped this beauty he tries to express in his 
 own character, and then to embody in the hearts of 
 his pupils that heavenly beauty of purity, humility, 
 meekness and charity which shines forth from every 
 word and action of the God-man. Thus he is making 
 real living pictures of Christ, which for all eternity 
 shall be ornaments in heaven, the trophies of the 
 labors and struggles of the zealous teacher. And 
 whereas the greatest artist can work only at one statue 
 or picture at the same time, the teacher is working on 
 as many as he has auditors. 
 
 The teacher is an architect; he does not build 
 merely a splendid city hall, nor a national capitol, nor 
 even a cathedral of stone or marble: he builds up 
 those living temples, of which St. Paul speaks: 
 4 'Know you not that you are the temple of God, and 
 that the Spirit of God dwelleth in you?" l 
 
 The teacher is the tutor of the sons of the Most 
 High. King Philip of Macedon chose Aristotle as 
 preceptor to his son Alexander, an office which the 
 great philosopher discharged for many years. The 
 letter which Philip wrote to invite Aristotle, is said to 
 have been couched in the following terms: "Be in- 
 formed that I have a son, and that I am thankful to the 
 gods not so much for his birth as that he was born in 
 the same age with you ; for if you will undertake the 
 charge of his education, I assure myself that he will 
 become worthy of his father and of the kingdom 
 which he will inherit." King Philip's hope was not 
 disappointed. His son, Alexander the Great, became 
 one of the greatest figures in human history, and his 
 success is partly due to his great teacher. At all times 
 
 1 1. Cor. 3, 16. 
 
THE TEACHER'S MOTIVES AND IDEALS. 641 
 
 it was a much coveted houor to be the tutor to the 
 sons of Emperors, Kings, Princes, and other high 
 personages. Is not every Christian teacher tutor to the 
 sons of the King of Kings? 1 St. John says: "Behold, 
 what manner of charity the Father has bestowed upon 
 us, that we should be called and should be the sons 
 of God. " 2 
 
 Lastly, the teacher should consider himself the 
 representative and successor of Christ in his love for his 
 children. No feature in the life of the Teacher of 
 mankind is more fascinating than his love for chil- 
 dren. The Gospels commemorate a scene of unspeak- 
 able tenderness and sweetness. "Then little children 
 were brought to him that he might touch them." 3 
 He does not bless them together, but lays his hands 
 on every child, and takes one after the other in his 
 arms. From this scene Christian teachers must learn 
 an important lesson: love and reverence for children. 
 Indeed, princes of heaven are appointed their guar- 
 dians, and the teacher should be like them in watchful 
 care for the young. This care is all the more neces- 
 sary as the teacher in higher schools has to do with the 
 young when the first and most attractive chapter of 
 their history is already over, at the time when the 
 storms of temptations rage most furiously in their 
 hearts. With Christ's love for children must fre- 
 quently be united the good Samaritan's compassion 
 and anxious solicitude for the wayfarer who fell 
 among the robbers. Frequently enough there is sad 
 need of the teacher's fatherly care, not only in the 
 
 1 Sacchini, Protrepticon, Part I, art. 12. 
 
 2 1 John 3,1. 
 
 * Mark 10, 13. 
 41 
 
642 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 case of the children of the poor but also of the rich. 
 Some wealthy parents pride themselves that they do 
 all in their power to procure for their children the best 
 possible education, from the best instructors in elocu- 
 tion, music, gymnastics, etc., and yet that which 
 above all is education moral and religious training 
 is sadly neglected, owing to the indifference that 
 pervades the family life. In consequence of this 
 neglect of the most important part of education, it has 
 happened that many a man ended his life in disgrace 
 and wretchedness whose childhood was spent among 
 the luxuries of a splendid home. Fortunate is the 
 youth who is placed under the tutelage of teachers 
 who endeavor to counteract the baneful influences of 
 a neglected or ill-directed home training. These con- 
 siderations explain the anxious care and strenuous 
 exertions of religious teachers to promote the moral 
 training of their charges. They realize that now is 
 the spring-time of life when the good seed must be 
 sown, if a rich harvest is to be hoped for in the 
 autumn. They know that now their work is most 
 useful, most promising of success. Now the pupil's 
 nature is docile and pliable as wax. And if it were hard 
 as marble, still the material is not yet spoiled and 
 may be shaped into a beautiful statue, and it should 
 not be forgotten, of the hardest marble the most 
 endurable statues are made, though with greater care 
 and labor. Similarly the most stubborn and head- 
 strong of boys, under patient and prudent guidance, 
 often develop into the finest character of manhood. 
 
 To the Jesuit these considerations furnish power- 
 ful incentives, the motives which inspire him in all 
 his work. St. Ignatius, in calling his Order the 
 
THE TEACHER'S MOTIVES AND IDEALS. 643 
 
 Society of Jesus, wished to impress it forcibly on the 
 minds of his sons that they were to endeavor to 
 imitate him whose name they bear, especially in his 
 zeal for the glory of his Father and the welfare of 
 men. Indeed, other educators may take as their 
 guides and ideals Spencer, or Rousseau, or Kant, or 
 Pestalozzi, or Herbart the Jesuits' guide and ideal 
 is Christ. 1 Him they are told to imitate in his devo- 
 tion to his life-work, in his all-embracing zeal, in his 
 patience and meekness. In education they behold a 
 participation in the work of the Great Master, that 
 work whose end and object it is to make men truly 
 wise, good, and God-like, and thereby to lead them to 
 true happiness. Can there be a nobler, a loftier work, 
 a holier mission on earth ? 
 
 When the teacher thus reflects on the dignity of 
 his work, and on its necessity and utility for the in- 
 dividual, the family, the State and the Church, can 
 he ever become tired and disgusted with it? Are all 
 these considerations not most encouraging, and do 
 they not constitute one of the rewards of the teacher ? 
 He may truly say with the sacred writer: " Wisdom I 
 have learned without guile and communicate without 
 envy and her riches I hide not," 2 and again: "I 
 have not labored for myself alone, but for all who seek 
 discipline. ' ' 3 Such thoughts may well inspire a man 
 with love and enthusiasm for this profession. To the 
 Jesuit the educational work is a labor of love. We 
 read that in the seventeenth century, in the period 
 
 1 On the "Pedagogy of Our Lord" there is a beautiful 
 article by Father Meschler, S. J., in the Stimmen aus Maria- 
 Laach, vol. 38, 1890, p. 265 foil. 
 
 2 The Book of Wisdom 7, 13. 
 
 3 Ecclesiasticus 33, 18. 
 
644 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 of witch panic, some Protestant writers charged the 
 Jesuits with using secret charms in order to attach 
 the pupils to themselves and to advance them in 
 learning. 1 Indeed, the Jesuits as educators have a 
 spell, and make no secret of it, but they will be glad 
 if others wish to borrow it. This spell is nothing but 
 ardent devotion to their work, a devotion which 
 springs from the conviction of the importance and 
 usefulness of their work. This devotion is their 
 strongest motive to action and it urges them to use all 
 the resources within their reach. 
 
 Although- the teacher does not seek himself in his 
 work, nevertheless he labors also for himself. What 
 better compensation can there be than the thought of 
 performing so important a work, the conviction that 
 through his instrumentality noble characters are 
 formed, that some youths are preserved in their in- 
 nocence and others led back from evil paths on which 
 they had trodden in their ignorance and levity? The 
 teacher may not receive much recognition and grati- 
 tude for his efforts youths do not reflect on the debts 
 they owe to a zealous teacher , nor is it this that he 
 is looking for in his labors. However, some pupils 
 will show their thankfulness by a lifelong affection for 
 their former master. If one wishes to know with 
 what reverence, devotion, and frequently with what 
 attachment Jesuit pupils regard their teachers, let him 
 read the biographies of Jesuit educators. The letters 
 written by former pupils sufficiently testify to the 
 impressions made by their religious teachers. 
 
 If one wishes to see beautiful specimens of the 
 relation of Jesuit pupils to their teachers, he may read 
 
 1 See above pp. 147148. 
 
THE TEACHER'S MOTIVES AND IDEALS. 645 
 
 the biography of Father Alexis Clerc, who left the 
 French Navy to become a Jesuit and professor of 
 mathematics and was shot by the Communards in 
 Paris 1871. l 
 
 But it is rather the success of his pupils over 
 which the teacher rejoices, than their tribute of grati- 
 tude. An incident is related of the life of Father 
 Bonifacio, a distinguished Jesuit teacher of the Old 
 Society, who for more than forty years taught the 
 classics. One day he was visited by his brother, a 
 professor in a university, whom he had not seen for 
 many years. When the professor heard that the 
 Father had spent all the years of his life in the Society 
 in teaching L,atin and Greek to young boys, he ex- 
 claimed: "You have wasted your great talents in such 
 inferior work ! I expected to find you at least a pro- 
 fessor of philosophy or theology. What have you 
 done that this post is assigned to you?" Father Boni- 
 facio quietly opened a little book, and showed him 
 the list of hundreds of pupils whom he had taught, 
 many of whom occupied high positions in Church or 
 State, or in the world of business. Pointing at their 
 names, the Father said with a pleasant smile : "The 
 success which my pupils have achieved is to me a far 
 vSweeter reward than any honor which I might have 
 
 1 Alexis Clerc, Sailor and Martyr, New York, Sadlier, 
 1879. See especially chap. XII: "Father Clerc and his 
 pupils." It may be interesting to add that the American 
 edition of this biography is dedicated to the memory of 
 Father Andrew Monroe, S. J. (grand-nephew of President 
 Monroe), officer in the American Navy and a convert to the 
 Catholic faith, who, after spending his religious life, like his 
 friend Father Clerc, chiefly in the humble duties of a profes- 
 sor, died at St. Francis Xavier College, New York, 1871. 
 
646 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 obtained in the most celebrated university of the king- 
 dom." 
 
 Not all teachers may have the consolation of seeing 
 their pupils in high positions. It happens that the 
 best efforts of a devoted teacher seem to be lost on 
 many pupils. Even this will not discourage the 
 religious teacher. He will remember that his model, 
 Jesus Christ, did not reap the fruit which might have 
 been expected from the teaching of such a Master. 
 Not all that he sowed brought forth fruit, a hundred- 
 fold, not even thirtyfold. Some fell upon stony 
 ground, and some other fell among the thorns, and 
 yet he went on patiently sowing. So a teacher ought 
 not to be disheartened if the success should not corre- 
 spond with his labors. He knows that one reward is 
 certainly in store for him, the measure of which will 
 not be his success, but his zeal ; not the fruit, but his 
 efforts. The Great Master has promised that "who- 
 soever shall give to drink to one of these little ones a 
 cup of cold water, he shall not lose his reward. ' ' l 
 What, then, may he expect, who has given the little 
 ones of Christ not a cup of cold water, but with great 
 patience and labor has opened to them the streams of 
 knowledge, human and divine? Indeed, "they that 
 instruct many to justice shall shine as stars for all 
 eternity." 2 
 
 1 Matth. 10, 42. 
 
 2 Daniel 12, 3. 
 
Conclusion. 
 
 We have examined the educational system of the 
 Jesuits in its various aspects, its history and its prin- 
 ciples, its theory and practice, its aims and means. 
 There are few of its principles which have not been 
 censured by some of its opponents. But we have also 
 seen that there is hardly one principle in it which has 
 not been heartily recommended by most distinguished 
 educators, Protestants as well as Catholics. We have 
 seen that on many lines there is, at present, a decided 
 return to what the Jesuits defended and practised all 
 along. 1 Can it then be said in justice that the Jesuit 
 system is antiquated and that little can be hoped for 
 it, and from its principles, in the improvement of edu- 
 cation at present ? Or can it be said with a modern 
 writer that "the regulations of the Jesuit system of 
 studies, viewed in the light of modern requirements, 
 need not shun any comparison, and the pedagogical 
 wisdom contained therein, is in no way antiquated"? 2 
 Another writer declared a few years ago, with reference 
 to modern school systems: "Those now living may 
 desire that in the new much of the old may be pre- 
 served which has proved of benefit. ' ' 3 May it not be 
 said that much, very much, of the Jesuit system 
 should be preserved, and that many of its principles 
 and regulations could, with best advantage, be fol- 
 lowed in the education of the present day? We leave 
 
 1 See especially chapter XVI. 
 
 2 See above p. 288. 
 
 3 Dr. Nohle of Berlin, in the Report of the Commissioner 
 of Education, 18971898, vol. I, p. 82. 
 
 (647) 
 
648 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 it to the impartial reader to pass judgment. It is true 
 that in our times Jesuit education is not viewed with 
 favor by the many. To some it is too religious, too 
 "clerical;" to others it appears old-fashioned. For 
 this reason it is not popular; popular favor is never 
 bestowed on what seems old. It is the novelty that 
 attracts, and the bolder the innovations, the more 
 captivating for the large majority of the people. This 
 is as true now as it was 2600 years ago when old 
 Homer sang: 
 
 "For novel lays attract our ravished ears ; 
 But old, the mind with inattention hears." 
 
 And yet the novel songs are not always the best. 
 As to the Jesuits, they know full well that there are 
 not many who will take the trouble to investigate 
 thoroughly their educational system, in order to pass 
 a fair and independent judgment on its merit, but that 
 there are many who will content themselves with 
 repeating the verdict passed on this system by others 
 who were either ignorant of its true character, or were 
 misled in their estimates by prejudice. Hence the 
 Jesuits do not expect that the misrepresentations of 
 their system will ever cease; their experience of three 
 hundred years has taught them not to entertain such 
 sanguine hopes. On the other hand, this same ex- 
 perience has taught them another valuable lesson, 
 namely, not to be disheartened by the antipathy and 
 opposition of those who do not know them, but to 
 continue their efforts to realize, to the best of their 
 ability, in the education of Catholic youth that which 
 they have chosen as their motto: The greater glory of 
 God, and the welfare of their fellow-men. 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 Additions and Corrections. 
 
