LIBRARY University of California. Gl FT OF ^M^.rA Class .# COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. DEPAIIIMENT OF AlilllCliLTUKIi. BULLETIN NO. 63. A COlj'RSE IN MTIIRE STUDY FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. By LOUISE MILLER. PUBLISHED BY DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY. 1900. WM. STANLEY RAY, STATE PKINTEK OF PENNSTLVANIA. 1900. COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICOLTORE. BULLETIN NO. 63. 1 COURSE IN NATURE STDDI FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. By LOUISE. MILLER. PUBLISHED BY DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY. 1900. WM. STANLEY RAY, STATE PRINTER OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1900. ^lfc TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. PREFACE, 3 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL, 7 FIRST GRADE, 9 SECOND GRADE, 16 THIRD GRADE, 24 FOURTH GRADE, 31 FIFTH GRADE, 38 Insects, 51 Place of insects in animal kingdom, 53 . Parts of insects, 53 Injurious insects, 55 Some of nature's insecticides, 57 OUTLINE FOR TREE STUDY FOR ALL GRADES, 58 Outline for tree description, 60 Forms of tree description, 61 Drawings, 61 OUTLINE FOR DETERMINING MINERALS, 67 GERMINATION OF SEEDS, 69 SIXTH GRADE, 70 « Osmosis, 70 Transportation of moisture, 71 Path of liquids in plants, 72 Carbon food of plants, 72 Respiration of plants, 72 Growth of plants, 73 Irritability, 73 Birds, 74 Minerals, 80 Physics, 83 Heat, 85 SEVENTH GRADE, 88 Formation of coal, 93 Mineral oil and gas, 94 Glacial period, 94 Sun, 96 Light, 97 Sounds in nature, 98 EIGHTH GRADE, 101 The home, 101 Spring work 109 Care of garden, Ill PICTURES SUGGESTED FOR USE IN SCHOOLS Ill STATUARY 116 APPARATUS, 117 (1) 166446 (2) PREFACE. Harrisburg, Pa., Jun^ 25, 1900. The following Bulletin, giving a course in Nature Study for the public schools, is one of the most important and valuable of all of those which the Department has hitherto published. The course was outlined and prepared by Miss Louise Miller, who for several years had charge of Natuf e Study work in the schools of Detroit, Mich., and will commend itself to natural history teachers as being not only sci- entifically accurate and exceedingly suggestive, but as also out- lining in a systematic way, a branch and method of education pecu- liarly adapted to country schools. The study of nature, by observing the things themselves, is the new and rational method of instruction and constitutes what now is known by the modern name, "Nature Study." This bulletin is intended as a guide to teachers, indicating the subjects adapted to each grade of scholars, and giving the order in which the subject ought to be pursued. An inspection of the work proposed by this course will show how much there is in the vicinity of every country school to interest and instruct in the numerous natural objects, in regard to which the mass of our population have but little knowledge, and which, if properly presented, may be, at least partially understood, by the smallest pupil. The bulletin is also informal notice to teachers in Pennsylvania that in the near future, such instruction as it outlines, wall be re- quired in every country school. Those, therefore, who wish to follow this profession will do well to acquaint themselves with the method here presented, and begin preparation for the work to be performed, so that when their examiners come to question them' as to natural ob- jects, whose uses and characteristics they are expected to under- stand and explain to others, they may be ready to answer intelli- gently, and satisfactorily perform the duties required. This is no new fad in education, but is older than the Common- wealth itself. William Penn, near the close of his life, in a work entitled "Reflections and Maxims," suggested substantially the method now proposed to be pursued in the education of our youth. His words are so closely in accord with advanced modern thought in education along nature study lines, that I present them here in full in the hope that the most conservative may be influenced to accept (3) this teaching, and adopt the new' education, which promises so much for the development of country children and country life. He says : "The world is certainly a great and stately volume of natural things and may be, not improperly, styled the hieroglyphics of a letter; but, alas, how very few leaves of it do we seriously turn over! This ought to be the subject of the education of our youth; who, at twenty, when (hey should be fit for business know little or nothing of it. We are in pain to make them scholars but not men; to talk rather than to know, which is true canting. The first thing obvious to children is what is sensible; and that we make no part of their rudiments. We press their memory too soon, and puzzle, strain and load them with W;Ords and rules to know Grammar and Rhetoric, and a strange tongue or two, that it is ten to one may never be useful to them; leav- ing their natural genuis to mechanical, physical or natural knowledge, uncultivated and neglected; which would be of exceeding use and pleasure to them through the whole course of their lives. "Tobe sure, languages are not to be despised or neglected; but things are still to be preferred. Children had rather be making tools and instruments of play, shaping, drawing, framing, building, etc., than getting some rules of propriety of speech by heart; and these also would follow with more judgment, and less trouble and time. ''It were happy if we studied nature more in natural things; and acted according to nature; whose rules are few, plain and most reason- able. Let us begin, therefore, where she begins, go her pace, and close always where she ends, and we cannot miss of being good naturalists. The creation would not be longer a riddle to us. The heavens, earth and waters, with their respective, various and numer- ous inhabitants, their productions, natures, seasons, sympathies and antipathies, their use, benefit and pleasure, would be better under- stood by us; and an eternal wisdom, power, majesty, and goodness, very conspicuous to us, through these sensible and passing forms; the world