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THE STEAM TURBINE 
 
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THE STEAM TUKBINE 
 
 AS APPLIED TO 
 
 MARINE PURPOSES. 
 
 BY 
 
 PROF. J. H. BILES, LL.D. 
 
 OF GLASGOW UNIVERSITY. 
 
 A Series of Lectures delivered before The Royal Scottish Society of Arts 
 in Ed/,ihnr<ih, February to March 1906. 
 
 Mitb IRumerous illustrations. 
 
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 CHAKLES GKIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED 
 EXETER STREET, STRAND. 
 
 1906. 
 [All Rights Reserved.] 
 

PREFACE. 
 
 THIS book has been prepared as the result of many requests 
 for copies of the lectures delivered by me before the Eoyal 
 Scottish Society of Arts during last winter. The subject is 
 treated in a manner suited to a public audience rather than 
 to a University class, but it is hoped that the book may be of 
 some service to naval architects and marine engineers. For 
 assistance in the preparation of the lectures and the book 
 my thanks are due to Mr. J. G. Johnstone, B.Sc., and Mr. 
 
 J. A. Tainsli, B.Sc. 
 
 J. H. BILES. 
 
 November 1906. 
 
 196411 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGK 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL . 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF MARINE STEAM TURBINE MACHINERY . . 29 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BUILDING OF A TURBINE ..... 42 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SCREW PROPELLERS IN TURBINE VESSELS .... 64 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 COMBINATION OF TURBINE AND PROPELLER 102 
 
 Vll 
 
THE STEAM TURBINE 
 
 AS APPLIED TO MARINE PURPOSES 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 IN the year 1888 I had to select a type of engine to drive a 
 dynamo for lighting a ship. Mr Parsons came to see me, and 
 I was persuaded to order two of his turbines, though the engine 
 had been previously tried with not too satisfactory results. In 
 the course of conversation I asked him why he did not put the 
 engine into a ship to propel it, and his answer was a silent 
 smile. The turbines were fitted and successfully tried, and one 
 incident of the trial impressed me very much. The turbine was 
 running with no load on. All the lights in the ship were off, 
 and to test the capability of the machine I suddenly switched 
 on the whole load, expecting to hear the turbine slow down to 
 a speed that would instantly compel me to switch off the load. 
 To my surprise the machine seemed to take no notice of the 
 load. It sang away with the same pleasant hum, and seemed 
 laughing in its sleeve at me. This kind of contingency had 
 been provided for in the ingenious sensitive governor which 
 Mr Parsons had put on it. The two incidents narrated seemed 
 to me to have a striking relation to each other. Mr Parsons' 
 machine was equally ready to run with a very small load or 
 with the whole load. The machine was very like the man. 
 Then he was only running with the small load of lighting a. 
 
 I 
 
2 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 ship, but later he took up the whole load of an Atlantic liner's 
 tens of thousands of horse-power, and there is no appearance of 
 difference in the man. He has the same silent smile and the 
 same pleasant hum with the big load he now carries as he 
 had with the little load of lighting a ship. He carries his 
 present great load of work and honours with the same serene 
 air and scientific spirit that he carried his little one of earlier 
 years. He has built up a great industry in what many would 
 say is an uncommercial manner. He might have made turbines 
 so cheaply that he could have driven out all reciprocating 
 engines for electric-light work, but he was content to make as 
 many as served his scientific purpose in its steady development 
 of the steam turbine. A shrewd business American friend of 
 mine came to this country about ten years ago to see this 
 steam-turbine driving dynamos. He said : " Why, that machine 
 can be made much cheaper than an ordinary engine. Why does 
 not Parsons take all the orders ? " I said : " He takes all he 
 wants to keep his works going, at the prices the other fellows 
 get for their reciprocating engines." He said : " That is so like 
 you Britishers ; if you can get your price, you jog along without 
 any ambition. Why, if I owned that invention I should sell as 
 much below the other fellows as ever I could afford, and I 
 should soon shut up their works, and then I should scoop the 
 whole pool and make my own price." This, however, was not 
 the way of Charles Parsons. He has not looked upon com- 
 mercial success as the only end. He has with each success 
 found a further possibility of improvement, and with each 
 improvement a new success, and so the process has been 
 repeated. In 1897 he sprang upon an astonished world 
 (at the assemblage of war-fleets which met to celebrate the 
 Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria) a little vessel 100 feet 
 long which defied all the patrol boats whose duty it was to 
 keep intruders out of the long lanes between the ships, and he 
 raced down those lines at 35 knots, a speed then beyond almost 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 the hope of the most sanguine naval architect. Those who saw 
 that little streak of steel flash across the water, and who had a 
 spark of imagination, saw in the near future a revolution in 
 steam propulsion which would make all the skill and experi- 
 ence that the marine engineers had acquired in the reciprocating 
 engine a thing nearly as useless as that of the skill of the 
 armourer who clothed the tin-clad knights of old for the jousts. 
 
 The term turbine used to 
 be much more associated with 
 water-power than steam, and it 
 is interesting to understand the 
 water progenitor of the steam 
 turbine of to-day. 
 
 Barker's Mill (fig. 1) is a 
 machine in which the rotation 
 is caused by the reaction of a 
 stream of water, or two streams 
 of water, issuing in the line of 
 the peripheral motion of the 
 arms. The water flows in the 
 line of the axis of motion till 
 it reaches the arms, when it 
 diverges at right angles along 
 
 the arms, and, reaching the nozzles, it again diverges at 
 right angles to both the axis and the arms. The number 
 of turns in the course of the stream, and the long length 
 through which the water has to flow and be subjected 
 to losses by^ friction, make this elementary form of turbine 
 not very efficient. The motion is given to the arms by 
 the reaction of the water at the nozzles, but before reaching 
 the nozzles the frictional and other losses have reduced the 
 available force. 
 
 If the water could act directly on the ends of the arms 
 without going through the axis, a more efficient turbine would 
 
 Fig. 1. Barker's Mill. 
 
MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 be obtained. Fig. 2 shows a general sectional elevation of such 
 a turbine. This is called an axial-flow 1 turbine. 
 
 The water, admitted above the horizontal floor, passes down 
 through the annular wheel containing the guide blades G G, 
 and thence into the revolving wheel WW. The revolving 
 wheel is fixed to a hollow shaft suspended from the pivot p. 
 The sluices are worked by the hand wheel h, which raises 
 
 Fig. 2. Axial- Flow Turbine. 
 
 Fig. 3. Axial-Flow Turbine. 
 Section through guides. 
 
 them, a a are the sluice rods. Fig. 3 shows the sectional 
 form of the guide-blade chamber and wheel and the curves of 
 the wheel vanes and guide blades, when drawn on a plane 
 development of the cylindrical section of the wheel ; a a a are 
 the sluices for cutting off the water; bbb are apertures by 
 which the entrance or exit of air is facilitated as the buckets 
 empty and fill. The turbine is of 48 horse-power on 5'12 feet 
 fall, and the supply of water varied from 35 to 112 cubic feet 
 per second. The efficiency in normal working is given as 73 
 
 1 Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition. 
 
HISTORICAL. 5 
 
 per cent. The mean diameter of the wheel is 6 feet, and the 
 speed 27*4 revolutions per minute. The water acts directly 
 upon the ends of the anus, and a large part of the energy in 
 the water is taken from it by the vanes in the wheel and 
 converted into useful work in the shaft. 
 
 In the axial-flow water turbine it will be seen that the 
 water flows through a fixed series of guides and into a moving 
 series of vanes attached to a vertical shaft or spindle. The 
 guides direct the streams so that they impinge on the moving 
 vanes at a favourable angle, The vanes so guide the water 
 that in passing through them its reaction shall take out as much 
 velocity from the water as possible. 
 
 The steam turbine of the Parsons type is on the same 
 principle, but instead of being a one-stage turbine as the fore- 
 going, it is a series of such turbines, and is called a many-stage 
 turbine. In the water turbine the object in shaping the blades 
 is to cause the water to enter with no shock and leave with no 
 velocity. The energy in the water, which is proportional to its 
 mass and to the square of its velocity, is taken from it by 
 reducing its velocity, and a considerable reduction can be made 
 in one set of vanes, so that a considerable amount of energy 
 can be taken from the water by one set. 
 
 But in the steam turbine the mass of the steam is so small 
 that, in order to possess any considerable amount of kinetic 
 energy (which can be abstracted from it by passing through 
 vanes), it must have a very high velocity. This necessitates a 
 very high speed of blades, for, in order to get maximum 
 efficiency, the velocity of blade must be about one-half that of 
 the steam. If steam issue from a condition of no velocity and 
 a pressure of, say, 150 Ibs. to a region of atmospheric pressure, 
 its velocity will be about 4000 feet per second. Hence to take 
 out all the velocity from the steam the vanes must have a 
 peripheral velocity of 2000 feet per second. This is the 
 velocity of the projectile of a 12-inch gun after it has gone three 
 
6 
 
 MARINE STKAM TURBINES. 
 
 miles from the gun. If we took a drum 6 feet in diameter, 
 about the size of a large steamer's turbine drum, it would have 
 to rotate a hundred times in a second, or 6000 revolutions per 
 minute, in order to attain this peripheral velocity of 2000 feet 
 per second : at least ten times as fast as it does. Something 
 very different must therefore be done to get work out of the 
 steam. We must consider what means may be adopted to 
 reduce the velocity of the steam without losing much efficiency. 
 Steam at rest at a pressure p, occupying a volume v, will expand 
 to a volume v l by a reduction of pressure to^, and will maintain 
 
 a relation pv k =piVi = C, 
 a constant ; k being a little 
 more than unity. This is 
 represented in fig. 4. In 
 doing so it will do work AV 
 represented by the area of 
 the part of the curve which 
 is crossed. If all the work 
 is done in producing a velo- 
 city C in the steam, that 
 velocity will be JtyfW. 
 If we allow the steam to 
 
 leave this stage of the turbine with this velocity C, we can 
 obtain efficient work from it if the velocity of the periphery is 
 about one-half that of the stearn. 
 
 Hence we must only do an amount of work W in one stage 
 which will give a steam velocity of about twice the peripheral 
 velocity suitable to the turbine. It will therefore be seen in 
 what respects primarily the steam turbine differs from the 
 water turbine. The peripheral velocity in a Parsons marine 
 turbine is about 100 feet per second. Attempts have been 
 made, with more or less success, bo run turbines of other kinds 
 at very much higher velocities than those indicated above, and 
 in some cases the whole work is done at one expansion of the 
 
 Fig. 4. Hyperbolic Curve pv k = C. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 steam ; but the velocity attained has been nothing like so great 
 as that necessary for maximum efficiency, and even in such 
 circumstances the material of the turbine has required most 
 careful and expensive manufacture and design. For all 
 practical purposes we may confine our attention for the present 
 to the consideration of the Parsons turbine. It is the only 
 turbine which has been employed in ship-work on an extensive 
 scale both as to range of size and numbers of ships. 
 
 Before considering this 
 steam turbine in detail, it may 
 be well to hastily glance at 
 the history of steam engines, 
 and particularly in the later 
 years to that of the rotary 
 engines and their natural out- 
 come, the steam turbine. 
 
 The earliest form of steam 
 engine of which we have any 
 record is that of Hero's, about 
 130 B.C. (fig. 5). No one deal- 
 ing with this subject can afford 
 to leave out this traditional 
 
 antiquity. This is practically Fig. 5. Hero's Engine, about 130 B.C. 
 
 the same as " Barker's Mill " 
 
 (fig. 1), only that in the latter case the axis is vertical and a 
 water-head is used instead of steam as the motive power. Let 
 us now pass over a period of seventeen and a half centuries, 
 during which there is no progress to record in anything 
 mechanical, although here and there may be found evidences 
 that appliances such as Hero's had been in use. We come now 
 in 1628 to Branca's engine (fig. 6). This engine, you will see, 
 is shaped like a water-wheel which is driven by the impact of 
 a jet of steam on its vanes ; and this wheel may, in its turn, 
 drive other mechanism for various useful purposes. This is 
 
8 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 really the first steam turbine, and is an unkind anticipation of 
 the well-known De Laval turbine. 
 
 Fig. 6. Branca's Engine, 1628. 
 
 Fig. 7. The Marquis of Worcester's Engine, 1663. 
 
 The next engine we will notice is that proposed by the 
 Marquis of Worcester in 1663 (fig. 7). Its object was to raise 
 water, which was done by forcing with steaui the water from 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 two chambers alternately, the steam being supplied by an 
 independent boiler; while one chamber was having the water 
 
 Fig. 8. Savery's Engine, 1699. 
 
 forced from it, the other was sucking in water by the partial 
 vacuum caused by the condensation of the steam. 
 
 Fig. 9. Newcomen's Atmospheric Engine, 1705. 
 
 Coming now to 1699, we have the steam engine of Thomas 
 Savery, which was the first successful one commercially (fig. 8). 
 
10 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Steam is admitted to one of the oval vessels P displacing water, 
 which it drives up through the check-valve E. When P is 
 empty of water, the steam supply is stopped, and the steam 
 already there is condensed by allowing a jet of cold water, from 
 a cistern above, to stream over the outer surface of the vessel. 
 
 Fig. 10. Smeaton's Engine, 1774. 
 
 This produces a vacuum, and causes water to be sucked up 
 through the pipe and valve at M. Meanwhile steam has been 
 displacing water by pressure from the other vessel. Savery's 
 engine was entirely displaced by its successor, Newcomen's 
 "Atmospheric" engine, 1705 (fig. 9). In this engine steam is 
 admitted from a boiler to the cylinder, the piston of which is 
 allowed to be raised by a heavy counterpoise hanging from the 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 11 
 
 other end of the beam. Steam is then shut off, and the 
 steam in the cylinder is condensed by a jet of water in 
 the cylinder itself. The piston is forced down by the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, and does work on the pump 
 through the medium of a long rod which is at the other 
 end of the beam. 
 
 Fig. 11. Leupold's Engine, 1720. 
 
 Newcomen's engine was greatly improved by Smeaton in 
 many of its mechanical details (1767). The first to be built 
 with these improvements was in 1774 (fig. 10). In the year 
 1720 Leupold invented and constructed the first high-pressure 
 engine. His principle was simply that of applying highly 
 elastic steam alternately upon two pistons in separate cylinders, 
 so that as the one ascended the other descended (fig. 11). This 
 was done by means of a four-way cock which cut off the connec- 
 
12 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 tion to the boiler and released the steam in the cylinder at the 
 end of the stroke. No condenser was used. 
 
 In 1765 James Watt, when repairing the Newcomen engine, 
 was much struck with the waste of steam due to condensation 
 in the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder. As a 
 result of some experiments, he added to the steam engine an 
 entirely new organ, viz. , the condenser, and with it the air- 
 pump (fig. 12). He invented the crank, but was anticipated. 
 In 1778 he introduced early cut-off and expansion, and we have 
 
 Fig. 12. Watt's Engine, 1765. 
 
 here for the first time a reciprocating engine giving rotary 
 motion. 
 
 FIRST ROTARY ENGINE. 
 
 In 1769 Watt described, in a patent specification, the first 
 rotary engine (fig. 13). The sketch has been made from Watt's 
 description. The engine was divided into four parts, each part 
 being successively subjected to steam and opened to exhaust by 
 weighted valves which alternately opened and shut, and which 
 connected the sections of the wheel with the steam and exhaust. 
 This engine was never made. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 OTHER ROTARY ENGINES. 
 
 In 1782 we have Watt's second rotary engine (fig. 14). Here 
 the piston b rotates, while the valve e shuts off steam from the 
 
 St 
 
 Steam, 
 
 Fig. 18. Cartwright's Rotative 
 Engine, 1797. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Fig. 19. Murdock's Engine, 1799. 
 
 back of b. When b reaches the back of e, it moves e back into 
 a recess. Probably the steam inlet was, by moving e, shut until 
 b passes sufficiently to let e fall again, when the steam inlet 
 would be again opened and the process repeated. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 15 
 
 Five years later, i.e. in 1787, Cooke introduced his rotative 
 engine (fig. 15). In this engine the valves confine the steam to 
 a portion of the disc, but lie in the part of the circumference 
 
 of the wheel outside the steam 
 space. 
 
 In 1790 Bramah and Dick- 
 inson produced their rotative 
 engine (fig. 16). Here we have 
 sliding plates forming valves 
 on the periphery of a circular 
 cylinder rotating near a circu- 
 lar arc which is non-concentric. 
 The valves open inlet and ex- 
 haust in succession. The next 
 (fig. 17) shows Sadler's engine 
 
 Fig. 20. Hornblower's Engine, 1804. 
 
 Fig. 21. Trotter's Engine, 1805. 
 
 (1791). This is another form of Hero's engine. Oartwright in 
 1797 invented his rotative engine (fig. 18). It is very similar to 
 Watt's second rotary engine, only it has more than the one fixed 
 piston, such as I in Watt's design. The sketch of Murdock's 
 rotary engine (fig. 19) explains itself. It was made about 1799. 
 
16 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 In 1804 Hornblower introduced his engine (fig. 20). This 
 also needs no explanation. 
 
 The next (fig. 21) shows Trotter's engine (1805). A is an 
 
 outer barrel, B is an 
 inner barrel, C is called 
 the eccentric (really a 
 loose ring), D is a 
 sweep. Motion caused 
 by admission of fluid 
 between A and C gives 
 rise to rotation of D 
 and B; the pressure 
 being greater outside 
 C than inside, owing to 
 the latter being open 
 to the atmosphere. 
 
 About the same time 
 Flint patented his 
 engine shown in fig. 
 22. The action is as 
 follows : Steam is 
 admitted through a 
 hollow shaft A; it 
 fills the lower half of 
 G and passes through 
 the hole 6 into the 
 valve L; thence it acts 
 on the steam float P 
 with a power propor- 
 tional to its pressure 
 and the area of P. 
 
 Fig. 22. Flint's Rotary Engine, 1805. 
 
 P is thus turned round till it passes the valve K, the steam 
 escaping through the hole 7 into the upper part of G-, and so 
 through B to the condenser. This is then repeated from K, 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 17 
 
 and it is worthy of notice that the valves are mechanically 
 operated. 
 
 In the same year (1805) Wilcox produced his rotary engine 
 having a rotary piston (fig. 23). The valves are mechanically 
 
 Stefan. 
 
 'Exhaust 
 
 Fig. 23. Wilcox's Engine. 
 
 Fig. 24. Wilcox's Engine, 
 1805. (Another form. ) 
 
 operated. Fig. 24 shows another form of Wilcox's engine, only 
 in this case the valves are replaced by cocks C C, which are 
 worked from the outside of the engine by a spindle passing 
 through the top. F is the passage to the condenser. 
 