 CHAPTKR I. 
 Observations on American Histories of Education. 1 
 
 In the course of the present book we have frequently 
 had occasion to point out that the histories of educa- 
 tion by Painter, Seeley and Compayre are utterly un- 
 trustworthy in their account of the Jesuit system, and 
 of Catholic education in general. It is natural to infer 
 that in other respects they may be equally unreliable. 
 Professor Cubberley, in his recent Syllabus of Lectures 
 on the History of Education (New York, Macmillan, 
 1902), says, on page i, that the works of "Painter, 
 Payne, and Seeley are very unsatisfactory, and are not 
 referred to in the Syllabus. " The same should have 
 been done as regards Compayre; for his History of 
 Pedagogy is as unsatisfactory as those mentioned 
 before; it only assumes an air of impartiality, which 
 makes it all the more insidious. (See the present 
 book, pp. 10- 1 1.) Some writers quote from the 
 Ratio Studiorum, but the quotations are often mis- 
 translated in such a manner that they are hardly re- 
 cognizable when compared with the original. Setting 
 aside the disastrous influence which antipathy and 
 prejudice may have had on some writers, the following 
 reasons may account for many errors. The Ratio 
 Studiorum is in many respects a peculiar document, 
 
 1 See also the interesting article : "The History of Edu- 
 cution. A Plea for the Study of Original Sources," by the 
 Rev. W. Turner, D. D., in the new and promising Review of 
 Catholic Pedagogy, January, 1903. 
 
 (649) 
 
650 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 which is unintelligible unless one is acquainted with 
 the L,atin terminology of scholastic philosophy and 
 theology, and there are exceedingly few non-Catholic 
 writers on education who possess this knowledge. 
 Further, numerous regulations of the Ratio are clear 
 only when explained by other documents of the Society, 
 which have either not been known, or not been exam- 
 ined by these writers. Another difficulty is to be 
 found in the fact that the Ratio contains also the reg- 
 ulations for the studies of the members of the Society. 
 Some writers have confounded rules for the novices 
 and scholastics of the Order with regulations for the 
 lay pupils in the colleges. Thus what is said in the 
 Constitutions of the Society about the obedience to be 
 rendered to Superiors by the Jesuits themselves, Mr. 
 Painter has applied to the lay students. (Hist, of Ed., 
 p. 170.) Evidently an entirely false impression must 
 be produced by such confusion. 
 
 However, in most cases it is almost certain that 
 these writers have not taken the trouble to examine 
 the Ratio Studiorum, but have contented them- 
 selves with copying the assertions of untrustworthy 
 secondary authorities. Raumer's History of Education 
 seems still to be considered by some a reliable source. 
 Even Professor Cubberley styles it "still quite valu- 
 able" (L c.). And yet this work is altogether anti- 
 quated. Besides, in regard to Catholic education it is 
 so biased that fair-minded Protestants have rejected 
 many parts of it. Thus Henry Barnard, in his trans- 
 lation of the chapter on the Jesuit schools, says : "We 
 omit in this place as well as towards the close of the 
 article, .several passages of Raumer's chapter on the 
 Jesuits, in which he discusses, from the extreme Prot- 
 
APPENDIX I. 651 
 
 estant stand-point, the influence of the confessional, 
 and the principles of what he calls 'Jesuitical' morality. 
 These topics, and especially when handled in a parti- 
 san spirit, are more appropriate to a theological and 
 controversial, than to an educational journal. The 
 past as well as the present organization of the schools 
 of the Jesuits, the course of instruction, the methods 
 of teaching and discipline, are worthy of profound 
 study by teachers and educators, who would profit by 
 the experience of wise and learned men. ' ' (American 
 Journal of Education, vol. V, p. 215.) However, even 
 in the statements which Barnard accepted from 
 Raumer, there are not a few that are incorrect. Owing 
 to protests of Raumer, Barnard, in the VI. volume of 
 his journal, added the passages which he had omitted 
 in the previous translation. The misrepresentations 
 which Raumer had borrowed from Pascal and others, 
 need not be dwelt on here. 
 
 Nor is the estimate of the Jesuit system correct 
 which is found in the History of Modern Education, 
 by Samuel H. Williams, Professor of the Science and 
 Art of Teaching, in Cornell University. The author 
 evidently endeavored at times to be impartial, but he 
 was not fortunate in the choice of his sources. They 
 were evidently not the original documents. Otherwise 
 he would not have been betrayed into such absurd 
 statements as this: ''The teachers were mostly novices 
 of the Order, with a much smaller number of the fully 
 professed brothers." Now, as the chapter on the 
 "Training of the Jesuit Teacher" proves, novices are 
 not employed in teaching, and the Jesuit is not en- 
 gaged in teaching until after a training of five or six 
 years succeeding the completion of the novitiate. The 
 
652 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 expression * 'fully professed brothers," also, shows that 
 this author knows very little about Jesuit teachers. 
 
 Mr. Shoup, in his History and Science of Education , 
 admits many good features in the Jesuit system ; he 
 expressly states that it has many points in common 
 with American methods, but then his authorities lead 
 him away into the old tirades of "neglecting mathe- 
 matics, sciences, practical knowledge; suppressing of 
 independent thought," etc. 
 
 We gladly acknowledge that the latest American 
 book on the subject, Mr. Kemp's History of Education 
 (lyippincott, 1902), is, in point of impartiality, superior 
 to most other works. On the whole, it is free from 
 offensive attacks on the relation of the Church to 
 education. However, we must say that it is not free 
 from assertions which cannot stand in the light of 
 modern historical research. Particularly in chapter 
 XV, many statements need considerable correction, 
 v. g., the assertion that before the Reformation "the 
 large majority of the people felt no need of edu- 
 cation and took little interest in it. ' ' With this should 
 be compared the authors from whom we quoted on 
 p. 23 sqq. On p. 172, Mr. Kemp repeats Green's 
 assertions about the Grammar schools founded by 
 Henry VIII. But Mr. Arthur P. L,each has proved, 
 from incontestable documents, that this is a pure myth, 
 and that the statements of Green and Mullinger are a 
 distortion of the historical facts. In his English 
 Schools at the Reformation (Westminster, Archibald 
 Constable, 1896), Mr. L,each says: "The records ap- 
 pended to this book show that close on 200 Grammar 
 [secondary] schools existed in England before the 
 reign of Edward VI., which were, for the most part, 
 
APPENDIX I. 653 
 
 abolished or crippled under him. ... It will appear, 
 however, that these records are defective .... three 
 hundred Grammar schools is a moderate estimate of 
 the number in the year 1535, when the floods of the 
 great revolution were let loose. Most of them were 
 swept away either under Henry or his son; or if not 
 swept away, they were plundered and damaged" 
 (pp. 5 6). Of the character of these schools the 
 author says that they were not mere "monkish" 
 schools, but secondary schools of exactly the same 
 type as the secondary schools of the present day. 
 Considering the population of Kngland at the time, 
 there were previous to the Reformation more higher 
 schools in England than at present; in Herefordshire, 
 v. g. , 17 higher schools for a population of 30,000! 
 Nearly every town had a higher school. (/&, 99 
 loo.) Mr. L,each confesses that his researches re- 
 volutionize the traditional view of pre- Reformation 
 schools in England, and that on this account his book 
 was looked upon unfavorably by some people. We 
 call attention to these facts, because they show how 
 the current tradition has influenced men who earnestly 
 endeavor to be impartial. Had all American writers 
 been animated by the spirit of fair-mindedness and 
 zeal for correct information which distinguished that 
 excellent American educator, and first U. S. Commis- 
 sioner of Education, Henry Barnard, the cause of truth 
 and justice would have been better served in this 
 country. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Brethren of the Common Life. 
 
 What is said on pp. 31 34 about the Brethren, 
 must partly be corrected. Recent investigations have 
 
654 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 proved that they were not, as Raumer had represented 
 them, an order of teachers like the Jesuits. They 
 taught, indeed, in a few schools, as in that of Liege; 
 but in most schools with which they were connected, 
 they received boarders and looked chiefly after their 
 moral and religious training, while the secular instruc- 
 tion was in the hands of other teachers, who, how- 
 ever, were mostly imbued with the spirit of the 
 Brethren. See Paulsen, Geschichte des g. [/., 2nd ed. , 
 vol. I, pp. 158-160, where this author modifies, in the 
 same way, the statements expressed in the first edition 
 of his work. Further see the recent valuable work 
 on Jakob Wimpfeling, by Dr. Knepper (Herder, 1902), 
 page 7. 
 
 CHAPTERS V AND VII. 
 
 Jesuit Scholars. 
 
 CHAPTER V, p. 156. The importance of Father 
 Saccheri's work is being recognized more and more. 
 Professor Ricci of Padua contributed a highly interest- 
 ing article to the Jahresbericht der mathematischen Ver- 
 bindung (Vol. XI, October December 1902), on the 
 "Origin and Development of the Modern Conception of 
 the Foundations of Geometry. " There it is said that 
 "Saccheri's works prove him a man of indisputable 
 merit, and one of the first geometricians of his cen- 
 tury. . . . The Euclides vindicatus alone is a work 
 which could claim the labors of a whole life. In this 
 work he erects an edifice of classical beauty which 
 testifies to the extraordinary ability and geometrical 
 taste of the architect. ' ' It is a perplexing problem to 
 modern mathematicians how Saccheri could endeavor 
 to refute his own arguments, with which he had so 
 ably attacked the Euclidian system. Of this attempt 
 
APPENDIX I. 655 
 
 Professor Ricci says: "To-day it is hard to understand 
 that a man of so sublime an intellect did not see the 
 truth which he almost could grasp with his hands, 
 and that he stubbornly tried to destroy with sophisms 
 what he had built up with so much correct geometrical 
 skill. Able and sagacious as he is in constructing his 
 system, he is awkward and unskilful in tearing it 
 down. " If for once I may be allowed to venture a 
 conjecture, I would ask: Is it not possible that Sac- 
 cheri did grasp the truth, but did not think fit to 
 publish it boldly ? He may have feared lest his con- 
 temporaries would raise a cry of indignation against 
 such a mathematical heresy. Besides, as at that time 
 such hypotheses would have been looked upon as 
 mere freaks, there may have been apprehensions that 
 the publication of such a work would injure the repu- 
 tation of the college in which Saccheri taught mathe- 
 matics. The attacks on the Jesuits on account of the 
 bold theories of Hardouin (seep. 160), and similar in- 
 stances in which the whole Society was reprehended 
 for the attitude of individuals, would have been a 
 sufficient cause for the wariness of the author. If this 
 explanation were the correct one, it would certainly 
 account for the weakness of the arguments which he 
 used to pull down his splendid structure. These ar- 
 guments, accordingly, would have been merely a thin 
 veil to hide the purport of his work. I communicated 
 this conjecture to Father Hagen of Georgetown, and 
 was surprised to learn that this distinguished mathe- 
 matician had given the same explanation of the curious 
 phenomenon to Professor Halsted of the University of 
 Texas, the translator of Father Saccheri's works. 
 However, this is only a conjecture, though not void of 
 
656 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 probability. But even if the author did not see the 
 full truth of his deductions at the time, this has hap- 
 pened to many great discoverers. Professor Whewell 
 says of Kepler, with reference to a similar instance, 
 that it seems strange that he did not fully succeed; 
 "but this lot of missing what afterwards seems to have 
 been obvious, is a common one in the pursuit of 
 truth." (History of the Inductive Sciences, vol. II, 
 p. 56. Appleton's ed. , 1859.) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. Among the Jesuit scholars of the 
 last decades mention should have been made of the 
 sinologist Father Angelo Zottoli, who died in the Col- 
 lege of Zi-ka-wei, near Shanghai, November 9, 1902. 
 In 1876, Baron von Richthofen, in his work on China, 
 expressed his regret that the Jesuit missionaries of 
 recent times had not succeeded in regaining the scien- 
 tific prestige of the Old Society. But a few years after, 
 in 1879, the first volumes of a work appeared which in- 
 augurated a new period in the scientific activity of the 
 Jesuits in China. This was Father Zottoli 's Cursus 
 Literaturae Sinicae. When the work had been com- 
 pleted in five volumes, it put the humble religious in 
 the front rank of sinologists. It has been styled "a 
 landmark in the history of Chinese philology," and 
 received the great prize of the Academic des Inscriptions 
 et des belles Lettres. Mr. Legge, formerly a Protestant 
 missionary in China, and one of the foremost sinolo- 
 gists of our age, declares that in Father Zottoli 's 
 Cursus "the scholarship of the earlier Jesuit mission- 
 aries has revived." (In vol. XXVII of the Sacred 
 Books of the East, Preface, p. XIII.) In Father Zot- 
 toli 's school some able Jesuit sinologists were trained, 
 who now publish their researches in a special review, 
 
' APPENDIX I. 657 
 
 the VarUtes Sinologiques, whose scholarly character 
 has been frequently attested to by the foremost 
 orientalists. Father Zottoli was engaged for thirty 
 years in writing a gigantic Chinese dictionary. The 
 ablest of his pupils are now completing this work. 
 (See Kolnische Volkszeitung , Wochenausgabe, Jan- 
 uary i, 1903.) 
 
