onsi g i/i/\^vvU The Life of Christ ^u ^ -^j M€DB WmmMGER mMOMM. CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES EDITED BY WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON THE LIFE OF CHRIST BY ERNEST DEWITT BURTON AND SHAILER MATHEWS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/ciDnstructivestudOOburtrich COPYRIGHT BY THE BIBLE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. Constructive Studies IN the LIFE OF CHRIST ( AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY AND A CONDENSED COMMENTARY ON THE GOSPELS FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES BY ERNEST DEWITT BURTON AND SHAILER MATHEWS Pj-ofessors in the University of Chicago, Chicago, III. REVISED EDITION CHICAGO iqoi B^ Copyright igoo By Ernest D. Burton and Shailer Mathews PREFACE. In the preparation of this volume we have had specially in mind the needs of students in Academies and Colleges, and in the advanced classes of Sunday schools. It is our hope in some measure to promote the thorough, systematic study of the Bible, and in particular the historical study of the gospels along such lines as are ordinarily followed in constructive historical work. Such study has, we are convinced, a proper place in the curriculum of every Academy and College. The reasons which in the past have denied to the Bible and to biblical history what was freely granted to other ancient classics and to other ancient history are rapidly ceasing to exist, and the day must soon come when trustees and faculties will see their way to respond to the demand already made by students for thorough instruction in the Bible. Of the proper spirit and aim of such study we speak on a later page. It is not 'less firmly our conviction that the Sunday school should have a curriculum of study as carefully and as intelligently graded as any other school, and that this curriculum should include a thorough course in biblical history. Such a course, covering both the Old Testament and the New, deal- ing with teachings as well as events, and recognizing relations of events as well as mere facts, should occupy not less than three or four years, preferably those just before the pupil passes to the adult division. In our minds the present work forms the middle third of such a course in biblical history, prop- erly following a thorough study of Old Testament history, and itself to be followed by a study of the history of the apostolic church. CONTENTS. Part I. THE THIRTY YEARS OF PRIVATE LIFE. FROM THE BIRTH OF JESUS UNTIL THE COMING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST. Chapter I. — The sources of our knowledge of the life of Jesus ; the origin and purpose of the gospels 17 Chapter II. — The birth of John the Baptist and of Jesus 28 Chapter III. — The childhood and youth of Jesus 42 Part II. THE OPENING EVENTS OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. FROM THE COMING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST UNTIL THE PUBLIC APPEARANCE OF JESUS IN JERUSALEM. Chapter IV. — The herald of the new era. The ministry of John the Baptist . 49 Chapter V. — The baptism and temptation of Jesus 56 Chapter VI. — The beginnings of faith in Jesus 61 Part III. THE EARLY JUDEAN MINISTRY. FROM THE PUBLIC APPEARANCE OF JESUS IN JERlTSALEM UNTIL HIS RETURN TO GALILEE. Chapter VII. — The beginning of Christ's work in Jerusalem 67 Chapter VIII. — Jesus in Judea and Samaria 72 Part IV. FIRST PERIOD OF THE GALILEAN MINISTRY. FROM THE RETURN TO GALILEE UNTIL THE CHOOSING OF THE TWELVE. Chapter IX. — The beginning of Christ's work in Galilee 79 Chapter X. — Hostility of the scribes and Pharisees to Jesus 87 Part V. SECOND PERIOD OF THE GALILEAN MINISTRY. FROM THE CHOOSING OF THE TWELVE UNTIL THE WITHDRAWAL INTO NORTHERN GALILEE. Chapter XI. — The choosing of the Twelve and the sermon on the mount . . 97 Chapter XII. — A preaching tour in Galilee 109 Chapter XIII. — Further conflict with the scribes, and teaching concerning the kingdom 116 CONTENTS Chapter XIV. — A chapter of miracles in Galilee 125 Chapter XV. — Further evangelization in Galilee 130 Chapter XVI. — The crisis at Capernaum 136 Part VI. THIRD PERIOD OF THE GALILEAN MINISTRY. FROM THE withdrawal INTO NORTHERN GALILEE UNTIL THE FINAL DEPARTURE FOR JERUSALEM. Chapter XVII. — A northern journey and a brief stay by the Sea of Galilee. . 147 Chapter XVIII. — A journey to Csesarea Philippi ; Peter's confession and the transfiguration 152 Chapter XIX. — Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness 162 Chapter XX. — Discourses at the Feast of Tabernacles 169 Part VII. THE PEREAN MINISTRY. FROM THE FINAL DEPARTURE FROM GALILEE UNTIL THE FINAL ARRIVAL AT JERUSALEM. Chapter XXI. — The departure from Galilee and the mission of the Seventy . .176 Chapter XXII — The healing of the man born blind, and other events in Jerusalem 181 Chapter XXIII. — Discourses in Perea 189 Chapter XXIV. — Discourses in Perea (continued) 196 Chapter XXV. — The raising of Lazarus, and its effect on the Jews .... 201 Chapter XXVI. — Further teachings in Perea 204 Chapter XXVII. — Closing events of the Perean ministry 207 Chapter XXVIII.— In Jericho and Bethany 215 Part VIII. THE PASSION WEEK. FROM THE FINAL ARRIVAL IN JERUSALEM UNTIL THE RESURRECTION. Chapter XXIX. — -The triumphal entry and the cleansing of the Temple. . .219 Chapter XXX. — Conflict veith the Jewish rulers, foreshadowing the end . . . 225 Chapter XXXI. — Jesus' last words in the temple 233 Chapter XXXII. — Jesus' prediction of the end of the nation, and the plot of his enemies ■ 237 Chapter XXXIII. — Jesus' last day with the disciples 243 Chapter XXXIV.— The arrest, trial, and death of Jesus 257 Part IX. THE FORTY DAYS. FROM THE RESURRECTION UNTIL THE ASCENSION. Chapter XXXV. — The appearances of Jesus after his resurrection 273 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. We beg leave to call the attention of teachers and pupils to certain features of the work. 1 . It demands, first of all, a mastery of the facts of the Scripture narra- tive. The pupil is brought face to face with the gospels, which are the principal — almost the only — sources of knowledge for the life of Jesus that are now accessible to us. The first duty of an historian is the mastery of his sources. Nothing should be allowed to take the place of this, or to crowd it out. Whatever else a course of study based on this book may or may not accomplish, it will be largely a failure if the student fails to acquire as a perm anent possession the gospe l narrativje of the life of Jesus. 2. It demands interpretation of the Scripture material; not, indeed, exhaustively thorough interpretation; time and space do not_peniiit- this ; but such an interpretation as is needed for a reasonably thorough historical study. Let teacher and pupil deal with the material in an interpretative spirit, always asking as they study it : What is the actual meaning of this ? For what thought in the mind of the writer or speaker did these words stand ? What did he mean by them to convey to others ? It is with the purpose of facilitating interpretation that most of the material contributed by us is inserted. Most of the remainder is intended to furnish historical data not derivable directly from the gospels, but needed for purposes of interpretation and historical con- struction. It is mainly with the same end in view, and specifically in order to give definiteness to the student's work, that the Questions and Sugges- tions for Study are inserted. We regard the use of these questions (or better ones which the teacher may substitute) by pupils in studying and by teachers in teaching as almost indispensable to the success- ful employment of the plan of study which is here outlined. Espe- cially important is it that the questions marked with * shall be answered in writing. We earnestly recommend that teachers who use the lessons receive the papers containing these answers from the pupils, correct them carefully, and return them to the students. The reading of the answers in the class may or may not be wise. f^-^ • •••*• • • • • •/ • • • 6 /•.:*.*:*':*'*•* 'i^ucfc^sTiojsis to teachers 3. The book is constructive in its aim, or, to speak more accurately, it aims to encourage the student to do constructive work. Out of the Scripture material, rightly interpreted, he is encouraged to construct for himself a "Life of Christ" which, though necessarily only a sketch or foundation, shall be, as far as it goes, true to the sources and the facts. It may be beyond the ability of some pupils to do this constructive work ; others may, perhaps, be unable to give the necessary time ; but, unless insuperable obstacles of this kind exist, this part of the work ought by no means to be neglected. Personal experience convinces us of the high utility of the method. 4. The book is not divided into lessons, but into chapters. The limits of these chapters have been determined, not by the amount of work which we suppose can be assigned for a lesson, but by the nature and relations of the material itself. There will be about forty chapters of not very unequal length. Teachers are advised to assign lessons according to their judgment of the ability of their pupils to do the work, always including with the paragraphs assigned for study the questions which pertain to them. Certain portions of the book, usually so designated, the student should be expected to read, but not held responsible for reciting. Others, printed in fine type, are for the teacher rather than the pupil. 5. The book is intended to facilitate a thorough historical study of the life of Jesus, and through this it is our hope that it may contribute to the religious well-being of those who use it. Were it not for this hope, not one page of the book would have been written. Recogniz- ing that biblical study and instruction have their highest end in the cultivation and development of the moral and religious nature, and believing that the study of the life of Christ is in a preeminent degree useful for this purpose, we have taken up this work in the hope that through the use of it many young men and women " may believe in Jesus Christ the Son of God, and believing may have life in his name." But we have not for this reason felt it necessary to append to each chapter a list of religious lessons. The benefit to be gained from this study is not to be reaped at the end of each day's work. It will come through the larger knowledge of Jesus which the study will give, and the true fellowship with him to which such knowledge will lead those who have open minds and teachable spirits. I' BOOKS ON THE LIFE OF JESUS RECOMMENDED FOR THE 4SUNDAY-SCHOOL LIBRARY. ON NEW TESTAMENT TIMES. SCHURER, The Jetvisk People in the Tiine of Jesus Christ. Div. 1,2 vols.; Div. II, 3 vols. New Vork : Scribner's. $8. Mathews, A History of New Testament Times in Palestine. New York : Mac- millan. ^0.75. Fairweather, From the Exile to the Advent. New York : Scribner's. $0.80. 'ETtY.KSH'E.iyi., Jewish Social Life. Seidel, In the Time of Jesus. New York : Randolph. $0.75. LIVES OF JESUS. Edersheim. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. New York : Longmans, Green & Co. $2. YxRKXYi, The Life of Christ. New York : Button. $1.50. Andrews, The Life of Our Lord. New York : Scribner's. ^^2.50, Gii.'QY.KT, The Student' s Life of Jesus. New York : Macmillan. $1.2$. Stalker, Life of Jesus Christ. New York : Scribner's. ^0.60. Pressense, The Life of Christ. New York : Eaton & Mains. Hanna, Life of Christ. Various editions. Rhees, The Life of Jesus of Mazareth. A Study. New York : Scribner's, 51.25. INTRODUCTION. PALESTINE DURING THE LAST TWO CENTURIES BEFORE CHRIST. Remark.— This Introduction may be omitted by the younger of those pupils who use these studies, or assigned for reading only, according to the judgment of the teacher. ^ I. Judea before the Rise of the Maccabees. — When Alexander the Great died, his vast empire was divided among his generals, and after years of fighting there* finally emerged four strong kingdoms, or, as some call them, empires. Of these the two strongest were Egypt and Syria. Palestine lay between these two states, and as all the great roads ran through it, and as it was certain to be very important in the case of war, to say nothing about its tribute, each state endeavored to hold it. So Judea, a small part of Palestine, was thrown back and forth between them. It was altogether too small and weak to make any objection, and it paid its tribute of twenty talents to Egypt or Syria, as the cir- cumstances demanded, or even divided it between them. At last, how- ever, in 198 B. C, Antiochus III., the Great, finally got possession of the entire region, and Judea was firmly in the power of Syria. At this time Judea seems to have had no army, no great wealth, a territory no larger than a fair-sized American county (since Galilee, Samaria, and the east-Jordan regions did not belong to it), and no city except Jerusalem. It not only centered about Jerusalem, but it might be said that Jerusalem was Judea, just as the Roman empire was once nothing but the city of Rome and the fields about it. Its very government was that of Jerusalem. For although the high priest was at the head of the state, he was assisted by the town council or senate of Jerusalem. Just how the members of this body — who were called elders or presbyters — were chosen we do not know, but very likely they were the heads of the most important families. This senate was the highest court, but it also made such laws as were needed ; and, ' together with its presiding officer, the high priest, administered the government. By the time of Jesus this senate had lost some of its powers and had become somewhat different in character. It was then known as the Sanhedrin. Probably each village had also its local council and headman, but all important matters would be directed by the senate of Jerusalem. So it is clear that whatever history Judea 9 10 LIFE OF CHRIST should ever make would have to be centered around its sacred capital, where its high priest presided over the priests in the great temple and over the elders in the senate. Now, this close union of religion and politics was to have very important results. For if one were touched, the other would be, too, and if the Jews should be suspected of being untrue subjects of Syria, a part of their punishment would almost certainly fall upon their religion. And this is what actually happened. Antiochus Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus the Great, came to the throne of Syria in 175 B. C. Almost immediately he became involved in war with Egypt. He made expedition