 Passing on now for five years, that is, to 1810, we have 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Fig. 25. Chapman's Rotary Engine. 
 
 Fig. 26. Eve's Rotary Engine. 
 
 Fig. 27. Galloway's Rotary 
 Engine, 1826. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 19 
 
 Chapman's rotary engine as shown in fig. 25. The sketch needs 
 no explanation, except perhaps that K is an adjusting screw 
 for tightening up the packing as it wears. The piston, it will 
 be seen, carries its own valves. 
 
 In 1825 Eve patented his rotary engine (fig. 26). It is 
 similar to Flint's engine in principle. 
 
 Fig. 27 shows Galloway's rotary engine (1826) with spring 
 packing and mechanically operated valves. Following Gallo- 
 way's engine, the next invention 
 at which we will look is that of 
 Anderson in 1837 (fig. 28). He 
 proposed to use the exhaust steam 
 from the cylinder of a recipro- 
 cating engine to drive a rotary 
 engine of the Hero type, which 
 rotated in a chamber in connec- 
 tion with the condenser. The 
 turbine spindle drove on the 
 crank shaft of the reciprocating 
 engine. All the foregoing engines 
 were designed to use the pressure 
 of the steam acting directly in 
 tight vessels on moving, steam- 
 tight pistons. Failure usually 
 was due to leakage in pistons. 
 
 In the same year Gilman produced his turbine of several 
 stages of expansion (fig. 29). 1 The principle of this turbine is 
 followed up to the present date, notably in the multicellular 
 type turbine of Kateau. The arrows show the direction of the 
 flow of steam. The principle of this and all turbine engines 
 is different to all the foregoing, as the pressure of the steam, 
 instead of acting directly on steam-tight pistons, acts on the 
 mass of the steam itself, thereby increasing its momentum. 
 1 Trans. I. E. and S. (Scot.), 1905. 
 
 Fig. 28. Anderson's Engine. 
 
20 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 When this steam meets a vane, it parts with some of its 
 momentum to the vane, and converts its kinetic energy into 
 useful work. 
 
 In 1838 Heath, for the first time on record, proposed using 
 divergent nozzles for converting the expansive energy of the 
 
 Fig. 29. Oilman's Turbine. 
 
 steam into kinetic energy. He may not have understood the 
 principle of the nozzle thoroughly, but he discovered that he 
 got better results with these nozzles working on his turbine, 
 
 Nozzle and vanes. 
 
 Fig. 30. Pilbrow's Turbine. 
 
 which was of the Hero type, than without. These nozzles have 
 been most successfully used by De Laval in his turbine. 
 
 The next turbine to claim our attention is that of Pilbrow, 
 
 1843 (fig. 30). 1 Here we have an arrangement of two wheels 
 
 in series ; the vanes are arranged on the peripheries of the wheels 
 
 and overlap one another. An enlarged view at the side shows 
 
 1 Trans. I. E. and S. (Scot.), 1905. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 21 
 
 the shape of the vanes and nozzles. After this, in 1848, we have 
 Wilson's turbine (fig. 3 1), 1 which needs no explanation as to its 
 method of working. 
 
 Fig. 31. Wilson's Turbine. 
 
 Passing over a period of nearly thirty years until 1877, when 
 a patent was granted to Wertheim of Frankfort-on-Maine for a 
 turbine driven by the explosion of air and gas in a closed 
 
 Fig. 32. Wertheim's Turbine, 1877. 
 
 chamber (fig. 32). 1 A is the explosion chamber ; the pressure 
 caused by the explosion drives the water down the pipe T, 
 causing the turbine wheel in C to rotate. Under these 
 conditions the valve G is open and Q closed, so that water 
 passes along X only. The water continues up the pipe H into 
 1 Trans. I. E. and S. (Scot.), 1905. 
 
22 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 the reservoir D, to which is attached E, an air vessel. An 
 excess of pressure in D over A is now present, and as the valve 
 G is now shut and Q open, the water flows back as shown over 
 
 Fig. 33. De Laval's Turbine, 1882. 
 
 the top vanes, causing the turbine to rotate. The water rises up 
 in T and expels the products of. the explosion, and this completes 
 the cycle. A similar engine has been recently reinvented. 
 In 1882 we have the first turbine of De Laval (fig. 33) 
 
 Fig. 34. De Laval's Turbine. 
 
 made on Hero's principle. Notice that there are no divergent 
 nozzles here. 
 
 In 1884 we have the first Parsons turbine (fig. 35). It is 
 practically the same as the present-day type, except that the 
 steam enters at the centre and exhausts towards both ends at the; 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 23 
 
 same time ; r is a stand for holding lubricant ; g is the drain 
 for steam which may have passed through the bearings. This 
 pipe is in connection with the exhaust pipe. The other features 
 
 Fig. 35. Parsons' Turbine, 1884. 
 
 of the turbine need not be explained till the modern type is 
 described. This turbine is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 Five years later, that is, 1889, De Laval obtained a patent for 
 a steam-turbine wheel combined with a divergent nozzle for 
 
 Fig. 36. Morton's Turbine. 
 
 converting the heat energy of the steam into kinetic energy. 
 This nozzle is practically the same as that used to-day, only N 
 is done away with and the neck 6 is angular instead of rounded 
 (see fig. 34). 
 
 From 1883 to 1893 Morton of Glasgow made many experi- 
 ments on flow of fluids through nozzles of different forms from 
 
24 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 a higher to a lower pressure. He made several turbines, the 
 type of which is shown in fig. 36. 1 The steam flows as indicated 
 by the arrows. These turbines worked well, but their high 
 steam consumption was against them. 
 
 Fig. 37. Multicellular Rateau Turbine. 
 
 In 1894 the" 'Bateau turbine of a single type was patented, 
 and in 1897 that of a multicellular type was invented (fig. 37). 
 
 In 1895-6 the Curtis turbine (figs. 38 and 39) was invented. 
 It runs on a vertical spindle, like the axial-flow water turbine, 
 but it is a many-stage turbine. 
 
 4-44 4 - 
 Fig. 38. Curtis Turbine. 
 
 During the development of the turbine, which up to 1884 was 
 a practically negligible quantity, the reciprocating engine had 
 been developed through its varying stages of simple single acting, 
 simple double acting, two-cylinder double acting, two-cylinder 
 compound, until in 1880 it had reached the stage of three-cylinder 
 compound. The term compound engine has been confined to one 
 1 Trans. I. E. and S. (Scot.), 1905. 
 
THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 C F 
 
 RICAL. 
 
 25 
 
 in which ihe steam expands first through one cylinder and 
 then through a second cylinder or cylinders to the condenser, 
 making two stages in the expansion. 
 Vessels whose names are familiar, 
 the " Alaska," " Oregon," " Servia," 
 " America," were fitted with engines 
 of three cylinders, one high-pressure 
 and two L. P., and some are running 
 to-day, namely, the " Umbria " and 
 "JEtruria" of the Cunard Company. 
 / Almost coincidently with the de- 
 / velopment of the turbine engine of 
 Parsons' patent in 1884, was that 
 of the triple - expansion engine, 
 that is, the engine in which the 
 steam expands in three stages from 
 the boiler to the condenser. The 
 triple-expansion engine involves at 
 
 least three cylinders, and sometimes it has been found desir- 
 able to subdivide some of the stages, so that 'as many as four, 
 
 Fig. 39. Curtis Turbine. 
 
 Fig. 40. Turbine Steamer ' ' Lusitania, " the Cunard Express Passenger 
 Steamship, as she will appear when completed. 
 
 five, and six cylinders have been used for triple expansion 
 engines. Later, during the last fifteen years, some engines 
 have been made with four grades of expansion called 
 quadruple-expansion engines, but these have been principally 
 
26 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 27 
 
 confined to moderate and high-powered liners. But coincident 
 with this development of the largest power of the reciprocating 
 engine, the Parsons turbine has developed until to-day it is 
 being made for the largest single installations of power for a 
 ship that has ever been made by man. These turbines will be 
 installed on the new Cunarders (fig. 40). These vessels will have 
 about 70,000 H.P. in four turbines. They will consist of two 
 sets of high- and low-pressure turbines, so that each complete set 
 will be at least 35,000 H.P. As these vessels are not yet complete, 
 the information is not available for 
 publication, but there has been a very 
 large power installed in the " Carmania," 
 another Cunard steamer built by Messrs 
 John Brown & Company, and finished 
 three months since, having three sets of 
 turbines, one high- and two low-pres- 
 sure, developing in all about 25,000 H.P. 
 Fig. 41 l shows the longitudinal eleva- 
 tion, and fig. 42 x the cross-section of this 
 machinery. Last year a vessel of ex- 
 actly the same dimensions, called the 
 " Caronia," was built, having quadruple- 
 expansion reciprocating engines. Fig. 
 
 43 l shows a longitudinal elevation, and fig. 44 x a cross-section to the 
 same scale as the turbines of the " Carmania." The engines of the 
 "Caronia" are about 22,000 H.P., and may be compared with those 
 of the "Campania" of about 26,000, shown in fig. 45, 2 the end view 
 being to the same scale as that of the " Caronia." The largest 
 reciprocating engine built for marine work is that of the " Kaiser 
 Wilhelm II.," shown in figs. 46 and 47 . 3 These engines are four- 
 cylinder engines, four in number, working three cranks on each 
 engine, and six on each line of shafting. They are the highest 
 development of what has been done with reciprocating engines. 
 1 Engineering, 1905. 2 Engineering, 1893. 3 Engineering, 1903. 
 
 Fig. 45. "Campania" 
 Machinery. 
 
28 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 It may be interesting to show a single screw engine of 10,000 
 H.P.,such as was placed in the " Servia," built in 1880. This is 
 shown in figs. 48 and 49 ; and in fig. 50 l is shown to the same 
 
 Fig. 46. " Kaiser Wilhelm II." Machinery. 
 (Longitudinal elevation.) 
 
 Fig. 47. "Kaiser Wilhelm II.' 
 Machinery. (Cross-section.) 
 
 scale as all the preceding nine figures, the engines of the 
 " Turbinia," the first steamer in which Parsons' or any other 
 turbine was fitted for main propulsion. This little vessel was 
 first brought to the public notice in 1897, when she achieved 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 48. "Servia" 
 Machinery. (Longi- 
 tudinal elevation. ) 
 
 Fig. 49. " Servia " 
 Machinery. (Cross- 
 section. ) 
 
 Fig. 50. "Turbinia 
 Machinery. 
 
 the wonderful speed of 35 knots, before the allied fleets at the 
 Diamond Jubilee of the late Queen Victoria. In less than ten 
 years Mr Parsons' turbine will have been placed in all kinds of 
 vessels, from powers as low as the " Turbinia " (2000) to the 
 highest that has yet been installed anywhere. 
 1 Trans. I.N.A., 1903. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 DESCRIPTION OF MARINE STEAM TURBINE MACHINERY. 
 
 WE have dealt with the history of the development of the 
 rotary engine up to 1884, when Mr Parsons' first steam turbine 
 was made. The difficulties connected with the rotary engine, 
 which prevented its successful adoption, were partly due to 
 imperfect workmanship and partly to imperfect knowledge of 
 the laws of thermo-dynamics. The knowledge of the action of 
 steam passing through a nozzle and transforming the heat energy 
 into kinetic energy and by the impact of the steam on moving 
 blades into useful work, is the foundation of success in rotary- 
 engine work, when the rotary engine is of the type which does its 
 work not by the direct pressure of the steam of the boiler, but 
 indirectly by the change of velocity and direction of the steam in 
 acting on the blades of the moving machine. The water turbine 
 in which the velocity flow is gradually taken out of the water 
 by the curved vanes of the turbine is the analogue of the Parsons 
 steam turbine with two differences. 
 
 First : the shaft of the water turbine is vertical, and that of 
 the steam turbine horizontal. Second : on account of the low 
 velocity flow of the water, it is possible to take the energy out 
 of it in one set of fixed and one set of moving blades, whereas 
 the velocity of the steam in the turbine being at least 200 feet 
 per second, it takes a large number of sets of blades to take out 
 this velocity and energy of the steam. 
 
 The steam turbine consists essentially of alternately fixed and 
 
 29 
 
30 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 moving blades, the moving ones being on the outside of a horizon- 
 tal cylinder or drum rotating in a fixed cylindrical casing, having 
 the fixed blades on its inner surface. The pressure of the steam, 
 instead of acting on the steam-tight piston and doing work by 
 increase of volume and reduction of pressure as in a cylinder, acts 
 upon the steam itself, and sets it in motion at a high velocity. The 
 fixed guide blades deflect the steam so that it approaches the 
 moving curved blades in such a manner as to initially strike 
 them tangentially on the concave side. The curvature of these 
 blades deflects the steam, and the force necessary to cause this 
 deflection reacts upon the blades, causing them to rotate. 
 Leaving the moving blades, the steam again passes through 
 fixed blades, which restores its velocity to a little more than 
 that which it had on leaving the former fixed blades. These 
 fixed blades deflect the steam so that its direction of motion is 
 tangential to the next set of moving blades, when it is again 
 ready to act upon and be reacted on by these blades. Con- 
 tinuing in this way, it pursues its sinuous course through all 
 the blades of the turbine until it reaches either the atmo- 
 sphere or the condenser. The work done on the steam at each 
 passage through the fixed blades causes an increase in velocity 
 of the steam. The passage of the steam through the moving 
 blades reduces its velocity, which is again increased in passing 
 through the fixed blades by the pressure of the steam, and so on. 
 The pressure does work on the steam which is taken from it in 
 each set of blades, so that during the whole course of its passage 
 through the turbine the pressure of the steam is gradually 
 reduced from that at entry, about 150 Ibs., to that of the con- 
 denser, about 1 to 2 Ibs. 
 
 Figs. 51 and 52 show longitudinal and sectional elevations 
 of a turbine installation in a large steamer. There are three 
 turbines, each driving a shaft connected to a screw propeller. 
 The centre turbine is the one into which the steam first enters, 
 and, expanding through it, passes to one L.P. turbine on each 
 
TURBINE MACHINERY. 
 
 31 
 
 side of the middle line. From there it passes to the condensers. 
 Eeversing turbines are placed at the after ends of each L.P. 
 
 Fig. 51. Longitudinal Elevation of Turbine Machinery 
 in a large Steamer. 
 
 turbine. When it is necessary to use the reversing turbine, 
 steam is shut off from the H.P. turbine altogether, and is ad- 
 mitted to the reversing turbine by a separate pipe. Should it 
 
 Fig. 52. Sectional Elevation of Turbine Machinery 
 in a large Steamer. 
 
 be desired to be able to go ahead or astern at pleasure, or, as 
 it is technically called, " manoeuvre," steam can also alternatively 
 be admitted to the go-ahead part of the L.P. turbine, it having 
 been previously shut off from the go-astern. In this way it is 
 
32 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 possible 
 turbine 
 
 to drive one L.P. turbine astern while the other L.P. 
 
 goes ahead, and so to manoeuvre the ship. The pumps 
 , are practically the same 
 
 as in a reciprocating 
 engine-room, except that, 
 on account of the advan- 
 tage of a higher vacuum 
 in the turbine, a dry air- 
 pump, or a vacuum aug- 
 menter, is fitted in addi- 
 tion to the ordinary wet 
 air-pump. A vacuum of 
 25 inches of mercury, 
 which is quite sufficient 
 for a reciprocating engine, 
 is very bad for a turbine, 
 which must have 28 or 
 29 inches, and this can 
 only be attained by in- 
 creasing the surface of 
 the condensers and im- 
 proving the method of 
 removing air and vapour 
 from the condenser. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 TURBINES. 
 
 The H.P. turbine of an 
 ocean liner is shown in 
 fig. 53. The upper part 
 of the drawing shows 
 one-half of the turbine, 
 as far down as the middle line or axis of rotation. The turbine 
 consists of an outside casing and a steel drum, the latter being 
 
 
 I 
 
TURBINE MACHINERY. 33 
 
 carried on two bearings. To the forward end a shaft is attached, 
 which is connected to the drum by a cast steel ring or wheel. 
 The drum is heated, shrunk on the wheel, and riveted to it. 
 To the after end a similar shaft, connected in a similar way, 
 is attached. This latter shaft is a continuation of the propeller 
 shaft. Outside this drum is a fixed casing of cast iron (fig. 
 54), which has feet formed on it, and is bolted to the 
 structure of the ship. It is divided into two parts along 
 
 Fig. 54. Outside Casing of H. P. Turbine. 
 
 fore and aft lines. Kibs run round and along this casing to 
 make it as rigid as possible. In the drum grooves are turned, 
 into which vanes are fixed, as shown in fig. 55, and into the 
 casing are fixed similar guide blades, also as shown in fig. 55. 
 The steam enters from the main steam-pipe at the right-hand 
 cavity, and first encounters a set of guide blades. It passes 
 through these into the vanes on the rotating drum, and again 
 to a set of guide blades, and to another set of vanes on the 
 drum, and so on; it passes through the whole length of the 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 drum, and from there out to the L.P. turbine. It will be seen 
 that the lengths of blades, both fixed and movable, increase in 
 three steps, thus forming four groups, but throughout each 
 group they are of the same length. There are in each group 
 twenty rows of fixed blades and twenty rows of moving blades. 
 They are all of the same section, but they vary in length and 
 
 io 1 
 
 Fig. 55. Diagram of Blading in Casing. 
 
 spacing. In the first group they are If inch long, spaced 
 1J inch apart from centre to centre of moving blades, and the 
 same distance apart from centre to centre of the fixed blades, 
 so that in each group there are forty rows in all, half of them 
 being fixed and half moving. In the second group the blades 
 are 2 inches high, spaced 1^ inch ; in the third group 2f inches 
 high, spaced If inch ; and in the fourth group 4 inches high, 
 spaced 1J inch. 
 
TURBINE MACHINERY. 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 56 shows the 
 arrangement for the 
 L.P. turbine. It is 
 similar in general 
 construction to the 
 H. P. turbine, but it 
 has attached to it a 
 reversing turbine at 
 its after end. The 
 steam enters at the 
 fore end from a pipe 
 connected to the 
 after end of the H.P. 
 turbine, and passes 
 through six groups 
 of blades of different 
 heights. Each of 
 the first five of these 
 consists of ten rows 
 of fixed and ten rows 
 of moving blades. 
 The first four of 
 these groups are of H ,^ r , 
 
 * . slavish . 
 
 the same section as ^ii/^4' 
 
 those in the H.P. 
 
 turbine, their 
 
 lengths 
 
 from 
 
 inches, and the 
 
 spacing from 1J 
 
 inch to 1J inch. 
 
