157 A 3 — - D ■ 8 :: 7 ==- 4 i=^ s - — 1 Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN {> ^ -^ t ^ t,^ K y r ^ \ K ;2 ? \X Ni ^ i./ > fS -' p^ ' ?s c- K -'-3 ,^ -^ k^ ■ f.\ ^ f Nv \ m^ -,. ? fA ■' 4^ \ >. > ^''^ 74. V K \ l\ 1 ? > ^c. and Buhver, I. 18.) Their oracles were distinctly connected with Egypt. The name of the Pelasgian forts was always Larissa (there were thirteen, even in Strabo's time.) Bochart (Cf. Classical Museum, p. 306.) says this is the Greek way of pronouncing the oriental words "of Resen," a great city on the Tigris. — (Gen. X. 12. Arroiosmith, XXII. 29.) We know little about the Hellenes, except that they conquered the Pelasgi. (See Prof. F. Newman's Contrasts of Ancient and Modern History, p. 22.) They evidently came from the neighbourhood of Dodona, and probably were the Helli (or Selli,) the priests of that oracle. (Bidwer, I p. 2. note.) H. and S. are convertible Sibilants in Sanscrit. Sometimes it is said of them, that they were Pelasgi. (Her- mann, Polit. A71C. Sect. 8.) They were probably the priest-caste of the Pelasgi, who gradually established a superiority over the others, e. g. at Athens ; but we don't know when. The history of Ion aTpardpxi]s (Herod. VIII. 44.) establishing a new dynasty there, would lead rather to a con- clusion that the Pelasgians for lonians) regained their supremacy over the Hellenes, or priest-caste ; for Poseidon, the Ionian God, destroyed the * For a parallel to the histoi^y of the Pelasgi, and the Cyclopian buildings, compare Michelet't Rome, vol. I. with PrcscotVt Account of the Tottecs, the earliest inhabitants of Mexiro. LECTURE VI. GRECIAN HISTORY. 39 preceding dynasty of Erechtheus, and set up Ion. (Eurip, Ion, 284.) Peiliaps to this may be ascribed in part the remarkable disappearance of all caste in Greece, and the allotting of the priesthood, or the giving it to certain famihes, such as the Eumolpidse ; in this resembling the Jews, rather than the Egyptians. (See Buhver, I. p. 43.) The Rev. F. Maurice's Boyle Lectures, 2nd and 3rd, show the same thing in the transition from Brahminism to Buddhism. On the religion of Greece, see pp. 112, 227, &c. (1st. ed.) Languages. Herodotus calls the Pelasgiaus ^ap^apocjiiovoi, and says he could not understand them. This word does not mean that they spoke a different language, but a different dialect, which the later Greeks could not under- stand. It is agreed on all hands that Arcadia never changed its Pelasgic population, and they spoke what is called jEoUc Greek. Greek is undoubtedly of the Indo-European Tribe. Muller (Literat. of Ancient Greece) says of it, that it bears strong marks of being the wreck of a great and regular language, which existed before Homer's time. (Donald- son^ s CratyUis.) The order and character of the letters is almost the same as the Hebrew. Donaldson, Cratyl. 50, remarks, that the invention of writing as distinct from Hieroglyphics was the first step towards the over- throw of oriental idolati'y. Europe owes her alphabet to the only nation that did not worship symbols. Old inscriptions show the modifications of the Hebrew character, as it passed into Greek, and were often written from right to left, like Hebrew. The mother tongue of the present Albanians was undoubtedly spoken in its present localities in the earliest times. This and the lUyrian district are not Greekj. but yet are Indo- Europeaii. (Arnold's it.ome,\\\.Z'i . \1\.) Constitutional History of Athens and Sparta. Dr. Arnold's characteristic and valuable Appendix 1. to his 1st. vol, of Thucydides, describes the natural periods or divisions in the history of nations. However, on this subject of successive periods in the history of nations, see Burke's 1st Letter on a Regicide Peace, vol. VIII. ;;. 78, &c. Professor Xewmans Contrasts, pp. 23, 24.] In the infancy of a people we shall generally find the monarchical principle pre- dominate — as may be seen in the Homeric Monarchies, in the Euro- pean Dynasties after the barbarian Invasions, &c. Youth breaks out into Oligarchies and feudal Aristocracies of birth. Middle age exhibits the worldly-minded principle of money in the ascendant ; and an aristocracy of birth degenerates into a ^mocrccy of wealth. The concluding stages are generally democracy, passing into an ochlocracy, and ending in a military despotism. Applying this formula to the Constitutional History of Athens, we find at first a Monarchy, and apparently a system of 40 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. Castes, as if derived from Egypt, the reXeovres (Priests), the i7nre7s, (warriors), the alyiKopfis (shepherds), and epyaSeU, (mechanics) — The gradual rise of the feudal aristocracy would appear in the change of names — the Castes giving way to Kpuvais, "AtBis, Mecroyata, AuiKpa, KfKpOTTiS, AvToxdcdv, &C. The HeStaTot occupied the flats of Athens and Eleasis : The UapaXia was a long slip on S. E. coast, from Hymettus to the sea : The Mecro'yam was a lovv table-land between Pentelicus and Sunium : The AiaKpa the connecting high-lands between Parnes and Pentelicus. And this aristocratic principle would seem to have triumphed after Codrus' death, 13. C. 1044. The common story about no man deserving the name of king after him, was evidently a mere pretext. Solon, B. C. 594, and Clisthenes, B. C. 508, represent the Timocratic era, when the former arranged the Classes according to their property. When Ana- charsis said to Solon, "That he was surprised at the right of deciding upon the most important matters being entrusted to persons incapable of forming a sound judgment ;" Solon replied, " I have not given the Athenians the best laws possible, but the best they can bear." The Democratic leaven began to show itself first, when the law was abolished, just after the battle of Plattea, which excluded the e^rey from the magistracies, B. C. 4/9. But Pericles, B. C. 450, marks the time of its acmfe, and the transition into an ochlocracy was consummated in the person of Cleon, B. C. 425. Plato called this period a ' theatrocracy' — and lie sent the plays of Aristophanes to Dionysius of Syracuse, as the best exponents of the Athenian Constitution. Pericles in his funeral Oration, Thucyd. II. 65, describes the principles of the Athenian commonwealth in language that is singularly applicable to the English ; viz. that it is carried on, not by formal enactments, but by the spontaneous energy of the people. The Judicial changes of Athens strongly mark the progress of Consti- tittional descent. The original judges were called Ephetce. These seem to belong to the Monarchical Period. The Aristocratic and Timocratic systems developed the Areopagus, which Pericles the Democrat annihi- lated, and established in their stead the Ilelifea, — courts where 6000 citi- zens, totally unfit for the ofiice, sat in judgment, receiving each 2 obols per diem. (See Aristophanis Fespce.J Moreover the Statesman's ofiice underwent great changes in the 5th and 4th Centuries B. C. Themistocles represents the first Period, when the same person was General and Statesman, but more of the former than the latter, Pericles represents the 2nd Epoch, when both the characters were still vested in one person, but he was more of a Statesman than a General. (Compare his character and marriage with Aspasia to " Philip Van Arte- velde" — by Henry Taylor.) Demosthenes represents the 3rd Period, when the offices were distinct. So in English History, the Plantagenet Kings were more Warriors than Civil Rulers. The Tudors and Stuarts were more of Civil Rulers than Generals, but yet led their armies to battle. Very nearly ever since the accession of the House of Hanover, the Sovereign has not been the LECTURE VI. GRECIAN HISTORY. 41 General, but a Constitutional Ruler. (See Heerens Political History of Greece, especiallj'^ his deserved panegyric of Demosthenes.) Philip of Maccdon after the battle of Chaeronaea, B, C. 338, and Alexander the Great established the military De.spotisni, R. C. 330. Rome's ascendancy commences simultaneously with Athens' Fall. The battle of Vesuvius coincides with that of Chreronfea. Sparta may be compared to an engine of vast power, but limited to a single mode of action, and unable to restore itself when the springs are strained, or its play impeded : Athens, to a living body, containing an energy which enables it to repair tJie damage of accident or disease, and adapt itself to every change of circumstance. Brasidas, however, was a Spartan ; and he seems the most perfect character Greece ever produced, com- bining the best elements of Athenian elasticity and Spartan ; conservatism. Sparta's career was very different from Athens'. Lycnrgus' Constitution was something like one of the great European monastico-military orders in the time of the Crusades, but it lacked their principle of action and govern- ment. (Cf. Prescotfs Pern, I. 37, 45.) Lycurgus' great mistake was, in fancying that the best way to diminish the corruption of a civilized nation was to barbarize it. The experiment was an utter failure ; for after the Spartans had once tasted the luxuries of Persia, Athens, and Thebes, by conquest, the dissolute corruption of the ruling tribes exceeded anything ever heard of. Xenophon, for instance, tells us that the victorious troops in Corcyra would drink none but perfumed wines. Lysander's words, "We deceive children with sweetmeats, and men with oaths," show the moral degradation of his times. The Spartans pillaged the temples at Elis, Eleusis, and Argos : their name was struck out of the Amphictyonic council. Alexander the Great said to Darius, " You have sent emissaries to bribe all the nations of Greece, and have only succeeded with Sparta." On the enthusiasm of Agis the 3rd, B. C. 2.50, and Cleomenes, and their attempts to regenerate their country, see Grote, II. 527 — 530. The Dorian migration, or return of the HeraclidcC, has often been com- pared to the Norman conquest of England, in an historical point of view ; but, in a constitutional one, it was much more like our Revolution of 1688 ; for in each country the monarchial power then underwent its great change from a reality to a Constitutional form. The Ephors (like the Council of Ten at Venice, or the Frank Maires du Palais,) were the real government. Cleomenes, who killed them in his time, and got possession of the Government, was defeated by Antipater, fled to Egypt, and was gibbeted there. Upon his death, Sparta set up her throne for auction, and (strange mockery! that reminds one of the last Roman Emperor, Romulus' Augustulus, a man named Lycurgus bought it. Nabis (the Robespierre of his day) exterminated the Dorian race, and was then assas- sinated by his own brigands. The Achaean League drove them out, and Sparta soon fell under Rome. Thebes enjoyed a brief supremacy in Greece, during the life-time of Epaminondas. It reminds one of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus, in the Thirty Years War. They both fell in the arms of Victorv — Epaminondas at Mautinea, B, C. 3G3 ; Gustavus at Liitzen, A. D. 1632. 42 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. The Achaean League of twelve small towns, led by Aratus, ought merely to have been a defensive one. But they took up an offensive line. The Macedonians oppressed them. They joined Rome against Macedon, and then Rome destroyed them. Compare the Federal unions of modern times, Switzerland and Holland. What Macedonia was to the Achaeans, that Austria was to Switzerland, and Spain to Holland. After the Council of Constance, the Swiss were ruining themselves by acting on i\\e offensive ^ but saw their error. And so Holland did well, till they assumed the offensive against Louis XIV. History. Thucydides, Lib. \. init. says, that the Trojan war first gave the idea of combination and union to the isolated Greek states, but more properly we might say that it was the Persian war. The first great effort for universal Em- pire was made by the Athenians in the Sicilian expedition. (Thucyd.Nl. 90.) Had that expedition proved successful, Greece, and not Rome, might have conquered Carthage; Greek, instead of Latin, might have been the principal element in modern languages of Europe ; and the laws of Athens, rather than Rome, the foundation of the code of the civihzed world. (Arnold's Rome, I. p. 395.) The Grecian Empire was not established till Alex- ander's time, B. C. 3.31, by his victories over Darius. He was, apparently, {Dan. VIIL 9.) " that he goat that waxed very strong ; and when he "was strong, the great horn was broken : and for it came up four notable " ones, towards the four winds of heaven," — (Ptolemy in Egypt, — Seleucus in Syria, — Lysimachus in Asia Minor and Thrace, — Cassander in Greece, after the famous battle of Ipsus, B. C. 301.) First Campaign, B. C. 334. Age, 22. Alexander starting from Sestos to Abydos, went to Ilium, N. by Lamp- Bacus, to the R. Granicns, and after the battle to Zeleia : then back to Ilium, S. to Antandrus, Adramyttium, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Ephe- sus, Miletus, Halicarnassus, Telmissus, Patara, Xanthus, Pinara ; N. towards Milyas, to Termessus ; S. to Phaselis, along the sea-shore under Mt. Climax, to Perga, Aspendus, Side, SilHum, up the R. Cestrus ; crossed the Taurus during winter up to Cel?pnse, and Gordium in Phrygia. Cf. Classical Museum, No. XIX. Second Campaign, B. C. 333. From Gordium, S. to Ancyra, Tyana, across the Pylse Ciliciae to Tarsus, Mallus, Issus : after the battle, S. to Aiadus, Byblus, Sidon, Tyre. Third Campaign, B. C. 332. After a siege of 7 months. Tyre being taken, he goes S. to Jerusalem and Gaza; then into Egypt to Pelusium, Heliopolis, Memphis, down the Canopic hcanch of the Nile, to the L. Mareotis (the site of Alexandria;) along the Coast W. to Parsetonium ; S, to the Oasis of Ammou ; E. across the Desert to Memphis. LECTURE VI. — ORKCIAN HISTORY. 