 Some readers may be surprised at the list of Jesuit 
 writers we have enumerated only a small fraction 
 of the number of scholars that well deserve to be known 
 better than is the case , and ask why so little is said 
 about them in works that treat of the history of the 
 various sciences. It is not because their works are not 
 of great importance for science. The explanation may 
 be found in a remarkable utterance of the celebrated 
 Kepler, the prince of astronomers: "Alas for 
 prejudice and hatred ! If a Jesuit writes anything, it 
 is completely ignored by the adherents of Scaliger. ' ' 
 Allusion is made to the famous controversy on chrono- 
 logy between the Protestant Scaliger and the Jesuit 
 Petavius (see page 160). The same may be said of 
 many another scientific discussion. Kepler himself, 
 though a Protestant, was not afraid of being a friend 
 of Jesuit scholars, nor of asking their opinion on many 
 of the important questions which he was investigating. 
 (See Johann Kepler, der Gesetzgeber der neueren Astro- 
 nomie, by Adolph Miiller, S. J. , Professor of astronomy 
 in the Gregorian University in Rome [Herder, 1903] ; 
 see especially chapters 12 and 17, and page 166. ) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Recent Educational Troubles in France. 
 On page 265 it is said that the non-Catholic view 
 
 of the Jesuits is not based on historical facts, but 
 42 
 
658 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 largely on works of fiction. A case in point is Zola's 
 posthumous novel, the English edition of which was 
 issued in this country in February, 1903. The subject 
 of this work was announced as " illustrating the keenly 
 antagonistic influences of the Jesuitical and secular 
 parties in France, as instanced in the recent educa- 
 tional troubles. ' ' Though the book is styled ' 'Truth, ' ' 
 it is in reality a tissue of falsehoods and enormous 
 charges, not only against the religious orders, but the 
 Catholic Church as such. The Baltimore Sun, Feb- 
 ruary 19, 1903, says in a very judicious criticism, that 
 the author * 'asserts and asserts, but, behold! of proof 
 there is little or nothing. This, however, will make 
 no difference to those readers to whom this diatribe 
 appeals [among them the same paper reckons those 
 who hate the Catholic Church, and who welcome 
 any attack that may be made upon it]. In the present 
 instance Zola has, seemingly, cared little about the 
 truth of his statements. ' ' The book furnishes a strong 
 proof of what we said on page 268, namely, that the 
 present persecution of the teaching Congregations in 
 France is in reality a brutal attack on Christianity and 
 all religion. Zola says little about Jesuit education, 
 but what is meant by secular education, is set forth in 
 clearest light : All religious beliefs and observances 
 are derided, every sign of religion is to be banished 
 from the school, women are to be emancipated from 
 the influence of the Church, experimental science is 
 to take the place of religion in school and private life. 
 It is the old Voltairian Ecrasez I'infdmel This is the 
 antagonist of ''Jesuitical" education! (On this sub- 
 ject see the article of M. Brunetiere, in the Revue des 
 Deux Mondes, December 15, 1902: "The Laws of Pro- 
 
APPENDIX I. 659 
 
 scription in France," translated in the Catholic Mind, 
 New York, 1903, no. 2). 
 
 For the Catholic view of the educational movement 
 in France during the last decade we refer to the Etudes, 
 which contain many excellent articles not only on the 
 religious side of the question, but also on modern 
 school reforms, the classics, etc. See especially vol- 
 umes 54 (page 100 sqq.), 57 (page 345 sqq.) 9 69 (page 
 224 sqq.), 70 (page 496 *qq.), 78 (page 21 sqq.) y 79 
 (page 41 sqq.), 84 (page 654 sqq.), 86 (page 29 sqq. 
 and 501 sqq.). In the volume mentioned in the last 
 place, the article : L' Enseignement classique en Alle- 
 magne, son role pedagogique, contains interesting com- 
 parisons between the French and German secondary 
 schools. 
 
 CHAPTERS X XII. 
 "Impressions of American Education." 
 
 Under the above title, the Educational Review 
 (March, 1903) published an address delivered by 
 Mr. Sadler, at the Annual Congress of the Educational 
 Institute, Glasgow, Scotland, December 30, 1902. 
 Mr. Sadler admires many features in American educa- 
 tion: the hearty belief of Americans in the value of 
 education, the sacrifices they make for it, etc. But he 
 discovers also the following defects and weaknesses: 
 
 1) In some cases municipal corruption has baleful 
 results in the sphere of educational administration. 
 
 2) There is a grave doubt whether the stricter forms 
 of intellectual discipline have not been unduly sacri- 
 ficed in many American schools. The besetting sin 
 of some modern methods of education is that they 
 stimulate interest without laying corresponding stress 
 
660 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 on intellectual discipline. As it were, they feed the 
 children on sweeties and plumcake, in a strenuous 
 revolt against an austere tradition of too much oat- 
 meal porridge. Nor does home discipline restore the 
 balance. The younger Americans find it difficult to 
 focus their attention on uncongenial tasks. An in- 
 sidious evil is the tendency on the part of teachers to 
 make lessons interesting by avoiding the harder, dul- 
 ler, and more disciplinary parts of the subjects. An- 
 other evil is the excessive encouraging, among young 
 children, of what is called * 'self-realization", even 
 occasionally to the point of impertinence. 3) Lack of 
 severe discipline leads to a third weakness, super- 
 ficiality, with its attendant evils, exaggeration in 
 language and love of excitement. The Americans do 
 not as yet sufficiently allow for the slow percolation of 
 ideas into the mind. They make too many short cuts. 
 They are too fond of the last new thing. They forget 
 that a pupil gains true independence of taste and 
 judgment by slowly and thoroughly working his way, 
 under guidance and with encouragement, through 
 masterpieces as a whole, and through masses of the 
 same kind of work, often against the grain. All true 
 culture has in it an element of stubbornness and per- 
 sistence, which must be acquired through the lessons 
 of life, and the lessons of the school, which ought to 
 prepare for life. 4) A fourth danger proceeds from 
 the tendency of American men to become unduly con- 
 centrated in business pursuits. Many Americans 
 sterilize part of their nature by too great absorption in 
 the excitement and struggles of commercial competi- 
 tion. This overzeal for business forms an atmosphere 
 which cannot but affect educational ideals. Intense 
 
APPKNDIX I. 66 1 
 
 absorption in commercial enterprise is not an aim 
 worthy to dominate the thoughts and lives of the ris- 
 ing generation of a great people. The noble answer 
 of the Short Catechism to the question: "What is the 
 chief end of man?", deserves not to be forgotten in 
 commercial pursuits. 
 
 It may be well to compare these statements with 
 what has been said in the chapters on the "Intellectual 
 Scope," "Prescribed Courses or Elective Studies," 
 and "Classical Studies". 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 i. Primary Sources. 
 
 The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. Numerous 
 editions in Latin. The English translation, 
 published by a Protestant in 1838 (London, 
 Rivington, etc.), is very unscholarly und un- 
 reliable. The fourth part of the Constitutions, 
 which treats of the studies, is given in Latin 
 and German in the work of Father Pachtler 
 quoted further on (vol. I, pp. 9 69). 
 
 Deer eta Congregationum Generalium. (Decrees of the 
 General Congregations of the Society.) The 
 General Congregation is the legislative assembly 
 of the Order; the decrees of different Congrega- 
 tions relating to studies are contained in Father 
 Pachtler 's work, vol. I, pp. 70 125. 
 
 Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu, usually 
 quoted as Ratio Studiorum. Latin text and 
 German translation in Pachtler 's vol. II, and 
 German translation in Father Duhr's Studien- 
 ordnung. 
 
 Pachtler, G. M. , S. J. Ratio Studiorum et Institutions 
 Scholasticae Societatis Jesu per Germaniam olim 
 vigentes. Berlin, Hofmann, 1887 1894. Vol- 
 umes II, V, IX, and XVI of the great collection 
 (662) 
 
APPENDIX II. 663 
 
 Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica, edited by 
 Dr. Karl Kehrbach. 
 
 This is the standard work on the educational sys- 
 tem of the Jesuits ; it contains all the most important 
 historical documents relating to Jesuit education, 
 particularly in Germany. The great value of the 
 work has been acknowledged by numerous historians 
 and writers on pedagogy. (We quote: Pachtler, I, 
 II, III, IV.) 
 
 Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu, Madrid, 1894 foil. 
 A huge collection of material relating to the early 
 history of the Society. Published since 1894 in 
 monthly instalments of 160 pages each ; up to Feb- 
 ruary 1903 there were out 110 instalments. The col- 
 lection is a most valuable source of information for 
 the history of religion and education in the sixteenth 
 century. Of particular importance for the history of 
 Jesuit education are instalments 93, 97, 99, 100, 101, 
 194, entitled : 
 
 Monumenta Paedagogica, Madrid, 1901 1902. 
 
 To be carefully distinguished from Father Pachtler's 
 volumes in the Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica. 
 
 The following works are important commentaries on 
 the Ratio Studiorum: 
 
 Sacchini, F., S. J., Paraenesis ad Magistros Scholarum 
 Inferiorum Societatis Jesu, and Protrepticon ad 
 Magistros Scholarum Inferiorum Societatis Jesu 
 (1625). German translation by J. Stier, S. J., 
 in Herder's Bibliothek der katholischen Pddagogikj 
 1898, vol. X, pp. 1185. 
 
 Jouvancy, J., S. J., Ratio Discendi et Docendi (1703). 
 Of this important educational work (see above 
 pp. 434 435) there exist eighteen editions in 
 the original I/atin, a French translation by J. 
 L,efortier, Paris 1803, and a recent German trans- 
 
664 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 lation: Lern- und Lehrmethode, by R. Schwicke- 
 rath, S. J., in Herder's Bibliothek, etc., 1898, 
 vol. X, pp. 207 322. 
 
 Kropf, F. X., S. J., Ratio et Via Recte atque Ordine 
 Procedendi in Literis Humanioribus Aetati Tenerae 
 Tradendis (1736). German translation: Gym- 
 nasial-Padagogik, by F. Zorell, S. J. , in Herder's 
 Bibliothek, vol. X, pp. 323 466. (We quote 
 Kropf, Ratio et Via.) 
 
 2. Works Treating Exclusively of Jesuit Education. 
 
 Hughes, T., S. J., Loyola and the Educational System 
 of the Jesuits. New York, Scribners, 1892. 
 Belongs to the Great Educators Series, edited 
 by Nicholas Murray Butler. 
 
 Duhr, B., S. J., Die Studienordnung der Gesellschaft 
 Jesu. Freiburg (Germany) and St. Louis, 
 Mo., 1896.- 
 
 Contains the translation of the Ratio Studiorum 
 (both of 1599 and of 1832), and a valuable commentary. 
 Father Duhr's work is volume IX of Herder's Biblio- 
 thek der katholischen Padagogik. 
 
 Maynard, Abbe, The Studies and Teaching of the 
 Society of Jesus at the Time of its Suppression. 
 Translated from the French. Baltimore, John 
 Murphy, 1855. 
 
 De Rochemonteix, C., S. J., Un College de Jesuites aux 
 XVII. et XVIII. siecles. Le College Henri IV. 
 de la Fleche. 4 volumes. Le Mans, Legui- 
 cheux, 1889. 
 
 This work gives the history of one of the most 
 flourishing colleges of the Society in France; from 
 detailed descriptions based on documentary evidence, 
 one can learn how the Ratio Studiorum was carried 
 into practice. 
 
APPENDIX II. 665 
 
 Chossat, M., S. J., Les Jesuites et leurs oeuvres a Avig- 
 non, 1553 1768. Avignon, Seguin, 1896. 
 
 This work, like the preceding, furnishes interesting 
 details about the working of the Jesuit system. 
 
 De Badts de Cugnac, A., Les Jesuites et V education. 
 Iville, Desclee, 1879. 
 
 3. Works Having Particular Reference to Jesuit 
 Education. 
 
 Paulsen, F. , Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den 
 deutschen Schulen und Universitaten vom Aus- 
 gang des Mittelalters bis zur Gegenwart. L,eipsic, 
 Veit and Co., 1885; second edition in two 
 volumes, 1896 1897. 
 
 Dr. Paulsen is one of the leading Professors of the 
 University of Berlin. Of the present work the Report 
 of the Commissioner of Education (1896 1897, I, p. 
 199) says: "It is a most thorough historical review 
 of higher education known in the educational litera- 
 ture of any country." The chapter on the colleges of 
 the Society and the educational labors of the Jesuits 
 (vol. 1, pp. 379 432) is far more thorough, more in- 
 dependent, and more impartial, than most books 
 written on the Jesuits by non-Catholics. 
 
 Schmid, K. A. , Geschichte der Erziehung vom Anfang 
 bis auf unsere Zeit. 5 volumes in 10 parts, by 
 a number of scholars and educators. Stuttgart, 
 Cotta, 1884 1901 (Part 3 of volume V, which 
 will complete this great history of education, is 
 not yet out). 
 
 On Jesuit education see volume III, Abteilung 1, 
 pp. 1 109 (by Prof. Dr. Miiller of Dresden); pp. 159 
 175 ("Jesuit Colleges in France," by Dr. E. von Sall- 
 wiirk, Karlsruhe). Volume IV, Abteilung 1, pp. 
 455467 ; 538543. Volume V, Abteilung 2, pp. 
 176 221 ("Jesuit Education since 1600; Suppression 
 
666 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 and Restoration of the Society; the Revised Ratio- 
 Studiorum," by Dr. von Sallwurk). The articles 
 on the Jesuit schools are not free from some serious 
 misinterpretations of the Ratio Studiorum. Especi- 
 ally Dr. Miiller has misunderstood and rendered 
 falsely several passages. In other cases, he applies 
 to the secular students of Jesuit Colleges rules which 
 are only for the younger members of the Society en- 
 gaged in studies (scholastics). 
 