 All the rest of the 
 
 groups have blades 
 
 of a larger section, 
 
 fiWffigftJ?: 
 varying sfljftg*- 
 
 If inch to 4'MaSJBr 
 
36 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 the first ten being 5| inches high, spaced If inch, the 
 remainder being 7 inches high, spaced 2 inches. A few of 
 the last rows are of a different section, being spaced circum- 
 ferentially more widely and being of an almost flat section. 
 These are called " wing blades." These have the tendency 
 to more gradually open the exhaust to the condenser. It 
 will be noticed that while the last blades of the H.P. 
 turbine were 4 inches high, the first group of the L.P. 
 turbine is only If inch ; but it must be remembered that 
 there are two L.P. turbines and only one H.P. turbine. The 
 diameter of the L.P. turbine at its forward end is increased 
 compared with the diameter of the H.P. turbine at its after 
 end in the ratio of 7 to 9J. If we multiply If by 9J and by 
 2, we shall not get a very different result from the 4 multiplied 
 by 7, so that practically the same area of opening exists at the 
 end of the H.P. turbine and the beginning of L.P. turbine. 
 The steam enters the reversing turbine by the cavity at 
 the extreme after end and passes through very short blades, 
 those at the entrance being only J inch high, while at the 
 outlet end they are 3J inches. The blades are divided into six 
 groups. The first five of these are sets of four, varying in 
 height from J inch to 2J inches, while the last one is a set of 
 twelve, 3-J inches high. The pitch is the same throughout, 1| 
 inches, and the sections of the blades are the same as in the 
 H.P. turbine, except a few of the last rows, which are wing 
 blades. The blades of this turbine are set in the opposite 
 direction to those in the go-ahead part of the same turbine, 
 so as to give motion in a reverse direction. This turbine, on 
 account of its shortness, is necessarily much less efficient than 
 the go-ahead turbine. When not in use it is in connection with 
 the exhaust steam, which is nearly at the condenser pressure, 
 so that its frictional resistance is very small. When reversing, 
 the connection between the H.P. and the L.P. turbines is closed, 
 so that there is no passage of steam backwards through the 
 
TURBINE MACHINERY. 37 
 
 blades of the L.P. turbine. The steam from the reversing 
 turbine goes from the large casing at the after end direct to 
 the condenser. 
 
 When the steam passes the last set of vanes in the H.P. 
 turbine, it is not cut off from communication with the centre of 
 the drum, but is prevented from escaping at the bearings at 
 each end by glands, as shown in fig. 53, which are formed by a 
 series of grooves filled in by brass rings cut at one point in 
 their circumference and having a slight permanent spring which 
 causes them to expand with a small pressure outwards. They 
 do not quite fill the grooves, so that steam leaks through them 
 and condenses and forms water-seals. There are three small 
 spaces left into which steam at definite pressure can be admitted, 
 adjusting the pressures on the rings. The interior of the H.P. 
 drum is at about 30 Ibs. pressure absolute, so that the difference 
 between the atmospheric pressure of 15 Ibs. and the inside 
 pressure is only about 15 Ibs., and the practical steam tightness 
 is ensured. Into the three small spaces steam of about 26 Ibs., 
 22 Ibs., and 18 Ibs. can be introduced, thus reducing the differ- 
 ence in pressure at the two ends of any set of rings to about 
 4 Ibs. Steam at the pressure at which it enters the first guide 
 blades is prevented from passing to the interior of the drum by 
 what are known as dummy rings. These are shown in the 
 corner of fig. 53. They comprise a series of brass rings which 
 overlap projections formed in the drum ; the steam leaks 
 through between the brass and steel surfaces and forms water- 
 pockets which seal the steam. The clearance of these dummies 
 is exceedingly small, one or two thousands of an inch. 
 
 The whole endwise thrust of the turbine and propellers 
 about balance each other. The thrust of the steam on the 
 blades in the direction of the axis tends to move the turbines 
 aft, while the thrust of the propeller tends to move it forward. 
 The difference of these two forces can be made very small by 
 proportioning the parts of the turbine. Any remaining differ- 
 
38 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 ence is taken up by the thrust-block at the fore end of the 
 turbine. This block is a fixed point in the ship and drum, but 
 its distance from the casing can be adjusted by screws as shown. 
 By means of these screws the clearance of the dummy rings can 
 be adjusted when the turbine is heated up and steam tightness 
 thereby secured at this point. The glands at the shaft are also 
 fixed, but the turbine casing is free to move by them. 
 
 It is seen that the whole power is developed in three separate 
 turbines. This is desirable for reasons of construction, weight, 
 and cost. First, as the steam passes along the turbine its 
 velocity increases and a point is reached where, for efficiency, 
 it is necessary to increase the peripheral speed. This can best 
 be done by increasing the diameter of the drum ; but it is not 
 practicable to do this in the same drum, as the difficulties of 
 making such a steel drum and machining it after it is made are 
 too great. Second, the length of the drum would be so great 
 as to introduce serious difficulties on account of deflection, 
 thereby causing the clearances at the ends of the blades, which 
 must be small, to vary and cause losses by leakage ; stripping of 
 the blades would also be liable to take place, due to the 
 deflection. Third, the weight and cost would be increased. 
 It is therefore desirable to pass the steam to two L.P. drums, 
 which are generally of larger diameter than the H.P., and have 
 a higher peripheral velocity. There is a similar dummy 
 packing (fig. 56) to prevent the live steam entering the inside 
 of the L.P. drum at each end ; the forward one where the 
 steam from the H.P. enters the L. P. go-ahead turbine ; the after 
 one where the steam from the boiler enters the reversing 
 turbines. Glands similar to those in the H.P. are also fitted to 
 keep the inside of the drum pressure-tight, the pressure being 
 that at about the last row of blades. A thrust-block similar to 
 that on the H.P. is fitted at the fore end of the L. P. turbine, 
 and a similar means of adjusting the position of the turbine is 
 provided. The glands and dummy rings as shown have worked 
 
METHOD OF BLADING. 39 
 
 very successfully on channel steamers, but a modification of 
 design has been found necessary in ocean liners, both for 
 purposes of efficient working and for readily overhauling. The 
 lubrication of the bearings is pressure-fed oil, which is very 
 efficient and economical, and a water circulation round the 
 bearings is also provided. 
 
 METHOD OF BLADING. 
 
 As it may be of interest, a description of the method of 
 blading a turbine drum or casing is here given : When the 
 drum has been turned, or the casing bored out, to the 
 required diameter, series of grooves are cut in the casing and 
 drum. The depth and width of these grooves depend on the 
 size of the blades which are to to be inserted in them : for 
 instance, if the groove is J inch wide, the depth will be about 
 fy inch. The spacing of these grooves in a fore and aft 
 direction depends, of course, on the clearances allowed, the 
 breadths of the blades, and the number of groups and of rows 
 in each group. As to the shape of a cross-section of these 
 grooves, in the casing, which is generally cast iron, the grooves 
 are very slightly wider at the bottom than at the top, and as, 
 of course, the casing, and consequently the blades, is stationary, 
 there is no tendency for the blades to fly out as is the case on 
 the rotor. In the rotor, which is generally made of forged 
 steel, the grooves are cut with a good taper opening towards the 
 bottom ; also there are turned on each side of the groove two 
 small ridges. The purpose of these will be shown below. The 
 blades are all cut to their required length, two small ridges 
 stamped in the part which is to be sunk into the rotor or casing, 
 and in the blades which are to be laced a notch is cut on the 
 steam-edge about \ inch down from the tip in a blade, say, 4J 
 inches long. We now have the rotor and casing grooved ready 
 for inserting the blades, and the blades cut to length and 
 notched. Since the blades must not lie against each other, we 
 
40 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 have to insert between each two blades in the groove a small 
 piece of soft brass known as a "packing piece" or "distance 
 piece. " The shape of these distance pieces is fixed by the shape 
 of the blade and the angle at which the blade is set in the 
 groove. The actual blading, as it is called, is done as follows : 
 A blade is put into position in the groove, and a couple of 
 distance pieces are placed on the concave side and after them a 
 small steel block which can be fixed tightly into the groove ; on 
 the convex side or back of the blade a distance piece is now 
 placed and hammered up close against the blade. It is to be 
 noticed that at this stage the distance piece is not hammered 
 down into the groove. Another blade followed by a distance 
 piece is then added and hammered up close to the first, and so 
 on right round the drum until the steel block is reached. This 
 is then removed, and sets of blades and distance pieces put in to 
 fill up the space thus left. We have now a complete row of 
 blades in their correct position at the drum end. The blades 
 are then caulked into place by a tool, shaped to suit the space 
 between the blades. This tool is used as an ordinary caulking 
 tool, and the distance piece is well hammered up into the groove. 
 [t will now be seen of what use the ridges turned inside the 
 groove are, and also why there are two ridges stamped on the 
 ends of the blades at the drum end. The idea, of course, is 
 that as the distance piece is caulked, the soft brass will be 
 indented by, or squeezed into, these ridges or hollows, and the 
 effect will be to give a solid mass. The next process is that of 
 lacing and soldering, the blades being now tight to the drum. 
 A soft brass strip of square section is threaded through the 
 notches near the tips of the blades ; the ends of this strip are 
 not cut off short, but are scarphed into each other with a long 
 taper. The blades are now carefully gone over and the free 
 ends set to the correct angle. When this is completed, the 
 blades are laced tightly to the strip and to each other by means 
 of small copper wire, the wire passing round the back of each 
 
METHOD OF BLADING. 
 
 41 
 
 blade, over the wire at the front of the blade and then round 
 the back of the next blade, and so on. When this is finished, 
 the tips of the blades are made red-hot with a Bunsen burner, 
 using compressed air and gas, and a small quantity of a silver 
 solder is dropped where the strip passes through the notch in the 
 blade; and at this point also the lacing wire crosses the strip, so 
 that we have the wire, strip, and blade rigidly connected at the 
 tip of every blade, and also a wire supporting the back of each 
 blade. This operation completed, the tips of the blades are 
 gone over with a file to test the efficiency of the lacing and 
 soldering. After this the drum is put into the lathe and the 
 ends of the blades trimmed to a certain diameter, suitable to 
 the inside drum of the casing. It is to be noted that the tap 
 rivets through the wheel and drum are so spaced as to clear the 
 grooves. 
 
 The sizes in detail of the blades and the spacing of them 
 are given in the following table (fig. 57). 
 
 Total N of Rows 
 
 n Drum 4, Casino. 
 
 A/9 of Rows. 
 
 Length (L) 
 
 Breadth (B), 
 
 Breadth (b) 
 
 Spacing (S) 
 
 Clearance (a) 
 
 Peripheral 
 Spacing 
 
 H.P Turbine 
 
 19" 
 
 128 
 
 
 L.P. Turbine 
 
 10 
 
 128 
 
 3% 
 
 2" 
 
 24 
 
 Astern Turbine 
 
 10 
 
 
 19" 
 
 10 
 
 W_ 
 
 W 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 To 
 
 I'i 
 
 27 
 
 Fig. 57. Table of Blading. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 BUILDING OF A TURBINE. 
 
 A DESCRIPTION of the building of a turbine, after the design 
 and sizes have been fixed, may be of interest. The turbine, as 
 will be seen from fig. 58, is divided along the line of the shaft 
 
 Fig. 58. Port Low-pressure Casing, looking aft. 
 
 into an upper and a lower half. On the latter, the feet for 
 bolting to the engine seat are cast, as can be seen from this 
 figure. The photograph is that of a port low-pressure turbine 
 looking aft; the large flanged opening on the left-hand side 
 under portion is the steam admission from the exhaust end of 
 
 42 
 
BUILDING OF A TURBINE. 43 
 
 the H.P. turbine. As will be seen, the castings which make up 
 this L.P. casing are four in number, there being a circumferen- 
 tial joint at the exhaust end of the go-ahead drum. This is 
 solely for the purpose of securing sounder castings and for re- 
 placing a smaller portion in case of accident. These four 
 castings come from the foundry in, of course, the rough condi- 
 tion. The flanges are machined, and studs or fitted bolts put 
 in place, until we get these castings put together as shown. 
 The complete casting is then put in a lathe and bored out to 
 the required diameter, but is not yet grooved. The casting is 
 now tested to a certain pressure by hydraulic power, and, if 
 satisfactory, is replaced in the lathe and grooved out as 
 explained in the description of blading. While the casing is 
 in the lathe, the opportunity is taken of boring out the seats for 
 bearings and thrust-block. The bearing is a brass casting in 
 halves lined with some soft white metal or anti-friction material. 
 The thrust-block is also a brass casting in halves, the collars 
 being put in separately and so placed as to suit the position of 
 the thrust-rings on the shaft. Outside these bearings there is 
 placed a cover which is bolted down to the studs shown at the 
 right hand of the figure. There is a similar bearing at the after 
 end but no thrust-block. After grooving, the casing is bladed 
 in the manner described and is then placed in the lathe once 
 more to have the ends of the blades trimmed up to give a 
 certain diameter, which is fixed by the clearance allowed 
 between the blade tips and the surface of drum. While all 
 this has been going on, the rotor or drum has been prepared. 
 The drum (generally a steel forging) comes to the shop as a 
 cylindrical plate cylinder without ends, and of very approxi- 
 mately circular section. The first thing to be done is to shrink 
 into each end of this drum a cast steel wheel, into which has 
 already been shrunk a shaft which will run in the bearings. 
 After this has been completed, holes are bored and tapped 
 through the drum into the wheel, care being taken that these 
 
44 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Fig. 59. L.P. Drum ready for turning. 
 
 Fig. 60. L.P. Drum ready for blading. 
 
BUILDING OF A TURBINE. 
 
 45 
 
 Fig. 61. L.P. Drum being bladed. 
 
 Fig. 62. L.P. Drum with Blading finished. 
 
46 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 holes are clear of the grooves which are to be turned on the 
 drum. Tap rivets are put in these holes, and well caulked up. 
 The drum is then as shown in fig. 59. This shows the L.P. 
 go-ahead and the astern drum, there being in this case an 
 intermediate wheel between the one at the after end of the 
 astern and the one at the forward end of the L.P. drum. The 
 
 Fig. 63. Portion of Drum showing Blades. 
 
 white spots on the drum surface near the ends are the tap 
 rivets. The drum is now ready for grooving; the other L.P. 
 drum may be seen behind in the lathe with the grooves partially 
 cut. After grooving, and after the gland rings have been turned 
 on the shaft, the drum is bladed, put in the lathe, and trimmed 
 to the required diameter. Figs. 60, 61, 62, and 63 show the 
 drum in various stages up to complete blading ; fig. 64 
 
BUILDING OF A TURBINE. 
 
 47 
 
 Fig. 64. H.P. Casing in the rough. 
 
 Fig. 65. Inside of L.P. Casing before grooving. 
 
48 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 shows inside of H. P. casing in the rough ; fig. 65 inside of 
 L. P. casing before grooving ; and fig. 66 l inside of casing 
 showing L.P. and astern turbines bladed. We now have the 
 drum and casing all ready as far as blading is concerned, the 
 thrust-rings being generally turned on the shaft when the drum 
 is being trimmed. The most difficult and important part of the 
 work now comes to be done, namely, to secure an accurately 
 balanced rotor, so that vibration may be reduced to a mini- 
 mum. It may happen that this is obtained without much 
 
 Fig. 66. Inside of Casing showing L. P. and Astern Turbines bladed. 
 
 trouble, but generally the reverse is the case. The method of 
 procedure may be briefly described as follows : The propellers 
 are balanced carefully on knife edges ; also each revolving part 
 of the turbine has to be separately balanced. When the rotors 
 are completed they are placed on knife edges, and are tested 
 and adjusted by the addition of weights to certain positions in 
 the drum wheels. The arrangement of knife edges is shown in 
 fig. 67. The blocks supporting the knife edges may be made of 
 wood, well stiffened, or in the case of very heavy rotors, the 
 
 1 Engineering, 1905. 
 
PRINCIPAL DETAILS. 
 
 49 
 
 blocks may be cast iron. The two knife edges are levelled up 
 as accurately as possible, say, within two or three thousandths of 
 an inch. Finally, the rotors are put in place in the casing and 
 run under steam to test the balancing as measured by the 
 vibration. While all this has been proceeding, the other parts 
 have been got ready, e.g. pumps, condensers, governing gear, 
 manoeuvring gear, shafting, evaporators, etc., so that we are 
 now ready to instal this set of turbine machinery on board. 
 One or two more photographs may be of interest : fig. 68 
 
 Fig. 67. Balancing L. P. Rotor. 
 
 shows the inside of the L.P. casing during boring out, top 
 half removed ; fig. 69 shows port L.P. casing looking forward ; 
 fig. 70 is the H.P. rotor bladed ; and fig. 71 is a view looking on 
 the after end of the H.P. rotor. Such is a short description of 
 the progress of a turbine through the shop. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS. 
 Many important details of construction and handling deserve 
 complete and careful explanation for the satisfactory under- 
 standing of turbine construction, but as the scope of these 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Fig. 68. L.P. Casing with Boring Bar in position. (Top half removed.) 
 
 Fig. 69. Port L. P. Casing looking forward. 
 
PK1NCIPAL DETAILS. 
 
 50A 
 
 Fig. 70. H.P. Rotor bladed. 
 
 Fig. 71. H.P. Rotor showing Wheel. 
 
 *<p 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
50B 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Longitudinal View of finished Drum ready for placing into Casing. 
 
 End View of previous Figure. 
 
PRINCIPAL DETAILS. 
 
 51 
 
 Enlarged View of Blading showing Position in Casing. 
 
 Cover for Forward Bearing and Thrust Block. 
 
52 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 lectures is limited to the application of the steam turbine for 
 marine purposes, it is not necessary to say more than is sufficient 
 for the comprehension of the machine in its application to 
 these purposes. 
 
 It has been seen that high revolutions can be associated with 
 greater length of blades than low revolutions. It will be 
 necessary to show the effect of variation of revolutions upon 
 efficiency of propellers both on trial and in actual service. It 
 will also be necessary to deal with the relation between the 
 weight of a turbine and its revolutions. 
 