43 Fourth Campaign, B. C. 331. From Memphis to Tyre, Damascus, Thapsacus (crossing the Euphrates,) Nicephorium, Charrse, Nisibis ; across the Tigris, a Uttle N. of Nineveh ; to Gauganiela and Arbela : after the battle, S. to Mennis, and Babylon ; E. to Susa ; skirting down the W. of JNIts. Cambalidus over the Pylse Persicae to Persepolis (which he burnt,) and Parsaffcidce Proper. Fifth Campaign, B. C. 330. From Persepolis, N. to Ecbatana, Rhagae, Caspiae Pylae, Hecatompylon ; W. against the Mardi ; to Zadracarta, E. to Siisia and Artacoana : thence S. down to the R. Aria in Drangiana, to Propthasia ; then turning up the R. Erymander, to Ortospana ; up the Paropamisus. where he founded another /Vlexandria, on the Erymander (33o, 38' N. Lat.) not very far from Cabul. Suvth Ca7npaign, B. C. 329. From Alexandria, N. across the Paropamisus to Bactra : over Oxus to Maracanda and Cyropolis in Sogdiana, as far as Alexandria Ultima ; back W. to Maracanda, Polytimetus R., Trybactra, across the Oxus to Bactra (where he killed Clitus.) Seventh Campaign, B. C. 328. Was occupied in quelling insurrections in Sogdiana : need not be marked on the Map. Eighth Campaign, B. C. 327. Westwards out of Sogdiana to Margiana over the R. Epardus, and the Ochus, to Kelat probably ; and back E. to Bactra ; across the Paropami- sus near Cabul, over the Choes up the River Indus : took Massaga, Aornos, and made peace with Nysa. See Classical Museum, No. XIX. p. 1, &c. Probably Choes Fl. is the River Turnuk — Massaga is Shikapoor — Aornos is Mt. Khyber, close to which is the stockade called Embolinia =Pesha'war. Dyrta=Jellalabad. Ninth Campaign, B. C. 32G. He crosses the Indus to Taxila ; S. over the Hydaspes ; defeats Porus, probably at Russool, (near where Lord Gough fought the Battle of Chilian- wallah, Feb. 13, 1849 ; ) building Nieeea on the right, and Bucephala on the left bank: crosses the R. Acesines, and Hydraotcs, as far as to Sangala. Ti'oops there refuse to cross the Ilyphasis ; returns across the Hydraotes and Acesines, and sails down the Hydaspes as far as the junc- tion of the Acesines. ^ a2 44 ANCIKNT AND MODKRN HISTORY. Tenth Campaign, B.C. 325. He sails down the R. Aeesines into the Indus, as far as its Delta ; marches W. along the coast as far as 60" E. Lat.; then N. up to Pura, and Kermania ; there he is joined by Nearchus the Admiral, who had sailed along the coast from the Mouth of the Indus to Harmozia : Alexander marches to Parsagadpe, sails down the Pasitigris, up the Tigris, as far aa Opis ; thence to Susa, to Ecbataiia, back to Babylon, where he dies, j:Et. 33, B. C. 323. (Williams' JAfe of Alexander, Famili/ Library, vol. III. for remarks upon the Character of Alexander. His career has been fully weighed in Montesquieu, Esprit des Luis, Livre X. 13 ; where he com- pares him with Csesar and Charles Xllth. See Edinburgh Review, No. 177. pp. 40, 4\.) See Sir H. Halford's Essai/s, x. 164. — lie gives at length, from Arrian, Zi6. VII. an account of Alexander's sickness and death; and vindicates his memory from the imputation of habitual intemperance, and especially from the reproach of owing his death to a drunken debauch. Alexander died of a remittent fever, which he caught in the marshes of Babylon. He died on the 1 2th day. The bulletins of his health (the earliest on record) are given by Arrian and Plutarch, the latter taking them from the Diary of Eumenes. LECTURE VII. ROMAN EMPIRE, (1st Part.) Geography of Italy. There is something very remarkable in the physical geography of Italy. Speaking generally, Italy (like Greece) is made up of numerous valleys pent in between high hills, each forming a country and political commu- nity to itself. Observe in the first place, how the Apennine line runs from the S. extremity of the Alps, across Italy, to the edge of the Adriatic, and thus separates Italy Proper from Cisalpine Gaul. Between them and the Alpine semicircle, which foi'ms the Northern boundary, is enclosed a wide plain, open only on the Kast to the sea. One great river flows through its whole extent, being fed from N. and S. by numberless streams. Of course this well-watered plain was filled w^ith flourishing cities, and often contended for by successive invaders. Descending into Italy Proper, we find its geography accord with its political divisions. It is not one simple ridge of mountains, leaving a broad belt of level country on either side; but as it were, a back-bone, thickly set with diverging spines of unequal length running out from the main ridge, some parallel to the back-bone itself ; in which latter case, the interval between their base and the Mediterranean has been broken up by volcanic agency ; e. g. Vesuvius, and the Alban hills, 10 miles from Rome. {Arnold's Lectures on Modern History.) 'I'he above is true respecting Italy, West of the Apennines ; but on the East, the sea seems to have been gradually retiring, and to have left a level plain. Observe therefore on the map the difference of the rivers — all running direct, in parallel lines, into the Adriatic, but tangled and meandering on the West. The town Hadria, which once stood on the E. coast, now lies several miles inland. Geography of Sicily. The heart and k rnel of Sicily is Mount Etna, from which a chain of mountains stretches along the coast towards the Apennines ; for the range of mountains in S. Italy belongs geologically to Sicily. The mountains from Etna to Messana run often so close to the shore, that there is hardly a small road between them and the sea. S. of .Etna the mountain leaves 46 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. a considerable plain towards the sea, especially about Leontini, In the S. of Sicily, between Syracuse and the W., there are only low hills ; W. of xEtna, there run chains called Heraei and Nebrodes. From Pelorus to Himera they run close by the sea-shore. To the W. of Himera there is a small extent of flat coast, and the mountains become gradually lower: about Palermo they form a plain, out of which there rises one hill. Further W. the mountains rise again, e. g. S. Julian. The S. W. portion, as far as Agrigentum, is mostly a flat coast; and further E. from Agrigentum the mountains are some way from the coast ; so that if we imagine a line drawn from Agrigentum to Catana, all the S. of that line is a perfect plain. It is necessary to understand this physical structure of Sicily, in order to have a clear view of the operations of the First Punic War, for no troops could march along the N. coast. Modern Sicily is divided into three districts. All that lies E. of 14° Long, is called Val di Mazzara. All that Hes E. of 14° Long, and N. of 37° 40' Lat. is called Val di Mone— the rest Val di Noto. On the present appearance of Sicily, especially with reference to the ruins, a modern traveller says; " On y verra des vestiges de toutes les ^poques : on passera des informes constructions Cyclop^enes et Ph^nici^nnes aux temples Doriques, ^lev^s par les colonies Greques, aux ar^nes des Romains, aux castels Mauresques, aux chapelles des Norraands, et aux sombres donjons de la Feodalitc." Topograph]! of Latium and Rome. Rome stands upon the left bank of the R. Tiber, about 17 miles from the sea. The Tiber approaches Rome in a course of which the general direction is from North to South. But a little above Rome the course is somewhat turned westwards by the Anio (Teverone) running into it. Place yourself on the sea-side near Caere about the 42nd Latitude, and first look due East : you see the confluence of the Tiber and Anio — the mountain running down between them towards you is Lucretilis, sloping down into Mons Sacer, which is at the actual fork or angle ; the scene of the Plebs' bloodless victoi-y. The Anio had been running N. N. W. when it tilted against Lucretilis, and was turned due West. Its earlier course lies between two small ridges parallel to the Apennines. In this part of Italy there are several ridges parallel to them and to one another — the Anio rises between two — then comes another range West, and parallel to the former ; and the river Trerus (or Sacco) runs between them into the Liris ; exactly the i-everse of the Anio's direction. At this confluence a range of Hills called the Fundani Montes tend in a S. W. direction right down to the sea at Terracina. This is the extreme point of vision that we can suppose from Caere, or from Rome — and all the intervening country enclosed by the Anio the Trenis and these Hills is the Cam pagnadi Roma. Now, drawing in the range of vision, as it were, look from the same spot 42 Lat. at the country lying at your feet — you will see the first steps, of the ascent from the sea to the Apennines. There are four insulated heights just on the left bank of the River, divided from one another by swampy valleys. LECTURK VII. — ROMAN EMPIRE, FT. I. 4J Two, the Capitoline and Palatine, present bold outlines close by the River. The Caelian and Aventine are also steep and even in parts precipitous. The other three behind these, and a little to the N. and N. E. are fingers or promontories, jutting outfi-om one hand or range towards the Tiber. Their relative positions are in the front of you, the Aventine close to the river on the S., the Palatine just N. E. of it, also close to the River — and the Capitoline S. E. of that, thus forming a sort of horse-shoe or amphi- theatre round the bend of the river. Then, behind the Capitoline and Palatine, away from the River to the N. E. is the joint range, of which the Quirinal is the northernmost — then the V^iminal next — the Esquiline below that. And South of this range, and consecpuntly in the same line Southward as the Aventine, stands the insulated Cselian. Nowgo toRome, and take your stand on the Capitol — and first look Northwards across to the Tuscan side of the Tiber. The view is immediately bounded by the level line of the Janiculus, and Eastward, the Vaticanus — then receding from the river a little, the hill country winds round in a N. E. direction with a greater elevation and bolder outline, till under the name of the Mons Marius it looks down upon the stream by the Milvian bridge. But now turn your back upon the N. bank of the river, and look over the Cam- pagna. The nearest objects that will catch your eye on the S. E, are the Lake Regillus, just below Labicum and Tusculum, then, more directly S. in the midst of the lowlands and their sluggish streams, there stands out a cluster of hills, beautifully varied within itself by deep valleys and pointed heights. These are the hills of Alba, a volcanic production starting out of the Campagna. Upon the highest peak stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, looking down on all Latium, and just between you and it lies the Alban Lake, the crater of an extinct volcano, and the town between it and the Mount. This is backed to the S. E. by Mount Algidus, where the iEqui used to pitch their camps and ravage the neighbourhood. Bevond these lie the parallel ranges spoken of before, which guide the Auio and Trerus — and far beyond, the eye glances to the main ridge of the Apen- nines, white with snow for more than six months of the year. If you look S. \Y. towards the sea, the level of the Campagna is broken by no perceptible elevation, and the low straight line of the distant coast melts into the scarcely more level surface of the Mediterranean. Roma is an anagram of the sacred named Amor, says Festus. (Cf. Virg. Mn. IV. 347.) On the position of Rome, and the provision for its ex- pansion, see Classical Museum, I. 44. — And on the Forum, the Ai'a cell (or Sabine Arx) on the Northern part, and the Etruscan Templum Jovis on the Southern side of the Capitoline Hill, and on the antiquities of Roman Topography generally, see Classical Museum, No. XIV. and following numbers. Ethnography of Italy, If we consider the Ligurians and Veneti lo be bordering tribes, rather than part of the Italian population, we have the Siculi, iEnotri, Osci (or Opici, or Ausones,) for the first inhabitants of Italy, the Umbrians the next invaders, after them the Tyrseni, and lastly the Etruscans. 4S ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. 