 Ziegler, T. , Geschichte der Pddagogik. Munich, Beck, 
 1895. Is part i, of vol. I of the Handbuch der 
 Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fur hohere 
 Schulen, edited by Dr. A. Baumeister. 
 
 Dr. Ziegler, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy 
 in the University of Strasburg, is a prominent writer 
 on education in Germany. In point of impartiality 
 he is inferior to Professor Paulsen. 
 
 Willmann, O., Didaktik als Bildungslehre. 2 volumes, 
 Braunschweig, Vieweg, second edition, 1894. 
 
 The author, a pupil of Herbart, became a Catholic, 
 and is now Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in 
 the University of Prague, and one of the ablest edu- 
 cational writers in the German tongue. His Didaktik 
 is one of the most important pedagogical works 
 published within the last decades. 
 
 Quick, H., Educational Reformers. I/ondon, lyong- 
 mans, Green and Co., 1868. The revised edi- 
 tion forms part of the International Education 
 Series, New York, Appleton, 1890. 
 
 Jourdain, C., Histoire de (' Universite de Paris aux 17 e 
 et 18 e slides. 2 volumes. Paris, Didot, 1888. 
 A very valuable work ; gives an account of the 
 struggles of the Jesuits with the University. 
 
 Duhr, B., S. J., Jesuitenfabeln (Jesuit myths). Frei- 
 burg and St. I/ouis, Herder, 3. edition, 1899. 
 
 To this work readers must be referred who wish to 
 see the absurdity of most legends about the Jesuits, 
 
APPENDIX II. 667 
 
 The book has, in the words of a uon-Catholic review, 
 "done away with a heap of calumnies against the 
 Order.'* (Literarisches Centralblatt, Leipzig, 1899.) 
 
 Du Lac, S. J., Jesuites. Paris, Librairie Plon, 1901. 
 
 Huber, J., Der Jesuiten-Orden. Berlin, Habel, 1873. 
 
 Janssen, J., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem 
 Ausgang des Mittelalters. 8 volumes. Herder, 
 Freiburg and St. Louis. The edition used is 
 the 1 8th of the first three volumes ( 1 897 1 899) ; 
 i6th of vols. IV and VI; Hth of vol. V; 
 1 2th of vols. VII and VIII. The first three 
 volumes have been translated into English: 
 * History of the German People at the Close of the Middle 
 Ages, by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie. 
 6 volumes. London, Kegan Paul, 1896, 1900, 
 1903, and St. Louis, Mo., Herder. 
 
 It is superfluous to comment on this famous work. 
 No historical work of the 19th century caused such a 
 stir all over Kurope as the history of the Reforma- 
 tion period written by Janssen from the testimony of 
 the Reformers and their contemporaries. Unfortun- 
 ately the greater part of Dr. Jaussen's illustrative 
 notes, in which the chief value of the work consists, 
 are missing in the English version. Besides, it is not 
 free from mistranslations ; hence the German original 
 ought to be consulted. Jesuit education is chiefly 
 treated in volumes IV, V and VII. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous Works. 
 
 Butler, N. M. , Education in the United States. A 
 Series of Monograms prepared for the United 
 States Exhibit at the Paris Exposition, 1900. 
 Edited by Nicholas Murray Butler. Albany, 
 J. B. Lyon Company, 1900. 
 
 Newman, Cardinal, Idea of a University, and Historical 
 Sketches. London and New York, Longmans. 
 
668 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Russell, J. E. , German Higher Schools. New York, 
 Longmans, 1899. 
 
 Gives a good account of the German Gymnasium, 
 its history, organization and practical working. 
 
 The Life of James McCosh. A Record Chiefly Auto- 
 biographical. Edited by W. M. Sloane. New 
 York, Scribners, 1897. 
 
 The life of the President of Princeton College is 
 deserving of the careful study of all American 
 teachers. 
 
 P'itch, Sir Joshua, Thomas and Matthew Arnold and 
 their Influence on English Education. New York, 
 Scribners, 1897. (Great Educators Series.) 
 
 Alzog, J., Manual of Universal Church History. Trans- 
 lated from the German by Dr. Pabisch and 
 Professor Byrne. 3 volumes. Cincinnati, 
 Clarke, 1878. 
 
 Pastor, Iy. , The History of the Popes from the Close of 
 the Middle Ages. Edited by F. I. Antrobus. 
 6 volumes. London, John Hodges and Kegan 
 Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., 1891 foil., and 
 Herder, St. Louis, Mo. The original German 
 edition in 3 volumes, Herder, Freiburg and 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Guggenberger, A. , S. J., A General History of the 
 Christian Era. 3 volumes. St. Louis, Herder, 
 1900 1901. 
 
 Rashdall, H. , Universities of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages. 2 volumes in 3 parts. Oxford, 1895. 
 
 Drane, A. T. , Christian Schools and Scholars, or 
 Sketches of Education from the Christian Era to 
 the Council of Trent. 2 volumes. London, 
 Longmans, 1867. 
 
 Popularly written ; in many parts antiquated. 
 
APPENDIX II. 669 
 
 Taylor, H. O. , The Classical Heritage of the Middle 
 Ages. New York, Columbia University Press 
 (Macmillan), 1900. 
 
 Einstein, L,. , The Italian Renaissance in England. New 
 York, Columbia University Press, 1902. 
 
 Woodward, W. H., Vittorino da Feltre and other 
 Humanist Educators. Cambridge, University 
 Press, 1897. 
 
 Gasquet, F. A., O. S. B., The Eve of the Reformation. 
 London and New York, 1900. 
 
 Baumgartner, A., S. J., Geschichte der Weltliteratur. 
 Herder, 1897 1900. 
 
 Of this magnificent history of Universal Literature 
 four volumes are out so far. Volumes III and IV 
 were used chiefly. (On this great work see pp. 
 233234.) 
 
 Nagelsbach, C. F., Gymnasial - Pddagogik. Third 
 edition, Erlangen, 1879. 
 
 Dettweiler, P., Didaktik und Methodik des Lateinischen. 
 Munich, Beck, 1895. 
 
 Didaktik und Methodik des Griechischen. Munich, 
 
 Beck, 1898. 
 
 These two excellent books belong to Baumeister's 
 Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre . 
 
 Schiller, H., Handbuch der praktischen Pddagogik filr 
 hohere Lehranstalten. Leipsic, Reisland, 1894, 
 3d edition . 
 
 Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in 
 Preussen, 1901 (The Prussian School Order). 
 Official edition. Halle, Waisenhaus, 1901. 
 
670 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Verhandlungen iiber die Fragen des hohcrcn Untcrrichts. 
 Berlin, 6. bis 8. Juni 1900. Halle, Waisen- 
 haus, 1902. 
 
 The transactions of the Berlin Conference on ques- 
 tions of higher education. 
 
 Report of the Commissioner of Education. Washington, 
 Government Printing Office. 
 
 Chiefly used were the volumes from 18881901. 
 
 5. Periodicals Quoted Frequently. 
 
 American: Educational Revieiv, Atlantic Monthly, North 
 American Review, Forum, American Catholic 
 Quarterly, American Ecclesiastical Review, Mes- 
 senger, The Review, Woodstock Letters (published 
 at Woodstock College, for private circulation). 
 
 English: Month, Tablet, Dublin Review, Fortnightly 
 Revieiv, Nineteenth Century, Contemporary Re- 
 view. 
 
 German: Neue Jahrbilcher fur das klassische Altertum, 
 Geschichte und deutsche Literatur und fur Pada- 
 gogik (L,eipsic, Teubner), Monatschrift far 
 hohere Schulen (Berlin, Weidmann), Stimmen 
 aus Maria-Laach (Freiburg, Herder). 
 
 French: Etudes (Paris, Victor Retaux). 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Academies, in Jesuit colleges, 
 518 sqq. 
 
 Accessories, in Jesuit curricu- 
 lum, 118, 125, 192. 
 
 Acosta, Jesuit writer, 159. 
 
 Adaptability, of Jesuit system, 
 197, sqq., 280296. 
 
 Adaptation, in the Old Society, 
 283; since the revision of the 
 Ratio Studiorum, 191 sqq., 
 283 sqq. 
 
 Affection, of pupils, as ele- 
 ment of teacher's authority, 
 612, 644. 
 
 Agricola, humanist, 33, 60, 67. 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 39, 99. 
 
 Alcala, university, 4243, 79. 
 
 d'Alembert, 149, 174, 176. 
 
 Algue, Jesuit scientist, 230 
 231. " 
 
 Aloysius, St. , feast of students, 
 557; devotion to, 559560. 
 
 Alvarez, 121 sqq., grammar, 
 286. 
 
 America, school reforms, 1 
 sqq., 292 sqq.\ weaknesses of 
 education, 293 sqq., 301 sqq., 
 307, 320 sqq., 659-661; schol- 
 arship, 411 414; aid to 
 schools, 412 ; classical stud- 
 ies, 344 sqq.\ Jesuit colleges, 
 201 sqq. ; American Histories 
 of Education, 649 sqq. 
 
 Ancient authors, see "Classi- 
 cal Studies.'* 
 
 Antiquities, as taught in 
 schools, 199, 284, 382, 451 
 454; method of teaching, 
 486 sqq., 519520; Jesuit 
 writers on, 157158, 233. 
 
 Appointment, of teachers ac- 
 cording to ability, 439442. 
 
 Aquaviva, General of the So- 
 ciety of Jesus, 103, 109 sqq., 
 113. 
 
 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 39, 99; 
 in Jesuit system, 132, 136, 
 193194. 
 
 Archaeology, see "Antiqui- 
 ties". 
 
 Aristotle, study of in Middle 
 Ages, 45; Luther's attacks, 
 63; in Jesuit system, 131, 
 136, 193, 283; in Protestant 
 schools, 136, note 2; in mod- 
 ern times, 193194. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, on translat- 
 ing, 354. 
 
 Arnold, of Rugby, on general 
 education, 306; school exer- 
 cises, 309; Latin and Greek, 
 351, 356; scholarship of 
 teachers, 406; dangers of 
 boarding schools, 537 note 
 2, 552 note; Jesuit methods, 
 549 550; on athletics, 571 
 note; religious instruction, 
 602603; cultivating truth- 
 fulness in pupils, 629. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, son of for- 
 mer, 163 note 2. 
 
 Astronomers, Jesuits, 179-180, 
 226229, 232. 
 
 Astronomy, in Jesuit curricu- 
 lum, 131, 194. 
 
 Athletics, in college, 569 sqq. 
 
 Auger, Jesuit writer, 593. 
 
 Austen, T., 321322. 
 
 Authority of teacher, 610-614. 
 
 Avignon, Jesuit College, 127 
 128. 
 
 Azarias, Brother, 11 mote. 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 39 40, 46. 
 
 (6 7 l) 
 
6 7 2 
 
 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 3940; on 
 Jesuit schools, 145. 
 
 Bain, Professor, on home les- 
 sons, 475-476; teaching Eng- 
 lish, 491492. 
 
 Balde, Jesuit writer, 130, 161 
 162. 
 
 Ballestrem, Count, on Jesuit 
 teachers, 535. 
 
 Bancroft, G., on Jesuit col- 
 leges, 145; Catholics in 
 Maryland, 203. 
 
 Barbier, Jesuit educator, 623 
 624. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, on Jesuit 
 schools, 650 sqq. 
 
 Barnes, Dr., 323324. 
 
 Barth, Professor, 566. 
 
 Bartoli, Jesuit writer, 137. 
 
 Baumgartner, Jesuit writer, 
 162, 233234, 236, 238, 377, 
 381, 383, 384, 386, 387, 390, 
 391, 393, 396, 398, 401. 
 
 Bayer, Jesuit educator, 121 
 note 4. 
 
 Beaumont (England), Jesuit 
 College, 257. 
 
 Beckx, General of the Society, 
 362 note 3; on national and 
 political attitude of Jesuits, 
 262263; religious instruc- 
 tion, 599, 604. 
 
 Beissel, Jesuit writer, 236. 
 
 Bellarinine, Robert (Cardinal), 
 Jesuit theologian, 109; his 
 catechism, 592, 593 note 2. 
 
 Benedict, St., 86, 633. 
 
 Benedict XIV., Pope, Jesuit 
 pupil, 172; on the Sodalities, 
 561. 
 
 Benedictines, educational lab- 
 ors, 2526, 8687; as histo- 
 rians, 160. 
 
 Bennett, Professor in Cornell 
 University, on experiment- 
 ing in American schools, 
 293 note 1; on Latin, 349 
 note 1 ; on Roman pronun- 
 ciation, 460 note; on com- 
 positions, 505. 
 
 Berlin Conferences on higher 
 studies, 136 note 2, 289-291, 
 333 sqq., 351, 356, 378, 509, 
 517. 
 
 Beschi, Jesuit linguist, 152. 
 
 Beirut, Jesuit University, 
 206. 
 
 Bible, and Reformers, 6263 ; 
 in Jesuit colleges, 121 124, 
 590; in Greek, 398-399; alone 
 not sufficient for religious 
 instruction, 583 sqq.\ objec- 
 tions of Catholics to reading 
 in public schools, 587 sqq. 
 