 Having glanced briefly at turbines in their development, we 
 may now consider the Parsons turbine. Figs. 53 and 56 show 
 the turbine in detail. It has already been seen that the steam 
 turbine is like the water turbine shown in fig. 3, but generally 
 it is arranged to run on a horizontal axis instead of a vertical 
 one, and consists of many turbines on the same shaft instead of 
 one, as in the case of the water turbine. Figs. 56 and 72 show one 
 of the turbines which is analogous to a water turbine, and, as 
 already explained, has to be repeated so many times on account 
 of the small density and high velocity of steam compared to that 
 of water. It may be seen from fig. 72 that a single stage of 
 steam turbines consists of a row of fixed blades, usually called 
 guide blades ; and a row of moving blades, which may be called 
 vanes. The steam enters the guide blades at a velocity of about 
 150 to 250 feet per second. It is deflected round the guide 
 blade and meets the moving blade, which latter has a peri- 
 pheral or circumferential velocity of about one-half that of the 
 steam. It impinges on this moving blade and is deflected by 
 it from the path of entry, the deflection necessarily only taking 
 place by a reactive force from the moving blade which causes 
 the steam to change its motion. The force of this reaction 
 is available for overcoming resistances in the turbine, and doing 
 any outside work for which it may be intended. The steam 
 is again passed through the guide blade of a second set, and 
 
ACTION OF STEAM IN TURBINE. 
 
 53 
 
 resumes approximately the direction of flow it had on leaving 
 the first guide blades. From there it passes to the moving 
 blade of this set, and so on, passing from set to set right through 
 the turbine ; it thus imparts a succession of turning forces to 
 the successive moving vanes. 
 
 In the turbine shown in fig. 53, there are eighty rows of guide 
 blades and the same number of moving blades. Each set of these 
 
 4| Circumferential pitch 
 
 MOVING BLADES 
 Circumferential 
 Velocity =u 
 
 = Velocity of steam leaving fixed blades. 
 
 = moving blades. 
 
 = Relative velocity of steam entering moving blades. 
 
 = ,) leaving ,, 
 
 Fig. 72. Diagram showing Flow of Steam. 
 
 fixed and moving blades may be considered as a turbine in which 
 a certain amount of work has been done by the change of steam 
 from one pressure and velocity to another. If this amount of 
 work had been done on a moving piston in a cylinder, such as 
 that of an ordinary reciprocating engine, the pressure would 
 have fallen and the volume would have increased ; and if these 
 two quantities be represented by a diagram such as fig. 4, the 
 work per unit of area of the piston will be represented by the 
 
54 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 shaded area of the diagram. If, instead of changing pressure 
 and volume in a closed cylinder, the steam be free to escape 
 into orifices like the guide blades of the first turbine, the work 
 done will take the form of an increase of velocity of the particles 
 of steam from practically zero to that represented by *j2gW 
 where W is the amount of work actually done upon the steam 
 during its passage through the guide blades, and "g" is the ac- 
 celeration of gravity 32'2 ft. per second per second. If the steam 
 stream be free and not confined after leaving the guide blades, 
 and if it impinges upon the moving blades, it is usually called 
 an action or impulse turbine ; but if the stream is confined within 
 a vessel so that the pressure will cause the steam to fill the 
 spaces and the streams will flow through the vanes imparting 
 their energy without shock, the turbine is called a reaction 
 turbine. The Parsons turbine is a reaction turbine. The action 
 of steam on the Parsons turbine may be seen in fig. 72. The 
 relative velocity of the steam and the moving vanes is also given. 
 The upper set of blades is fixed. The steam enters the guide 
 blade, and, under the action of pressure, its velocity is raised 
 to v 1 at the orifices of the blades. The steam then passes into 
 the space between the moving blades, and in its passage through 
 this space it is constrained to take a path which is as shown in 
 fig. 72. Consider first the action of the steam as it impinges 
 on the edge of the moving blade at a . This blade has a velo- 
 city u perpendicular to the axis of motion, while the steam 
 has a velocity v l acting at an angle a to that of the velocity u. 
 The velocity v resolved in the direction of u will be much 
 greater than u, and the steam will overtake the blade and can 
 therefore impart force to the moving blade by the change of 
 momentum in the steam. If we consider the blade a b at rest, 
 and the steam to have imposed on it a velocity equal and opposite 
 to that of the blade, we shall have the same force exerted on the 
 blade as if it were moving. The resultant of this velocity 
 (opposite to that of the blade) and of the steam in its natural 
 
ACTION OF STEAM IN TURBINE. 55 
 
 direction will be the third side of the triangle Aa Q O, and we 
 may call this velocity w v If now the blade be so shaped at 
 the entrance that it is in the direction of w v we shall have no 
 force exerted along the line & at a Q . If the blade be curved 
 as & 6 , the steam will be constrained to move along the curved 
 line, and a velocity will be imparted to it opposite to the direction 
 of u and will cause a force of reaction on the blade which will 
 tend to move it. If the direction of the blade at the entering 
 part be not along the line of w, we can resolve the velocity into 
 two parts, one along and one at right angles to the line of the 
 blade. The part of the velocity at right angles to this line will 
 be acting normally on a blade at rest, and therefore any steam 
 acting in this way would have its direction of motion suddenly 
 changed in an exactly opposite direction. This would involve 
 a destruction of kinetic energy, and the transformation of it into 
 heat, involving a loss which is usually called the loss by shock. 
 In all parts of the turbine it is desirable as much as possible to 
 prevent this change of kinetic energy into heat. Next consider 
 the blade after the steam has moved some distance along its 
 concave contour to, say, the line through Pp. It commences 
 to move through the vanes with a velocity v lt and leaves them 
 with a velocity v 2 . Let a & , A, 2 & 2> a $& ^ e tne positions 
 of the moving blade during the time in which a particle of 
 steam is passing through the blades. If we assume that its 
 velocity along the blades is uniform, and divide the length of 
 the path into equal parts, we get the path of the steam as shown. 
 At any point such as p the true velocity will be along the path 
 of the steam, and if we assume an imposed reversed velocity u t a 
 triangle such as is shown in the middle of the diagram will give 
 a value and direction for w, the relative velocity, in terms of 
 position in the passage of the steam through the blade. The 
 direction of w should always be parallel to the tangent to the 
 blade at the corresponding point. It will be seen that the 
 turning of the line of flow of the steam from its initial direction 
 
56 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 to its final direction through the blades is what causes the blades 
 to revolve. A force has to be exerted to deflect the steam 
 stream, and that force turns the turbine blades. If the steam 
 passes through a series of blades of the same section and the 
 same height, its velocity will gradually increase under the 
 action of the pressure of the steam ; and if this were continued 
 far enough, we should get a very much higher velocity than 
 would be efficient in relation to the peripheral speed. It 
 becomes necessary, therefore, at a certain stage, to increase the 
 peripheral velocity, and this is first done by lengthening the 
 blades. This is equivalent to an increase of area of section of 
 flow, and must necessarily be associated with a reduction of 
 velocity of steam. This reduced velocity in its turn is gradu- 
 ally increased if the area of flow, that is, the height of the 
 blades, is unchanged, and a point will again be reached in the 
 velocity of the steam where the relation of the steam speed 
 to the peripheral speed will be too great, and a further increase 
 of length of blade must be made. It would be theoretically 
 better to make a gradual increase in the length of the blade, 
 but the practical difficulty of construction due to having a curved 
 surface would be considerable, and if the steps in increase of 
 length of blade are sufficiently frequent, there is little loss of 
 efficiency in adhering to a uniform height through the group, 
 provided that the number in the group is not too great. This 
 process of increase of velocity associated with the increase of 
 length of blade reaches a limit when the length of blade be- 
 comes too great for strength, for the increase of length must 
 be associated with an increase of thickness which involves 
 (1) reduction of area, and (2) losses, that, in the process of 
 continued increase of velocity, will become serious. There 
 comes then a stage where the peripheral velocity must be in- 
 creased more than the small amount which it can be increased 
 by lengthening the blades. In marine turbines it is usual to 
 make this change of peripheral velocity by passing the steam 
 
DIMENSIONS. 57 
 
 into a larger turbine, and most frequently into two larger tur- 
 bines, so that a very considerable increase in the ratio of 
 peripheral speed to steam speed can be secured. The division 
 into two turbines and the increase of diameter of drum reduces 
 the height of the blades at the beginning of the L.P. turbines 
 to about the same as that at the beginning of the H.P. That 
 is to say, the diameter of the L.P. drums is fixed to admit of 
 this height of blade. 
 
 The same process of increase of velocity goes on through the 
 L.P. turbine, and has to be met by increased blade length at 
 definite stages, until finally the pressure has so far fallen and 
 the volume so far increased that most of the kinetic energy is 
 taken out of the steam. 
 
 The blades at the end of the L.P. turbine may be much 
 longer than those at the end of the H.P., because the pressure 
 which the steam exerts on these blades per unit of area is 
 much less. 
 
 DIMENSIONS. 
 
 A description of the considerations which govern the details 
 of dimensions may here be given. We have already seen that 
 the shape and height of the blades depend on the relation 
 between the steam speed and the peripheral speed. The steam 
 enters the guide blade with velocity v , and has its velocity 
 increased by steam pressure to v r The amount of work done 
 on each pound of the steam in the first guide blades (calling 
 them a) is 
 
 v, 
 
 :=W! 
 
 which can be converted into heat units given off, or heat-drop, 
 as it is technically called, by dividing by 778. In its passage 
 through the blades the energy given off by the steam can be 
 measured by the gain in velocity relatively to the blades. This 
 relative velocity increases in passing through the wheel because 
 
58 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 it is the actual work, or the work which would be done on the 
 steam (if we bring the wheel to rest by giving it and the steam 
 a velocity u opposite to that which the wheel really has, then 
 this actual work is the difference in relative work at the be- 
 ginning and end of the steam passage through the wheel). 
 Actually the work is done on the wheel, but the hypothetical 
 reversion which keeps the wheel fixed in our view is only 
 hypothetical. Hence the work done on the moving wheel a 
 can be measured by the expression 
 
 Fig. 73. Curve of Velocities. 
 
 The steam enters the next guide blades with the velocity c 2 
 in fig. 73, the third leg of the velocity triangle, of which u and 
 w 2 are the other sides. As before, the velocity passing through 
 the guide blades is increased, and the same series of changes 
 takes place in it and in the moving blades. It should be noted 
 that the starting torque is much greater than the torque at full 
 speed and well under way by an amount which can be deter- 
 mined from the base of the velocity triangle. 
 
 The relation between c , c v w v w 2 , c 2 . . . depends on the 
 form of the blades and the angles of entrance and exit. The 
 determination of the values of the heat-drop in each set of guide 
 
DIMENSIONS. 
 
 59 
 
 and moving blades is simplified by assuming that the angle of 
 exit of the guide and moving blades is the same, and that the 
 exit velocity of steam from the guide blades c x is the same as 
 the relative terminal velocity w 2 in the moving blades of the 
 same set, and that the exit steam velocity of the moving blades 
 
 c 2 is the 
 
 same as the relative entering velocity w v This is 
 
 expressed as w 2 = C 1 ; C 2 = w v The relations between these can 
 be determined from a diagram of velocities such as in fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 74. Diagram of Heat- Drops. 
 
 c i, c?, <, c? . are the velocities of the steam at the exits 
 to the guide blades a t b t c t d . . . and they must be determined 
 from an arbitrarily chosen curve. The first ordinate is usually 
 fixed at about 100 feet. Cases of actual velocities of periphery 
 u have been already given, and c is usually taken about twice 
 that of u. The terminal velocity is also usually determined 
 from the results of observations of the final pressure at the exit 
 of the last vane. A hyperbolic curve is drawn between these 
 
60 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 points as in fig. 74. 1 With this curve we can determine the 
 value of c", c?, cj, c*. From these values the corresponding 
 values of c 2 can be determined, and, as by hypothesis c 1 = w z 
 and c 2 = w v we have all the velocities. The series of drops will 
 be as follows : 
 
 
 fM _ 02 
 
 for guide blades a, 
 
 * 
 
 w a -w c-^ 
 - - l - 2 - for moving blades a, 
 
 & *s 
 
 6> 6 2 _ c 2 
 
 1 ' 2 for guide blades b, 
 
 .2 .2 ,2 .2 
 
 w5 trf c? c2 , , , j 7 
 
 J for moving blades &, 
 
 fy fy 
 
 and so on. 
 
 From these a series of heat-drops can be calculated and put 
 into the form of a curve. In fig. 74 the assumption is that 
 the blades are in four sets of gradually increasing length. 
 Where the length changes there will be a sudden increase in 
 the heat-drop, the amount of which will depend on the increase 
 of length of the blade. 
 
 To find the actual value of the total heat-drop throughout 
 the turbine we must know the total H.R required. The area 
 at entrance can be determined from the consumption of water 
 in Ibs. per I. EL P. per hour and the volume of 1 Ib. of steam at 
 the initial pressure. The actual area is not the annular space 
 between the drum and casing, because the area of entrance is 
 through the guide blades, and if we take the steam velocity v t 
 at the a guide-blade exits, we see (fig. 72) that the area in all the 
 guide blades will be the annular space multiplied by the sine of 
 the angle of exit of the guide blades. This angle in the actual 
 case taken is about 30. These considerations fix the length of 
 
 1 Stodola's Steam Turbines. 
 
DIMENSIONS. 61 
 
 the blades. Take the case of the channel steamer whose periph- 
 eral velocity is 98 feet per second and whose angle of entrance 
 is 30, H..P. is 7400, and revolutions 630. If we assume initial 
 pressure to be 125 Ibs., we find the volume of 1 Ib. of steam at 
 this pressure will be 3'17 cubic feet. The length of blade is '8 
 inch, and, allowing for clearance, we may take disc area available 
 for steam entrance as "82 inch. Assume water consumption to 
 be 15^ Ibs. per H.P. per hour. From these data we get velocity 
 of steam 
 
 7400x15-5x3-17x144 
 
 30*x-82x-5tX7rx3600 
 
 The general formula is 
 
 n = PwPp 
 25D/7rsin 
 
 1 = length of blades in inches-}- clearance. 
 a = angle of exit from guide blades. 
 P = I.H.P. 
 
 w = water per H.P. per hour. 
 
 v p = volume of 1 Ib. steam at pressure p per square inch. 
 D diameter of drum in inches. 
 
 Knowing c\ for a successful turbine, we may assume it for a 
 new design, and from this deduce the length of the blade 
 
 Having obtained the heat-drops from the velocity curves 
 through the stages of equal diameters, we come to an increase 
 in length of blade and a small increase in diameter. Passing 
 from the blade of length l : to blade of length Z 2 , we should have 
 
 a sudden decrease in velocity in the ratio of -i, and this will 
 
 *2 
 
 cause a sudden enlargement in the drop-curve. This can be 
 
 * Diameter of drum. t Sin 30. 
 
62 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 easily estimated by taking the velocity immediately before the 
 drop and reducing it in the ratio - 1 . Then the difference of 
 
 squares divided by 2g will give the enlarged drop at this point. 
 
 There is a constant fall in pressure in the steam which can be 
 obtained when we have fixed the drop-curve. From this 
 pressure curve, which is shown in fig. 75, 1 we can get the volume 
 per Ib. of steam, and knowing the velocity, we can see if the 
 blade length is sufficient. If we start with a continuous drop- 
 
 heat un'ts 
 
 150 
 
 atm. absolute T2 11 
 
 Fig. 75. Specific Volume and Weight. 
 
 curve based on an assumed velocity of steam at exit of the guide 
 blades, which is also a continuous curve, we can get a continu- 
 ous pressure and a continuous volume per Ib. of steam curve. 
 From this we can get the necessary length of blade for a given 
 angle of exit. 
 
 It will be generally found that the later blades are too long, 
 and it will be necessary to increase the diameter of drum to 
 increase the peripheral speed, and also to increase the angle of 
 
 1 Stodola's Steam Turbines. 
 
DIMENSIONS. 
 
 63 
 
 exit to widen the area of flow. These changes will introduce a 
 discontinuity into the curve unless it could be possible to 
 continuously increase the drum diameter or the angle of exit. 
 This is not practicable, so that these changes have to be made 
 in steps, and, obviously, the effect of the steps can only be 
 determined by working out pressures, weights per Ik, and 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 velocities to suit the chosen steps. If the results are harmoni- 
 ous, the design may be considered satisfactory, and if not it 
 must be changed and new calculations made, so that to arrive at 
 a satisfactory result a process of trial and error must be adopted. 
 No doubt experience enables designers to approximate very 
 closely to satisfactory results without making many steps in the 
 process. Figs. 75 and 76 1 show the result of such a set of 
 calculations. 
 
 1 Stodola's Steam Turbines. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 SCREW PROPELLERS IN TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 THE screw propellers, turned by the turbine, drive the ship. 
 If the efficiency of the propeller and the turbines followed 
 exactly the same relation to speed of revolution, the most 
 efficient turbine would give the most efficient result in pro- 
 pulsion. It is necessary to consider what makes for efficiency 
 in the screw propeller and the turbine separately. Take the 
 screw first. The pictures of the screws on the stern of a vessel 
 show what kind of an instrument a screw is. Each blade is a 
 piece of a surface which is swept out by a straight line revolv- 
 ing uniformly about a fixed axis and moving at a uniform 
 speed along that axis. The part of the surface appropriated 
 for the form of a propeller blade is frequently elliptic in form, 
 so that it is practically an elliptic plane slightly twisted and 
 placed obliquely to the shaft axis. Every square inch of the 
 blade in rotating meets with resistance due to the inertia of 
 the water. This is usually considered as being of two separate 
 kinds one due to . rubbing the particles of water out of the 
 way, the other due to pushing them. We generally call these 
 two kinds of resistance frictional and normal pressure re- 
 spectively. For a given speed of blade through the water the 
 more oblique the blade is the more will be the normal pressure, 
 and the less oblique, the greater will be the frictional resist- 
 ance. Also, the greater the area of the part of the blade 
 moving at the given speed, the greater will be these resistances. 
 
 64 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 65 
 
 If the plane of the blade be at right angles to the axis of the 
 shaft, there will be no push in it. It will be all rubbing re- 
 sistance. If it be in the line of the shaft, it will be all push 
 and no rub. But in both these cases we shall have no reaction 
 in the direction of motion, and there will be no force to cause 
 propulsion. For positions of the blade between these two there 
 will be both rubbing and 
 pushing resistances, and 
 there will be a resultant 
 reactional push in the 
 direction of motion which 
 will vary from zero to a 
 maximum and back again 
 to zero between the two 
 extreme positions of blade 
 considered. What we 
 have to find out is, 
 where is this maximum 
 and what is it. 
 
