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 SCUDDER (SAMUEL H.). BUTTERFLIES: 
 Their Structure, Changes, and Life-Histories, with 
 Special Reference to American Forms. Being an 
 application of the "Doctrine of Descent" to the 
 study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of prac- 
 tical instructions. By Samuel H. Scudder. With 
 numerous illustrations. New York : Henry Holt 
 & Co., 1 88 1. Square 8vo, pp. ix, 322. 
 
 BUTTERFLIES: Their Structure, Changes, and 
 Life-Histories, with Special Reference to American 
 Forms. Being an application of the " Doctrine of 
 Descent" to the study of Butterflies. With an 
 Appendix of practical instructions. By Samuel 
 H. Scudder. With numerous illustrations. New 
 York: Henry Holt & Co., 1881. Square 8vo, 
 pp. ix, 322. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. BUTTERFLIES: Their Struc- 
 ture, Changes, and Life-Histories, with Special 
 Reference to American Forms. Being an appli- 
 cation of the "Doctrine of Descent" to the 
 study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of prac- 
 tical instructions. By Samuel H. Scudder. With 
 numerous illustrations. New York : Henry Holt 
 & Co., 1881. Square Svo, pp. ix, 322. 
 
BUTTERFLIES, 
 
BUTTERFLIES 
 
 STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES 
 
 SPECIAL REFERENCE TO AMERICAN FORMS 
 
 BEING AN APPLICATION OF THE " DOCTRINE OF DESCENT " TO THE 
 STUDY OF BUTTERFLIES. WITH AN APPENDIX OF 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 SAMUEL II. SCUDDER 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1881 
 
BFOLOGY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Copyright, 1881, 
 By HENRY HOLT & CO. 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 A BOX of common butterflies hanging on the wall of a 
 fellow-student's room in college first introduced the author 
 to the enjoyments of a naturalist's life. He ventures to hope 
 that the following pages, in which he gathers the observations 
 and reflections of many years the outcome of his friend's 
 collection may induce many another to enter this interesting 
 and fruitful field, where Nature is ever new, and many a 
 problem still remains unsolved. 
 
 The author is indebted to Hon. CHARLES L. FLINT for the 
 liberal permission to take electrotypes from the original wood- 
 cuts illustrating the butterflies in Harris' Treatise on Insects 
 Injurious to Vegetation ; these woodcuts, drawn by SONREL 
 and engraved by MARSH, are masterpieces of xylographic 
 art and illustrate the best work of American engravers. 
 The BOSTON SOCIETY OP NATURAL HISTORY, Dr. A. S. 
 PACKARD, Jr., and Messrs. W. H. EDWARDS and WILLIAM 
 SAUNDERS have also permitted the use of a few cuts in their 
 possession. A considerable number have been procured from 
 Mr. C. V. RILEY, and a few from the publishers of the Ameri- 
 can Naturalist through Mr. EDWARD BURGESS, whose paper on 
 the action of the butterfly's trunk they illustrate. Mr. BUR- 
 GESS has also kindly drawn a couple of anatomical figures. 
 All of these are properly credited. The others are from draw- 
 ings in the author's possession, and, with the exception of half 
 a dozen woodcuts engraved by the Messrs. ANDREWS, were 
 prepared for photographic reproduction by Mr. J. S. KINGSLEY. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE, ... \- - . - - - v 
 INTRODUCTION, ,.<..' \ 1 
 
 STRUCTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. THE EGG, 4 
 
 II. THE CATERPILLAR, - 13 
 
 III. THE CHRYSALIS, 34 
 
 IV. THE BUTTERFLY, - 51 
 V. THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF CATERPILLARS, - 76 
 
 VI. THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS 
 
 DURING GROWTH, - 89 
 
 LIFE AND RELATIONSHIP. 
 
 VII. HABITS, 97 
 
 VIII. SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES, - 127 
 
 IX. THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, WITH FURTHER 
 
 HISTORIES, - - - - - - 159 
 
 X. DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES IN COLORING AND STRUC- 
 TURE, ...... . 180 
 
 XI. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORNAMENTA- 
 TION, - 207 
 XII. ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION, - - - 226 
 XIII. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION THE COLONIZATION 
 
 OF NEW ENGLAND, - - 260 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING, REARING, PRESERV- 
 ING, AND STUDYING, - - - - - - - 273 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 II. SYSTEMATIC LIST OF BUTTERFLIES, WITH THEIR SCI- 
 ENTIFIC AND POPULAR NAMES, AND REFERENCES 
 
 TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS, 297 
 
 III. LIST OF THE FOOD-PLANTS OF THE CATERPILLARS OP 
 
 AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES, - - .... 307 
 INDEX, - - - """" - - - ... 311 
 
"The study of butterflies creatures selected as the types of airiness 
 and frivolity instead of being despised, will some day be valued as one 
 of the most important branches of biological science." 
 
 BATES, Naturalist on Amazons. 
 
\ 
 
USTTEODUOTIOK 
 
 THIS little work treats of butterflies the higher 
 families of the great order Lepidoptera, or scaly- 
 winged insects. They do not form a scientifically 
 natural group, since their sole distinction from 
 other Lepidoptera lies in the character of the 
 antennae ; and this itself is a point of great vari- 
 ability ; but for convenience' sake, and with this 
 reservation, we may use the term butterfly as a 
 popular expression. 
 
 The foundation of our study will be laid upon 
 an examination of the earlier stages of the butter- 
 fly. Ruskin has declared* that the prevalent 
 " instinct for the study of ... the lower 
 forms of undeveloped creatures ... is the 
 precise counterpart of the forms of idolatry (ex- 
 pressed in the worship of unclean beasts), which 
 were in great part the cause of final corruption in 
 ancient mythology and morals." Yet not only 
 shall we find in these lower stages forms of ex- 
 quisite beauty, little known even to the world of 
 
 * Fors Clavigera, Letter 53, pp. 138, 139, note. 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 naturalists, but the closer we examine their struc- 
 ture and development, the more abundant proofs 
 shall, w,e find of harmonious adaptations to their 
 surroundings ; and just as their organization ever 
 foretokens a more perfect form, so shall we be led 
 to an increasing apprehension of the consummate 
 skill by which is produced and upheld that 
 wonderful co-ordination of structure, form, devel- 
 opment, and relation to the outside world, which 
 the complete study of any creature exhibits. It 
 is the growth rather than the perfection of any 
 organism which is of supreme interest ; and not 
 until we penetrate into the deepest mysteries of 
 the earliest and most humble existence of organic 
 forms, can we have any conception of the marvels 
 of life and growth, or apprehend the workings of 
 the Creator. 
 
 When we study the perfect insect, we shall 
 trace the mode by which its new organs, external 
 and internal, have been developed from strangely 
 different parts in the immature stages. Then we 
 shall take the greatest pains to get at the creat- 
 ure's habits of life; " know all its ingenuities, 
 humors, delights, and intellectual powers ; that 
 is to say, what art it has, and what affection ; 
 and how these are prepared for its external 
 form ;" * we shall watch the procession of the 
 
 * Ruskin, " The Eagle's Nest," p. 154. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 seasons, and follow the varied histories of our 
 friends at different epochs of the year ; inspect 
 their habitations, and see what preparation they 
 make for the long repose of winter. We shall 
 devote much space to their coloring, not to dilate 
 upon its exquisite delicacy or wonderful play, 
 but to study the curious laws by which it varies 
 in the same species at different seasons, or in dif- 
 ferent latitudes ; by which each sex, after its 
 own fashion, vies with the other in adornment ; 
 and by which new forms are apparently originat- 
 ing under our very eyes. Finally, we shall treat 
 of the ancestry, present* affinities, and distribu- 
 tion of these insects ;' endeavor to discover what 
 the primeval butterfly was like, what sort of #n 
 egg it laid, what the cycle of its changes, and how 
 we should arrange the living forms ; all these 
 topics we shall illustrate by almost exclusive 
 reference to the butterflies of America, and 
 especially of our own New England, and close by 
 showing how New England was colonized with 
 its present butterfly inhabitants. 
 

 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE EGG. 
 x 
 
 LIKE all other lepidopterous insects, the but- 
 terfly is well known to undergo peculiar and, to 
 outward appearance, very sudden transforma- 
 tions. The butterfly with maternal instinct lays 
 its eggs upon a certain food -plant ; this egg pro- 
 duces a worm-like animal called a caterpillar, 
 which feeds voraciously upon the plant, casts its 
 skin several times during its growth, and at the 
 last moulting emerges as a pupa or chrysalis ; at 
 this period the insect appears in swaddling- 
 clothes, all its appendages neatly encased upon 
 its breast, and itself almost completely helpless 
 and motionless ; to ordinary view as different as 
 possible from the aerial creature, with variegated 
 tremulous wings, we see shortly after, sipping 
 honey from an open flower, or dancing merrily in 
 the sunlight. Changes similar to these are now 
 known to occur throughout no inconsiderable 
 portion of the animal kingdom, but they are 
 most familiar to the popular mind, and were first 
 known to the ancients in the insect tribes, and 
 particularly in the butterflies. 
 
 Our first chapters will deal with the earlier 
 
THE EGG. 
 
 FIG. 1.-: 
 
 of 
 
 Thorybes Pylades, 
 X28. 
 
 stages of the butterfly : the egg, the caterpillar, 
 and the chrysalis. 
 
 The eggs laid by these fairy-like creatures are 
 composed externally of a thin elastic p'ellicle ; 
 they are no larger than a pin's 
 head ; indeed I know of only one 
 whose diameter is a twentieth of 
 an inch, or a little more than a 
 millimetre. Yet when examined 
 under a lens we may look far 
 before discovering objects more 
 graceful in form or delicate in marking. Their 
 vaulted summits might give useful hints to the 
 architect ; indeed, chancing to study some of our 
 New England forms during a winter spent in 
 Egypt, I was greatly 
 struck by their sin- 
 gular resemblance to 
 the traceried domes 
 of the Cairo mosques 
 [Fig. 1]. The ex- 
 treme summit is al- 
 ways covered by a 
 little rosette of cells 
 of the most exquisite 
 
 FIG. 2. Micropyle of egg of Basilarchici 
 
 delicacy, often re- Archi PP u 8 , x 
 
 quiring some of the higher powers of the micro- 
 scope to discern, but arranged in such definite 
 patterns, that, in looking at them, we seem to be 
 
THE EGG. 
 
 peering through the circular rose-window of a 
 miniature Gothic cathedral [Figs. 2-5]. The cells 
 
 i 
 
 FIG. 3. Micropyle of esrg of 
 Brenthis Myrina, X 40. 
 
 FIG. 4. Micropyle of egg of Heodes 
 Hypophlaeas, X 100. 
 
 O 
 
 FIG. 6. Egg of 
 
 Jasoniades Glau- 
 
 cus, X 5. 
 
 which form the interior of this rosette are the 
 points at which microscopic pores or canals lead 
 
 into the interior of the egg, and 
 
 through which it is fertilized. 
 The eggs are of 
 
 every variety of 
 
 shape ; but iii 
 
 general they are 
 
 flattened on the 
 
 surface of rest 
 
 and spherical 
 
 [Fig. 6], hemispherical [Figs. 7, 8], 
 or sugar-loaf-shaped above [Figs. 
 9, 10 ; see also Fig. 17] ; in one 
 group they are spindle-shaped [Fig. 
 11], and in another they have the 
 form of a sea-urchin [Fig. 12]. Some of them. 
 
 FIG. 5. Micropyle of 
 ;gg of Eurymus Philo- 
 lice, X 60. 
 
 FIG. 7. Egg of 
 
 Heodes Hypophlaeas, 
 
 X 1C 
 
 O 
 
 FIG. 8. Egg of 
 
 Atrytone Zabulon, 
 
 X 12. 
 
8 
 
 THE EGG. 
 
 notably in the lower groups, are almost smooth, 
 but under the microscope some fret- 
 work of cells may be discerned upon 
 the walls of all. Others again, and 
 they form a large proportion, are 
 buttressed upon the 
 sides with upright ribs, 
 SStSri&i which may be seen by 
 the naked eye ; some- 
 times these ribs are coarse and ir- 
 regular, running in zigzag lines from 
 base to summit, and rendering the 
 egg scarcely distin- 
 guishable from those ^&iS^ f 
 with the coarser net- 
 work of cells ; in others, however, 
 FIG. 11. -Egg of and these are generally confined to 
 
 Eurymus Philo- J 
 
 the higher types [Fig. 13], the ribs 
 
 
 are excessively compressed, mere films, placed 
 edgewise to the body of the egg, glistening in the 
 sunshine like dew-drops, and in- 
 creasing in size to the 
 summit, where they 
 often form a sort of 
 crown. In still others 
 the ribs thicken and FIG 13 _ E f 
 broaden above, so that the summit Vanessa Ataiama, 
 looks as if covered with little hil- 
 locks [Fig. 14] ; or the ribs may die out before 
 
 FIG. 12. Egg of 
 
 Chrysophanus 
 
 Thoe, X 11. 
 
THE EGG. 9 
 
 reaching the base, and above may terminate at 
 the edge of a saucer-like depression, which forms 
 the cap of the egg, as is the case in the Baltimore 
 (Euphydryas Phaeton) [Fig. 15] ; but everywhere, 
 with more or less distinctness, be- 
 tween these buttressing ribs, the 
 surface of the egg is broken into 
 quadrangular cells [see Figs. 9, 10, 
 etc.] by delicate cross -ridges, which 
 often increase in stoutness toward the main ribs, 
 and in their turn buttress them. In the echinoid 
 eggs [see Fig. 12] the surface is never ribbed, but 
 'covered with a heavy net-work of deep pits, 
 whose bounding walls are rather coarse and 
 rough. In these eggs, too, the rosette of micro- 
 scopic cells at the summit is situated at the bot- 
 tom of a very deep and narrow well, where they 
 can with difficulty be seen. Other shells, as in 
 the globular eggs of the purples (Basilar- 
 chia), have the same style of pitting ; 
 but the cell-walls, though high, are 
 thin, and at every angle emit a little 
 filament, which gives the egg a brist- 
 
 FiG.15.-E-gof ,. * 
 
 E.i P hydryasi>hae- ling appearance [Fig. 16]. In some, 
 the ribs and the cross-ridges are so 
 numerous and of so similar a prominence [Figs. 
 17, 18] as almost to make them resemble the net- 
 work of pits on less regular eggs ; while in 
 others, like the nearly globular eggs of our em- 
 
10. 
 
 THE EGG. 
 
 peror butterflies (Chlorippe) [see Figs 183, 
 185], where the longitudinal ribs and the cross- 
 
 FIG. 16. Egg of Basilar- 
 chia Archippus, a, X 30 ; 
 ft, natural size, on under 
 surface of leaf (Riley). 
 
 ridges are almost equally close, no such appear- 
 ance is produced, on account 
 of the proportionally greater 
 prominence of the longitudi- 
 nal ribs. 
 
 Most of these egg-shells are 
 opaque ; or, if transparent, 
 are so covered with raised 
 ridges in the form of ribs or 
 cell- walls as to render an ex- 
 amination of the eggs very 
 not im- 
 
 FIG. 17. Eg? of Danais 
 Plexippus, x 30 (Riley). 
 
 difficult, though 
 
 possible to the determined 
 
 naturalist. Still, whether 
 
 from this difficulty or by 
 
 mere chance, very little is 
 
 actually known of the 
 
 changes undergone by the 
 
 yolk and the surrounding parts, and of the for- 
 
 Fm. 18. Egg of Danais Plexip- 
 pus>, nnt. size, on under surface of 
 leaf " 
 
THE EGG. 11 
 
 mation of the embryonic caterpillar ; we merely 
 know that nothing essentially different transpires 
 from what occurs in other insects ; the yolk-mass 
 first breaks up/into an infinite number of cells, 
 and then those lying next the surface enlarge, 
 and form what is to be the germinal layer, a 
 specialized band of nucleolated cells nearly en- 
 circling the egg and out of which the future cat- 
 erpillar develops. The first step in this latter 
 process is the division of the band by cross in- 
 dentations' into a number of segments, while at 
 the same time the anterior portion increases in 
 size ; next, the rudiments of the various mem- 
 bers, such as the mouth parts and legs, scarcely 
 distinguishable in character one from another, 
 bud out from the sides of the body. Thus the 
 earliest form of the caterpillar may be called a 
 segmented ribbon, with lateral buds where the 
 movable organs are to be ; and this ribbon is 
 curled backward around the egg, head to tail. 
 By degrees the ribbon broadens and fills out, or 
 incloses the yolk-mass of the interior, the legs 
 and other appendages grow, the mass of the body 
 retreating at the same time to give them room, 
 until, when the time of hatching approaches, the 
 caterpillar has recovered its position in the egg, 
 but with its back and not its belly next the wall 
 of its prison. Finally, the circumference of the 
 egg becomes too contracted for the rapid growth 
 
12 THE EGG. 
 
 of the body, and the head and following segments 
 of the creature are extended upward toward the 
 summit of the egg, the hinder end overlapping 
 the segments which fall in its way. 
 
 All these changes may transpire within four 
 or five days, although they ordinarily take a 
 fortnight, occasionally a month ; and there are 
 species of butterflies which pass the winter in 
 the egg state. 
 
CHAPTEK II. 
 
 THE CATERPILLAB. 
 
 THE caterpillar is a worm-like animal, plainly 
 separated into two principal parts, a head and 
 body ; and the latter into a number of rings, 
 which may be clustered by certain features into 
 two tracts, a thoracic and an abdominal. The head 
 itself is in reality made up of a number of rings, 
 consolidated in such a way as to render their sep- 
 arate determination one of the most difficult tasks 
 of the morphologist, just as our own head is com- 
 posed of a number of primal vertebrae. The hard 
 parts of an insect are upon the outside, while ours 
 are within ; and just as our backbone is made up 
 of a series of vertebrae ranged in a row, a single 
 vertebra being, as it were, the unit of structure, 
 so the outer coating of an insect is broken up into 
 a series of rings, laid end to end, each the unit of 
 its structure. The number of elemental rings 
 forming the head of a caterpillar is still a matter 
 of dispute, and would be a subject perhaps too 
 abstruse in the present state of science to discuss 
 here. It may only be said that no one ring will 
 be found to bear on its under surface more than 
 a single set of jointed appendages, and that the 
 
14 
 
 THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 rodes Eurydice, X 2 ; 
 a, front view ; &, Bide 
 view. 
 
 latest researches of Kowalevsky seem to point 
 very directly to the conclusion that the head is 
 composed of five primordial seg- 
 ments. 
 
 But the head, as it appears 
 when the caterpillar fairly makes 
 PIG. i9.-Head of its entrance into the world, is a 
 
 caterpillar of Saty- . 
 
 little globular 
 
 case,* bearing be- 
 neath an astonishing number of 
 movable organs, and having the 
 upper part divided down the mid- 
 dle by a suture, which forks in 
 passing down the face, leaving a 
 triangular piece at the very front . Fie.2o.-AnaeaAn- 
 
 dria ; Z, head of cat- 
 
 [Fig. 21]; this triangular piece ^ ,*%*$ 
 bears the upper lip, a little flap of S?5fhSof > SJ; 
 membrane with a swing forward JfSSS/SSti^stoge; 
 and backward by means of the 
 hinge which unites it to the triangle. Directly 
 behind this come a pair of stout biting jaws or 
 
 * The head of the newly-born caterpillar always lacks those 
 prominences which frequently adorn the crown of the same 
 creatures at later stages [Figs. 19, 20]. In the goat-weed but- 
 terfly (Anaea Andria) these attain their greatest size in the second 
 stage, and afterward gradually disappear, so that the head of the 
 full-grown caterpillar is as unbroken as when newly hatched 
 (compare Fig. 20, b, d, e), while ordinarily these prominences in- 
 crease in size with every moult, and may attain extraordinary 
 dimensions (See Fig. 19 and Figs. 183 and 135, i,j, &, I, m). 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 15 
 
 mandibles, pyramidal, horny pieces, the chiselled 
 or serrated edge of the one playing against that 
 of the other as they work laterally. The mouth 
 lies between them, and they are followed by more 
 complicated parts, the secondary jaws, or so-called 
 maxillae, which in many insects have a similar 
 movement, and play no doubt a considerable part 
 in the preparation of the food ; but here they 
 
 FIG. 21. Head of caterpillar of Danais Plexippus ; a, front view ; b, side 
 view, both x 3 ; c, view from beneath, x 10; Ib, labrum : md, mandible; 
 mx, maxilla, with two palpi ; Im, labium, with one pair of palpi ; s, spinneret ; 
 a, antenna (the bristle is not shown) ; o, ocelli (Burgess). 
 
 have only a certain telescopic motion of with- 
 drawal and protrusion ; they consist of a pair of 
 rounded, fleshy, semi-globular prominences, and 
 each of these has two appendages or feelers called 
 palpi, the outer and larger composed of several 
 joints, the inner of only one. The rest of the 
 under and hinder part of the head is taken up 
 with the labium or under lip and its appendages ; 
 though called in common language the under lip, 
 it should not be compared or contrasted with the 
 upper lip, but with the maxillae or secondary 
 jaws, being in all insects of a similar composition, 
 
16 THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 so as rather to merit the name of tertiary jaws. 
 The opposing parts, however, never have any 
 movement toward each other, but all are consoli- 
 dated into a single piece. In caterpillars, the 
 basal portion resembles that of one of the maxil- 
 lae, and bears on either side at the tip a very mi- 
 nute jointed appendage similar in structure to the 
 maxillary palpi, and to be compared with the 
 outer of the two appendages of the maxillae ; they 
 are termed the labial palpi ; between them it bears 
 another appendage, the equivalent of united inner 
 labial palpi, but having a special structure ; it is 
 a conical slender horny tube, serving the purpose 
 of the spinneret of the spider ; for, wherever the 
 caterpillar walks, at least during its early stages, 
 it sways its head constantly from side to side in a 
 manner almost painful to behold, spinning a zig- 
 zag ladder of silk upon the surface on which it 
 treads, by means of which its hold of the swing- 
 ing leaf or twig is made more secure. 
 
 I am thus particular in describing the parts of 
 the head in order to show how vast is the change 
 they undergo in the growth of the insect. The 
 pieces I have described are called in general the 
 mouth-parts, and it is interesting to see with what 
 astonishing compactness they are all massed to- 
 gether in one little spot. In the largest of our 
 butterfly caterpillars, they would not together be 
 larger than a pin' s head. The only other movable 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 17 
 
 appendages are the antennae, and these again are 
 very similar to the maxillae. They are situated 
 just at the base of the mandibles and consist of 
 four joints, of which the first is only a fleshy 
 lump, and the others very small cylindrical joints, 
 each smaller than the previous, like the joints of 
 a telescope, the last extremely minute, and the 
 last but one furnished with a long bristle. The 
 eyes lie behind and above the antennae, and con- 
 sist of six little hemispherical warts, five of them 
 arranged in a curve opening backward, and the 
 sixth at some distance behind. 
 
 The body, or the portion of the caterpillar lying 
 back of the head, is composed of thirteen seg- 
 ments ; so far as external form, shape, and size are 
 concerned, these segments do not often differ 
 greatly from each other ; they are generally cyl- 
 indrical rings a little shorter than broad ; but in 
 the appendages they bear are found differences 
 of great importance. Only the three segments 
 immediately following the head bear horny and 
 distinctly jointed legs ; but since the caterpillar 
 would find it difficult to move freely in situations 
 where it must seek its food without some prop 
 to the hinder part of its body, it possesses besides 
 five pairs of false legs, or prolegs as they are called, 
 which for its purposes are even an improvement 
 upon the genuine article [Fig. 22]. The true legs 
 terminate in a horny claw and are encased in 
 
18 
 
 THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 an armor-like shell which hardly allows any- 
 thing more than a lateral motion [Fig. 23] ; while 
 
 FIG. 23. Metatho- 
 racic leg of cater- 
 pillar of Papilio 
 Antiopa, X 3J. 
 
 Fio. 22. Caterpillar of Danais Plexippus, nat. size (Riley). 
 
 the proleg is a fleshy stub which may be with- 
 drawn or extended at pleasure, and is armed 
 at tip with several curving series of 
 NTX, delicate hooks [Fig. 24] ; these also 
 
 \L are extensile and will grasp a sin- 
 
 gle thread, or plunge themselves so 
 firmly into a silken carpet that it 
 would require considerable force on 
 our part to extricate them ; while a simple mus- 
 cular movement of the caterpillar serves to with- 
 draw them from the web, leav- 
 ing not a thread misplaced. 
 The presence or absence of the 
 horny jointed legs separates 
 the segments of which the body 
 is composed into two tracts, the 
 thoracic and abdominal ; this 
 separation, however, would not apparently have 
 much weight were it not for the future development 
 
 FIG. 24. Caterpillar of 
 Papilio Antiopa ; . proleg, 
 X 4t ; b. circlet of hooks at 
 end of proleg, X 5 ; c, one 
 of the hooks, X 12. 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 19 
 
 of the creature, when the thoracic segments become 
 the thorax and the abdominal segments the abdo- 
 men a distinction which is merely foreshadowed 
 now in the difference between the anterior and 
 posterior feet. We have, therefore, chosen not to 
 treat of these two tracts separately, but to discuss 
 the diiferent characteristics of the body as a 
 whole, pointing out, however, some further dis- 
 tinctions between those which occur in the tho- 
 racic and those in the abdominal tracts. To return 
 to the consideration of the legs, it should be 
 noticed that while every one of the thoracic seg- 
 ments bears a true leg, it is not every one of the 
 abdominal segments which bears a proleg. In- 
 deed in the Lepidoptera generally there is consid- 
 erable variation in this respect, but among the but- 
 terflies these appendages are always borne by the 
 third to the sixth abdominal segments, and by the 
 last segment, leaving thus a similar space without 
 support between the true and false legs, and be- 
 tween the terminal and preceding false legs. In 
 a single group of butterflies (Plebeii), that to 
 which our tiny blues (Adolescentes) belong, the 
 prolegs are excessively small, and can indeed only 
 be readily detected when the skin of the caterpil- 
 lar is prepared by inflation. These caterpillars 
 seem to glide rather than to creep [Fig. 25] ; and 
 indeed their movements are undoubtedly aided 
 by muscular contractions and expansions of the 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 entire body, which fairly rests upon the sur- 
 face of motion. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the body is a series of 
 breathing-pores upon the sides, through which 
 
 the air enters certain 
 tubes ramifying within 
 for the aeration of the 
 blood ; there is but one 
 of these spiracles or 
 stigmata upon either 
 side of any segment, 
 and they are absent 
 from the second and 
 third thoracic and from 
 the last two abdominal 
 segments ; it would ap- 
 pear therefore that the narrowing hinder por- 
 tion of the body can be supplied with air from 
 the segments in advance ; but the absence of 
 spiracles from what is ordinarily the stoutest 
 part of the body, the centre, too, of the great- 
 est variety and largest development of internal 
 organs, requires another explanation ; and it is 
 to be found only in the fact that the spiracles 
 are absent from these same segments in the per- 
 fect insect, where they would interfere with the 
 special purpose of this part of the body, viz., the 
 support of the wings and of the apparatus 
 for their vigorous movement. Here we have a 
 
 : 
 
 FIG. 25. Caterpillar of Heodes 
 Hypophlaeas, nat. size. 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 significant foreshadowing of the approacJting 
 winged state of the insect. 
 One more feature common to several segments of 
 
 FIG. 26. PontiaProtodice ; a, caterpillar ; 6, chrysalis ; nat. size (Biley). 
 
 the body of a caterpillar is its abundant armature. 
 No caterpillars of butterflies are absolutely naked; 
 those which appear so are still clothed with delicate 
 pile [Fig. 26], or short distant bristles, which are 
 more or less regularly disposed ; others are cov- 
 ered with simple or compound spines [Fig. 27], or 
 with microscopically 
 barbed hairs of great 
 length, or with fleshy 
 filaments [Fig. 28 ; 
 see also Fig. 22], or 
 
 Clubbed Or knobby FIG. 27.-Caterpil!arofPapilioAntiopa, 
 
 tubercles [Fig. 29; see 
 
 also Figs. 40, a, &, c], whose definite arrangement is 
 still more apparent ; ordinarily they are disposed 
 in longitudinal rows, with one or more spines on 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 each segment, and all the spines of one row will 
 be found on corresponding 
 points of the different seg- 
 ments, either at the front, 
 or back, or centre, as the case 
 may be. The first thoracic 
 segment, however, takes lit- 
 tle part in these regular se- 
 ries ; its appendages are usu- 
 ally reduced to a transverse 
 series next the front edge, 
 often forming a sort of crown 
 to the head ; still they may 
 severally be proved to form 
 part of the longitudinal series 
 of the rest of the body, or 
 rather of the thoracic seg- 
 ments ; for with scarcely an 
 exception among the cater- 
 pillars of butter- 
 flies, those series 
 which extend 
 along the ab- 
 dominal seg- 
 ments either 
 stop altogether 
 at the thoracic 
 segments, or 
 slightly change their direction at this point ; so 
 
 FIG. 28. Caterpillar of Laer- 
 tias Philenor, nat. size ^Riley). 
 