 Biblical World, on religious 
 instruction, 577 578, 585, 
 603. 
 
 Bidermann, Jesuit writer, 130. 
 
 Bishops of France, on Jesuits, 
 273 sqq. 
 
 Boarding schools, of Jesuits, 
 250; dangers of boarding 
 schools, 537 sqq., 552, and 
 note. 
 
 Boccaccio, humanist, 50. 
 
 Bohemia Manor, Maryland, 
 Jesuit school, 204. 
 
 Bollaudists, Jesuit historians, 
 161, 234235. 
 
 Bolsius, Jesuit scientist, 233. 
 
 Bombay, St. Francis Xavier, 
 Jesuit College, 206, 216. 
 
 Bouaventure, St., 39, 99. 
 
 Bonifacio, Jesuit educator, 163, 
 453, 645. 
 
 Bonvalot, Jesuit educator, 127. 
 
 Boscovich, Jesuit scientist, 
 179. 
 
 Boston College and President 
 Eliot, 224 sqq. 
 
 Branch teacher, 442 sqq. 
 
 Braun, Jesuit scientist, 232. 
 
 Braunsberger, Jesuit historian, 
 236. 
 
 Brethren of the Common Life, 
 3133, 138; see correction 
 653. 
 
 Briggs, Dean of Harvard Col- 
 lege, 320, 406, 538539. 
 
 Bristol, Professor in Cornell 
 
INDEX. 
 
 673 
 
 University, 397 note 1, 398, 
 401 note 1, 505. 
 
 Broderick, G. C., 409-410, 415. 
 
 Brosnahan, Jesuit writer, con- 
 troversy with President 
 Eliot, 223 note 2, 224225, 
 327. 
 
 Browning, O., on Jesuit edu- 
 cation, 16, 186, 244-245, 263. 
 
 Brownson, O., 331, 529. 
 
 Brunetiere, F., 550, 658. 
 
 Brunswick, laws against Jesuit 
 schools, 240241. 
 
 Bryce, James, 305306, 338. 
 
 Buckle, H. T.,263. 
 
 Buffier, Jesuit geographer, 128, 
 448 note. 
 
 Bunyan, 265. 
 
 Busaeus, Jesuit, 44, 138. 
 
 Butler, President of Columbia 
 University, 6667 note, 293 
 294. 
 
 Caesar, 381382. 
 
 Cajori, Professor, 155-156, 157. 
 
 Calcutta, Jesuit College, 216. 
 
 Calniette, Jesuit Sanskrit 
 scholar, 151152. 
 
 Cambridge, 6970. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, Jesuit 
 writer, 577 note. 
 
 Canfield. President, 313315, 
 572 note. 
 
 Canisius, Peter, Jesuit, 43, 109, 
 138; care for poor pupils, 
 248250; on emulation, 512; 
 catechisms and catechetical 
 instructions, 593599. 
 
 Carroll, Charles of Carrollton, 
 204, 260, 340. 
 
 Carroll, John, Jesuit and first 
 Archbishop of Baltimore, 
 204205, 260; founder of 
 Georgetown College, 205. 
 
 Castelein, Jesuit writer, 235. 
 
 Catalogues of authors in Jesuit 
 colleges, 374375; of philo- 
 logical helps, 446447, 453 
 -454. 
 
 Catechetical training of Jes- 
 
 uits, 421; instruction in Jes- 
 uit schools, 590 sqq. 
 
 Catechisms written by Jesuits, 
 592 sqq. 
 
 Catharine II., of Russia, and 
 the Jesuits, 177178, 189, 
 258. 
 
 Catholic Church, and educa- 
 tion, 21 sqq., 28, 3031, 36 
 39, 50, 85-87. 
 
 Catholics, and the Bible, 587 
 sqq.\ and sectarian schools, 
 579 sqq. 
 
 Cathrein, Jesuit writer, 235 
 note 2, 237. 
 
 Changes of teachers, 9197, 
 444445. 
 
 Character training, 317 sqq., 
 522 sqq: 
 
 Charlemagne, 23, 26. 
 
 Chateaubriand, 184185. 
 
 Chevalier, Jesuit scientist, 231. 
 
 China, cartographic works of 
 Jesuits, 129, 158; philo- 
 logical works, 153154, 158, 
 232, 656 ; Jesuit mathematici- 
 ans, 156, 158 ; Jesuit schools, 
 206208. 
 
 Chossat, Jesuit writer, 128, and 
 passim. 
 
 Christ, the teacher's model, 
 420, 631, 638, 643, 646; centre 
 of history, 449 sqq. ; his 
 teaching in relation to ped- 
 agogy, 526527, 540; Chris- 
 tian interpretation of auth- 
 ors, 365, 600. 
 
 Christian Brothers, 88, 98. 
 
 Chrysostom, St., 85. 
 
 Church and education, see 
 "Catholic Church." 
 
 Cicero, 88, 139, 376, 377 sqq., 
 395396, 468471, 500. 
 
 Clarke, Jesuit writer and edu- 
 cator, 212, 235, 423424, 551 
 555. 
 
 Classes in Jesuit schools, 118 
 sqq., 370, 372 sqq. 
 
 Classical studies, in Middle 
 Ages and at time of Renais- 
 
674 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 sauce, 27 sqq. y 33 sqq., 41 
 45, 47 sqq.\ in Jesuit system, 
 286287, 331 sqq., 360; edu- 
 cational value of, 330369 ; 
 dangers of, 5055, 367, 563 
 sqq. ; the Gaume controversy, 
 366 sqq.; classical authors, 
 351-352, 370-401 ; explained 
 in Christian spirit, 365, 600. 
 
 Class matches, 515 sqq.', see 
 * 'Emulation." 
 
 Class teachers, 442 sqq. 
 
 Clavius (Klau), Jesuit, mathe- 
 matician, 133134, 155, 438. 
 
 Clement XIV., Pope, 175. 
 
 Clerc, A., Jesuit teacher, 645. 
 
 Clergymen as educators, 100, 
 408, 601602. 
 
 Clerics, Regular, 80 note 3. 
 
 Cleveland, President of the 
 United States, on patriotism 
 of Jesuit schools, 261 ; on 
 modern school reforms, 294. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio, Jesuit Col- 
 lege and Meteorological Ob- 
 servatory, 227, 229. 
 
 Coe, Professor in Northwest- 
 ern University, 579. 
 
 Coeurdoux, Jesuit Sanskrit 
 scholar, 151. 
 
 Colet, Dean, 30. 
 
 College, American, its equi- 
 valent in Jesuit system, 118, 
 370; function of, 304, 306 sqq. 
 
 Colleges of the Society, 78, 
 107; number, 144146; in 
 United States, 200205; in 
 other countries, 201, 2055^.; 
 success of Jesuit colleges, 
 Wsqg., 145 150, 207, 208 
 222; Roman College, 108; 
 German College, 138. 
 
 Comenius, 292. 
 
 Communion, educational in- 
 fluence, 657558. 
 
 Comparative philology, con- 
 tributions by Jesuits, 149 
 151. 
 
 Compayr, character of his 
 History of Pedagogy, 10, 11 
 
 note, 649; on primary schools, 
 24; medieval universities, 40 
 note 2; attacks on Jesuit 
 education, 10 11, 13 note, 
 77 note, 104 note, 125, 130, 
 135, 159, 163, 194195, 233, 
 243, 245247, 249, 250, 361, 
 362363, 366 sqq., 437, 489, 
 493, 511, 618. ' 
 
 Competition, see "Emula- 
 tion." 
 
 Composition, see "Written 
 exercises." 
 
 Compulsory education, 23, 29, 
 66. 
 
 Confession, educational in- 
 fluence of, 550557. 
 
 Conservatism in Jesuit educa- 
 tion, 288 sqq.\ Grover Cleve- 
 land on conservatism in edu- 
 cation, 294. 
 
 Constitutions of the Society, 
 7475, 101 sqq. 
 
 Contests, exercises in Jesuit 
 schools, 511 sqq. 
 
 Conway, James, Jesuit writer, 
 577 note. 
 
 Copernicus, 33, 42. 
 
 Cortie, Jesuit astronomer, 229. 
 
 Coster, Jesuit educator, 44, 138. 
 
 Cramming in modern systems, 
 299 sqq. 
 
 Cubberley, Professor, 649, 650. 
 
 Cusanus, Cardinal, 33. 
 
 Dahlmann, Jesuit scholar, 233, 
 
 236. 
 Dalberg, Bishop, patron of 
 
 learning, 34. 
 Dana, C., 343. 
 
 Daniel, Jesuit writer, 128, 366. 
 Dante, 4849, 387, 391. 
 Darjeeling, Jesuit College, 216. 
 Dark Ages, 21 sqq. 
 Davidson, Thomas, on Jesuit 
 
 system, 1314, 76 note. 
 Decline of teaching, 404 407. 
 Decurions, 139, 286. 
 Deharbe, J., Jesuit, 599. 
 Delauey, W., Jesuit, 606. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 675 
 
 Demosthenes, 398. 
 
 Denis, Jesuit writer, 131, 162, 
 
 181. 
 Denominational schools, 580 
 
 sqq. 
 Devotions, as educational 
 
 means, 558 560 ; devotion 
 
 of teacher to work, 14, 147, 
 
 440441, 643644. 
 Dewey, Admiral, on Jesuit 
 
 Observatory at Manila, 230. 
 Dierckx, Jesuit scientist, 233. 
 Discipline, in school, 537 s^., 
 
 608635. 
 
 Disputations, in Jesuit col- 
 leges, 139, 422-425, 511, 
 
 518. 
 
 Disraeli, 583, 589590. 
 Dollinger, 58, 61 ; on the Jesu- 
 its, 103, 189, 277. 
 Dominicans, 39, 56, 8687, 99. 
 Dowling, M. P., Jesuit, 298. 
 Drama, in Jesuit colleges, 164 
 
 sqq. ; in vernacular, 165 note 
 
 3 192 
 Draper, President, 293, 301 
 
 note, 327. 
 Dressel, Jesuit scientist, 236 
 
 237. 
 
 Dreves, Jesuit writer, 236. 
 DufrSne, Jesuit educator, 121, 
 
 126. 
 Du Halde, Jesuit geographer, 
 
 159. 
 Duhr, Jesuit historian, 12, 112, 
 
 and passim. 
 
 Du Pous, Jesuit linguist, 151. 
 Duruy, A., on Jesuit schools, 
 
 218, 260, 535 note 2. 
 
 Education, meaning of, 297 
 298 ; scope, 298300; liberal 
 education, 301, 305, 307, 341; 
 commercial, 306, 337338; 
 professional, 303, 335; edu- 
 cation and the Society, 
 87 sqq. , 104 sqq. ; see "Ratio 
 Studiorum." 
 
 Edward VI, 29, 30, 652. 
 
 Efficiency, of Jesuit schools, 
 
 89 sqq., 145150, 182 sqq., 
 208223; causes of, 1314, 
 1718, 8998, 135, 415^?., 
 643-644. 
 
 Ehrle, Jesuit historian, 234, 
 236, 238. 
 
 Einstein, L., 28, 31, 37. 
 
 Elective system, 56, 9 10, 
 310-329. 
 
 Electrical World, 293294, 
 311, 339 note. 
 
 Elementary education, before 
 Reformation, 23 sqq.\ and 
 the Jesuits, 104106, 209, 
 247248. 
 
 Eliot, President of Harvard 
 University, on the Jesuit 
 system, 5, 9, 199, 223225, 
 243244, 283, 311 sqq. ; school 
 reform, 293294; elective 
 system, 311 sqq.\ on Roman 
 
 E renunciation, 460 note ; on 
 lilure of education, 523. 
 
 Elsperger, Professor, 196197. 
 
 Emery, Abbe, 184. 
 
 Emulation, as a factor in edu- 
 cation, 511518. 
 
 England, education before Re- 
 formation, 2931, 652653; 
 humanism, 28, 30, 37, 53; 
 decline of learning, 69 71 ; 
 penal laws against Jesuit 
 schools, 239240; recent at- 
 tacks on Jesuits, 256 sqq. 
 
 England, Bishop, 330 note, 
 340. 
 
 English, teaching of, see 
 "Mother-tongue. ' ' 
 
 Eobauus Hessus, 55, 61. 
 
 Epping, Jesuit scientist, 236. 
 
 Erasmus, leader of the hum- 
 anists, 34, 36, 54 55; on 
 schools in Spain, 41, 43; on 
 decline of learning in con- 
 sequence of the Reforma- 
 tion, 6162; St. Ignatius 
 and Erasmus, 140. 
 
 Erudition, part of interpreta- 
 tion of the authors in Jesuit 
 system, the same as subject 
 
6y6 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 explanation, 447 sqq., 452, 
 461, 470, 485 sqq. 
 
 Esteem, element of teachers 
 authority, 611 sqq. 
 
 Ethics, 131, 284. 
 
 Euclid, 153; non- Euclidean 
 geometry, 156157, cf. "Sac- 
 cheri." 
 
 Example of teacher, 419, 531 
 sqq., 627, 630. 
 
 Exercises, means of intellec- 
 tual training, 308309, 456 
 sqq.', written exercises, 499 
 506 ; correction, 503 sqq. 
 
 Explanation, of authors, see 
 "Prelection." 
 
 Expulsion of the Jesuits from 
 various countries, 200, 225. 
 
 Expurgated editions of the 
 classics, 363 sqq., 562 sqq. 
 