1. The Umbrians, (thought by Archdn. WiUiaras to be the same as Cymri, Cimbri, C being changed into the aspirate,) in the earliest times probably reiiched on the S. E. to M. Garganns, and on the S. W. to the coast of the Mare Infenun. Michelet, Hist, de la France, ch. I. p. 3, says, that the llmbrians were the people called Amhra, or Celts of Italy. The Insu- bres were the Lower Ambrians. Pliny has preserved the date of the foun- dation of their capital, Ameria, 381 before Rome, i.e. 1134 B. C. It was inferred, from hivy IX. 3G, that the Umbrians spoke the same language as the Etruscans ; but inscriptions have been found, which prove that notion to be erroneous. The most important are called the Iguvine Tables, discovered A. D. 1444, near Gubbio, written some in Tuscan letters, from right to left, some in Latin ; but all in the Umbrian Language, and differing entirely from Tuscan ; (e. g. the Tuscan has no letter 0, and abounds in aspirates.) The Umbrian corresponds with the Oscan, and all the other Italian languages, in many respects. The Umbri are said to have driven out the Siculi from the North, wlio in turn migrated to Sicily^ and drove out from thence the Iberian Sicaiii, who had come through Spain from Mauritania. The Siculi probably were Pelasgi, from Attica, and the iEnotri, from Epirus. The latter people became ' Rruttii' (i.e. 'revolted slaves.') When we come down to Roman History, we find no mention of Siculi or J^notri ; but the Osci (Opici, or Ausones) were the chief oppo- nents of Rome ; to which race the Samnites probably belonged. The Osci w'ere in Italy before the Siculi and iEnotri, and are what Varro calls the Aborigines. Niebuhr has a theory, that the Oscan was altogether different from the Greek language ; but Oscan inscriptions have been dis- covered in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Capua and Bantia, which contain Greek and Barbaric words too. It is nearly certain that there was one Pelasgian language common to all the nations of Italy, except the Etrus- cans ; and that the Umbrian, Oscan, Latin, &c. were merely different dia- lects, of the same Indo-European Stock. (' Linguse iEolicse sermo Latinus est simillimus.' Quintil.) The Sabini were probably descendants of the Umbrians ; the Latini descendants of their conquerors, the Osci and Tyrseni ; hence their enmity. All the above mentioned tribes are con- sidered generally to have been difterent Pelasgic families. (Virg. JEn. VI II. 600.) After them another Pelasgic race, called Tyrseni, migrated from Gi-eece, and came by the N. W. to Urabria. The town jEnos is con- sidered a Pelasgic name, and is supposed to mark the connection between the Pelasgi-Tyrscni of Thrace, (Virg. Mn. III. vv. 13, 18,) and the iEneadsfc of Alba Longa. But there remain 2ndly. The Etritscans, who are generally allowed to have been strangers, and to have landed on the coast of Mare Inferum, and conquered the Umbrians. They were far superior to the Italians in point of civilization ; and their religious system corresponded wonderfully with the Indian and Egyptian worship ; — (e. g. the word Augurium is the same as the Hindoo word for a temple, — " Angurries."') The best specimen extant of Tuscan Inscription is one found at Perusia. It is totally different from any other language in Italy. They were generally confounded with the Pelasgi- Tyrseni mentioned above ; — but they did not call themselves by this name, though the Romans and Eugubian Inscriptions always call them Tusci LECTURK VII. — ROMAN EMPIRE, FT. I. 4'J and Turske. They called themselves Rasena. Niebuhr observes, that the Etruscans had no more title lo the name of Ti/rsetii, than the English have now to that of Britons, or the Spanish Creoles to that of Mexicans and Peruvians. For their character, see Michelet, vol. I. The prophecies of their priests, respecting their approaching subjugation by Rome, remind one of Prescott's very similar account of the Aztec Dynasty in Mexico, vol, I. init. Herodotus (I. 94,) says, that they came from Lydia, and setting sail from Smyrna, landed in Umbria. All the Greek and Latin writers repeated this story, (Ilor. Sat- I. G. I. Virg. yEa. VIII. 479,) except Uionysius Ilal., who rejected it, because Xanthus, a Lydian Historian before Hero- dotus, knew nothing of it. The legends upon M'hich this opinion is based related not to the Etruscan Rasena, but to the Pelasgiau-Tyrseni. The most probable theory seems to be, tliat they came from the N. of Egypt, "which is called in the Inscriptions of monuments ''^ Lndim" (Rossellini.) Their Alphabet is Assyrian : the names of their Kings and leaders are all found on Egyptian monuments, such as Porsenna, Tages, Tarchit, Janus, &c. Their priest-caste exactly corresponded with the same privileged class in Egypt, being the political rulers as well. '1 heir name Rasena seems to point to Resen, the great Assyrian city. (Gen. X. 12.) They may have been some of the Assyrian Hykshos, who invaded and conquered Egypt, and were themselves expelled by Araenophis, and probably mi- grated towards Greece. {Thirlwall, vol. I. p. 73.) In this case, the name of Resen would betoken Pelasgian origin. Bochart says, that an oriental pronounced "of Rese/i" ' Larissa,' which was the name of that "Great City" in Xenophon's time (Arrowsmith, XXII. 29. end ;) and Larissa is emphatically the mark of Pelasgian origin. (Thirbvall, vol. I. p. 34.) The Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans all give a date of about 1500, B. C. for their settling in Umbria. Their great hero and lawgiver Tarchu was con- temporary with iEneas and Orestes. (Viry. and Patercnhis.) — Prof. Lepsius has declared their language to be Japetic, or Indo-European. ' Adhuc sub judice lis est.' On the religion of RoniCj see Rev. F. Maurice's Boyle Lectures, 3rd & 4th. Constitution of Rome. The Pelasgian origin of Rome is implied in the legends of the Arcadian Evander setthng on the Palatine. The religion and language sanction this belief. The next additions were the Quirinal and Capitoline, the seat of the second Tribe, the Tatienses, a Sabine race whereas the genuine Romans who formed the first Ti'ibe, the Ramnes, were a Latin race : and the Caelian hill, by conquest, the seat of the third tribe, the Luceres, not an Etruscan, but Tyrrhenian race. The reigns of Romulus, Numa, and Tullus Hostilius apparently represent the dcvelopement of these three tribes. [It was the fashion of ancient tradition to represent the history of a nation during a certain period, as the exploits of a single hero.'*] * The early wandering;* and after history of the Aztec dynasty, before the building; of Mexico, is a striking parallel to parts of Roman History, as Preseott observe*. 50 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. The reign of Ancus Marcius seems to be nearly the first historical fact that has come down to us. He conquered the Latins, and removed a great part of the conquered people to Rome ; (like the removal of the Jews to Kurdistan and Babylon.) This additional people formed the germ of the Plebs, or Commons, as opposed to the Populus, or Patricians, the three old tribes. The story of Tullus Host, taking Mha, and removing the people, seems fabulous, — at least Rome did not possess the country about Alba at that period. The Plebs >vas personally independent, and therefore differing from Clients and Slaves, but had no voice in govern- ment oi'iginally ; and to gain some share in it was the cause of the strug- gles that afterwards took place. Virgil seems to bear witness that Ancus treated them kindly and fairly; (^'En. YI. 817.) probably with the same policy as William Rufus courted the Saxons, — to support him against the nobles. The governing body was the 3 tribes, divided into 30 curife, ten in each tribe. Their assemblj' was called Comitia Curiata. Besides this general body of citizens, there was a select council, called the Senate, originally consisting of 100 chief men of the Ramnes. After the union with the Sabines, 100 of the Titienses were admitted; and though the Luceres alway had votes in the general Comitia, yet they had no repre- sentatives in the Senate, till the time of Tarquinius Priscus, who added a third 100, called Patres Minoi'um Gentium, — whereas the '200 were the Majorum G. This early constitution of Rome seems very similar to that of England about the times of the three first Edwards. There was the King, much less limited than at present ; — the Nvrman barons, corresponding to the Patrician Populus ; — the feudal vassals, like the dependent clients, (the erJTes of Athens ;) — and the free Saxon ijeomanry, like the Plebs of Rome, who bore the chief share in the toils, though not in the rewards, of victory. This Plebs had its own assemblies for self-government (though unconnected with the state,) which were called Comitia Tributa. The reign of the 5th King, Tarquinius Priscus, is the Etruscan period of Roman History. Lucumo, and his father Demaratiis, are said (as is shown by the name) to have migrated from Corinth to Etruria, The buildings, above and under gi'ound, — the religion, — the games then introduced, have all of them an Etruscan stamp. The next King, Servius Tullius, belonged neither to a Royal nor patrician family : He promoted Latin and Grecian customs. The constitution of S. Tullius was contemporary with Solon's legislation at Athens ; by it he brought together in some degree the Populus and l^lebs, and made them all vote according to their property in classes and Centuries, (called the Comitia Centuriata.) The last king was Tarquinius Superbus, who with his family was banished, and with him ended the Monarchy, having lasted according to legends 244 years. A republic was established, with 2 consuls at the head ; the first were L. Junius Brutus, and Tarquinius Collatinus. We find occasionally Vale- rius Poplicola appearing as supreme magistrate, and interrupting the course of events in the first few years of the Republic. Probably the similarly changing circumstances of the state of France, since the Regifugiura of February 24th, 1848, will explain these irregularities. Within 12 years of this time, Rome had lost all her possessions on the Etruscan side LF.CTURE VII. ROMAN EMPIRE, PT. I. 51 of the Tiber. The fact was, that Porsena and the Etrnscana conquered Kome, as Tacitus fairly owns. He also owns the capture of Rome by the Gauls. Hist. III. 72. In the year B. C. oOl, the people appointed the First Dictator, Lartius, for 6 months, instead of the Consuls ; pro- bably because the Consuls who were supemeded were inclined to favo\ir the return of the exiled Kinp;. Within 15 years of the expulsion of the Tarquins, the Pk-bs seceded to Moas Sacer, B. C. 494, and gained the appointment of two tribunes for their protection. Mons Sacer was to the Romans, what Runnymede is to Engilishmen. There is something very suspicious in the Chronoloyy of the first 3rm' 4 Viefi/ie 5 Montf7U-illciii. ('> lun/i 7 Tia/n/s Fl . S Treltia V Pfaovjfi\i U Th/^is I /tu'/ii/s fjOfiis Ji Jbpi Mi Jie/u'vefitmn II Su//fio lb Siin/m/n ](> Ca/iruv \ m CENCRifLMCLULtS ROUTC.RCO POLYBIUS. V/IRI/ITIONS. BLU£ -^^LIVYS. YELLOW LECTURE VII. — ROMAN EMPIRE, PT. I. 55 Buonaparte strove against England : The efforts of the first ended in Zama ; those of the second in Waterloo. Hannibal was 26 years of age when he was appointed commander-in- chief : 2 years were employed in expeditions against the native Spaniards — the 3rd in the siege of Saguntum, which lasted 8 months. He set out on his march for the Ibcrus in the mouth of IMay, 15. C 218, with an army of 9U,00U foot, and 12,000 horse. He conquered at a heavy expense of men ttie country attached to the Roman interest, between the Ebro and the Pyrenees, and left Hanno, with 1 1,000, to retain possession of it. The force with which he entered Gaul was reduced to 50,000 foot, and 9000 horse. We shall follow Arnold's view of his march, which tallies for the most part with Polybius, not Livy. The only points in which he differs from Polybius will be noticed as we proceed. Ar?iold adopts what is usually called General Melville'' s Theory. Hannibal marched from Saguntum to Emporium, along the sea coast from thence, turning northwards at Ao E. Long., to Nismes, and up to Arausio. (Polybius would make him go from Nismes, to cross at Tarasco, across the Druentia to Arausio.) Finding the Gauls on the opposite bank, to resist his passage, he sent a detachment 20 miles up the Rhone, who cposs.d it, and got on the rear of the enemy, and he crossed it then with- out difficulty at Arausio. (Polybius says that Scipio arrived three days later, and did not engage with Hannibal, as Corn. Nep. Vit. Harm, states ; but then descended the Rhone, embarked the army, and sent it to Spain, under Cneius his brother ; a most far-sighted measure, for he thus cut off Han- nibal's supplies of money and men from Spain ; and but for this his son would probably never have gained Zama.) To proceed : Hannibal got all bis elephants over, and marched up the left bank of the River, till he came to R. Isei'e ; he crossed that River, and then (according to Arnold) still continued his march up the left (i. e. Eastern) bank of the Rhone to Vienne ; then struck across to the Northern extremity of the mountains between the Rhone and Isere, near Chamberry : he then turned S. E., stormed the town jMontmeillan, just by the right bank of the Isere, 6° £. Long. [At this point Arnold's route joins the one commonly called Poly- bius,' which was made to turn up the right bank of the Isere immediately after crossing, and keep along it to Montmeillan, instead of going up to Vienne. Polybius' account is very confused and uncertain at this point.] Hannibal then proceeds 3 days march, as far as S. Maurice, up the right bank of the Isere. The Gauls made offers of peace, and persuaded him to pass through a narrow defile, along a narrow ledge over a torrent ; and then they attacked him. However, after some difficulties, he reached the summit of the Little St. Bernard. This was about the end of October, when Germany was one great forest, and consequently the climate of the Alps far colder than at present.