 FIG. 29. Caterpillar of Basilarchia Archippus, 
 nat. size (Riley). 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 23 
 
 that often we may readily distinguish the thoracic 
 from the abdominal segments without seeing the 
 legs. Thus even in the mere disposition of the 
 spines on a caterpillar^ s back, the future sepa- 
 ration of tliorax and abdomen is foreshadowed., 
 
 It might be supposed that the slightly altered 
 arrangement of the spines in passing from the 
 abdominal to the thoracic tract was due to the 
 larger amount of space on the latter owing to the 
 absence of breathing pores ; but it is wholly inde- 
 pendent of this, for when the spines are well de- 
 veloped on the first thoracic segment, which bears 
 an unusually large spiracle, they align with those 
 of the other thoracic segments and not with those 
 of the abdomen. 
 
 In many caterpillars there is some difference in 
 the relative size of the various segments ; gener- 
 ally speaking, the segment behind the head is 
 rather smaller than the others ; and in one group, 
 the skippers (Urbicolae) 
 
 [Fig. 30], as also in the XJ3 
 
 \s xruw u 1 
 
 goat- weed butterfly [see Fig. Flo . 30.-CaterpUlar of Attytone 
 
 97], it is reduced to such 
 
 a narrow neck as to give the creature a strangled 
 appearance. In another group, on the contrary 
 that to which some of our smallest butterflies 
 belong, the coppers (Yillicantes), blues, and hair- 
 streaks (Ephori) this segment is largely devel- 
 oped, while at the same time the head is smaller 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 in proportion and absolutely retractile within this 
 segment, so that when the creature is not feeding 
 its head is invisible [see Fig. 25]. In another 
 group, the swallow-tails, an approach to this state 
 is seen in the concealment of the 
 hinder half of the head by a fold 
 in the cuticle of the segment behind 
 [Fig. 31]. Any striking differences 
 of size seen in the middle segments 
 of the body are generally due not 
 so much to the enlargement or con- 
 traction of single segments as to 
 the presence, at such points, of 
 fleshy tubercles [see Fig. 29] ; but the body al- 
 ways tapers somewhat posteriorly, and the last 
 two segments (especially in the blues and their 
 allies) are generally so closely coalesced as readily 
 to be mistaken for a single one. 
 
 FIG. 31. Front 
 portion of caterpil- 
 lar of Princeps Po- 
 lyxenes, to enow 
 the partial covering 
 of the head by the 
 first thoracic seg- 
 ment, X 1|. 
 
 FIG. 32. Caterpillar of Princeps Polyxenes with extended osmateria, 
 nat. size (the head is drawn too large). 
 
 It only remains to speak of a certain isolated 
 extensile organ borne by the first segment behind 
 the head. I refer to the prong, termed, in the swal- 
 low-tails (Equites), the osmateria or scent-organ 
 [Fig. 32] ; it is here developed to an extraordinary 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 25 
 
 degree, having, when extended, a Y-shaped form, 
 but when not required for defence entirely retract- 
 ed within the body, leaving only a transverse slit 
 to indicate its point of emission [see Fig. 28]. In all 
 other butterflies the organ is found upon the under 
 surface of the body between the lower lip and the 
 front legs, and its identity with the osmateria has 
 therefore escaped attention. In this place it is 
 never developed as a Y-shaped organ, but is pro- 
 truded as a conical or hemispher- 
 ical bladder of greater or less size 
 [Fig. 33], or, in the blues and their 
 allies, as a lenticular disk. It is 
 found also in many other Lepidop- 
 
 FIG. 33. a, front por- 
 
 tera ; whether developing exter- tinn of the caterpillar 
 
 of Danais Plexippus, 
 
 nally upon the upper or under 
 surface of the body, it is always, 
 excepting in the anomalous group 
 
 ,.-.., TT -,.., the transverse slit at 
 
 to which the blues and similar up, x 2. 
 butterflies belong, emitted from a transverse slit 
 across the segment. Its use, when developed on 
 the upper surface, is unquestionably as a scent- 
 organ, a weapon of defence against its foes, for 
 the stench it emits in some species is simply in- 
 sufferable ; when developed beneath, the purpose 
 of this organ is problematical ; some have sup- 
 posed that it secreted a fluid for the lubrication 
 of food just before eating, but this seems exceed- 
 ingly doubtful. 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 Cyaniris pseudargio- 
 lus ; a, spiracles ; 6, 
 position of extensile 
 organs shown in Fig. 
 35 ; c, opening of ves- 
 icle, which is capable 
 
 of emitting a fluid ; 
 X about 6 (Edwards). 
 
 Other similar extensile organs are occasionally 
 found in different parts of the 
 body in Lepidoptera ; but among 
 butterflies they have been noticed 
 only in some of the caterpillars of 
 the blues, which, when disturbed, 
 extrude a very minute vesicle 
 from a transverse slit on the top 
 of the sev- 
 enth abdcm- 
 segment. 
 was first 
 
 noticed by Guenee* nearly 
 fifteen years ago, but his ob- 
 servations attracted little at- 
 tention until the fact was re- 
 discovered in this country 
 by Mr. Ed wards, f who also 
 noticed and explained the 
 use of still other extensile 
 organs on the next segment of 
 the body in the same cater- 
 pillars [Figs. 34, 35], men- 
 tioned by Guenee, and now 
 known to occur in many blues. 
 
 Fm. 35. Extensile organs 
 
 spines expanded ; 6, with the 
 (pines half withdrawn; both 
 
 Jgji 
 
 The central vesi- 
 
 * Ann. Soc. Entom., France, (4), vii., 665-68(1867). 
 
 t Can. Entom., x., pp. 6,136 (1878). See also Mr. McCook's ob- 
 servations, made independently the same year, in the Trans. 
 Atner. Ent. Soc., vi., pp. 289-91. 
 
THE CA TERPILLAR. . 27 
 
 cle of the seventh segment exudes a sweetened 
 fluid, very grateful to ants, and the spiny -crowned 
 tentacles on the next segment serve, when erected, 
 as indications to the ants that the feast is ready. 
 The ants in their turn act as guards to keep off the 
 attack of Ichneumon enemies from their willing 
 hosts, and thus each serves the other a good turn. 
 
 These are all the external parts of a caterpillar 
 which it is now necessary to consider. But there 
 is one peculiarity of its growth, which, though 
 very curious, has been but little noticed, and 
 only recently has been shown to be of probably 
 universal application. When any one character- 
 istic is found throughout an entire group we nat- 
 urally inquire what its meaning may be ; espe- 
 cially in these days when evolution is required to 
 explain everything or nothing. In this place, I 
 shall only present the facts, and leave a possible 
 explanation for a later chapter. 
 
 Every caterpillar in its growth from the egg to 
 maturity changes the character of its coating. I 
 do not refer to that periodic sloughing of the in- 
 tegument common to the early stages of all in- 
 sects, the reason for which is quite apparent, 
 since otherwise their inelastic coats would be too 
 strait for their rapidly growing bodies. But I 
 call attention rather to the fact that with the first 
 sloughing of the integument an entirely different 
 set of appendages is assumed. The fresh integu- 
 
28 THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 ment of subsequent moultings may be likened to 
 a new spring suit, very like the old one, but 
 bright and clean ; while the difference of arma- 
 ture accompanying the first moult is more like 
 the difference between the dress of a child and a 
 man. The dress of our manhood differs as much 
 from that of our infancy as it does from the dress 
 of a savage ; in like manner the outfit of a full- 
 grown caterpillar differs as much from its outfit 
 at birth as it does from that of a caterpillar be- 
 longing to a different tribe. 
 
 To present a few examples : The mature cater- 
 pillars of our brown meadow butterflies or satyrs 
 (Oreades) have a rough skin, the result of a mul- 
 titude of minute tubercles ; each of these tuber- 
 cles bears a simple hair, scarcely visible to the 
 naked eye. In the young caterpillar of four dif- 
 ferent genera of these butterflies which I have 
 studied, the skin is smooth, and instead of being 
 supplied with an almost innumerable number of 
 microscopic hairs, is furnished, in some instances, 
 with an exceedingly scanty number 
 of little club-shaped bristles, pro- 
 portionally many times longer than 
 FIG. 36.- Bristle the hairs of the adult, and arranged 
 
 of sEm-y- in definite longitudinal series [Fig. 
 
 36] ; in others it is furnished with 
 
 flattened ribbon-like hairs, as long as the body, 
 
 serrated on one edge and bent in the middle 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 Fro. 37. Ribbon-like 
 bristle of young cater- 
 pillar of Cercyonis 
 Alope, X 125. 
 
 [Fig. 37] ; on the abdominal segments these hairs 
 
 point backward, and on the thoracic forward; 
 
 that is, the caterpillar parts its 
 
 hair in the middle [Fig. 38]. In 
 
 the Monarch or Milk- weed but- 
 
 terfly (Danais Plexippus) the 
 
 full-grown caterpillar (see Fig. 
 
 22) is naked, but adorned with a 
 
 pair of long, thread-like, fleshy, 
 
 flexible tentacles at either extremity of the body ; 
 
 in the young caterpillar these tentacles or fila- 
 ments are ab- 
 sent, but their 
 future position 
 is marked by lit- 
 tle, conical, 
 black points, 
 
 while the body is covered with minute black 
 
 bristles, arising from still more minute warts, and 
 
 arranged six on the back of each 
 
 segment, placed four in a row in 
 
 front and one on each side behind, 
 
 and three on either side of the body, 
 
 one in the middle of the segment 
 
 and two below [Fig. 39]. In our 
 
 purples the segments of the young 
 
 caterpillar are equal in size and have 
 
 regular series of stellate warts ; in the mature 
 
 caterpillar the body is grotesquely hunched, while 
 
 FIG. 38. Young caterpillar of Cercyonis Alope, 
 
 X 20. 
 
 FIG. 39. Side 
 view (a) and top 
 view (b) of young 
 larva of Danais 
 Plexippus to show 
 the arrangement 
 of the hairs, X 20 
 (Riley). 
 
30 
 
 THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 FIG. 40. Clubbed spine of caterpil- 
 lar of Basilarchia Astyanax (a), X 3, 
 and of B. Archippus (6, c), X about 3. 
 
 the warts have changed to very variable tuber- 
 cles, one set, mounted on the highest hunch, pre- 
 senting a formidable appearance as a pair of 
 
 knotted clubs as long as 
 the breadth of the body 
 [Fig. 40]. In the angle- 
 wings (Praefecti), which 
 furnish the ordinary 
 spiny caterpillars, these 
 spines are compound in 
 the adult (that is, they 
 bear subsidiary spin- 
 ules), and are arranged 
 in certain definite rows. In their earliest life, 
 these caterpillars are furnished with long taper- 
 ing hairs [Fig. 41] also arranged in definite series, 
 but not occupying the same position as the spines 
 of the mature caterpillar. Now in each genus of 
 spiny caterpillars the spines occupy a certain 
 fixed place, and by 
 means of this feature, 
 among others, we define 
 the genus. Here then 
 the young and old cat- 
 erpillars plainly differ 
 from each other in ge- 
 neric features. To a casual view the caterpillars 
 of our blue butterflies, our coppers and hair- 
 streaks, appear quite naked ; they are, however, 
 
 a b c d e 
 
 FIG. 41. Spines of caterpillar of 
 Vanessa cardni at different periods- 
 fifth stages; differently 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 31 
 
 profusely covered with microscopic hairs ; but the 
 newly hatched cater- 
 pillars are provided 
 with long hairs 
 sweeping backward 
 behind their bodies, 
 most of them arrang- 
 ed in longitudinal se- 
 ries [Fig. 42] ; the FIG. 42. Young caterpillar of Heodee 
 -i . , -, , Hypophlaeas, x 28. 
 
 hairs themselves, too, 
 
 instead of being simple, as in the 
 adult, are covered with microscopic 
 spicules. In our white and yellow 
 FIG. 43.- spine butterflies (Fugacia and Yoracia), 
 
 of young caterpil- 
 
 phiiodice El x } 3oo d pests of the garden and the glory 
 of the fields, the differences between 
 youth and old age are much the same 
 as in the meadow butterflies first 
 mentioned [Figs. 43, 44]. In a gen- 
 eral way, the same may be said of 
 the skippers, but the appendages of 
 
 ., , .,, FIG. 44. Spine 
 
 the new-born caterpillar are always or young carerpii- 
 
 17 lar of Pieris ole- 
 
 shaped like little clubbed mush^ racea, xso. 
 
 rooms [Fig. 45], and under the mi- 
 croscope bear an odd resemblance to 
 
 ciilbbed'^? e tram y - a row of cabbages in a vegetable 
 
 pet-shaped spine -, rrn .,, 
 
 of young caterpil- garden. The caterpillars of our 
 
 lar of Ocytes Me- 
 
 tea, x i5o. swallow-tails, at least of those com- 
 
 mon in New England, are always nearly naked 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 
 
 a b c 
 FIG. 46. Spines of cat- 
 
 T i c sta jo e al-th ' stage d 
 
 ferentl'y magnified/ ' 
 
 when full grown ; we may find a few scattered 
 hairs by searching with a lens, and here and there 
 a minute tubercle, or a smooth and shining wart ; 
 in some species the front part of 
 the body is swollen and furnish- 
 ed with striking eye-spots ; at 
 birth, however, the body is al- 
 
 * 
 
 wa ^ s Perfectly cylindrical and 
 supplied with several prominent 
 
 ^^ Qf brist l e . be aring tllber- 
 
 cles, one tubercle to a segment in each row, and 
 one row in the middle of the sides more conspic- 
 uous than the others. 
 
 Instances have been given in every one of the 
 larger groups of butterflies to show the universal- 
 ity of this feature in the development of the cater- 
 pillar ; many of the changes are gradual in their 
 appearance, as shown by the accompanying fig- 
 ures [Fig. 46] of the spines of the caterpillar of 
 Harris' s butterfly (Cinclidia Harrisii) 
 [Fig. 47] at different stages, where, it 
 will, be seen, they grow more compli- 
 cated with advancing life ; or they 
 may be seen better still in those of 
 the caterpillar of the Painted Lady 
 (Vanessa cardui), as shown in Fig. 
 41. where the spines of each stage are shown ; but 
 the more important changes between the different 
 stages of a caterpillar's life occur at the first 
 moulting ; that is, those features of the young 
 
 FIG. 47. Chrys- 
 alis of Cinclidia 
 Harrisii, nat. size. 
 
THE CATERPILLAR. 33 
 
 caterpillar not possessed by the adult are those 
 which it has brought with it from the egg, and 
 which are lost when its skin is first cast. We 
 should, therefore, naturally suppose these peculi- 
 arities to have some reference to its condition in 
 the egg ; but this view cannot be maintained for a 
 moment, for certainly the most appropriate condi- 
 tion for a caterpillar in the egg would be entire ab- 
 sence of clothing or a uniform covering of silky 
 hairs, conditions which are exactly the ones which 
 do not occur. On the contrary, in every instance 
 we can find, caterpillars which at maturity are 
 naked or nearly so, or clothed uniformly with 
 hair, when newly hatched bristle with tubercles or 
 are supplied with cumbrous serrated or spiculif- 
 erous hairs. Some other explanation must there- 
 fore be sought, but we are not yet prepared to 
 discuss it. 
 
 A caterpillar, then, is a cylindrical jointed crea- 
 ture, having several of the front segments consol- 
 idated to form a horny head, with numerous 
 mouth-parts, eyes, and antennae all crowded to- 
 gether at the bottom ; three other segments suc- 
 ceeding it bearing horny legs ; and most of the 
 remainder supported by fleshy legs furnished 
 with microscopic hooks ; all the body segments 
 are furnished with special appendages, which, 
 during some stage of its development, are 
 arranged in definite series. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 THE change undergone by a butterfly in passing 
 from the caterpillar to the chrysalis state has al- 
 ways excited great interest ; yet, notwithstanding 
 all that has been written on the subject, mostly 
 modelled upon the detailed but not wholly accu- 
 rate account given more than a century ago by 
 Reaumur, the method by which the chrysalis in- 
 closed within the larval skin becomes attached to 
 the silken button into which the hindmost feet 
 of the caterpillar had previously been plunged, 
 has never been rightly explained until within a 
 very few years, when the observations of Osborne 
 in England, and of Edwards, and especially of 
 Riley, in our own country, have solved the prob- 
 lem. The process is the most extraordinary in 
 the higher butterflies, which suspend themselves 
 in pupation by the hinder end only, without first 
 spinning a loop, like other butterfly larvae, for 
 the support of the anterior, heavier part of the 
 body. A caterpillar of this kind preparing for 
 pupation spins a loose mass of silk in some suit- 
 able place, and, firmly attaching itself to it by the 
 hooks of the anal prolegs, casts itself loose from 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 35 
 
 all other support, and hangs by the tail [Pig. 48]. 
 It next curves the front part of its body upward on 
 the ventral side, and after a time, when the front 
 part of the body has become greatly swollen by 
 the descent of the body fluids, a rent is produced 
 
 PIG. 43. Danais Plexippns, changing from caterpillar to chrysalis ; a, cater- 
 pillar just before the rending of the !<kin ; 6, chrysalis just before the cremaster 
 is withdrawn; c, chrysalis just after withdrawal of the cremaster (the last is a 
 little inaccurate) compare the form of the chrysalis with that it finally as- 
 sumes, Fig. 61 (Riley). 
 
 in the back of the caterpillar, and the chrysalis 
 gradually protrudes ; not as it will afterward 
 appear, but a limp, soft, and rather shapeless 
 mass. It now hangs at full length, and the thin 
 integument of the caterpillar, by the mere 
 shrinkage which necessarily follows its drying, 
 creeps back toward the button of silk to which 
 it is attached ; ligamentary elastic membranes, 
 which protrude from the anal and tracheal open- 
 ings at the extremity of the body, keep the chrys- 
 alis from falling out of the nearly emptied larval 
 skin ; but it is not destined to remain hanging by 
 
36 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 these uncertain and delicate supports ; when all 
 is ready, the very extremity of the chrysalis, a 
 long and horny piece, armed at tip by a multi- 
 tude of recurved spines, is carefully withdrawn, 
 and the now partially hardened chrysalis, sup- 
 ported by these ligaments, and in part, probably, 
 by the larval skin itself, gripped between the 
 edges of some of the hinder segments of the body, 
 hangs entirely without the larval skin which 
 formerly inclosed it ; by slight twisting of the 
 body, aided by the elastic nature of the ligaments, 
 the cremaster, or terminal piece of the chrysalis, 
 finds its way to the button of silk, into which the 
 hooks at its tip are soon entangled ; by wri things 
 and whirlings of the body, a greater and greater 
 number become more and more deeply embedded, 
 while at the same time the rapid drying of the 
 now useless ligaments causes their rupture from 
 the larval skin, which, shrivelled and loosened, 
 drops to the ground, leaving the chrysalis in firm 
 possession of the button of silk. 
 
 What a different object now greets our eyes ! 
 Instead of the worm with soft and fleshy body, 
 greedy of food, moving where it will, we find a 
 toughened mummy, incapable of more motion 
 than a feeble wriggle, and otherwise apparently 
 lifeless ; what few prominences it can boast are 
 seldom greatly elevated above the surface, and in 
 none of our native species ever assume the form 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 37 
 
 of spines, so common in the caterpillars, or of 
 hairs, excepting such as are microscopic ; there 
 are no movable appendages whatever. 
 
 We mentioned certain features in the body of 
 caterpillars as dividing that portion into two 
 tracts, foreshadowing the separation of thorax 
 and abdomen in the perfect insect ; but here, in 
 the intermediate stage, even the wide distinction 
 between head and body is lost, and the whole 
 creature appears in one compacted form, the im- 
 pressed lines marking the boundary between head 
 and thorax or thorax and abdomen being no more 
 distinct than those separating any other two seg- 
 ments. In the general contour of the surface, how- 
 ever, the thorax is distinctly separated from the 
 abdomen ; while the head is seldom separated in a 
 similar way from the thorax [Fig. 
 49] ; thus our new acquaintance is 
 represented by tvvo oval masses 
 placed end to end and blended, the 
 front portion representing the head- 
 trunk or cephalothorax and the hind 
 portion the abdomen. The append- 
 ages of the chrysalis are all encased FlG 49._ C hrys- 
 in separate sheaths, which, when it opa, f P nat. 10 ^ze 
 
 n *ii (Harris). 
 
 first emerges from the caterpillar 
 skin, can readily be separated from one another, 
 but afterward become consolidated with the rest 
 of the integument, and are neatly folded over the 
 
38 
 
 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 front of the body [Fig. 50]. These appendages 
 belong to the butterfly and differ widely from any 
 feature in the caterpillar ; the wings, therefore, 
 naturally occupy the larger space, 
 their tips meeting or nearly meet- 
 ing in the middle line of the belly ; 
 next their upper edge lie the anten- 
 nae, which are followed by some of 
 the legs, while down the middle, 
 between these, lie the two parts of 
 the maxillae or tongue. As, how- 
 ever, there are not sheaths enough 
 in sight to accommodate all the 
 legs, it becomes a question of some 
 FIG. so -ventral interest to know where they all are, 
 
 view of front por- . 
 
 tion of chrysalis of and which pairs are exposed. This 
 
 Euphoeades Troi- 
 
 o?he ip- ^ s no ^ eas 7 to decide from an exam- 
 thorax ; inatiou of the surface of the chrysa- 
 i* flS? patr lis alone, but if a forming chrysalis 
 
 of legs ; 2, second 
 
 , 
 
 pair of legs; a, an- 
 
 teanal sheath. 
 
 be examined while the organs are 
 movable, or the creature be dissect- 
 ed, it is easy to see, first, that all the legs are bent 
 at the femoro-tibial articulation, so that only the 
 tibiae and tarsi of any of the legs are exposed ; 
 then that the hind tibiae and tarsi are concealed 
 beneath the wings, just as they are in a large 
 number of pupae of beetles or other insects, where 
 they can easily be seen because they are not con- 
 solidated with the body ; the parts, therefore, 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 exposed to view in the hardened chrysalis are the 
 tibiae and tarsi of the front and middle legs. In 
 front of and lying between the anterior legs is 
 another pair of sheaths whose inner edges unite 
 along the middle of the body and which at base 
 are broader than the legs, but which taper to 
 slender parallel threads ; these generally extend 
 to the wing- tips, pushing their way between legs 
 and wings, which thus abut against them ; these 
 are plainly the sheaths in which lies the slender 
 elongated tongue of the butterfly, 
 but the extent of the basal por- 
 tion is beyond all need, and some 
 writers have asserted that they 
 formed the covering for the front 
 legs as well as the tongue, and 
 that the sheaths which really en- 
 case the front and middle legs 
 covered the middle and hind legs 
 respectively. If the naturalists 
 who first made this discovery had 
 but used the scalpel for five min- 
 utes, their mistake would never 
 have occurred [Fig. 51]. In real- 
 ity this expanded base of the 
 sheath covering the tongue af- 
 fords protection also to the palpi which lie beneath 
 and beside the tongue ; yet even in those groups 
 where the palpi are small and the front legs long, 
 
 FIG. 51. The same 
 as Fig. 50, with the 
 covering of the legs 
 and part of the wing 
 of one side removed, 
 to show how the hind 
 tibia and tarsus are 
 concealed beneath the 
 wings; x 2. The third 
 
 ir of less is seen be- 
 
 pan 
 low 
 
 the antennae. 
 
40 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 the proportionate extent of this part is still the 
 same ; showing that the sheath is expanded at 
 this point simply to fill up the angular void left 
 on obliquely uniting legs from opposite sides of 
 the body, and that the surface we see is a com- 
 mon lid under which are thrust the tongue and 
 the palpi. There is another curious thing about 
 this part ; very f reqiiently the base of the tongue 
 is not covered by this lid at all, 
 but by a separate piece of its own 
 [Fig. 52], which, unlike the lid be- 
 yond, is not divided down the mid- 
 dle to represent the two halves of 
 
 vieAv ' of' "theTront the tongue. This appears to be a con- 
 portion of the 
 
 of EU- stant phenomenon in some butter- 
 
 Philooice, 
 
 1 covering flies 5 but in others (compare Figs. 50 
 f n as e ai an( l 51) it is sometimes present and 
 tongue "hffeath'; \\ at others absent ; that the tongue 
 
 fii>t pair oflegs ; 2, . , . n . n . . . 
 
 second pair of legs; itseli is not exposed at this point is 
 
 a, antenual sheath. 
 
 proved by its being formed of a 
 single, not, as the tongue itself, of a double piece. 
 
 Next the extreme base of the tongue, and abut- 
 ting against it on either side, are the mandible- 
 cases, small plates, not separated at their base 
 from the integument of the head, and often re- 
 duced to mere tubercles ; indeed their appearance 
 is so slight that I do not know if their existence 
 has ever been specially noticed. 
 
 On either side of the head, close to the base of 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 41 
 
 the antennae and partially overlapped by them, 
 is a smooth crescent-shaped belt, which corre- 
 sponds closely in position with the curving row of 
 simple ocelli in the head of the caterpillar, where 
 it is generally marked by a distinct impression ; 
 it also lies across the middle of the convexity 
 which marks the position of the compound eye of 
 the inclosed butterfly ; the convex case of the 
 rest of the eye is rough and coarse like the chrys- 
 alis skin generally, but this curved ribbon is 
 smooth and thin, and regularly embossed, each 
 gentle elevation apparently cor- 
 responding to the centre of a 
 facet of a compound eye [Fig. 
 53 J. Now it has been suggested 
 that this belt is a window FIG. 53.- Head of 
 
 chrysalis of Euphoeades 
 
 through which the prisoner may Troiius; side view to 
 
 show the eye; X 2. 
 
 look abroad ; what end this 
 would serve is not explained ; nor have the 
 structure, form, and position of the belt been 
 taken into consideration, or, so far as I am aware, 
 even stated. Two things, however, may be re- 
 marked : first, that no underlying structure has 
 been found related to it alone ; second, that as an 
 external covering of an eye its structure is mid- 
 way between that of the caterpillar and the per- 
 fect insect. May it not be a relic of the past, the 
 external sign of what once was ? And are we to 
 look upon this as one hint that the archaic but- 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 FIG. 54. Chrys- 
 alis of Polygonia 
 Faunus, nat. size. 
 
 terfly in its transformations passed through an 
 active pupal stage, like the lowest insects of to- 
 day, when its limbs were unsheathed, 
 its appetite unabated, and its daily 
 necessities required the use of a 
 compound eye, such as would result 
 from the multiplication and con- 
 glomeration of simple eyes within 
 the normal ocellar field of the larva ? 
 These, it is true, are merely specula- 
 tions ; but we must not rest satisfied with any 
 explanation of the structure 
 of this glassy band which 
 does not account for its 
 form and its relation to the 
 larval row of tubercles. 
 