 Eyre, Jesuit educator, 111. 
 
 Faber, F. W., 630 note. 
 
 Faber, Peter, Jesuit, 43, 60, 79. 
 
 Fabri, Jesuit writer, 349, 392. 
 
 Family, relation of Jesuit 
 schools to, 250251. 
 
 Fear, element of authority, 
 614. 
 
 Febres, Jesuit linguist, 155. 
 
 Feldkirch, Austria, Jesuit Col- 
 lege, 411, 573. 
 
 Feltre, see "Vittorino." 
 
 Ferry, French Premier, 222, 
 260. 
 
 Fisher, John, Bishop, 30, 53. 
 
 Fischer, Joseph, Jesuit writer, 
 237. 
 
 Fitch, Sir Joshua, on clergy- 
 men as educators, 100; on 
 home work, 475; on writing 
 Latin verses, 506 ; on Jesuit 
 education, 549550; on re- 
 ligious instruction, 602 ; on 
 corporal punishment, 616 
 note 3. 
 
 Fox, Jesuit philologist, 236. 
 
 France, success of Jesuit 
 schools, 92, 182184, 218 
 222 ; cause of opposition to 
 
 teaching congregations, 268 
 269, 658; testimony of 
 Bishops to Jesuits, 273276. 
 
 Francis Xavier, St., 43, 78, 79; 
 Jesuit College in : Bombay, 
 206, 216; Calcutta, 216; New 
 York, 202. 
 
 Franciscans, 39, 56 note 2, 99. 
 
 Frederick the Great, of Prus- 
 sia, 90; and the Jesuits, 176 
 178, 189, 258. 
 
 Freiburg, Jesuit College, 163 
 note 2, 332 note 2, 573. 
 
 Friars, 39 sqq., 80 note 3. 
 
 Frisbee, S. H., Jesuit, 479 sqq. 
 
 Gambetta, 220. 
 
 Gates, Professor, 577. 
 
 Gaubil, Jesuit sinologist, 153. 
 
 Gaume, Abbe, 366 sqq. 
 
 Geiler, of Kaisersberg, 3435. 
 
 Genelli, Jesuit writer, 15, 73, 
 280. 
 
 General of the Society of 
 Jesus, 101102. 
 
 General Congregations, 101 
 102. 
 
 Genung, Professor, 353. 
 
 Geography, in Jesuit colleges, 
 127129, 192, 447 note 2, 
 448; Jesuit geographers, 128 
 129, 158159, 237. 
 
 Georgetown, Jesuit College, 
 205, 227, 261, 411. 
 
 Gerard, J., Jesuit writer, 298, 
 337. 
 
 German higher schools, before 
 Reformation, 31 sqq.\ mod- 
 ern, 9, 289 sqq., 333 sqq.\ 
 Jesuits as educators and 
 writers, 206, 235238, 262, 
 271. 
 
 Gibbon, 450, 514. 
 
 Gietmann, Jesuit writer, 236. 
 
 Gnauck-Kiihne, Mrs., 96 sqq. 
 
 Goethe, 161; on Jesuit drama, 
 171; on specialization, 324; 
 on classics, 360; on reading, 
 566. 
 
 Goodwin, Professor, 544. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 6 77 
 
 Grammar, study of, 370 sqq.\ 
 Greek, 392 sqq. 
 
 Gratuitousness of instruction, 
 246, 249250. 
 
 Greek, study of, 339 sqq. y 392 
 sqq. 
 
 Gretser, Jesuit writer, 121 
 note 3. 
 
 Grimaldi, Jesuit scientist, 157. 
 
 Grisar, Jesuit historian, 46, 
 234. 
 
 Groot, Gerard, 31. 
 
 Guggenberger, Jesuit histori- 
 an, 54 sqq. 
 
 Guizot, 425. 
 
 Gunther, Professor, 180181. 
 
 Hadley, President of Yale 
 
 University, 2 note 1, 339 
 
 note 1. 
 
 Hadley, Professor, 479 sqq. 
 Hagen, Jesuit mathematician, 
 
 227, 237, 655. 
 Hall, Stanley, President of 
 
 Clark University, 307 note 1, 
 ' 321, 360, 476477, 501. 
 Hallam, 6769, 71, 251. 
 Hanus, Professor, 310311. 
 Hanxleden, Jesuit scholar, 
 
 151. 
 Hardouin, Jesuit historian, 
 
 160. 
 Harnack, Professor (Berlin), 
 
 22 note 3, 52, 60 note 1, 
 
 7576, 8384, 103, 290, 351. 
 Harris, W. T., Commissioner 
 
 of Education, 330 note. 
 Hartrnann, Edward von, 52 
 
 53. 
 Harvard University, 1, 203, 
 
 223, 315, 326, 327. 
 Health, of pupils cared for, 
 
 124, 572 sqq. 
 Hegius, humanist, 3334, 53, 
 
 60. 
 
 Hell, Jesuit astronomer, 179. 
 Helmholtz, Professor, 333, 356. 
 Herodotus, 395. 
 Hervas, Jesuit linguist, 149 
 
 151, 181. 
 
 Henry VIII, 2930, 69, 70, 
 652. 
 
 Herder, 161. 
 
 High school, equivalent in 
 Jesuit system, 118, 370; func- 
 tion of, 303, 306; modern 
 high school, 332. 
 
 Hildebrand, 337, 349. 
 
 Hillig, F., Jesuit, 232. 
 
 Historians, among Jesuits, 160 
 161, 233234, 235. 
 
 History in Jesuit colleges, 124 
 126, 192, 199, 447448; an- 
 cient, 448 451 ; viewpoint 
 of Christian teacher, 448 
 sqq., 600. 
 
 Hohenlohe, Prince, 173. 
 
 Holguin, Jesuit scholar, 154. 
 
 Holzmiiller, Director, 333. 
 
 Home tasks, 475 sqq. 
 
 Homer, 354, 399401, 480 sqq. 
 
 Horace, 391. 
 
 Howorth, Sir Henry, on the 
 Jesuits, 175, 256 note, 532 
 note 2. 
 
 Huber, Professor, 7778, 103, 
 104, 148, 252, 258. 
 
 Hughes, T., Jesuit writer, 200 
 and. passim. 
 
 Humanism, rise and charac- 
 ter, 2630, 3337, 4749 
 sqq.\ attitude of Church, 28, 
 30, 50, 60; radical human- 
 ists, 5457; Luther's alli- 
 ance with, 58 60; relation 
 of the Jesuits to, 88, 138 
 140. 
 
 Humanities, class in Jesuit 
 system, 119, 370. 
 
 Humphrey, W., Jesuit writer, 
 81 note. 
 
 Hutten, humanist, 55, 59, 60. 
 
 Ignatius of Loyola, 15; char- 
 acter, 7375; studies, 32, 
 43, 78 sqq., 137; and Luther, 
 59_60, 7778, 140; and the 
 Constitutions, 7577, 101; 
 as educator, 87 sqq., 106; on 
 Paris and Louvain, 137138; 
 
678 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 on self-activity, 308, 499; on 454, 461, 467 sqq., 484 485, 
 
 self-conquest, 420; on nidi- 502, 548, 565, 600, 610, 622, 
 
 viduality, 426; on dangers 624625, 634, 637; his edu- 
 
 of reading, 51, 140, 563, 569; cational treatise: Ratio Dis- 
 
 adaptation of his system, 15, cendi et Docendi, 162, 163 
 
 280, 281; prayer for persecu- note 1, 434435. 
 
 tion, 278; summary of Chris- Jullien, Jesuit scientist, 232. 
 
 tian philosophy, 527528; Juniorate, 422, 431 sqq. 
 
 on good example, 532, 569 ; 
 
 summary of religion, 574 ; Kant, 324, 513, 643. 
 
 obedience, 610; modesty, Kemp, E. I/., 10 note, 513, 
 
 627; prayer, 633 sqq.\ see 652653. 
 
 "Spiritual Exercises.'* Kempis, Thomas a, 31, 32, 
 
 Imitation exercises, 500 sqq. 322, 527, 610. 
 
 Impartiality of teacher, 612, Kepler, astronomer, on Jesuit 
 
 619622. writers, 657. 
 
 India (East), Jesuit writers, Kern, Professor, 531. 
 
 151152; colleges, 206, 216. Ketteler, Bishop, 241, 534. 
 Individuality, 317 sqq.\ and Kino (Kiihn), Jesuit mission- 
 Jesuit training, 367 note 1, ary and geographer, 129. 
 
 425429. Kircher, Jesuit scholar, 157 
 
 Intellectual scope of educa- 158; Museo Kircheriano , 
 
 tion, 297 sqq., 316, 322^.; 158, 226. 
 
 liberty, 136 note 2, 251253, Knecht, Bishop, 592593. 
 
 270271,489. Kohlniann, Jesuit in New 
 
 Interpretation, see "Prelec- York, 202. 
 
 tion." Konig, Jesuit writer, 127. 
 
 Ireland, monastic schools, 26; Korner, 535 536. 
 
 modern Jesuit colleges, 213 Kreiten, Jesuit writer, 236. 
 
 216. Kropf, Jesuit educator, 121 
 
 Italy, education, see "Human- sqq. y 126, 163,448, 548, 610, 
 
 ism." and passim. 
 
 Kiibler, Dr., 290, 510. 
 
 Jager, Dr., 351, 371. Kugler, Jesuit scholar. 236. 
 Jansenists, 164, 174. 
 
 Janssen, 23 sqq., and passim. Labbe, Jesuit historian, 128, 
 
 Jesuits, see Society of Jesus, 160, 448 note. 
 
 Constitutions, Ratio Studio- La Cerda, Jesuit philologist, 
 
 rum, Colleges, Teachers, 162, 163. 
 
 Writers, Pupils, Opposition. Ladeveze, M. de, on Jesuits, 
 
 Jogues, Jesuit in New York, 267, 609. 
 
 201202. La Flche, Jesuit College, 168, 
 
 Jones, President of Hobart 484. 
 
 College, 307, 321, 339, 541 Lainez, General of the Society, 
 
 note. 79, 101. 
 
 Jourdain, 182184, 270271. Lalande, 179, 180, 186. 
 
 Jouvancy, (Juvencius), Jesuit Lang, Andrew, 265. 
 
 educator, 162, 164, 248, 331, Lang, Jesuit writer, 165. 
 
 353, 362, 377, 382, 383385, La Rue (Ruaeus), Jesuit phil- 
 
 387, 400, 434435, 447, 453, ologist, 163164. 
 
INDEX. 679 
 
 Latimer, 70. tion, 57 58 ; alliance with 
 
 Latin, during Middle Ages, radical humanists, 58 60; 
 
 29, M sgq.; in Protestant and Loyola, 59 60, 77, 140; 
 
 and Jesuit schools, 6 9,129, violent language against 
 
 345 346; in modern Ger- universities and Aristotle, 
 
 man schools, 290 sqq., 333 63 65; appalled at decline 
 
 sqq.y 476 sqq., 509 sqq.; in of schools, 65 66; Hallam's 
 
 American schools, 2, 345; as estimate of, 67 69; on vows 
 
 means of logical training, and monasticism, 81 ; his 
 
 346351, 357358; speaking catechism, 593594. 
 
 and writing, 69, 129, 422, 
 
 429430, 498511; "Mon- Mabillon, Benedictine histor- 
 
 kish" Latin, 430 note. ian, 87. 
 
 Leach, A. F., 30, 430, 652653. Macaulay, 73. 
 
 Ledesma, Jesuit educator, 108, Madagascar, Jesuits in, 231. 
 
 138, 403404, 445, Maher, M., Jesuit writer, 235. 
 
 Lehmkuhl, Jesuit writer, 237. Mallinckrodt, von, 534. 
 
 Leibnitz, 52, 156, 161.. Manare, Oliver, Jesuit, 444. 
 
 Lemaltre, J., 368 sqq. Manila, Jesuit College and 
 Leo XIII, Jesuit pupil, 278; Observatory, 229 sqq. 
 
 on religious orders, 277; on Manning, Professor, 157 note. 
 
 Sodalities, 560; Bellarmine's Marquette, Jesuit, 128129. 
 
 catechism, 593; religious in- Martin, Luiz, General of the 
 
 struction, 601, 605. Society, 286287, 297, 509. 
 
 Leon, Jesuit, founder of Sodal- Martineau, 320 sqq. 
 
 ities, 560. Martini, Jesuit geographer, 
 Leopold I., King of Belgium, 129, 159. 
 
 on Jesuit schools, 259. Maryland, Jesuits in, 202 204. 
 
 Liberal education, 301, 305, Masen, Jesuit writer, 164. 
 
 307, 341. Matches, class matches, 515 
 LiSge, school, 33, 107, 139, sqq. 
 
 140141, 240. Mathematicians, Jesuits, 155 
 Limerick, P., 276. 158, 182, 227228, 232. 
 
 Lines, as punishment, 497, 619. Mathematics, in Jesuit col- 
 Literature, Jesuit writers on, leges, 132134, 182, 192, 194, 
 
 130131,^ 161163, 181, 233 284; educational value com- 
 
 234, 235. pared with linguistic train- 
 
 Littledale, Canon, 73, 103, 264. ing, 333, 336, 355; training 
 Livy, 382. of Jesuit teachers of mathe- 
 
 Longhaye, Jesuit writer, 234. matics, 438439. 
 
 Louis-le-Grand, Jesuit Col- Matthias, Dr., of Berlin, 4 
 
 lege, 144. note, 290, 510. 
 