wearing the mark of its Maker whose stamp is everywhere visible, and the characters very legible to the children of wisdom. And it would go a great way to caution and direct people in their use of the world, that they were better studied and known in the creation of it. For how could men find the confidence to abuse it, while they should see the great Creator stare them in th.e face, in all and every part thereof? Their ignorance makes them insensible; and to that insensibility may be ascribed their hard usage of several parts of this noble creation; that has the stamp and voice of a Deity everywhere, and in everything, to the observing. "It is a pity, therefore, that books have not been composed for youth, by some curious and careful naturalists, and also mechanics, in the Latin tongue, to be used in schools, that they might learn things with words; things obvious and familiar to them, and which would make the tongue easier to be obtained by them. "Many able gardeners and husbandmen are ignorant of the reason of their calling; as most artificers are of the reason of their own rules that govern their excellent workmanship. But a naturalist and mechanic of this sort is master of the reason of both; and might be of practice too, if his industry kept pace with his speculations, which were very commendable, and without which he cannot be said to be a complete naturalist or mechanic. "Finally, if a man be the index or epitome of the world, as phil- osophers tell us, we have only to read ourselves well, to be learned in it. But because there is nothing we less regard than the characters of the Power that made us, which are so clearly written upon us, and the world he has given us, and can best tell us what we are and should be, we are even strangers to our own genius; the glass in which we should see that true, instructing and agreeable variety, which is to be observed in nature, to the admiration of that wisdom and the adoration of that Power which made us all." Had these suggestions been adopted at the time they were offered, the education of to-day would have been far in advance of its present state, and the country schools in Pennsylvania would be turning out classes of enthusiastic scholars, informed and interested in the wonderful phenomena of the natural world in which they have been placed, and which they are endowed with power, to study, use and enjoy. JOHN HAMILTON, Secretary of Agriculture. (6) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. To Prof. John Hamilton, Secretary of Agriculture: Dear Sir: I have the honor to present herewith the Bulletin upon a course in ^'Nature Study/' which, several months ago, you requested me to prepare. My hope is, that it may prove useful, in directing the attention of school directors and teachers, to the importance and practicability of the study of nature in our public schools. Nature Study should mean Nature loving. Its object should be to open the minds and hearts of the children to a greater interest, keener appreciation, deeper feverence for the beauties and wonders of crea- tion. The inquiring minds should be quickened. Most of the work outlined has been accomplished by children in the grades indicated. As conditions differ, each teacher should select from the outline material which can be used to best advantage, and arouse the greatest interest. It is neither expected nor desired that all the work herein outlined shall be accomplished, but that it shall prove largely suggestive. It is hoped all will grasp fundamental principles and teach only that which is vital. Too much time is spent upon non-essentials, and the great unity in nature overlooked. Nothing should be taught in isolation, but the close relation between organic and inorganic should be emphasized. Plants should be studied as the great anima- ting principle, forming a connecting link between dead mineral matter and the highly organized animal life. Teachers should constantly encourage pupils to collect material, to construct apparatus, to observe all natural phenomena, and then gradually lead them to discover relations. All knowledge is largely a matter of relations. The ethical value also should always be prom- inently brought out. Pupils should be led to realize their place in nature, and to feel that they are but higher expressions of the same energy which produced a drop of dew, or a world. Very resp^ectfully, LOUISE MILLER. Ithaca, N. Y., June 25, 1900. (7) (8) _ OF i^UFORNAL A COURSE IN NATURE STUDY FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. FIRST GRADE. SEPTEMBER. PLANTS. Compare growth of twigs on different trees — maple, horse-chestnut, poplar, spruce. Relation of insects to leaves — used as nests, for food," for deposit- ories for eggs, not disturbed. Fruits. — Classification as to color and taste; reason for color and taste. ANIMALS. Migration of birds. Study cat and dog. Compare coats as to tex- ture, color, distribution, warmth and protection. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Construct a magnetic needle to determine directions. Daily record of day, date, frost or dew, direction of wind, clouds or fogs, rain, temperature. Locate places in the horizon where the sun rises and sets. Posi- tion of sun at noon ; morning and evening star. MINERALS. Make collections of pebbles. Classify as to color, form, smooth- ness, weight, etc. Examine coarse and find sand. Relate to smooth- ness of pebbles, and etTects of water. NOTE. — In the study of trees, observations should be confined to a few throughout the year. The shape, bark, wood, leaves, blossoms, fruit cocoons, should be studied and comparisons made. The life infesting the tree should be noted, and, if possible, reasons assigned. Place list of different kinds of birds observed by pupils during summer in a conspicuous place on the board, also list of those observed during first weeks of school. Relate migration of birds to Weather Record, noting effect of tem- perature upon insect life, growth, bud scars and leaf scars. Relate structure and migration to food getting; robin and earthworm; woodpecker and grub; quail and seeds. Construct magnetic needle by magnetizing end of a needle with opposite poles