after expedition against that country, but each time was prevented by the interposition of the Romans or by some defeat from gaining a complete victory. In the course of these campaigns he became convinced that the most religious people among the Jews — the scribes and their disciples, or, as they were also called, the Pious — were more friendly to Egypt than they were to him. So he determined to punish them. He sacked Jerusalem, broke down its walls, and car- ried off all the sacred vessels from the temple. But this was not the worst. He determined to break down the Jewish religion, since he regarded it as the one thing that kept the Jews from becoming good subjects of Syria. Being a rash, impulsive man, he went about this work very savagely. A great many of the Jews, especially the priests and mem- bers of the rich families, had for a number of years been growing lax in their worship of Jehovah, and were beginning to live like the heathen. Now, Antiochus Epiphanes said, all Jews must give up Jehovah and their copies of the laws of Moses, and stop obeying them on penalty of death. He thought by destroying the Jewish religion he could make better citizens of the Jews. He sent out officers to see that the Jews obeyed him, and many of the party of the Pious were killed or forced to hide in caves in the mountains. The temple in Jerusalem was dese- crated, and a pig was sacrificed to Zeus upon an altar built upon the great altar of burnt sacrifice. ^ 2. The Revolt of the Maccabees and the Pious. — But other people than the Pious refused to join in this attempt to destroy Judaism, pre- ferring death to heathenism. Among them was an old priest by the name of Mattathias, who, with his five sons, lived at a little town on the edge of the Judean hills, called Modein. When the king's officer came to Modein to make its citizens worship heathen gods, Mattathias killed him, and then fled with his sons and some of his friends to the PALESTINE DURING THE LAST TWO CENTURIES B. C. II mountains. There they were joined by bands of the Pious and other Jews, and began a revolt against the Syrians. Mattathias died in a few months, and his son, Judas Maccabaeus, succeeded him as head of the movement. He was such a famous warrior that he gave his name (which means ''hammer") to all those of his relatives who succeeded him, although, more properly perhaps, instead of Maccabeans, they should be called the Asmoneans, after a distant ancestor. Under the leadership of Judas (165-161 B. C.) the religious war resulted in a number of victories over the Syrian forces. Jerusalem was safely recovered^ — all except the citadel, which held a Syrian gar- rison — and the temple was reconsecrated with a great celebration in December, 165. Then came reverses, and for a short time the Pious separated from Judas, who wished to continue fighting, and accepted a high priest and a treaty offered them by Syria. But it was only a short time before they saw the need of further fighting, and Judas was again a popular and victorious leader, restoring order to the state and pro- tecting the Jews throughout Palestine. The Syrians were again defeated during the absence of Antiochus in Persia, and it looked as if Judas might possibly lift his country into real independence, when he again lost the confidence of the Pious by making a treaty with Rome. When the Syrians came upon Judea in great force the small band which remained true to Judas was defeated, and he himself was killed in the battle of Alasa, 161 B. C. ^ 3. The Rise of the New Theocracy of Judea. — But the death of Judas did not check the revolt headed by the sons of Mattathias. Jonathan (i 61-143 B. C.) took up the work, and by a series of fortunate battles and other circumstances got himself recognized by Syria as a sort of legalized outlaw chief, with headquarters at Michmash. From this camp he carried on a rough warfare against the Jews who sympathized with heathenism, and gradually became the most important man in the little country. But greater things were waiting for him. Each of two rival claimants for the Syrian throne, Alexander Balas and Deme- trius I., wished his support and made him great promises. Jonathan sided with Alexander Balas, and was made high priest and military commander of Judea, his brother Simon being made military governor of the maritime plain. From this time Judea grew increasingly inde- pendent of Syria, for although Jonathan did not succeed in driving the Syrian garrison from the citadel in Jerusalem, the disorders in the Syrian empire enabled him to refuse to pay tribute and really to conduct 12 LIFE OF CHRIST the State according to his own plans. At the same time the Jews began to recover from their heathen sympathies, and to regard devo- tion to the law of Moses as of the utmost importance. When Jonathan was treacherously killed by one of the Syrian pretenders, his brother Simon (143-135 B. C.) succeeded him and reaped the advantages of his diplomacy and military skill. Under Simon Judea practically, though not formally, threw off all allegiance to Syria. The Syrian garrison was forced to surrender the citadel in Jerusalem, The high- priesthood was made hereditary in Simon's family, coins were struck bearing his name, and legal documents were dated from his accession. John Hyrcanus (135-105 B. C.) succeeded his father Simon, and under him the state reached its greatest prosperity. It included nearly all of Palestine except northern Galilee, it was an ally of Rome and Sparta, and John maintained a body of mercenary soldiers. We can see that it was becoming a monarchy, notwithstanding the fact that John Hyrcanus was high priest and was not called a king. Not all the leading men of Jerusalem approved of these changes, in which religion was being made subordinate to politics, and the most religious Jews, whose fathers and grandfathers had belonged to the party of the Pious, opposed the high priest. They were known as the Pharisees, or Separatists, because they wanted Judea to make no foreign alliances and to devote all its energies to keeping itself aloof from everything that was defiling, /. e., not Jewish. At first John Hyrcanus sided with them, for they and their ancestors had always been the chief reliance of his house. After a few years, however, when he came to see how narrow they were, he changed to the Sadducees, or liberal party, whose fathers had been among those that had favored the introduction of Greek customs, but who themselves were not at all in favor of heathen- ism. They were not nearly as religious as the Pharisees, nor so devoted to the laws of Moses, but were more ready to fall in with John's pro- jects. The Pharisees never forgave the Maccabean house for deserting them, and under the son of John Hyrcanus opposed the new order of things very fiercely. But it cannot be denied that the change at first was very beneficial to Judea. ^4. The Struggle of the Pharisees with Monarchy and the Sadducees. — When John Hyrcanus died there came to the throne his son Aristo- bulus, who conquered northern Galilee, and first of all his family called himself a king. But he reigned only a year (105-104 B. C.), and was followed by his most energetic but rough brother Alexander Jannaeus PALESTINE DURING THE LAST TWO CENTURIES B. C. 1 3 (104-78 B. C). He was a prodigious warrior, and seems to have cared very little that he was high priest as well as king. So obnoxious did he become to the Pharisees that they organized a revolt against him, and for several years Judea was swept by a desperate civil war, in which the Pharisees even brought in foreign troops to aid them. But Alex- ander at last conquered, and many of the Pharisees and their friends who did not flee to Egypt were executed. Thus monarchy was finally established in place of a theocracy, and the Sadducees got possession of the high-priesthood as well as of the state. Alexander carried the boundaries of Judea almpst as far as had the great Solomon, and prob- ably during his reign the very interesting book of First Maccabees was written. At his death the kingdom was very prosperous, but his widow, Queen Alexandra (78-69 B. C), who succeeded him, thought it best to look to the Pharisees for support, and thus the germs of civil war between them and the Sadducees were preserved. When she died, hostilities immediately broke out again. Her son, Hyrcanus H., was a Pharisee and really should have been king, but he was defeated by Aristobulus II., his Sadducean brother. Civil war raged for years, until at last both parties applied to the Roman general Pompey for his decision. He favored Hyrcanus II., but Aristobulus refused to abide by Pompey's decision, and so Judea was again involved in for- eign war. Of course the Romans conquered, and in 63 B. C. Jerusa- lem was captured by Pompey, and the Jews became subject to Rome, and never again became independent except during the few months of the great rebellion, 66-70 A. D. Pompey made Hyrcanus II. high priest, but did not allow him to be king. In fact, most of the admin- istration of the state was in the hands of a very keen, able man. Anti- pater, who was not a real Jew, but an Idumean, and who had been for some time the chief adviser of the weak Hyrcanus II. •[[5. Herod the Great. — This condition of affairs lasted for several years, Antipater being aided in the government by his two sons, Phasael and Herod. The Jews, especially the members of the Sanhe- drin, as the senate of Jerusalem was now called, hated Herod most heartily, since he was very severe in maintaining order in Galilee. But when Antipater was killed by a rival, it looked as if his sons might succeed him in the control of Hyrcanus II. and the state, but Anti- gonus, the son of Aristobulus II., invited the Parthians to come to aid him in getting possession of the throne he believed to be properly his. Phasael was captured and committed suicide. Hyrcanus II. 14 LIFE OF CHRIST also was captured, and, after having his ears cut off, so that he could never again be high priest, was sent to Babylon, and Herod was forced to flee. He finally got to Rome, where Antony and Octavius had him appointed king of Judea, and he hurried back to win his king- dom. It was a long struggle he had with Antigonus, but at last he was victorious, and, having married Mariamme, one of the few remain- ing Maccabees, established himself as king over all Palestine. Herod was an unscrupulous man, but for many years (37-4 B. C.) he ruled Judea probably better than any of his successors. He main- tained peace on the frontier and peace within his kingdom. His sub- jects seldom loved him, but they never rebelled against him. He was a great builder, not only of temples and colonnades in heathen cities, and public buildings at Jerusalem, but of entire cities as well. Chief among these latter was Caesarea, which afterward became the Roman capital of Judea. In his treatment of the Jews themselves Herod mingled severity and generosity. He put down disorders very cruelly, but in time of famine he remitted taxes, and even sold his gold dishes to buy food for his people. The Pharisees did not like him, and among his last acts was an order to punish some of them terribly. He also deposed and appointed high priests in a most arbitrary way. Yet, in order to secure the good-will of the priests and the people at large, he rebuilt the temple with great magnificence, and surrounded it with huge pillars and marble courts. During the earlier and later years of his reign he was especially anxious about making his position as king secure, and executed every person he thought might prove a dangerous rival.. Among his victims were Hyrcanus II., his own wife Mariamme, and her mother and brother, his own uncle, and three of his sons. When he died the people were ready for revolt, and begged Augustus not to appoint any more kings, but to let the government be what it had been so long before, a theocracy, with the high priest and the Sanhedrin at its head. ^6. Palestine after the Death of Herod I. — But Augustus paid no attention to this request, and divided the kingdom of Herod, according to the king's will, between his three sons. Archelaus had Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, until he was removed for bad government in A. D. 6, when his territory was made into the Roman province of Judea. Herod Antipas had the tetrarchy of Galilee and Perea. Herod Philip had another tetrarchy composed of a number of small territories lying to the east of Galilee. These were the three political PALESTINE DURING THE LAST TWO CENTURIES B. C. 1 5 divisions of Palestine during all the lifetime of Jesus save the first few months. ^ 7. References for further Study. The greatest work is that of Schurer, The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Div. I, Vols. I, II. Smaller books are : Waddy-Moss, From Malachi to Matthew; Mathews, A History of New Testament Times in Palestine ; Y xi^LVi^A.TllE.K, From the Exile to the Advent. Part I. THE THIRTY YEARS OF PRIVATE LIFE, CHAPTER I. THE SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE LIFE OF JESUS : THE ORIGIN AND PURPOSE OF THE GOSPELS. ^§1. Prologue of John's Gospel. John i :i-i8. §2. Preface of Luke's Gospel. Luke z :i-4. Remark. — This chapter, dealing as it does with matter of great importance, but of some difficulty also, may wisely be omitted by the younger of those pupils for whom these studies are intended, or assigned for reading only. Here, as always, there is room for the exercise of the teacher's good judgment. ^ 8. Notes on § *:, John i : i-i8. — These verses, commonly called the prologue of the gospel of John, are not, strictly speaking, a part of the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus on earth. They are an attempt of the evangelist to bring his own conception of Jesus into relation with certain ideas about the relation of God to the world which were current among some of those for whom he wrote his gospel. To many people of ancient times it seemed impossible to suppose that God could have anything directly to do with the world. Matter — the material of which the world is made — they thought was in itself evil, and, there- fore, a good aiiJ perfect God could not have created it, and could not deal in any way directly with the world. But since it was necessary to suppose that all things came ultimately from God, they imagined that in creating the world and communicating with it God acted through an intermediate being or beings, though these were generally so vaguely conceived of that they could scarcely be called beings at all. For these beings one of the favorite names was "Word," a word being that through which a being acts and makes himself known to others. But none of these beings, if indeed they could be called "beings," * These section titles are, by permission of the publishers, Silver, Burdett & Co., reprinted from the Harmony of the Gospels for Historical Study, by Wm. Arnold Stevens and Ernest DeWitt Burton, Boston, 1894. 