 There is another peculiarity in the head of 
 certain chrysalids which de- 
 mands our attention and an ex- 
 planation of its cause, since it 
 is found in some groups and 
 not in others. On either side 
 of the head there is often a 
 roughened angulate or conical 
 projection, bearing no relation 
 whatever to the parts beneath, 
 but looking like a pair of clumsy 
 horns or ears projecting forward 
 [Fig. 54 ; see also Figs. 49 and 50] ; other chrysalids 
 
 FIG. 55. Chrysalis of Lereraa 
 Accius, nat. size. 
 
 FIG. 56. Chrysalis of 
 Eurymus Philodice, nat. 
 size (Harris). 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 43 
 
 have the front extremity prolonged in the middle 
 [FigS. 55, 56 ; see also Fig. 52], while 
 the sides of the head are quite smooth 
 and regular ; others again have the 
 same smooth and bluntly rounded 
 head [Fig. 57] which generally char- 
 acterizes the pupa of moths. Since 
 these projections are mere extensions Mop *> nat - 8ize< 
 of the pellicle and quite hollow, it might be pre- 
 sumed that they indicated some variation in the 
 _^ ~ ^ e ^ kh e cnr y sa lis ; an( i such in- 
 v5? deed is the fact. Many chrysalids 
 
 ii8 F Sr Heodes C H7 P S o-~ are protected by some sort of a 
 phiaeas, nat. size. cocoon ; and these have perfectly 
 smooth and rounded heads ; so, too, have those 
 which, though exposed, are girt immovably to the 
 
 Fia 59 Chrysalis of Laertias Philenor, nat. size; a, dorsal view; b, side 
 view. (After Harris.) 
 
 object they have chosen as their support [Fig. 58]. 
 Other chrysalids are attached by the tail and 
 
44 
 
 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 FIG. 60. Chrysalis of Eu- 
 phoeades Troilus, nat. size. 
 
 loosely bound about tlie middle by a girth which 
 allows the body to sway from side to side [Figs. 59, 
 60] ; while still others hang freely by their hinder 
 extremity. In these two latter 
 cases the chrysalids may be 
 blown hither and thither by 
 every breeze and are liable to 
 injury from neighboring ob- 
 jects ; their point of greatest 
 motion is of course the head, 
 and this, therefore, is guard- 
 ed by projecting roughnesses. 
 In those which hang freely 
 there are some exceptions to this rule, as in the 
 case of our Milk- weed butterfly [Fig. 61], but 
 even here little conical tubercles may be dis- 
 covered ; and, besides, the chrys- 
 alis stage of this species is passed 
 in midsummer, and therefore is 
 very brief. So far as I am 
 aware, every chrysalis w?tich 
 lives through the winter, and 
 whose body hangs at the mercy 
 of the wind, has its head pro- 
 tected as I have described ; 
 those which hang freely have al- 
 ways the two frontal projections ; those which 
 are also loosely girt about the middle sometimes 
 have the same ; or they may have the single ex- 
 
 Pro. 61. Chrysalis of 
 Danai* Plexippus, nat. 
 size (Riley). 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 45 
 
 tension in front. It may also be noticed that 
 chrysalids with extraordinary projections or ridges 
 in other parts of the body all belong to the same 
 free-moving groups [Fig. 62 ; see 
 also Fig. 59] ; the greater the dan- 
 ger to the chrysalis from sur- 
 rounding objects, the greater its 
 protection by horny tubercles and 
 roughened callous ridges ; the 
 greater the protection possessed in 
 other ways, as by firm swathing or 
 a safe retreat, the smoother the sur- } g l - f 
 face of the body and the more reg- 
 ular and rounded its contours. 
 
 During the caterpillar stage, the three joints 
 corresponding to the thorax of the future butter- 
 fly are of nearly equal size, each having one pair 
 of legs ; in the butterfly, however, the second and 
 third joints also bear the wings, which become 
 the principal, we might almost say exclusive, 
 organs of motion ; these joints therefore are devel- 
 oped at the expense of the first ; and as the front 
 wings are always larger than the hinder pair, and 
 by their position require more muscular force, 
 the joint of the thorax which supports them is 
 always proportionally larger. The preparation 
 for this necessity is seen in the chrysalis, where 
 the wings are already developed ; to a great ex- 
 tent this is true even in the blues and their allies, 
 
46 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 in which the prothorax of the larva is immensely 
 enlarged, permitting, as we have seen, the entire 
 withdrawal of the head. 
 
 There is only one other point in connection 
 with the thorax which need detain us. In the 
 caterpillar we found a spiracle in the middle of 
 the side of the first ring. In the chrysalis, how- 
 ever, we have shown that the middle joint of the 
 thorax is developed at the expense of the front 
 joint, and the latter is further curtailed by the 
 sheaths covering the extended mouth-parts to such 
 a degree that it is reduced externally to a slender 
 dorsal plate ; the spiracle is therefore transferred 
 to the suture between the outer portion of this 
 dorsal plate and the middle joint ; indeed it 
 seems rather to belong to the latter, for it is often 
 protected at this point by a thickening of the 
 middle joint, occasionally developing to a tubercle 
 [Fig. 63] ; this spiracle and those 
 upon the sides of the abdominal 
 joints are the only openings into the 
 interior of the body ; the digestive 
 tube is closed at both ends ; no 
 glands find an external outlet, and 
 
 Tityrus, showing 
 
 1 * h ? r J C 2 CSplracleat so l^tle aeration is required for the 
 fluids of the body during its strange 
 dormancy, that in the higher groups this thoracic 
 spiracle is lost and the larger part of the body 
 receives its air through the openings at the op- 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 47 
 
 posite end and the secondary channels which 
 course along the body. 
 
 The abdomen is always of a subconical shape, 
 tapering toward the hinder extremity, and more 
 or less constricted where it joins the thorax. The 
 spiracles remain in the same position as in the 
 caterpillar, excepting on the first segment, which 
 is so far covered by the folded wings that the 
 spiracle is lost, and the segment reduced to a 
 small dorsal plate ; at the extremity of the body, 
 however, an apparently new structure is devel- 
 oped, the cremaster, or anal button, a slender 
 tubercular prolongation at the extremity of the 
 body. Kiley, however, has shown* that it is not 
 a new structure, but that it corresponds to the 
 anal plate (or hindmost segment) of the cater- 
 pillar. Kiinckel indeed contendsf that it repre- 
 sents the soldered anal prolegs of the caterpillar ; 
 but Biley clearly proves that these are repre- 
 sented in the chrysalis by what he calls the sus- 
 tentors, ridges on the ventral surface which ter- 
 minate anteriorly in little knobs or hooks, and 
 play an important part in pupation. The form 
 of the cremaster varies considerably in different 
 groups, but always bears on its tip, or under sur- 
 face, or on both, a crowd of microscopic recurved 
 hooks [Fig. 64], which, in chrysalidisation, are 
 
 * Amer. Entom., iii., 162-167, July, 1880. 
 
 f Comptes Rendus, xci., 395-397, August, 1880. 
 
48 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 plunged into the silk the caterpillar has spun for 
 the purpose, and, becoming entangled in it, keep 
 the chrysalis in place. In the family of blues and 
 hair-streaks, where the chrys- 
 alis is bound closely to the 
 surface of rest, and the last 
 joint of the abdomen is curved 
 under the bodv, these hooks 
 
 a b 
 
 _, are seated upon the segment 
 
 Fio. 64 a, La=t segment 
 
 there is invariably some pro- 
 longation of the tip, which 
 bristles with hooks. 
 
 By this review, we see how admirably the form 
 and projections, the position and inactivity of 
 the chrysalis are adapted to its purpose. Great 
 changes are to transpire in the hidden recesses of 
 the body ; the outer integument becomes a com- 
 pa,ct, hardened case, protected at every needed 
 point by roughened projections or callous shoul- 
 ders ; all the appendages are securely ensheathed 
 and so cemented to the outer integument as to 
 form part and parcel of it, without disturbing its 
 contours ; all unnecessary openings are firmly 
 closed, and those that remain are carefully guarded 
 by dense callous spots ; and in addition hooked 
 claws, attached to the thickened tail, fasten the 
 swinging mummy securely in its place. From 
 this inert mass shall suddenly spring, like well- 
 
THE CHRYSALIS. 49 
 
 clad Minerva from the head of Jove, a creature of 
 no apparent kinship either with the case that en- 
 wrapped it or the lowly worm that preceded the 
 chrysalis ; a creature with soft, elastic body, 
 buoyant as the air in which it floats, with spread- 
 ing feelers and broad-spanned wings, clothed with 
 jewelled dust and silken hair, which reflect the 
 colors of the rainbow, and in their delicate com- 
 binations defy the painter's palette. But how did 
 such a creature, whose plumage is ruffled by a 
 breath of wind, escape from its iron prison, hard- 
 ened by months of exposure to wintry cold and 
 sleet and sun in rapid succession \ There is a 
 weak point in every structure, and in the chrys- 
 alis it lies next the point of greatest strength in 
 the captive butterfly. The butterfly never emerges 
 in winter, but when the more genial showers of 
 spring or the damp air of a summer's night have 
 softened the texture of its prison- walls, they are 
 further weakened by the moisture now exuded 
 by the twice- bound prisoner feeling the hour of 
 final release draw near. A suture along the crest 
 of the thorax gives way, often with a perceptible 
 click, to the force of the great muscular mass 
 within ; the rest is easy ; the rent is continued on 
 both sides down other sutures, until a door is 
 open, whose smooth inner walls suffer no harm to 
 the delicate creature struggling to escape. Slowly 
 the limbs are withdrawn from their encasements, 
 
50 THE CHRYSALIS. 
 
 cautiously the butterfly climbs the friendly twig 
 that has been its support, and sitting in the sun- 
 shine dries its moist quivering wings, gently fan- 
 ning them up and down, until, full of new life 
 and courage, it ventures forth a thing of beauty 
 and a joy forever. 
 
CHAPTER IY. 
 
 THE BUTTEKFLY. 
 
 MORE than fifty years ago, that prince of 
 dreamers, Oken, wrote as follows :* " The insect 
 passes through three stages prior to its attaining 
 the adult or perfect condition. It is at first 
 Worm, next Crab, then a perfect volant animal 
 with limbs, a Fly." 
 
 How sagacious this observation was appears 
 from what we have already seen. In external 
 form the caterpillar so closely resembles a worm 
 that in common language it is often so called ; it 
 drags its whole length upon the ground ; its body 
 consists of a series of rings placed end to end ; its 
 head, it is true, is more or less separated from the 
 rest of the body, but yet agrees so well in general 
 size and form with the segments behind that the 
 distinction only appears upon examination ; while 
 the difference between the joints forming the 
 future thorax and those of the abdomen can only 
 be traced by careful study. In the pupal stage, 
 although the line of separation between thorax 
 and abdomen is well marked, and the latter is 
 
 * Elements of Physiophilosophy, Engl. ed., p. 542. 
 
52 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 composed of many joints movable one upon 
 another, all special distinction between the head 
 and thorax is lost, and their segments are immov- 
 ably soldered into one common tract. This is an 
 exact temporary repetition of the more important 
 distinctive features of the crab and lobster, where 
 the head and thorax are united by a common 
 shield into a cephalo thorax, while the joints of 
 the abdomen are freely movable. This, then, is 
 what Oken meant when he pointedly calls the 
 pupa, Crab. 
 
 When we reach the final stage of the butterfly's 
 life, which we shall now consider, we find its 
 prime distinction to be the clustering of the joints 
 of its body into three perfectly separate regions- 
 head, thorax, and abdomen, each with its peculiar 
 and differently developed appendages. 
 
 Now, since the worm-like or larval stage of in- 
 sects is the most immature, and the crustacean 
 or pupal stage lies intermediate between it and 
 the perfect form, Agassiz urges, in his remark- 
 able " Essay on the classification of insects,"* 
 that worms, Crustacea, and insects are three classes 
 of one type of the animal kingdom, of which 
 worms must be considered the lowest and insects 
 the highest. On the same ground he divides the 
 insects themselves into three groups, and places 
 
 * Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge, vol. ii. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY, 53 
 
 lowest among them the myriapods, as caterpillar 
 or worm-like insects ; in the middle place the 
 spiders, as pupal or crustacean insects ; and high- 
 est of all the true or hexapod insects with their 
 triregional body. 
 
 How far-reaching, then, is the relation between 
 the earlier and the perfected form of insects, and 
 of how much importance it is to study the suc- 
 cessive stages of development of animal life. Do 
 we not here see, too, what indissoluble bonds 
 unite the general features of structure among 
 allied creatures and the historical development of 
 each ? How complicated, comprehensive, divine a 
 plan runs through the organization and relation- 
 ship of animal life ! Unless we can in some meas- 
 ure comprehend and regard that plan, we lose 
 sight of at least one chief end of the prodigality 
 of nature the harmony of divine and human 
 thought. 
 
 Let us pass now to the consideration of the 
 changes which the different parts and organs of 
 the insects we are discussing have undergone. 
 We shall compare these directly with the corre- 
 sponding parts of the caterpillar, because, in treat- 
 ing of the structure of the chrysalis, at least so 
 far as the appendages are concerned, we have 
 really described the appearance, not of the ap- 
 pendages themselves, but of the sheaths in which 
 they were inclosed. In reality the difference be- 
 
54: THE BUTTERFLY, 
 
 tween the chrysalis and the imago is far less than 
 that between the caterpillar and the chrysalis, the 
 wrinkled sheaths of the chrysalis confining parts 
 which differ in little more than size from the per- 
 fected organs of the imago. It is into the period 
 of quiescence at the close of the caterpillar state, 
 a period of only twenty-four to forty-eight hours, 
 that are crowded nearly all the really wonderful 
 alterations of structure in these insects, alterations 
 which affect not only the form 
 and relationship of the external 
 parts, but also those of all the in- 
 ternal organs. 
 
 The head of the butterfly [Fig. 
 65] differs somewhat in general 
 form from that of the caterpillar, 
 the sides being greatly enlarged 
 and occupied by a pair of com- 
 
 Fro. 65.-Side view 
 
 ofheadofEpargyreud pound eyes of enormous extent, 
 
 Tityrus, nat. size. 
 
 supplanting the minute area oc- 
 cupied by the simple ocelli of the larva, or the 
 more extended and highly organized ocellar riband 
 of the pupa ; these eyes are convex hemispheres, 
 whose face is divided into innumerable hexagonal 
 facets scarcely more than one-hundredth of a 
 millimetre in diameter, arranged with great regu- 
 larity, each with its underlying structure of rod 
 and nerve, representing a single eye. 
 The immense development of the eyes has quite 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 55 
 
 altered the relation of the different parts of the 
 head ; in the caterpillar the antennae lay directly 
 beneath the crescent of ocelli ; in the butterfly, 
 on the contrary, they are situated directly above 
 the eyes ; the expansion of the ocellar field has 
 been at the expense of the parts above it, and in 
 this contraction the antennae have passed upward 
 in front of the growing ocellar field until they are 
 found quite above it. In the perfect stage of 
 many of the lower lepidopterous insects, and in 
 a single one of our butterflies, a pair of ocelli are 
 found directly behind the antennae, and are, ap- 
 parently, the hindmost of the larval ocelli, which, 
 it will be recollected, form no part of the little cres- 
 cent in which the others fall, and do not modify 
 the form of the pupal ocellar riband ; these ocelli 
 have passed around the growing ocellar field on 
 the opposite side, to find themselves at last nearer 
 than before to the antennae, which have travelled 
 by the opposite road. 
 
 The antennae themselves have undergone as 
 profound a change in their structure as in their 
 position ; in the larva they closely resemble the 
 maxillae, being made up of a very few joints 
 steadily decreasing in size, the penultimate bearing 
 a long and simple bristle. In the perfect butter- 
 fly they are composed of a great number of joints 
 which may be grouped into three parts the base, 
 the stalk, and the club ; the first two joints form 
 
56 . THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 the base, and differ from the remainder in their 
 greater size ; most of the movements of the anten- 
 nae are due to the freedom of motion of these basal 
 joints ; the stalk is a mere jointed thread, and the 
 club only an enlargement of the final joints, 
 where they lose in length what they gain in thick- 
 ness [Fig. 66] ; the extent and shape of this club 
 vary widely among butterflies and often form a 
 valuable guide to their real relationship. The 
 antennae may be bare or they may 
 be clothed to a greater or less extent 
 with scales similar to those which 
 cover the wings ; but in the latter case 
 there is nearly always a naked space 
 along the under surface, and particu- 
 larly on the club, where it is provid- 
 FIG. 66.-cinb ed with microscopic pits, connecting 
 
 of antenna of Xan- . 
 
 thidia Nicippe, with delicate nerves, which are un- 
 
 X 25. The view 
 
 innS iow f erside he doubtedly organs of sense, but whose 
 
 use is not yet fully understood. 
 Coming next to the mouth-parts of the butterfly, 
 we shall find it difficult to believe that the won- 
 derful apparatus by which the insect now pro- 
 cures its food in the depths of tubular flowers is 
 simply a development of parts already in exist- 
 ence in an earlier stage, when by means of horny 
 jaws it made such havoc among the leaves of 
 its food-plant. The principal mouth-parts are a 
 long, slender, flexible tube, rolled up precisely 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 57 
 
 like a watch-spring ; and, guarding it on either 
 side, a large jointed appendage, densely clothed 
 with scales and hairs, and often projecting for- 
 ward or upward like feathery horns. No other 
 parts are visible, and even when we remove these 
 mufflers of the head, and expose all the parts 
 about the mouth, we shall be puzzled to know 
 what has become of the caterpillar's varied forag- 
 ing parapherna- 
 lia. Its labrum 
 was a swinging 
 flap of mem- 
 brane by which 
 it appeared to 
 force its food 
 between its 
 jaws ; its biting 
 mandibles mas- 
 sive horny 
 plates with 
 chiseled edges, 
 by means of which it nibbled the leaves ; the 
 former is now represented [Fig. 67] by a slight 
 rounded immovable projection of the front, whose 
 only office is to serve as a support to the base of 
 the long spiral tongue ; and the latter, the main 
 agents of the caterpillar's work, are reduced to 
 two little triangular projections, one on either 
 side of the tongue ; they are now soldered firmly 
 
 met 
 
 FIG. 67. Front view of head of Danais Archip- 
 pus, with the scales removed ; oc, compound eyirs; 
 a a, base of antennae; cl, clypeus ; If), labrnm; 
 md. mandible, edged with bristles; tk, base of the 
 maxillae or spiral tongue; x 10 (Burgess). 
 
58 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 to the head and remain as relics of a former stage. 
 Rudimentary organs are by no means uncom- 
 mon among animals, even where they never are 
 of the slightest use to the creature during any 
 portion of "its present life. Viewed in the light 
 of modern scientific investigation into the history 
 and relationship of animals, we are quite justified 
 in concluding that organs, having no full devel- 
 opment and no present use, must in some past 
 period have had their full part to play in the 
 economy of the animal in which they are found. 
 " Rudimentary organs," says Darwin,* " may be 
 compared with the letters in a word, still retained 
 in the spelling, but become useless in the pronun- 
 ciation, but which serve as a clue in seeking for 
 its derivation." Such organs, therefore, possess 
 the highest interest, and it was on this account 
 that I felt justified on a preceding page in specu- 
 lating on the possible meaning of the ocellar belt 
 of the chrysalis. 
 
 From the mandibles we pass to the neighboring 
 organs, the maxillae. In the larva, these parts 
 consist, on either side, of a pair of appendages of 
 simple structure, seated on a common hemispher- 
 ical prominence and possessing only the power of 
 withdrawal and protrusion ; the outer and larger 
 consists of several joints ; the inner of only a 
 
 * Origin of Species, sixth ed., p. 402. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 59 
 
 single joint, which becomes enormously devel- 
 oped in the butterfly to form a sucking organ of 
 curious construction ; while the outer appendage 
 becomes the maxillary palpus, reduced to a couple 
 of minute joints or even less, only to be detected 
 by the most careful observer, and physiologically 
 null. As this sucking mouth is one of the most 
 characteristic parts of the perfect butterfly, we 
 will examine it more closely. Although almost 
 
 ant. 
 
 FIG. 68. Cross-section of the maxillae or tongue of Danais Plexippus (the 
 anterior portion uppermost) to show the mode in which the two halves unite 
 to form a central canal (c); fr% tracheae; n, nerves ; m, ra 2 , muscles of one side; 
 X about 125 (Burgess). 
 
 entirely concealed when coiled, it is frequently as 
 long as the entire body, and consists of two lat- 
 eral halves united down the middle ; each part is 
 composed of an immense number of short, trans- 
 verse rings, which are convex on the outer sur- 
 face, concave on the inner [Fig. 68] ; and it is by 
 the union of these inner concavities that a central 
 tube is formed. The lateral rings are also partial- 
 ly hollow, and have, therefore, been supposed by 
 
60 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 some to form the sucking tube, in which case the 
 insect might be said to have two mouths, for there 
 would be two entrances to the oesophagus. This, 
 however, is not the case, the interior of each lat- 
 eral half being filled with muscles, tracheae, and 
 nerves for the movement of the organ. The rings 
 of which it is composed are made up of a great 
 number of plates, united by the more yielding 
 part of the cuticle, allowing of great freedom of 
 motion. These rings throw off, at the points 
 where the convex and concave sides meet, a series 
 of oblique, curving plates or hooks, which, when 
 the two maxillae are brought together, interlace 
 in the most complete manner, to form a perfectly 
 flexible yet impervious tube. The outer walls of 
 the lateral tubes are supplied with curious papil- 
 lae of greatly varying shapes, size, and abundance 
 in different groups [see Figs. 178, 179], but, in 
 general, more highly organized and abundant in 
 the highest family. These must probably be re- 
 garded as organs of taste. Within either half of 
 the maxillae, oblique muscles exist [Fig. 69] serv- 
 ing to coil the whole into the watch-spring-like 
 form in which it is packed away when at rest. 
 
 But now that we comprehend the structure of 
 this wonderful piece of mechanism, and can ap- 
 preciate the change that has been wrought in its 
 development from an utterly simple, almost 
 microscopic joint, do we understand any better its 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 61 
 
 actual use in extracting honey from flowers ? 
 Some have thought that the upward flow was due 
 to capillary motion ; some to the action of the so- 
 called sucking stomach, a sac-like expansion of 
 the alimentary canal just 
 in advance of the true 
 stomach ; others that it is 
 forced on by successive 
 undulations and contrac- 
 tions of the tube itself. 
 The investigations of one 
 of oar own naturalists* 
 has, however, recently 
 shown the existence of a 
 muscular sac within the 
 head [Fig. 70], at the 
 origin of the alimentary 
 tract, furnished with a 
 valve at its front extrem- 
 ity where it opens into 
 the maxillary canal. 
 When the radiating mus- 
 cles running from the 
 walls of the head to the periphery of this sac are 
 contracted [Fig. 71], the sac is opened, and into 
 the vacuum thus produced the fluids into which 
 the maxillae are plunged ascend. On the relaxa- 
 
 FIG. 69. Longitudinal section of 
 one maxilla of Danais Plexippus to 
 show the interior muscles (m) 
 which coil it and the nerve (ri) and 
 the trachea (tr) which pass through 
 it; X about 125 (Burgess). 
 
 * E. Burgess, Amer. Nat., xiv., 313-319. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 tion of these muscles and the squeezing of the sac 
 by the muscles which encircle it, the fluids, pre- 
 vented by the valve from retreating the way they 
 came, are forced down the alimentary canal. 
 
 The only part of the head of which we have not 
 spoken is the labium and its appendages ; in the 
 
 FIG. 70. Longitudinal section of head of Danais Plexippus to show the 
 pharyngeal sac ; mx, left maxilla, the right being removed ; wfl, floor of the 
 mouth cavity or sac ; oe, oesophagus ; ov, oral valve ; srf, salivary duct ; dm 
 and //ft, dorsal and frontal muscles which open the sac ; the cut ends of the 
 transversely encircling muscles are seen above the sac, X 20 (Burgess). 
 
 larva these consisted of the spinneret, and on 
 either side of it a minute jointed palpus like that 
 of the maxillae. In the butterfly, the spinneret 
 is gone, but the palpi have become developed into 
 a three-jointed organ, often of considerable size, 
 with inflated joints, all profusely clothed with 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 63 
 
 scales and hairs, forming a bristling guard on 
 either side of the face [see Fig. 65]. The size and 
 relations of the different joints vary considerably 
 in different groups ; they may all be very small 
 and look as if they were merely the scaly cover- 
 ing of the front of the face, or they may pro- 
 
 p.m ._ 
 
 FIG. 71. Interior view of the bottom of the head of Danais Plexippus to show 
 the top of the pharyngeal sac and the muscles which distend it, X 16 ; cl, 
 clypens ; cor, cornea of the eye ; oe, oesophagus ; the muscles are : fm, the 
 frontal ; dm,, the dorsal, and Im, the lateral ; pm, muscles moving the palpus 
 (Burgess). 
 
 ject straight forward with a threatening aspect 
 almost as far as the antennae. 
 
 We pass now to the middle region of the body, 
 the thorax. Here the first segment, or prothorax, 
 is reduced to a most insignificant part, and the 
 only wonder is that it is capable of .supporting a 
 
64 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 pair of legs, often as large as the others [Fig. 
 
 72]. The middle and hinder segments together 
 
 form a compact vaulted oval mass, wholly con- 
 cealed by scales and hairs, but di- 
 vided by a number of sutures into 
 the many parts which form the seg- 
 ments of the thorax. The middle 
 segment, moreover, is developed to 
 PIG. 72. -Pro- a ^ ar larger extent than the hind- 
 
 ofSfso a thorai 01 of most, in order to carry the front 
 
 Vanessa Atalanta, . , . _ ,,. , , 
 
 with scales remov- wings, which during night are 
 obliged to meet in great measure 
 the resistance of the wind, and are therefore fur- 
 nished with more muscles. 
 
 The appendages of the thorax are the legs, 
 wings, and shoulder lappets. As in the earlier 
 stages, a pair of legs is attached to each segment, 
 but these legs are very different from the old ap- 
 pendages ; they are now mere sticks, each divided 
 into five principal pieces, called coxa, trochanter, 
 femur, tibia, and tarsus. The coxae or haunches 
 are often prominent, having the shape of pyra- 
 midal stems, more than half consolidated with 
 the body and with each other, extending ob- 
 liquely downward and backward, and forming in 
 this way a strong support to the hinder part of 
 the thorax, which is the real centre of gravity of 
 the body. The trochanter is only a short joint 
 between the haunches and the thighs, carrying the 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 65 
 
 base of the latter a little outward and giving them 
 greater freedom of motion. With the thighs, or 
 femora, the principal part of the movable leg be- 
 gins [see Figs. 172-177] ; they are straight, long, 
 and slender, perfectly simple in structure and 
 clothed only with scales or hairs, the latter often 
 forming fringes along the edge ; in them lies 
 most of the muscular mass of the legs ; the tibiae 
 or shanks are also straight, but much slenderer 
 than the thighs and of about the same length ; 
 when the insect is resting or walking they are 
 usually held at about right angles with the 
 thighs ; they are always scaled, and generally 
 furnished throughout with one or two rows of 
 spines, besides a pair of longer movable spines or 
 spurs at the tip. In the lowest butterflies the 
 front tibiae bear a slender leal-like appendage 
 projecting from the middle of the inner sur- 
 face, and clothed with a velvety down [see Fig. 
 173] ; its use or purport is wholly unknown, but 
 its position reminds us of the extraordinary tym- 
 pana on the front legs of crickets and long-horned 
 grasshoppers, which are unquestionably organs 
 of hearing and occur only in those groups which 
 stridulate the loudest. The few butterflies, how- 
 ever, which are known to produce sounds belong 
 to the highest family of Lepidoptera, in which 
 this structure is totally absent ; and whatever its 
 use it is probably only a modified spur, such as 
 
66 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 is sometimes found on the hind shanks ; certainly 
 it originates at the same spot. 
 