of a magnet, inserting through center of small cork, and suspending by silk thread. (9) 10 Suspend a prism in a window where the sun may stril^e it, forming a spectrum. Compare color of flowers, leaves, fruits, pebbles with spectrum, noting pre- vailing color. Much attention should be given to sense-training. Children should be led to detect form and texture by touch alone, perfume by smell, sound by hearing, flavors by tasting, weight by the muscular sense, different fruits, leaves, flowers, minerals, birds, insects by sight. OCTOBER. PLANTS. Buds for next year's growth; color of bark, growth of wood; hard- ness of bark and wood. Leaves. — Effect of frost, color of falling leaves, leaf-scars. Seeds. — Distribution by wind, bursting pods. Protective coloration of seeds. ANIMALS. Disappearance of birds, insects and animals. Relate covering to disappearance. Compare movements of cat and dog with birds, in- sects and other animals. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare frost, dew% winds, clouds, fogs, rain and temperature with September. Change in rising and setting sun; position of sun at noon. Change of length of day and night. ^ MINERALS. Classify as to physical properties sandstone and limestone. Com- pare sand and clay. Relate to disappearance of frogs, turtles, snakes, etc. NOTE. — Children should be led to see that destiny of trees does not depend alone upon the production of its seeds, but that much of its energy is devoted to growth. Compare number of buds formed by different trees and relate to itr, development. Relate falling leaves to disappearance of sap into roots, structure of leaves to distribution, etc. Fruits whose germs are destroyed when eaten, are usually of a dull color when ready for distribution — nuts; those whose germs are not so destroyed, assume a brilliant color; luscious taste and fragrant odor — cherries, peaches, grapes. Relate frost to disappearance of birds and insects, winds to distribution of seeds, change of position of sun to change in temperature and its effects upon life. In primary grades pupils should be forming geographical concepts and they can do so most effectually by coming in contact with things. NOVEMBER. PLANTS. Preparation of twigs for winter — thickened bark, scales on buds, etc. II ANIMALS. Preparation of animal life for winter. Compare covering of cat, dog and sheep in their preparation for winter. Use of wool for clothing. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Prevailing winds cold or warm, wet or dry. Clouds higher or lower than in September and October. Examine frost crystals. Compare rising, setting and position of sun at noon with Sep- tember. Rising of new, full and waning moon. MINERALS. Examine granite and marble. Compare size of crystals. When are snow crystals large? NOTE. — Compare preparation of twigs, thickening of bark, number and char- acter of scales on bud. varnish and protection of leaves inside of bud. Relate change in temperature to preparation of animals for winter. Relate change of position of sun to change of temperature. DECEMBER. PLANTS. Effect of frost upon plant life; protection and use. Any germina- tion. ANIMATES. Compare dog, ca<, sheep, horse and cow as to movements, means of getting food, means of protection, use to man. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Examine snow-flakes. Frost and snow protection to life. Comi)aie rising, settiiig and position of sun at noon with September. MINERALS. Compare structure of granite, marble, limestone, and sandstone. NOTE. — Relate length of day to frost and its effects. Spruce trees should be studied in relation to Christmas. Difference between evergreen and deciduous trees, leaves and needles, fruit and cones, bark, wood, etc. Relate structure of animals to environment. Compare manner of putting down the feet, length and structure of limbs, cushions, claws, hoofs, etc. Relate to manner of getting food. Relate snow flakes and frost, dew and rain, to change in temperature. Note effect of frost upon soils. Relate to plants and seeds and hibernating animals. 12 JANUARY. PLANTS Effect of warm days upon plants. P^nemies of buds— birds and frost; protection of buds. Sap in trees. ANIMALS. Compare food of January and June. Compare teeth of dog and cat, sheep, cow and horse witli human teeth and relate to kinds of food. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare number of rainy or snowy days with December. Increase of day; rising and setting sun. Compare with November. MINERALS. Compare physical characteristics of granile, marble, sandstone, limestone and slate. NOTE. — Of what advantage or disadvantage, are warm days in January to plants? When and why are buds used by birds as food? Examine twigs of maple, horse-chestnut, and spruce. Note buds destroyed by birds, wind, or killed by frost. Compare hibernating and non-hibernating animals as to cov- ering, structure, manner of getting food, etc. — turtle, cat, dog or bird. Place hibernating animals in a box of moist earth and permit pupils to observe them disappear. FEBRUARY. PLANTS. Determine location of frozen buds on twigs; number found, kind, number killed and number alive. ANIMALS. Manner in which dog, cat, sheep, horse and cow take their food. Compare prehensile organs with man's. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Increased or decreased temperature since December. Compare^ January and February. Prevailing wind — cold or warm. Compare length of day and night with previous months. Note suri rise and sunset. \ 13 MINERALS. Compare diiferent kinds of coal in color, weight, softness, hard- ness, etc. NOTE. — Observe the amount of work done by different trees in preparation for winter. Relate to effectiveness. The horse-chestnut has a few well protected buds prepared; others many, but not so well protected. Moral lesson. Function of leaves, assimilation of food. Compare this year's growth of horse-chestnut, maple, and spruce as to num- ber, size, shape, texture, etc. Reason. Compare perfection of jaws of animals with length of jaw. MARCH. PLANTS. Study tree — environment, beauty, form, leaves, blossoms, etc. ANIMALS. Begin Natural History Calendar — observation, day, date^ by whom, remarks. Watch for the first appearance of birds.- ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Change in cloudiness, rainfall. Compare with September and De- cember. Compare length of day and night. MINERALS. Compare granite, limesi^one, marble, sandstone and coal, as to color, texture, weight, tenacity. NOTE. — Effect of location of a tree near house, other trees, in open space. Observe trunk and branching of maple, horse-chestnut and spt-uce. Note beauty, grace, symmetry, form. Press specimens of leaves from different kinds of maple trees, also preserve fruit of trees. APRIL. PLANTS. Germination of seeds — bean, pea, corn, wheat. ANIMALS. Appearance of moths and butterflies. Change in covering of cat, dog, sheep. Compare eyes. Imitate sounds made by cat, dog and sheep. ■ • . 14 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Observation of temperature, direction of wind, number of foggy and clear days. Compare with other months. Relate lengthening day to change in movement of sun; to shadow at noon. Compare with previous months. MINERALS. Examine sand, gravel, loam and clay. Value of earth in relation to plant life. NOTE. — Examine dry and soaked peas, beans, corn, and wheat. Note coats, scars and opening near the scar. In all work in plant life, as in every other study, thought should first be ac- quired, and then expression. Collect larvae during the fall, permit pupils to see and note date of spinning cocoons, and appearance of insects. Animals and plants should be studied in life cycles. Relate movement of sun to temperature and its effect upon life. Encourage pupils to plant seeds at home and care for the plants. MAY. PLANTS. Flowers; buds, color, perfume, honey; pollen distributed by in- sects, wind; leaves — blade, parallel and netted veined. ANIMALS. Observe habits of common birds, location and kinds of nests, pro- tective coloration of feathers. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare clear, cloudy and rainy days witli April. Continued observation of sun and shadow; relate to temperature and life. MINERALS. Study of soils. NOTE. — In teaching flowers, technicalities should be avoided. Emphasize color, form, marking, perfume, honey. Influences which produced the flower — earth, air, rain, sun, insects, birds. Relate soils to food for plants. 15 JUNE. PLANTS. Continued study of flowers and leaves. Parts of flowers — calyx, sepals, corolla, petals, stamens, carpel. Plants as wholes. ANIMALS. Birds — hatching of young, care of young, food. Compare young of cats, dogs, birds, butterflies, in covering, ability to help themselves, food, movements, etc. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Thunderstorms, hailstones. Destructive effects of each. Compare length of day and night. NOTE. — Children can readily distinguish parts of fruit blossoms. The dande- lion should be studied as a whole. The sparrow, robin, woodpecker and oriole are best adapted to this grade. 16 SECOND GRADE. SEPTEMBER. PLANTS. Compare growth of twigs of diiferent trees, of different years. Oak, elm, pine. Relation of insects to leaves as food, as nests, as depositories for eggs. Prevailing color in same leaves. Plants storing food. ANIMALS. Migration of birds. Compare coats of squirrel and rabbit as to tex- ture, color, distribution, warmth, protection. Habits of grasshop- pers. Observe caterpillars spin cocoons. Prepare an ant's' nest. See fifth grade. MINERALS. Visit a stream; forces acting upon pebbles; formation of marbles. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Daily record of day, date, frost or dew, direction of wind, clouds or fogs, rainfall, temperature. Moon's phases, rising and setting sun. Locate places in the horizon where the sun rises and sets. NOTE. — Weather Records should be kept from year to year and differences in growth of different years should be referred to variations in atmospheric condi- tions. Ohservations of life infesting trees continued. Record of niigration of birds same as Grade I. Study squirrel and rabbit as to shape of body, head, ears, mouth, legs and paws. Oak, pine, turnips, parsnips store food for animals. Remove an ant hill to a glass fruit jar and cover with brown paper. Food — sugar. By removing the paper, halls, 'galleries, and habits may be observed. Place larvae of insects in an empty chalk-box containing leaves on which they feed. Slide piece of glass in the top that the feeding and spinning cocoons may be observed. Record dates. OCTOBER. PLANTS. Preparation of twigs for winter; disappearance of sap, drying leaves; falling leaves, scars; location and arrangements of buds; struc- ture of seed for distribution — wings, pappus, hooks. Color of seeds. 17 ANIMATES. Habits of squirrel, of rabbif, as to storing food — how, where, kind and quantity. MINERALS. Formation of pebbles. Compare as to transparent, translucent and opaque. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Effect of prevailing wind upon clear, cloudy, wet and dry weather. Direction of heaviest rains. Compare with September. Compare October and September as to rising and setting sun, length of day and night. Constant position of North Star, revolution of Great Bear around it; pointers in Great Bear. NOTE. — The wind distributed seeds are supplied with wings and pappus, usually found on tall trees accessible to wind. Seeds supplied with hooks grow on low bushes so they can attach themselves to passing animals. Before seeds are ripe they are enclosed in green pods or shucks, color of leaves of plants. When ripe, they are brown like earth upon which they fall. Compare leaf scars of horse-chestnut and butternut. In studying squirrel and rabbit, secure a live specimen if possible. Pupils enjoy the action, and the results are more effective. Nothing engenders a love for animals as care of them. Collect nuts for food of squirrels. Observe manner of eating, manner of opening shell. Do you find shells in the woods which have been opened by squirrels? Place fragments of rock in bottle of water and shake frequently. Place peb- bles of different sizes in bottle and shake frequently. Which wears away more quickly? NOVEMBER. PLANTS. Dormant condition of plant life: annuals — those producing many seeds; biennials — those storing nourishment; perennials — those pro- ducing buds and seeds. ANIMALS. Squirrel and rabbit — manner of eating. Food of squirrel stored by itself; food of rabbit stored by plants. MINERALS. Collect and classify metals and minerals — very soft, soft, hard and verv hard. 18 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Frost or dew more common? Effect of wind, and clear or cloudy night upon formation of frost or dew. Compare course of sun with September and October. Effect upon length of day and night; temperature. NOTE, — Relate effect of shortening of days upon temperature and plant life. Compare milkweed, turnip and tree. Destiny of annuals depends entirely upon production of seed. Count seeds in pods of one milkweed plant. Trace life history of biennial — appearance of root and stem of first year; root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit of second year. Count seeds. Show relation between number of seeds prepared and number of buds formed by perennials. Relate minerals and metals ta material stored away in the ground for man's use. DECEMBER. PLANTS. Effect of frost upon twigs, buds, and seeds. ANIMALS. Compare development of limbs in quadrupeds and bipeds; position of body in each; use of upper limbs. Compare squirrel and rabbit with cat and dog. MINERALS. Effect of thawing and freezing upon roots of plants. Power of granite, limestone, sandstone, coal, sand, clay, iron ore, copper ore to absorb and retain moisture. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Increased or decreased cloudiness, rainfall; wind more or less variable; wind preceding rain or acx^ompanying clearing weather. Relation of line sliowing apparent paths of sun since September. Winter solstice. NOTE. — Pupils should have definite idea-as to rising and setting of sun, its position at noon in December. From personal observation difference between animal and plant life of June and December carefully noted. Development of most parts of animal organism is for the purpose of securing food. Erect position of body is proportioned to development of fore-legs as prehensile organs. The work on minerals is for the purpose of showing the value of each for building purposes. Weigh in air, immerse in water and weigh again while wet. Difference in weight shows absorptive power. Effect of frost— cracking rock. 19 JANUARY. PLANTS. Dopmant condition of plants. ANIMALS. Winter condition of animal life. Compare teeth of rabbit and squirrel with dog and cat. Compare teeth and food of each with man. MINERALS. Recognize different kinds of iron ore by color, hardness, crystals, weight. Relate to steel and sharp cutting instruments and tools. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Month of greatest change in temperature. Compare prevailing winds with previous months. Effect of temperature upon rainfall. Note sun at noon; apparent movement, effect upon day and night. NOTE. — Effect of frost upon germination. Snow a warm covering. A poor conductor of heat, excludes cold and prevents radiation of heat. Relate pre- vailing winds to frost and snow. Pupils should be led to see that animals use their claws for digging, and their teeth for cutting and tearing their food, but man has too many demands for his physical organism and is forced to construct tools for his use. FEBRUARY. PLANTS. Winter condition of trees. ANIMALS. Compare structure of head, hand and teeth of different animals; effect of development of one upon the other. Compare jaw, teeth and hand of squirrel, rabbit and man. MINERALS. Recognize different kinds of copper ore by color, hardness, crystals and weight. Uses. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare snowfall, rainfall and fogs with previous months. Note lengthening day; morning or evening longer. Movement of sun on horizon. 20 NOTE. — Shape of tree, angle of branching, development of tree. Compare head of cat or dog, sheep or cow, rabbit or squirrel, and human teeth. Relation of lengthening of day to enlivening of bark and swelling of buds. Use of copper for wires; value to man. Man's superiority over other animals in his use *of tools. MARCH. PLANTS. First awakening of plant life; select a tree for accurate and sys- tematic stud}' ; ditTerence between a tree and s,hrub. ANIMALS. Return of birds, appearance of insects. Natural History Calendar. Protective coloration of squirrel and rabbit. MINERALS. Study soils in relation to plant life; power of different kinds of soil to absorb and retain moisture. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Highest and lowest temperature during the month; character and amount of cloudiness in March, December and September. Compare number of rainy days, in autumn, winter and spring. Vernal equinox; seasons of year since autumnal equinox; rising and setting sun; length of shadow at noon. NOTE. — Observations should be recorded on Natural History Calendar. Fos- ter an interest in Nature, and gradual unfolding of life. Select a tree convenient for constant observation. Measure diameter, height of branching, etc. Secure transverse and longitudinal sections of wood of the same kind of tree. Note carefully color, hardness, softness, toughness of bark of different years' growth. Location and arrangement of buds. Study color, size, covering, protection, etc. Record first appearance of leaves, flowers and fruit. Study continued to end of year. Nesting habits of birds; location of nests, material used. Birds of dull color have open nests, — brilliant colors concealed nests. Relate color of squirrel to bark of tree, color of rabbit to ground and weeds. Why are black squirrels disappearing? Study meadow-lark, owl, duck, snipe, tanager, duck; relation to color, structure to environment and manner of getting food. APRIL. PLANTS. Observe germination of seeds, different parts of seed; ratio of leaf buds and flower buds. 21 ANIMALS. Earthworm — food, manner of moving, value to mankind. Relate earthworm to prei)aration of soil for plants. Compare earthworm and squirrel and rabbit, as to appearance, senses, movements, manner of gettUig food. MINERALS. Power of different soils to absorb and retain heat, life. Relate to plant ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Wind that accompanies wet, dry, clear, cloudy or foggy weather. Difference between April and winter rains. Compare course of sun with December, reason for shortening of shadow; relation of length of shadow to temperature. NOTE. — Measure a gill of corn, wheat, beans and peas; soak twenty-four hours. Measure. Which absorb water? Let each pupil examine a dry and soaked seed. Plant seed in different kinds of soil— clay, sand and loam. Place in light, shade, and dark to detect influence of light upon plant. Record time i.