* He was now between the Isere and Dora * On this passage of the Little St. Bernard, (or Mount Cenis, as others state,) compared with other similar feats, see Alison, vol. iv.p. 3U), Note. He says, Napoleon's passage over the Great St. Bernard, in the summer of 1800, will bear no comparison with this of Hannibal's in the winter. — Arnold's Rome, vol. ill. p. 89. The other parallels are the Emperor .Majorian's (Gibhoti, c. 3G;) Charlemag'ne's, over Mount Cenis ; the march of Suwarrow, A. D. 1799, over St. Gothard ; and of General Macdonald, over the Sphigren, A. I). 1800.— .S^e Alison's JJist. Europe, vol. i\. j>p. \8'2. 4Ifi. 56 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. Baltea Rivers. He had been 6 days in reaching the summit ; he halted 2 davs ; and on the 9th began the descent. He reached Artohca (La Tuille) on'that day ; the next 4 days was mending the roads, and getting as far as Arebrigiuni (Pre St. Didier :) on the 14th he continued his march ; on the 15th he reached the plain : at this point, according to his own statement, he had only 12000 African, 8000 Spanish Infanty, with 6000 Cavalry; so that his march from the Pyrenees to the plains of N. Italy had cost him 33,000 men. He continued his march along the Dora, crossing a little W. of Cita D' Aosta, then keeping along the right bank to Vitricium (Verres,) and along the left to Eporedium (Ivrea,) in the country of the Insubres ; thence S. W. to Turin, which he took after 3 days siege. Scipio had now lauded at Pisa, had crossed the Po at Placentia, and was ascending the left bank ; while Hannibal descended the Po on the same side : and when Scipio had crossed the Ticinus, and had entered what are now the Sardinian dominions, Hannibal defeated him. After this battle, he crossed the Po, took Clastidium, defeated Sempronius on the W. of the R. Trebia, crossed the Apennines (not by the usual route at the source of the R. Macra, 9°, 75', E. Long., but) by the source of the Anser (or Serchio,) 10°, 25', E.: he passed by Arretium at the North of Clusina Palus, 11°, 50', E. and 43°, 30', N. Lat., along the N. E. bank of the Thrasymenus Lacus, where he engaged, defeated, and slew Flaminius, The place is now called Sanguinetto. He crossed the Tiber, and the Apennines, about 43° N. Lat., till he reached the Adriatic ; marched along the coast (cutting off the spur of Garganus) to Daunia, just below Arpi ; but, finding the ApuUans did not join him, he recrossed the Apennines in a S. W. direction, through the Hirpini, near Beneventum and Telesia, down the Calor R. to the Vulturnus, up its left bank to Callifse ; crossed it, to Cales. Being hard pressed by Fabius, he ascended the right (or W.) bank of the Vulturnus to Venafrum, thence into Samiiium, crossed the Apennines about 14°, 25' E. Long. 41°, 31' N. Lat., marched into Peligni by Sulmo ; down again to the N. of Apulia, near Larnium, 15°, E., where he established his magazine, seized the Roman magazine at Cannse, and fought his great battle, B. C. 216. On Terentius Varro's and Crom- well's parentage, see Arnold, III. 129. Observe the different circumstances of the several battles. — That at Trebia was gained by a stratagem. He hid his brother Mago with 2000 men in some bushes half a mile down the river; and when Sempronius had just crossed the half frozen water, he attacked him in the rear. At Thrasymene, he enticed them along the head of the Lake, and then rushed down upon them from tbe neigh- bouring mountain and drove them into the water. At Cannse, he got his back to the wind and dust which blinded the Romans — and 500 Numi- dians pretended to be deserters. The great struggle was that of the Metaurus, Arnold, III. 359. Hor. Od. IV. 4. 37, &c. Hallam counts it as one of the six battles on which the fate of the world has hinged : — Marathon — A rbela — Metaurus — Chalons — Tours — and Leipsic. When Hannibal returned home he left Italy at a spot now called Torre di Anni- bale, between Cotrone and Catanzaro. Hannibal owed his victories at Trebia, Thrasymene, and Cannse, mainly to the Gauls. At this latter battle, out of his 50,000 combatants, at least l-L'-'Vo LECTURE VII. — ROMAN EMPIRE, FT. I. 57 30,000 were Gauls. Battles, sickness, and the fatal passage over th« marshes of Etruria had thinned his ranks, and his army was then recruited with men from Campania, and Lucania. — a very diflcrent race from the warlike Gauls, of whom 60,000 had originally joined him. Hence Cannae was the limit of his success : his army had changed, not his genius. It was not the delay at Capua, but the loss of communication with Cisalpine Gaul, that he is to be reproached with. The Romans had sent one army against the Gauls at their own hearth, while with another they had made head against the Carthaginians. Napoleon said — ' Give me the Gallic Infantry and the Mameluke Cavalry, and I will subdue the world.' It is not a little striking, that his great prototype Hannibal triumphed over Rome at the head of an army com- posed of Gaulish foot and Numidian horse. Observe the unchanging character of race. In the 1st Punic war, Regulus was beaten as soon as the Carthaginians gave over the war of sieges in Sicily, (like the war of the Spanish succes- sion in the Netherlands.) and brought their cavalry into play ; and in the 2nd, Scipio made an alliance with Masinissa, and so brought Numidian Cavalry to oppose Hannibal. (See Montesquieu, 'Esprit des Lois,' Ch. IV.) Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were two of the noblest characters of antiquity. On the state of the Roman Empire in their day, see Michelefs Ilistorrj. Their object, in trying to restore the old Agrarian laws which forbad any one to hold more than 500 acres of public land, seems to have been, to restore a numerous and powerful Middle Class of free citizens, to be composed of small landed proprietors ; and, by giving the fi^anchise to the Italian allies, to renovate the exhausted Republic with fresh currents of purer population. It is certain that no other policy could have saved the freedom and happiness of Rome. Whether the measures brought forward by the Gracchi were best calculated to work out this policy, is another question. \A'e owe it to Heercn, Heyne, and Niebuhr, that these two illustrious brethren are no longer looked on as common anarchists and levellers. It is now clearly understood, that their Agrarian laws applied only to the resumption and re-granting of the state domains : the rights of property, in the strict sense of the word, were never menaced. Last, but greatest of all the causes that rendered the Roman people incapable of existing any longer as a Republic, and made their subjugation to the rule of some military adventurer inevitable, was — the universal spread of irreligiou and profligacy. This is disguised, or lightly passed over by some modern writers ; but flo q^e can become familiar with the Classics, without having it perpetually forced upon his notice in a thousand hideous forms. \^See especiallij Wordsivortlis Discourses o7i Education, p. 295 — 3M.] These facts teach the great moral, thaF,,to preserve freedom, piety and virtue must not be suffered to ckcay. Tlie Romans, whose foreign conquests and domestic concord Polybius witnessed, believed firmly in a future state of rewards and punishments : hence, as PoLybius remarked, 58 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. came the probity that honoui'ably distinguished their nation . The Romans of Caesar's time had learned to look on such ideas as vain and ridiculous. The atheistic materialism of the Epicurean School, or the universal scepti- cism of the Academy, formed the favourite philosophy of the learned and the great. There are few grander bursts of moral indignation and warning than Juvenal's — " Sed tu vera puta." Sat. II. 148 — 153. Perhaps the reign of Louis XV., which preceded and produced the French Revolution, is the only parallel of the last years of the Roman Republic in universality of infidelity and vice. We may add, that a striking parallel might be drawn between Csesar and Napoleon in respect of their infidelity, their unscrupulous ambition, and their military genius. Foundation of Rome Kegifugium, or end of the Monarchy Dictatorship established Secession to M. Sacer Appointment of Tribunes Decemvirate Military Tribunate ... } Dia J B. C. 753 610 501 494 450 445 Romans defeated by Gauls at Allia ... 387 Roman victory at Vesuvius over the Latins (coinciding "1 goo with the downfall of Athens at Chseronea) J Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans at Beneventum ... 277 First Punic war begins ... ... 264 ends ... ... 241 Second Punic war bsgins Battles of Ticinus and Trebia Battle of Thrasymene ' ... ... 217 Battle of Cannifi ... ... 216 Battle of Zama, in which Hannibal is defeated \ oqo End of Second Punic War ... J 218 Subjugation of Greece to Rome ... ... 167 Third Punic War begins ... ... 149 ends "1 Scipio Afr. Minor takes Carthage j , " ' 146 Tiberius Gracchus killed ... ... 133 Caius Gracchus killed ... ... 121 Marius defeats Jugurtha after 5 years war . . . 106 Marius defeats the Teutones at Aquffi Sextiffi, and "1 j^n the Cimbri at Raudii Campi ... J SyUa ends the Social war ... ... 89 Mithridatio war chiefly settled by Lucullus and Pompey 88 LECTURE VII. — ROMAN EMPIRE, PT. I. 59 B.C. Civil war between Marius and Sylla, arising from thol attempt to deprive Sylla of the command of the V 87 Mithridatic war ... J Crassus defeats Spartacus, and ends the Servile war ... 71 Crassus defeated by the Parthians at CharrsB ... 53 Battle of Pharsalia ... ... ... 48 Battle of Philippi ... ... ... 42 Battle of Actium ... ... ... 31 Mark the route according to Arnold in Red, Polybius' variations in Blue, Livy's variations in Yellow. Livy makes Hannibal turn S. E. from Valentia to the Druna fl., and then keep along its right bank across Eastwards to "Vapincum (Grap), up th© right bank of the Druentia to Briangon, across Mt, Genevre (Alpis Cottia) to Turin. [One cannot help smiling; at the "superbia injfenita" of a Roman, when Livy discusses the probable result of a war between Alexander and Rome, sujjposinaf it Imd taken place, and sets such third-rate men as I'apirius Cursor as antau:onists to the {jieaiest names of antiquity. Miiiy fairly confesses that the Komans sent ambassadors to Alexander at babylon, by wa> of acknowledging their submission. This interesting question is discussej in the 3rd vol. of Niebuhr's Koiue, pj>, 169, &c. and in Arnold'* Uoiue, vol. II. CMap. 30.] l2 LECTURE VIII. ROMAN EMPIRE, (2nd Part.) (From Julius, B. C. 48, to Odoacer, A. D. 476.) Geographical Boundaries. Augustus bequeathed to his successors the salutary advice of confining the Empire within the natural limits of the Atlantic Ocean on the W., the Sandy Deserts of Africa and Arabia on the S., the Euphrates on the E., and the Danube and Rhine on the N. This advice his successors generally followed. These boundaries formed a positive breakwater against the barbarians — only conceive the confusion caused by their migration from E. to W. being briefly stopped for the first time in the history of the world. There were periods when the limits were extended ; as we learn from Tacitus, {Annul. I. 59 ; II. 19, 22,) that the Elbe was the North- Eastern Boundary in the reign of Tiberius ; and we know Trajan made Dacia a Roman Province. Yet these were but temporary extensions of the line ; and it is better therefore to follow the above statement from Gibbon, vol. I. Chap. 1. The only additional remark to be made is, that the line of the Roman Empire on the N. must be extended into Britain, as far as the Clyde and Forth, from Agricola's time. Ethnography. In the former Description of the Roman Empire, we considered all the ancient stocks of Italy but the Ligurians and Veiietians. The Ligiirians originally extended beyond the Alps, as far as the Rhone ; and the Car- thii|iinian Geographers derived them and their name from the l^iger or Loiic. In confirmation of this, Thucydules says the Ligurians drove out the Ibeiians fiom