17 l8 LIFE .OF CHRIST were or could be definitely known. They were creations of the imagi- nation, devised to bridge the gap between God and the world, includ- ing the world of men. In fact, however, instead of bringing God nearer to men, they only put him farther off. To all such ideas the writer of this gospel was opposed. He believed in a God near at hand, who had always been revealing him- self to men and who had now made the crowning revelation of himself through Jesus Christ. He would put no being between God and the world save the " Word," who did not by so much as one step remove God from the world, being himself a perfect and true expression of God, through whom God has come into real relation with the world, and through whom men could truly know God. If these things are kept in mind as we read the evangelist's pro- logue, we shall see that he emphasizes especially these thoughts : The Word of God, he through whom God has expressed himself to the world, is one who perfectly reveals God ; he was " in the beginning ; " as far back as thought can go he was already there ; existed, moreover, in "fellowship v/ith God;" was himself "God." All things that are came into existence through him ; he is the sole and only agent oC creation ; he has always been in the world, giving light to men ; they have tried to shut out the light, but have never wholly succeeded ; the light has gone on shining, giving light to every man that comes into the world, and life to all that receive him, who thus become sons of God. And now indeed he has become man, and we have seen his glory, revealing to us truly, as an only son reveals a father, the glorious nature of God. Thus in place of a vague, obscurely conceived " Word," scarcely a being at all, and certainly wholly unknown, the evangelist puts the real historical person Jesus, affirms of him all, and more than all, that others had said of the imaginary "Word." In place of a series or group of such beings he puts the one "Word," himself God, who in Jesus Christ was become man. The references to John the Baptist in vss. 7, 8, 15 are probably intended to correct or oppose the view held by some that John the Baptist was the real Messiah. The evangelist gives to John a place of high honor as a witness to the true light of the world, but denies that he was the light, and quotes the words of the Baptist himself to show that he regarded himself as inferior to Jesus. These verses of the prologue are prefixed to the gospel somewhat SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE LIFE OF JESUS IQ as a modern writer puts a preface or an introduction to his book. They stand before and somewhat apart from the narrative of the book, and are designed, by the use of words which were familiar to those who would read the book, to set forth a true conception of Jesus as the one mediator between God and the world, the Word of God become flesh. This prologue serves to illustrate one important fact about our gos- pels, viz., that they were written to meet the needs of particular classes of people, and were shaped somewhat by this purpose. We have in the four gospels four pictures of Jesus, differing from one another, partly because of the differences in the men that wrote the gospels, but not less because of the differing needs of the people for whom they were severally written. The better we understand for what readers each evangelist wrote, and what he wished by his gospel to do for them, the more perfectly can we understand their books and the Jesus of whom they write. See below, ^^ 10-13. ^9. Notes on §2, Luke 1:1-4. — These verses, commonly called the preface of Luke's gospel, should be read very attentively. They con- tain the only distinct statement by a gospel writer of the material which he had at his command, and the method in which he worked in producing his book. John 20:30, 31 is the only other passage in which a gospel writer states what his purpose in writing was. These verses (Luke i : 1-4) imply several facts of great interest : (a) When Luke wrote, there were already many other gospels in existence. (Of these no more than two at most, Matthew and Mark, are still in exist- ence, and even Matthew may have been written later than Luke.) (d) These gospels were based upon the testimony which the per- sonal companions of Jesus had borne (doubtless orally) concerning the deeds and words of Jesus ; but those of which Luke speaks were written, not by these eyewitnesses themselves, but by those who had received the'T testimony, (c) Luke counts himself, not among the eyewitnesses, but among those to whom the eyewitnesses had reported the deeds and words of Jesus. He implies, therefore, that he wrote not from personal knowledge, but had at his disposal both the oral testimony of the eyewitnesses and numerous written gospels. {(/) He had carefully studied out the whole history, that he might write down only what was true, and that in an orderly narrative, (e) Theophilus, for whom he wrote, had already been taught (orally) concerning these things. This was probably a custom of this time. (/) Luke's purpose in 20 LIFE OF CHRIST writing was to give to Theophilus — perhaps he had in mind many others situated as Theophilus was — a firm basis for historical knowl- edge concerning the life of Jesus. It is clear, therefore, that when Luke wrote, a considerable time had elapsed since the life of Jesus — perhaps a generation, forty years or more ; that in this time there had been considerable writing of gospels on the part of Christians ; that our four gospels are the sur- vivors of a larger number that once existed, but that much of that which was contained in these early gospels has probably been taken up into the gospels we have, especially Luke's. It would be extremely interesting if we could now recover these oldest gospels, but it is pos- sible that they would add but few to the facts about Jesus that we now possess in the gospels we have. ^lo. The Gospel of Mark. — The gospel which stands second in order in our Bibles is the shortest, the simplest, and probably also the oldest of the four. It has no prologue, like John's ; no preface, like Luke's ; no story of the infancy of Jesus, as have Matthew and Luke ; but, after a very brief sketch of the work of John the Baptist, goes on to tell the story of Jesus' public ministry, dwelling here especially on his deeds and reporting his discourses much less fully than any of the other three. It is the majestic figure of Jesus, as he walked and worked and taught among men, that has impressed the writer, and it is this that he seeks to bring before his readers. "Power" has often been said — and justly — to be the keyword and thought of the gos- pel. Though undoubtedly written, like all the other gospels, to kindle or encourage faith, it does not do so by set argument, and even in aim it is less distinctly argumentative than the other gospels. What the writer knows of the life of Jesus he tells with simple directness, confident, apparently, that it cannot fail to make its own powerful impression. In its scope and in its conception of Jesus it reminds one of the words of Peter in Acts 1:21: "All the time that the Lord Jesus went in and went out among us, beginning from the baptism of John unto the day that he was received up ; " and in Acts 10 : 38 : "Jesus of Nazareth, how that God anointed him with the Holy Spirit and power : who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil, for God was with him." The Mark to whom from early times the gospel has been ascribed is doubtless the John Mark mentioned in Acts 12 : 12, 25 ; 13 : 5, 13 ; 15 '3h 39 ; Col. 4:10; Philem. 24; i Peter 5 113; 2 Tim. 4:11. Very SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE LIFE OF JESUS 21 ancient tradition affirms a connection of the apostle Peter with this gospel ; and it is more than likely that Mark derived a considerable part of his material from what he had heard Peter tell concerning Jesus. How much Mark may have known of his own knowledge, or whether any of his material came from other sources, we cannot tell. The gospel was probably written before, but not long before, 70 A. D. ^11. The Gospel of Matthew. — Of all our four gospels Matthew has the most distinctly Jewish tone and color. Apart from any tradi- tion respecting its author, the gospel itself would show us that it was written by a Jew and for Jews. Notice its very first phrase, " The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham ;" its frequent references to the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecies (1:23; 2:6, 15, 17, 18, 23, etc.) ; its use of Jewish names, such as "the holy city" (4: 5), "the lost sheep of the house of Israel" (10:6; 15 : 24), and numerous other indications scattered through the gospel. It is evidently the purpose of the writer to confirm the faith of his fellow Jewish Christians in Jesus as the Messiah foretold in prophecy, and in particular to convince them that by the Jews' rejection of this Messiah, who came first of all to them, and, so far as his own work was concerned, to them alone, they had lost their place of preeminence in the kingdom, and the kingdom had became a kingdom for all nations, the old national limitations and the distinctive Jewish institutions being no longer in force. The true Jew must, accepting Jesus as Messiah, become a Christian, and take his place in the kingdom that was no longer exclusively Jewish. The book that begins strictly within the circle of Jewish thought, setting forth Jesus as the son of David and the Christ of prophecy, ends with the great commission of the Messiah, rejected by his own-^nation: "Go make disciples of all the nations." Of Matthew the apostle the New Testament gives us very little account beyond the fact that he was a publican when Jesus called him to follow him (Matt. 9:9; 10:3). An early Christian writer tells us that " Matthew wrote the sayings [of the Lord] in Hebrew." But almost from the first Christians generally used not this Hebrew gospel, but the (Greek) gospel which we have today. Some scholars suppose that the Greek gospel was simply a translation of the Hebrew book, but others think — and this seems on the whole more probable — that the Hebrew book consisted mainly of the sayings or discourses of Jesus, and that the Greek gospel, our present Matthew, was, so to speak. 22 LIFE OF CHRIST a second and enlarged edition containing the contents of the original gospel, and also other material derived from sources such as those of which Luke speaks in his preface. The new book naturally retained the name of the old, and has borne that name from very early times till now. Many of the narratives in Matthew are found in nearly the same words in Mark, though not infrequently the order of events is different in the two gospels. It is probable that in these cases the narrative in Matthew is derived from Mark, the change of order being usually due to a desire to bring the narratives into connection with teachings which they illustrate, or to bring teachings on the same subject together. For this reason in studying the life of Christ we usually follow Mark's order in preference to Matthew's. Our gospel of Matthew was probably published not many years after the gospel of Mark. •[[12. The Gospel of Luke. — The Luke whose name our third gospel bears is undoubtedly the beloved physician whom the apostle Paul mentions in Philem. 24 ; Col. 4: 14; 2 Tim. 4:11. These passages show him to have been a companion and fellow- worker of the apostle. If, as is generally believed, he was present wherever he uses the pro- noun "we " in the Acts narrative, then Acts 16 : 10-40 ; 20:6; 21:17; chaps. 27, 28, also tell us of journeys which he took with the apostle. The preface of Luke (see ^ 9) prepares us not to expect a distinct argumentative purpose in his gospel, such as we find in Matthew. His aim was to tell as completely as the material accessible to him permitted the story of Jesus' life, and this that he might furnish to Christians trustworthy information concerning that life as a whole, rather than to prove any particular proposition concerning him. In both respects the book corresponds with this expectation. Like Mark in the absence of any specific argumentative purpose, it approaches more nearly to Matthew in its fulness of narrative, beginning with the story of the infancy and ending only with the ascension of Jesus. Yet the gospel is not wholly without a distinctive character of its own. Emphasizing the power of Jesus less strongly than does Mark, it presents what may perhaps be called in a very broad sense the social side of his life and teachings more emphatically. The intimate relation of Jesus with mankind, in the family, in the Jewish church, and in the state ; his subjection to the law, Jewish and Roman ; his obedience to parents ; his friendship for the publicans and sinners, SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE LIFE OF JESUS 23 for all however low or poor — these things appear in Luke as in no other gospel. In his teachings, too, as reported in the third gospel, he emphasizes the duty of men in their relation to one another, and the universality of these relationships. As he is the brother and Savior of all, so he teaches also that they are to be friends and helpers of one another, ignoring the lines that separate Jew from Gentile, Pharisee from publican, man from woman. Among the gospels already in existence when Luke wrote (see ^9) Mark's was doubtless one; as between Matthew and Mark, so also between Luke and Mark there are many parallels, /. e., accounts of the same event in nearly the same words, and it is probable that in these cases Luke as well as Matthew drew from Mark. Other sources Luke also had, but we cannot name them with certainty. They must have been in part the same as Matthew's, since in addition to the passages that are found in all three gospels there are a number which are found in Matthew and Luke, though not in Mark. He testifies that he scruti- nized them all with care (i : 3). This gospel was probably put forth about the same time as Matthew's, say in the vicinity of 80 A. D. ^13. The Gospel of John. — The prologue of this gospel (see T^ 8) indicates that the author wished to oppose certain false ideas of God's relation to the world, and to maintain the uniqueness and all-sufficiency of the revelation of God in Christ. In John 20:31 we read: "But these are written that ye may believe [/. e., continue to believe] that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing ye may have [/. zV/. i5z^. ,' Burton, in Biblical World, January and February, 1899; Dods, as above, and in Expositor 'j Greek Testament. 