 The tarsi, or feet, are normally composed of five 
 joints, of which the first is usually as long as all 
 the rest, and in the male is occasionally swollen ; 
 with this exception they are slenderer than the 
 shank, and their combined length generally ex- 
 ceeds it [see Figs. 173-177] ; they are scaled and 
 more or less spiny like the shank, and a pair of 
 the terminal spines of each joint usually exceed 
 the others in- length ; the extremity of the last 
 segment, however, is armed in a different way by 
 claws, paronychia, and foot pads ; the claws are a 
 pair of divergent curving hooks, each hook some- 
 times deeply cleft so as to be double ; the pa- 
 ronychia, or whitlows, are curious membranous 
 expansions, which almost encircle the base of the 
 claws and are developed in various ways, at the 
 sides, or beneath, into flexible imitations of 
 them ; sometimes they are wholly obliterated, 
 but they are generally either absent or somewhat 
 similarly developed in all the members of the 
 same large group. The foot pads are fleshy mem- 
 branous flaps, often pedunculated, attached to the 
 base of the claws, and serving as soles for the 
 feet ; these, too, are sometimes wanting, especially 
 where the paronychia are absent. 
 
 As a general rule the six legs are similar in 
 structure and proportions ; but further on [see 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 67 
 
 Figs. 174-177] I shall call attention to the curi- 
 ous fact that just as the first segment of the 
 thorax becomes less and less developed as the in- 
 sect changes from caterpillar to chrysalis and 
 from chrysalis to imago, so, in passing from the 
 lower to the higher groups, we shall find a grad- 
 ual atrophy of the legs borne by the first segment 
 of the thorax ; first, the different joints contract 
 in size ; next, they lose a part of their armature ; 
 then, adjoining parts become consolidated, imtil, 
 finally, the tarsus forms only a single piece, 
 spines, spurs, pad, paronychia, and claws all dis- 
 appear, and the whole leg becomes so shrunken 
 as to be utterly useless and readily overlooked ; 
 practically, the animal has passed from a six- 
 legged to a four-legged condition ; in this instance 
 we can trace every step in the change ; and al- 
 though, in the extremest case of atrophy, the 
 front legs have not reached so low a stage as to 
 be classed with wholly rudimentary organs, yet 
 it is plain both that they are well on the way and 
 that their original condition that is, the condi- 
 tion of their ancestors was one in which the 
 front legs were fully developed, like the others. 
 How far back in time this would lead us, we can- 
 not guess ; the geological record now carries but- 
 terflies back toward the end of the lower terti- 
 aries ; but some of the earliest fossil butterflies 
 belong to the highest portion of the highest 
 
68 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 family, and are intimately allied to forms now 
 living ; portions only of the legs are preserved on 
 such specimens as have been found ; but while 
 the evidence is certainly negative, it should at 
 least be remarked that there is no indication that 
 the condition of the fore-legs of these ancient 
 creatures differed in any way from that of their 
 allies of to-day ; so we are forced to believe that 
 in exploring the rocks we have not begun to 
 reach the early forms of butterfly life. 
 
 We come now to the consideration of the wings 
 of butterflies. Not to mention for the moment 
 their exquisite beauty, they possess a deep inter- 
 est in that they are totally new structures, and 
 the first we have met in our review of the charac- 
 teristics of the perfect insect. The parts we have 
 before examined tongue, palpi, eyes, antennae, 
 legs though very different indeed from the 
 organs of the caterpillar, have nevertheless been 
 represented in it by corresponding parts ; while 
 we should look there in vain for any external 
 trace of wings. The mode of their origin we shall 
 mention later, since, strange to say, it must be 
 considered in treating of the internal parts ; but 
 the structure of the completed organ merits our 
 closest attention. 
 
 The wings of butterflies, like those of all in- 
 sects, are attached, one pair to the middle and 
 the other to the hinder segment of the thorax, 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 69 
 
 und consist of two membranes stretched upon a 
 framework of tubular rods, which run between. 
 In butterflies and moths, this framework and 
 membrane are almost wholly concealed by a thick 
 layer of minute scales, which overlie one another 
 like slates on the roof of 
 a house [Fig. 73] ; this 
 covering has gained for 
 these insects the scien- 
 tific name of Lepidop- 
 tera, or scaly-winged in- 
 sects ; and it is probably 
 on account of this con- 
 cealment that the mode FIG. 73. Arrangement of scales on 
 ,, n . ., wings of Lepidoptera, enlarged. 
 
 of distribution of the 
 
 rods forming the framework of the wing is one 
 of the simplest among insects, although the but- 
 terflies themselves rank high in the order. Nature 
 seems to sport with everything that is external, 
 variety being the law as well as " the very spice of 
 life ;" for while the hidden and interior parts of 
 the organization of animals differ in the main 
 only as they aifect or are affected by their habits 
 and dire requirements, the outer parts are attired 
 with a wanton display of luxurious color or grace- 
 ful or even grotesque form and contour, which 
 bewitch our senses, and, the naturalist in search of 
 real affinities among animals would add, confuse 
 our judgment ; so while the colors and patterns 
 
70 
 
 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 of a butterfly's wing beggar all description and 
 outwit imagination, the framework of the gauze 
 on which nature has set the mosaic is of the very 
 simplest kind ; in only one group (Heliconii) 
 does it show any aberration and surprise us by 
 odd turns and unexpected meanderings of the 
 
 veins ; and this is 
 the one group of 
 butterflies in 
 whose wings we 
 find large patches 
 of membrane de- 
 void of scales. 
 
 The normal 
 number of veins 
 in the wings of 
 insects is six, dis- 
 posed to a certain 
 extent in pairs 
 [Fig. 74]; the 
 middle pair usu- 
 
 FIG. 74. Veins of the wing in Danaie Plexip- ally branch to a 
 pus, nat. size. 
 
 greater extent 
 
 than the others, and support most of the mem- 
 brane of the wing. In butterflies the foremost 
 vein is always absent, and very commonly also 
 the hindmost, so that there are only five (often 
 only four) principal veins, rather inappropriately 
 designated costal, subcostal, median, submedian, 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 71 
 
 and, when present; internal. The costal, subme- 
 dian, and internal veins are invariably simple 
 and terminate at the 
 margin or even disap- 
 pear before reaching 
 it. The subcostal and 
 median veins, on the 
 other hand, are as 
 invariably branched, 
 and with their off- 
 shoots support nearly 
 the entire wing [Fig. 
 75] ; the subcostal 
 vein curves downward 
 and the median up- 
 ward so as to meet, 
 
 or nearly meet, about the middle of the wing, and 
 to inclose between them a large space called the 
 discoidal cell ; all the branches of the median vein 
 are thrown off from its lower side 
 before union with the subcostal vein ; 
 the principal branches of the sub- 
 costal vein, on the other hand, are 
 thrown off from its upper side [Pig. 
 76] ; but as the vein curves down- 
 ward at the extremity of the cell, 
 another set is thrown off, at least in 
 the front wings, from the lower side ; and it is 
 these branches, rather than the subcostal vein 
 
 FIG. 75. Veins of the wing in Laertias 
 Philenor, nat. size. 
 
 Fio. 76. Veins 
 of the wing in 
 Euphyes M e t a - 
 comet, nat. size. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 proper, which unite with the median vein to 
 close the cell. None of the median nor any of 
 the inferior subcostal branches are ever forked ; 
 but at the apex of the front wing, where the 
 play of neuration is usually the greatest, the 
 last superior subcostal branch is occasionally 
 forked. 
 
 The neuration of the wings, then, consists of an 
 upper and a lower (or two lower) simple straight 
 veins, and a pair of middle veins which unite 
 with or approach each other near the centre of 
 the wing ; and from the outer edge of the cell or 
 loop thus formed throw off to the border a num- 
 ber of branches. 
 
 The wings of butterflies are very large in pro- 
 portion to the body and are subtriangular in 
 shape, particularly the front pair ; here the 
 broadest side is at the front, and is always more 
 or less convex, and closely crowded with the 
 strongest veins ; just as in a bird or a bat the 
 bones of the wings lie next the front margin, 
 where the greatest resistance is required ; in the 
 hind wings of butterflies, where no such special 
 resistance occurs, the veins are almost equally dis- 
 tributed, and the wing itself is of a more quad- 
 rangular shape, extending equally backward and 
 outward, so as to bring the middle of the plane 
 of the combined wings opposite the centre of 
 gravity of the entire body. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 73 
 
 At the base of the anterior margin of the fore 
 wing is a horny scale, such as occurs in many 
 other insects [see Fig. 72], These scales improp- 
 erly bear different names in different orders, and 
 in butterflies are termed patagia or shoulder lap- 
 pets ; they protect the extreme base of the wing, 
 and being attached to the body only at their front 
 margin, are movable and do not interfere with the 
 free action of the wing ; being covered, like the 
 thorax, with scales and hairs, they are noticeable 
 only when these are removed, appearing in their 
 natural condition to f orm a part of the solid body. 
 Whether they should be considered as an element 
 of the middle thoracic ring, or an appendage to 
 the same, has not been proved ; from analogy 
 with other parts in the abdomen, it seems prob- 
 able that, like the wings, being useful to the in- 
 sect only in its perfect stage, they also are new 
 structures, and not modifications of parts already 
 existing in the caterpillar. 
 
 The only other point of interest in the thorax 
 are the spiracles, of which there is only a single 
 pair, opening upon the scaly membrane at the 
 hind border of the front segment ; as in the 
 earlier stages, spiracles are wanting upon the 
 middle and last segments of the thorax, where 
 the wings occur. We shall again refer to this 
 point. 
 
 About half the bulk of the butterfly's body is 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 composed of the abdomen, though in the female 
 when heavy with eggs it will often doubly out- 
 weigh the parts in front ; externally, however, it 
 is the least interesting part of the body. It is 
 composed of eight simple rings covered with 
 scales, variegated, if at all, only by stripes or 
 series of dots, and bearing upon the sides of the 
 first seven segments a pair of spiracles entirely 
 concealed by scales. As in other insects, one 
 finds at the extremity pieces of very variable con- 
 struction, which here, more perhaps than else- 
 where, have the appearance of forming parts of 
 still other rings ; they are, however, only append- 
 ages of the last and the penultimate segments ; 
 this is proved by what is 
 known of their origin and 
 mode of growth in other in- 
 sects, where they often have 
 an extraordinary development, 
 as ovipositors or stings in one 
 sex or as nippers in the other. 
 They are entirely new struc- 
 tures, arising in the pupal 
 stage, first as mere tubercles, 
 then as outgrowths from the 
 inferior plates of the body, but 
 afterward becoming attached to various portions 
 of the last two segments, in such a way as to 
 allow them a certain freedom of motion, and often 
 
 FIG. 77. Asymmetrical 
 appendages of the right 
 and left sides of the abdo- 
 men in Thanaos Eiinius, 
 X 10. 
 
THE BUTTERFLY. 75 
 
 to obscure their real origin. In certain male but- 
 terflies these parts are asymmetrical [Fig. 77], 
 that is, they are not altogether similar in ap- 
 pearance upon the two sides, a phenomenon diffi- 
 cult of explanation. 
 
CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 WE have now discussed the salient points of 
 the external structure of caterpillars, chrysalids, 
 and butterflies. We shall not consider their in- 
 ternal organs at such length, partly because they 
 cannot in themselves possess so great a general 
 interest, and also because they have not yet been 
 sufficiently studied to enable one to present a de- 
 tailed and impartial review. After a short survey 
 in this chapter of their peculiarities in the cater- 
 pillar, we shall turn at once to their appearance 
 in the butterfly, and trace one by one the steps 
 by which the changes are effected. 
 
 In considering the external crust of the animal 
 and its appendages, we have been able by its 
 very organization to examine each part separately 
 without confusion ; and even to recur readily to 
 its characteristics when we afterward wished to 
 follow its development ; for, by the division of 
 the body into distinct regions, and of the regions 
 into separate rings, each bearing its special ap- 
 pendages, the mind could readily locate these and 
 recall them when necessary. When, however, 
 we come to the internal parts, the case is gener- 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 77 
 
 ally different ; for the organs run in a longitu- 
 dinal course through the body and disregard in 
 great measure not only the jointed structure but 
 even the regional distinctions of the body. To 
 systematize our examination, therefore, we must 
 treat them differently, and separating them into 
 natural subdivisions according to their functions 
 discuss them in that sequence which promises to 
 give us the clearest conception of their use. 
 
 As the basis of the whole, we have the struc- 
 tural framework of the animal, its outer crust ; 
 and since power of movement is the primal need 
 of a living creature, we shall first consider the 
 muscular system, through which the framework 
 and its appendages are moved ; next we will take 
 up the digestive system, the province of which is 
 to prepare crude nutriment for the insect ; the 
 further preparation of this nutriment by oxygen- 
 ation requires that we should follow with the res- 
 piratory system ; and the distribution of the 
 nutriment over the body by the circulatory sys- 
 tem completes the circuit of the relation of food 
 to the creature ; but whether the natural action 
 of these systems be voluntary, as in the first men- 
 tioned, partly voluntary and partly involuntary, 
 as in the second, or wholly involuntary, as in the 
 last two, they all require to be brought into rela- 
 tion to the will of the animal, or their vital action 
 ceases ; we therefore consider next the nervous 
 
78 INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 system, the seat of volition and sensation. In 
 discussing the earlier stages of the insect, we shall 
 next take up the glandular or secretory system, 
 since its sole independent representative is the 
 organ which serves to secrete silk, by means of 
 which the caterpillar is able to walk where it 
 needs to procure nourishment. These are all the 
 systems which have to do simply with the life of 
 the individual, but there is still another, the re- 
 productive, which must take the highest place as 
 related to the life of the species ; in tfye caterpil- 
 lar this remains in an embryonic condition, a con- 
 dition of preparation for future development ; 
 and finally we shall consider briefly the cellular 
 system, which is almost entirely confined to the 
 larval stage and is intimately related to all the 
 other systems. 
 
 The celebrated Lyonet counted more than four 
 thousand distinct muscles in a single caterpillar, 
 but we will admire his wonderful patience only 
 at a distance, and merely remark that the mus- 
 cular system of caterpillars consists almost en- 
 tirely of flat ribbons, made up of simple muscular 
 fibre. The head, however, with its numerous 
 movable organs, forms a partial exception, for it 
 is mostly filled with conical muscular bundles, 
 lying in a compact mass side by side, with their 
 smaller ends attached to the mandibles by means 
 of a tendinous cord in which they all terminate, 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 79 
 
 and their base to the walls of the head, especially 
 the posterior portion, which is quite crowded with 
 them ; these muscles serve to draw the jaws to- 
 gether ; and since most of a caterpillar's time is 
 spent in feeding, their monopoly of the head- 
 cavity is explained. In the body, the riband- 
 like character of the muscles is fully developed, 
 but the continuity of the ribands is constantly 
 broken, for no one muscle ever crosses more than 
 two contiguous segments ; generally they pass 
 from the hinder end of one to the hinder end of 
 the next ; this accounts for the vast number 
 counted by Lyonet, and is incident to the jointed 
 character of the body, which, as we have said, lies 
 at the very foundation of its structure. These mus- 
 cles may be divided into three classes longitu- 
 dinal, oblique, and transverse ; the longitudinal 
 bands are made up of short muscles, each a seg- 
 ment in length, lying end to end, so as to give the 
 effect of long ribands, extending the whole length 
 of the body ; there are several such bands, each 
 of considerable width, and they form the inner 
 wall of the body. Just beneath them lie the 
 oblique muscles, which always extend from the 
 hinder end of one segment to the hinder end of 
 the next, and are found mostly upon the sides. 
 The transverse muscles lie next the skin, are 
 mostly confined to the sides, and those of one 
 segment are entirely independent of those of any 
 
80 'INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 other ; these are brought into use principally at 
 the time of moulting. In the legs and prolegs 
 the walls are coated with short muscular ribands, 
 uniting the hinder portions of contiguous joints, 
 a miniature of the longitudinal muscles of the 
 body ; but besides these, a tendinous cord runs 
 through the middle of the true legs, attached at 
 one extremity to the claw, and connected through- 
 out with muscles running obliquely to the walls 
 of the leg. 
 
 The digestive system consists of an alimentary 
 canal with anterior and posterior appendages ; 
 the canal is a simple, cylindrical, muscular tube 
 extending in a straight line from one end of the 
 body to the other, enlarging in certain places and 
 contracting in others, so that it may be divided 
 very naturally into an oesophagus, a stomach, 
 and an intestine. The oesophagus is a simple 
 slender tube, enlarging to a sort of crop near the 
 middle of the thoracic joints ; the stomach is a 
 much larger tube, of uniform size, extending 
 nearly to the extremity of the body and covered 
 with muscular threads, which run transversely, 
 diagonally, and longitudinally ; at about the sev- 
 enth abdominal segment this tube suddenly con- 
 tracts, and opens by a slender orifice to the intes- 
 tine, the anterior half of which is tightly wrapped 
 in strong muscular fibre, running in various direc- 
 tions, so as to mould the interior walls into prom- 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 81 
 
 inent longitudinal ridges ; while the posterior 
 half, or colon, is smoother and less muscular 
 within [Fig. 78]. 
 
 The anterior appendages to the intestinal canal 
 are a pair of salivary glands, little white threads 
 having their origin near the commencement of the 
 oesophagus, and running along this nearly to 
 the stomach. The posterior appendages are a 
 pair of malpighian vessels, also composed of ex- 
 ceedingly long slender threads ; they originate on 
 each side of the intestine, and Very soon subdivide 
 into three tortuous branches, which pass forward 
 and backward along the walls of the stomach, and 
 linally, returning to the point from which they 
 started, cover the intestine with a most intricate 
 mass of convoluted threads. 
 
 The respiratory system consists of a series of 
 air- tubes ramifying indefinitely, each set of which 
 originates in a single trunk, opening from one of 
 the numerous spiracles or breathing pores with 
 which we have found the insect provided ; close 
 to the origin of this trunk a large air-canal runs 
 along the sides of the body, connecting all the 
 trunks of one side, while other shoots originate 
 from the canal itself ; and, indeed, as it passes 
 through the second and third thoracic segments, 
 which, as already stated, possess no spiracles, 
 this canal emits large branching trunks just like 
 those of the other segments, directly opposite the 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 83 
 
 spots where one would look for spiracles ; it even 
 sends a small tube from opposite the base of each 
 trunk to the point where the neighboring spiracles 
 should be, which, however, disappears with the 
 growth of the animal. Indeed, we may reason- 
 ably believe that in the original form of the larva 
 it possessed complete breathing organs upon these 
 segments, since they differ from the succeed- 
 ing segments only in the want of spiracles and in 
 the slightly smaller size of the tracheal mass, and 
 of the exceedingly short tube which connects it 
 with the spiracles. 
 
 These air tubes ramify and subdivide infinitely ; 
 a great many of them impinge upon the stomach 
 and encircle it in their grasp, serving in fact as 
 its support ; others penetrate all parts of the 
 muscular mass, embrace every organ and track 
 along every thread of nerve or fibre ; those from 
 the first segment behind the head, after first unit- 
 ing with each other so as to make a perfect com- 
 munication between the tracheae of the two sides 
 of the body, send powerful branches from the 
 point of union into every part of the head, where 
 the minute subdivisions pass into the furthermost 
 joints of the antennae, or into the jaws, while 
 every muscle finds one for its nearest neighbor. 
 
 It is not, however, until we come to consider 
 the circulatory system that we can fully under- 
 stand the meaning of this endless ramification of 
 

 84 IXTltRNAL ORGANS. 
 
 the tracheae, foffit almost forms an integral part 
 of that system. V The centre of circulation is wha,t 
 is known as the dorsal vessel, a straight tube 
 lying along the back directly beneath the skin. 
 This can often be seen through the transparent 
 skin, but on dissection it is very difficult to recog- 
 nize its true structure, so excessively delicate and 
 vague are its bounding walls ; it appears more 
 like a passage-way between other bodies than as 
 a distinct vessel ; and indeed it is often only by 
 tracing its development up to the perfect insect 
 that its actual structure can be clearly deter- 
 mined. The dorsal vessel is open posteriorly and 
 is also furnished along its sides with values open- 
 ing inward and directed forward ; the alternate 
 contraction and expansion of the vessel forces the 
 fluids of the body through these openings and 
 along the canal toward the head ; here the vessel 
 becomes very slender, with more distinct walls, 
 but at the extreme front of the head; near the 
 base of the oesophagus, it terminates, and the 
 fluids enter the general cavity of the body to flow 
 gently to the opposite extremity, and there to be 
 pumped again into the dorsal vessel. 
 
 To understand, however, how oxygenation is 
 effected, we must glance once more at the trachea! 
 tubes. These are really involutions of the exter- 
 nal integument of the insect ; the outer chitinous 
 coat (now become the interior lining) is curiously 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 85 
 
 modified, however, to form a continuous, closely 
 coiled, spiral thread, making an elastic cylinder ; 
 this does not continue throughout the entire 
 trachea, but disappears when the finer ramifica- 
 tions are reached, leaving only the softer epider- 
 mal integuments ; these apical portions of the 
 trachea! vessels, as has been said, are found every- 
 where, piercing the fatty lobules, clasping all the 
 interior organs, tracking along every nerve and 
 muscular fibre, penetrating every tissue, and ter- 
 minating in a mesh- work of interlacing branches, 
 their surfaces everywhere bathed in the fluids 
 which fill the body cavity and flow gently from 
 head to tail by the pulsatory action of the dorsal 
 vessel. Oxygenation, then, is effected by the in- 
 terchange of gases through the delicate mem- 
 branes investing the ultimate tracheal branches, 
 and when effected the purified fluids are at hand 
 to build up the tissues of the body, and have not 
 to be forced to the needed spot by arteries. 
 
 The foundation of the nervous system of cater- 
 pillars is a series of minute horizontal disks or gan- 
 glia lying on the floor of the body cavity along 
 the middle line, and connected with one another 
 by a pair of slender cords, lying side by side ; as 
 this series of disks and connecting cords enters 
 the head, it forms a ganglion just beneath the 
 oesophagus, beyond which the cords embrace the 
 oesophagus, and again unite above in a pair of 
 
86 INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 large globular lobes, which constitute the brain ; 
 in front of these are one or two other exceeding- 
 ly minute disks, similarly connected, called the 
 frontal ganglia. From either side of the brain 
 three principal nervous cords are emitted, one to 
 the ocelli, one to the antennae, and one to the base 
 of the tendinous cord which connects the princi- 
 pal muscles of the head with the mandibles ; the 
 one passing to the ocelli is the largest, tapers 
 until it approaches them, and then expands over 
 a broad area inclosing them all. 
 
 Theoretically there is one ganglion to each seg- 
 ment of the body ; but when we reach the seventh 
 abdominal segment there are two, one close behind 
 the other, and in the succeeding segments none 
 at all ; the hinder and slightly larger one in fact- 
 represents the combined ganglia of the posterior 
 segments, and from it the nervous threads pass to 
 the very extremity of the body. At the sides of 
 all the ganglia, and from the nervous cord just in 
 advance of each ganglion, lateral threads are emit- 
 ted and pass outward toward the walls of the 
 body, branching in every direction, covering each 
 organ and muscle with filaments of nervous tis- 
 sue ; there are two of these principal branching 
 threads on either side of each ganglion, the an- 
 terior generally feeding the upper and the pos- 
 terior the lower half of the body. 
 
 The only organs of special secretion in cater- 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 87 
 
 pillars are the silk- vessels ; these have a distinct 
 outlet on the under lip, which becomes modified 
 to form a spinneret ; from this point a delicate 
 thread runs along the oesophagus to the middle 
 or end of the thoracic part of the body ; there it 
 thickens to form the secreting vessel, a slender 
 flattened riband, running in the same direction 
 along the sides of the alimentary canal to about the 
 middle of the stomach, when it turns a little upon 
 its course, again reverses its direction, and pass- 
 ing above the stomach, continues to its extremity. 
 
 Finally the reproductive system, which relates 
 to the species rather than to the individual, is of 
 extreme simplicity ; it consists mainly of a pair 
 of very minute bodies, either a chambered gland 
 or a consolidated bunch of tubes, forming a sort 
 of sac ; these bodies are situated on either side 
 of the fifth abdominal segment ; from each of 
 them proceeds a thread which runs back a little 
 way, and then down and back along the sides of 
 the body until it has nearly reached the middle 
 line beneath, when it passes through a special 
 band of muscle, and, side by side with its mate, 
 terminates in a common blind sac, situated just 
 beneath the extremity of the intestinal canal. 
 
 The nutriment received into the body is not all 
 absorbed by the formation and continual repair of 
 organs and muscular tissue ; and when the sup- 
 ply is greater than the need, the residue is stored 
 
88 INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 in cellular tissue, to be used at a fixed epoch of 
 the caterpillar's life, when its continued existence 
 depends upon this reserve force. On opening the 
 body, we find a great quantity of fatty matter, in 
 continuous layers of convoluted lobules, strapped 
 down by the muscles between which it has pene- 
 trated, enwrapping the whole intestinal canal, 
 and filling every space that can be found between 
 the different organs of the body. 
 
 This explains the voracity of the caterpillar, 
 and shows that the main end of its existence is to 
 gormandize and grow ; examining its interior, we 
 find that the muscles occupy hardly more space 
 than twice the thickness of the skin to which they 
 are attached ; and their very object is to move the 
 creature to a feeding spot or remove the old in- 
 tegument to admit of a larger growth and a greater 
 capacity for food ; those of the head are almost 
 exclusively attached to the jaws. The general 
 cavity of the body is mostly occupied by the ali- 
 mentary canal and its appendages, the glands and 
 nerves and even the tracheae really requiring an 
 insignificant amount of space ; and whatever is 
 not occupied by these organs, necessary to the 
 assimilation of food, is choked up with the fatty 
 masses embedded in the cellular tissue. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 LET ns now look at the changes which the in- 
 ternal parts undergo, as the caterpillar passes 
 through the chrysalis to the imago state. 
 