 We will first try to 
 see what goes on in the 
 vicinity of a propeller 
 when a ship is being 
 driven by it. Fig. 77 l 
 shows the results of 
 observations upon the 
 direction of the flow of 
 
 Fig. 77. Showing the positions taken up by the 
 stream lines at the stern of a moving vessel. 
 
 water as a ship passes through it. The thick lines represent 
 floating thin radial feathers which indicate the line of motion 
 of the water relatively to the ship. This kind of change of 
 relative motion is called stream-line motion, and its effect may 
 be seen in actual forms round which flows a coloured fluid, as 
 can be seen in Professor Hele-Shaw's apparatus. This shows 
 1 Trans. T.N.A., 1893. 
 
 5 
 
66 MAKTNE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 the same kind of view which one would have in looking over 
 the stern or bow of a ship if the water were particoloured in 
 a similar way. 
 
 Suppose in this stream at the stern we put a revolving screw 
 propeller. There will be a disturbance of these stream lines. 
 The rubbing and pushing action of the propeller sends the 
 water in many directions, and the action of rubbing and 
 pushing will react on the propeller, and tend to resist the 
 rotation of the propeller, and will push the ship ahead. The 
 more push the reaction gives to the ship for a given turning 
 effort of the propeller, the more efficient will be the result. 
 We have seen that there is a zero of push ahead in two 
 directions of the blade relatively to the shaft, and a maximum 
 somewhere between. This will be so in the case of the pro- 
 peller acting under the stern of the ship, but inasmuch as the 
 direction of the water to the axis of the shaft and to the line 
 of motion of the ship is itself varying and slightly oblique, 
 the position of zero push will not necessarily be either at right 
 angles to each other or at the positions square to and along the 
 shaft as in the simpler case already dealt with. 
 
 Let us consider the simpler case first. Suppose a propeller 
 to be carried by a phantom ship having no form, but only a 
 capability of (1) delivering a turning effort to a propeller, and 
 (2) receiving a push from the propeller. Suppose the turning 
 effort on the shaft to be always the same, and such as might 
 be delivered by the steady pull of a rope on a drum attached 
 to the shaft. If the blade of the propeller is placed in a plane 
 square to the line of shaft, the resistance which the turning 
 effort will meet with will be a rubbing or frictional resistance, 
 and there will be no forward push given to the propeller by 
 the reaction of the water. The shaft will run very fast, and 
 its limit of speed will only be reached when the total rubbing 
 resistances balance the turning effort due to the rope on the 
 drum. A large amount of work will be done by the force in 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 67 
 
 the rope moving at a great speed. But the useful effect in 
 propelling the vessel will be zero. If for a rope we were to 
 substitute a turbine, we might have a very efficient turbine 
 so far as work delivered in relation to weight of machine or in 
 relation to steam used, but the whole combination of screw and 
 turbine would be a useless machine. If we place the propeller 
 blade in a plane along the shaft, we should get a large push 
 resistance to the propeller, but it would all be in a direction 
 square to the shaft, and no forward push due to the reaction of 
 the water would be caused. As before the limit of speed 
 would be reached when the resistance to pushing the blade 
 through the water balanced the pull in the rope. This would 
 be at a much lower speed than in the former case, and the 
 work done would be less in proportion to the lowering speed. 
 If the work were done by the same turbine as before, it 
 would not be so efficient a turbine either in relation to its 
 weight or to mass of steam used. We might be able to 
 make it as efficient in relation to steam used by making 
 it larger and heavier, but this would still more sacrifice 
 its efficiency in relation to its weight. Whatever was 
 done to improve the efficiency of the turbine in one 
 respect or the other would not make the propeller drive the 
 ship, and, as before, the efficiency of the apparatus would be 
 zero. If, however, we put the propeller blade in some oblique 
 intermediate position, we shall get less rubbing and pushing 
 resistances than in the respective first and second cases, 
 but we shall get some effective push or thrust in the pro- 
 peller. Suppose by a process of trial we can get the exact 
 obliquity which will give a maximum push forward for a 
 given pull on the rope at a given speed, that is, for a given 
 amount of work done per unit of time (usually called a given 
 amount of H. P.), we should then have the best propeller result 
 as far as the obliquity of the particular blades of the propeller 
 are concerned. But we should only then have one best result. 
 
68 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Consider how many things have been given or assumed for the 
 whole installation. First we assume a certain work done per 
 unit of time called horse-power. Next we assume a given speed 
 of the rope and a given force. These two multiplied together 
 give the H.P., but it is evident that one-half the speed and 
 twice the force would give the same H. P. In fact there is a 
 great variety of speeds and forces whose product is the H. P. , 
 and each one of these will have a different effect on the pro- 
 peller. It will also probably reduce the efficiency of both 
 weight and steam consumption if the H. P. be got in a turbine 
 instead of a rope and drum. Increase of speed will increase 
 forward push, but the obliquity of the blades may not be the 
 best for this increased speed. The turbine would probably 
 be increased in efficiency by the increased speed. But even 
 with this set of conditions it may not be that this particular 
 propeller, even if at its best obliquity, would be the best pro- 
 peller for that particular speed of turning. Its blade area 
 may be capable of improvement. It may be that the in- 
 creased speed would cause too much to be done in rubbing 
 and not enough in push, so that it will be seen that though a 
 propeller may be the best for a given set of conditions, it may 
 be that it is not the best best, but that a change of conditions 
 may make a better best. Thus it is seen that for the highest 
 efficiency not only is the best best propeller the best for its 
 own turbine, but it must also have the best turbine. Some- 
 times it is possible to combine these excellencies, but generally 
 it is not, and the sacrifice of one or other bests has to be made. 
 
 It is certain that we must study the turbine efficiency in 
 terms of speed of rotation and H. P. , and the propeller in the 
 same terms, and also in that of speed of ship. 
 
 The subject is too wide and too difficult to deal with here in 
 mathematical detail, but it may be sufficient to say that the 
 whole subject has been treated experimentally by model pro- 
 pellers as large as 16 inches in diameter, having varying areas 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 69 
 
 of blades, diameters, obliquities, usually called pitch, revolu- 
 tions, and speed of ship. These five variables all cause varying 
 efficiencies, so that, treating efficiency as the result of any of 
 those five variables, we have six in all. It is to be noticed 
 that efficiency of propeller is the ratio of push forward to 
 turning effort, and these are capable of varying independently. 
 It will therefore be necessary to cross-stratify all these combina- 
 tions by finding how some vary while others remain fixed. 
 For instance, for a given speed of ship and a given H. P. and 
 given propeller we may trace the change of efficiency in 
 
 -SCALE OF SUP ff/mO 
 
 Fig. 78. Single Efficiency and Turning Effort Curve. 
 
 terms of revolutions. This is shown in such a curve as the 
 figure 78, 1 where A is efficiency and B turning effort. 
 
 The best way to show this is to represent the revolutions in 
 term of slip ratio. The pitch of a propeller is the amount it 
 would advance in one revolution if it were moving in immov- 
 able material. When moving in water it pushes the water 
 back, and so does not advance so much. The difference between 
 the advance of the ship in movable material, such as water, and 
 in an immovable material in relation to the total movement in 
 the latter case, is called the slip ratio. 
 
 If we make a series of experiments of this kind on the same 
 1 Trans. I.N.A., 1886. 
 
70 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 propeller we should get for each speed of ship a curve of 
 forward push called thrust and a curve of turning effort usually 
 
 Rrrolutions of Jcrew p<r Minute 
 Fig. 79. Thrust, Torque, and Efficiency. 
 
 called torque. From these thrusts and torques we get efficiency 
 which is thrust divided by torque, and we shall get a series of 
 
 Fig. 80. Curves of varying Pitch Ratio. 
 
 curves such as fig. 79, 1 which will have different positions for 
 maximum efficiency when plotted to slip ratio. 
 1 Trans. I.N.A., 1886. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 71 
 
 It is well at this stage to consider what is the effect on the 
 efficiency of a change of pitch ratio only. It has been seen 
 that a given propeller has a definite diameter and pitch, the 
 former being the diameter of the circle in which the tips of the 
 blades rotate, the latter being the advance per revolution if 
 there were no slip. In all propellers of this type, such as 
 would be similar but to different scales, the diameter and pitch 
 will always have the same ratio. The pitch ratio or the diameter 
 ratio will be constant whatever variations may be made in the 
 
 WTRAKY ABSCISSA- SCALE 
 
 Fig. 81. Abscissae Value Curve. 
 
 exact dimensions. But if we retain the form of blade we may 
 make a series of propellers of the same type as the original, 
 but with a series of different pitch ratios. This is a variation 
 easily made, and its effect can be determined by experiment. 
 In fig. 80 l such effects are shown, the different efficiency and 
 thrust curves for the different pitch ratios being given plotted 
 to slip ratios. The efficiency curves have the same maximum 
 values. It is found by altering the longitudinal scale of each 
 curve so as to bring the maximum efficiency ordinates together 
 that the other ordinates coincide, and there is a common 
 efficiency curve. Fig. 81 1 shows these. The slip ratio is 
 1 Trans. I.N.A., 1886. 
 
72 
 
 MAKINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 constant along a curved line, as shown, instead of along a 
 vertical line, as in fig. 80. Fig. 82 1 shows the results of many 
 such experiments for pitch ratios ranging from 1*0 to 2*4. 
 They have all been brought to a base in which the maximum 
 efficiencies of all are coincident, and it is a significant result of 
 
 so 
 
 2 J 4. 
 
 67 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 
 Abscissae Values. 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 Fig. 82. Varying Pitch Ratio Efficiencies. 
 
 these experiments that the efficiency curves can all be repre- 
 sented by one common curve by altering suitably their horizontal 
 scales. These curves now represent the efficiency and thrust 
 of a type of propeller moving at various speeds of ship and 
 revolution, and if the curves be drawn for a given size pro- 
 peller, we can get the values of the thrust for any other size 
 1 Trans. I.N.A., 1886. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 73 
 
 propeller of exactly similar form moving at revolutions and 
 speed of ship which give the same slip ratio, because with the 
 same slip ratios the conditions of obliquity in relation to speed 
 of ship and revolutions remain the same. The efficiency will 
 be the same for all sizes of similar propellers at the same slip 
 ratio, and hence the curves of efficiency and thrust will repre- 
 sent all similar propellers if we know how thrust is affected by 
 proportional change of dimensions. 
 
 If we call P the forward push or thrust of the propeller and 
 
 p 
 T the torque, then - is the efficiency E. For similar propellers 
 
 at the same slip ratio E is the same. 
 
 P varies as the square of the speed of ship V. 
 
 P varies as the square of the diameter of the propeller for the 
 same speed of ship. 
 
 Hence if we have such a curve as fig. 78, we can obtain the 
 thrust of a propeller at any speed V and diameter D, provided 
 that the revolutions are so arranged as to give the same slip 
 ratio as the propeller experimented upon. Suppose these 
 experiments enable us to determine the thrusts at all slip ratios 
 for a propeller of 10 feet diameter in a ship at 10 knots, then 
 
 (D \ 2 / V \ 2 
 J ( J .t (where t is the ordinate of the thrust of the 
 
 10 feet propeller at 10 knots), will give us the thrust of a 
 propeller D feet diameter in a ship at V knots. This is done 
 in fig. 82. The curves B are for a propeller 10 feet diameter 
 and 10 knots speed, and therefore any ordinate of one of these 
 curves represents the thrust of the 10 feet propeller of the 
 pitch ratio of the particular curve ; and if it be multiplied by 
 
 (D\2/ v \ 2 
 j ( j it will give the thrust of a propeller D feet diameter 
 
 in a ship moving at V knots, provided that propeller is similar 
 in form, has the same pitch ratio, and is run at revolutions 
 which will give the same slip ratio as the 10 feet propeller. To 
 
74 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 determine what these revolutions should be, it must be observed 
 that since slip ratio is 
 
 Revs, x pitch V in feet 
 Revs, x pitch 
 
 we have s = ^~ = 1 -_ j 
 
 Rp Rp 
 
 or T^ = I - S - 
 
 Rp 
 
 Since pitch ratio and slip are both to be constant and 
 
 D V V V 
 
 =C and = C = ls constant. Hence must be 
 p Rp RD RD 
 
 T?T) 
 
 constant and is constant. If we set off a curve of revolu- 
 tions for a 10 feet propeller of given pitch ratio, of which an 
 ordinate r gives the revolutions for a given slip ratio, we see 
 
 that r = ^rf ITTT an d R = -fi ^ or the propellers of the same 
 
 pitch and slip ratios, but diameter D and speed V. Hence 
 
 y 
 
 R = r. will give us the revolutions at which the enlarged pro- 
 peller must run to conform to the conditions of having the 
 same pitch and slip ratios. This has been done in fig. 82 for 
 all the points on the curves of thrust, and the results are given 
 in the curves c. 
 
 Let us now see what we have obtained. We can find 
 the push forward of a propeller of one type of form at any 
 speed of ship, pitch ratio, and diameter, and we can determine 
 the revolutions at which it must run in order to produce this 
 thrust. We can also, from the efficiency curve, see which of 
 these combinations will make a high and which a low efficiency. 
 We can determine, from the efficiency, the turning effort 
 necessary to obtain the required push, or, conversely, the push 
 obtainable from a known turning effort. In other words, 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 75 
 
 we are able to choose the size and revolutions of propeller of 
 one shape which will give us the required push at the necessary 
 speed of ship, and we know how much torque or H.P. has to 
 be produced in the motor to give the thrust. We have thus 
 some freedom of choice in selecting conditions of propeller 
 which best suit the motor. Generally we may take it that 
 high revolutions are associated with lightness of motor, and 
 are not dissociated from efficient steam use, so that generally 
 the motor is on the side of high revolutions. It will be seen 
 
 that for a given value of P = ( /.(TK) ^ ^ ^ an( ^ -^ ^ e fi xe d, 
 
 D 2 . must be fixed also. To every value of t on the curve in 
 fig. 82 will correspond a value of D which will suit the chosen 
 values of P and V, so that we have a moderately wide range 
 of diameter from which to choose. At the low end of the t 
 curve we shall require a high value for D and a low value 
 for E, and vice versa. The value t really takes account of the 
 change of effect due to a change of slip ratio. Hence D 2 .t 
 being constant, we can find a series of values of D with varying 
 slip and pitch ratios which will give P, and we can judge by 
 the position of the value of t along the base of the curve what 
 kind of efficiency such values of D and t are likely to give. 
 
 It may be noticed that scales are shown on the diagrams at 
 the right for four-, three-, and two-bladed propellers, so that 
 really the curves give a further choice in this direction. This 
 will be better understood if we take an example. 
 
 Suppose we require, as in a 22 knot channel steamer, a thrust 
 of 15 tons in each propeller, then from the formula 
 
 y 22 2 D 2 
 
 If D = 8 feet . . t = 4'84 tons. 
 
 If we choose a three-bladed propeller as most suitable, the 
 line D E represents t = 4 '84. Hence we may get from the 
 
76 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 diagram the following as a few of the suitable revolutions, pitch 
 ratios, and efficiencies for an 8 foot propeller : 
 
 Pitch ratio = I'O 1'5 2'0 
 
 r 117 101 85 
 
 K = r^. = 275 r = 321 278 234 
 Efficiency % 65 64 63 
 
 If we take D = 7 feet, I = 6 '33 tons, the line G H gives this 
 value : 
 
 r 142 108 92 
 
 R = rl. =314r 446 339 289 
 Efficiency % 66 63 61 
 
 These two cases show that, with the type of propeller experi- 
 mented upon, the efficiency falls off with decrease of diameter 
 and increase of pitch ratio ; also that increase of pitch ratio 
 reduces revolutions very rapidly. As lightness of engine 
 increases with increase of revolutions, it is seen that, as a choice 
 of evils, it is better to decrease diameter and reduce pitch ratio 
 in this type of propeller. The foregoing example shows how we 
 may select the propeller which best suits our type of engine as 
 far as its revolutions are concerned. But there are propellers 
 and propellers. The type chosen for experiment may be a very 
 good one, and yet its progeny deduced in the way explained may 
 not be the best possible for a chosen set of conditions. Another 
 progenitor may be a much more suitable one to choose from. 
 Hence we have to know the efficiency and thrust curves of a 
 great variety of progeny proposing propellers. Some with large 
 blade area. Some with small. Some with orthodox geometrical 
 shapes, others with the Jones' patent, infinite speed propeller 
 shape. We must explore the whole ground of possible variation 
 in form and proportions of propellers. Hence the possible 
 number of types upon which experiments could be made is not 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 77 
 
 small, and yet we cannot find the best propeller to harness to a 
 given engine to produce a required result without this full 
 knowledge. We further must know what is the effect which 
 an unavoidable selection of a particular type of motor will have 
 upon the efficiency of the propeller we are compelled to adopt 
 to suit this motor. 
 
 Before going to the wider question, let us consider the case 
 of the particular type experimented upon. This type is one 
 whose blades are ellipses having the long axis equal to one- 
 half the diameter of the propeller and its short axis two-tenths 
 of the diameter. The total area of three blades is three-tenths 
 of the area of the circle swept out by the propeller. It is 
 evident that a larger blade would give a larger push and would 
 meet with more rubbing resistance, but what the net result in 
 efficiency will be, only experiment can determine. It is only 
 within the last few months that experiments covering the 
 whole field of blade area have been available. 
 
 These experiments were carried out at the United States 
 Navy Tank at Washington ; their object was to find the power 
 necessary to drive, and the efficiency obtained in, a series of 
 propellers 16 inches diameter, having pitches ranging from 6*4 
 inches to 24 inches, areas of blades from '12 to '56 of the disc 
 area, and number of blades 2, 3, and 4. The blades were 
 approximately elliptical in shape (see fig. 83). The results of 
 these experiments were recorded in a standardised form based 
 on the following considerations. At a constant speed of 
 advance, say, five knots, if U = the useful work, and G the 
 power absorbed by propeller 
 
 = E, the efficiency. 
 
 (jT 
 
 Then at a pitch p in feet and E revolutions per minute a 
 slip s can be determined, and 
 
 /i x 
 
 G 
 
78 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 where T and P are the effective torque at 1 foot radius and the 
 push or thrust of the propeller respectively. 
 
 From the investigations upon the thrust, torque, and efficiency 
 of an elementary oblique plane rotating about an axis, it may 
 be shown that the total horse-power absorbed in turning an 
 aggregation of these elements in the form of a screw propeller 
 may be expressed by a formula 
 
 where a is a reaction or push and / a friction or rubbing 
 constant; X and Z are characteristics of the blade depending 
 on the diameter ratio, the proportions and the shape of the 
 blade, and n is the number of blades. 
 