28 LIFE OF CHRIST CHAPTER II. THE BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS. § 3. The two genealogies. Matt. 1 : 1-17. Luke 3 : 23-38. § 4. Birth of John the Baptist promised. Luke I : 5-25. § 5. The annunciation to Mary. § 6. The annunciation to Joseph. Matt. I : 18-25. § 7. Mary's visit to Elizabeth. § 8. Birth of John the Baptist. Luke I : 26-38. Luke I : 39-56. Luke I : 57-80. § 9. Birth of Jesus the Christ. [Matt. I : 18-25.] Luke 2:1-7. §10. The angels and the shepherds. Luke 2 : 8-20. ^18. Notes on §4, Luke 1:5-25. — Vs. 5, "Herod, king of Judea," viz., Herod the Great; cf. ^5. "Of the course of Abijah": cf. i Chron. 23:6 ; 24: i, 10. Each course was on duty one week at a time, and since there were twenty-four courses, each served two weeks a year. See Edersheim, Temple, pp. 63, 66. Vs. 9, "his lot was," rather, it fell to him by lot. The different duties of the worship were assigned by lot, and the burning of the incense was considered the most honorable part of the daily service. According to Edersheim, no priest could take this part a second time while there was another eligible one who had not performed it (Edersheim, Temple, pp. 122, 133)- Vs. II, "on the right side of the altar of incense": in the holy place the altar stood just in front of the veil separating it from the Holy of Holies, the table for the shewbread being on the right- hand side, and the golden candlestick on the left. The position of the angel is therefore as if he had just come out of the Holy of Holies. See the plan on p. 68. Vs. 17, "in the spirit and power of Elijah," etc. : reproving the people for their sins, as Elijah had done. See Mai. 4 : 5, 6. Vs. 23, "departed unto his house." Cf. vss. 39, 40. ^19. Notes on §5, Luke 1:26-38. — Vs. 26, "the angel Gabriel": cf. vs. 19. "Nazareth" : see ^ 21. Vs. 27, "of the house of David" : most naturally understood to refer to Joseph. Vs. 32, "the Son of the Most High" : on the meaning of this expression see ^ 20. BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 29 These verses (31-33) predict of Jesus those things which in 2 Sam. 7:14; I Chron. 17:13, 14; 22: 10 are promised to the Son of David. They would naturally be understood at this time, before the Christ had come and fulfilled them in a more spiritual sense, as referring to a Jewish kingdom to be set up in Jerusalem with political as well as spiritual power. Compare with these words those of the Jewish hymn quoted below in ^28. Vs. 35, "The Holy Ghost," etc. — Observe the correspondence between the character of the power to which the birth of the child is due and that of the chiJd himself. It is upon this that the emphasis of the sentence is thrown. On the meaning of " Son of God " see ^f 20. ^20. The Term "Son of God." — The expression "son of God" is used both in the Old Testament and in the New to describe a person or people as sustaining toward God some one or more of the relations which a son sustains to a father. " My Son," when the " my " refers to God, or Son of the Highest, have the same meaning. The particular filial relation which is emphasized may vary greatly. Thus one may be called son of God (i) as owing his existence directly to God (so probably in Luke 3 : 38) ; or (2) as superhuman and like God in nature (so of angels or the like in Job i : 6 ; 2 : i ; 38 : 7 ; and of men after the resurrection in Luke 20 : 36, and probably in this sense of Christ in Rom. 1:4); or (3) as like God in moral character (so of men in Matt. 5 19, 45 ; John 1:12; Rom. 8 : 29 ; by implication of Jesus in John i: 14 ; 14:7); or (4) as the object of God's special approving love or choice (as of Israel in Exod. 4 : 22, 23 ; Deut. 14:1, 2 ; Hos. 1 1 : i ; of God's people, without restriction to Israel, in Rom. 9 : 26 ; 2 Cor. 6:18; Gal. 4:5; and of Jesus in Matt. 3:17; 4:3,6; 11:27; 17:5, and the parallel passages in the other gospels ; John 3:17); or (5) as being one who acts for God as a son for his father (so of the predicted son of David and king of Israel in 2 Sam. 7:14; I Chron. 1 7 : 1 3, 1 4 ; 22 : i o ; Ps. 2:7; 89 : 20-37, with this sense the preceding one being usually blended). It is probably in this sense, and thus as nearly equivalent to the official term Messiah, that the expression is used of Jesus in Matt. 16 : 16 ; Mark 14 :6i. It is in this last-named sense that it is most natural to understand the expression "Son of the Most High" in vs. 32, the following clauses going on to speak of his receiving the throne of his father David and reigning over the house of Jacob forever. Cf. 2 Sam. 7:14; I Chron. 22:10. In vs. 35, on the other hand, "Son of God" emphasizes especially the fact that the child Jesus derives his existence not from a human father, but owes it directly to God {cf. 3 : 38) ; with this is associated also the idea of moral likeness to God, but this is expressed more by the word "holy" than by the term "Son of God." ^2 1 . Nazareth. — About opposite the southern end of the sea of Galilee 30 LIFE OF CHRIST the range of mountains that forms so large a part of western Palestine is deflected to the west, terminating in the abrupt mass of Carmel, and leaving in the general line of the range a considerable triangular plain — the famous plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon. Here more than one of Israel's great battles were fought. East of it lies Mt. Gilboa, where Saul was slain, and Little Hermon, on whose slopes lies Nain, the home of the widow whose son Jesus raised to life. Bounding the plain on the north is a range of hills, sometimes called the Nazareth range, crossing the main watershed nearly at right angle. The highest point of these hills is at Neby Sa'in, 1,602 feet above the sea. Between Neby Sa'in and the plain of Esdraelon, about two miles south of the former, is Jebel Kafsy, 1,280 feet above the sea level, nearly 1,000 feet above Esdraelon. Climb Kafsy from Esdraelon, and looking into and across the valley — more exactly it is a saucer-like basin — between Kafsy and Sa'in, you will see the village of El-Nasira on the south- ern slope of Sa'in, 450 feet below its peak. The town contains 7,000-8,000 inhabitants, and its very name identifies it as Nazareth, the home of Joseph and Mary. In the time of Jesus it was perhaps no larger than it is today, and possibly was not in quite the same location. Its noble spring, however, now known as the Virgin's Fountain, was unquestionably where it is today, and on the great hill that rises behind it Jesus may often have watched the ships on the Mediter- ranean, less than twenty miles away, and the caravans as they went along the great road a little to the east of the town, or on their way across Esdraelon to some seaport or Egypt. But Nazareth itself was never on any of the great trade routes and could never have been a town of great commercial importance. See George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 432-5; Parker, "A Reminiscence of Nazareth," in Biblical World, Vol. VII, p. 189; Baedeker, Palestine and Syria; Edersheim, Life and Tijues of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp. 144-8; Andrews, Life of Our Lord, p^. 104-8; Merrill, Galilee in the Time of Christ, pp. 113-19 ; George Adam Smith, "Home of Our Lord's Child- hood," in Biblical World, Vol. VIII, pp. 435 ff. ^22. Notes on §6, Matt. 1:18-25. — Vs. 19, "A righteous man and not willing to make her a public example " : his righteousness would deter him, on the one side, from marrying her while suspicious of her character, and, on the other, from publicly disgracing her whom till now he had believed in ac a pure and virtuous woman ; hence he is disposed to adopt the middle course : to put her away, but not BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 3I publicly. " Put her away," /. ^,, divorce ; among the Jews a betrothal could be broken only as a marriage could, by divorce. Divorce was a private matter between the two parties, although the separation would come to be known. Vs. 21, "for it is he that shall save his people": These words explain the name Jesus, which means "Savior;" "his people " would mean to Joseph the children of Israel. " From their sins": It is the sins of the people that have brought them into distress, and salvation, even political salvation, can come only through deliver- ance from their sins. Vs. 22, "Now all this is come to pass," etc Matthew is specially interested in events which fulfil Old Testament prophecy. See 2:6, 15, 18, 23; 3:3; 4: 15; 8: 17 ; 21:4; 27 : 9. This dream-vision is the complement for Joseph of the appearance of the angel to Mary. Throughout Luke's narrative Mary's experiences are prominent ; throughout Matthew's the experiences of Joseph. ^23. Notes on §7, Luke 1:39-56. — Vs. 39, "the hill country": /. e.y probably the mountainous region south of Jerusalem, in the vicinity of Hebron ; the exact home of Zacharias is not known. Vss. 46-56. This psalm of Mary, commonly known from the first word of the Latin version as the ''Magnificats^ is expressed largely in the language of the Old Testament and moves largely in the atmosphere which characterizes the later Jewish psalm quoted in \ 28. It is the language of humble gratitude to God and of pious yet exult- ant joy in the thought of the heir of David's throne whose mother she was to be. The whole psalm is consonant with the situation and time to which the evangelist ascribes it ; it is difficult to think of such a psalm as having been written after the Messiah had come and lived, not the life of a political deliverer, but of a teacher and suffering Savior rejected by Israel. % 24. Notes on §8, Luke i : 57-80. — Vs. 59, " On the eighth day" -. 4f. Gen. 17:12. Vss. 68-79. This prophetic psalm of Zacharias is, like that of Mary, permeated with the patriotic hope and joyful expectation of a son of David who should deliver Israel out of the hand of their enemies. As with the prophets of old, so here patriotism and religion are inseparably mingled. The hope and ideal of the aged priest for his nation are clearly seen in vss. 74, 75. Even more strongly than that of Mary it reminds us of the hopes cherished by the psalmist of fifty years earlier (^ 28), and, like Mary's, agrees perfectly with the circum- stances and occasion. ^25. Notes on § 9, Luke 2 : 1-7. — On the questions of chronology 32 LIFE OF CHRIST raised by vss. i, 2, see 1[ 31. Vs. 4, " Bethlehem," see ^ 27. " He was of the house and family of David": cf. on i : 27. Vs. 5, "who was betrothed to him": this statement is somewhat different, but not materially so, from that of Matthew in i : 24, 25. ^1 26. Notes on § 10, Luke 2 : 8-20. — Vs. 8, "shepherds .... keep- ing watch by night over their flock " : This does not decide the time of the year. In a mild season and near the towns this might happen in any month. Vs. 9, " the glory of the Lord" : the brightness which is the token of the Lord's presence; cf. Exod. 16 : 7 ; 24 : 17 ; Luke 9 : 31 ; Acts 9 : 3 ; 2 Cor. 3:18. Vs. 10, "to all the people" : i. e., of Israel ; the message and the salvation are first of all to the chosen people. Cf. on Matt, i :2i. Vs. 11, "a Savior": Recall the message of the angel to Mary, Luke 1:31, and to Joseph, Matt. 1:21. "Which is Christ the Lord": see Acts 2 : 36, where Peter joins the same two titles. Precisely this phrase, however, occurs nowhere else in the New Testament. It is found in the Jewish psalm quoted in ^28, but is thought by some to be a mistranslation there for " the Lord's Anointed." Vs. 12, "and this shall be a sign to you," /. e., by which you may know that my message is true. Vs. 14. The difference between the common and revised versions in this angelic song is due to a difference of one letter in the Greek manuscripts followed by the two versions. The revised version is almost certainly correct. The two lines are parallel in form ; "glory" corresponds to "peace," "to God," to "among men," etc.; " in the highest," /. e., in heaven, to " on earth." For the words " in whom he is well pleased " there is but one word in Greek, so that the two lines are nearly equal in length. The meaning is " men who are the objects of God's gracious good pleas- ure." Vs. 18, " And all that heard it wondered": how widely they told the story is not said. The records of Jesus' later life do not indicate that the testimony of the angels was at all widely remembered or known when thirty years later Jesus appeared as a public teacher. Vs. 19, " But Mary kept all these sayings, pondering them in her heart": the mother, however, did not forget them, but kept turning them over in mind. Here again Luke tells of Mary rather than Joseph. ^27. Bethlehem — Bethlehem may very well be called the "City of Children," for, were it not for children, and, above all, the Child, it would hardly be remembered. The modern town, which still is known as Bet Lahem, is beautifully situated, about five miles from Jerusalem, on the side and summit of a semi-circle of hills. All about it are olive BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 33 BETHLEHEM groves and vineyards, pasture lands and grain fields. It is, indeed, as its name says, a "House of Food." Today it has about eight thousand inhabitants, most of whom are Greek Christians, and contains several schools for boys and girls. Its most celebrated building is, of course, the noble Church of the Nativity — or, more properly, of St. Mary — built over the cave in which tradition declares Jesus was born* Henderson, Palestine, p. 149 ; George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, p. 318 ; Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, p. 121 ; Mathews, "Bethle- hem, the City of Children," in Biblical World, Vol. X, p. 473. ^28. A Messianic Psalm of the Pharisees. — With the words of the angel in Luke i : 31-33, the psalm of Mary in i : 46-55, the psalm of Zacharias, i : 68-79, ^^^^ the words of Simeon and Anna, Luke 2 : 28-38, it is very interesting to compare those of a Jewish hymn written perhaps fifty years before the birth of John and of Jesus. We give the latter portion of this psalm in the English trans- lation of Ryle and James {Psalms of Solomon^ Ps. XVII, pp. 137-47). Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their King, the son of David, in the time which thou, O God, knowest, that he may reign over Israel, thy servant ; And gird him with strength, that he may break in pieces them that rule unjustly. 