Spain into Sicily, whore they settled, i;nder the name of Sicani. According t- Stra!)0, they were diiiVrent from the Celts. Virgil speaks fif them as a hardy r; ce (Georg. II. I(i8,) and as deceitful (Mn. XI. /( I, /I")-) They wrre imt cotiqucred by the Romans till 16G B. C. The only known Ligurian word is Bodencus, which Pliny tells us means ' unfathomable.' Llygwyr, * men of the sea coast,' probably was the Celtic LECTURE VIII. ROMAN liMlMRK, I'T. II. (i I name given to these Ligurians. The same meaning is assigned by Ethno- graphers to the name Veneti, ' dwellers on the coast,' a Slavonic or Russian word ; but generally they have been considered the same as thc'Eferot of Homer, and to have come from Paphlagonia. (Tacit. Germ. 46. Miller, Philos. Hist. vol. I. 20.) In their language there was a considerable mixture of Greek, (Cramers Italy, vol. I. p. Ill, 112.) Herodotus (I. 196,) considered them to be Illyrians. Poljbius says they were like in habits, but differed in language from the Celts of Cisalpine Gaul. All these ancient stocks were absorbed by the Latin language. It is observable, that whereas we found in the Asiatic Empires the conquered (being the most civilized) absorbed the language of the conquerors (Lect. 2, 4, ;"),) we have found in Greece and Rome the civilized conquerors absorbing the conquered, and forcing their own language upon the subject people, like Napoleon in our own times. (Bidivers Athens, I. 20.) In modern Europe, the Frankish language and character has almost entirely disappeared in the Latin and Celtic element of the conquered race. (Giiizot, sur la France, Essai III. ck. 4.) " Grrecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Intulit agresti Latio," is an universal principle. See A. P. Stanleys Ser?nons, p. 200, in reference to the influence exercised by the Jews upon their conquerors. The earliest hordes of barbarians that attacked the Roman Empire were the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths,) Heruli, Rugii, Huns, and Vandals. Their language showed that they came originally from the East. (Prit- chard, vol. III. 403.) They had settled about the neighbourhood of the Vistula and Oder. It is interesting to observe the difference between the mounted barbarians of Asia, living in open steppes, and the marching inhabitants of European woods. The heroes of this first horde of barba- rians were Alaric, Genseric, Odoacer, Theodoi'ic. Their most lasting im- pression was made on Spain, where the Goths founded a Monarchy, from Euric, 472 A. D. to Roderic, 711. The next horde of barbarians were the Burgundians, Suevi, and Ale- manni. They came from the Upper Rhine : their period was later. Their sphere of action was the French and Italian frontier. Their conquests, like the former, were by land. The third great race of barbarian conquerors came more in contact with the North than South of Europe. They consisted of the Saxons, Angles, Batavi, Frisii. Their locality was the Elbe, and their enterprises chiefly naval ; e. y. against Britain. The third horde was driven to maritime enterprises by Clovis repelling them from the French frontier. This succession of land and naval expe- ditions illustrates the remark from Keble's Prtelections, as to the 'natural order of maritime enterprises succeeding military. [Shakespeare brings before us the Political History of Rome in four Dramas. ' Coriolauus' describes the Patrician and Plebeian struggles, and the rise of the Republic. ' Julius Ctesar,' tlie struggles of expiring Liberty, and the new form of Despotism. ' Antony and Cleopatra' pour- trays the character of the Empire. ' Titus Andronicus' gives the thorough decay of Roman spirit, and the new vitality infused by the Barbarian blood.] 62 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. History. Daniel's description of the Fourth Empire exactly corresponds with the history of Rome : To ' devour,' to * tread down,' and to ' break in pieces,' was her office among nations. (Virg. ^n. VI. 850.) Previously, the aspect of the world was diversified by republics in Europe, and monarchies in Asia ; by the cavalry of the East, and the infantry of the West. Now everything was recast into Rome's iron mould, like the bed of Procrustes. Old forms were trampled under foot, and forgotten. Nor is the image of iron less applicable to the individual Roman, than to the state. Integrity and inflexibility were their characteristics. Polybius, Cicero, and Horace, attribute their ascendancy to the respect they entertained for religion. ("Dis te minorem quod geris, imperas.") They somewhat resembled the Spartans in their patriotism and endurance, (compare the name Lycurgu3 XvKov fpyov with the "lupse fulvo nutricis tcgmine" of Romulus. Macaii' lay's Lays. ' Capys' Prophecy.') though their principles were of a far higher stamp, being the natural produce of the domestic virtues, and a sense of duty to God ; whereas the Spartan character was the forced effect of an unnatural educntion. But more especially to what but Divine Providence can we ascribe the singular confidence they felt in the " For- tune of Rome," which led the Senate to render public thanks toTerentius Varro, because, after the disastrous defeat at Cannse, "he had not de- spaired of the republic 1" (Arnold's Thucyd. I. 70.) " Fractum animura Hannibali scripsit Polybius, quod S. P. Q. R. rebus afflictis tarn excelso animo fiiisset." Cic. de Off. 3. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, Ch. I. remarks, that the circumstance, which of all others contributed most to the ultimate greatness of Rome, was the very long continued wars in which its people were early involved. The Italians had no machines for conducting sieges. They fought for the pillage of a camp, or the booty of the fields (as the soldiers fought without pay,) after which the victors and vanquished alike retired to their own cities. It was this circumstance that occasioned the long resistance of the Italian cities, and at the same time the obstinate resistance of the Romans in their endeavours to subjugate them. It was that gave them victories that did not enervate, and conquests which left them poverty. Had they rapidly conquered the neighbouring cities, they would have arrived at their decline before the days of Pyrrhus, of the Gauls, and Hannibal. It has been shown in the preceding Lectures, that, in the vision of Daniel, the Head of Gold signifies the Babylonian Empire; the breast and arms of Silver, the Persian ; the belly and thighs of Brass, the Gre- cian. The legs of Iron and feet of Clay represent the Roman Power, the greatest of all Ancient Empires, and comprising the whole civilized world. (Dan. II. 31, 33 ; and VII. 7. 19. 23.) LECTDKii: VIII. ROMAN EMPIRE, FT. II. 63 This portion of History may be conveniently divided into Four Periods ; — I. The Twelve Ceesars, ... B. C. 48 to A. D. 96. II. Trajan, and the Autonine3, ... ... A. D. 96 to 180. III. Commodus, to Constantine the Great ... A. D. 180 to 337. IV. Constantine to Odoacer, Dissolution of "I . -p. „„w ^;-„ Western Empire J " The First and Second Periods represent the maturity of the Empire. The Third, the Decay. The Fourth, the Dissolution. First Period. We shall only speak of Csesar's GalUc Wars, B. C. 58. He commenced his career by defeating the Helvetii, next advanced against Ariovistus and his Germans, who were ravaging the E. of Gaul. He routed them, and settled himself amonij the Sequani, who were the first nation of Gaul that flew to arms. After three campaigns against the Gauls, whom he had at first helped, the N. and W. had submitted, and he made his first descent upon Britain in his 4th campaign. He undertook the 2nd Expedition against Britain in his 5th campaign : the Gauls gained some advantages, but in the 6th he again triumphed. In the 7th, the surprise of Ganabum and capture of Avaricum seemed to promise well, but his repulse before Geronia brought the whole of Gaul against him. He defeated Vercinget- orix, (Prince Vercinget, orix being Celtic for a prince,) and the fate of the war hung upon Alexia, which capitulated after a hard-fought field ; the Gaulish nations submitted, and Vercingetorix was given up. In the ensuing year, B. C. 51, he took the field for his 8th and last campaign ; in which the Gauls no longer risked general engagements, but tried defensive warfare. Caesar overcame all difiiculties, and the territory was organized as a Roman Province. Michelet (III. 130.) compares Csesar's Gallic invasions to Cortes' and Pizarro's conquests of Mexico and Peru — ■with the axe in hand. The policy that Caesar adopted was, first to bring about the union of Crassus and Pompey, which (like that of Lord North and Fox) was the ruin of both. His next step was the bringing forward the Agrarian Law, to which he had induced both his Colleagues to assent, and so ruined their influence with Cato, Cicero, and the aristocrats ; and he made the Senate and every successive magistrate swear to do nothing to the prejudice of this law, which will account for his preserving his influence after 10 years absence in war, Sec. He then united himself to Clodius, Cicero's great enemy, though it was in his own house that the infamous scene of the ' Bona Dea' mysteries occurred, when Clodius was detected. His unscru- pulous ambition, and his atheistical Epicureanism, combined wdth singular military talents, remind us strongly of Napoleon. Caesar's enthusiasm and cruelty in cutting off" prisoners thumbs remind one of Cromwell. Michelet, III. 139. Observe also the resemblance in their civil career till 40 years of age — then military — then political. 64 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. He soon became a competitor with Pompey for the Empire of the world, defeated him at Pharsaha, chiefly by means of his Batavian, or Dutch troops, B.C. 48, and was Dictator, or de facto Emperor, till he was murdered, B. C. 44. (See Shakespeare s Julius Ccssar ; ArnolcTs Rome, vol. III. 384 ; and Niebuhr, vol. V. for his character.) Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, B.C. 42. The battle of Actium, B. C. 31, between Augustus and Antony, {see Virg. JEii. YlIl.Ji?i.) put an end to the Republic and the civil wars, which had raged, with little intermission, from the time of Marius and Sylla, B. C. 87. It left all the power in the hands of Octavianus, who took the name of Augustus, B. C. 27. During his reign, there lasted almost universal Peace, the world thus unconsciously paying homage to " the Prince of Peace,^' who was born in this reign. In the year A. D. 10, the Romans under Varrus sustained a grievous defeat at the hands of Hermann the Cheruscan (Arminius.) [N. B. Augustus' frequent exclamation, " Quinc- tili Vare, legiones redde."] The Twelve Cpesars were very unequal men in their characters and capacity. They exhibit the extremes of vice and heathen virtue, — Caligula, and Titus. Their reigns extend over 140 years, from Julius Csesar, B. C. 48, to Domitian, A. D. 96. Augustus has been frequently contrasted with Charlemagne, and his character supers by the comparison. Augustus " cuncta discordiis fessa sub imperium accepit." Never was so wide a field opened for a man's providing and establishing a strong and lasting government. The times and state of public feeling remind one of England upon Charles Ilnd's Restoration. Augustus had only to consolidate, whereas Charlemagne was a conqueror and legislator at once. Yet Augustus moved like a man groping in the dark : Charlemagne walked forward with a bold and firm step. Augustus lived at home, and left all to his lieutenants : Charle- magne had his 3Iissi Doirmiici, but travelled in all directions himself. Gibbon attributes all the calamities of the Empire to the throne not having been fixed as an hereditary one. Tacitus says he chose Tiberius for his successor rather than Drusus, because of his vices, — '• comparatione deter- rima sibi gloriam qusesivisse ;" and Suetonius says, — " ambitiosfe factum, ut desiderabilior ipse fieret." Tiberius^ reign is chiefly marked by the rise and fall of the favourite Sejarms, and the infamous scenes of the Court at Capreae. (Cf Juv. Sat. X. 61. 