 Now ^E = .' 3 V , V being in knots ; 
 
 (J- s) 
 
 so that if we put S = 
 
 (I- 
 
 we have by substitution 
 
 G ='00312. n. SD 2 V 3 ... (2) 
 and U- EG- -00312. E.?i.SD 2 V 3 . . (3) 
 
 S for a given propeller depends only upon the slip, so that a 
 curve of G's of a given propeller plotted to a base of slip will 
 give us a curve of S's. 
 
 Rut n _ 2?rR T _ 2xT 101 '33V. 
 
 33,000' 33,000' p(l-s) ' 
 
 101 ' 3V = -00312. rc.'SD* V s : 
 
 _ 
 33,000 p(l-s) 
 
 6 
 
 pn(l 
 
 6.1 OT 1 
 _ _ D 2 V 2 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 In the experimental propellers 
 
 V == 5, D = 1 J feet ; 
 
 g _ -139T 
 np(l-s) 
 
 *022P 
 also from equation (1) S = -== . 
 
 79 
 
 (4) 
 (5) 
 
 Hence for a given propeller we can plot values of S when either 
 
 --4-S 
 
 UeanMdth Ratio* 125 HeanWatliRatiO'WS 
 
 Mean Widen Ratio- -350 Mean Width Ratio --275 
 
 Fig. 83. Model Propeller Experiments. Shape of Taylor's Blades. 
 
 P or T and e are known. If therefore S and e are known and 
 plotted for a given propeller, we have its characteristics com- 
 plete, and can apply the formula (2) to find the power expended 
 in a larger propeller at other speeds and revolutions by the 
 methods formerly explained. The efficiency of the model 
 propeller at the corresponding revolutions or at the same slip 
 per cent, will enable us to determine the power utilised. 
 
 A series of experiments was first made on three-bladed 
 propellers. Five different shapes of blade were made, and for 
 
80 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 each shape six different pitch ratios were tried, thus giving thirty 
 different propellers. Similar experiments were subsequently 
 carried out on four-bladed, six-bladed, and two-bladed. The 
 experiments on the six-bladed and two-bladed propellers were 
 not so extensive as those on the three-bladed and four-bladed. 
 The shapes of blades that were tried are shown in fig. 83. 1 
 
 The curves in figs. 84 to 90 have been selected from the 
 results of the above experiments on two-, three-, and four-bladed 
 propellers. They have been grouped together as follows : 
 
 Number figure. 
 
 Number blades. 
 
 Mean width ratio 
 of blade. 
 
 Corresponding ratio. 
 Total developed area. 
 
 
 
 
 Disc area. 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 200 
 
 214 
 
 85 
 
 3 
 
 200 
 
 322 
 
 86 
 
 3 
 
 275 
 
 442 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 350 
 
 563 
 
 88 
 
 4 
 
 125 
 
 268 
 
 89 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 429 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 275 
 
 590 
 
 In each of the above figures which fix number and shape of 
 blades, we have the S and the E curves for six different pitch 
 ratios plotted on a base of slip per cent. 
 
 The pitch ratios chosen in each case were '4, '6, '8, I'O, 1-2, 
 1*5 respectively. 
 
 It will be seen that the field of exploration is fairly complete. 
 Numbers, areas, shapes, and pitch ratios have been varied over 
 an extent sufficient for all practical purposes. The wide range 
 of the experiments enabled the investigators to conclude " that 
 within working limits the propeller forces vary as the square 
 of the speed of advance," that is, what we have called speed 
 1 Trans. Amer. I.N.A., 1904. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 81 
 
 of ship. It was only necessary, therefore, to give results at 
 one speed of advance, viz., five knots. The power absorbed 
 in turning a propeller having n blades of any diameter D 
 at a speed of advance V can be got from the formula (2) 
 
 G= '00312 n. SD 2 V 3 , 
 S being obtained from the curve for the particular type of pro- 
 
 23 
 
 36 40 
 
 12 16 20 Z4 
 
 Slip per Cent 
 Fig. 84. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 2 Blades. "2 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Efficiency curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 " S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 peller whose area ratio, pitch ratio, and revolutions or slip ratio 
 are known. The corresponding value of E, the efficiency, can 
 be read off from the curves, and the value of the useful power 
 U developed by the thrust of the propeller can be found. It 
 may be noticed that for the constant speed of five knots at 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 which all these results are set off, the variables are number of 
 blades, pitch ratio, slip ratio, and area ratio, and the results 
 
 16 20 24 
 
 Slip per cent 
 
 Fig. 85. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 3 Blades. -200 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 "S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 we obtain by experiment are power absorption and efficiency. 
 We can show a series of any two of these variables on one set 
 of curves by assuming the other two to be constant throughout 
 
SCKEW PROPELLERS. 
 
 83 
 
 the series. If we select number of blades and area ratio as 
 constant, we can set off a series of S values for varying pitch 
 
 iz 
 
 28 32 36 
 
 16 ZO 24 
 Slip per Cenf 
 
 Fig. 86. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 3 Blades. -275 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 "S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 and slip ratios, and we can set off a series of E values for 
 the same pitch and slip ratios. We cannot treat the number of 
 blades as a continuous variable, so that for one set of curves it 
 
84 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 must always be constant, and we must always have a different 
 set of curves for each number of blades. But with the pitch, 
 slip, and area ratios we may make one constant and plot values 
 
 12 16 20 ?4 28 30 
 
 Slip per cem. 
 
 Fig. 87. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 3 Blades. '35 Width ratio. 
 
 "S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 " E," Efficiency curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 of S and E for varying values of the other two. In figs. 84 to 
 90 each figure shows the values of S and E for a constant pitch 
 ratio, each curve of the series being for a specified width ratio, 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 85 
 
 the base being slip ratio. We are then able to see how 
 S and E each vary according as pitch or area ratios are 
 altered. 
 
 By inspection it may be seen that : 
 
 (1) For propellers of the same number and area ratio of blades 
 S increases rapidly with decrease of pitch ratio. 
 
 16 20 24 
 Slip per Cent 
 
 Fig. 88. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. -125 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Efficiency curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 " S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 (2) For propellers of the same number of blades for small 
 pitch ratios the narrow blades absorb a little more power 
 at low slips than the wide blades up to a certain point, 
 after which, as the slip increases, the wide blades gradu- 
 ally absorb greater power than the narrow ones. For large 
 
86 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 pitch ratios the wide blades absorb slightly more power at 
 all slips. 
 
 (3) Maximum efficiency occurs at lower slips as the pitch 
 and area ratios decrease. 
 
 (4) The value of the maximum efficiency increases as pitch 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 id 
 
 12 
 
 16 20 24 
 Slip per Cent 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 Fig. 89. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. -2 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Efficiency curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 " S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 ratio increases for the smaller area ratios up to 1 '2, but slightly 
 decreases afterwards, but in the larger area ratio it continuously 
 increases with increase of pitch ratio. 
 
 (5) The value of maximum efficiency increases between 
 area ratios '075 and '125, but decreases with further 
 increase. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 87 
 
 In order to make use of the curves given in figs. 84 to 90 
 figs. 91 to 100 have been made. 
 
 Consider the formula G= '003127iSD 2 V 3 . If we are given 
 G and V, we can select n and D, and hence get a value of S. 
 If then we can draw a horizontal line in any of the figs. 84 to 
 90 at this value of S and set up ordinates at the intersections 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 I-S 
 
 10 
 
 16 20 2t 
 
 Slip per cent. 
 
 28 
 
 36 
 
 4-0 
 
 Fig. 90. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. '275 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 " S," Power coefficient curves for constant pitch ratio. 
 
 of this line with the S curves, we get the corresponding 
 efficiencies at the points where these ordinates cut the 
 efficiency curves. Hence an efficiency curve corresponding 
 to the given value of S may be drawn to the same abscissae, 
 slip per cent. We also know the corresponding pitch ratio 
 at each of these ordinates, and hence a curve of pitch ratios 
 
88 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 can be set up for the given value of S and in terms of slip 
 per cent. 
 
 This has been done in order to get curves as in the figs. 
 91 to 97. Fig. 91 is derived from 84, fig. 92 is derived 
 from 85, etc. 
 
 16 ?0 24 
 
 Slip per Cent 
 
 Fig. 91. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 2 Blades. '2 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of " S." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 The efficiency curves are lettered E, and the pitch ratio curves 
 are lettered P. 
 
 The value of S to which each curve corresponds is also noted, 
 and the range of values that has been chosen depends upon the 
 range of S in the original S and E curves. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 89 
 
 From inspection of the E and P curves in the figs. 
 91 to 97, it will be seen that for any of the chosen 
 values of S we are able to fix the maximum efficiency 
 point. 
 
 Drawing the ordinate at this maximum efficiency point, we 
 can get the corresponding pitch ratio, and the abscissa gives the 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 . 
 
 I- 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 >v 
 
 S I? 16 20 24 28 32 
 
 Slip per Cenr 
 
 Fig. 92. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 S Blades. -200 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of " S." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 36 
 
 slip ratio. For example in fig. 91, which gives the E and P 
 curves for two-bladed propellers of *2 width ratio, the S values 
 chosen range from *2 to 2 '0. 
 
 The following table gives the maximum efficiencies and the 
 corresponding pitch ratios and slip ratios for each selected 
 value of S : 
 
90 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Value of S. 
 
 Maximum 
 Efficiency. 
 
 Pitch Ratio. 
 
 Slip per cent. 
 
 2-0 
 
 65 
 
 625 
 
 28'2 
 
 1-5 
 
 677 
 
 705 
 
 26-0 
 
 1-25 
 
 69-5 
 
 76 
 
 24-5 
 
 1-0 
 
 71-6 
 
 825 
 
 22'9 
 
 75 
 
 74-9 
 
 92 
 
 20-3 
 
 6 
 
 77-0 
 
 99 
 
 18-5 
 
 5 
 
 78-8 
 
 1-06 
 
 16-8 
 
 4 
 
 80-6 
 
 1-14 
 
 15-0 
 
 3 
 
 82-2 
 
 1-25 
 
 13-0 
 
 25 
 
 83-2 
 
 1-35 
 
 11-3 
 
 2 
 
 84-0 
 
 1-465 
 
 10-0 
 
 The figures in the above table have been plotted on a base of 
 S value. The curves are shown in diagram 98. For each of 
 the figs. 91 to 97 a similar table was made, and the results 
 plotted. Fig. 99 gives the results for all the three-bladed 
 propellers, and fig. 100 shows the curves for all the four- 
 bladed propellers. 
 
 These figures, 98, 99, and 100, are final diagrams, and can be 
 made use of directly to determine the maximum efficiency, the 
 pitch ratio, and the slip ratio corresponding to maximum 
 efficiency for any given value of S. 
 
 Suppose that for any given value of S we have determined 
 E, P, and s (slip ratio) from the final diagram. Let the 
 diameter which has been selected to give S be D. 
 
 Then the pitch p = P x D 
 and pR(l-s) = V(101'33); 
 Y(101-33) 
 
 We can thus obtain the revolution corresponding to maximum 
 efficiency for any given value of S. 
 
CF 
 
 SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 91 
 
 It will be seen from the figures that the very best three- 
 bladed propeller may have an efficiency as high as about 80 per 
 cent., while the very best four-bladed only reaches about 75 
 per cent. The pitch and area ratios of this three-bladed pro- 
 peller are about 1/6 and '28 (of disc area), while in the four- 
 bladed these values are 1-1 and '24 respectively. 
 
 12 16 20 24- 
 
 Slip per cent 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 4-0 
 
 Fig. 93. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 3 Blades. -275 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of "8." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 It will also be seen that in both the three- and four- 
 bladed propellers maximum efficiency is consistent with a 
 very large range of pitch ratio, and corresponds in the 
 three-bladed to about 12 per cent, slip ratio and in the 
 four-bladed to 13 per cent, slip ratio. Of course the value 
 of the maximum efficiency will vary very much with pitch 
 
92 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 ratio, but the position of it in relation to slip will not alter. 
 It may be interesting to notice that as between the three- 
 and four-bladed propellers, while maximum efficiency occurs 
 at about the same slip ratio, i.e. at about the same revolu- 
 tions in the same diameter propellers, that the corresponding 
 
 8 // 16 20 
 
 Slip per Cent 
 
 Fig. 94. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 3 Blades. -35 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of " S." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 area ratios are "27 and '36, the excess of the latter over the 
 former being simply that due to the extra blade, viz. about 
 one- third. The effect of this extra blade only seems to be 
 to detract from efficiency, as it lowers the maximum possible 
 from 80 per cent, in the three-bladed to 75 per cent, in 
 the four-bladed. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 93 
 
 It has been shown that the values of S increase with 
 decrease in pitch ratio, i.e. increase of diameter ratio, ranging 
 in four-bladed propellers having jnarrow blades (of, say, area 
 ratio -17) from 'I at pitch ratio of 1'Q to I'O at pitch ratio 
 of -4, and in broad blades (say, of area ratio of *65) from 
 
 so 
 
 70 
 
 16 20 
 51 ip per Cent 
 
 Fig. 95. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. '125 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of "S." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 1 to 2'0. These are very significant figures, and show the 
 wide range of power absorption of different propellers. The 
 value of S, except for small areas, increases with increase 
 of area ratio for the same pitch ratio, the rate of increase 
 being much greater for small pitch ratios than for large. 
 Taking these two statements together, it is seen that to get 
 
94 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 a large value of S small pitch- ratios and large area ratios 
 are necessary. 
 
 Having described these curves we may now, by concrete 
 examples, see their application to screw propellers. Let us 
 take the case of a vessel having three screws driven by three 
 
 80 
 70 
 60 
 50 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 ?--^~~ 
 
 P,-- 
 
 "P-- 
 
 16 
 
 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 
 
 Slip per Cent 
 
 Fig. 96. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. "2 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of " S. " 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 turbines or other motors, each capable of giving off 3000 H.P. 
 to each screw shaft and collectively driving the vessel at 
 23 knots. From the formula G = '00312rcSD 2 V 3 we get 
 3000 = -00312 x 3 x S x D 2 x 23 3 : 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 95 
 
 This is a similar expression to the value D 2 obtained earlier 
 in this paper. 
 
 From this value, if we choose D, we can find a value for S. 
 It is better to select different values for D and to draw curves 
 of efficiency, pitch, slip, and revolution in terms of D. The 
 
 A? 16 20 24 28 
 31 ip per Cent- 
 
 Fig. 97. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 4 Blades. -275 Width ratio. 
 
 " E," Curves of efficiency for constant value of " S." 
 
 " P," Curves of pitch ratio for constant value of " S." 
 
 31 36 
 
 most favourable propeller to the given set of conditions can 
 therefore be obtained. Selecting values of D from 4 to 10 feet 
 we obtain values of S at which we can set up ordinates in the 
 final curves. 
 
 The following table shows how the results are obtained : 
 
96 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kevo. 
 
 D. 
 
 S. 
 
 E. 
 
 Slip. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pitch 
 
 p(l-s). 
 
 R VxlOl'33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 
 p(l-s) 
 
 4 
 
 1-65 
 
 60'5 
 
 37'2 
 
 92 
 
 3-68 
 
 2-32 
 
 1008 
 
 5 
 
 1-05 
 
 65-0 
 
 33-0 
 
 1-06 
 
 5'30 
 
 3-55 
 
 655 
 
 6 
 
 73 
 
 69-0 
 
 29-6 
 
 1-185 
 
 7-11 
 
 5-00 
 
 466 
 
 7 
 
 536 
 
 71-4 
 
 267 
 
 1-275 
 
 8'92 
 
 6-55 
 
 356 
 
 8 
 
 411 
 
 73-5 
 
 24'2 
 
 1-340 
 
 10'72 
 
 8-10 
 
 288 
 
 9 
 
 325 
 
 75-0 
 
 21-8 
 
 1-380 
 
 12-42 
 
 9-72 
 
 240 
 
 10 
 
 263 
 
 76-0 
 
 19'5 
 
 1-410 
 
 14-10 
 
 11-38 
 
 205 
 
 80 
 70 
 60 
 50 
 40 
 JO 
 20 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 -/ 
 
 
 /* 
 
 
 13 
 12 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 I'D 
 
 6 32 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 -9 
 
 
 ^^. 
 
 **2^ 
 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 80 
 
 _7 28^ . 
 