34 LIFE OF CHRIST Purge Jerusalem from the heathen that trample her down to destroy her, with wisdom and with righteousness. He shall thrust out the sinners from the inheritance, utterly destroy the proud spirit of the sinners, and as potters' vessels with a rod of iron shall he break in pieces all their substance. He shall destroy the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth, so that at his rebuke the nations may flee before him, and he shall convict the sinners in the thoughts of their hearts. And he shall gather together a holy people whom he shall lead in righteous- ness ; and shall judge the tribes of the people that hath been sancti- fied by the Lord his God. And he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst ; and none that know- eth wickedness shall dwell with them. For he shall take knowledge of them, that they be all the sons of their God and shall divide them upon the earth according to their tribes. And the sojourner and the stranger shall dwell with them no more. He shall judge the nations and the peoples with the wisdom of his righteous ness. Selah. And he shall possess the nations of the heathen to serve him beneath his yoke i and he shall glorify the Lord in a place to be seen of the whole earth. And he shall purge Jerusalem and make it holy, even as it was in the days of old. So that the nations may come from the ends of the earth to see his glory, bringing as gifts her sons that had fainted, And may see the glory of the Lord, wherewith God hath glorified her. And a righteous King and taught of God is he that reigneth over them. And there shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst, for all shall be holy and their King is the Lord Messiah. For he shall not put his trust in horse and rider and bow, nor shall he multi- ply unto himself gold and silver for war, nor by ships shall he gather confidence for the day of battle. The Lord himself is his King, and the hope of him that is strong in the hope of God. And he shall have mercy upon all the nations that come before him in fear. For he shall smite the earth with the word of his mouth even for evermore. He shall bless the people of the Lord with wisdom and gladness. He himself also is pure from sin, so that he may rule a mighty people, and rebuke princes and overthrow sinners by the might of his word. And he shall not faint all his days, because he leaneth upon his God ; for God shall cause him to be mighty through the spirit of holiness and wise through the counsel of understanding with might and righteousness. And the blessing of the Lord is with him in might, and his hope in the Lord shall not faint. And who can stand up against him ? he is mighty in his works and strong in the fear of God, BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 35 Tending the flock of the Lord with faith and righteousness, and he shall suffer none among them to faint in their pasture. In holiness shall he lead them all, and there shall no pride be among them, that any should be oppressed. This is the majesty of the King of Israel, which God hath appointed to raise him up over the house of Israel, to instruct him. His words shall be purified above fine gold, yea; above the choicest gold. In the congregations will he judge among the peoples, the tribes of them that have been sanctified. His words shall be as the words of the holy ones in the midst of the peoples that have been sanctified. Blessed are they that shall be born in those days to behold the blessing of Israel which God shall bring to pass in the gathering of the tribes. May God hasten his mercy toward Israel ! may he deliver us from the abomi- nation of unhallowed adversaries ! The Lord, he is our King from henceforth and even for evermore. ^29. Jewish Family Life. — It was into a Jewish home of the humbler sort that Jesus was born. Industry must have excluded bitter poverty, but the home of Joseph, the village carpenter, was not one of elegance or of wealth. It was none the less, in all probability, one of the happiest of the homes in that nation which presented the highest ideal of home life known among the ancients, an ideal scarcely sur- passed in any age of the world. Family life begins with marriage; but among the Jews betrothal was a matter of as much seriousness and solemnity as marriage itself. Even the property of the bride belonged to the husband from the time of the betrothal, and they could be separated only by divorce, precisely as after marriage. The marriage was a festal occasion and included the removal of the bride to her husband's house. The house in which the new family took up its abode would depend on the wealth of the husband, but among the humbler classes consisted of one or two square rooms on the ground floor, with a roof of straw and mud laid upon timbers or boughs. A flight of steps outside the house frequently led to the roof. The furniture was of the simplest kind. Bedsteads were scarcely used at all ; couches were found only in the houses of the wealthy. Sometimes there was a ledge on the side of the room, and on this, or on mats woven of palm leaves and laid upon the clay floor, the family slept, wrapped in their cloaks. Pictures and statuary, being forbidden by the law (Exod. 20 : 4), 36 LIFE OF CHRIST would not be seen in a Jewish house at all. Books were rare and confined almost wholly to copies of the Scriptures. The position of the wife and mother was an honorable one. In most homes there would be but one wife, though polygamy continued to some extent even down to and after New Testament times. Per- haps the saddest blot upon the family customs of the Jews was the laxity of their divorce customs, which permitted the husband to divorce his wife at will. Yet even in this there was a tendency toward a stricter practice in the teachings of one school of the scribes ; and with this tendency the teaching of Jesus agreed, though striking at the root of the matter as neither school had done. The love of children was always singularly strong among the Jews, and this both on the side of the father and of the mother. Law, nar- rative, and poetry all alike bear witness to this fact. See Lev. 26 : 9 ; I Sam. i; Ps. 127:3; etc. Destruction of children, by exposure or otherwise, so terribly common among the Gentiles, was almost or wholly unknown among the Jews. As among the ancients and orientals generally, a boy was more highly esteemed than a girl, yet the depreciation of the daughter was only relative ; both sons and daughters were desired and welcomed. In ancient times the boy was named at his birth, and, sometimes at least, by his mother (Gen. 29 : 32 and chap. 30), but in later times on the occasion of his circum- cision (Luke I : 59 ; 2:21). The law enjoined upon the parents the duty of instructing their children both in the history and in the religion of their nation — two things which were to the Jew almost inseparable (Deut. 4:9; 6 : 7, 20 ; II : 19). To the injunction of Deut. 6 : 6-9, and the similar words in Exod. 13:9, 16; Deut. 11 : 18, he gave a very literal interpretation, fastening little boxes containing pieces of parchment, on which were written the words of Deut. 6 : 4-9, and 11 : 13-21, on his doorposts, and binding little leather-boxes containing Exod. 13:2-10; 11-17 ; Deut. 6 : 4-9 ; 11:13-21 on his forehead and arms when he prayed. Yet, with a truer appreciation of the real sense of the injunction, he took great pains to teach his children the law, so that, as Josephus says, the people knew the statutes of the law better than their own names. The care of the children fell in most cases directly upon the mother; nurses and other servants were found only in the wealthier families. Manual labor was never despised by a true Hebrew. Even the boy BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 37 who was destined to be a scribe learned a trade. It was no reproach to Jesus that he was a carpenter. It was in such a home, humble, pious, and, we may believe, happy, that Jesus lived with his brothers and sisters during the thirty years of his childhood and youth. ^30. The Religious Condition of Palestine in the Time of Christ. — There never was a more religious people than the Jews in the time of Christ. Ever since the return of a few thousand decendants of those who had been taken captive to Babylon, Jewish religious life had been growing constantly naore intense. Even politics, it will be remem- bered, were largely determined by it. This religious development embraced the following elements : a) The ritual. — Devotion to this feature of the Jewish religion naturally centered about the temple at Jerusalem. After the return from the exile this had been poor in its equipment, and during the Syrian period it had been desecrated and injured. Herod the Great, however, had thoroughly rebuilt it, surroundin.e^ it with noble colon- nades and courts, each so strongly built as to be capable of long defense in case of a siege. The temple was served by priests, Levites, and various other classes of professional religious men. The worship did nQtconsist in preaching, but in sacrifices, prayers, and music. Every year, also, there were a number of great feast days, on which, just as on our Easter, there were special services. The purpose of this ritual worship was not so much to instruct the worshipers as to aid them to religious aspirations and prayer, and so sacred was it that the thousands of Jews who came up to Jerusalem every year from all parts of the world to attend the feasts believed devoutly that Jehovah could be worshiped by sacrifice nowhere else than in the temple. Every Jew was expected to contribute a small sum each year for the support of this worship, which constantly grew more elaborate. In the time of Jesus, it is true, ritualism had suffered somewhat from the rapid removal and appointment of high priests by Herod I. and later rulers, and there was some indignation that the priests living in Jeru- salem had organized themselves into a sort of monopoly to control the immense supply of animals destined for the altar. But the tem- ple worship still had control over the faith of the Jews, and even the Essenes, who did not approve of bloody sacrifices, sent gifts to the temple. Jesus himself attended the feasts, and offered the paschal lamb. 38 LIFE OF CHRIST b) Legalism. — By this is meant a tendency to reduce religion to a keeping of rules. It grew out of the great effort made by the Jews after the Return to apply the laws of Moses to every conceivable aspect and condition of life. The more religious Jews were so con- vinced God spoke through these laws that they could not believe righteousness coiild be gained except by obeying them. By the beginning of the first century before Christ there were seen three groups, or societies, who differed somewhat distinctly in their attitude toward this general principle and its application. (i) Two of these societies, the Pharisees and the Essenes, held very strongly to implicit obedience to the law. Each society numbered from four to six thou- sand members. They both resulted from the development through which the legalistic spirit had passed since Ezra established the study of the law as the great duty of religious persons. Yet the Pharisees and Essenes differed among themselves. The Pharisees, for instance, believed that men should observe, not merely the written law of Moses, but the "oral law" as well, that is, the ever-increasing mass of minute decisions made by the rabbis, or professional religious teachers, in their applications of the written law to every aspect of life. They also held strenuously to a belief in the resurrection of the body, and in a somewhat limited freedom of the will. But most of all did they wish the Jews as a nation and as individuals to be '* separated " from everything that was not in accord with the Mosaic and the oral law. In fact, this gave them their name, for "Pharisee" means "separatist." In politics this principle made them [averse to foreign alliances and monarchy, and in private life it made them punctilious about ceremo- nial washings and intercourse with humble persons and those who were thought to be sinful. The Essenes were, in some ways, even stricter than the Pharisees. They did not believe in any degree of freedom of the will, and were so devoted to the principles of cere- monial purity that they became ascetic and communistic. They dis- approved of marriage, and, in order to avoid any danger of defilement, organized themselves into monastic communities, living in cities or the country, membership in which was difficult to gain. Thus they withdrew from society, and so were of less influence than the Phari- sees, who were the real leaders of the nation. Through them the general principle of legalism, that righteousness can be gained only by complete and absolute obedience to innumerable laws and rules, came to be generally accepted, and thus, practically, the entire Jewish BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 39 nation was marked by an excessive conscientiousness and strictness. (2) Over against the Pharisees and the Essenes were the Sadducees. They included the high priest and many priests, and so were in sym- pathy with ritualism rather than legalism. They would have nothing to do with the oral law of the Pharisees, and preferred to be less scrupulous and to live by the law of Moses itself. They were also believers in the complete freedom of the human will, but disbelieved in the resurrection of the body. They were in favor of greater liberty in life and of foreign alliances in politics. In a word, they were a political rather than st religious party, and throughout their history were opposed to the entire spirit of Pharisaism. Yet legalism grew constantly, and when Jerusalem fell it was ritualism that disappeared with the burning temple, while the study of the law continued for centuries, and is today the basis of orthodox Judaism. In the time of Jesus legalism was a source both of strength and of weakness. On one hand it made men conscientious, excessively care- ful to obey God in every act of life. In this it was immeasurably superior to the heathenism of its day. On the other hand, however, it was almost certain to make its followers self-righteous, stern, fault- finding, and unloving. This was, of course, not true of all Jews, but it was a danger especially threatening the Pharisees, and one to which too many of them yielded. At the same time, it is easy to see how the necessity of knowing so many hundred rules before one could hope to be acceptable to God must have kept