£ planting, first appearance above ground, dropping of exhausted cotyledons. Seed. Planted. Depth. Above ground. Cotyledons. Leaves. Leaves. Position. Margins. Shapes. To compare gradual dev'elopment of plant, pull up, press, and mount specimens on alternate days, showing development of different parts from seed to seed. Development may also be observed by being placed in bottles of alcohol. Care- fully date each specimen. Plant acorns in yard. Fill a large sponge with flaxseed and place in a shallow dish filled with water Keep moist. Mark off a yard square and observe the work of earthworms. Each morning, carefully collect castings and measure. Some idea of amount of work being done in renewing and fertilizing soil. Study structure, food, habits, senses; adaptation of structure to environment. Pupils should be led ta see that each plant and animal is adapted to perform its function in the economy of nature. Relate April showers to increasing temperature — greater heat, greater evapora- tion, consequently greater condensation. Bean. Artril Pea. Corn. Wheat. April. 1 inch. April. Above. Below. Below. Below. Netted. Netted. Parallel. Parallel. Compound. Compound. Simple. . Simple. Alternate. Alternate. ■ Alternate. Alternate. Entire. Entire. Entire. Entire. MAY. PLANTS. Reason for early appearance of wild flowers; food; protection and color of spring flowers; advantage of color; unfolding of buds. Vena- tion. 22 ANIMALS. Study snails — land and water snails; difference in structure, shells, food, etc. Compare with earthworm, as to senses, manner of moving, muscular action, food protections. Compare snail shells with other shells. MINERALS. Examine soils carefully. Origin of soil — decayed vegetation and disintegration of rock. Relate qualities of soil to vegetation. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Number of frosts or dews; compare with November; temperature of nights; direction of prevailing wind. Relation of wind to rainfall. Lengthening of days; changing course of sun and effects upon all life. NOTE. — Compare roots of spring beauty, crow-foot, water-cress, Indian-turnip, tulip, crocus. Relate food stored by plants in roots to nourishment provided by cotyledons. Rapid growth due to food already assimilated.* Color to attract insects and effect fertilization of flower. Relate lengthening days and increasing temperature to appearance of wild flowers and abundance of pond life. Relate falling leaves to formation of vegetable mould. Effect of rain upon surface of ground to disintegration of rocks. Note difference in growth of plants grown in sand and loam. Reason. Make a collection of spring flowers. JUNE. PLANTS. * Continue study of flowers. Arrangement of leaves on twigs; simple and compound, netted and parallel veined. ANIMALS. Insects; compare ants, spiders, flies and beetles; likenesses and differences in habits. Usefulness. MINERALS. ' ' Compare soil used as homes by ants, and earthworms. Effect of each upon soil. Elementary geography. ♦Compare annual and perennial rootstalks. 23 NOTE. — Parts of leaves — petiole, blade, midrib, veins, veinlets, base, apex, margin. Distinguish between simple, palmately and pinnately compound. Press and mount specimens of all species of oak leaves. Make a collection of acorns. Recognize linear, lanceolate, oblong, elliptical, and oval forms. Bases—heart- shaped and shield-shaped. Apex— acute and obtuse. Margins — entire, toothed, notched. Function of veins — to carry sap; blade — to absorb moisture and carbon dioxide. Flower: Calyx — sepals, corolla — petals, stamens — filament, anther and pollen; carpel — ovary, ovules, style, stigma. Study syringa and pansy. Parts of insects: head — eyes, antennae, mouth-parts. Compare life history of each — egg, larva, pupa, image; community life of ants. Habits of spiders and beetles. Encourage habit of personal observation on part of pupils. The study of the ant is suggested for this grade, being accessible and harmless. The habits, home making and community life can better be observed in a nest than in the ground; food getting and storing by watching them in the grass and on sidewalks. Study members of the household: — queen, workers, warriors, etc. Note care of young, intelligence, communication; battles, excursions for food, etc. 24 THIRD GRADE. SEPTEMBER. PLANTS. Relate growth of twigs on north, south, east and west side of trees to symmetrical development of tree. Study pine — type of exeur- rent tree, fruit tree — type of deliquescent tree. Note color of leaves on different parts of tree. Relate coloration of seed to distribution by animals as food, by animals in covering, by wind. ANIMALS. Distinguish between vertebra ted, molluscous, articulated and radi- ated animals. Food, homes, and means of protection. Use familiar examples of each — bird or fish, o^^ster or clam, insects, starfish, etc. Review and classify animals previously studied. MINERALS. Compare sandstone and limestone. Sedimentary rock. Classify rocks in your neighborhood. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Evaporation; dew, frost, rain. Daily record of day, date, direction of wind, clouds or fogs, rainfall, temperature, barometer, moon's phases, morning and evening stars. Rotation and revolution of the earth; inclination of axis; day and night; change of seasons; Autumnal Equinox; Little Bear, Jupiter and Venus. NOTE. — Emphasize geology in this grade, and do as much field work as pos- sible. Take advantage of any natural features in the vicinity of the school house. Forces at work: air, water, wind, frost; building coasts; crumbling cliff; deep- ening gulch; filling marsh. Note erosion and sedimentation, in school yard and street. Always relate physical characteristics of minerals and soils to erosion and change in earth surface. Relate lime in solution in water to life in water, and beds of limestone. OCTOBER. PLANTS. Compare new and old growth of twigs as to color, hardness, soft- ness, texture; seeds growing on twigs — wings, hard, round, shell; near ground — i)appus, hooks and prickles. ANIMALS. Relate color of animals to their environment. Protection and at- tractive coloration. Frogs, toads, grasshoppers, quail, wild cat, polar bear, leopard, tiger, etc. Relate to food-getting. MINERALS. stratified and unstratified rock; limestone, sandstone, slate, granite and marble. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Condensation — formation of rain, snow, hail, frost, dew, clouds. History of a raindrop. Different forms of clouds: Cirrus, Cumulus, Shatus, Nimbus. Elevation of each. Time and place of rising of new, full and waning moon. Effect of day and night upon life. Movements of eTupiter and Venus. NOTE. — Powder gray sandstone, put into a jar of water, shake contents and allow to settle. Next day drop powdered red-sandstone and continue for sev- eral days. Result — stratified material. Drop sand, gravel, loam, clay into a jar of water. S'hake and allow to settle. Result — stratified, assorted ^material. Dissolve lime in water and allow to settle. NOVEMBER. PLANTS. Mode if distribution of seeds of animals, biennials, and perennials. Effect of frost upon twigs, scaly and naked buds. Preparation of plants for winter. ANIMALS. Preparation of animals for winter — thickening of coat, preparation of homes and storing food. Relation of structure of animals to man- ner of getting food ; land and water animals. 2G MINERALS. Life history of a pebble — j)art of cliff or rock; acted upon by air, water and frost. Compare sandstone, granite and liniestone pebbles — as to color, form, smoothness, hardness, etc. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare rainfall with October and September. Forms of clouds most common — high or low. Relation of temperature to cloudiness and rain; relation of cloudiness to rainfall. Compare variation of shadow of October, September, and Novem- ber. When greatest? When least? NOTE. — No work can be more conducive to the cultivation of the imagination than to trace the history of a pebble. Moral lesson: contact with different con- ditions in wearing off the rough edges. Difference in color and texture show different origin; bands and faults show varied experience in life history. Phy sical forces acting. DECEMBER. PLANTS. Examination of horse-chestnut, maple and fruit trees. Compare growth, bark, scars, number of arrangement and covering of buds formed. Probable fate of buds. ANIMALS. Distinguish between vertebrated animals; mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles, amphibians. MINERALS. Action of acids upon sandstone, limestone, marble, granite, mica, quartz, coral, shell. Relate to formation of caves — chemical forces acting. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Influence of storm upon barometer. Effect upon temperature. Winter Solstice. Compare shadow of September 21 and Decem- ber 21. NOTE. — Place small piece of rock in test-tube and note effect of dilute sulphu- ric or hydrochloric acid upon it. Result. Note which one dissolves most readily. Beds of rock best adapted to formation of acids. Effect of water, holding acid *.n solution, upon lime rock. Why was it possible for Mammoth Cave to have been formed where it is? Why is the Blue Grass region so fertile? Compare physical and chemical forces acting. '21 JANUARY. PLANTS. Dormant condition of plant life; death of all annuals; roots of bi- ennials; stems or perennials. ANIMALS. Compare teeth, hoofs, and claws of rodents, carnivorous, herbiver- ous, and omniverous animals; teeth — trown, fangs, enamel, incisors, canine, bicuspid, molars. MINERALS. Fossil animals, teeth, shells, plants, leaves, etc. Identify fossil animals and plants with living things. Conditions of fossilization. Change in earth conditions. Account for fossil ferns in coal. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Variation of temperature before, during and after a storm; varia- tion of barometer and thermometer. Effect of sun's position on temperature. When do shadows corres- pond and differ most? NOTE. — Relate fossil animals and plants to kind and quantity of life extant in remote ages. Compare similar life of the present day. Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of fossil plants and animals and to look for them in limestone used for building purposes. At first it is sufficient to be able to distinguish them by sight. FEBRUARY. PLANTS. Examine trees for frozen buds and twigs; roots and blades of grasses; trunks of trees for mosses. ANIMALS. Begin study of birds; environment — earth, air, water. Relate struc- ture to environment. Aerial birds — long, slender bodies, powerful wings; terrestial birds — large bodies, strong feet, small wings; aquatic birds — boat-shaped bodies, short legs, webbed feet, or long legs, long neck, long bill; eagle, chicken, duck or crane. MINERALS. Continue study of fossil animals. Change of structure in earth's crust; erosion, sedimentation, upheaval, denudation. Life history of a fossil fern. ^ \ 28 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare temperature, barometer, rainfall, fogs, clouds, wind with previous months; with months whose days are about the same length. When do shadows correspond and differ most. NOTE. — Compare fossil ferns with ferns growing at present. Study a coal mine. Life history of a piece of coal. •MARCH. PLANTS. Begin close and comparative study of hoise-chestnut, maple and fruit trees. Environments, shape, symmetry. ANIMALS. ' ! Continue study of birds. Manner of getting food, etc. Birds of prey, climbers, perchers, scratchers, waders, swimmers and divers. MINERALS. Recognize different kinds of iron ore and coal by color, weight, crystals and external appearance. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare March with September. Note frost, or dew, wind, clouds, fogs, rainfall, temperature, barometer, sunrise and sunset. Relative position of earth on September 21 and March 21. NOTE. — In this grade children should get some general ideas of silvi-culture and forestry, and economic importance of trees and forest protection. Nuts as a food product. APRIL. PLANTS. Germination of seeds; continue tree study. ANIMALS. Continue study of birds; parts of bird — head, body, wings and legs. Nestinjj: habits of birds. Relate color to nesting habits. MINERALS. Reduction of iit)n. C()ni[>are jng iion, cast iron, wrought ii-on and sleel. Uses of iron. Iron as a factor in civilization. 29 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Compare April showers with winter rains; temperature of nights and days. Explain dift'erences of character and position of clouds in winter and spring. Compare variation of shadow with November. NOTE. — Germinate peach* apple, horse-chestnut, maple and pine seeds. Relate protection of the embroyo to use of fruits for food. Compare structure of birds' nests with the homes of other animals, and man. Visit a rolling mill if possible and learn the reduction of iron from observation. MAY. PLANTS. Paris of flower — floral enveloi)e and essential organs. Compare fruit, blossoms, maple aad horse-chestnut. ANIMALS. Continue study of birds; hatching of young; care of young; manner of walking, of movement, of flight. Relate nesting habits, and food of birds to trees. MINERALS. Recognize different kinds of iron ore. Mining interests of Penn- sylvania. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Influence of April showers upon May flowers. Wind that accom- panies highest and lowest temperatures. Compare long twilights of summer with short twilights of winter. NOTE. — Pupils should be led to see that the energy of the plant is directed toward maturing seeds; that each part of the plant has its own work to do; that color, form, texture, perfume, are modifications of effect cross-fertilization of the flowers. JUNE. PLANTS. Continue study of flowers; plan of flowers. Distinguish between imperfect and incomplete flowers. Continue tree study. Leaves; simpU' and compound, paraHel and netted veined. 30 ANIMALS. Study bees in relation to fertilization of flowers. Continue study of birds. Feathers: shaft, vane, quili, barbs, barbules. Compare feathers on different parts of body. Relate to food getting. Eagle's wing, feathers of an owl, tail of a woodpecker, body of a duck, wings of an ostrich. MINERALS. Mining of coal. Drilling of oil wells. Importance of petroleum. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Which month had largest number of clear days, rainy days; which coldest month; which warmest. Extremes of temperature. Summer Solstice. Relative position of earth and sun June 21. Compare sunrise, sunset and sun at noon with September, December and March. NOTE. — The study of bees is a very interesting subject. Their community life, habits, food, keen sense perception furnish a fine opportunity for investiga- tion. Pupils should be encouraged to imitate the calls of the birds, and note manner of communication. Influence of iron and coal upon civilization. 31 FOURTH GRADE. SEPTEMBER. PLANTS. Each pupil select tree for systematic study throughout the year. Protective coloratiou of leaves and fruit; developmeot of flowers into fruit; form of fruit — fleshy, stone, dry. Lower forms of plant life — algae, fungi, and lichens. ANIMALS. Swamp life. Observe larval stage of insects. Compare clam and oyster, as to food, habits, structure, movements, protection, nature of shell. MINERALS. Character of soil formed in swamps and marshes. Relate to peat bogs. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Magnetic needle; compass; construction and use. Relate to iron and steel. Dissolve, salt, alum, lime in water. Relate solution to erosion of rock, and lime in solution to shells and bones of animals. Daily record of day, date, frost or dew, clouds or fogs, rainfall, temperature, barometer, sunrise, sunset, morning star, evening star, moon's phases, moonrise, moonset. Measure slant of sun's rays on shadow stick. Autumnal E(iuinox, September 21; path of sun. Mars, Mercury. NOTE. — Systematic study for trees following outline for tree study. Environ- ment, shape, parts. Observe fallen leaves exposed to the air, and those in streams or ponds. Prepare a self-sustaining aquarium, showing the co-operation of animal and plant life. In this grade pupils should get a glimpse of the evolution of plants and animals and their interdependence. a 32 OCTOBER. PLANTS. Protection of unripe nuts; distribution of uuts and seeds; different appliances for distribution. Make collections of seeds in their pods. Storing of seeds bj insects and animals. ANIMALS. Careful and systematic study of insects hibernating and non hi- bernating. Habits of turtle and crayfish. Animals that store food and those that do not. • MINERAL.S. Study coal. Collect carbon from burning candle, sugar, |)aper, wood, meat, wool and coal. Kelate carbon io plants and animals. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Influence of mountain ranges and large bodies of water upon rain- fall and temperature. Compare variation of shadow with September. Compare shorten- ing of days in morning and evening. Change in position of constella- tions and stars. NOTE. — Pupils should be led to regard the sun as a great benefactor — a great store-house of energy, supplying all our needs, clothing the world with beauty and majesty, and giving us power to respond to the influences of creation. Coal should be regarded as energy stored up during ages. Distinguish be- tween anthracite and bituminous coal, cannel, coke and charcoal. Formation of coal (Shaler's First Book in Geology). Relate to plants. Account for presence of carbon in sugar, paper, wool, meat, etc. Forces which produce different varie- ties of coal. NOVEMBER. PLANTS. Select annual and biennial plants and trace life histor^t; as — pea or morning-glory, turnip or carrot. Compare root, stem and leaves with aquatic plants. Storing of nourishment; preparation for winter. ANIMALS. Coverings of animals; change in coverings for ditl'erent s