 To begin with the muscular system, we find the 
 principal differences between the caterpillar and 
 imago to exist in the head and thorax ; in the 
 abdomen the muscles moving the different joints 
 are much the same, although greatly reduced in 
 size ; the interior of the head, however, presents 
 a very different appearance ; instead of being 
 mainly occupied by muscles moving the horny 
 jaws, the space is nearly all given to brain and 
 optic nerve, and what few muscles there are serve 
 simply to move the antennae, the tongue, and the 
 labial palpi, and to open and close the pharyngeal 
 sac ; these have been developed at the expense of 
 the muscles of the mandibles, which, from occu- 
 pying nearly the whole head, have almost abso- 
 lutely disappeared, since the mandibles are now 
 immovably soldered to the frame-work of the 
 head. The thorax is greatly swollen and the 
 longitudinal muscles, instead of merely lining the 
 
00 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE 
 
 skin, have increased so as to fill more than half of 
 the interior ; the oblique muscles occupy almost 
 all the rest, and both sets retain nearly the same 
 direction as in the larva. These muscular bun- 
 dles, through which the alimentary canal, the 
 dorsal vessel, and the nervous cord seem now 
 scarcely able to find passage, are the muscles of 
 flight ; and yet they touch neither the wings nor 
 their attachments. The flight of butterflies is 
 mainly effected simply by changes in the form of 
 the thorax, produced by the contraction of one or 
 the other set of muscles ; the longitudinal mus- 
 cles, which are the more voluminous, serving to 
 shorten and elevate the thorax, and so depress the 
 wings, while the oblique muscles serve to lengthen 
 and depress the thorax and elevate the wings. 
 The changes that have occurred in the muscular 
 system are due to degeneration and reorganization 
 during pupal life ; even where, as in the longitu- 
 dinal muscles of the thorax, the direction is the 
 same, it should be noticed that they now reach 
 across the second and third thoracic segments 
 without interruption, whereas in the caterpillar 
 they were formed of distinct muscles, each of 
 which crossed only a single segment, though with 
 contiguous ends. 
 
 Transformations have also occurred in the 
 digestive system, and these changes commence in 
 the very earliest stages of pupal life and continue 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 91 
 
 throughout that period ; there is no sign what- 
 ever of any approaching change, so long as the 
 caterpillar continues to feed ; but when it has 
 attained maturity in this stage, the entire con- 
 tents of the alimentary canal are voided, and from 
 this moment the form and relations of the parts 
 begin to change and new parts arise ; first, the 
 whole canal becomes more slender, a natural re- 
 sult of its emptiness ; then the oesophagus and 
 intestine lengthen, at the expense of the stomach, 
 which tapers at either end ; next, the oesophagus 
 swells -just at the entrance of the stomach, and 
 the colon, which has retained a globular form 
 while the intestine grew slender, begins to turn a 
 little from a direct course ; the malpighian vessels, 
 too, formerly attached to the middle of the intes- 
 tine, often begin to approach the extremity of the 
 stomach ; and when they have finally reached it, 
 perhaps only a week after the caterpillar has 
 changed to chrysalis, the little swelling at the end 
 of the oesophagus has grown to a bladder with a 
 minute orifice, and is destined to be at least half 
 as large as the stomach itself upon which it lies ; 
 at the same time, the colon has grown asym- 
 metrical and developed a coecum upon one side. 
 After this, the intestine begins to lengthen and 
 grow tortuous, until, at last, the alimentary tract is 
 often twice as long as the body. The little blad- 
 der at the end of the oesophagus has been consid- 
 
92 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE 
 
 ered by most authors as a pumping stomach, by 
 the exhaustion of which the fluids pass up the 
 spiral tongue ; but we have found that other organs 
 exist sufficient for this purpose, and it seems more 
 probable that it is either a simple air vesicle, 
 rendering the insect more buoyant, or a food res- 
 ervoir, wherein to store and digest at leisure the 
 honeyed sweets obtained on a sunny day. The 
 salivary glands and malpighian vessels do not 
 greatly change in character during the growth of 
 the insect [Pig. 79, on page 82]. 
 
 The respiratory and circulatory systems differ 
 so little in the larval and perfect stages of butter- 
 flies that it is not worth while to dwell upon 
 them. It may simply be remarked with refer- 
 ence to the latter that the dorsal vessel has (1) be- 
 come less vague, with well-defined vascular walls 
 and regular and considerable periodic enlarge- 
 ments ; and that (2) in the thorax it does not fol- 
 low the superior wall of the body throughout, but 
 near the middle, where it enlarges considerably, it 
 returns upon itself, plunging downward and back- 
 ward through the mass of muscles which fill the 
 chest until it has nearly gained the point at which 
 it entered the thorax ; when it turns once more 
 toward the head and passes to it in a nearly 
 straight course. 
 
 The nervous system has greatly altered, al- 
 though its general course and structure remain 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 93 
 
 the same. Instead of being almost equally dis- 
 tributed in every segment of the body, the greater 
 proportion of it is removed forward and concen- 
 trated in the head and thorax ; the principal 
 changes are the following : the brain increases 
 steadily in size, the little ganglion beneath the 
 oesophagus approaches it as closely as the atten- 
 uating oesophagus allows, the cords which con- 
 nect it with the first body -ganglion shorten, then 
 broaden so as to obliterate the former, and finally 
 lengthen so as to separate the two by more than 
 their f ormer distance ; the first and second ganglia 
 of the body approach each other until they fair- 
 ly melt in one, the connecting cords becoming 
 more and more divergent and then approximat- 
 ing until they, too, merge in the general mass ; 
 the third and fourth, that is, the last thoracic 
 and first abdominal ganglia, act in a similar way 
 toward each other, and at the same time approach 
 the united first and second until they are sepa- 
 rated only by short and thick commissures, and 
 together form a thoracic mass, nearly equal to 
 that of the head ; it will be noticed that one of 
 the abdominal ganglia has, therefore, entered the 
 thorax. With the shortening body of the insect, 
 the ganglia behind in like manner approach each 
 other, the uniting cords not diverging but becom- 
 ing sinuate, and regaining their former straight- 
 ness only after most of the changes incident to 
 
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE 
 
 this stage of the animal's life are consummated ; 
 the fifth and sixth ganglia gradually disappear, so 
 that a long distance now intervenes between the 
 thoracic and abdominal ganglia, and those of the 
 latter region are no longer placed in the respect- 
 ive segments in which they first appeared. Many 
 of the nervous threads have in like manner become 
 amalgamated, and in all cases they have been 
 transported with the ganglia from which they orig- 
 inated, or they issue from the main nervous cord 
 at the points where the ganglia have vanished. 
 
 But it is in the reproductive system that the 
 greatest transitions occur. The little sac and 
 thread on either side of the body, without outlet, 
 and only to be traced with difficulty in the cater- 
 pillar, have come to fill nearly the entire ab- 
 dominal cavity of the perfect insect. In one sex, 
 the little sacs first approach each other upon the 
 back and then increase in size and amalgamate in 
 one spherical body ; simultaneously with its in- 
 crease in size, the threads enlarge and lengthen, 
 and with their inextricable convolutions fill the 
 whole abdomen, and find their outlet next that of 
 the alimentary canal. In the other sex, the little 
 tubes of which the sac is composed separate ex- 
 cepting at the tip, increase wonderfully in size 
 and length, coil up and become distended with 
 eggs, finally weighting the body to such a degree 
 that the butterfly flies with difficulty ; while the 
 
INTERNAL ORGANS. 95 
 
 thread has enlarged and here and there developed 
 special vessels, just as we have seen in the aliment- 
 ary canal ; so that at last it would scarcely seem 
 possible that so complicated a system could have 
 arisen from a simple thread. 
 
 Finally, the silk vessels of the caterpillar have 
 entirely vanished before half the pupal stage is 
 past, and the immense material stored in the cel- 
 lular system has become absorbed by the require- 
 ments of the rapidly growing organs until scarcely 
 a trace is left. Thus we see that revolutions have 
 occurred within the body quite as great as those 
 of the external envelope, and these changes have 
 mostly transpired during the earlier stages of pupal 
 life, or in the day or two which precede and fol- 
 low the absolute change from larva to chrysalis. 
 
 There are certain organs of the butterfly which, 
 as we have said, are not mere alterations or out- 
 growths of parts previously exist- 
 ing, but new structures, each of 
 which has its own proper develop- 
 ment ; we will briefly consider the 
 most interesting of these, the wings. 
 
 If we were to open a fully grown 
 caterpillar, we should discover [Fig. 
 80] upon either side of the last two thoracic seg- 
 ments a lustrous, translucent, circular pad, at- 
 tached to the inner walls of the body and direct- 
 ed upward ; these pads closely resemble the flakes 
 
96 IA T TERNAL ORGANS. 
 
 of fat in the same vicinity, and, like them, are 
 permeated by the minuter extremities of tracheal 
 vessels ; their point of attachment is just above 
 and slightly in advance of the spot where the spi- 
 racle should be ; they are fed by delicate nerves 
 and by tracheal vessels, from the latter of which 
 the permeating threads arise ; but they do not 
 originate, as Landois asserts, from the longitudi- 
 nal tracheae themselves, but from the hypoderm or 
 inner integument of the creature, as Lyonet 
 described it more than a century ago, Herold sixty 
 years since, and Dewitz, Ganin, Graber, and 
 others have latterly clearly shown. These pads, 
 which really originate in the earliest stage of the 
 larva, but are not then readily detected, are com- 
 pressed folds of the hypoderm, which do not pro- 
 trude externally like the other appendages of the 
 body, because they form infolded pockets beneath 
 the outer chitinous covering of the caterpillar ; 
 they resemble the half reversed finger of a glove, 
 so withdrawn that the tip of the finger is on a level 
 with the base. Shortly before pupation, the tip 
 begins to push its way outward beneath the chi- 
 tinous skin, a condition indicated by the swollen 
 sides of the caterpillar at that point, so as to be- 
 come actually rather than potentially external 
 appendages of the hypoderm ; and when the 
 larval skin is removed by pupation, they are for 
 the first time exposed to the eye. 
 
CHAPTEK VII. 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 IN the preceding chapters we have discussed the 
 external frame- work and the internal organization 
 of butterflies. We now leave these rather dry 
 details, and proceed to a more interesting topic, 
 the Life of butterflies. Here, as in the lives of 
 men, we shall find that " all the world's a stage," 
 and in this moving drama of life shall discern 
 the same struggles for existence, the same survival 
 of the fittest, although not the exhibition of such 
 varied passions, as in human history. We shall 
 see how the diverse relations of butterflies to 
 their environment are proofs of the moulding 
 power of these unseen forces. That this should 
 be so is hardly surprising when we consider that 
 they are openly exposed to all the varied influ- 
 ences of their surroundings under four entirely 
 different structural forms ; and that although 
 they are active in only two of these, yet they 
 then differ so widely in both life and organiza- 
 tion that, if the relation between them had never 
 been traced, it could never have been surmised. 
 So far, therefore, as their lives are concerned, we 
 must treat the caterpillar and the butterfly much 
 
98 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 as if they were beings as distinct as they appear ; 
 indeed, the only connection one has with the 
 other seems to be in the care which the mother 
 butterfly exercises in laying the eggs from which 
 the caterpillar is one day to creep ; and since in 
 most instances this stands in direct relation to the 
 life of the caterpillar, we will commence our 
 account with this point, and illustrate it, as we 
 shall all our future discussions, mainly from the 
 butterflies of our Northern States. 
 
 The butterfly generally lays her eggs singly, 
 although some species deposit in small clusters 
 and others again in great masses. These eggs are 
 laid on the food -plant of the caterpillar, unless 
 indeed the caterpillar feeds on grasses or other 
 common herbage, when the eggs are 
 laid indifferently upon objects near 
 the ground, or, as I believe, in one 
 instance (the White Mountain but- 
 terfly, Oeneis semidea), are dropped 
 loosely upon the soil in the midst 
 of the herbage. The Camberwell 
 Beauty (Papilio Antiopa) chooses 
 in the spring-time the terminal 
 shoot of a willow or elm, and, perch- 
 ing head downward, with closed 
 wings, deposits a dozen or more pale yellow ribbed 
 eggs in a little girdle around the twig, next the 
 petiole of the springing leaf [Fig. 81]. The 
 
 FIG. 81 Clusters 
 of eggs of Papilio 
 Antiopa, encir- 
 cling the twig of 
 an elm ; X 2. 
 
HABITS. 
 
 99 
 
 Baltimore (Euphydryas Phaeton) searches the 
 swamps for the snake-head, and lays upon the 
 under surface of the broad 
 leaf a mass of hundreds of 
 eggs [see Fig. 15], piled in 
 several layers. Our Nettle 
 Tortoise-shell (Aglais Mil- 
 berti) lays its eggs upon the 
 under surface of the leaves 
 of nettles, generally be- 
 tween the principal veins, 
 but often covering some of 
 these, in large, irregular, 
 partly open patches, in 
 which the eggs are rarely 
 if ever piled upon one an- 
 other [Fig. 82] ; sometimes 
 several patches may be 
 found upon the same leaf. The Blue Swallow- 
 tail (Laertias Philenor), partial to 
 aristolochia, fastens on that plant 
 and its allies some six or eight eggs 
 side by side in two or three short 
 rows ; and I have twice found upon 
 the under surface of nettle-leaves a 
 hanging column of from three to nine 
 glistening eggs of the Orange Com- 
 ma (Polygonia Comma) placed end to end [Fig. 
 83]. The Banded Purple (Basilarchia Arthemis) 
 
 FIG. 82. Clusters of eggs of 
 Aglais Milberti, on the under side 
 of a nettle-leaf, nat. size. 
 
 FIG. 83. Clusters 
 of eggs of Poly- 
 gonia Comma, on 
 the 
 of s 
 X3. 
 
100 HABITS. 
 
 of the hilly parts of New England prefers the 
 cherry birch, and glues a single egg upon the 
 upper surface of the leaf - at its extreme tip. 
 Similar although even more extraordinary is 
 the place chosen by its cousin, the Red-spotted 
 Purple (Basilarchia Astyanax), which selects 
 the extreme tip of the trembling aspen-leaf, 
 which tapers delicately to a very fine point ; in 
 both these cases, the insect usually deposits 
 but one egg on a tree. The Tiger Swallow-tail 
 (Jasoniades Glaucus) [see Fig. 6] shows sim- 
 ilar care with birches ; while the Gray-veined 
 White (Pieris oleracea) [see Fig. 10] and the im- 
 ported cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae) dot the sur- 
 face of our turnips and cabbages with pyramidal 
 eggs. In all these cases, the caterpillar feeds 
 upon the plant which the parent has selected ; 
 yet she seldom can see, certainly never has been 
 known by the slightest sign to recognize, the 
 young for whose sustenance she is at such pains 
 to provide. This is one of the wonders and per- 
 plexities of instinctive action. Let us take, for 
 example, the Viceroy (Basilarchia Archippus), 
 which during its butterfly life has never tasted, 
 can by no possibility ever taste, of willow or pop- 
 lar ; that it should choose just these trees neces- 
 sary for the food of progeny it is never to see 
 defies our powers of explanation on any hypo- 
 thesis which leaves all to blind forces. 
 
HABITS. 101 
 
 The growth of the embryo within the egg is 
 rapid, so that it sometimes hatches in a few days, 
 although some eggs endure throughout a winter 
 and hatch in the spring. Each, however, has its 
 appointed time within very narrow limits ; and 
 when the time of birth arrives, the little prisoner 
 has but to move his jaws, already in contact with 
 the egg-shell, to bite a hole through it for his 
 escape ; often he bites a slit around the summit 
 of the egg, and, pushing up the lid thus formed, 
 takes his departure. The taste he has gained of 
 egg-shell seems to allure him ; for, strange as it 
 may seem, although placed by the provident parent 
 within immediate reach of choice and succulent 
 food, he will not taste it until he has devoured 
 the last remnant of his prison- walls. Strange food 
 this for a new-born babe ! The act, however, is 
 plainly a provision of nature by which the tender 
 animal is rid of a sure token to his enemies of his 
 immediate proximity. Yet whence did he learn 
 his lesson, perched quite by himself, maybe, as 
 in the case of the Viceroy's caterpillar, upon the 
 outmost twig of a poplar, out of sight of a soli- 
 tary companion ? Is this reason or instinct ? and 
 if instinct, will those who believe this power to 
 be only an accumulated inheritance of ancestral 
 wisdom pray give us a single suggestion of the 
 line of descent by which this lonely, defenceless 
 creature learned Ms art ? 
 
102 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 Let us follow the history of the Viceroy [Pig. 
 84] a little farther. Born upon the extreme tip 
 
 FIG. 84. Basil archia Archippus, nat. size ; the under surface of the wings is 
 shown on the right side, the upper on the left (Harris). 
 
 of a trembling leaf, its prison- walls demolished, 
 it begins to devour in a curious manner the leaf 
 on which it rests ; it nibbles away 
 either side of the tip, 
 leaving the midrib un- 
 touched [Figs. 85-87}; 
 each time it has finish- 
 ed a repast, it retires to 
 this midrib [Fig. 85] to 
 digest the meal, where, 
 facing outward with 
 head bent to the ground, 
 it rests immovable ; appetite return- 
 ing, it wheels about, hurries to its old feeding- spot, 
 and, its meal finished, retires again to its accus- 
 
 FIG. 85. Leaf 
 eaten by Basilar- 
 chia Archippus, 
 with the cater- 
 pillar resting on 
 the bare midrib 
 after a meal ; nat. 
 size. 
 
 FIG 86. Leaf 
 eaten by caterpil- 
 lar of Basilarchia 
 Archippus ; n a t . 
 
 size. 
 
HABITS, 
 
 103 
 
 tomed station for a new siesta. A similar habit 
 
 has been observed by Riley in 
 
 the young caterpillar of the 
 
 Goat weed butterfly, which in 
 
 after-life lives in a nest formed 
 
 of a single leaf [see Fig. 97], 
 
 somewhat resembling, on a 
 
 large scale, the hibernaculum of 
 
 the Viceroy ; it " invariably 
 
 commences feeding at the tip of 
 
 a leaf, stripping it down the 
 
 midrib, upon which, between 
 
 meals, it rests exposed" [Fig. 
 
 88]. This is the more remark- 
 able because Riley states that 
 
 several eggs are sometimes laid 
 upon a single leaf ; 
 in such a case, the 
 caterpillars must disperse on hatch- 
 ing, as even two could scarcely 
 follow this mode of life very con- 
 veniently upon the same leaf. The 
 caterpillar of the Viceroy signifies 
 its displeasure at any disturbance 
 by tossing the head upward, scrap- 
 ing its jaws at the same time upon 
 the leaf ; when moving about, it 
 walks with a palsied shake of the 
 
 whole body which is ludicrous to see. It remains 
 
 FIG. 87. Leaf of wil- 
 low eaten by the cater- 
 pillar of Basilarchia 
 Archippus, showing its 
 habit of leaving a little 
 lump of debris attached 
 by silk to the midrib ; 
 nat. size (Riley). 
 
 FIG. 88. Young 
 caterpillar of 
 Anaea Andria, 
 seated on the ex- 
 tremity of the 
 stripped midrib 
 of a leaf of goat- 
 weed. ; nat. size 
 (Riley). 
 
104 HABITS. 
 
 on this one leaf until it is entirely devoured ; then 
 it betakes itself to the next leaf upon the twig, 
 and so on in succession until the stem is bare, by 
 which time it has reached maturity ; after it has 
 left the first leaf, however, it is by no means so 
 particular to commence feeding upon the tip, but 
 cuts large pieces anywhere and quite irregularly, 
 biting through the midrib as well as the rest of 
 the leaf, and retires to the stem of the twig to 
 digest its meal. 
 
 This caterpillar, as well as many others, lives a 
 solitary life ; but there are those which are more 
 or less gregarious, and they belong for the most 
 part to the higher groups. Whenever the cater- 
 pillars are strictly gregarious, the eggs are invari- 
 ably laid in clusters ; there are, however, some 
 butterflies which lay their eggs in small clusters, 
 whose caterpillars are not properly gregarious ; 
 yet all such are closely related to others whose 
 caterpillars are gregarious, so that we find every 
 gradation from solitary to social. There are also 
 some caterpillars, like those of our Baltimore of 
 the swamps, which are gregarious in their early 
 life, but afterward part company. In such cases, 
 the caterpillar usually hibernates, and its social 
 life lasts throughout the autumn and winter, the 
 company dispersing at the renewal of activity in 
 the spring. Indeed, in almost all cases, the asso- 
 ciation is most conspicuous in early life, when the 
 
HABITS. 105 
 
 caterpillars feed in rows upon the same leaf in 
 such close proximity that it would seem to inter- 
 fere with convenience. Sometimes this is the only 
 mark of their social nature ; but as all caterpillars 
 spin more or less silk in moving about, a web of 
 greater or less extent generally accompanies a 
 colony, and in some cases the community con- 
 structs a close structure, like that woven by the 
 Baltimore [Fig. 89], the caterpillars of which in- 
 
 FIG. 89. Euphydryas Phaeton, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 close the whole tip of the plant on which the com- 
 pany feeds with a dense web [Fig. 90], within 
 which they retire to rest or to moult. A Mexican 
 butterfly, allied to our sulphurs, constructs a web, 
 first noticed by Hardy,* which is nearly as close 
 as parchment. With rare exceptions, all butterfly 
 caterpillars feed upon the outside of plants ; but 
 there are a few which live in the interior, and one 
 of these, an Indian species, is known to be social, 
 
 * Travels in the Interior of Mexico. See also Westwood, 
 Traus. Ent. Soc. London, i., 38 (1834). 
 
106 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 living in numbers within the fruit of the pome- 
 granate. * 
 
 The construction of nests for concealment is not 
 confined to the social caterpillars, but extends to 
 
 FIG. 90. Web-nest of caterpillar of Enphydryas Phaeton, half nat. size. 
 (Copied from Edwards.) 
 
 a large number of solitary species. I am inclined 
 to believe the habit universal among the skippers, 
 or lowest family of butterflies. Some of them 
 live in the interior of stems of living plants ; 
 
 * Trans. Ent. Soc. London, ii., 1 (1837). 
 
HABITS. 
 
 107 
 
 others in slight nests formed by weaving together 
 several upright blades of grass ; others, an^^^^ 
 are generally some of the 
 larger species, like the White 
 spotted Skipper [Figs. 91- 
 93], draw several leaves to- 
 gether just as they grow 
 upon the plant, and, retain- 
 ing them in the desired place 
 by silken bands, live within 
 the leafy bower. In earlier 
 life, these same caterpillars, 
 as well as the full-grown 
 caterpillars of other species, 
 construct nests by folding 
 over a little piece of leaf, 
 and fastening the edge to the opposite surface 
 by a few loose strands of silk [Fig. 94] ; to effect 
 this they first bite a little channel into the leaf 
 
 FIG. 91. Nest of caterpillar 
 of Epargyreus Tityrus, nat. size. 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 FIG. 92. Caterpillar of Epargyreos Tityrus, nat. size. (After Riley.) 
 
 at just such a place as to leave a fragment of leaf 
 neither too large nor too small to serve as a roof 
 
108 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 when they shall have turned it over ; often they 
 have to cut two channels in order to procure a 
 flap sufficiently small for their 
 purposes ; and it is curious 
 to watch one of these tender 
 creatures, just as soon as it 
 has devoured its egg-shell, 
 a tough oak -leaf, to build for 
 
 FIG. 93. Chrysalis of 
 Epargyreus Tityrus, nat. 
 size. 
 
 struggling with 
 itself a house. 
 
 The caterpillar of some of the 
 swallow-tails always rests upon 
 the middle of the upper sur- 
 face of a leaf, upon the floor of 
 which it has stretched a silken 
 carpet, so as to make the edges 
 curl toward each other, and 
 thus form an open nest. On one 
 rainy day, Mr. L. Trouvelot, of 
 Cambridge, noticed a caterpil- 
 lar of the Tiger Swallow-tail 
 on a bush in his garden. " I 
 certainly thought," he says,* 
 " that the invention of resting 
 in the hollow of a curved leaf 
 on a rainy day was a very poor 
 one ; for since the bent leaf per- 
 formed the office of a gutter, the water must flow 
 
 FIG. 94 Nest of cater- 
 pillar of Thauaos Persius, 
 nat. size. 
 
 * Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xii., 92 (1869). 
 
HABITS. 
 
 109 
 
 through this channel, the larva be inundated and 
 inevitably drowned, if the rain lasted but a few 
 hours. I soon found that there were more brains 
 in the small head than I had supposed. The 
 larva began to move ; it spun some silk from one 
 
 FIG. 95. Nest of caterpillar of Vanessa Atalanta, formed of a nettle-leaf; 
 nat. size. 
 
 edge of the leaf to the other, and by adding many 
 fibres to make it strong, each new fibre shorter 
 than the preceding, the leaf was soon made to 
 curve more and more. I then began to under- 
 stand what this laborious work was for, and I 
 
HO HABITS. 
 
 thought that sometimes small people might give 
 lessons to larger ones. After about an hour, the 
 larva ceased to work, a real bridge was built 
 over the torrent, and upon it lay motionless and 
 out of danger the little larva. Would you call 
 such an act instinct," he adds, " or would you 
 call it reason ? If you call it instinct. I would say 
 that this instinct is very reasonable. " 
 
 The caterpillar of the Red Admiral (Vanessa 
 Atalanta) constructs a somewhat similar [Pig. 95] 
 though more perfect nest by fastening together 
 
 FIG. 96. Vanessa Hantera. nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 the opposite edges of a nettle-leal the tip of 
 which it eats when too lazy to go away from home, 
 until there is barely enough left for shelter ; its 
 weight causes the leaf to droop, so that the nest- 
 is easily discovered. Its next allies, the cosmo- 
 politan Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui) and the 
 American Painted Beauty (Vanessa Huntera), 
 [Fig. 96], construct a different sort of nest, draw- 
 
HABITS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ing together, by means of an irregular web, leaves, 
 buds, and bitten fragments of the plant on which 
 they feed, so as to form within a rounded cavity, 
 with an opening just large enough to enter. 
 The Goatweed butterfly of the west (Anaea 
 
 FIG. ST. Anaea Andria ; a, caterpillar ; 5, chrysalis ; c, leaf of goat-weed 
 ee\vd at the edges to form nest of caterpillar ; nat. size (Riley). 
 
 Andria) makes a nest [Fig. 97] very similar to 
 that of the Red Admiral, but devours its upper 
 instead of its lower part, until, having eaten itself 
 out of house and home, it is forced to construct a 
 new habitation. 
 
112 HABITS. 
 
 But perhaps the most interesting nest of all is 
 that made by the caterpillar of the Viceroy [Fig. 
 98]. This caterpillar hibernates when partly 
 grown, and provides for the occasion a winter resi- 
 dence, which is occupied only during the cold 
 season. For this purpose it eats the sides of a 
 willow-leaf nearly to the midrib, for about one 
 third the distance from the tip, ordinarily select- 
 ing for the purpose a leaf near the end of a twig ; 
 the opposite edges of the rest of this leaf it brings 
 together, and not only fastens them firmly with 
 
 FIG. 98. a, leaf of willow as cut by the caterpillar of Basilarchia Archippus 
 for its hibemaculum ; &, the hibernaculum formed ; nat. size (Riley). 
 
 silk, but covers this nest outside and inside with 
 a carpet of light-brown glossy silk, so that the leaf 
 is nearly hidden ; nor is this all ; it travels back 
 and forth on the leaf -stalk and around the twig, 
 spinning its silk as it goes, until the leaf is firmly 
 attached to the stalk, and in spite of frost and 
 wind will easily hang until spring. Following 
 the projecting midrib, the caterpillar creeps into 
 this dark cell head foremost and closes the open- 
 ing with its hinder segments, all abristle with 
 spines and warts. The other species of the same 
 genus, the Red-spotted and the Banded Purple, 
 
HABITS. 
 
 113 
 
 have the same habits ; the latter feeds on birches ; 
 and if we examine these trees in early spring, 
 when all sorts of ichneumon flies are just beginning 
 to wander about in search 
 of prey, we can hardly 
 fail to be struck by the de- 
 ceptive resemblance these 
 hibernacula of the Band- 
 ed Purple bear to the 
 opening buds and curv- 
 ing terminal shoots of the 
 very twig on which they 
 occur [Fig. 99] ; the color 
 of the soft down of the 
 buds and the enveloping 
 silk of the hibernacula is 
 as similar as are their 
 forms ; and this mimetic 
 resemblance is doubtless 
 as effective as it is inter- 
 esting. 
 