 -_^ ---' ""* : ^~~~ 
 6*"?# 
 
 ^==^ 
 
 ~~~ _ 
 
 ETFjcj. 
 ~~ ^' * / /j 
 
 eJlJL~ 
 
 ' 
 
 ___ - 
 
 
 
 
 Z5 
 24 
 
 70 ? 
 60 6 
 
 5 20 
 
 
 
 " 26 "^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 5 
 
 4 16 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 9-0 '4 
 
 3 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 2 
 
 30 -3 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 20 2 
 
 'I 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 7 
 
 'ZSiTf. 
 
 ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 &-8-S 
 
 ^yfn 
 
 t]a;$ 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 1-25 10 
 
 Value of'S" 
 
 75 
 
 6 '5 4- 'J 252 
 
 Fig. 98. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 ( maximum efficiency) 
 
 Curves of -I pitch ratio } for two-bladed propellers. '200 Width ratio, 
 
 (slip ) 
 
 " S " obtained from formula G= '00312nSD2V3. 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 The first column gives the diameters that have been selected. 
 The corresponding values of S are put in the next column. 
 We are now left to choose width ratio. In this case the width 
 ratio -275 has been chosen. We therefore get our results from 
 diagram 99, and the series of '275 curves. Setting up ordinates 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-25 10 
 
 Value of"S" 
 
 75 -6 5 -4 3-252 /5 
 
 Fig. 99. Model Propeller Experiments. 
 
 (200 Width ratio. 
 
 (maximum efficiency) ('200 
 
 Curves of -4 pitch ratio > for three-bladed propellers. -('275 ,, 
 
 (slip ) (-350 
 
 " S " obtained from formula G = -00312nSD2V3. 
 
 at the values of S given in the second column, we can read off 
 the results for E the maximum efficiency, s the slip, and P the 
 pitch ratio. These results have been tabulated in the next 
 three columns. 
 
 Multiplying P by D, we get the pitch in feet p. The sixth 
 column gives the values of the pitch. 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 t CQ CO 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 99 
 
 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14- 
 
 Diameter in Feet 
 
 Fig. 102. 4500 I.H.P. in each Propeller having three Blades. 
 
 Selected width ratio = -275. 
 Selected area ratio = -4427. 
 Speed = 23 knots. 
 
 10 12 /4- 16 
 
 Diameters in Feet 
 
 Fig. 103. 8000 T.H.P. in each Propeller having three Blades. 
 
 Selected width ratio = '275. 
 Selected area ratio = '4427. 
 Speed = 19 knots. 
 
100 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 
 
 
SCREW PROPELLERS. 
 
 101 
 
 In the seventh column the values of p (1 s) have been put, 
 and the last column is the revolutions which are calculated i'rom 
 
 fl . , D 101-33xV 
 the formula K= - 
 
 These results have been plotted 
 
 in curves in terms of D, and are shown in diagram 101. 
 Other examples are given. 
 Fig. 102 shows the curves for the propellers of the same 
 
 12 13 14 
 
 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24- 25 26 
 Diameters in Feet. 
 
 Fig. 105. 12,000 I.H.P. to each Propeller having three Blades. 
 
 Selected width ratio = '275. 
 Selected area ratio = '4427. 
 Speed = 19 knots. 
 
 vessel, only in this case there are two screws ; the I.H.P. per 
 screw is therefore 4500. The speed being the same, we get 
 in this case an SD 2 value of 39*6. 
 
 Fig. 103 shows the curves for the case of a vessel of 24,000 
 I.H.P. There are three propellers, each three-bladed. 
 
 Fig. 104 shows the curves for two different cases of large 
 vessels, each with four screws. 
 
 Fig. 105 shows the curves for the propellers of the same vessel 
 as in fig. 103, only in this case there are two screws ; I.H.P. per 
 screw therefore is 12,000. The speed is the same as before. 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 COMBINATION OF TURBINE AND PROPELLER. 
 
 HAVING shown the relation between revolutions, efficiency, and 
 diameter in a propeller, we may consider the effect of combining 
 the various sizes of propellers with suitable turbines. 
 
 We may first consider the general effect of revolutions upon 
 turbine efficiency. The losses in a turbine may be classed 
 under the following heads : 
 
 Friction. 
 
 Steam shock. 
 
 Leakage by clearance at ends of blades. 
 
 The first loss depends on velocity of steam through the blades 
 and the surface of blades. Assuming the same internal con- 
 dition, viz. the shape and spacing of blades, variation of 
 revolutions has no effect on friction. We have seen that 
 increase of diameter and reduction of revolutions decrease the 
 length of blade but increase the number in the same propor- 
 tion, so that with the same speed of steam and periphery there 
 is no difference in blade friction. Whatever loss may be due 
 to friction on the surface of the casing or drum, will increase 
 with the diameter. The loss due to friction is not the energy 
 necessary to overcome the resistance, because some of the energy 
 comes back in the form of heat. Hence the difference of this 
 loss between the large and small diameters, and the consequent 
 small and large number of revolutions, is small. 
 
 102 
 
TURBINE AND PROPELLER. 
 
 103 
 
 The difference of loss due to steam shock, with same internal 
 conditions, may be neglected. 
 
 The difference of loss due to leakage by clearance at the ends 
 may be considered as varying with the ratio of the annular 
 area of clearance to the remaining annular area. We have 
 seen that the annular area for a given H. P. and steam speed is 
 constant for varying revolutions and diameter. The clearances 
 may be expected to vary as the diameters, as it is only on 
 account of possible variations in the actual amount of these 
 clearances that they exist at all. If there could be such per- 
 fection in the relation between the ends of the blades and the 
 adjacent surfaces of drum or casing that the clearance would 
 always be a known definite amount, that amount could be made 
 practically nil. But this is impossible for practical reasons, since 
 the larger the diameter of drum and casing, the greater ought 
 the clearance to be, as the causes which tend to make the ends 
 of the blades change their position relatively to the drum or 
 casing, will be intensified with increase of diameter. But the 
 loss will be in proportion to the ratio of the clearance to length 
 of blade. Hence as length of blade decreases, and clearance 
 increases with increase of diameter, the ratio of loss increases 
 as the square of the increase of diameter. Assuming the actual 
 loss to vary as the ratio of clearance to length of blade, it is 
 easy to calculate the loss of efficiency in terms of revolutions 
 and so get a combined efficiency of turbine and propeller as 
 shown below. The results for a channel steamer are : 
 
 Propeller, . 
 
 Per cent, clearance 
 loss in turbine, 
 
 Diameter in feet. 
 
 Revolutions. 
 
 Efficiency. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 982 
 
 480 
 
 300 
 
 203 
 
 61 
 
 68'5 
 4-8 
 
 72'8 
 12-0 
 
 75-5 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 26-5 
 
 Nett efficiency, 
 
 59-9 
 
 637 
 
 60-8 
 
 49-0 
 
104 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 With reference to the matter of economy of the turbine 
 as applied to marine purposes, there is still a great 
 deal of conflict of evidence. Taking the few cases in 
 which ships of similar form, having boilers the same, 
 have been tested for water consumption, I may state the 
 following : 
 
 ' ' King Edward " : Mr James Denny, in comparing the 
 "King Edward" with a twin-screw triple-expansion engine, 
 said the best that could possibly have been done was 19*7 
 knots in the latter, against 20 '5 actually got from the "King 
 Edward. " Of this j%ths of a knot, T%ths is due to the lighter 
 machinery and y^-ths to the turbine, and that, while the gross 
 gain due to the adoption of the turbine was 20 per cent. , the 
 relative efficiency of turbines and reciprocating engines with 
 their accompanying propellers is 15 per cent. No statement of 
 speed on service in relation to speed on the mile and its 
 relative consumption has been published. The Midland 
 Eailway boats, designed by the author's firm, were four in 
 number. Three of these were exactly identical in form and 
 construction, and with the fourth there was so little difference 
 as not to interfere with the comparison. Two of these were 
 fitted with turbines and two with reciprocating engines. One 
 of the vessels with turbines and the two vessels with recipro- 
 cating engines were the three that were identical in every 
 other respect, except that the boilers of the turbine were 150 
 Ibs. against 200 Ibs. in the reciprocating engines. They were 
 all tried on the measured mile at Skelmorlie, at draughts 
 corresponding to the same load. They were also each tried 
 continuously for six hours, and during both trials the number 
 of strokes of the feed pumps was recorded. These feed pumps 
 were exactly the same in construction, and gave reliable com- 
 parative results. 
 
 In a paper read by the author before the British Association 
 in 1905, the following statement was made: 
 
TURBINE AND PROPELLER. 105 
 
 " The ' Londonderry ' has turbine power sufficient to obtain 
 the same speed as the vessel with reciprocating engines. The 
 weight of machinery is less, and the saving in the weight 
 reduces the displacement and the resistance of the vessel so 
 that the power required for the desired speed is less. This ad- 
 vantage to the turbine shows in its first cost as well as in the 
 cost of running, and it leaves the comparison with the recipro- 
 cating engine as one which includes in favour of the turbine the 
 incidental advantage due to its light weight. One of the 
 savings in weight in the ' Londonderry ' was in the boilers, 
 which, though of the same size and number as the other 
 vessels, had a reduced pressure of 150 Ibs. instead of 200 Ibs. 
 In the case of the other turbine vessel, the * Manxman,' the 
 same saving in weight was not made, but a more powerful 
 turbine was put in, and the boiler pressure was not reduced as 
 in the "Londonderry." By this arrangement the greatest 
 power which the boilers could give was obtained, regardless of 
 the weight of the turbine, instead of, as in the other case, the 
 smallest weight for a given power. The net result was a 
 maximum gain in speed of three-quarters of a knot, which, if 
 the efficiency in the other two ships were the same, is the 
 equivalent of a gain of 14 per cent, of power when the extra 
 resistance due to the extra weight is allowed for. It is difficult 
 to determine how much of this gain is due to the turbines, as 
 the propellers were different in the three ships, and probably 
 had different efficiencies. But from the result of steam-con- 
 sumption observations, it appears that at about the maximum 
 speed of 22 knots of the ' Londonderry,' the slower vessel, the 
 extra power required was more, while the resistance was less, 
 the net difference in efficiency of turbine and propeller being at 
 least 12 per cent, in favour of the 'Manxman,' the faster 
 vessel." 
 
 Taking the results without any qualifications, and at the 
 speed for which the vessel was designed, the mean of the 
 
106 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 turbine compares with the mean of the reciprocating engine 
 with an advantage of 15 per cent, for the former. 
 
 The next case in which results of exhaustive experiments 
 were published were those of the ' ' Amethyst ' ' and ' ' Topaz, ' ' 
 both of the same displacement, form, boiler installation, etc. , 
 the comparison of the results being in favour of the turbine 
 vessel. At 22 knots (the maximum speed for which water 
 consumption is given in the reciprocating engine vessel) the 
 figures are 22 against 14. Inasmuch as these figures repre- 
 sent Ibs. per I. H. P. , the horse-power being that of the " Topaz," 
 it seems as if there is something radically extravagant in the 
 "Topaz," as the Boiler Committee reported that the total 
 consumption per I. H. P. in the ' ' Hyacinth " and ' c Minerva " 
 averages about 17 '5 Ibs. , while in the ' ' Saxonia " it was 14 '5 Ibs. 
 It cannot therefore be said that the comparative results 
 obtained in the "Amethyst" are of much value. Curves of 
 I.H.P., coal and water consumed in Ibs. per I. H. P. per hour, 
 are given in fig. 106. 
 
 Other results have been published, Mr Speakman giving a 
 comparison between T.B.D.'s to 25 knots, showing a gain in 
 favour of the turbine of 6 per cent. Mr Grade of Fairfield 
 has furnished comparative information of the coal consumption of 
 two steam yachts, one with turbines and the other with recipro- 
 cating engines. He gives the maximum coal consumption at full 
 power in the case of the turbines as being about 1*83 Ibs., and 
 in the ordinary vessel 2 '18 Ibs., which is an advantage of about 
 17 per cent, in favour of the turbine. When we come to 
 service conditions, however, it is a little difficult to confirm 
 the trial advantages. The table appended shows some results 
 in the form of tons of coal per knot, and also tons of 
 coal per knot in proportion to the power required for driving 
 the vessel. 
 
 The following results were given in the author's paper for 
 the British Association : 
 
TURBINE AND PROPELLER. 
 
 107 
 
 jnot/ Jac/^H'l Jdd-sqi ut -idu/nsuoj /eoj JQJ aieos 
 i 
 
108 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 
 
 
 Per passenger certified 
 to be carried. 
 
 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 Coal per 
 H.P. 
 
 
 Speed 
 in 
 knots. 
 
 Coal 
 
 No. of 
 EP 
 
 Oil 
 
 Cost of 
 coal 
 
 
 
 
 burnt. 
 
 . Jx. 
 
 staff. 
 
 used. 
 
 E.R. 
 
 staff. 
 
 
 "Queen" 
 
 323' x 43' 
 
 1-00 
 
 i-oo 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 I'OO 
 
 21-00 
 
 B. 
 
 324' x 35' 
 
 1-43 
 
 1-74 
 
 2-03 
 
 2-97 
 
 1-8 
 
 18'00 
 
 C. 
 
 280' x 35' 
 
 1'25 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-47 
 
 2-47 
 
 1-34 
 
 18-50 
 
 D. 
 
 313' x 36' 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-07 
 
 1-73 
 
 2'69 
 
 2-06 
 
 17-50 
 
 The figures given, except in the case of speed, are not absolute 
 but only comparative. 
 
 Mr R. J. Walker of the Parsons Company has given the 
 following table, somewhat on the same lines for vessels on the 
 same route. The " Viking " is a turbine steamer. The others 
 are reciprocating. 
 
 
 "Viking." 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Length, .... 
 
 350 feet 
 
 360 feet 
 
 330 feet 
 
 265 feet 
 
 Breadth, .... 
 
 42 
 
 42 ,, 
 
 39 
 
 34 ,, 
 
 Draught, . 
 
 11 ,, 
 
 13 
 
 10 ft. 6 in. 
 
 10 ft. 6 in. 
 
 Displacement tons, 
 
 2400 
 
 2940 
 
 
 1520 
 
 Gross tonnage, . 
 
 1990 
 
 2140 
 
 1657 
 
 937 
 
 No. of passengers certified 
 
 
 
 
 
 to carry, 
 
 1950 
 
 1994 
 
 1546 
 
 901 
 
 Total mileage per season 
 
 
 
 
 
 knots, . . . ' . 
 
 8880 
 
 7870 
 
 9577 
 
 12,072 
 
 Coal per season tons, 
 
 4206 
 
 4833 
 
 4208 
 
 3833 
 
 Average speed of service 
 
 
 
 
 
 knots, .... 
 
 22'2 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 No. of engineers, includ- ) 
 ing greasers, . . ) 
 
 4 engineers 
 3 greasers 
 
 5 engineers 
 5 greasers 
 1 fanman 
 
 4 engineers 
 2 greasers 
 
 3 engineers 
 3 greasers 
 
 Type of machinery, . 
 
 turbines -{ 
 
 3-cylinder 
 compound 
 
 2-cylinder 
 compound 
 
 twin-screw 
 triple ex- 
 
 
 ( 
 
 paddle 
 
 paddle 
 
 pansion 
 
 Tons of coal per knot, 
 
 472 
 
 614 
 
 439 
 
 317 
 
RECIPROCATING ENGINE VERSUS TURBINE. 
 
 109 
 
 A comparison was given in the author's British Association 
 paper of 1905, in the form of the following table, but the 
 actual figures now given are for a comparison extending over 
 the whole time during 1905 on which the vessels were running 
 
 together. 
 
 R reciprocating. 
 
 Antrim. 
 
 Lon. 
 
 Lon. 
 
 Don. 
 
 Don. 
 
 Man. 
 
 Man. 
 
 Antrim. 
 
 T turbine. 
 
 R. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 R. 
 
 R. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 R. 
 
 No. of trips, . . 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 Average coal per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trip (tons), . 
 
 38-9 
 
 39-4 
 
 39-2 
 
 39-6 
 
 40'1 
 
 40'9 
 
 39-0 
 
 38-3 
 
 Average speed in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 knots, . . 
 
 20-0 
 
 197 
 
 19-9 
 
 19-3 
 
 19'3 
 
 20-5 
 
 20 4 
 
 19-6 
 
 Speed 2 . . .1 
 
 10-3 
 
 9-8 
 
 10-1 
 
 9-4 
 
 9-0 
 
 10'2 
 
 10-6 
 
 10-0 
 
 Coal consumed j 
 
 Coal consumed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per cent, in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 favour of, . . 
 
 4'8 
 
 ... 
 
 6-9 
 
 ... 
 
 
 117 
 
 6-0 
 
 
 Mean per cent, in 
 favour of tur- 
 
 Londonderry, 
 1 *0 
 
 Manxman, 
 
 S'8 
 
 bines, . . . 
 
 
 
 From these latter figures it will be seen that the economy of 
 15 per cent, shown on trial has not been borne out in practice, 
 and the important question is what is the cause of this differ- 
 ence. As far as one can determine from the examination of 
 the turbines, they seem to be in exactly the same condition as 
 they were when new. 
 
 The average speed for the year's running is: reciprocating 
 vesse! 1 = 20'0 knots, turbine vessel = 19*8, reciprocating vesse! 2 
 = 19'3, but the consumption of coal was not quite the same. 
 The average for the year's running for speeds reduced to the 
 same coal consumption are : reciprocating! 20*0, turbine 197, and 
 reciprocating 2 19*2 knots. On trial the results for same 
 consumption were : reciprocating! 20'0, turbine 20*5, reciprocat- 
 
110 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 ing 2 19*2 knots. The averages at sea as compared with trial 
 remain the same in the two reciprocating engine vessels, but 
 have fallen off very much in the turbine. The author believes 
 that he has put his finger on one principal cause of this 
 inefficiency, and bases his belief on the application of the results 
 of observation on revolutions of propellers at sea to find the 
 extra resistance met with compared with that on trial. It is 
 generally known that slip is the cause of thrust in a propeller. 
 An increase of resistance can only be overcome by an increase 
 of thrust if speed is to remain constant. Thrust can only be 
 increased in the same propeller by increased slip, and is 
 measured by it. It was found that in one of the recipro- 
 cating engine vessels on the voyages in which she was at the 
 same time on service with the other, the average thrust was 
 increased to 1'29 times that necessary on trial to produce the 
 average sea speed of 19*85 knots as against an increase of 1*4 
 in the other reciprocating engine vessel at 19 '24 knots. When 
 the first reciprocating vessel was on service with the turbine 
 vessel, the ratio of increase of thrust of the former was T23 at 
 20-12 knots against 2 '43 in the latter at 19'8 knots. The 
 second reciprocating vessel's increase when on service with the 
 turbine was 1"37 at 19'37 knots against 2 -45 in the turbine at 
 19-86 knots. It should be noticed that at different times the 
 increase in resistance in the various cases is nearly identical for 
 individual ships; 1'29 and 1'23 for the first reciprocating vessel, 
 1-4 and T37 for the second reciprocating, and 2'43 and 2 -45 for 
 the turbine vessel in the two cases. The number of runs in 
 each case was from 50 to 70, a sufficient number to form a 
 reliable average. The extra resistance of ship must really be 
 the same in all the cases. The increased amount of the thrust 