most men from ever expecting to gain righteousness. This led to two great evils : the scribes despised the masses who did not know these rules; and, also, finding it impossible for even themselves to keep all rules literally, they invented a great number of excuses for evading obedience. It was these two unworthy but inevitable elements of legalism, pride and hypocrisy, that Jesus so severely attacked. It was to be his great office to show men that they can come to God even if they have not kept all the law and are conscious of their own sinfulness. c) The Messianic hope. — This very important element in Jewish religious life in the time of Christ was the outgrowth of the third great element in the older Hebrew life, prophetism. It was the hope, especially felt by the Pharisees and their followers, that God would some day establish his all-powerful kingdom among the Jews, and that the whole world would be subject to Jerusalem, the capital of the. Anointed of God, the Messiah. Day by day the Jews prayed for the 40 LIFE OF CHRIST coming of this kingdom and its King, and hoped that each day brought them nearer. But the description of this hope will be given later, ^f 50. ^ 31. The Date of the Birth of Jesus. — It is impossible to fix this date exactly because of the small amount of information at our command, but it lies within narrow limits, (i) Jesus must have been born before the death of Herod I., according to Matt. 2: i and 19; that is, before March or April, 4 B. C. (2) Just how long before cannot be stated with precision, but certainly not more than two or three years, for he was "a young child" on his return from Egypt (Matt. 2:19, 20), and the age of the children Herod ordered killed (Matt. 2:16) must have been about that of Jesus at the time. We can safely say, therefore, that Jesus was born 6-4 B. C. This conclusion is confirmed by a comparison of Luke 3 : 23 and John 2 : 20, where the "forty-six years" bring us probably to 27 A. D. If about a year previously, when he began to preach, Jesus was about thirty years old, then clearly he must have been born about 4 or 5 B. C. But unfortunately we do not know exactly how near Jesus was to thirty years of age. Again, if we knew exactly when the census under Quirinius (or Cyrenius) was made, we should know when Jesus was born (Luke 2:1, 2), but the only census made by Quirinius that we know certainly about was in A. D. 6. It is possible, however, that Quirinius was legate to Syria twice. If so, his first term of office would probably have been about B. C. 9, since there is a break in the list of legates at that time. Recent investigations have also made it appear likely that a census was taken under Herod I. at about that date. But even if we should never know the precise day when Jesus was born, we know that he was born, and this is the one fact in which we are really interested. ^ 32. Questions and Suggestions for Study.' — (i) What are the most marked differences in the two genealogies? (2) Describe the special duty of Zacharias in the temple. (3)* Study the v^ords of the angel to Mary and state what sort of person Mary's son was to be. (4) What did the Jews mean when they called one a son of God? (5) Describe Nazareth and study the picture to get the town's position among the hills. (6) What seems to have been the character of Joseph ? ^For younger classes, questions 7, 8, 15, 16, 17, 21 may be omitted if thought best by the teacher. BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS 4 1 (7)* Study the Song of Mary and state what sort of person Mary expected her son to be. (8)* Study the Song of Zacharias and state what he expected God would do for the Jews. (9) Does the term "son of David" refer to ancestry or to kingly office? See 2 Sam. 7:14. (lo) Read carefully Luke 2:1-7 and state the reason why Joseph and Mary went to Judea, and determine whether or not they were poor, (ii) Read Luke 2:8-14 and give some reasons why the birth of Jesus should have been a cause cf .great joy. (12) Did the people later seem to have known about the angel's visit to the shepherds? (13) Describe Bethlehem and give some incident connected with it, for instance the story of Ruth. See also I Sam. 16:4-13; 17:12-15; 2 Sam. 23 : 14-24. (14)* Describe the sort of home in which Jesus grew up. (15) What is meant by ritualism among the Jews? (16) What by legalism? (17) What parties were especially favorable to each? (18) What should you say was mostly wanting in the religion of the Jews in the time of Christ? (19) Was the religious life of the Jews higher than that of the Gentiles about them? (20) When was Jesus born? (21) How do you fix the approximate date? ^33. Constructive Work. — Let the pupil write a chapter for his "Life of Christ" on some such plan as this: CHAPTER II. THE BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST AND OF JESUS. 1. The Story of the birth of John the Baptist. 2. The story of the birth of Jesus. 3. The Messiah expected by the people mentioned in these stories. ^34. Supplementary Topics for Study. 1. The genealogies. Articles in the Bible Dictionaries, especially those of Smith and Hastings; Andrews, Life of Our Lord, pp. 62-8. 2. The Messianic hope as portrayed in the late Jewish psalm. See ^ 27. Brief quotations from other late Jewish literature are given by Mathews, "The Jewish Messianic Expectation in the Time of Jesus," in Biblical World, Vol. XII, pp. 437 ff.; in the same volume, Goodspeed, "Israel's Messianic Hope," pp. 400 ff., and "Some Books on Messianic Prophecy," pp. 444 ff. 42 LIFE OF CHRIST CHAPTER III. THE CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH OF JESUS. § II. The circumcision. Luke 2 : 21. § 12. The presentation in the temple. Luke 2 : 22-39. § 13. The Wise Men from the East. Matt. 2 : 1-12. § 14. The flight into Egypt and return to Nazareth. Matt. 2 : 13-23. § 15. Childhood at Nazareth. [Matt. 2 :23.] Luke 2 : [39] 40. § 16, Visit to Jerusalem when twelve years old. Luke 2 : 41-50. § 17. Eighteen years at Nazareth. Luke 2:51, 52. ^35. Notes on §11, Luke 2 :2i. — "When eight days were fulfilled" : cf. on 1:59. Here as there the naming of the child is associated with the circumcision. " His name was called Jesus " : cf. Luke 1:31; Matt. 1:21. ^36. Notes on §12, Luke 2:22-39. — ^s. 22, "the days of their purification": the forty days which according to the law must elapse between the birth of the child and the ceremonial purification of the mother and child ; see Lev., chap. 12. Vs. 23 ; see Exod. 13:2. Vs. 24, "a pair of turtle doves," etc. : the offering prescribed for a mother "whose means suffice not for a lamb" (Lev. 12:8). Vs. 25, "looking for the consolation of Israel " : waiting for the coming of the Messiah who should deliver and so comfort Israel. Cf. ^2S and ^ 30 {c). Vs. 27, "the parents": as usual in this narrative, Joseph is spoken of as the father of Jesus {cf vss. 33, 41, 48), as he evidently was in common esteem, and in fact legally also. Vss. 29-32, often called the '''Nunc dimittis" from the first words of the Latin translation, con- stitute the third of these New Testament psalms found in Luke's narrative. Vs. 29, "Now lettest": not a prayer, "now let," but an expression of joyful certainty. Vs. 32, "A light for revelation to the Gentiles " : expressive of a broader hope than appears in the other psalms, but one which the Old Testament prophets also had cherished. See Isa. 42 : 6, 7, and 49 : 6. Vs. 34, "Behold this child is set," etc.: these two verses set forth a side of the Messiah's work of which there is no mention in the psalms of Mary and Zacharias. Perhaps Simeon, with a deeper spiritual insight into the conditions of the times, saw more CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH OF JESUS 43 clearly the suffering which the salvation of Israel would involve ; per- haps the latter chapters of Isaiah — and this is suggested by vs. 32 — had impressed him with the necessity of suffering in connection with salvation, so clearly set forth especially in Isa., chap. 53. Vs. 36, ''Anna, a prophetess": /. e., one that spoke for God, under the influ ence of his Spirit; prophecy, then, had not altogether died out in Israel, and John the Baptist was not, strictly speaking, the first prophet of the new era. Vs. 38, "the redemption of Jerusalem": notice how constantly this narrative describes the hope of these saints as the hope, patriotic at the same iime that it was religious, of the deliverance o"^ Israel from its enemies. The actual coming of Christ and his work gradually but greatly enlarged and changed this conception. Cf.\tx. ^ 37. Notes on §13, Matt. 2 : 1-12. — Vs. i, "Bethlehem of Judea": there was also a Bethlehem in Galilee. See 1[ 27. " Herod the king" : Herod the Great; cf.\^. "Wise men": better, perhaps, magi; the word denotes men of the learned class, teachers, astrologers, physicians, etc., among the Babylonians and other eastern nations. Vs. 2, "For we saw his star." Astronomers have called attention to certain extra- ordinary phenomena appearing in the heavens about this time. But the attempts to connect them with the star which the magi saw have never been wholly successful. Vs. 3, "he was troubled": doubtless over the thought of a possible heir to his throne, on which he had no real claim but that of force. Vs. 4, "inquired of them where the Christ should be born" : /. ^ Artisan Life. 3. The Brothers of Jesus. LiGHTFOOT, Galatians, pp. 252-91 ; Mayor, Epistle of St. James, pp. v-xxxvi ; Bible Dictionaries, arts. "James," "Judas," "Brother." 4. The influences among which Jesus grew up, and his own inner experiences : {a) home, {h) school, {c) synagogue, {d) Scripture, {e) com- panions, (/) manual labor, (^) scenery and nature, {Ji) the moral con- dition and Messianic hopes of the people, (/) communion with God, (/) thought about God and feeling toward him, {]z) thought about his future work. Part IL THE OPENING EVENTS OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. FROM THE COMING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST UNTIL THE PUBLIC APPEARANCE OF JESUS IN JERUSALEM. CHAPTER IV. HERALD OF THE NEW ERA. THE MINISTRY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST. §i8. The ministry of John the Baptist. Matt 3 : 1-I2. Mark i : i-8. Luke 3 : i-i8 [19, 20]. ^47. Notes on §18, Mark 1:1-8.' — Vs. i, "The beginning of the gospel" : By "the gospel" Mark doubtless means not the book — the word " gospel " was not used of a book till long after our " gospels " were written — but the history that is told in the book, the facts about Jesus that, when told, constitute good news. In his mind the "gospel" story began with the public work of John the Baptist and the entrance of Jesus on his ministry. Cf. Peter's thought as expressed in Acts 1:22. The later evangelists Matthew and Luke included and pre- fixed the story of the infancy. " Of Jesus Christ the Son of God " : So in his first line the evangelist declares his own conception of Jesus and faith in him. Cf. the first line of Matt. Vs. 2, "Even as it is written" : Mark's only quotation from the Old Testament. "In Isaiah the prophet": The remainder of the verse is in reality from Mai. 3:1; the next verse is from Isa. 40 : 3. Mark combines the two quotations which so aptly describe the mission of John, mentioning the name, however, of the second prophet only. Turn back and read Malachi especially chaps. 3 and 4. It will help in the understanding of John's ^ Here for the first time we find a threefold narrative, one account in each of the synoptic gospels. In such cases the student should aim, not simply to get a composite picture of .all three narratives, but first, studying one carefully — it is best to begin with Mark, where there is a Mark account — to fix in mind the facts as recorded in this account ; then, taking up each of the others, to consider wherein each differs from the first ; and finally to frame, on the basis of all the sources, as connected an account as possible of the event. 49 50 LIFE OF CHRIST character and preaching. Vs. 4, ''John came," etc.: Notice in this brief verse the place of John's work, the two related parts of his work, the substance of his_message, the significance of his baptism. "Repentance": not mere sorrow, but change of mind, especially of moral purpose, turning one's back on the former sinful life and turning to God. "Remission of sins": forgiveness of sins, including escape from the punishment which would otherwise have come, and restora- tion to God's favor. Vs. 6, "camel's hair": a coarse cloth made of the long, coarse hair of the camel, used also for tents ; still in use in eastern countries. "Leathern girdle": cf. 2 Kings i :8. "Locusts": an insect of the same family as the grasshopper. "Wild honey": probably the honey of the wild bee {cf. i Sam. 14:25, 26; Judg. 14:8), but possibly a sweet gum. All these particulars describe a poor man living apart from other men, having no need to visit the towns for either food or clothing. Cf. Luke 1:80. Vs. 7, "There Cometh after me": John does not yet say who this is, or that it is the Messiah ; he describes him rather than names him. Notice care- fullv this description. "Latchet of whose shoes": better, "thong of whose sandals." Vs. 8, "water" — "Holy Spirit": the one baptism touching the body and outwardly symbolizing something, the other reaching the spirit and accomplishing a real result. ^48. Notes on §18, Matt. 3:1-12. — Vs. i, "wilderness of Judea": the rough, mountainous, and uninhabited or sparsely settled region lying west of the Dead Sea (Judg. 1:16; Josh. 15 : 61, 72), an^ probably including also so much of the uninhabited region lying north of the sea, in the Jordan valley, as fell within Judea. See note in Biblical World, January, 1898, p. 38, and art. "Judaea, Wilderness of," in Hastings, Diet. Bib. Vs. 2, "Repent ye": cf. Mark 1:4 "For the kingdom of heaven is at hand": This definite reference to the kingdom of heaven by John is mentioned here only {cf. Mark 1:15; Matt. 3:17), but all the records show clearly that he announced the near approach of a new era in God's dealings with the nation. Vss. 3-6; cf. Mark 1:2-6. Vs. 7, "Pharisees and Sadducees": see ^ 30, b. It is not probable that members of these two opposed parties came to John together, nor does Matthew imply this. The words that follow doubtless represent what he said to members of both parties on various occasions. "Offspring of vipers": /. ^., men of snakelike characters, wicked and deceitful. "The wrath to come": the wrath upon sinners which would precede or accompany the deliverance of the righteous. Cf. Mai. 3:1-5; 4 : 1-6, and \^ 28 and 50. Vs. 8, "fruits MINISTRY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST SI SHEPHERDS FORDING THE JORDAN worthy of repentance": cf. Luke 3: 10-14 and notes. Vs. 9, "think not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham," etc. : John evidently doubted the reality of their repentance ; he knew the common expecta- tion that all the sons of Abraham would have part in the kingdom of God {cf. ^[50), and wished to dislodge them from this refuge; see John 8:31-40. "God is able of these stones to raise up children to Abraham": Notice how completely John rejects this current notion of a kingdom of Abraham's descendants ; cf. Luke i : 73, 74. John believes that God will fulfil his promise to Abraham, but that he is not dependent upon these people, being able to provide himself a seed of Abraham. Vs. 10, "Even now is the axe laid": better, the axe is lying, /. 