 A large number of cat- 
 erpillars attain their full 
 growth and change to 
 chrysalis before winter, 
 passing the cold months in torpid sleep ; but 
 besides the caterpillars of the purples, which 
 hibernate when half grown, there are many others 
 which hibernate at different times of caterpillar 
 
 PIG. 99. Hibernaculnm (a) of 
 Basilarchia Arthemis on a shoot of 
 budding birch as it appears in June 
 in the White Mountains, N. H., to 
 show its resemblance to the buds 
 (6) ; nat. size. 
 
114 HABITS. 
 
 life. Most of the meadow browns or satyrs 
 hatch from the egg late in the season, and hiber- 
 nate before feeding upon anything more than their 
 own egg-shells ; one of them, 
 however, the White Mountain 
 butterfly, probably hibernates 
 laof Thana7s C En e nmt f ull grown, crawling f or that pur- 
 
 nat. size. . . . , 
 
 pose into crevices between the 
 stones and rigid moss of the alpine heights where 
 it lives. So, too, the caterpillars of our dusky 
 wings, Thanaos [Figs. 100, 101] hibernate full 
 fed, and only change to chrysalis as 
 winter' s icy bonds begin to break ; 
 but the winter histories of too many 
 even of our commoner butterflies 
 are unknown ; though probably the ****** nat 
 larger number of hibernating caterpillars pass 
 the winter in a half -grown condition. 
 
 The only point of interest in the lives of chrys- 
 alids is their different mode of suspension ; but 
 as this will need to be fully mentioned in discuss- 
 ing the classification of butterflies, we will pass 
 it by for the present, and consider the full-fledged 
 butterfly. 
 
 Awaking from its long sleep, the creature finds 
 itself arrayed in new beauty ; ordinarily it has 
 escaped from its prison- walls soon after sunrise, 
 and for an hour or two it rests quietly until its 
 moist wings are fully dried and expanded. Our 
 
HABITS. 115 
 
 new friend is a daughter of high noon. There are 
 few butterflies abroad in New England before 
 eight or nine o'clock of a summer's day, and long 
 before nightfall, with closed wings, and antennae 
 snugly packed between, they are quietly resting 
 beneath some leaf or clinging to some grass-blade. 
 Each species has its own peculiar haunts from 
 which it may be easily stirred. Driving one 
 morning within an hour after sunrise across the 
 sandy plains of Nantucket, along a road fringed 
 with a row of stunted pines some fifty feet from 
 the track, a continuous stream of Blue- eyed 
 Graylings (Cercyonis Alope) [see Figs. 143, 144] 
 arose, stirred from the low tops of the bordering 
 pines by the rumble of our wagon- wheels ; none 
 were to be seen either before or behind us, but on 
 either side they constantly arose as we reached 
 them, and, wafted by the wind, sank drowsily to 
 the earth. Just be- 
 fore nightfall, at 
 the proper season, 
 one may readily 
 discover the 
 American Copper 
 
 HypO- FIG. lOS.-Eurymns Philodice, male, nat. size; 
 
 phlaeas) or the ' 
 Clouded Sulphur (Eurymus Philodice) [Figs. 
 102-104], clinging head upward and with droop- 
 ing wings to any common herbage. 
 
116 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 But we are sending our friend to bed before 
 ever he has busied himself with the day ! His 
 
 PIG. 103. Eurymus Philodice, female, nat. size ; under surface on right 
 (Harris). 
 
 first thought appears to be of honey, and off he 
 goes, probing every flower he meets, and spend- 
 ing the greater part of the time in this employ- 
 ment. Some butterflies are less greedy than 
 others, and spend long hours in 
 sunning themselves, resting up- 
 on the leaves of herbs or trees 
 or perhaps upon the ground, 
 gently half opening and shut- 
 ting their wings ; many kinds 
 are of a lively and even pug- 
 nacious disposition, and perch 
 themselves upon the tip of a 
 twig or on a stone or some such 
 outlook, and dash at the first 
 butterfly that passes, especially 
 if it be one of their own species ; then the two 
 advance and retreat, forward and backward, time 
 
 nat - 6ize - 
 
HABITS, 117 
 
 and again, circle around each other with amazing 
 celerity, all the while perchance mounting sky- 
 ward, until suddenly they part, dash to the 
 ground, and the now quiet pursuer again stations 
 himself on the very spot he quitted for the fray. 
 But they are not always particular to choose one 
 of their own kind for this 
 combat. Toss your hat in 
 the air, and almost any of 
 our Angle- Wings will dash 
 at it and circle around it as 
 it rises and falls ; and the P Sas 10 n^ H S s SS 
 little American Copper 
 
 [Fig. 105], one of our smallest butterflies, will 
 dart at every bulky grasshopper or locust that 
 shoots across its field of vision. 
 
 Some butterflies are as fond of water, or even 
 of ordure, as they are of the sugared sweets of 
 flowers. Every one must have noticed at the 
 brink of roadside pools left by a recent rain, how 
 the yellow butterflies will start up at one's ap- 
 proach, flutter about a few moments,' and then 
 settle down again to their repast. On favorable 
 occasions, you may find them ranged by hundreds 
 along the edge of a puddle, with wings erect, 
 crowded as closely as they can be packed. The 
 little azure butterflies congregate in the same way 
 about moist spots in the roads through woods ; but 
 as they choose less frequented places, this is not 
 
118 HABITS. 
 
 so common a sight. Our Tiger Swallow-tails 
 throng about lilac-blossoms, and become so in- 
 toxicated that on one occasion a friend of mine 
 caught sixty of them at once between his two 
 hands. 
 
 The butterflies I have mentioned show an ap- 
 parent fondness for each other's company, apart 
 from the attractions of the flowers or the muddy 
 road ; indeed, there are very few butterflies which, 
 at the time &f their greatest abundance, do not 
 show a tendency to congregate. The Monarch, or 
 Milk-weed Butterfly (Danais Plexippus) [Fig. 
 106], for example, may be seen quite by himself, 
 sailing majestically over the fields, until late in 
 the season, when, having multiplied to excess, 
 vast swarms are found together ; together they 
 mount in the air to lofty heights, as no other but- 
 terfly appears to do, and play about in ceaseless 
 gyrations ; and sometimes they crowd so thickly 
 upon a tree or bush, as by their color to change its 
 whole appearance [Fig. 107] ; occasionally we 
 hear of the migrations of butterflies in swarms, 
 but they are of rare occurrence, and have mostly 
 been observed in the tropics. Mr. W. Edwards, 
 however, relates* how, from the top of Pegan Hill, 
 in Natick, Massachusetts, he saw such a moving 
 swarm flying steadily for hours in a single direc- 
 
 * American Naturalist, xi., 244. 
 
120 HABITS. 
 
 tion. They passed too high for recognition, al- 
 though, by his description of their size and their 
 mode of flight, it was probably the same butterfly 
 which we have just mentioned. 
 
 The movements of butterflies on the wing are 
 as different as the flights of birds, and just as an 
 ornithologist may distinguish many birds by their 
 
 FIG. 107. Cluster of Danais Plexippus, alighted on a bush ; reduced. 
 (After Thaxter.) 
 
 mode of flight when their form and colors are 
 indistinguishable, so the observant entomologist 
 may often determine a butterfly from a consider- 
 able distance. In the case of the entomologist, 
 however, the decision is more difficult, since there 
 are such rapid replacements of one species by 
 another throughout the summer that direct com- 
 
HABITS. 121 
 
 parison of the flight of similar species is often 
 impossible. 
 
 This supplanting of one species by another, it 
 may v be added, is in wonderful adaptation to the 
 parallel changes going on in the vegetable world, 
 especially among the flowers. I do not know that 
 any of our naturalists or artists have written of 
 the harmony between the prevailing tints of a 
 New England landscape at different times of the 
 year, and of the insect world at the same seasons. 
 Our common butterflies, 
 which nature has been 
 at such pains to adorn, 
 show a shifting panorama 
 of form and color from 
 early spring to the time 
 
 Of frOSt. First, in the FIG. 108.-ThanaosBrizo,nat. size; 
 -t -\ n -i under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 sombre leafless woods 
 
 come the various dusky wings [Fig. 108], brown 
 and black, skipping softly in and out among the 
 gray rocks and over the dry leaves and dark pools 
 of melting snow. Hard upon these, in the time 
 of early violets, and frequenting the spots most 
 loved by them, follow the little blue butterflies. 
 Then, as spring fairly bursts upon us with its fresh 
 and varied hues, come crowds of queenly swal- 
 low-tails, lustrous with metallic gleam [Fig. 109], 
 or striped and belted with gay colors ; and the 
 banded and spotted purples that court the quiet 
 
HABITS. 
 
 123 
 
 forest road and the brink of the mountain brook ; 
 the soft white butterflies [Figs. 110-112], that 
 look too pure for earth, less retiring than the last, 
 
 Fia. 110. Pieris rapae, male, nat. size (Riley). 
 
 float about our gardens, alas ! on sad intent ; 
 while the brisk little tawny and black skippers 
 [Figs. 113-116] everywhere bustle and whisk 
 about. Summer, with its blazing sun and diver- 
 sified blossoms, brings us the hot-looking coppers 
 [Fig. 117], and all that dappled band of fritilla- 
 
 PIG. 111. Pieris rapae, female, nat. size (Riley). 
 
 ries (Dryades) [Fig. 118] and angle- wings [Fig. 
 119], blocked in red and black above, and often 
 variegated by odd dashes and spots of burnished 
 
124 
 
 HABITS. 
 
 FIG. 113 Limochores Taumas. 
 female, nat. size ; under surface on 
 right (Harris). 
 
 PIG. 112. Caterpillar (a) and 
 chrysalis (b) of Pieris rapae, nat. 
 size (Riley). 
 
 FIG. 114. Anthomaster Leonar- 
 dus, male, nat. size ; under surface 
 on right (Harris). 
 
 FIG. 115. Polites Peckius, male, 
 nat. size ; under surface on right 
 (Harris). 
 
 FIG. 116. Polites Peeking, fe- 
 male, nat. size ; under surface on 
 right (Harris). 
 
 FIG. 117. Chrysophanns Thoe. nat. 
 size ; under surface on right (Packard). 
 
HABITS. 
 
 125 
 
 silver, or by peacock eyes beneath. How they 
 crowd about the spreading thistle-blossoms, or on 
 
 FIG. 118. Argynnis Aphrodite, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 the many -flowered umbels of the milk- weed, and 
 fan themselves with content at their sweet lot ! 
 As autumn approaches and the leaves grow dull, 
 
 FIG. .119. Polygonia Progne, nat. size ; under surface on right (Packard). 
 
 the grain ripens in the meadow and the pastures 
 parch with drought, then come the satyrs or 
 meadow-browns [Figs. 120, 121 ; see also Figs. 
 
126 HABITS. 
 
 143, 144], lazily dancing by the roadside and over 
 the thickets which skirt the fields ; in the time of 
 golden rods and yellow and blue asters the great 
 
 FIG. 120. Satyrodes Eurydice, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 throng of yellow [see Figs. 102, 103] and orange 
 butterflies appear ; some of them are with us 
 throughout the season, companions of the butter- 
 cup, the dandelion, and the rudbeckia ; but now 
 
 PIG. 121. Cissia Eurytus, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 they swarm, flitting busily in zigzag courses over 
 upland pasture and lowland meadow, by marsh 
 and brook, in field and fen, crowding around the 
 open flowers, or dancing in pairs in mid-air. 
 
CHAPTER YIIL 
 
 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 THE various aspect of the butterfly world at 
 different seasons, to which allusion has just been 
 made, is not so conspicuous as it would be did 
 each species pass through its cycle of changes and 
 transformations only once a year. This is the 
 case, however, with the smaller portion of our 
 butterflies. Most of them have two, and not a 
 few three, broods each year, so that the same 
 butterflies appear again and again throughout the 
 season, or in some longer-lived species may be 
 found in the butterfly state all the year round, 
 one brood continuing upon the wing until the 
 next is born. But as one season of the year dif- 
 fers from another in character, so is one brood of 
 butterflies often subject to influences which the 
 next avoids ; this often provokes a diverse habit 
 in different broods of the same insect. Some 
 species, moreover, hibernate as butterflies ; others 
 as chrysalids ; others, as we have seen already, 
 as caterpillars ; and a considerable number are 
 dependent for the continuation of the species 
 upon the power possessed by the egg to brave the 
 
128 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 winter's cold. It may then be easily imagined 
 what complications of habits and histories are 
 possible in the butterfly world, when the winter 
 may be passed at any (though generally at a 
 fixed) period of life, and when a species may be 
 single-brooded, or may twice or thrice run the 
 circle of its transformations within a single year. 
 When, moreover, we recognize that these frequent 
 repetitions of the cycle are largely due to temper- 
 ature, and therefore vary to a certain extent with 
 
 the latitude and even 
 with the season, we can 
 understand how nearly 
 every variation we can 
 conjecture finds its coun- 
 terpart in the actual his- 
 
 FIG. 122.-Thecla Calanus, nat. tones of OUr OWU but- 
 size ; under surface on left. ... ._ TT ...., 
 
 terflies. We will recite a 
 few cases, each illustrating some peculiarity. 
 
 The Banded Hair-streak (Thecla Calanus) [Fig. 
 122] appears on the wing during July and lays 
 its eggs toward the end of that month and early 
 in August ; these eggs remain unhatched until the 
 following spring, when the caterpillar emerges, 
 feeds on oak-leaves, changes to chrysalis in 
 June and July, and after a fortnight the butter- 
 flies of the new year appear. 
 
 The Bronze Copper (Chrysophanus Thoe) [see 
 Fig. 117] also hibernates in the egg state, and 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 129 
 
 although the butterflies produced from these eggs 
 do not appear until the latter part of June, or 
 only a little earlier than the Banded Hair-streak, 
 and lay their eggs in July, these eggs hatch at 
 once, and the caterpillars mature so rapidly that 
 a new brood of butterflies appears by the middle 
 or end of August, and lays its eggs during Sep- 
 tember ; and it is this second brood of eggs which 
 passes over the winter. 
 
 The Brown Elfin (Incisalia Augustus) [Fig. 123] 
 hibernates in the chrysalis state and, as might 
 be expected, the butterflies 
 appear early in spring ; in- 
 deed this species is one of 
 our earliest, flying toward 
 the end of April or very 
 early in May ; by the end 
 
 of May the butterflies, with 
 
 rare exceptions, have disappeared ; the eggs hatch 
 at once, and the caterpillars probably attain ma- 
 turity in the latter part of June, change to chrys- 
 alis and remain in this condition throughout the 
 hot season and until the following spring. Like 
 the Banded Hair-streak, this insect is single- 
 brooded, but it hibernates as a chrysalis instead 
 of as an egg, and passes the hot season as a chrys- 
 alis instead of being then at the height of its 
 metamorphoses ; the case, which is not an isolated 
 one, is the more strange since warm weather ap- 
 
130 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 pears in general to be the prime agent in the 
 change from chrysalis to imago, and the period 
 from June to September, when this butterfly is 
 dormant in the chrysalis, is the very one when 
 most butterflies are under- 
 going the greatest amount 
 of change. 
 
 The Gray Hair-streak, or 
 Hop-vine Thecla, as Harris 
 calls it (Uranotes Melinus) 
 
 PIG. 124.-yranotes Melinus, [Fig. 1241, flJCS frOHl May 
 nat. size ; under surface on left. L 
 
 to September, being long- 
 lived in the imago state ; it winters as a chrysalis, 
 like the preceding, but it does not appear so early 
 as that species, being seldom seen before the tenth 
 of May ; a second brood, sprung from the eggs 
 laid by the May butterflies, makes its advent 
 early in July, or occasionally 
 late in June ; fresh accessions ,/fg ;> ? ,,, \ 
 to its numbers from belated %: |- 1^ 
 chrysalids are made throughout ife^^J I 
 July, and these later ones may *4jp*/ 
 be found, with faded beauty, Plo m _^ vm Co . 
 even until the middle of Sep- SS2S oS1eft! lze ; under 
 tember ; from eggs laid by this 
 second brood of butterflies spring the chrysalids 
 which survive the winter. 
 
 The Tailed Blue (Everes Comyntas) [Fig. 125] 
 is also supposed to winter in the chrysalis. It is 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 131 
 
 triple-brooded, yet it appears no earlier than the 
 preceding double-brooded butterfly, namely, be- 
 tween the sixth and tenth of May ; by the middle 
 of June, sometimes by the end of the first week, 
 it has disappeared, and within two months of its 
 first appearance is once more upon the wing ; by 
 the end of July it has again become scarce, 
 though occasional specimens persist until the third 
 generation has made its appearance, about six 
 weeks after the appearance of the second, or about 
 the twentieth of August. Butterflies of this 
 third brood may be found nearly throughout Sep- 
 tember, and doubtless lay their eggs early in Sep- 
 tember, giving the caterpillar time to attain its 
 full growth and change to chrysalis before winter. 
 
 AH these examples have been taken from a 
 single family of butterflies, comprising the hair- 
 streaks, blues, and coppers, to show how differ- 
 ent the histories of allied insects may be. Yet it 
 rarely happens in this family that winter is 
 passed either in the larva or imago state, and we 
 therefore hardly expect to find the complication 
 we may look for elsewhere. Choosing our exam- 
 ples then from all the families of butterflies, we 
 will continue our histories with an eye to further 
 differences. 
 
 Commencing with those which winter as cater- 
 pillars, we may instance the Blue-eyed Grayling 
 [see Figs. 143, 144], which is single-brooded and 
 
132 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 first appears on the wing in the early half of 
 July. As usual among butterflies, the males are 
 seen about a week before the females, but even 
 taking this into account the females live a long 
 while before depositing a single egg ; the earliest 
 record I have of this event is the twenty-second of 
 August, or from five to six weeks after the first ap- 
 pearance of females ; they continue to lay eggs 
 until the end of the first week in September ; and in 
 keeping with this indolence of the females is the 
 duration of the egg-state from three to four 
 weeks, a period longer than in any butterfly 
 known to me where the eggs hatch at all the 
 same season. The earliest caterpillars therefore 
 appear by the middle of September, at which 
 time their food-plant, grass, is still abundant, and 
 plenty of it green and succulent ; yet the habit of 
 the species is fixed, and the larva will exhibit no 
 haste ; it will devour its egg-shell quite as a mat- 
 ter of course, but that digested, it crawls into 
 some corner of a dead stick or a dry leaf and 
 starves till spring-time. Remove it to a warm 
 room and place it among new springing grass ; 
 the result is the same, at least for a time ; I have 
 not tried it very long ; it cannot be cajoled into 
 eating. The further exact history of this insect 
 in New England is unknown, but in West Virginia 
 the chrysalis state continues for a fortnight. In 
 New England the perfect insect appears later in 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 133 
 
 the season than almost any other single-brooded 
 butterfly ; the conditions, however, under which 
 it passes the winter are common to many of our 
 butterflies. 
 
 We have already stated that the Viceroy [see 
 Fig. 84] hibernated as a caterpillar ; but there 
 are some interesting features in its history which 
 may now be related. Quite as soon as there is a 
 morsel of food to eat on the twig which has been 
 its winter home, it forsakes its retreat in the 
 curled leaf, and breaks its long fast. The butter- 
 flies developed from the wintering caterpillars 
 appear early in June, become abundant by the 
 middle of the month, and continue for another 
 fortnight to emerge from the chrysalis ; about a 
 month after the first appearance of the males the 
 females begin to lay eggs ; the caterpillars soon 
 hatch and grow rapidly, and late in July change 
 to chrysalis ; in this state they continue about 
 eight days, and before the middle of August a 
 new brood of butterflies is abroad. The caterpil- 
 lars from eggs laid by this brood are those which 
 construct the little hibemacula wherein they find 
 protection from the wintry cold ; no trace of any 
 tendency to construct such habitations appears in 
 the caterpillars of the first brood ; here we have 
 an instinct inherited by alternate generations ; or 
 only when the nightly chills or the desiccating 
 food indicates the coming of an unfriendly season. 
 
134 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 Take next our commonest yellow butterfly, the 
 Clouded Sulphur, familiar to every one [see Figs. 
 102, 103]. The first brood of butterflies, which is 
 also the least numerous, appears about Boston, 
 on warm sunny hillsides, sometimes as early as 
 the twenty-fourth of April, sometimes not until 
 toward the middle of May, the advent of this in- 
 sect being more than usually affected by the sea- 
 son. Toward the end of May it becomes very 
 abundant, then begins to diminish in numbers, 
 until only a few rubbed females remain when the 
 next brood appears ; the females begin to lay 
 eggs very soon after birth, the eggs hatch in five 
 days, and the caterpillars often attain their full 
 growth in three weeks, while the chrysalis state 
 lasts from nine to eleven days. The appearance 
 of the second brood is varied, like the first, ac- 
 cording to the latitude ; in the vicinity of Boston 
 it usually appears during the first week in July ; 
 the caterpillars of this brood mature quite as 
 rapidly as those of the previous, and numbers of 
 the butterflies are sure to be on the wing at the 
 advent of the third brood, which is occasionally 
 as early as mid- August, but often is delayed until 
 September ; the butterflies of this last brood are 
 still numerous in the middle of October, and con- 
 tinue flying until after the first severe frost ; some 
 have even been seen in the neighborhood of Bos- 
 ton as late as the middle of November. As the 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 135 
 
 eggs of this brood are laid throughout September 
 and even later, and at this season the caterpillars 
 do not mature so rapidly, winter overtakes at 
 once caterpillars of various ages, chrysalids, and 
 butterflies, and probably also eggs. The experi- 
 ence of breeders, and the diversity in the time of 
 appearance of the butterflies in the spring, render 
 it probable that the cold season kills not only the 
 butterflies and eggs, but perhaps the chrysalids 
 as well, leaving the caterpillars to renew the life 
 of the species in the spring. Indeed it is a com- 
 mon thing in plural-brooded butterflies to find 
 every possible stage on the ground as winter 
 comes on ; for the more the number of broods is 
 multiplied, the more confused do the distinctions 
 between them become ; and in many cases, were 
 the season longer, no doubt it would become quite 
 impossible to trace them. The butterflies go on 
 sucking honey and laying eggs, the eggs hatch- 
 ing, the caterpillars eating, until a heavy frost 
 kills off all the unprepared and terminates the 
 history of the species for the season ; those of 
 one stage survive the shock, the others die ; this 
 is the case with several of our swallow-tails and 
 yellow butterflies and with not a few others ; 
 sometimes it is the caterpillar, sometimes the 
 chrysalis, at others the butterfly which survives ; 
 the egg, in such cases, never. 
 Now let us turn, finally, to those which winter 
 
136 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 as butterflies, and consider, first, the Milk- weed 
 butterfly, or Monarch [see Fig. 106]. It is the 
 longest-lived of our butterflies. It leaves its win- 
 ter-quarters later in the season than other hiber- 
 nating butterflies, and continues upon the wing 
 until July and August, laying eggs all the time, 
 so that the insect may be found in all its earlier 
 stages throughout most of the summer ; the eggs 
 hatch in four or five days ; the caterpillar attains 
 its full growth in two or three weeks, and the 
 chrysalis hangs from nine to fifteen days. Whether 
 or not there is a second brood in New England is 
 doubtful ; but the earliest butterflies which have 
 not hibernated may be found in July, so that 
 while the earlier stages are passed rapidly, the 
 perfect insect often lives a full year, mingling on 
 the wing with its own progeny and witnessing the 
 decay and renewed growth of the plant which 
 nourished it ; for the milk- weed dies early, and is 
 not sufficiently grown to support the caterpillars 
 when the first butterflies appear in the spring. 
 
 The Green Comma (Polygonia Faunus) [Fig. 
 126], of the hill-country of New England, has a 
 history which may serve as an example of most 
 of our angle-winged butterflies. The first warm 
 days of spring lure it from its winter hiding- 
 places, but it is not until the end of May that it 
 begins to lay eggs ; these soon hatch, the caterpil- 
 lars reach maturity by the end of June or later, 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 137 
 
 the chrysalis hangs about twelve days, and by the 
 middle of July a new brood is on the wing, min- 
 gling with a few surviving parents. By mid- 
 August it is found in the greatest profusion, and 
 continues on the wing, in numbers constantly re- 
 duced by death, until October, when the surviv- 
 ors go into winter quarters, and before the end of 
 the month the last have disappeared. None of 
 
 FIG. 126. Polygonia Faunns, nat. size ; under surface on left. 
 
 these butterflies lay eggs until the following 
 spring. 
 
 Another of the angle- wings, the Nettle Tortoise- 
 shell [Fig. 127], has a slightly different history, 
 flying, as it does, at three different times. The 
 hibernating butterflies appear by the middle of 
 March, in scanty numbers at first, more numer- 
 ously afterward, and continue on the wing until 
 nearly the end of May. They lay their eggs on 
 the young nettle plants late in April and early in 
 
138 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 May, and the caterpillars begin to change to 
 chrysalids in the first half of June ; after passing 
 from ten to twelve days in this state, or about the 
 middle of June, the first brood of butterflies from 
 caterpillars of the same year makes its appear- 
 ance ; this brood continues on the wing until after 
 the middle of July, the eggs are apparently laid 
 
 FIG. 127. A'glais Milberti, nat. size (Harris). 
 
 very soon after the eclosion of the butterfly, and 
 the second brood appears at the very end of this 
 month, or early in August ; these must lay their 
 eggs at once, for the caterpillars are full grown by 
 the end of August, and appear as butterflies early 
 in September, before those of the previous brood 
 have disappeared ; these September butterflies 
 soon hibernate, and early in the following spring 
 deposit eggs, which, unlike their sisters of the 
 previous broods, they must carry unlaid for 
 many months. We have again in this insect an 
 illustration of the prodigality of nature, to which 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 139 
 
 reference has been made ; for winter overtakes it 
 in every stage and kills off all that cannot with- 
 stand the cold, the butterfly and perhaps an 
 occasional chrysalis alone surviving. 
 
 For, besides those which pass the winter in only 
 one of the four stages of life, there are others, 
 and perhaps the Tortoise-shell is one of them, 
 which enjoy a great liberty in this respect ; but 
 
 FIG. 128. Vanessa Atalanta, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 the Red Admiral [Fig. 128] is a better example. 
 This butterfly, common to Europe and America, 
 hibernates in both countries alike in the chrysalis 
 and imago state. In the spring, hibernating but- 
 terflies and those hatched from wintering pupae 
 mingle on the wing and deposit their eggs simul- 
 taneously. The wintering imago awakes late 
 from its long sleep, being seldom seen before the 
 beginning of the second week in May ; and since 
 
140 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 individuals emerging from wintering chrysalids 
 often appear by the last week in the same month 
 and continue to emerge until the middle of June, 
 battered and brilliant specimens from the same 
 original stock may be seen flying in company. 
 Caterpillars of various ages from eggs laid by 
 these butterflies may be found thro ugh nearly the 
 whole of June and the first half of July ; the 
 chrysalids hang for about ten days and the but- 
 terflies appear in the first days of July and con- 
 tinue to emerge from the chrysalis throughout the 
 month ; the eggs are soon laid again, and another 
 brood of caterpillars may be found in August ; 
 butterflies from these appear late in August and 
 early in September, and continue a long while 
 upon the wing, as they are among the last of our 
 hibernating butterflies to seek their winter quar- 
 ters ; not all the chrysalids, however, disclose the 
 butterfly, but some of these also hibernate. We 
 have, therefore, a double-brooded butterfly of 
 which specimens fresh from the chrysalis may be 
 found upon the wing three times a year, winter 
 approaching in the midst of the season of pupa- 
 tion, and arresting the development of a portion 
 of the brood. 
 