 Louvain, school, 33, 138. Maynard, Abbe", on educa- 
 Lowell, 323, 357. tional labors of the Jesuits 
 
 Loyola, see * 'Ignatius." before the suppression, 178 
 
 Lucas, Herbert, Jesuit writer, sqq. 
 
 532. McCosh, President of Prince- 
 Lugo, Jesuit theologian, 109, ton, on liberal education, 
 
 427. 302; on elective system at 
 
 Luther, in Protestant tradi- Harvard, 315 316; on Amer- 
 
68o 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 lean scholarship, 413; on 
 moral training, 522, 537 
 538; on athletics, 570; on 
 religious instruction, 582. 
 McCloskey, Cardinal, Arch- 
 bishop of New York, 557 
 558. 
 
 Melanchthon, on decline of 
 education, 61 ; attitude to- 
 wards higher studies, 64, 
 67; drew inspirations from 
 medieval schools, 72, 530 
 note; on Canisius, 595. 
 
 Memory lessons, 493499. 
 
 Messina, Jesuit College, 108, 
 137. 
 
 Messmer, Bishop of Green 
 Bay, 592, 593 note 2. 
 
 Metereology, cultivated by 
 Jesuits, 227, 229232. 
 
 Method of teaching in prac- 
 tice, 456 sqq. 
 
 Meyer, Theodore, Jesuit writer 
 on ethics, 237. 
 
 Middle Ages, educational con- 
 ditions, 21 44; character of 
 education, 44 sqq., see 
 "Scholasticism." 
 
 Modern languages, 332 ; mod- 
 ern high school, ib. 
 
 Modesty, to be inculcated in 
 pupils, 626 sqq. 
 
 Mommsen, Theodore, 378, 380, 
 381. 
 
 Monasticism, 8084. 
 
 Monita Secreta, 102103. 
 
 Monks, Protestant view of, 80 
 note 3; as educators, 84 87. 
 
 Monroe, Jesuit educator, 645 
 note. 
 
 Morality in Jesuit schools, 251 
 sqq., 531536. 
 
 Moral training, 317 sqq., 522 
 573. 
 
 More, Thomas, 53. 
 
 Mother -tongue, studied in 
 Jesuit colleges, 129131, 191 
 192, 284, 448 note, 491 
 sqq.; and study of classics, 
 356 sqq. 
 
 Miiller, Max, Professor at Ox- 
 ford, on Jesuit writers, 149 
 151, 233. 
 
 Munich, splendor of Jesuit 
 drama, 168170. 
 
 Miinsterberg, Professor at 
 Harvard, on modern school 
 reforms, 5; American teach- 
 ers, 92 94; premature speci- 
 alization, 303; elective sys- 
 tem, 319320, 325327; 
 preparation of teachers, 402, 
 403; American scholarship, 
 413. 
 
 Nadal, Jerome, Jesuit educa- 
 tor, on elementary educa- 
 tion, 106; plan of studies, 
 108 note 3, 116, 117 note 2; 
 geographical reading, 128 
 note 3; study of German, 
 130; relation to the Ratio 
 Studiorum, 138 ; instruction 
 gratuitous, 249; training of 
 teachers, 404, 441442; re- 
 ligious toleration, 596. 
 
 Nagelsbach, Professor, 385, 
 387, 389390, 398, 473. 
 
 Natalis, see "Nadal." 
 
 Nation, New York, on electiv- 
 ism, 326; on decline of teach- 
 ing, 404406. 
 
 National questions, attitude of 
 the Jesuits, 262263. 
 
 Natural sciences, see "Scien- 
 ces." 
 
 Neander, on monks as educa- 
 tors, 8586. 
 
 Nepos, 384. 
 
 Netherlands, humanist 
 schools, 31 32, 43; influence 
 on formation of Ratio Stu- 
 diorum, 138 sqq. 
 
 Newcomb, Simon, on Father 
 Hell, 179; on American 
 scholarship, 413. 
 
 Newman, Cardinal, on medie- 
 val education, 23 note; on 
 monks, 81 note; religious as 
 educators, 86 87; on clas- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 68 1 
 
 sics, 355, 359360, 378 ; on 
 individuality among Jesuits, 
 367 note 1, 42i>-427; on 
 moral training, 555 sqq.\ 
 Jesuit obedience, 609 note. 
 
 New York, Jesuit College, 
 201202. 
 
 Nightingale, Professor, 307 
 note, 357. 
 
 Nobili, Robert, Jesuit, first 
 ^European Sanskrit scholar, 
 151. 
 
 Notes, taken in class, 463 
 465. 
 
 Non-sectarian school, 580 sqq. 
 
 Noviciate, in the Society, 418 
 422. 
 
 Number of Jesuit colleges, 78, 
 107, 144 sqq., 200206; of 
 Jesuit pupils, 13, 144146, 
 206. 
 
 Obedience, of teacher, 609 
 610, 650; of pupil, 650. 
 
 Oberammergau, Passion play, 
 and Jesuit drama, 169. 
 
 Observatories, of Jesuits, 180, 
 227, 229 -232. 
 
 Odenbach, F. L., Jesuit mete- 
 orologist, 227. 
 
 Officials, in Jesuit colleges, 
 115118. 
 
 Oliphant, L., 208. 
 
 Opposition, to Jesuit educa- 
 tion, bsqq., 146148, 239 
 279; causes of, 613, 264 
 sqq. 
 
 Oratorians, 127, 448 note. 
 
 Ovid, 44, 385, 386, 565. 
 
 Oxford, 6971, 212, 411. 
 
 Pachtler, Jesuit historian, 112, 
 
 283, 410, 494, and passim. 
 Painter, F. V. N., 10 note, 37, 
 
 131, 245, 252254, 361, 511, 
 
 596. 
 
 Pantel, Jesuit scientist, 233. 
 Papenbroeck, Jesuit historian, 
 
 161. 
 Paris, University of, 32, 39, 
 
 43, 79, 99, 137 ; influence on 
 Jesuit system, 137 sqq.\ op- 
 position to Jesuits, 182 sqq., 
 269271. 
 
 Patience, of teacher, 420, 630, 
 631632, 646. 
 
 Patriotism, and Jesuit schools, 
 255263. 
 
 Paulsen, Professor, 7, 22, 52, 
 5960, 8182, 9091, 100, 
 136, 195197, 324, 407409, 
 425 ; on Jesuit schools, 17 
 18, 7980, 193194, 254 
 255, 271272, 512, 532533. 
 
 Peck, Professor in Columbia 
 University, 223 note 2, 224, 
 327. 
 
 Pedagogy, meaning of, 524 
 sqq.\ relation to philosophy, 
 524 525; pagan and Christi- 
 an, 526; Jesuit writers on, 
 162163, 434435. 
 
 Permanent teachers, 435 sqq. 
 
 Perpinian, Jesuit writer, 162. 
 
 Perry, Jesuit astronomer, 228. 
 
 Pesch, Henry, Jesuit writer, 
 237. 
 
 Petavius, Jesuit scholar, 160, 
 427, 448 note. 
 
 Petrarch, 4950. 
 
 Phaedrus, 385, 472473. 
 
 Philology, in the Society of 
 Jesus, 149155, 199, 446 
 447, 453454; Jesuit con- 
 tributions to comparative 
 philology, 149150. 
 
 Philosophy, Aristotelian, see 
 "Aristotle"; in Jesuit sys- 
 tem, 131, 193197; philoso- 
 phy neglected in modern 
 systems, 195 197 ; philo- 
 sophical training of Jesuits, 
 422 sqq.\ philosophy in rela- 
 tion to pedagogy, 524 525. 
 
 Physics, in Jesuit curriculum, 
 131, 134, 194. 
 
 Pitt, on classics, 358. 
 
 Plans of studies, previous to 
 the Ratio Studioruui, 108 
 109. 
 
682 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Plato, 396398, 451. 
 
 Plautus, 165166, 391, 565. 
 
 Polanco, Jesuit, 137. 
 
 Poland, W., Jesuit writer, 11 
 note, 577 note. 
 
 Politeness, of pupils, 626 sqq. 
 
 Politics, attitude of Jesuits, 
 262263. 
 
 Pombal, 174. 
 
 Pompadour, 174. 
 
 Pontanus, Jesuit philologian, 
 110, 121 note 2, 162. 
 
 Poor pupils, care of, in Jesuit 
 schools, 247250. 
 
 Poree, Jesuit educator, 181. 
 
 Porter, Noah, of Yale, on 
 Jesuit schools, 245, 246, 269. 
 
 Port Royal, 127, 164. 
 
 Portugal, suppression of Soci- 
 ety, 174. 
 
 Postgate, Professor, 498 note. 
 
 Poulton, Jesuit, founder of 
 school in Maryland, 203. 
 
 Prayer, educational help, 632 
 sqq. 
 
 Prefect of Discipline, 117. 
 
 Prefect of Studies, 117, 609. 
 
 Prelection, i. e. interpretation 
 of authors, etc., 457493; 
 preparation of, 464466. 
 
 Pre*mare, Jesuit sinologist, 153. 
 
 Prescribed courses, 310329. 
 
 Primary education, see ''Ele- 
 mentary." 
 
 Prince Henry, and the Jesuits 
 in China, 207208. 
 
 Private talks with pupils, 548 
 sqq. 
 
 Prizes, 514; see "Emula- 
 tion." 
 
 Pronunciation, correct, 459 
 461 ; Roman, of Latin, 460 
 note. 
 
 Protestant, Reformation and 
 education, 57 72 ; schools 
 in 16. and 17. centuries, 
 8991 ; view of Jesuits, 264 
 267; moral training in 
 Protestant and Catholic 
 schools, 538 sqq.) 541 note, 
 
 551 557; reading of Bible, 
 583 sqq. 
 
 Provincial, 101. 
 
 Prussia, Jesuit colleges after 
 suppression, 176. 
 
 Prussian School Order, 9, 289, 
 291, 392, 394 note 1; on class 
 teachers, 443; on transla- 
 tions, 478 ; on written exer- 
 cises, 500; religious instruc- 
 tion, 581, 601602. 
 
 Psychology, in Jesuit course, 
 131, 194. 
 
 Punishments, 614619; cor- 
 poral, 616. 
 
 Pupils, of Jesuit schools, num- 
 ber, 13, 144146, 206; distin- 
 guished, 172, 204205, 258. 
 
 Quick, on Jesuit system, 10, 
 13, 98, 135136, 241, 243, 
 246249, 265, 431, 437, 466, 
 489, 516517, 518, 530, 565, 
 624. 
 
 Quigley, Archbishop of Chi- 
 cago, 302. 
 
 Quintilian, 419, 564, 614. 
 
 Ranke, 18, 89, 145, 246, 322, 
 595, 628. 
 
 Rashdall, H., 21 sqq., 2930, 
 3940, 41, 430. 
 
 Ratio Discendi et Docendi, of 
 Jouvancy, 162, 163 note 1, 
 434435. 
 
 Ratio Studiorum, 107143, 
 189 199; modern criticism 
 on, 5 16 ; drawn up, 109 
 111 ; name, 111 ; seized by 
 Spanish Inquisition, 112 
 sqq.\ character, 114 sqq.\ 
 classes, 118, 121 sqq.\ school 
 hours, 124; branches: lan- 
 guages, 118, 331 sqq., 345 
 360; mother-tongue, 129,284, 
 491 sqq.', history, 125 sqq., 
 447 note 2; geography, 127 
 sqq.\ archaeology, see "An- 
 tiquities"; philosophy, 131 
 sqq., 193197; mathematics, 
 
INDKX. 
 
 683 
 
 132134 ; sciences, 134, 192, 
 194195, 197199; succes- 
 sive teaching, of branches, 
 132; class teachers, 4425??., 
 sources of Ratio, 1920, 
 136143; revision, 1915??.; 
 results, see "Efficiency", 
 adaptability, 2805??.; essen- 
 tials, 286 5??.; defects, 14, 
 92 note 1, 444445. 
 
 Raumer, 17, 166, 251252; 
 character of his history of 
 education, 650 < 5g. 
 
 Reading, according to sense, 
 458461, 498; amount of, 
 482 sqq. ; dangers of reading, 
 51, 166,367, 5625??. 
 
 Rector, President in Jesuit 
 colleges, 115116. 
 
 Reformation, and education, 
 57 5??.; decline of schools, 
 6066; in England, 6971 ; 
 elementary school not child 
 of Reformation, 24; Jesuit 
 system not borrowed from 
 Protestant schools, 1920, 
 140 sqq.\ compulsory educa- 
 tion and state-monopoly re- 
 sult of, 66. 
 
 Reform-Gymnasium,291 292, 
 336. 
 
 Reforms, modern, 1 5; in 
 Germany, 289292 ; in Am- 
 erica, 292296; towards 
 elective system, 310312. 
 
 Relations, of Jesuits, 128. 
 
 Religious, name, 80 note 3; 
 as educators, 845??., 9698, 
 209; opposition to, 89, 98-100; 
 success of, 9298, 221 5??. 
 
 Religious instruction, 574 
 607 ; necessity, 674578 ; 
 Catholic position, 578582; 
 undenominational religion, 
 582583; reading of Bible, 
 583^??.; catechism, 590 sqq.\ 
 correlation of all branches 
 with religion, 599605; re- 
 ligious instruction in higher 
 schools, 605 sqq. 
 
 Renaissance, see "Human- 
 ism." 
 
 Repetition, in Jesuit system, 
 466467, 474. 
 
 Resistance, value of, in edu- 
 cation, 319322. 
 