107.) Compare the history of Henri III. of France, and the Duke of Guise. Caligula's words tell their own story, — " Oderint, dum metuant." Nero's name is connected with the burning of Rome, which he imputed to the Christians ; and their persecution in consequence. Cf. Juv. I. 155, and VIII. 235. ' Tunica molesta.' Galba was the " Henry Vlth" of Rome, had more virtue than worldly prudence. He was said to have been thought " Capax imperii, nisi im- perasset." — When his friend and the minister of his reforms was killed, " Galba sacris intentus fatigabat alieni jam imperii Deos." Vitellius was " Pernicies et tempestas barathrumque macelli." LKCTURK Vfll. ROMAN EMPIRE, PT. II. 65 Vespasian sent the army against the Jews, A. D. 67. " Solus impera- torum mutatns in melius," like our Henry V. Vespasian banished the philosophers from Rome, on the ground that, in a corrupt people, phi- losopliy is the art of systematizing corruption. Titus, " Deliciae generis huniani," destroys Jerusalem utterly, (Arrow- smith, XXI. 6.) A. D. 72, the fuJiilmcnt of Prophecy. (Mattk. XXIV.) Don/if ion (" ne musca quidom") is described Juv. Hat. IV. who calls him * Flavins ultimus.' He was the last of the Caesars : not that the inheritance had fallen out linealhj in them, for it was patched up by adop- tions from the Octavian, Claudian, and Flavian Families. Latterly there had been a gradual decay of public spirit : all eminence was repressed (" id maximt! formidolosnm, privati hominis nomen suprri principis at- tolli.") The Praetorian guards (like the Janissaries at Constantinople, and the Independent arms from the year 1646 A. D. in the gi'eat Rebellion,) held the real government of the Empire in their own hands. [The conclusion of this Lecture was partly supplied by the Rev. H. Ditpuis, as also the latter halfof tiie next.] Second Period. The Age of the Antonines, A. D. 96 to 180. This may justly be considered the happiest period of the Roman Em- pire : a succession of able and virtuous Princes consolidated its dominion. Trajan conquered Dacia, and, contrary to Augustus' ad\dce, made it a Roman Province. Great numbers of Roman citizens were settled there, and the Latin language introduced by them exists there up to this moment, as the language of the peasants of Hungary and Wallachia. On the bridge over the Danube, see Arroicsmith, XV. 5. One cannot help regretting that the splendid reigns of this Emperor, of Adrian, and the Antonines are tarnished by the peculiar persecutions of the Chi'istians. More particu- larly painful is it to think, that the Jirst Emperor who sanctioned such cruelties by law was Trajan, and that the Jirst magistrate who put the law in force was the younger Pliny. Pliny's letter and the Emperor's rescript are both extant. Hadrian s name is peculiarly interesting to Englishrnen, as he built the great rampart now called " the I'icts' wall." (Arrowsmith, VI. 11.) Third Period, to Constantine the Great, A. D. 337. This period of about I.tO years is almost a continued series of internal strife and disunion. It is ditticult even to enumerate the succession of Emperors ; at one time there were 19 fighting for the throne. The pres- sure of foreign tribes upon the frontiers began to be felt ; the corruption of morals, arts, and literature, was rapidly proceeding ; and it seems prob- able that the Empire would have tunililed to pieces at the end of the Third Century, but for the great nuni who then rose to the Purple. »S'^iY'/-H.s was one of these, (Arrowsmith, VI. 11.) He was successful in his wars with the Persian Artaxerxes, the founder of the Sassanid 66 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. Dynasty (Led. ' Persia," and Arroicsmith, XXIV. 2, end.) He died at York A. D. 211. " Omnia fui, et nihil expedit." Heliogabalns, A. D. 222. was originally a priest of the Sun. Philip celebrates the 1000th Anniversary of Rome, A. D. 248. Decins begins a cruel persecution of the Christians. Great invasion of Goths, one of the great tribes of the Japetic family of languages, overran Mfesia and Dacia ; and when Decius was slain, his successor Gallus paid tribute to them. They ravage Bithynia, iEgean isles, Athens. (Arrow- smith, VIII. 15.) Aurelian, ('Restitutor oi'bis,') a great man. This was an epoch of renewed greatness under the powerful and able rule of Anrelian, Tacitus, Probus, Diocletian, for nearly 40 years. See ' Zenobia,'' (Lempriere.) Probus built the famous rampart of tlie Decumates Agri, (Arrotvsmifh, VIII. 32.) Diocletian cruelly persecutes the Christians. At this time the Empire was first divided among four Caesars, afterwards six, — which paved the way for its uUimate division. The last triumph Rome ever saw was that of Diocletian and Galerias, A. D. 300. He abdicates, and lives at Spala- tum (Spalatro.) The decay of art is very remai^kable in the remains of his palace at Salonee, and his prodigious baths in Rome, as also in Con- stantine's Arch. (Arroicsjnith, Chap. IX. 22.) Constantine the Great. (" Hoc signo viuces." The ' Labarum,' Jjcm- priere.) He committed the same mistake as Augustus, in not legalizing hereditary succession : he re-acted the story of Theseus and Hippolytus, being persuaded by his wife to murder his eldest son ; and committed the same mistake, of subdividing his Empire, that Charlemagne, Charles V. of Spain, Theodosius, and Dmitri in Russia did. His conversion to real Christianity is very doubtful. He supported it and Paganism alike, and some of his medals represent one side the Christian Emblem, on the reverse the Erapei'or as Pontifex Ma.\imus. So at one time he supported the Catholics — at another the Arians. He founds Constantinople (Byzan- tium ;) called it New Rome. Rome had gradually been deserted by the Emperors for 40 year's. His support however established Christianity. The moment liberty was granted to the Church, Paganism crumbled to pieces. In this 3rd period of 1.50 years, 41 Emperors were murdered. At this time Christianity had extended over all the Roman Empire, and far beyond it ; even Gibbon supposes a full twentieth of the Empire were Christians. There were 1800 Bishopries ; the first great council met at Nice, A. D. 32.'i. [N. B. The History of the Church up to this time will be treated of in a separate Lecture.] Fourth Pei'iod. Front Constantine, A. D. 337, to Odoacer, A. D. 476. This period exhibits the dissolution of the Western Empire, the utter extinction of all Roman virtue and spirit, helpless apathy of the people, unavailing resistance to the yjressure of foreign nations on every side of LECTURE VIII. ROMAN EMPIRE, IT. II. 67 the Empire. It is a great epoch in the History of the World. The unity of this great Empire was maintained hy God's Providence, until Christianity was immoveahly rooted. Then revived the great Migration of Nations, pushing onwards incessantly from the remotest East, hroke up the rotten tabric, brought in a rude energy and vigour, which Christianity tempered, and laid the foundations of all the great Christian Kingdoms of Modern Eui'ope. There is very httle to lament in the subversion of the Roman Empire. The principal persons and actions of this period were, — Julian the Apostate : ho endeavoured with little success to restore Paganism : He guarded against persecution, but did all he could to reduce the splendour of the Christian worship. The emblem of Christ erased from the Laba- rum ; attempts to rebuild Jerusalem. (See Waddington's Church History.) Ilis terrible defeat near the Euphrates, by Sapor, and his disastrous retreat and death, resemble in a remarkable degree the retreat and destruction of the British Army from Cabul. {Gibbon, Chap. XXIV.) A great Gothic confederation (Cf. Guicot, Ussai 2. p. 41. sur /' Hist, de la France,) was established about this time, A. D. 350 — 400, by Hermannric, in the centre of Europe, from the Balt'c to the Danube, from the Don to the Theirs : the Alani farther East : the Huns farther still, (have nothing to do with the name of Hungary. This last nation of Barbarians, pushing onwards, broke up the Alani and Goths, A. I). 375. The Goths divided — Weise (white)-Goths, and Ostro-Goths. (See Arrowsmith, VUI. 16.) Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, expels Theodosius from the Cathedral, for his crimes, A. D. 383. (Church Homihj, " On the right use of the Church, Pt. 2.") The final division of the Empire into two parts took place 395 A. D.; when Arcadius succeeded to the Eastern, Honorius to the Western portion of their Father Theodosius' Empire. Alaric, King of Visi-Goths, sacks Rome, A. D. 410. Simultaneous irruptions into Spain, Gaul, and Britain. The Vandals made an irruption into Africa under the terrible Genseric, A. D. 429. Attila, King of the Huns, (" the scourge of God,") A. D. 433, to A. D. 453. " Europam conrasit." Rome thrice pillaged by Attila, Genseric, Ricimer. Twenty years of affliction : Romulus Augustulus (remarkable names, see Led. VI, on Sparta,) the last Emperor of the West, deposed by the barbarian Odoacer. The Senate formally abolish the imperial succession, and constitute Italy a diocese of the Eastern Emperor, A. D. 476. It is generally said that sJacery was the devouring cancer that destroyed the Roman Empire. Yet slavery existed quite as much in the most flourishing period of tiie Republic, as in the decay of the Empire ; — in the days of Scipio and Cato, as in those of Constantine and Honorius. Remember for instance the Servile war. It was not therefore slavery, but according to Pliny's just remark " A^erum confitentibus lutifttndia perdi- dere Italiam." The free race of Italian cultivators had disa])peared, before the fleets that wafted cheaper grain from the Nile to the Tiber. Thence the impoverishing of the small freeholders, the absorption of all k2 68 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. the little properties by the great families. So rich was the capital (and yet so poor at the other extreme,) when it fell before Alaric, that it con- tained 1730 great families, whose estates in pasturage, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, yielded 3£16(),O0U amivctl rent each. It is remarkable that it was the opinion of the Roman Augurs, even before the Christian era, derived probably from the Sibylline Books, that the Twelve Vultures, which Konuilus saw, represented the twelve centuries assigned as the limit of the lioman State ; an anticipation which was sin- gularly fulfilled by the event. Vide Gibbon, ch. XXXV. fin. See also ch. 55, on the ancient predictions concerning the fortunes of Russia. On the Prophecies found amongst the Heathen, see Bp. Horsley's Disserta- tation, and Trench's Hulsean Lectures for 1846. Map of Europe, witli the boundaries of the Roman Empire coloured. LECTURE IX. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, (or Fifth Empire, Ban. ii. 44, 45.) Down to the Conversion o/Constantine. [N. B. Dr. Burton's Chronology is/bllowed.'} Geography. Under this head it is intended to trace out only St. Paul's Journeys, — viz. his three Missions recorded in the Acts of t!ie Apostles, and his voy- age as prisoner from Ca'sarea to Rome. First Mission. A. D. 45, 46. Acts xiii. 1, to xiv. 20. From Antioch in Syria, to Seleucia ad Mare, Salamis in Cyprus, Paphos, Perga in I'amphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe in Lycaonia. Back from Derbe to Lystra, Iconium, through Pisidia to Perga in Pamphylia, down to Attalia on the Sea coast, and thence home to Antioch. Second Mission, A. D. 46 — 48. Acts xv. 36, to xviii. 23. From Antioch, through Syria and Cilicia, holding a Confirmation., to Derbe, Lystra, through I'hrygia and Galatia : thence again along the N. of Phrygia, into IMysia, to Troas, where S. Luke joins him, to Samothrace L, Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, ApoUonia, Thessalonica. [The 'Via Egnatia' ran along these live last places.] Beraa, Athens, Corinth, Cen- chreiie. Sailed to Syria, touching at Ephesus : thence sailed to Caesarea, went up and saluted the Church at Jerusalem, and thence to Antioch. Third Mission, A. D. 48—53. Acts xviii. 