2o. Notice that Jesus is not here speaking of several classes of people, but of one class, setting forth the various elements of character which he desired in those who were to be his disciples. Consider carefully what is the character which is thus described. I, 2. T/ie office of Jesus' disciples in the world, e^-.i-^-id. — Vs. 13, "the salt of the earth": the purifying, antiseptic influence in the world ; the people who by their presence and influence are to keep the world from becoming utterly corrupt. "But if the salt have lost its savour": /. e., the real saltness (this was possible to the ancient salt as it is not to the purer article today); applied to the disciples it denotes the loss of inmost character, while still retaining the name or appearance of dis- cipleship and goodness. "Cast out," etc.: scorned, despised. This is all that hypocrites, nominal Christians, are fit for. Vs. 14, "the light of the world ". the source of moral enlightenment, those who by their lives show men what true and right living is. "A city set on a hill can- not be hid": you cannot therefore shirk the responsibility. Vs. 16, " Even so": /. e., as a city on a hill or a lamp on a stand shines, natu- rally and necessarily, because it is lighted. Both illustrations, the salt and the light, emphasize the influence of character, what men are rather than what they seek to do. "And glorify your Father": this is always the effect of a good life. Men believe in the goodness of God when they see goodness in men. Consider carefully the twofold responsibility Jesus lays upon his disciples, and the way in which it is to be met. II. The permanence of the law and the high standard of righteousness in the kingdom, 5: 17-20. — Vs. 17, "Think not," etc. : Evidently some had charged Jesus with breaking down the authority of the law and perverting morals. The ground of this charge was doubtless in the fact that he associated with men who did not keep the law (Mark 2 : 16), allowed his disciples to disregard the fasts (Mark 2:18), and perhaps most of all because he did not keep the sabbath as the scribes taught that the law required it to be kept (Mark 2 : 23 — 3 : 6; John 5 : 16-18). Thus, as so many others have done, they identified their interpretation of the scripture with the scripture and divine law itself, and because he opposed the interpretation they charged him with hostility to the scriptures. "The law or the prophets": the scriptures which we call the Old Testament. But it is evidently the moral teachings of both law 102 >\:i^rc :^i^ >: « - LiFE^OF christ and prophets that Jesus is speaking of, not the predictions. "I came, not to destroy, but to fulfil": Jesus denies the charges against him, and declares his devotion to the law, and (vss. i8, 19) its permanence in the new kingdom. This Jesus could do, although he disre- garded or disapproved certain statutes of the law (for example respect- ing fasting, Mark 2 : 19, 20; clean and unclean meats, Mark 7: 17-19, and divorce, Matt. 19:7-9), because he identified the law with its great principle of love (Matt. 7:12; 22 : 37-40). This was to him the law and the prophets, and individual statutes were of value and of per- manent authority only in so far as they embodied and expressed this central principle. This was just the opposite position from that which the Pharisees took. They gave all heed to the statutes as authoritative in themselves, and lost sight of the principles. Hence the conflict between them and Jesus. Vs. 20, "For except your righteousness," etc.: a proof of his statement in vs. 17. So far from destroying the law, as the Pharisees charged, he demanded a righteousness so much higher than theirs that no one whose morality was not superior to that of the Pharisees could have part in the kingdom. The verses that fol- low show that the superiority of the righteousness which he sought was not in the doing of more things, in the keeping of more rules, than the Pharisees, but in its being a matter of heart, not of outward deed only. III. The righteousness of the kingdom in contrast with prevalent teachings of the synagogue^ 5 :2i-48. — In these paragraphs Jesus gives several illustrations of his statement in vs. 20. The connection with that verse, and the use of the phrase "Ye have heard," which indicates that he is speaking of the teaching to which his hearers have been accustomed to listen (in the synagogue), not to what they have read, shows that Jesus is contrasting his teaching, not with that of the Old Testament, but with that of the synagogue teachers — the scribes of the Pharisees. The people of his day sat at the feet of these scribes, and knew even Moses only as the scribes interpreted him. It is against their teachings that Jesus directs his criticism. Only he is not careful to avoid criticising even the law if, in order to correct the erroneous teachings of the scribes, he must also correct Moses. He had within himself a standard higher than scribe or prophet or lawgiver. And this fact gives all the greater weight to his approval of the core of the Old Testament. 5:21-26. Vs. 21, "the judgment": not the final judgment, but the action of the local court. Since such a court could deal only with actual murder, the teaching of the scribes tended to direct attention CHOOSING OF THE TWELVE SERMON ON THE MOUNT IO3 solely to the outward act. Jesus goes below the act to the state of heart, and condemns anger and contempt more strongly than the scribes had condemned murder itself. Vs. 24, "leave there thy gift," etc.: no act of worship can be acceptable to God while there is in the heart hatred to a brother, which leaves unrighted a wrong done to him. Vss. 25,. 26 are best understood in their connection in Luke 12 : 58, 59. 5:27-30. See Exod. 20:14. Substantially the same principle which is above applied to murder and hatred is now applied to adul- tery and covetousness of another's wife (by implication also to all unlawful desire): uot the act only, but the cherishing of unlawful desire is wrong. 5 : 31, 32. See Deut. 24 : 1-4. In like manner in the matter of a husband retaining or putting away a wife who has become distasteful to him, Jesus puts the principle of love which will, if needful, endure and be patient and longsuffering (i Cor. 13 : 7) in the place of literal conformity to the statute. 5 '• 33~37- The Old Testament permitted the confirmation of one's promise with an oath, and only forbade one, having made such a promise, to break it (see Lev. 19: 12; Numb. 30: 2). The object of the statute was to secure fidelity to one's promises. But the Pharisees, by their casuistry, especially by laying emphasis on the reference to Jehovah as that which made the oath binding (see vss. 33-36 and compare Matt. 23:16-22), had perverted it into an expedient by which to escape from keeping a promise. Jesus, finding this mis- chievous practice in vogue, sweeps the whole system away, bidding men stop swearing, make simple affirmations, and abide by these. 5 : 38-42. There are two classes of passages in the Old Testament, those which permit or encourage retaliation (see Exod. 21:23-25; Deut. 19 : 18-21 ; 23 : 5, 6; 25 : 17-19) and those which forbid it (Exod. 23 : 4, 5 ; Lev. 19:17, 18, 33-35). Jesus implies that in the current teaching of the time the former was (often, if not constantly) empha- sized. In direct opposition to this type of teaching, he bids his dis- ciples suffer wrong rather than do it, and to overcome evil with good. 5 : 43-47. Against the injunction of the scribes which limited to one's neighbor the duty of love, and encouraged the hatred of one's enemies (see Lev. 19 : 17, 18; Prov. 15:1; 20:22; 24:28,29; but also Deut. 23 : 5, 6 ; 25 : 17-19 ; Ps. 109), Jesus enjoins love even'of those who are doing us harm, bidding his disciples take their Father in heaven as their pattern in these matters. Herein Jesus gives the central principle of all his teaching concerning conduct toward others : 104 LIFE OF CHRIST we are to love our fellow-raen as God loves men, both the just and the unjust. This love is, of course, not approval, but desire for their well- being such as leads us to seek to help them and do them good. 5 : 48, '* Ye therefore shall be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect": an injunction which sums up all the teaching of (-his section (vss. 21-47) aiid is to be taken in its obvious meaning without abate- ment or qualification. To love men as God loves them, friends and enemies alike, is to be morally perfect. See on 7:12. IV. 6 : 1-18. In these verses the righteousness required in the new kingdom is contrasted with the ostentatious and hypocrital conduct of the Pharisees, as in 5 : 21-48 it had been compared with the teach- ings of the scribes. Jesus is still expounding the thought of 5 : 20. Vs. I, "righteousness": good conduct, right deeds. This verse expresses the general principle of which the following verses give three illustrations, alms, fasting, and prayer, which, there is reason to believe, were regarded by the Jews as the chief elements of religion. Except for the addition of special matter about prayer (vss. 7-15), each of these three examples is dealt with in exactly parallel language (almsgiving, 2-4; prayer, 5, 6; fasting, 16-18), the teaching in each case being that the righteous act should not be done ostentatiously, but secretly as in the presence of God. The special injunctions con- cerning prayer added in vss. 7-15 guard against an error to which the Gentiles (rather than the Pharisees) are prone, give an outline of prayer, teaching for what and in what spirit we ought to pray, and warn against an unforgiving spirit, which makes true prayer impossible. V. Single-eyed service of God and simple trust in him enjoined, 6 : 19-34. — In this paragraph the contrast with Pharisaism is no longer present. The central thought is that Jesus' disciples, the members of the kingdom, ought not to be seeking to pile up earthly and material treasures, but, trusting God to care for them and provide for their wants, should devote themselves to the interests of his kingdom. Thus they will live, not a selfish life, seeking their own interests, nor a divided life, devoting half their energy to serving God and half to accumu- lating for themselves, nor an anxious life, worrying lest they shall not be provided for, but with one purpose will serve God and his kingdom. VI. Judgment of others forbidden, 7 : 1-6. — The error against which these verses warn the disciples is one of which the Pharisees were conspicuously guilty. The one principle of love in which Jesus sums up all duty to our fellow-men is the corrective of this fault also. See on 7: 12. CHOOSING OF THE TWELVE SERMON ON THE MOUNT IO5 VII. Confidence in God's wUlingness to bless, 7 : 7-1 1. — The thought of this paragraph is akin on one side to that of 6 : 7-13, especially vs. 8, and on the other to that of 6: 19-34. It teaches trust in God and expression of it in prayer. Like the passages just named it is found in Luke in a different connection. See Luke, chaps. 11, 12. VIII. "The Golden Rule/' 7:12.— ''All things, therefore, whatso- ever ye would that men should do to you," etc.: In this principle Jesus sums up all the teaching of this sermon, so far as the conduct of men to one another is concerned. In the light of this great principle all specific injunctions are to be understood. Some have undertaken to apply such sayings as " Resist not him that is evil," and, *' Give to him thatasketh of thee," literally as fixed rules. But this is utterly to misinterpret Jesus. This whole discourse is a criticism of the Pharisees for making morality consist in a literal keeping of the rules of the Old Testament. It is impossible to suppose that it simply imposes a new set of rules. Others, feeling that a literal obedience to these rules is impossible, if not also harmful, give up all attempt to obey the teach- ings of this discourse. Both are wrong. In this verse, and in such other verses as 5 : 44, we find the principle, which we ought always to strive to follow. The single precepts are intended to correct the self- ishness and narrowness that Jesus saw about him, and to point out some of the many ways in which the principle may be applied. They, too, are to be obeyed, always in spirit, and in letter when such an obedience is consistent with the principle. If a man would follow Jesus, he must not resist an enemy in the spirit of revenge; nor should he refuse to give to a beggar from a selfish motive. If he resist or withhold, he must do so because love, regard for the highest well- being of society in general, requires it. " For this is the law and the prophets" : In this one principle is summed up all that the Old Tes- tament teaches concerning man's duty to man. Whatever else there is in the Old Testament is either application of this, or the fault and defect which belong to it because God's revelation was made through and to imperfect men. IX. The practice of righteousness, not profession or hearing only, enjoined, 7 : 13-^27. — These closing paragraphs emphasize the seriousness of the task which Jesus is laying upon his disciples. Righteousness is not attained without effort (vss. 13, 14). They must be on their guard against false teachers who would lead them astray, but these can be detected by their lives (vss. 15-20). And finally the disciples are warned against a common error of the Pharisees, fancying that mere I06 LIFE OF CHRIST profession would meet God's requirements. It is not hearing Jesus' teaching, it is not saying " Lord, Lord," that meets the demand of the kingdom ; it is doing what he teaches. Only he who does this is really building on the rock (vss. 21-27). Thus the sermon ends, as it began, with an insistence on the high standard of morality in the kingdom. And this morality is one both