 Rethwisch, C., 75??. 
 
 Revival of Learning, see 
 "Humanism." 
 
 Revision of the Ratio Studio- 
 rum, 191 5??. 
 
 Rhetoric, class in Jesuit sys- 
 tem, 120, 370; meaning of, 
 432. 
 
 Ribadeneira, Peter, Jesuit 
 writer, 102, 138, 511. 
 
 Ribot, M., on secondary 
 schools in France, 218219. 
 
 Ricci, Jesuit scholar, 153, 156. 
 
 Richelieu, Cardinal, Jesuit 
 pupil, 172; on Jesuit col- 
 leges, 271. 
 
 Richthofen, Baron, on Jesuit 
 scholars, 129, 158159. ^ 
 
 Rickaby, Joseph, Jesuit writer, 
 235. 
 
 Rivals, see "Class matches." 
 
 Rogers, Thorold, 30. 
 
 Roman College, 108, 110, 144, 
 227. 
 
 Roman history, 448 451. 
 
 Roothaan, General of the So- 
 ciety, 191, 197198, 296, 329, 
 360361. 
 
 Roth, Jesuit, author of first 
 European Sanskrit gram- 
 mar, 151. 
 
 Rousseau, 175, 643, 
 
 Rowland, Professor in Johns 
 Hopkins University, 413. 
 
 Ruaeus (La Rue), Jesuit 
 scholar, 163164. 
 
 Ruhkopf, on morality in Jesuit 
 schools, 537. 
 
 Ruiz, Jesuit linguist, 155. 
 
 Russell, Dr., Columbia Uni- 
 versity, 89, 19, 20, 141, 
 244, 313. 
 
 Russia, Society preserved in, 
 177, 189. 
 
684 
 
 JESUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Sabatier, P., 209. 
 
 Saccheri, Jesuit mathematici- 
 an, 156157, 654655. 
 
 Sacchini, Jesuit writer, 162, 
 249, 436, 438, 497, 530, 548, 
 592, 600, 624, 634, 637. 
 
 Sadler, Mr., 659. 
 
 Saintsbury, on Southwell, 162. 
 
 Saint-Vincent, Gregory, 156. 
 
 Salamanca, University, 41, 43, 
 79. 
 
 Salisbury, Lord, on undenom- 
 inational religion, 583. 
 
 Sallust, 382383. 
 
 Sallwiirk, Dr. von, 435, 448 
 note. 
 
 Sanskrit, Jesuit scholars, 151 
 152. 
 
 Sanson, geographer, 448 note. 
 
 Sarbiewski, Jesuit poet, 161. 
 
 Savonarola, 51, 60. 
 
 Scaliger, 160, 657. 
 
 Schall, Jesuit mathematician, 
 156. 
 
 Scheiner, Jesuit scientist, 157. 
 
 Schiller, Director, 478, 566 
 note, 588589, 601602. 
 
 Scholars, Jesuits, see "Writ- 
 ers." 
 
 Scholarship, among Jesuits, 
 198199, 226238, 410411; 
 in America, 411 sqq.\ schol- 
 arship and teaching ability, 
 402414. 
 
 Scholasticism, 4557; defects 
 of, 46 sqq.\ humanists on, 
 52; relation of Jesuit system 
 to, 136. 
 
 School drama, 164 sqq. 
 
 School management, 608 635. 
 
 Schopenhauer, 325. 
 
 Sciences, in Jesuit curriculum, 
 134, 192, 194195, 197198, 
 199, 283 ; and classics, 359. 
 
 Scientists, among Jesuits, 157, 
 178181, 226233,654656. 
 
 Scoraille, Jesuit writer, 515 
 516. 
 
 Scotland, education before 
 Reformation, 2829. 
 
 Scope of education, intellec- 
 tual, 297 sqq.\ injured by 
 electivism, 316 sqq.\ moral, 
 ^11 sqq., 522^^. 
 
 Scotus, 39, 193, 425. 
 
 Secchi, Angelo, Jesuit astron- 
 omer, 226227. 
 
 Secondary schools before Re- 
 formation, %sqq., 652653. 
 
 Sectarian schools, 580 sqq. 
 
 Seeley, Levi, 10 note, 37, 246 
 247, 511, 649. 
 
 Selfishness, alleged of Jesuits, 
 251, 254255. 
 
 Seminary of teachers in Soci- 
 ety, 433434, 453. 
 
 Seneca, 384-385. 
 
 Seyffert, M., 309, 379, 507. 
 
 Shea, Gilmary, 536537. 
 
 Shoup, W. J., 652. 
 
 Sirmond, Jesuit historian, 448 
 note. 
 
 Sixtus V., and the Ratio Stu- 
 diorum, 112113. 
 
 Sloane, Rev. M., on Jesuits, 
 243. 
 
 Smith, Clement L., 304305. 
 
 Smith, Sydney, Jesuit writer, 
 173 note 1. 
 
 Snyder, Carl, 413. 
 
 Society of Jesus, name, 75; 
 foundation and aim, 75 77, 
 79 sqq.\ and education, 80 
 sqq.\ constitutions, 101 sqq.\ 
 suppression, 173175, 189 
 190. 
 
 Socrates, 253, 397. 
 
 Sodalities, 560- -562. 
 
 Sommervogel, Jesuit writer, 
 148. 
 
 Sources, of Ratio Studiorutu, 
 136143. 
 
 Southwell, Robert, Jesuit poet, 
 162. 
 
 Spahn, Deputy, on Jesuit 
 scholars, 235237. 
 
 Spain, schools, 40 44; sup- 
 pression of Society, 174. 
 
 Spanish Inquisition, seized 
 Ratio Studiorum, 112 sqq. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 68 5 
 
 Spe, Frederick, Jesuit writer, 
 130 and note 4. 
 
 Speaking Latin, 506 sqq. 
 
 Specialization, 303, 317, 322 
 325; in Society, 198-199, 440. 
 
 Spencer, 525, 643. 
 
 Spiritual Exercises, of St. 
 Ignatius, 75, 420, 426, 527, 
 532 note 1, 560, 574. 
 
 Sport, see "Athletics." 
 
 St. Boniface, Jesuit College, 
 216. 
 
 Stephens, Jesuit linguist, 152. 
 
 Stiglmayr, Jesuit scholar, 237, 
 397. 
 
 Stonyhurst, Jesuit College, 
 228, 229, 257258, 564, 617. 
 
 Strassmaier, Jesuit assyriolog- 
 ist, 233, 236. 
 
 Stryker, President of Hamil- 
 ton College, on liberal edu- 
 cation, 341. 
 
 Studio, inferiora, 118 sqq. 
 
 Sturm, Reformer and school- 
 man at Strasburg, 1920, 
 72; his system not model of 
 Ratio Studiorum, 140 sqq. 
 
 Suarez, Jesuit theologian, 81 
 note, 88, 109, 426, 427. 
 
 Success, of Jesuit colleges, see 
 "Efficiency." 
 
 Successive teaching, preferred 
 to simultaneous, 118, 132. 
 
 Sunday schools, and religious 
 training, 578. 
 
 Supervision in college, 537 
 sqq., 541 sqq., 546547. 
 
 Suppression of the Society, 
 173175; effects on educa- 
 tion, 184186. 
 
 Sydney Smith, discipline in 
 English public schools, 539 
 note. 
 
 Syria, Jesuit schools, 106, 206 
 207, 209. 
 
 Tacitus, 383384. 
 Taunton, E., 427 428. 
 Taylor, H. O., 45, 49, 8283. 
 Teaching, in relation to 
 
 scholarship, see ''Scholar- 
 ship." 
 
 Teachers of the Society, 91 
 98, 415 sqq.\ permanent 
 teachers, 435, 437 sqq.\ 
 changes of teachers, 92 note 
 1, 444 445 ; training of, 
 415 455; direct training for 
 teaching, 431^434; cf. 410 ; 
 continued self-training, 446 
 sqq.\ training of teachers of 
 mathematics in the Old 
 Society, 133, 438439; ap- 
 pointment according to 
 ability, 439442; qualities 
 requisite : in general, 415 
 416 ; in particular : mastery 
 of the subject, 403404, 410, 
 446 sqq., 453 sq ., 611; see 
 also "Scholarship"; quali- 
 ties of character : authority, 
 610614; submissipn, 608 
 610; self-control, 419420, 
 531533,611612, 615; im- 
 partiality, 420, 612, 6l9sgg.\ 
 politeness, 627628; truth- 
 fulness, 630; patience, 420, 
 630, 631632, 646; kindness, 
 420, 612613, 622 ; firmness, 
 612, 614, 619, 623 sqq.\ pru- 
 dence, 418419, 615, 624- 
 625, 628629; zeal and devo- 
 tion to work, 94, 98, 420, 
 436-^38, 528531, 535537, 
 540543, 545547, 548-550, 
 562 sqq., 637644; piety, 
 419421, 643^.; persever- 
 ance, 95^^., 435438, 642; 
 motives and ideals, 636 
 648. 
 
 Terence, 165166, 391, 565. 
 
 Tetlow, Principal, 327328. 
 
 Text-books, of Jesuits, 163 
 164 393. 
 
 Theiner, 173, 178, 185. 
 
 Thomas, see "Aquinas" and 
 "Kempis." 
 
 Thornton, A., 578579. 
 
 Thring, E., 337, 616. 
 
 Thucydides, 395. 
 
686 
 
 JKSUIT EDUCATION. 
 
 Tirabosclii, Jesuit writer, 181. 
 
 Times, London, 222, 256257. 
 
 Tolerance, religious and the 
 Jesuits, 252254, 595596. 
 
 Tom Brown's School Days, 
 537, 572. 
 
 Tragedies, 401. 
 
 Training of teachers, see 
 "Teachers." 
 
 Translation, of classical au- 
 thors, 353 sqq.\ by the 
 teacher, 462463; in class, 
 474^478. 
 
 Trendelenburg, Professor, 193. 
 
 Trent, Council of, and reform 
 of education, 71. 
 
 Trichinopoli, Jesuit College, 
 2p6. 
 
 Trivium and Quadrivium, 27, 
 44. 
 
 Trotzendorf, 530. 
 
 Truth, on "Jesuit and Gaol- 
 Bird System," 546547. 
 
 Truthfulness, 628 sqq. 
 
 Tursellini, Jesuit writer, 126 
 note 2, 164. 
 
 Undenominational school, 579 
 sqq. 
 
 Universities, before Reforma- 
 tion, 38 44; denounced by 
 Luther, 63 64 ; opposition 
 of, to Jesuits, 182 sqq., 269 
 sqq. 
 
 Valla, humanist, 51. 
 
 Vasquez, Jesuit theologian, 
 109, 426, 427. 
 
 Vatican library, 28. 
 
 Vest, Senator,on Jesuit schools 
 among the Indians, 209 
 211. 
 
 Viger, Jesuit philologist, 164. 
 
 Virchow, Professor, 290, 334. 
 
 Virgil, 44, 49, 387391, 471.' 
 
 Visconti, General of the Soci- 
 ety, 431432, 434, 442. 
 
 Vitelleschi, General of the 
 Society, 549. 
 
 Vittorino da Feltre, 26-28, 60, 
 
 563 note. 
 Vives, Luiz, humanist, 141 
 
 142. 
 
 Vogt, Professor, 336. 
 Voltaire, 152, 174, 435; on 
 
 Jesuit colleges, 174175, 
 
 181 ^ on morality in Jesuit 
 
 colleges, 533534. 
 
 Wagner, Jesuit writer, 126. 
 
 Waldeck- Rousseau, and Jesuit 
 schools, 186, 219. 
 
 Washington, George, at 
 Georgetown College, 205; on 
 religion, 576. 
 
 Wasmann, Jesuit entomolo- 
 gist, 232233, 236, 238. 
 
 Weissenfels, Professor, 306 
 note 3, 317. 
 
 Wellington, Duke of, on ef- 
 fects of suppression of 
 Society, 185 ; on schools 
 without religion, 576. 
 
 Werenfels, Reformed theolo- 
 gian, 587. 
 
 West, Professor in Princeton, 
 344. 
 
 Whitton, Professor, 251, 406. 
 
 Wiese, Dr., 309, 356. 
 
 Wilamowitz, von, (University 
 of Berlin), 369, 378, 505. 
 
 William of St. Amour, 99. 
 
 Williams, Professor in Cornell 
 University, 651. 
 
 Willmann, Professor, 4 note, 
 468 sqq., 473, 485. 
 
 Wimpheling, humanist, 35 
 36, 54, 60. 
 
 Windle, Dr., 581. 
 
 Winsor, Justin, on Jesuit writ- 
 ers, 154-155, 159. 
 
 Witchcraft, charges against 
 Jesuit teachers, 148. 
 
 Women, education of in Mid- 
 dle Ages, 41, and note 2. 
 
 Writers of the Society, 148 
 164, 179182, 225238; why 
 often ignored, 154, 657. 
 
INDKX. 
 
 687 
 
 Written exercises, see "Exer- Zahorowski, 103. 
 
 cises." Zallinger, three Jesuit scien- 
 
 tists, 180181. 
 Ziegler, Professor, 82 note, 
 
 140, 255, 270, 433, 582. 
 Zi-ka-wei, Jesuit College and 
 
 observatory, 207208, 232. 
 Zottoli, Jesuit sinologist, 656. 
 
 Xavier, see "Francis." 
 Xenophon, 394395. 
 Ximenez, Cardinal, 42. 
 
 Yeuni, Jesuit educator, 438. 
 
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