23, to xxi. 15. From zVntioch, "over the country of Galatia and Phrygia," to Ephesus, (two years stay, ending with 'the uproar,') Macedonia, Corinth, back through Macedonia, to Philippi, sailed to Troas, on foot to Assos, sailed 70 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. to Mitylene, passed by Chios, and Samos, stopped at Trogyllium, thence to Miletus, (sent for Ephesian Elders ;) thence to Cos, Rhodes, Patara, Tyre, Ptolemais, Csesarea, Jerusalem. There he was assaulted in the temple, rescued by the Roman Officer, and sent to Felix, at Csesarea ; kept there two years as a prisoner, then pleads before Festus, and appeals to Caesar. Voyage as a Prisoner to Italy, A. D. 55. From Csesarea to Sidon, " undei- Cyprus," (i. e. on the S.E., but keep- ing Cyprus on the left, and doubling the E. Cape,) along the S. of Cilicia and Pamphylia, to Myra, a city of Lycia. Changed their ship there, and started in an Alexandrine vessel for Italy ; a contrary wind, and a slow passage to Cnidus ; obhged by the wind to sail Southwards to Crete, and hardly weathering the E. Cape, Salraone, got under shelter of the island, and reached " Fair Harbour," on the S. It was now getting late in the season, and sailing was dangerous, " the Fast being past," (i. e. the Great Day of Atonement, on the 10th day of Tisri, the first month of the Civil, the Seventh month of the Ecclesiastical year, about our Michaelmas Day.) In vain Paul warned the Centurion Julius of the danger : they were sailing away under Crete to Phrenix Ps. when the Euroclydon, (a hurricane which blows from all points of the compass in those seas,) made them run back under Clauda Ins., and fearing lest they should be driven out of their course upon a quicksand, they struck sail, and were tossed about for 1 4 days, till at last they found themselves in the Adria, and were wrecked upon Melite ; and after three months' stay on the Island, they departed in another Alexandrine vessel, landed at Syracuse, thence to Rhegium, Puteoli, and Rome. History. (Daniel, II. 44.) Before the Roman Empire gained the ascendancy, we find the ancient world broken up into a number of independent tribes, each having its own political and I'cligious institutions. But Rome had crushed the independence of nations, and the feeling of self-existence. Mankind had just begun to be conscious of the common bonds which unite them, when the last and greatest Empire arose, which alone could satisfy their longings for Unity and Brotherhood, — " The One Catholic and Apostolic Church." fCf. Ran/ie's History of the Popes, p. 1.) The other Empires had prepared tlie way for this. Alexander the Great had spread the Greek language throughout the East. One language, the Latin, prevailed through the West. (Lect. VIII.) The other Empires had been set up by force, and the power of the sword. Three special marks are mentioned by Daniel, as distinguishing this ; — that in its rise it should be imperceptible ; in its extent, unbounded ; in its duration, endless. (Cf. Wilberforce' s Five Umpires.) The Kingdom of Christ may be said to date its beginning from the time when its Head rose from the grave, gave the commission to his Apostles, (John XX. V. 21.) and confirmed that commission on the Day of Pente- LECTURE IX. — HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 71 cost. Up to that time it was said by St. John the Baptist, (Mafth. Ill, 2.) by our Lord Himself, (Mattk. IV. 17.) and the Seventy Disciples, (Matth. X. 7 .) ' to be at hand.'' It may be advisable to state, that the Church did not begin to date from ' Anno Domini' till the year A. D. 532, when Dionysius, an abbot, fixed the Common Era, which we use, but which is probably four years short of the real time. The Nativity must precede the death of Herod. Herod was made king of Palestine A. U. C. 7\~U B. C. 10. But he did not obtain possession of it till B. C 37. In that year, on the day of the Fast, (10 Tisri=4th Oct.) he took Jerusalem by siege, and this is the actual epoch of Herod's reign. But it is the practice of Jewish writers to date the years of their Kings from the Ecclesiastical year in which the epoch occurred. So that Herod's date is given as 1 Nisan (April,) B. C. 37. Now Josephus says that Herod reigned 34 years, from the taking of Jerusalem to Antigonus. If the years were complete, they would end 4th Oct. B. C. 3 ; if current, any time between 1 Nisan, B. C. 4, and 3. Josephus does not define the year by the Roman Consuls, and the portion of Dion Cassius on this period is mutilated. Yet we can nearly fix the date by the fact of Josephus having defined the death-year of Herod as that of an eclipse of the moon, which is easily proved to have taken place between the 12th and 13th of jMarch, B. C. 4. That was the only eclipse of the year, and there was none in B. C. 3. It is further evident from Josephus that his death took place just before a passover, therefore it was about a week before the passover of B. C. 4. Besides, this date tallies with the calculation made respecting the time the class of Abiah would be sei'ving. L^ile I. 5, and 1 Cfiron, XXIY. We know from the Mishna (Greswell, Diserfaf. I. 383,) that on the very day of the burning of the Temple, A. D. 70, the cycle had commenced afresh with the class Joiarib, and by calculations it is shewn that the 8th course (Abiah) was entei'ing office on Saturday, 2nd Oct. B. C. 6, a very remarkable day in the Week of Tabernacles of that year. (In this case we should see the great force of Lu^e I, 10.) This date for the vision nearly coincides with St. Chrysostoni's tradition, that the date of the vision was the 10th Tisri. If to these dates we add the period of 14 months and some daj's, by "which the Vision preceded the Nativity, we find some day in December, B. C. 5, for the Nativity^ which date agrees well with our Lord's age at His Baptism in A. D. 28, comes nearest to the accounts of the early Fathers, is derived from a very probable date of Zacharias' Vision, and is perfectly in accordance with all other historical events connected with the lime. First Century. St. Stephen's Martyrdom gives us occasion to remark, that the Jews had not lost the power of inflicting capital punishment for religious offences, and probably therefore the tiyne alone (during the Passover) occasioned our Lord's trial before a Roman Procurator. Philip the Deacon's conver- 72 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. sion of the Samaiutans and the ^Ethiopian Eunuch leads to a remark upon the gradual mode in which the Jewish prejudices were got over, in some degree, with regard to the admission of the whole world to the Churcli of God. Fhstly, what we call ' the Dissenters' from the Jewish Church, i. e. the Samaritans, were admitted. IncUy. The Eunuch proselyte of righteousness, (for they were forlndden to enter the Jewish Congregation.) 'drdly. Cor- nelias the Centurion, a Proselyte of the Gate. Athly. A Gentile Idolater. (Acts, XIII. 7, 12.-) The First Council was held A. D. 46, at Jerusalem, when the question wjis fully discussed, whether the Gentiles should observe the Jewish Law or not, and was distinctly answered in the negative. That the Christian Jews ol)served the Ceremonial Law (except where there was any danger of the Gospel doctrine being obscured by it,) as long as the Temple stood, is clear from St. Paul's conduct. (Acts, XYI. 3. XVIII. 18. XXI. 26.) St. James, the Bishop of Jerusalem, was put to death A. D. 62, and his place supplied by his brother Simeon, who led out the Christians to Fella, when Jerusalem was invested by the Romans. His Church rather fell away from the purity of the Gospel, and maintained Jewish customs, after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus A. D. 72 ; and were called specially the Nazarenes. Before this event, St. Paul had preached the Gospel to every part of tlie Roman Empire (Col. I. G. 23,) according to Prophecy (Matth. XXIV. 14.) [On St. James the Bishop, compare Acts I. Vd, with Gal. I. 18. Acts, IX. 27, in the Greek. It is most probable that he was not one of the twelve Apostles. See Marshall's Episcopal Polity of the Church, pp. 29—4.5, and 109.] St. Paul is said to have travelled to the extreme West after his release from imprisonment at Rome, A. D. 58, — perhaps to Britain. Both he and St. Peter suffered martyrdom at Rome, A. D. 68, in the first great and systematic persecution by Nero. Linus, the first Pope of Rome, suffered also. (2 Tm.lV. 21.) St. Jolin is supposed to have dwelt at Ephesus all the latter part of his life. He was sent to Rome, and is said by Tertullian and St. Jerome to have been thrown into a vessel of boiling oil, from which he came out unhurt. \Prayer Book Calendar, May ijth.'] He was banished to Patmos Ins. by Domitian, and remained there till 96 A. D. when Nerva succeeded the Tyrant, and recalled the Exiles. The Revelations were written there, and his Gospel and Epistles were probably written between his return and his death, about 98 A. D. They are supposed to have been specially directed against the errors of certain hei'etics, called Gnostics, and Cerin- thians. There was not much difference in the opinions of these sects, as they both denied the reality of the Death of Christ. Simon Magus was the great teacher of Gnostic doctrine, " that Christ was an /Eon {a'lav) or angel sent from God." The difference (if any) was more in practice than doctrine, as the Ccrinthians hved very immoral lives, — the Gnostics were rather ascetics. The Epistle of Clemens Roman\is (Philipp. IV. 3.) is the only undoubtedly genuine work of the first century, besides the Scrip- tures, that has come down to us. It is said, that, before St. John's death, all the books that are now contained in the New Testament were collected into one volume, and received his authoritative sanction. LKCTURE IX. — HISTORY OK THE CHURCH. 73 Second Century. This Century opened with the persecution of the Church in Trajan's reign. Tliat prince, though conspicuous for many good qualities, must bear the guilt of setting the example of persecution, which many of his successors more unsparingly practiced ; — Adrian, the Antonines, Verus, and Commodus, A. D. 104, SymeoD, Bishop of Jerusalem, was crucified, at the great age of 120. The cause of it was remarkable : He w\is said to be descended from the Royal race of David, and Trajan was jealous of him as a com- petitor, Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was martyred A. D. 107. He was sent from Antioch, to be exposed to the beasts in the Amphitheatre at Rome, and in his progress thither visited and strengthened the Churches, — among others, Polycarp's at Smyrna, (See Marshall, p. 80 — 83, and 144.) The progress of Christianity, A, D. 1 1 1, is attested by Pliny in his letter to Trajan. He says — " Vicos et agros contagio pervagata est ; prope jam desolata templa ; sacra solemnia diu intermissa ; victimarum rarissiraus emptor," etc. A. D. 115. There was a general rebellion of the .lews in Mesopotamia, Gyrene, and Cyprus, under Bar-Chochebas, who declared he was the Messiah, (Matth. XXIV. 5, Mark XIII. 22.) And as the Jews were confounded with the Christians, it was the cause of great affliction to them. IEX\^ Capitolina built on the site of Jsrusalem, and the Jews only allowed to go within sight of the city once a year, on the anniversary of the Destruction by Titus. A. D. 118 to A. D. 138. These 20 years of Hadrian's reign were marked by a decided progress in Christianity, though the Emperor did not favour it. On any public rejoicings, the populace w'ere instigated to per- secute the Christians, and to demand them as victims to the wild beasts in the Circus ; and accused them of Atheism.. " C hristianos ad leones." Justin IMartyr writes against the Jews, A. D. 148. They were the in- veterate opponents of Christianity, as we see continually in the Acts of the Apostles— WW. 45. XIV. 2, 19. XVII. 5, 13. XVIII. 12. XIX. 9. A. D, 158. Polycarp went to Rome, to confer with Anicetus concerning the time of keeping Easter. (This Quarto- dcciman question was not settled till the Council of Nice, A. D. 32;) ; and must not be confounded with the subject of controversy that afterwards occurred between the British Church and St. Augustine, whether Easter should be kept on the Sunday the full moon fell o;i. or the Sunday after, as it is now.) A. D. 1G7. Martyrdom of Polycarp, St. John's disciple. He was burnt at Smyrna, at a great age. Many forgeries of false Gospels w^ere previilent at this time : they were the work of the Gnostics, Ebionites, and other heretics : for the support of their own opinions. Almost all the heresy of this age had its origin in Alexandria. (Appeiidix to SeweWs Plato.) A. D. 1/7. Great persecutions in Vienne and Lyons. Astonishing firmness of Christians ; even children are said to have borne tortures with surprising constancy ; (Collect for Innocents'' Bay.) Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons. 74 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. A. D. 181. Pant«>nus preaches to the Indians : it is said St. Bartholo- mew the Apostle had been there. It is very interesting to see distant Churches sending letters of comfort and exhortation to one another in their afflictions, from Asia to Gaul. The Apostles' Creed (so called) was gradually enlarged from smaller beginnings, as 'points became contested by Heretics, and was now in general use. Councils of Bishops from various Churches met. Many sects arose, but left not much impression ; chiefly at Alexandria, from mixing Eastern Philosophy and the subtleties of Platonism with Chris- tianity. " The first Christians had more piety than curiosity," Monachism arose in Egypt ; Ascetics (oo-k/w) ; Anchorites (dvaxapnTai) ; Therapeutee. Third Century. This century, like the last, opened with persecutions, A.D. 202, to 211. Severus issued an edict, that none should embrace Christianity, and the Christians should hold no meetings. (For Abgarits, King of Edessa, see Lempriei'e.) The persecutions raged chiefly in Egypt, and fell upon Carthage, now a flourishing Church. A. D. 204, the celebration of secular games at Rome, as usual, bi'ought suffering upon the Christians. Many Christians believed the world was coming to an end, and that God would no longer suffer His Church to be so distressed. The whole reign of Severus was most disastrous. Origen, a prodigy of industry and learning (xd><.K(VTepos,) greatly aided the dissemination of Christianity by his writings, and translations of the Scriptures. Caracalla died A. D. 217, a monster of depravity, and was worshipped as a God by those who had persecuted the religion of the Christians. A. D. 219. Heliogabalus established the worship of the sun. A. D. 222. Alexander Severus favoured the Christians and Jews ; and during 20 years the Church enjoyed repose, and increased greatly. The literature of the age has no merit, except in the writings of the Christians. Origen had no rival in this century. A. D. 235, the reign of the tyrant Maximinus was characterized by a ferocious persecution of the Church. The reigns of the Gordians and Philip, A. D. 237, to A. D. 249, was a period of peace and prosperity. There had been now, with not much in- terruption, 38 years of comparative rest ; and it was remarked, that cor- ruption of manners was in consequence creeping in among the Bishops and Clergy. But a storm was now bursting upon them, such as had never before been experienced, which soon restored the Church's purity. A. D. 253, Decius commenced a dreadful persecution, which raged throughout the Empire with more or less severity, according to the disposition of the Magistrates, for nearly 1 1 years. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, a great and able man, and a pillar of the Church in this age, received the crown of martyrdom with heroic constancy, A.D. 258. (Marshall, p. 221.) The irruption of the Goths about this time contrilnited to the spread of Christianity. (St. yluf/i/st. de Civit. Dei, uiit.) The Goths, in the following century, sent a Bishop to the Council at Nice : the Goths had LECTURE IX. HISTORY OF THE CHVRCH. 75 no written language. Ulphilas framed an Alphabet of Greek and Latin characters, and translated the Scriptures for them. A Translation from Ulphilas into Frankish, between 5G7, A. D. and 581, (the reign of Cbil- beric) is still extant in the Library of Upsal. (Saturday Mat/. No. 606.) In the latter part of this century, from A. I). 260, during the reigns of Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, the Church was generally free from persecution, and in consequence prevailed greatly. Diocletian came to the throne, A. D. 285. It was probable that he was averse to extreme measures against the Christians, but was urged on by his unfeeling colleague Galerius. Some decrees against the Christians, A. D. 298, close this century. The extension of Christianity in this century was very great, both in and out of the Empire. All ranks and professions contained Christians : it grew while men slept, they knew not how, (Mark IV. 26.) without violence, quietly and inoffensively, and it was everywhere. The Bishop of Rome seems to have enjoyed a px'imacy of respect, as being the Bishop of the Capital of the Empire, and in an Apostolical Church, but had no jaoi^er over others. Fourth Century, (to constantine the great.) This century, like the two preceding, opened with persecution and trouble to the Church, and in a greater degree than at any previous time. It has been usually called ' the Diocletian persecution,' though in fact it was much more the deed of his cruel colleague Galerius. A. D. 303. An edict was issued, that Churches should be pulled down, all books of Christians burnt, and that they should be compelled to offer sacrifice to the Pagan Gods, on pain of death : thousands were burnt, beheaded, drowned, given to wild beasts, mutilated. The two Emperors, from the palace at Nicomedia, were eye-witnesses of the beginning of these atrocities ! They lasted for eight years, until Galerius, tormented by con- science, and consumed by disease, put a stop to them, A. D. 311. In the East, under Mnximinus, a cruel tyrant, it was terrible ; but in the West, Constantius, (father of Constantine the Great,) neglected, or coldly executed the edict. Eusebius, who lived in these times, has given us accounts that almost exceed belief, of the torments endured by the Chi'istians. JVIany fled beyond the limits of the Empire, among the barbarians, and carried Christianity with them. Persecution invariably had the effect of spreading Christianity wider. (Acts, VIII. 1.) There arose dissensions after the persecution, concerning the lapsed (those whose courage failed under tor- ture) and the traditores. It must be laniented, that these unfortunate persons were treated with great contumely and arrogance by the Con- fessors, (those who suffered persecution short of death.) A. D. 312. Constantine defeated Maxentius near Rome. A. D, 313. Edict of Milan : perfect toleration of (hi'istianity : Maxi- rainus defeated and slain. This last liery trial, while it increased greatly the " noble army of Martyrs," purified the Church, and at no pt'evious time was the Church more pure and vigorous than now. Maximin himself declared that the whole world had abandoned the Pagan Gods, and gone 76 ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. over to the Christians. There have been 10 special Persecutions noted "before this establishment of Christianity : — 1st Nero's A. D. 64 6tli Severus' A. D. 202 2nd Domitian's 95 7tli Maxim inus' 235 3rd Trajan's 107 8th Decius' 250 4tli Hadrian's 125 9th Valerius' 257 5th M. Aurelius' 166 10th Diocletian's 303 Though the Conversion of Constantine aided the cause of the Chris- tians, yet it was as much the effect as the cause of its progress. Under any circumstances, the establishment of Christianity as the National Religion could not have been long delayed. The four first (Ecumenical Councils were as follows — A. D. 325 381 431 451 Nice — condemned the Arians. Its judgment was, dXTjeis. Constantinople Apollinarians. reKtoos. Ephesus Nestorians. dSiaipeV&j^. Chalcedon Eutjchians. a.^vyx^'''^^- St. Paul's First Journey to be marked on the map by a Red line, — the 2ud by a Blue, — 3rd by a Yelloiv. Yoyage to Malta and Eome by a Green line. On " St. Paul's "Voyage," see Mr. Jordan Smith's masterly Work. GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE The Year A. D. 400. The Roman Empire. The Western to be painted Blue, the Eastern Red. The other countries to be written downi, and separated by lines of Indian Ink. For the Western, the boundaries were the Clyde, the Rliine, the Danube, the Sandy Deserts of Africa, and Longitude 20 East. For the Eastern, from Long. 20 E. the Danube, Pont. Euxinus, Armenia, the Euphrates, Arabia, and the Sandy Deserts of Eastern Africa, 30° Is . L. were the boundaries. The Visigoths were lying just N. of the Danube, on the E. of 20° E. Long., and the Ostrogoths still further East of them, and N, of the Pontus. 2. The Map for A. D. 500— This will leave the Eastern Empire (Red) much the Bame as the last, excepting Dalmatia and Illyricum, which belonged to the Goths. The Ostrogothic Empire, to be marked Blue, included all West of 20 East. Long., and South of the Danube, and Italy, Sicily, Suabia, the two Rhsetias, Dalmatia, Norieum, Pannonia, Provence, Narbonne, and part of Aquitaine. Between them and the Visigoths lay the Bur- gundiones, i. e. between 1 and 5 E. Long., and 45 and 48 N. Lat. . The Visigoths (Blue) possessed nearly all the rest of Western Europe, which lies S. 48 Lat. All the North of France belonged to the Franks, and Great Britain as far as the Clyde to the Anglo-Saxons. 3. Map for the Year 800, A. D.— This will give Charlemagne's Empire {Green,) i. e. all France, and Northern Ger- many, as far as Long. 11° E. the Rhaetias, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyricum, and Italy, as far as Rome. The South of Italy was an independent Principality, called Benevento. All Spain S. of 42° Lat. belonged to the Saracens, and was called Regnimi Cordovte ; the North, R. Asturife. The Eastern Empire (Redj was confined to Greece S. of 42° Lat., and Asia Minor. The Saracens possessed the rest of its Empire, and the N. of Africa. All the Saracenic Empire to be painted Brown. Geography for the Year 1000. — A map for the beginning of the 11th Century, i. e. 1000 A. D. England was under the Saxons. All Spain S. of 42° Lat. was possessed by the Mahommedan Kingdom of Cordova. The N. W. formed the K. of Leon, aa far as 4° W. Long. The K. of Navarre occupied the N. E. corner. The K. of France extended over the whole Western part of that Country, as far as 5° E. Long. Between the Rhone and the Alps was the K. of Burgundy. The German Empire bordered on France and Burgundy, was bounded by the Vistula, Hungary, and Croatia on the East, and occupied all Italy but modern Calabria (i. e. Bruttiorum Ager,) and Apulia, which belonged to the Greek Empire. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, with all the N. of Africa, Egypt, and Syria, as far as Armenia, belonged to the Saracens. The Greek or Eastern Empire extended over Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece Proper, i. e. S. of 34J" Lat.) The Kingdom of Bulgaria extended N. of Greece Proper, and Hungary N. of the Danube, as far as 48° N. Lat. All the Mahommedan parts to be marked Brown ; France, Green ; Germany, Yellow ; Greek Empire, Red, — the rest iu Indian Ink. 78 GEOGRAPHY. Geography, — 1300 A. D. Beginning with the West. Portugal was as now ; K. of Granada answering nearly to the present province of that name. All between Por- tugal and 2° West Long, was the K. of Leon and Castile. In the N. E. corner of Spain was the wedge-shaped K. of Navarre, reaching to 42o N. Lat.. with the point of the wedge downwards. The rest of Spain was the K. of Arragon. The River Ehone and 50 E. Long, was the boundary of France, Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Dal- matia, were the Eastern boundaries of Germany, and the States of the Church the S. boundary. The S. of Italy was, as now, the K. of Naples ; but Sicily in 1300 was separate from it, and under the K. of Arragon, though it was to revert to Naples eventually. At the N. E. of Germany were Poland and Silesia, between 19 and 25 E. Long, and 54 and 50 N. Lat. Then the Kingdom of Hungary extended S. of Poland, as far E. and S. as Austria does now. Bosnia, Servia, WaUachia, and Bulgaria, as at present. The Greek Empire contaLued Albania, Macedonia, Rumilia, and Asia Minor W. of 30 E. Long. The lower parts of Greece were kingdoms formed out of the ruins of the Latin Byzantine Empire, and called Epirus and Achaia. All the rest of Asia Minor (E. of 30 Long.) belonged to the Turks ; aU Syria and Egypt to the Mamelukes. The rest of the East, except the Deserts of Arabia, and Uindostan, were under the Tartar dynasty of Kublai Khan, (which had been founded in 1206 by Jenghis Khan.) The North of India had just fallen a prey to the Moguls at this period ; Hindostan Proper being stdl under an Afghan yoke. The Northern King- doms of Europe, such as England, Ireland, Scotland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, were much the same as at present. Distinguish these several kingdoms by various colours, and write down the Names of the Nations. Geography, — A. D. 1500. England, Ireland, and Scotland as at present. Spain and Portugal as at present, except at the S. E. corner of the Bay of Biscay was the diamond-shaped K. of Navarre, lying between the and 3 W. Long, and 42 and 43 N. Lat. A hue drawn from Calais to Nice will give France. Between that line and 15 E. Long, lay the German Empire, as far S. as 46 N. Lat. Then, S. of that, between 46 and 44 N. Lat. lay the Duchy of Milan : the rest of Italy nearly as at present. On the S. E. of the German Empire, between 45 and 49 N. Lat. and between 15 and 25 E. Long., lay Hungary. On the E. of it, nearly to the Black Sea, were Wallachia (South,) Moldavia (North.) On the E. of North Germauy, and above Hungary and Moldavia, lay Poland, drawing a line from the Mouth of the Vistula to the Crimea. North East of Poland lay Lithuania, being about the same extent in width and length as Poland. The Ottoman Empire comprised Turkey in Europe and Asia Minoi'. The Mamelukes possessed Syria and Egypt. APPENDIX I. PLANETARY SYSTEM. Time of Rotation on Axis. SUN hours 607 mm. 48 1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars Flora Vesta Iris Metis Hebe Aslraca Juno Ceres (^ Pallas J 6. Jupiter 7. Saturn 8. Uranus 9. Neptune The existence of a planet between Mars and Jupiter was surmised long before, on the ground that the interval between the orbits of Mercury and the others go on doubling, as we recede from the Sun. These asteroids exactly supply the proper inter- val, and arc supposed to be fragments of one large planet. 24 23 24 24 5 21 37 9 56 10 29 9 30 unknown [From Sir J. Heeschell'3 Astronomy, pp. 308, 648.] APPENDIX II. ON LECTURE IIL At the date of the erection of the Greek Pyramids of Glzeh, i. e. about 4000 years ago, the polar star was a Draconis, and not (as now) the foot of the Little Pear. This is owing to what is called the precession of the equinoxc.«. The star of the Little Pear was 12" from the pole at the time of the construction of the earliest catalogue we possess : whereas now it is only lo 24'. It will approach nearer, tiU within half a degree, and then recede ; and give place eventually to o Lyrte, the brightest star in the N. hemisphere. It is a remarkable fact, tliat, of the Nine Pyramids still existing at Gizeh, 300 N. Lat., six of the largest have the narrow passage, by which alone tbey can be entered, so formed that the then polar star, a Draconis, was visible from the bottom of the PjTamidal passage, a circumstance which can hardly have been acci- dental, considering that their religious worship was astral. IIerschell,^. 192. ETON : PRINTED BY E. P. WILLIAMS. % i w l51 >$^m ^ ^$^