of heart and of life, of prin- ciple and of practice. ^ 126. Notes on §49, Luke 6 : 20-49. — This discourse reported by Luke differs from the one just studied in Matthew almost entirely in omitting a large part of what is given in Matthew. The order of topics common to the two is almost identical. Vss. 20-22. Compare Matt. 5 : 4-12. Vs. 20, "blessed are ye poor" : Luke emphasizes the actual poverty of those to whom Jesus spoke, Mat- thew the effect of it in the consciousness of need. One of the worst things about riches is that they give men a sense of self-sufficiency. See Matt 19:23, 24; Mark 10:23-25. Vs. 21, "ye that hunger now": it is physical hunger which is primarily meant, yet not as a blessing in itself, but as helping to create the desire for the best things. Compare Matt. 5 : 6. Just how these different reports of Jesus' words arose it is impossible to say. But they probably represent two sides of his real thought. Vss. 24-26. No parallel in Matthew. These are the correlatives of the beatitudes. On vs. 24 compare Mark 10 : 23-25; on vs. 25 com- pare Luke 16 : 19-31 ; on vs. 26 compare Matt. 23 : 5-8. Vss. 27-36. In these verses Luke gives the same teachings which are in Matt. 5 : 38-48, only omitting all comparison with the cur- rent teachings of the synagogue, as if writing for Gentiles only. Vs. 31 contains the golden rule, which in Matthew stands much later, in 7 : 12. Vs. 36 has " merciful " instead of " perfect " (Matt. 5 : 48), thus emphasizing the particular element of character which the preceding verses have spoken of. Vss. 37-45. Compare Matt. 7 : 1-5. Luke's report is at this point fuller than Matthew's. Vss. 43—45. Compare Matt. 7 : 16-19. But the connection is different. In Matthew these words set forth the test by which false teachers can be distinguished from the true. Here they enforce the warning against undertaking to judge one another. In Matt. 12 : 33-35 they have still another connection and force. Vss. 46-49. Compare Matt. 7 : 21-27. Matthew and Luke end alike, as they began alike. We have here, in all probability, not two CHOOSING OF THE TWELVE SERMON ON THE MOUNT IO7 discourses, but two reports of one discourse, neither, however, com- plete, and the longer one at least containing some matter delivered on other occasions. ^127. Questions and Suggestions for Study.— (i)* In what regions had the fame of Jesus spread abroad at the time of the choosing of the Twelve ? (2)* Under what circumstances did he choose the twelve apostles? (3)* For what did he choose them, and what did they become by his choice of them ? (4)* What facts indicate the importance which he attached to this act? (5)* Name the apostles. (6)* To whom was the Sermon on the Mount addressed? (7) Can the statements of this discourse made in the second person be applied to others than Jesus' disciples? (8)* What is the theme of this discourse, as given in Matthew? (9) In what marked respect (aside from length) does Luke's report in 6: 20-49 differ from Matthew's? (10) Name (and fix in mind) the nine main divisions of the discourse in Matthew. (11) In how many of these divisions is there a contrast expressed or implied between the righteousness of the kingdom and that of the Pharisees ? (12)* What kind of persons did Jesus desire as the material out of which to build his kingdom (Matt. 5 : 3-12)? (13)* What great responsibility did Jesus lay upon his d'.ociples (5 : 13-16)? (14)* What led the Pharisees to look upon Jesus as hostile to the law and a perverter of morals? (15) What was it that Jesus really opposed? (16)* What was his real attitude to the law ? (17) Against what are Jesus' criticisms in Matt. 5:21-48 primarily directed? (18)* What is the one positive and all-inclusive principle which he teaches in place of all rules of conduct? (19) Against what is the criticism in 6: 1-18 directed ? (20) What positive principle is here taught? (21) Against what vice of Pharisaism is 7:13-27 directed? (22) In what form does that vice appear today? (23)* Putting together the teaching of 5:21-48; 7:12; and 7:13-27, what kind of morality does Jesus require of his disciples ? (24) What are the chief differences between Luke's report of this discourse I08 LIFE OF CHRIST and Matthew's? (25)* Ought the teachings of Jesus in this discourse to be obeyed? (26) Are they generally obeyed? (27) Can they be obeyed in a selfish, self-sufficient spirit? See Matt. 5:3, 4, 5- ^ 128. Constructive Work. — Write chap, xi of your " Life of Christ" (inserting the title of Part V). The following outline is suggested : 1. The situation at the opening of this period ; the success thus far attained ; the attitude of the various classes toward Jesus. 2. The choosing of the Twelve ; the men ; their work ; the signifi- cance of the act. 3. The Sermon on the Mount; the place ; the occasion of the dis- course ; the persons addressed ; the theme ; the main divisions ; the central teachings ; is it to be obeyed? ^129. Supplementary Topics for Study. 1. The successive calls of the four fishermen. 2. What the disciples knew and believed about Jesus when they were chosen to be apostles. 3. The relation of the choice of the Twelve to the organization of the kingdom of God. 4. The relation between the work for which the apostles were first appointed and that which fell to them after the death and resurrection of Jesus. 5. Jesus' attitude toward Pharisaism. 6. Jesus' attitude toward the Old Testament, (a) its central moral principles, (d) its specific statutes on moral and ceremonial matters. 7. The authority of Jesus : subject to or superior to that of the Old Testament ? 8. Can the ethical teachings of Jesus be practically applied today ? CHAPTER XII. A PREACHING TOUR IN GALILEE. :-^ >'U § 50. The centurion's servant. Matt. 8 : 5-13. Luke 7 : i-io. ^-^ ^ J2^-^ § 51. The raising of the widow's son at Nain. ^ C? ^^ ( Luke 7:11-17. ^ \ § 52. John the Baptist's last message. /] a/ Matt. 11:2-19. Luke7:r8-35. ( ^^^ § 53. Anointing of Jesus in the house of Simon the Pharisee^^^- ^ Luke 7 : 36-56^ § 54. Christ's companions on his second preaching tour. Luke 8:1-3. ^130. Notes on §50, Luke 7:1-10. — Vs. i, "Capernaum": See ^[98. Vs. 2, ''centurion": an officer in armies organized on the Roman model and in charge of a company of fifty to one hundred men. He was of approximately the same grade as a capta^in in our army, but was seldom transferred or promoted. In the present instance the centurion was a gentile in the service of Herod Antipas, and was evidently a man of wealth. Vs. 3, **sent unto him the elders": probably the elders of the synagogue that he had built. That they commend him as a person worthy to be aided by Jesus, since he was so generously disposed to the Jews, shows that he was a man of high character. He was, however, probably not a proselyte. Vs. 6, "I am not worthy," etc.: These words speak volumes for the man's humility, and also tell of the treatment probably accorded him by other rabbis. A strict legalist regarded it as ceremonially defiling to enter a gentile's house. Vs. 7, "say the word": He is sure that Jesus can heal his servant, if he only chooses to command the disease to leave him. Vs. 8, "man set under authority," etc.: The argument is plain. The centurion knows the power resident in a superior's word of command. He has faith enough to believe that an equal power is in the command of Jesus. Vs. 9, " marveled at him": Jesus was as capable of being surprised as any man. In this case surprise came from the fact that a gentile's faith should have surpassed the Jews'. C/". Matt. 15 : 22-28 ; Luke 18: 8. Matthew adds at this point two verses (8 : 11, 12) which emphasize the readiness of the gentiles to receive the kingdom of God as compared with the unwillingness of the Jews. " Sit down," etc. : a figure of speech 109 I 10 LIFE OF CHRIST with the Jews to represent the joys of the expected kingdom. "Sons of the kingdom": /. e., the Jews. They supposed they were guaran- teed the kingdom because they were sons of Abraham. We have here the clear teaching of Jesus as to the universal rather than Jewish character of the fraternity he was founding. Vs. 13. Notice that Jesus does not say the faith healed, but he himself heals in answer to faith. No matter how much the centurion believed, no cure would have followed had Jesus seen fit to do or say nothing. ^131. Notes on §51!, Luke 7:11-17. — Vs. 11, *'Nain": a small town in Galilee at some distance from Nazareth and about twenty-five miles from Capernaum. It is today represented by a few mud huts and tombs cut in the rocks. Perhaps the procession was going to one of these. Vs. 12, "much people of the city was with her": It was customary for those met by a funeral procession to join it as a sign of respect. In this procession would also be the hired wallers and the musicians. Notice the apparent order of the procession. Jesus met first the mother, then the bier and its bearers. Vs. 13. The tenderness of Jesus appears in his words to the mother. Vs. 14, "bier": The Jews did not bury their dead in closed wooden coffins, but carried them on a bier to a tomb where they were laid in little niches as in the catacombs, except that they were not walled in. The nearest approach to a coffin was a long open basket made of wickerwork. Burial was always soon after death. Vs. 16. Both the fear and the thanksgiving were natural. But it is to be observed that no one thought Jesus was the Christ ; he was simply another great prophet at last sent by God to his people. ^ 132. Notes on § 52, Luke 7 : 18-35. — Vs. 18, "the disciples of John told him of all these things": Matt. 11:2 says that John heard, in the prison the works of the Christ. For the reason of this imprisonment see Mark 6:17, 18. Josephus, Antiquities, xviii, 5, 2, also states that Herod Antipas feared the political effects of John's preaching. He was now in the castle of Machserus, where evidently he was given some liberty, for he was in communication with his disciples. Vs. 19, "sent them to the Lord": It is easy to imagine how inter ested and perplexed John must have been. Jesus in his ministry of love certainly did not seem a judge punishing sinners such as John had expected. {Cf. ^48.) This probably gave rise to the question, "Art thou he that cometh ? " John had spoken of the Christ as one who was to come (Luke 3:16). The question was equivalent to asking whether Jesus was the Christ. Vs. 22 : The PREACHING TOUR IN GALILEE ' III passages which Jesus used (Isa. 35 : 5 ; 61:1) were interpreted messian- ically. Jesus shows that he is fulfilling them. His reference is to his cures and preaching alike. Vs. 23 : a reference to the difficulty which, as Jesus saw, had been caused by the great divergence between the popu- lar expectation of the Christ and his own revelation of true messianic work. The figure is that of a man stumbling over a stone. Jesus was thus indirectly appealing to John, for his own good, to revise his expec- tations according to reality. Vs. 24. Jesus now begins a defense of John against the very probable charge of moral weakness. He appeals to the crowd's former judgment of John. The figures he uses express weakness and love of ease, which John never exhibited. Vs. 25, '*in soft raiment": doubtless a good description of the effemin- ate courtiers of Herod Antipas. Vs. 26, "yea, I say": introduces Jesus' own opinion of John. Vs. 27. The words come with slight variation from Mai. 3:1. It was because he was a messenger of the Christ that John was more than a prophet. Vs. 28 contains, not only Jesus' final estimate of John, but also his estimate of the worth of the kingdom of God. By implication he excludes John from the kingdom. This does not mean that John was a bad man, but simply that he was not a member of the group of men and women whose inestimable privilege it was to be actual disciples of Jesus, hear his teaching, and come to learn how his character revealed God's love rather than his awful justice. Why, then, need a Christian today envy or imitate a prophet ? By Jesus' own words, he is more privileged than the greatest prophet who ever lived. Vs. 29, " all the people, when they heard " : /. e., the preaching of John. "Justified God": /. e., declared by being baptized that they approved of the plan of God of which John's mission was a part. To justify is to declare or treat as righteous. Usually it is regarded as the prerogative of God, but here, by a bold figure, God, as it were, is represented as being put on trial by men. The way in which men can declare him righteous is by accepting promptly that plan which is clearly his. In the present case it was done by being baptized by John. {Cf. If 57.) Vs. 30, "the Pharisees and lawyers": /. e., the representatives of religion in its legal aspects. "Rejected," or rather "frustrated," "made of no avail," so far as they were concerned. Their action was precisely the opposite of that of the people, and the results were correspondingly different. If a man follows God's plan, he declares God righteous by that very act ; if he rejects God's plan and chooses his own, he not only pronounces God guilty of unrighteousness, but — since God's plans 112 ^ LIFE OF CHRIST are gracious — loses the blessings that might have been his had he but acted in accordance with the divine plan. The way to get blessing from God is consciously to do God's will, even though it require struggle. Notice how explicitly Jesus recognizes that John's preaching, though so different from his own, was also a message from God. C/". ^[^ 55, 282. Vss. 31-35 are a delightful use of children's plays to illustrate thecaptious atti- tude of the Jews toward John and Jesus. The children are in two groups. One is trying to get the other to play some game, but is unsuccessful because of the other's immovable determination to be satisfied with nothing — neither with a joyous game of wedding nor with a solemn game of funeral. So, said Jesus, was it with the Jews. They would not be satisfied with an ascetic like John the Baptist, nor with his precise opposite, the genial and social Son of man. {Cf.^ 1 34.) " And wisdom was justified," etc.: Probably sadly ironical. The scribes claimed so much wisdom, and yet this fastidious, sanctimonious captiousness is the outcome of it ! Or possibly not ironical, but an expression of the abiding faith of Jesus in the ultimate vindication of wisdom by the course of conduct to which it prompts. ^133. Notes on §52, Matt. 11 : 2-19. — Matthew's narrative differs from Luke's mainly in being slightly more condensed. But vss. 11-15 (in place of Luke's vss. 29, 30) are not found in Luke. Vs. 12, " from the days of John the Baptist until now" : /.