 may not all be real in the reciprocating vessels, but it . shows a 
 striking difference between these and the turbine, substantially 
 1^ to 2J, which is an increase of 33 per cent, as against 150 
 per cent. Naturally the first suggestion is that the 5 feet 
 
RECIPROCATING ENGINE VERSUS TURBINE. Ill 
 
 propellers of the turbine are much less efficient than the 11 
 feet propellers of the other vessels, when the extra resist- 
 ance of service, whatever it may be, is operative; but it is 
 easy to calculate the difference of efficiency, and it is negli- 
 gible compared with the difference of 1J and 2J, and some 
 other cause must be found for this result. If the pressures per 
 unit of turbine propeller area on trial be estimated, it is found 
 that on the official trial at 2T6 knots it is represented by 13'25, 
 while at 20 knots on trial it is ll'O. If we increase the figure 
 11 in the same ratio that the service resistance of the recipro- 
 cating vessels is increased, viz. 1J, it becomes 14*6, which is 
 in excess of that reached on trial. This points to the 
 extreme probability of cavitation as the cause of the enormous 
 increase of slip on service. Some confirmation of this is given 
 by the fact that during the trials a speed of 22*3 knots was ob- 
 tained with evidence of cavitation, and at a pressure represented 
 by about 14'2. It seems therefore extremely probable that 
 on service the pressures are much greater than on trial, and 
 that at times cavitation takes place. The failure to reproduce 
 on service, in the turbine vessel, the advantage of 15 per cent, 
 obtained on trial, seems to be adequately explained by ineffi- 
 ciency of propeller without any suspicion of defect on the 
 part of the turbine itself. This is to some extent confirmed 
 by the fact that in another turbine vessel on the same trade 
 the inefficiency of the propeller is evident, but in a less marked 
 degree, as the pressures on trial were much lower. 
 
 It should be noted that the average extra thrust must be 
 made up of many results in which the individual thrust must 
 be much higher, in some cases, than the average, and in which 
 cavitation must be very marked. 
 
 In other turbine vessels which have been successfully running 
 they have had no similar reciprocating vessels on exactly the 
 same service, or if they have, the results are not available for 
 comparison. There seems good reason to conclude that the 
 
112 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 turbine vessels would have been more efficient 'performers at 
 sea if they had been less efficient on trial, and the desire to 
 obtain high-speed results on the measured mile has caused loss 
 of efficiency on service. There is also reason to believe that 
 this can be avoided in future and corrected in existing vessels. 
 
 It may be of use and interest to give some idea of the relative 
 weight of turbine and reciprocating machinery in different 
 types of vessels. Table A gives this for channel steamers in 
 terms of tons per I. H. P. ; Atlantic liners are also included. It 
 
 TABLE A. MACHINERY WEIGHTS OF CHANNEL STEAMERS. 
 
 
 Knots. 
 
 I.H.P. 
 
 Tons per I.H.P. 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Turbines, 
 
 21 to 23 
 
 5000 to 10,000 
 
 021 
 
 075 
 
 Reciprocating, 
 
 20 to 22 
 
 5000 to 8000 
 
 04 
 
 115 
 
 ATLANTIC LINERS. 
 
 Turbines, 
 
 19 to 20 
 
 25,000 
 
 09 
 
 19 
 
 Reciprocating, 
 
 18 to 19 
 
 22,000 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 will be noticed that the weight of turbine machinery per I. H.P. 
 in channel steamers is about y^h of a ton, while with recipro- 
 cating engines it is about double, namely, j^o^ n - Table B gives 
 corresponding particulars for warships. These figures are much 
 less than those of channel steamers. There will be a gain in 
 efficiency in the latter class at sea by making larger turbines of 
 lighter construction. The stresses in the revolving drum due 
 to the centrifugal force do not generally exceed one ton per 
 square inch. The outside casings are at present of cast iron, 
 and probably could be made much lighter. The cost of upkeep 
 is inappreciable in a turbine. The owners of the " King Edward " 
 state that the actual repairs since she started running have 
 
RECIPROCATING ENGINE VERSUS TURBINE. 
 
 113 
 
 been nil. The only expense is due to the opening up for 
 inspection every winter to satisfy the Board of Trade. The 
 amount of oil used to make up the supply for the main bearings 
 is about one gallon per month. The total cost of oil for engine- 
 room and auxiliary machinery does not exceed 1 per month. 
 
 TABLE B AVEIGHTS OF MACHINERY. 
 
 Vessel. 
 
 Trial 
 speed 
 (knots). 
 
 I.H.P. 
 
 (approx.) 
 
 Weight in tons 
 per I.H.P. 
 
 (a) 
 Engines, 
 shafts, and 
 propellers. 
 
 ( & ) 
 As in (a), 
 
 plus boilers 
 and water. 
 
 Reciprocating T.B.D., . 
 
 30-00 
 
 5,800 
 
 0104 
 
 0218 
 
 55 >> 
 
 31-50 
 
 7,700 
 
 0113 
 
 0233 
 
 Turbine 
 
 37-00 
 
 12,000 
 
 0060 
 
 0157 
 
 55 55 
 
 32-00 
 
 10,500 
 
 0073 
 
 0169 
 
 cruiser, 
 
 23*63 
 
 14,500 
 
 0178 
 
 0339 
 
 Reciprocating 
 
 22-103 
 
 9,900 
 
 0261 
 
 0538 
 
 Turbine scout, 
 
 24-00 
 
 16,000 
 
 022 
 
 0475 
 
 Table C gives data for several turbine steamers. 
 
 A description of a few of the different types of turbine vessels 
 is given below. 
 
 The first turbine steamer to be run commercially was the 
 "King Edward" (fig. 107). She plys on the Firth of Clyde, 
 and her average sea speed is about 19 knots, with an average 
 coal consumption, including lighting up, etc., of 18 tons per 
 day. 
 
 8 
 
114 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 TABLE C DATA FOR 
 
 Vessel. 
 
 Type. 
 
 L. 
 
 ft. 
 
 B. 
 
 D. 
 
 Draught. 
 
 A 
 
 about. 
 
 C B. 
 
 Trial 
 speed. 
 
 Revolu- 
 tions. 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. ins. 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' Princesse Elizabeth,' 
 
 Channel steamer 
 
 344 
 
 40 
 
 23 3 
 
 9 
 
 2,000 
 
 565 
 
 24-00 
 
 500 
 
 " Viking," . 
 
 " 
 
 350 
 
 42 
 
 25 3 
 
 11 
 
 2,400 
 
 519 
 
 23-53 
 
 430 
 
 "Manxman," . 
 
 
 
 330 
 
 43 
 
 25 6 
 
 11-66 
 
 2,270 
 
 480 
 
 23-00 
 
 542 
 
 "Londonderry," 
 
 " 
 
 330 
 
 42 
 
 25 6 
 
 11-5 
 
 2,150 
 
 472 
 
 22-29 
 
 664 
 
 "Queen Alexandra," 
 
 Pleasure steamer 
 
 270 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 6-5 
 
 800 
 
 499 
 
 21-63 
 
 750 
 
 "King Ed ward," 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 30 
 
 10 6 
 
 6'0 
 
 643 
 
 500 
 
 20-48 
 
 505 
 
 "Bingera," 
 
 Cargo and pass. 
 
 300 
 
 40-5 
 
 19 1 
 
 14-5 
 
 2,680 
 
 534 
 
 17-45 
 
 590 
 
 "Victorian," 
 
 Atlantic liner 
 
 540 
 
 60 
 
 42 C 
 
 
 Trial 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 19'5 
 
 325 
 
 "Dieppe,". 
 
 Channel steamer 
 
 280 
 
 34-6 
 
 14 6 
 
 9-25 
 
 1,360 
 
 530 
 
 21-75 
 
 626 
 
 "Loongana," . 
 
 Cargo and pass. 
 
 300 
 
 43-1 
 
 23 
 
 12-5 
 
 2,500 
 
 541 
 
 20-00 
 
 700 
 
 "Carmania," . 
 
 Atlantic liner 
 
 678 
 
 72 
 
 52 
 
 30-0 
 
 27,500 
 
 64 
 
 20-19 
 
 185 
 
 "Brighton," 
 
 Channel steamer 
 
 280 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 9-25 
 
 1,260 
 
 5 
 
 21-00 
 
 495 
 
 "Queen," . 
 
 " 
 
 310 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 9-88 
 
 1,750 
 
 5 
 
 21-26 
 
 480 
 
 "Onward," 
 
 
 
 310 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 9-88 
 
 1,750 
 
 5 
 
 22-8 
 
 440 
 
 " Invicta," 
 
 ' 
 
 310 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 9-88 
 
 1,750 
 
 5 
 
 23-94 
 
 440 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 115 
 
 TURBINE STEAMERS. 
 
 Equiv. 
 I.H.P. 
 approx. 
 
 No. of 
 
 shafts. 
 
 Screws 
 shaft. 
 
 Diam. 
 of pro- 
 peller. 
 
 Aver, 
 service 
 speed. 
 
 Coal 
 con- 
 sumpt. 
 per 
 knot 
 (tons). 
 
 Length 
 of 
 service 
 run. 
 
 Astern 
 speed. 
 
 Boilers. 
 
 W.P. 
 
 No. 
 
 D. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 ft. ins. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft. ins. 
 
 ft. ins 
 
 10,000 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 21-75 
 
 357 
 
 68 
 
 16-2 
 
 150 
 
 8S.E. 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 9,500 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 6 
 
 22-2 
 
 472 
 
 55 
 
 
 160 
 
 4D.E. 
 
 15 
 
 19 6 
 
 9,000 
 
 3 
 
 >{ 
 
 6 2C. 
 5 7W. 
 
 | 21-0 
 
 325 
 
 57 
 
 
 200 
 
 /2D.E.) 
 
 \IS.E.; 
 
 15 7 
 
 /22 2 
 \11 5 
 
 7,200 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 19-8 
 
 357 
 
 110 
 
 
 150 
 
 J2D.E.) 
 
 \IS.E.; 
 
 15 6 
 
 /22 2 
 \11 5 
 
 4,400 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 80 
 
 
 150 
 
 1D.E. 
 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 3 
 
 '{ 
 
 4 9C. 
 3 4W. 
 
 J19-0 
 
 112 
 
 80 
 
 
 150 
 
 1D.E. 
 
 
 
 4,500 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 8 
 
 17-0 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 9S.E. 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 6,500 
 6,000 
 24,000 
 6,000 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 3 
 5 3 
 14 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 150 
 
 4S.E. 
 
 14 9 
 
 11 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 195 
 
 /8D.E.) 
 \5S.E.f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 6 2C. 
 5 8W. 
 
 } 
 
 
 
 
 13-0 
 
 150 
 
 (2D.E. \ 
 (2S.E. j 
 
 14 
 
 J 20 6 
 (10 6 
 
 9,000 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 6 6 
 
 
 
 
 16-0 
 
 150 
 
 (2D.E.\ 
 
 12S.E. / 
 
 14 
 
 (20 6 
 (10 6 
 
 9,000 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 6 6 
 
 
 
 
 16-0 
 
 150 
 
 /2D.E.\ 
 12S.E. / 
 
 14 
 
 /20 6 
 \10 6 
 
116 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Fig. 108 shows the cross-channel steamer "Queen," which 
 runs between Calais and Dover. She attained a speed of 
 
 Fig. 107. "King Edward." 
 
 21 '76 knots on trial, and she can go astern at 13 knots. In 
 comparison with this we have a sister ship (the ' ' Onward "), 
 built last year, with a trial speed of 22'94 knots and a backing 
 
 Fig. 108. "Queen." 
 
 speed due to a lengthened astern turbine of 16 knots. It is 
 worthy of note that the boilers in both these vessels are 
 identical, so it is evident that the gain in speed is due to a 
 better knowledge of turbine construction and design than 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 117 
 
 was obtainable when the machinery and propellers of the 
 "Queen" were designed. 
 
 Fig. 109. " Princess Maud." 
 
 The next photograph (fig. 109) is the "Princess Maud," 
 built for the Stranraer and Larne service. Fig. 110 shows the 
 "Londonderry," one of the Midland Company's steamers, and 
 
 Fig. 110. "Londonderry." 
 
 the one with which the reciprocating engine ships were 
 compared. She attained a speed on trial of 2 2 '3 knots. Fig. 
 Ill shows the second and more powerful of the Midland 
 Company's turbine vessels, the "Manxman." Her trial speed 
 
118 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 bio 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 119 
 
 was 23 knots. In fig. 112 is shown a photograph of the model 
 
 of the same vessel. This gives a 
 
 good idea of the under - water 
 
 portion of the ship. The next 
 
 photograph (fig. 113) shows the 
 
 channel steamers " Invicta " and 
 
 "Onward," of which mention has 
 
 already been made. Fig. 114 is 
 
 the " Brighton," which runs on the 
 
 Newhaven and Dieppe route. Fig. 
 
 115 shows the stern and propellers 
 
 of the turbine yacht " Lorena. " 
 
 This shows very clearly the shape 
 
 of the propeller blades. Figs. 116 
 
 and 117 show the Allan liners 
 
 " Virginian " and " Victorian." 
 
 The turbine steamer " Turbinia" Fig. 115. "Lorena," 
 
 (260 feet x 33 feet x 20 feet 
 
 9 inches), fig. 118, is a pleasure steamer built to run on Lake 
 Ontario. She has a draught of 9 feet 6 inches and a displacement 
 
 Fig. 116. "Virginian." 
 
 of about 1100 tons, is driven with three shafts, one propeller 
 (4J feet diameter) on each shaft, and has a speed of 19 knots. 
 
120 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 121 
 
 She was built to Board of Trade scantlings for channel service, 
 but has made a satisfactory trip across the Atlantic, and was 
 
 Fig. 121. " Dieppe." 
 
 the first turbine steamer to trade in America. Her summer 
 service is from Hamilton to Toronto, on Lake Ontario, and her 
 winter service from the mainland to the West Indies. Figs. 
 
 Fig. 122. "Princesse Elizabeth." 
 
 119 and 120 are two turbine vessels for the British India Steam 
 
 Navigation Company, built to trade between India and the East. 
 
 The next photograph is that of the " Dieppe" (fig. 121), built for 
 
 the same service as the " Brighton." Fig. 122 shows the Belgian- 
 
122 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 built steamer " Princesse Elizabeth," which attained a speed on 
 trial of 24 knots, and has astern power to give 16*2 knots. 
 
 Fig. 123. "Maheno." 
 
 Figs. 123, 124, and 125 give a very good idea of the 
 " Maheno," belonging to the Union Steamship Company 
 
 of New Zealand. As an 
 example of the reliability of 
 turbine-running, this vessel, 
 immediately after her trial 
 on the Clyde, left for Dur- 
 ban, 7000 miles, which she 
 reached without a stop, and 
 from there she went direct 
 to Melbourne, a further dis- 
 tance of 5500 miles. A re- 
 sult surely worthy of com- 
 mendation. 
 
 H.M.S. "Amethyst" (fig. 
 126) is a third-class cruiser, 
 
 Fig. 124. Stern of " Maheno." 
 
 360 feet x 40 feet x 14 feet 
 6 inches draught, displace- 
 ment about 3000 tons. Maximum speed 23 '63 knots at 490 
 revolutions, the equivalent I.H.P. being about 14,000. The 
 propellers are about 6 feet 6 inches diameter. 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 123 
 
 < - 
 
124 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 Figs. 127 and 128 are views of the T.B.D. "Viper," which 
 attained a speed of 37'11 knots on trial, but was wrecked during 
 the Fleet manoeuvres on the French coast. A similar vessel 
 is the " Velox" (fig. 129), only she is of 32 '0 knots on trial. 
 
 Fig. 129. T.B.D. "Velox." 
 
 The T.B.D. "Eden" (fig. 130) represents another class of 
 torpedo destroyer which originated after the scare produced by 
 
 Fig. 130. T.B.D. "Eden." 
 
 the " Cobra " breaking her back at sea. The speed of this class, 
 due to the extra weight for strengthening, has been reduced 
 considerably, the designed speed being 25 knots, but the trial 
 speed was from 1 to 2 knots more. 
 
TURBINE VESSELS. 
 
 125 
 
 With reference to the largest Atlantic liners at present 
 running, fitted with turbine machinery, fig. 131 shows a view 
 of the "Carmania" under easy stearn. She is being tried on 
 service with her sister ship the " Caronia, " whose only difference 
 is that she is fitted with reciprocating machinery. So far no 
 reliable data has been obtained, but it is hoped that these 
 particulars will soon be available. 
 
 As the German nation had so long held the " blue ribbon " 
 
 Fig. 131. " Carmania." 
 
 of the Atlantic for speed and shortest passage, it was thought 
 necessary to take some steps to give back to Britain her old 
 supremacy. After much thought, investigation, and many trials, 
 it was decided by the Cunard Company, aided by Government, to 
 build two large express liners, both to be fitted with Parsons 
 turbines. These vessels, when finished, will be the largest in 
 the world, and will have a speed of 25 knots (fig. 40). The 
 power required for these immense vessels to drive them at 
 this speed will be equivalent to about 70,000 I.H.P. Thus we 
 
126 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 
 
 have in the course of nine short years a development in Parsons' 
 marine turbine of from 2000 I.H.P. in the " Turbinia " to the 
 gigantic power required for these leviathans. Surely this is 
 a testimony to the amount of confidence and reliance which 
 is placed in this method of propulsion, and is a worthy tribute 
 to the indomitable perseverance with which Parsons carried on, 
 under so many difficulties, the first experiments which were to 
 give to marine engineering an impetus greater than the world 
 had ever seen. 
 
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ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS. 35 
 
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 CONTENTS Early History of Pumping Engines Steam Pumping Engines 
 Pumps and Pump Valves General Principles of Non-Rotative Pumping 
 Engines The Cornish Engine, Simple and Compound Types of Mining 
 Engines Pit Work Shaft Sinking Hydraulic Transmission of Power in 
 Mines Electric Transmission of Power Valve Gears of Pumping Engines 
 Water Pressure Pumping Engines Water Works Engines Pumping 
 Engine Economy and Trials of Pumping Machinery Centrifugal and other 
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40 CHARLES GRIFFIN <k GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. 
 
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NAUTICAL WORKS. 41 
 
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 Mirage, Rainbows, Coronas, Halos, and Meteors. Lightning, Corposants, and Auroras. 
 QUESTIONS. APPENDIX. INDEX. 
 
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 BY THOS. MACKENZIE, 
 
 Master Mariner, F.R.A.S. 
 
 GENERAL CONTENTS. Resolution and Composition of Forces Work done 
 by Machines and Living Agents The Mechanical Powers: The Lever; 
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 Crab Winch Tackles : the "Old Man" The Inclined Plane; the Screw 
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NAUTICAL WORKS. 43 
 
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 SHCOND EDITION, Thoroughly Revised and Extended. In Crown 8vo. 
 Handsome Cloth. Price 4s. 6d. 
 
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 tract with the Shipowner The Master's Duty in respect of the Crew : Engagement 
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 upon Arrival at the Port of Discharge Appendices relative to certain Legal Matters : 
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 Latitude and Longitude: 
 
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 BY W. J. MILLAR, C.E., 
 
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44 CHARLES GRIFFIN & GO:S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
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ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS. 45 
 
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 AND PHYSICISTS, 
 
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 CLASSIFIED REFERENCE LIST OF INTEGRALS. 
 By PROF. ROBERT H. SMITH. 
 
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 SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. 
 
 CONTENTS. The Beaker and its Technical Equivalents. Distilling Flasks, Liebig's 
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 ts Technical Equivalents. The Blowpipe and Crucible and their Technical Equivalents. 
 The Steam Boiler and other Sources of Power. General Remarks on the Application 
 of Heat in Chemical Engineering. The Funnel and its Technical Equivalents. The 
 Mortar and its Technical Equivalents. Measuring Instruments and their Technical 
 Equivalents. Materials Used in Chemical Engineering and their Mode of Application. 
 Technical Research and the Designing of Plant. Conclusion. Chemicals and Materials. 
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