 Mixed modes of hibernation may also be found 
 in other butterflies ; some, like our common 
 American Copper [see Fig. 105], pass the winter 
 both as a caterpillar and a chrysalis ; and others, 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 141 
 
 like the Cloudless Sulphur (Catopsilia Eubule) of 
 the Middle States, as a caterpillar and a butter- 
 fly ; this last instance is the more striking since 
 the insect appears to be unable to survive the 
 winter in the intermediate chrysalis stage. 
 
 It is not always the cold of winter, however, 
 which causes an arrest of development ; for there 
 is a most extraordinary phenomenon in the life 
 history of some butterflies, which arises in mid- 
 summer ; viz., a period of lethargy or premature 
 hibernation. It may occur in the eggs, as in the 
 case we cited of some of the hair-streaks, where 
 these remain unhatched from July or August 
 until the next spring. It may also be found in 
 some chrysalids, where, as in the eggs, it is 
 merely early hibernation. But there are others, 
 and doubtless more than we know, where it as- 
 sumes peculiar characteristics. Notice, for exam- 
 ple, the Zebra Swallow-tail (Iphiclides Ajax) of 
 the south. This butterfly passes through the ex- 
 cessive number of four or five broods each season ; 
 but only a portion of the chrysalids of each brood 
 disclose the butterfly the same season ; the re- 
 mainder, in numbers constantly increasing with 
 each successive brood, go into premature hiberna- 
 tion, some even as early as June, and do not dis- 
 close the butterfly until the following spring ; so 
 that the spring brood of each year is made up of 
 fragments of all the last year's broods. One may 
 
142 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 easily divine what complication might ensue 
 through some modification of such a phenomenon. 
 
 But this feature is most curious when it affects 
 the active stages of an insect's life. Beyond the 
 torpidity of winter, we do not know that such a 
 phenomenon occurs in the perfect stage ; but it is 
 by no means an uncommon occurrence among 
 caterpillars, although, so far as we know, it does 
 not happen outside of certain limited groups. In 
 some cases it is simply premature hibernation ; 
 in others it is pure lethargy, the caterpillar 
 affected by ifc awaking from its torpidity during 
 the same season and resuming its active glutton- 
 ous life, as if nothing had happened. 
 
 One of the most extraordinary cases occurs 
 among the fritillaries, and was first observed by 
 a French naturalist, Vaudouer ; according to this 
 observer, one of the European fritillaries upon 
 which he experimented flies in May and again in 
 July and August ; the caterpillars from the sec- 
 ond summer brood are half grown when winter 
 comes, hibernate in this stage, and in time pro- 
 duce the spring brood ; the caterpillars of the 
 spring brood, when they have reached the hiber- 
 nating age, late in June, act in a precisely similar 
 manner, and some of them do not arouse until 
 the succeeding spring, when, with the caterpillars 
 of the summer brood, they produce a new spring 
 brood ; but other caterpillars of the spring brood, 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 143 
 
 FlG 129 ._ Brent h i8 Bellona, Bat. 
 
 upper 
 
 size 
 
 which became lethargic, awaken from their tor- 
 pidity after a time, resume eating, undergo their 
 transformations, and emerge as butterflies in July 
 and August ; the spring brood is therefore made 
 up from both broods 
 of the previous year, 
 or, in other words, 
 uncles and nephews, 
 aunts and nieces, 
 have virtually be- 
 
 come brothers and 
 
 sisters, and the but- 
 
 terfly is at tlie same time single and double 
 
 brooded. 
 
 We have, however, in this country a still more 
 remarkable case in a near relative of the butterfly 
 just discussed, the Meadow Fritillary (Brenthis 
 Bellona) [Figs. 129-132]. This 
 butterfly appears on the wing in 
 May, July, and September, and 
 yet it is only single-brooded, at 
 least if we have correctly inter- 
 preted all the facts. In this 
 species there seem to be two sets 
 of individuals, each following 
 its own cycle of changes, apparently with almost 
 as little to do with the other set as if it were a 
 distinct species ; each set has its own distinct 
 seasons, and this gives rise to the apparition of 
 
 
144 SE4SONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 two or three successive broods in the course of 
 
 the year. 
 At the very end of the season this butterfly will 
 
 be found laying eggs, which hatch in a few days ; 
 
 the little caterpillars, 
 after devouring their 
 egg-shells, refuse fur- 
 ther food and hiber- 
 nate ; these hibernat- 
 ing juvenile larvae be- 
 long to one of the 
 
 FIG. 131. Brenthis Myrina, nat. size ; 
 
 under surface on right (Harris). Placed tWO Sets OI individuals 
 here for comparison with B. Bellona. 
 
 mentioned ; this we 
 
 will term the aestival or summer series ; for by the 
 end of the following June the caterpillars have 
 attained their growth, and passing through the 
 chrysalis state, emerge as butterflies about the 
 middle of July ; these are the butterflies of mid- 
 summer, continuing upon the wing 
 until the end of September, in which 
 month they deposit their eggs ; these 
 eggs hatch in about a week, and the 
 little caterpillars hibernate as before. 
 The history of this aestival series is 
 quite similar to that of the larger Myrina, nat. size. 
 fritillaries, all of which are single-brooded, ap- 
 pear in early summer, lay their eggs early in the 
 autumn, and hibernate as juvenile larvae. 
 The second set of individuals, which we will 
 
 FIG. 132. Chrys- 
 alis of Brenthis 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 145 
 
 term the vernal, in contrast to the aestival series, 
 hibernate as half -grown caterpillars and produce 
 the earliest brood of butterflies ; these make their 
 appearance about the middle of May, although 
 they are occasionally seen earlier ; they are hardly 
 common before the end of the month, and are as 
 long-lived as their companions of the aestival 
 series ; they do not lay their eggs before July 
 or the end of June that is, about the time 
 when the butterflies of the aestival series ap- 
 pear ; the eggs hatch speedily and the cater- 
 pillars grow as usual, moulting twice ; beyond 
 this point all the caterpillars do not develop 
 alike ; some continue in what would appear the 
 most natural way ; as caterpillars they eat, as 
 chrysalids they sleep, and then appear in Sep- 
 tember, gay and frolicsome butterflies but 
 doomed, I believe, to an untimely end ; for the 
 cold autumnal blasts sweep them away before the 
 eggs are fully developed in their ovaries. It is, 
 however, possible that some of them may lay eggs 
 which, hatching, produce larvae which at once 
 hibernate and the following year become members 
 of the aestival series.* It appears more probable, 
 
 * Since this was written, some facts have come under my own 
 and others' observation, leading to the belief, as suggested in the 
 text as possible, that the butterflies of this brood lay eggs at 
 once, and that the caterpillars from them hibernate in their 
 earliest stage, thus transferring their allegiance the following 
 
146 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 however, that it is a vain effort of nature to de- 
 velop a second brood, which in a more southern 
 climate, with a longer season, would prove suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 But this we have said was the history of a part 
 only and probably of the smaller part ; the other 
 portion of the August caterpillars do not awake 
 from their lethargy at all until another season, 
 wintering as half -grown larvae, and finally reap- 
 pearing as butterflies the following June. 
 
 Thus we have two series of individuals in the 
 same species, each single-brooded, or one making 
 an effort toward a second generation, which prob- 
 ably ends in disaster, or at most eventually feeds 
 the other series. 
 
 In all plural-brooded butterflies with an exten- 
 sive distribution in latitude, the number of gener- 
 ations varies with the length of the season, and 
 this will account for the apparent waste we often 
 see as winter approaches, for such changes must 
 be gradual, and in intermediate districts irregu- 
 lar, dependent upon the season. Where such a 
 phenomenon occurs as that we noticed in the 
 Zebra Swallow tail [see Figs. 145-147], in which 
 some chrysalids of each brood live until the fol- 
 lowing spring, it manifestly makes little differ- 
 ence how short the season may be, or how sud- 
 
 spring to the aestival series ; in which case the butterfly is gener- 
 ally single, occasionally double brooded. 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 147 
 
 denly and effectually any brood may be cut off ; 
 these chrysalids, and so the species, will survive. 
 That this phenomenon is more common than is 
 generally supposed is shown by the increasing 
 number of proofs brought forward of lethargic 
 tendencies in caterpillars and of persistent torpor 
 in many midsummer chrysalids. It is also indi- 
 cated by the variation in the numerical propor- 
 tions of different broods ; the winter is the 
 severest season, and consequently the spring 
 broods are ordinarily, and under simple condi- 
 tions would always be, less numerous than the 
 summer or autumn broods ; generally the broods 
 go on increasing in individuals as the season ad- 
 vances ; but in the Meadow Fritillary it is not so, 
 and we have seen the reason why ; for it is made 
 up of only a part of the previous brood. We see 
 similar phenomena in other butterflies without 
 knowing the cause, and it may be presumed that 
 these are butterflies which have not long enjoyed 
 the privilege of the later brood, or, in other words, 
 in which a part of the chrysalids fail to persist 
 until the following spring. In the case of our 
 Tiger Swallow-tail, which is found from Alaska 
 to Florida, we have a butterfly which is single- 
 brooded in the north and double-brooded in 
 New England ;. but the second brood is much less 
 abundant than the first, and the change as we go 
 north is probably effected by the lingering devel- 
 
148 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 opment of some caterpillars and the disposition 
 of chrysalids to winter early. Wherever in a 
 double-brooded butterfly the second brood is less 
 abundant than the first, it is probable that the 
 butterfly is partly single and partly double 
 brooded that is, that the early brood of a given 
 year is made up of the direct descendants of each 
 brood of the preceding year. 
 
 Occasionally, the difference in the number of 
 broods affects the mode of hibernation. The 
 Black Swallow-tail (Princeps Polyxenes), for in- 
 stance, is triple-brooded in the south, and hiber- 
 nates as a butterfly and perhaps also as a chrys- 
 alis ; in the north it is double-brooded, and hiber- 
 nates only as a chrysalis. 
 
 To return again to our Meadow Fritillary with 
 its curious history. Should the season be so long 
 that the second brood of the vernal series could 
 lay eggs, these eggs would at once hatch, for their 
 normal period being often as short as five days, 
 weather which could induce a butterfly to lay 
 eggs would at once ripen the embryo ; the cater- 
 pillars would then be forced to hibernate in the 
 same condition as those of the aestival series, and 
 become members of that series the next year ; 
 while the vernal series would be kept up by 
 means of those caterpillars of its first brood 
 which, in the previous year, had gone into pre- 
 mature hibernation. Thus the vernal series 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 149 
 
 would continually feed the aestival ; yet it would 
 suffer no greater loss than by the practical steril- 
 ity of the September butterflies. Were the sea- 
 son still longer, the vernal series would become 
 double-brooded, the caterpillars from the Sep- 
 tember butterflies having time to attain half then- 
 size before hibernation ; the aestival series, on the 
 other hand, would probably by this time have 
 assumed the position our vernal series occupied 
 at the outset, and adopted and monopolized the 
 lethargic propensities of the latter. 
 
 The preceding hypothesis was suggested sev- 
 eral years since to explain the probable effect of 
 climate on generation in butterflies ; it was not 
 deemed capable of proof, inasmuch as the butter- 
 fly does not naturally live in a climate allowing 
 of such changes. But it has received a remark- 
 able confirmation in some forced experiments of 
 Mr. Edwards of West Virginia, who has pointed 
 out that caterpillars of this species carried from 
 the north to West Virginia and raised in the south 
 acted in precisely the way that had been sug- 
 gested ;* they all went through their transforma- 
 
 * These observations of Mr. Edwards were published in the 
 Canadian Entomologist (volume vii. p. 189 seq. ; see also vol. 
 viii. p. 161), and were not unreasonably supposed by him and 
 others to be opposed to the account of the insect I had previously 
 given. They may be so, but the author neglected to state that 
 the caterpillars raised by him were reared in West Virginia 
 south of the natural range of the insect (as in response to my 
 
150 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 tions without lethargic retardation, and the but- 
 terflies which emerged in the autumn laid eggs ; 
 if eggs were laid, we may presume they hatched, 
 and the young caterpillars hibernated. 
 
 If now we suppose a shorter season, such as 
 actually exists in some parts of our country 
 where this butterfly occurs, undoubtedly the first 
 change would be the entire elimination of the 
 September butterflies and the hibernation of all 
 the vernal caterpillars when half grown ; this is 
 probably the actual state of things 
 in parts of Canada ; still farther 
 north these caterpillars would prob- 
 ably by degrees hibernate when first 
 born, and we should then be trans- 
 ported to the simple condition which 
 prevails in the larger fritillaries 
 
 Atlantis, Bat. size. ,--.-,. -, -, -, n * -, , 
 
 [Fig. 133], and have only one flight 
 of butterflies in the season. 
 
 What may be the exact climatic features which 
 determine the number of generations of a butter- 
 fly has not yet been studied ; but there are som 
 curious difficulties in the way of understanding 
 
 special inquiries he afterward informed me), and this gives his 
 account an entirely different appearance. It is to be regretted 
 that this able and industrious observer has since then given the 
 history of other butterflies without informing us whether they 
 were reared in New York or West Virginia, in both of which 
 regions, four degrees of latitude apart, he is accustomed to rear 
 insects. 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 151 
 
 them. The cosmopolitan Painted Lady [Fig. 134], 
 for instance, is double-brooded in New England, 
 both in the districts where the contrasts of heat 
 and cold, moisture and drought, are excessive 
 that is, where the climate has those peculiarities 
 which are termed " continental ;" and also on 
 islands such as Nantucket in southern New Eng- 
 land, where a much greater evenness prevails and 
 the climate partakes of an " insular" character ; 
 yet in the valleys of Switzerland, where perhaps 
 
 FIG. 134. Vanessa cardui, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 of all places in Europe the climate presents the 
 greatest and most sudden inequalities, and there- 
 fore is most similar to that of New England, and 
 certainly is more continental than that of Nan- 
 tucket, this butterfly is single-brooded. We have 
 exceedingly few identical butterflies in Europe 
 and the United States, and this apparently is the 
 only one of them that differs in its broods in the 
 two countries ; but there are several of onr but- 
 terflies which are represented by very closely 
 
152 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 allied species in Europe, and in half a dozen or 
 more of these we find quite similar disparities, all 
 of which are in the same direction. 
 
 The European Tortoise-shell (Aglais urticae), 
 for example, is generally double-brooded ; occa- 
 sionally a triple brood is mentioned ; it is one 
 of the commonest of European butterflies, and 
 reaches from the North Cape to the Mediterra- 
 nean ; our congeneric species, the Nettle Tortoise- 
 shell [see Fig. 127], is rarely found south of the 
 northernmost parts of the United States, and yet 
 it is triple-brooded in all parts of Canada. Everes 
 Amyntas, again, occurs throughout Europe, with 
 the exception of certain northern and northwest- 
 ern portions, and is double -brooded ; our Tailed 
 Blue [see Fig. 125], named for the resemblance to 
 its European congener, and by some careless 
 authors considered identical with it, is also a wide- 
 spread insect ; but even in New England, which 
 is toward the northern limit of its range, it is 
 triple-brooded. The wide-spread European blues, 
 Rusticus Argus and R. Aegon, the Silver-studded 
 Blue, are usually placed among monogoneutic in- 
 sects, and the latter certainly has only a single 
 brood in England (where it is the only one of the 
 two found) ; Meyer Diir is in fact almost the only 
 author who claims these species as digoneutic ; 
 both of them occur in southern Europe ; the 
 American Pearl-studded Yiolet (Rusticus Scud- 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 153 
 
 derii), closely allied to these, and an insect hardly 
 known south of the Canadian border, is double- 
 brooded. Our Chequered White (Pontia Proto- 
 
 FIG. 135. Pontia Protodice, male, nat. size (Kiley). 
 
 dice) [Figs. 135, 136] is triple-brooded, and the 
 European Bath White (P. Daplidice) only double- 
 brooded, while our common Clouded and Orange 
 Sulphurs (Eurymus Philodice and E. Eurytheme) 
 
 FIG. 136. Ponlia Pro'odice, female, nat. size (Eiley). 
 
 [see Figs. 102, 103] are triple-brooded in the 
 north, perhaps polygoneutic farther south, and 
 the closely allied European species only single or 
 double brooded. 
 
154 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 But the most striking example of all will be 
 found in the species of the genus Iphiclides. The 
 European I. Podalirius is confined to the Medi- 
 terranean region, while our Zebra Swallow-tail 
 belongs to the southern half of the United States ; 
 the regions are therefore fairly comparable ; yet 
 we find no mention of more than two broods of I. 
 Podalirius, while Mr. Edwards has shown that, 
 even as far north as the Appalachian valley of 
 West Virginia, I. Ajax has four and sometimes 
 five generations during the year. 
 
 These cases might perhaps be multiplied, but 
 further positive evidence is not at hand ; it should 
 be remarked, however, that there is no reversal 
 of the rule : among all the butterflies properly 
 comparable on the two continents, there is no 
 single instance where the European butterfly has 
 more broods than the American. 
 
 This result of a comparison of the annual his 
 tories of similar European and American butter- 
 flies furnishes but another instance of that in- 
 tensity which seems to characterize all life in 
 America. The expenditure of nervous and vital 
 energy, against which physicians vainly inveigh, 
 which superannuates our merchants, lawyers, 
 clergymen, and other professional men, is not in- 
 duced by the simple passion for gain, place, 
 power or knowledge, but by an uncontrollable 
 restlessness, a constant dissatisfaction with pre- 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 155 
 
 sent attainments which marks us as a hurrying, 
 energetic, enterprising people. My own experi- 
 ence has been that studies of precisely the same 
 nature and undertaken under similar external 
 conditions are accompanied by a very different 
 mental state on the two continents. In Europe 
 we are content to plod industriously on, uncon- 
 scious of the need of relaxation ; in America we 
 bend with nervous intensity to our work, and 
 carry the same excitement into the relaxation 
 which such a life inevitably demands. After a 
 long absence in Europe, a keen observer may 
 even be directly conscious of this quickened life. 
 Now to what shall we ascribe such peculiarities 
 in animal life ? Naturally we look to climatic 
 influences, and our attention is first attracted by 
 the well-known fact that if we compare two places 
 in Europe and America having the same mean 
 annual temperature, the extremes of variation 
 will prove much greater on this side of the Atlan- 
 tic. For example, while the mean annual, tem- 
 perature of New York is about the same as that 
 of Frankfort, the summer temperature of the 
 former is that of Rome and its winter that of St. 
 Petersburg. Moreover, the changes from summer 
 to winter and from winter to summer are more 
 immediate in America; or, in other words, the 
 summers and winters are longer by about three 
 weeks. Such long and hot summers are of 
 
156 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 course favorable to the multiplication of broods 
 in butterflies whose history allows a repetition of 
 the same cycle more than once a year ; the length 
 of the winter is of slight consequence, as long as 
 the insects can survive it ; and it can have no in- 
 fluence upon the number of broods, unless there 
 be species (of which we know nothing) able to re- 
 sist a cold winter only in certain stages of exist- 
 ence, and a multiplication of whose broods might 
 require some pliability in this respect. Not 
 only, too, are our summers longer and hotter, but 
 they enjoy a marked preponderance of sunshine, 
 as compared with European summers ; and this 
 alone would almost seem capable of producing 
 the variation we have noticed in the number of 
 broods. 
 
 Differences will be found in all other climatic 
 phenomena of the two continents. " From 
 Europe as a standard," says Blodgett,* " the 
 American climate is singularly extreme both in 
 temperature, humidity, quantity of rain, wind, 
 and cloudiness or sensible humidity. The oscilla- 
 tions of the conditions are greater, and they 
 vibrate through long measures above and below 
 the average. All the irregular as well as regular 
 changes are of this sort, and the European observ- 
 er defines the climate as directly antagonistic to 
 
 * Climatology of the United States, p. 221. 
 
SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 157 
 
 that he has left." These differences, however, as 
 Humboldt and others long ago pointed out, have 
 a broader bearing than the above statements 
 would imply ; for they are characteristic of the 
 eastern shores of both worlds as opposed to the 
 western, the meteorological phenomena of the 
 eastern United States being almost precisely 
 paralleled by those of northern China, where 
 great excesses of temperature occur, with wide 
 variability, long summers and winters, and rapid 
 transitions. 
 
 Perhaps on these grounds we can most simply 
 account for the difference in the number of broods 
 in certain butterflies on the two continents ; but, 
 if so, then it follows that we ought to anticipate 
 similar differences between the broods of some of 
 the species found both in Europe and in eastern 
 Asia ; a point of which we can assert absolutely 
 nothing, for want of data. These grounds, how- 
 ever, will certainly be insufficient to account for 
 the differences to which we have alluded in man ; 
 for what contrast could well be greater than that 
 existing between the national character of the 
 Chinese and that of the Americans ! We are 
 rather forced to believe that the causes of the dis- 
 tinction between the European and the American, 
 if these are due to physical agencies, must chiefly 
 be sought elsewhere. 
 
 I have thus attempted to show that the lives of 
 
158 SEASONAL CHANGES AND HISTORIES. 
 
 butterflies possess no mean interest, and that we 
 are probably still far from understanding all the 
 complications which arise in the history of a single 
 one of those which are double-brooded or have a 
 wide geographical distribution. If any of my 
 readers have been puzzled by their strangeness, 
 and think that perhaps I have drawn the pic- 
 ture with too free a hand, let me assure them 
 that, for simplicity's sake, I have been forced to 
 keep quite out of view one element of discord by 
 which the complexity is often vastly increased, 
 and to which I shall next invite attention. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 
 
 IN discussing the subject of coloring in butter- 
 flies, I do not intend to present it from the poet's 
 point of view, seductive as this might be, but to 
 excite interest and quicken imagination in a more 
 prosaic way ; namely, by pointing out some of 
 the laws which govern this coloring, and some of 
 the lines by which the present tribes have at- 
 tained their gorgeous hues and exquisite design ; 
 in short, to present, through the medium of ob- 
 servation and fact, some cause for this rich dis- 
 play and variety. 
 
 For myself, I confess that such a discussion 
 possesses a greater charm than any poetic rhap- 
 sody, however exquisitely framed, which merely 
 recounts the wondrous beauty of these delicate 
 creatures. If, beneath this display, we can dis- 
 cover Almighty wisdom, ordaining and harmoniz- 
 ing color and design, and can appreciate in some 
 measure the adaptation of this embellishment to 
 the creature's environment, our time will not be 
 misspent. 
 
ICO THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 In butterflies, as in other animals, species of the 
 widest distribution usually display the greatest 
 variety in their characteristic peculiarities ; no- 
 where is this more true than in their coloring. 
 Latitude, especially, has an influence in these 
 alterations, and altitude produces almost pre- 
 cisely the same effects as latitude. Many species 
 present so different an aspect at the northern and 
 southern extremities of their range as to have 
 been described as distinct species. So we may 
 discover a difference of considerable importance 
 in the coloring of butterflies as a whole, in passing 
 from the tropics toward the poles, just as we ob- 
 serve a certain procession of color during the sea- 
 son, as one species is replaced by another. Every 
 one is aware that the most brilliant tints among 
 birds and butterflies are found in the tropics, while 
 the sombre shades are more in sympathy with 
 the gloomier subarctic regions. Prittwitz* and 
 Meyer-Biirf have studied this question in the 
 European Lepidoptera as a whole, and, with some 
 exceptions, we may accept their generalizations 
 as applicable to the butterflies of our own country. 
 
 The highest life of color in the wings of 
 butterflies consists in sharply defined spots of 
 red, blue, and yellow, and especially of red. 
 These colors predominate in the tropical re- 
 
 * Stett. entom. Zeit., xvi., 175. 
 
 t Actes Soc. Helvet. Sc. Nat., Vers. xxxvii. 145-152. 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 161 
 
 gions, and are rare in alpine and subarctic dis- 
 tricts. As we go north, the colors become less 
 sharply defined, then gradually fade away or be- 
 come blended with surrounding tints ; the red 
 first disappears, the blue follows, the yellow 
 longest maintaining its hold, although Prittwitz 
 considers the blue the most persistent. As soon 
 as we leave the tropics these brighter colors are 
 seldom seen in combination ; and as we approach 
 the higher temperate regions, we are constantly 
 struck by the impurity of the tints. Take a 
 single example from the common sulphur butter- 
 flies of the genus Eurymus [see Figs. 102, 103] ; 
 the more southern species have the under surface 
 of the hind wings of a clear canary yellow, and 
 what few spots they possess are clustered into 
 sharply defined markings next the margin ; these 
 features predominate until we arrive at the Middle 
 States, when a change begins ; and on reaching 
 Labrador we find the opposite extreme, a ground 
 color of greenish yellow completely flecked with 
 atoms of brown, giving the wing a grimy appear- 
 ance ; while the marginal markings are simply 
 more densely clustered atoms, forming spots 
 which gradually pass into the general dinginess 
 of the wing. 
 
 This loss of purity and greater or less suffusion 
 of markings is characteristic of northern and 
 alpine forms, and is in perfect accord with another 
 
162 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 phenomenon, the appearance of those varieties 
 or sports which are called examples of suffusion. 
 Although they frequently seem very unlike the 
 normal form, a little study always suffices to 
 show to what species they belong. This disguise 
 is produced by the blending of certain colors, 
 especially of black, white, or silvery tints, which 
 normally occur at distinct parts of the wing ; 
 there may be, for example, two parallel series of 
 white spots normally crossing the wing in the 
 middle and near the border ; under this disguise 
 of suffusion, the whole intervening area is covered 
 or shot with this color, generally more or less 
 sprinkled with atoms of the normal ground, pro- 
 ducing an impure tint, characteristic of north- 
 ern countries. Now these suffusions have been 
 known almost exclusively from the temperate 
 regions,* and to show that they are not exces- 
 sively rare, I may add that I have seen nearly 
 fifty specimens of our common American Copper, 
 and we are acquainted with at least eighteen of 
 the two hundred and seven butterflies of the east- 
 ern United States in which such suffusions occur. 
 A large number have been recorded in Europe, 
 where they are commonest in the alpine districts 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 These general changes of prevailing tints among 
 
 * Mr. Edwards of West Virginia has artificially produced a 
 number of instances by subjecting chrysalids to unusual cold. 
 
WITH FUR THER HIS TOR1E S. 1 63 
 
 butterflies from the tropics northward are perhaps 
 less striking because so gradual, and seem fairly 
 connected with physical conditions ; color is de- 
 pendent upon light, and of course the greatest 
 intensity and duration of light is in the tropics ; 
 the two phenomena are completely parallel. It 
 is, however, harder to understand a very curious 
 
 FIG. 137. Papilio Antiopa, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 sport in one of our butterflies, which is known to 
 have originated within ten years. There are a 
 very few butterflies common to this country and 
 Europe ; three, the Painted Lady, the Red Ad- 
 miral, and the Camberwell Beauty [Fig. 137], have 
 long been known to inhabit both countries ; and 
 not a few entomologists have attempted to find 
 some difference between representatives from 
 
164 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 either continent, thus far without real success. 
 Within a few years the cabbage butterfly [see 
 Figs. 110, 11 1] was accidentally introduced from 
 Europe, and has now spread widely ; nor does any 
 difference exist between European and ordinary 
 American examples of this insect. But there has 
 suddenly appeared in this country a variety un- 
 known to Europe, or, if known, excessively rare, 
 in which the normal chalky white, which forms 
 almost the only color of the wings, is replaced by 
 a pale sulphur tint ; probably few of our ento- 
 mologists have not seen this variety, although 
 from its resemblance on the wing to our common- 
 est of butterflies, the Clouded Sulphur, it would 
 ordinarily escape observation. 
 
 At the close of the last chapter, I promised to 
 discuss a new element of complexity which arises 
 in considering the different broods of butterflies ; 
 this complexity, it would seem, is already suffi- 
 ciently embarrassing, when we have lethargy of the 
 caterpillar, or premature hibernation of the chrys- 
 alis, with the consequent commingling of broods ; 
 but in addition to this the successive broods of 
 the same butterfly which appear in a single season 
 almost always differ from each other ; often so 
 incredibly as to be mistaken for distinct species. 
 This phenomenon is termed alternate, or, better, 
 seasonal dimorphism dimorphism signifying the 
 existence of an animal under two distinct forms. 
 
(VI TH FURTHER HISTORIES. 165 
 
 The imported Cabbage butterfly [see Figs. 110, 
 111] just mentioned is a case in point ; the spring 
 butterflies are smaller and of a duller white than 
 the later broods, with broader black markings on 
 the middle and tip of the wing, and the base 
 sprinkled with black atoms, which are almost 
 entirely wanting in the other broods ; beneath, 
 where the markings in this genus are most con- 
 spicuous and va- 
 ried, there is a 
 powdery streak of 
 black s c ales 
 along the middle 
 of the hind wings, 
 which, in the later 
 broods, is much 
 
 , FIG. 138. Pieris oleracea, nat. size (Harris). 
 
 less conspicuous. 
 
 A somewhat similar distinction occurs in its 
 near ally, the Gray- veined White 
 [Figs. 138, 139]. The summer 
 FIG. m-chrysaiis brood of this species is almost 
 
 of Pieris oleracea, .... .. ... ,., 
 
 nat. size (Riiey). pure white, while the spring 
 brood, besides being smaller, has the under sur- 
 face of the hind wings and of the tip of the fore 
 wings heavily washed with yellow, and all the 
 veins in the same area broadly sprinkled with 
 dark scales. Moreover, in all the whites, the 
 hind wings of the second generation are longer 
 than those of the first. 
 
166 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 In the American Copper [see Fig. 105], spring 
 individuals are of a more fiery red, and the orange 
 band of the nnder surface of the hind wings is 
 broader ; while in later broods the markings are 
 less vivid and less distinctly marked, and there 
 is a longer tooth on the margin of the hind wings. 
 
 In our Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes Tharos) 
 [Figs. 140, 141], according to the recent discoveries 
 of Mr. Edwards, the spring type (which he former- 
 ly considered a species distinct from the summer 
 
 FIG. 140. Phyciodes Tharog, sum- FIG. 141. Phyciode 
 mer brood, nat. size ; under surface on brood, nat. size; under surface on 
 right (Harris). right (Harris). 
 
 type, but which he has recently bred from the 
 latter) is characterized by the purple or pearly 
 hue of the under surface of the hind wings, and 
 by heavier markings on the same wings ; espe- 
 cially by the presence of great patches of ferrugi- 
 nous or dusky color at the outer margin ; mark- 
 ings which usually are only indicated in the sum- 
 mer broods, where the color is delicately traced 
 with ferruginous lines ; in the spring butterflies 
 the black markings of the upper surface are also 
 heavier and more diffuse than in the later broods. 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 167 
 
 There is another form of dimorphism which is 
 not seasonal, but occurs in all broods alike. The 
 simplest form of this appears in the genus Poly- 
 gonia, where it affects nearly all the species. The 
 most conspicuous case is in the largest, the Violet 
 Tip (Polygonia interrogationis) [Fig. 142], where 
 the two forms were once universally considered 
 distinct species ; they differ in the brightness and 
 
 FIG. 142. Polygonia interrogationis, nat. size (Harris.) 
 
 variegation of the lower surface of both wings, 
 and the obscurity of the upper surface of the hind 
 wings ; but the variation affects not only almost 
 every part of the coloring, but even the very form 
 of the wings, as may be readily seen by an exami- 
 nation of the exquisite plates of Mr. Edwards' 
 " Butterflies of North America."* 
 
 * One cannot speak in too high terms of these matchless plates. 
 The care that has been bestowed upon them reflects the highest 
 credit upon the author as well as upon those whom he employs. 
 
1G8 
 
 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 Another striking example may be found in 
 the Blue-eyed Grayling [Figs. 143, 144], the di- 
 morphism of which has recently been made out by 
 Mr. Edwards. Once the two forms, called respec- 
 
 FIG. 143. Cercyonis Alope, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 tively Alope and Nephele, were universally con- 
 sidered distinct species ; and not unreasonably, 
 for they were known to inhabit partly different 
 
 FIG. 144. Cercyonis Alope, form Nephele, nat. size ; under surface on right 
 (Harris). 
 
 regions, Alope being a more southern and Nephele 
 a more northern form ; there is indeed a wide ex- 
 panse of territory which they inhabit in com- 
 mon, but with varying abundance, according to 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 169 
 
 climatic conditions. The illustrations here given 
 show well the difference between these varieties, 
 but if they were colored, it wonld be even more 
 marked. 
 
 These are examples of simple or pure dimor- 
 phism, as the others were of seasonal dimorphism ; 
 but what if we have these mixed \ and what if, 
 at the same time, we 
 have that commingling of 
 broods which results 
 from premature hiberna- 
 tion of chrysalids ? We 
 have one conspicuous ex- 
 ample of this complica- 
 tion, of such interest that 
 it is worth while to give 
 the history of the insect 
 in full. It is the Zebra 
 Swallow-tail (Iphiclides 
 Ajax), a butterfly whose 
 northern limits barely FIG. 145. iphiciides Ajax, form 
 
 -, -VT -\r i -i _c Walshii, nat. size. 
 
 reach New York, and for 
 
 whose history we are indebted to the perseverance 
 of Mr. Edwards of West Virginia, -whose obser- 
 vations have been so often mentioned here. 
 
 This author has not only indisputably estab- 
 lished the identity of two forms previously de- 
 scribed as distinct species, but has proved the 
 existence of a third permanent form and has ad- 
 
170 
 
 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 mirably traced the relations of each form to the 
 others. The scientific name of this butterfly is 
 Ajax, which includes all the forms which it 
 assumes ; the special forms are called Walshii, 
 Telamonides, and Marcellus [Figs. 145-147]. Each 
 form appears at a different season of the year ; 
 Walshii is the early spring type, Telamonides the 
 
 late spring, and Marcel- 
 lus the summer and au- 
 tumn type. Nearly all 
 the butterflies which, in 
 West Virginia, emerge 
 from the chrysalis be- 
 fore the middle of April 
 are Walshii ; between 
 that and the end of 
 May, Telamonides ; af- 
 ter this, Marcellus. The 
 first two, however, do 
 not appear to represent 
 distinct broods ; and this 
 point, to which Mr. Ed- 
 wards strangely failed 
 to draw attention in the 
 first account of his observations, is one of the 
 most extraordinary features in the history of 
 the insect ; for Telamonides is not the direct con- 
 seasonal produce of Walshii, but both are made up 
 of butterflies which have wintered as chrysalids, 
 
 FIG. 146. Iphiclides Ajax, form 
 Telamonides, nat. size. 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 171 
 
 those which disclose their inmates earliest produc- 
 ing Walshii, the others Telamonides ; while all 
 buttei-flies produced from eggs of the same season, 
 and there are several successive broods, belong 
 to Marcellus. Thus, 
 besides the true 
 seasonal d i m o r - 
 phism which distin- 
 guishes the butter- 
 flies produced from 
 eggs of the same 
 season from those 
 derived from eggs of 
 the previous season, 
 we have a second- 
 ary seasonal dimor- 
 phism, as it may well 
 be called, separating 
 the earlier from the 
 later produce of win- 
 tering chrysalids. 
 Mr. Edwards has 
 
 Shown that a por- FIG. 147.-Iphiclides Ajax, form Marcel- 
 . . , -, his, nat. size. 
 
 tion of every brood 
 
 of chrysalids, instead of disclosing the imago 
 at the end of the ordinary time, retain it, occa- 
 sionally until the appearance of a subsequent 
 brood, but usually until the next spring. The 
 spring brood, for which we are obliged to use the 
 
172 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 compound term Walshii-Telamonides, is therefore 
 by no means wholly produced from chrysalids of 
 the final brood of Marcellus, but in large measure 
 from those of all the earlier broods, even includ- 
 ing the earliest Walshii. Ajax, then, is at one 
 and the same time, single, double, triple, quad- 
 ruple, and, if we may trust Mr. Edwards, quin- 
 tuple-brooded a case as yet without a parallel 
 among butterflies. The proportion of chrysalids 
 which go into premature hibernation increases as 
 the season advances ; of those produced from eggs 
 laid in April more than ten per cent continue until 
 spring, from eggs laid in May about thirty-five 
 per cent, from those laid in June from fifty to 
 sixty per cent, and from those laid in July about 
 seventy per cent ; of course those from later eggs 
 all hibernate. Walshii and Telamonides, then, 
 produce Marcellus the same season, or either 
 Walshii or Telamonides the succeeding spring. 
 Marcellus produces itself the same season, or one 
 of the others in the spring ; neither Walshii nor 
 Telamonides is produced the same season by any 
 of the varieties ; nor does Marcellus ever emerge 
 from wintering chrysalids. 
 
 How difficult it has been to trace all these facts 
 will appear from the following brief history of 
 the species. It winters only in the chrysalis 
 state. The earliest variety, Walshii, appears 
 when the peach-trees bloom, about the middle of 
 
WITH FUR THER HIS TORIES. 1 73 
 
 March.* The females appear a few days later 
 than the males, and may be found on peach, 
 apple, and wild-plum blossoms, while the males 
 are to be seen by the water-side or upon the road, 
 rarely upon flowers. The caterpillars feed upon 
 papaw, and as this tree is one of the latest in put- 
 ting forth its leaves, two or three weeks elapse 
 after the appearance of the butterflies before the 
 young shoots of the food-plant are visible ; but 
 no sooner do these appear than the females 
 hasten to deposit their eggs and continue to do 
 so until toward the end of May ; the eggs hatch 
 in seven or eight days and the caterpillars are 
 from twenty-two to twenty -nine days in attaining 
 their growth. Te]amonides, a later variety of the 
 same brood, as already explained, begins to fly 
 some weeks after Walshii, and both forms are for 
 a time common ; the eggs of the former variety 
 are sooner laid, and hatch in four or five days ; 
 the caterpillars, too, mature more quickly, attain- 
 ing their growth in from fifteen to eighteen days, 
 the earlier ones often overtaking their tardier 
 predecessors. About the first of June Walshii 
 disappears, and before the end of the month Tela- 
 monides also ; at the beginning of this same 
 month Marcellus appears and continues abundant 
 through the season. The successive broods of 
 
 * Reference is made to the season in West Virginia. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
174 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 this form overlap each other so as to be distin- 
 guished with difficulty ; butterflies of the earliest 
 brood continue to emerge from the chrysalis until 
 after the first week in July, while those first dis- 
 closed lay eggs early in June, so that the earliest 
 individuals of the second brood of Marcellus ap- 
 pear as soon as some belated individuals of the 
 first brood ; the attempt to trace the sequence of 
 the broods is therefore hopelessly bewildering ; 
 and we can only judge by the comparative abun- 
 dance or rarity of fresh individuals that there are 
 three or four broods of this form alone. Eggs, 
 caterpillars, chrysalids, and butterflies may still 
 be found together until the frosts come and de- 
 stroy all except the chrysalids. 
 
 This insect is native to the Southern States, 
 and though its range is great, it does not extend 
 over regions of very varied temperature. Were it 
 otherwise we might look for further variations, 
 such as would appear when comparing northern 
 and southern individuals. And there is reason 
 to believe that such a complication does exist in 
 one of our New England butterflies whose history 
 has been partially traced. 
 
 This butterfly, the Spring Azure (Cyaniris 
 Pseudargiolus) [Figs. 148, 149], which appears to 
 extend from Boston to San Francisco and from 
 Labrador to Texas, has been described under half 
 a dozen different names, principally owing to the 
 
WITH FUR TIIER HIS TORIES. 1 75 
 
 various forms it assumes. Some of these names 
 have been applied to the species as it appears in 
 California, but as oar knowledge of its history in 
 that region is exceedingly fragmentary, we will 
 altogether overlook it, and 
 speak of the butterfly as it 
 exists on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Beginning then in the 
 south, it first appears as a 
 
 . _ _ ... FIG. 148. Cyaniris Pseudar- 
 
 blue butterfly With large dlS- giolns, male, nat. tlze ; upper 
 
 * surface (Harris;. 
 
 t i n c t markings beneath ; 
 some of the males, however, are wholly brown 
 above, while others are blue with a faint blush 
 of white and a heavy brown border ; this form 
 is called violacea [Fig. 150]. Later in the season 
 it appears with very delicate mark- 
 ings beneath ; the males are now 
 always blue above, with a dash of 
 white in the middle of the front 
 wing ; this variety is called Pseu- 
 darlolus proper [Fig. 151]. 
 
 ^ S we P ass northward a change 
 occurs in the first brood; the 
 brown males gradually become rarer 
 and the blue males more common. When we 
 have reached the vicinity of Boston, we have 
 the following conditions : First appears a blue 
 butterfly in which the spots of the under surface 
 are very large and often blended into great 
 
176 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 patches ; and in which the males, always blue, 
 have only a slight trace of pale color on the 
 upper surface of the front wings ; this 
 variety is called Lucia [Fig. 152] ; 
 it appears about the middle of April, 
 and is abundant for a month, when 
 it begins rapidly to decrease, and 
 FIG. i5o.-cyani- by the end of May is seldom seen. 
 
 ris Pseudargiolus, "" 
 
 form violacea, nat. The next blue butterfly to appear 
 
 size ; under sur- 
 
 is one corresponding in all respects 
 to the violacea, or first brood of the south, ex- 
 cepting that all the males are blue. It makes its 
 advent during the first week in 
 May and remains on the wing 
 until late in June. The earliest 
 individuals appear scarcely more 
 than a fortnight later than the 
 first individuals of Lucia, and FIG. 
 
 Pseudargiolus, form 
 
 therefore they cannot be produced 
 
 from them. Yet as it tends in face - 
 some of its variations to become like Lucia, and 
 Lucia also varies in the direction 
 of violacea, it is often absolutely 
 impossible to draw any separat- 
 ing line between a series of the 
 two forms collected in a single 
 s P o t. There is no alternative but 
 face - to suppose that just as the first 
 
 brood of Ajax is dimorphic and consists of an ear- 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 177 
 
 Her and a later form,Walshii and Telamonides, so 
 this blue butterfly is dimorphic in the northern 
 part of its range, appearing as an earlier and a 
 later form, Lucia and violacea. Additional proof 
 will be found on tracing still farther the history 
 of this butterfly in New England. Shortly after 
 the appearance of violacea, or about the middle of 
 May, we encounter another blue butterfly, too 
 early to have been produced from violacea, just 
 as violacea appeared too soon to have been pro- 
 duced from Lucia. This blue corresponds in all 
 respects excepting size with Pseudargiolus proper 
 of the south ; and small southern individuals 
 agree altogether with large northern examples. 
 Now in the south Pseudargiolus has been reared 
 from violacea ; but here, the earlier individuals 
 must be the offspring of Lucia, or the entire 
 brood the common progeny of Lucia-violacea. 
 
 As we go still farther north, the spring brood 
 is the only one which persists, and it is even 
 made up entirely of the earliest New England 
 form, viz., Lucia. At the two latitudinal ex- 
 tremes of its range, therefore, this butterfly ap- 
 pears under a totally different aspect, and has a 
 different history. Without a study of their ap- 
 pearance and history in intermediate localities, no 
 naturalist would have hesitated to class them as 
 perfectly distinct species. 
 
 In addition to this curious polymorphism, de- 
 
178 THE COLORING OF BUTTERFLIES, 
 
 pendent upon locality and season, there are other 
 minor distinctions that appear to embrace all 
 localities and seasons. As we go from north 
 southward, or as, in any given locality where the 
 insect is double-brooded, the season advances, we 
 find the individuals growing larger, less heavily 
 marked beneath, and, in the female, paler on the 
 upper surface. 
 
 In this butterfly, then, we have a curious com- 
 bination of phenomena. There is first a great 
 difference in the aspect of the insect in widely 
 separated localities, so that local races have been 
 described as distinct species ; then there is simple 
 dimorphism occurring in the spring brood in a 
 central locality, but not at the two extremes ; a 
 simple dimorphism partaking of a seasonal char- 
 acter, inasmuch as the earlier individuals of the 
 affected brood are of one form, and the later of 
 another ; not unlikely it will be proved that, as 
 in the Zebra Swallow-tail, this secondary seasonal 
 dimorphism is correlated with premature hiber- 
 nation of some spring and summer chrysalids, 
 and that the spring brood as a whole is composed 
 of fragments of all the broods of the previous 
 year. Besides this secondary seasonal dimor- 
 phism, we have a pure seasonal dimorphism, in the 
 distinction of the spring and summer broods, 
 wherever more than one exists ; and finally, in 
 the south we have a distinct form of dimorphism 
 
WITH FURTHER HISTORIES. 179 
 
 in the diverse attire of different individuals among 
 the males of the spring brood, a form of sexual 
 dimorphism in which only a part of the males 
 partake. To the varying forms of this kind of 
 dimorphism attention will next be directed. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 
 
 ANTIGENY, signifying opposition or antagonism 
 of the sexes, is a term applied to what might also 
 be called sexual dimorphism, and embraces all 
 forms of secondary sexual diversity, some of 
 which will now be considered. 
 
 The partial form of sexual dimorphism, referred 
 to at the close of the last chapter, or an antigeny 
 affecting only a portion of one sex, is by no 
 means rare among butterflies, but it always 
 assumes one of two aspects, albinism or melan- 
 ism ; in each of these it may become univer- 
 sal and therefore complete. In high temperate 
 regions albinic antigeny finds its most complete 
 expression ; toward the tropics melanic antigeny 
 prevails ; and in accord with this general state- 
 ment we may observe that in the butterfly whose 
 history was last given it is in the southern part 
 of its range that melanic antigeny makes its ap- 
 pearance, that is, a part of the normally blue 
 males become brown. 
 
 Another instance of partial melanic antigeny 
 may be seen in our Tiger Swallow-tail [Fig. 153], 
 
182 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 whose black female was long considered a distinct 
 species ; and it was not until search was made for 
 some mate to match it that suspicion was aroused. 
 This case is the more remarkable from its being 
 normally a gayly banded butterfly, having long 
 black stripes on a bright yellow ground, whereas 
 in the melanic female the yellow is quite sup- 
 planted by the black ; curiously enough, the blue 
 flecks of the hind wing are the same in either 
 form, the melanism having produced no effect 
 
 upon them ; very rarely 
 individuals are found in 
 which the yellow and black 
 are more or less commin- 
 gled, and most of the me- 
 
 Fio. 154.-Atrytone Zabulon, lanic fomiS show 
 female, nat. size ; under surface 
 
 faint traces of the stripes 
 
 in the deeper black of the parts normally covered 
 by the black bands. Now the home of this 
 butterfly stretches from Alaska to Florida, but 
 north of the southern boundary of JS"ew York or 
 outs not a black female can be found ; the 
 parallel in this respect with that of our 
 little blue butterfly. 
 
 We have again a dusky skipper (Atrytone 
 Zabulon) [Fig. 154], not very uncommon in JSTew 
 England, and still more common farther south, to 
 which I once gave the name of Pocahontas ; for 
 years Pocahontas sought her mate in vain, until 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 183 
 
 at last we found him, united, alas ! to another 
 wife ; a case quite like that of the swallow-tails 
 just described ; so now we christen this twin- 
 wived species the Mormon. 
 
 These cases might be multiplied, but we will 
 turn rather to the albinic side. As far as I am 
 aware, albinic antigeny occurs only in one group, 
 the red-horns or yellow butterflies (Fugacia) ; but 
 it appears there in several genera. In ]N"ew Eng- 
 land it is conspicuous, and must have been ob- 
 served by at least every entomologist, in our com- 
 mon Clouded Sulphur [see Figs. 102, 103]. Here 
 all the females differ to a certain extent from the 
 males ; principally in having the marginal black 
 band, which is sharply defined on its inner side 
 in the male, ill-defined and broken by spots of 
 the ground color in the female ; the yellow, too, 
 is invariably somewhat paler and duller than the 
 clear canary of the male ; this is complete anti- 
 geny. But there is also partial antigeny, for 
 an albinic form occurs in which the yellow is al- 
 together replaced by a dead dull white with a 
 greenish tinge. It is a curious fact that these 
 pale females never appear in the early spring 
 brood, and increase in proportion as the season 
 advances. This is in harmonious contrast with 
 the occurrence of a melanic male in the spring 
 brood of the azure butterfly ; when we consider 
 that albinism is a northern, melanism a southern 
 
184 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 peculiarity, we should anticipate albinism in the 
 cool, melanism in the hot season. 
 
 Albinic antigeny similar to that of our Clouded 
 Sulphur may be seen more rarely in neighboring 
 genera, south of New England ; it is, however, 
 common both in this country and in Europe to 
 nearly all the species of the genus Eurymus, and 
 it need not surprise us to find that in the high 
 north and at great altitudes, species occur all 
 whose females are pale ; the colorational antigeny 
 has become complete instead of partial. The 
 same is the case with the melanic 
 antigeny in many blues ; there are 
 exceedingly few species which have 
 both brown and blue females ; 
 but brown females with blue males 
 is a common phenomenon in Eu- 
 
 Nicippe, nat. size. -, ,-, i -i _c < 
 
 rope and in the western half of 
 our own country. 
 
 But there is also a colorational antigeny quite 
 apart from albinism or melanism, which may be 
 expressed in various ways ; in all such cases, so 
 far as I know, it is complete ; that is, all the in- 
 dividuals of one sex differ from all the individ- 
 uals of the other. Such is the case in the Black- 
 bordered Yellow (Xanthidia Mcippe) [Fig. 155]. 
 In the male the black bordering band of the wing 
 is sharply defined and extends across the entire 
 outer margin. In the female the band is blurred 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 
 
 185 
 
 and stops abruptly before it reaches the lower 
 angle of the front wings, or has half traversed the 
 
 PIG. 156. Anaea Andria, male, nat. size (Riley). 
 
 hind wings. In the skipper called Thymelicus 
 Brettus, the female is very dark brown, almost 
 
 FIG. 157. Anaea Andria, female, nat. size (Riley). 
 
 black, with two little yellow spots in the middle 
 of the front wings ; while the male differs totally, 
 
186 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 being tawny with indented brown borders and an 
 oblique black dasli in the middle of the front 
 wings ; at first glance no one could suppose them 
 identical. In the Goat- weed butterfly [Figs. 156, 
 157] the male is of a deep coppery red above, 
 bordered with dark purplish brown and blotched 
 and powdered with the same ; the female differs 
 in being of a lighter color throughout and in hav- 
 ing a broad, somewhat irregular belt of a still 
 lighter tint crossing both wings, but most con- 
 spicuous on the front pair, and brought into 
 greater relief by a distinct edging of blackish 
 brown. In the superb fritillary Diana (Semno- 
 psyche Diana), the male is a rich dark brown 
 with a very broad fulvous margin upon all the 
 wings, marked on the front pair by one or two 
 rows of small black spots. The female, on the 
 other hand, is a rich purple black, with no trace 
 of fulvous, but with the space where it belongs 
 occupied on the front wings by three rows of 
 white spots and dashes, and on the hind wings by 
 two belts of blue, broken into spots, one of the 
 belts narrow, the other exceedingly broad. In a 
 related butterfly almost equally superb, the Regal 
 Fritillary (Speyeria Idalia) [Fig. 158], the spots 
 of the outer row on the upper side of the hind 
 wings are deep orange in the male, pale bluish 
 white in the female ; forming a striking contrast. 
 Again, in that charming hair-streak, the Spring 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 187 
 
 Beauty (Erora laeta), the male is wholly brown, 
 with a border of deep blue on a portion of the 
 hind wings : while in the female, the blue has 
 extended so as to cover almost all the hind wings 
 and even the base of the front wings. 
 
 But it is in the coppers [see Figs. 105, 117] that 
 the phenomenon is most common. Here the fe- 
 males are usually of a fulvous color, heavily 
 
 FIG. 158. Speyeria Idalia, nat. size ; under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 spotted with black, and particularly noticeable 
 for their conspicuous broad dark border and a 
 row of spots crossing the wings beyond the mid- 
 dle ; while the males are either of some dark 
 brown shade or of a coppery fiery hue, almost 
 always without any border or conspicuous spots. 
 Now in all cases of colorational antigeny it is 
 the female and almost never the male which first 
 departs from the normal type of coloring of the 
 
188 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 group to which the species belongs ;* occasionally, 
 however, this feminine peculiarity has been trans- 
 mitted to the male, and by this means a new type 
 of coloration established in the group. The male 
 of butterflies is usually colored the more vividly 
 and conspicuously, but this is not universal, as 
 the case of the coppers, just quoted, may show. 
 But I have seen no instance, besides that of the 
 Spring Azure, where the male alone departs from 
 the general type of coloring peculiar to the group. 
 This is precisely the opposite conclusion to that 
 which Darwin reached in his discussion of sexual 
 selection in butterflies. He gives several ex- 
 amples, on the authority of Bates, which cer- 
 tainly favor his conclusion, but may at the same 
 time be explained from the opposite point of 
 view. He gives other examples from the Euro- 
 pean blues, which not only do not support, but 
 even oppose his general statement that " the 
 male, as a general rule, departs most from the 
 usual type of coloring of the group to which the 
 species belong." 
 
 Take the case of Diana, than which we could 
 hardly find a stronger, since the group to which 
 it belongs is remarkably uniform, exhibiting in 
 
 * A single exception to this rule among our butterflies is known 
 to me, in the Spring Azure [see Figs. 148, 149], already referred 
 to, in which it is the male and not the female which is sometimes 
 brown instead of blue, the normal color of the group. 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 189 
 
 all its numerous members the same characteristic 
 play of fulvous and black markings. The male 
 of Diana is Indeed very unlike most other fritil- 
 laries, but it retains nevertheless abundant traces 
 of the same style of ornamentation and has pre- 
 cisely the same colors ; while the female departs 
 widely from the characteristic features of orna- 
 mentation, and in addition loses every trace of 
 fulvous, so that no one at first glance would rec- 
 ognize it as a member of the group. 
 
 Take again our common Sulphur Yellow and its 
 allies [see Figs. 102, 103] ; in some species, in- 
 deed, there are only pale females ; but in others 
 most or all of the females are yellow like the 
 males, and any one who knows how yellow and 
 orange tints prevail throughout the whole group 
 to which the genus Eurymus belongs will ac- 
 knowledge that the color of the males is normal. 
 
 So too with the blues, which Darwin himself 
 quotes ; almost all of them, males and females, 
 are of some shade of blue ; in a considerable num- 
 ber the males are blue and the females brown ; in 
 only one, so far as I know, are the males some- 
 times brown and the females blue ; in exceed- 
 ingly few both sexes are brown ; and the very 
 fact that they are familiarly known as the 
 ' ' blues' ' is a popular recognition of the prevail- 
 ing color. 
 
 In the group of skippers to which Brettus be- 
 
190 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 longs [Fig. 159 ; see also Figs. 113-116, etc.], the 
 prevailing colors, at least in the temperate zone, 
 are certainly tawny and black or brown, the lat- 
 ter marginal ; this is the case with the male of 
 Brettus, while the female diverges from the type 
 in becoming wholly brown. 
 
 In the Tiger Swallow-tail [see Fig. 153], where 
 we sometimes have a black female, it is more 
 difficult to decide what should be considered the 
 normal color, owing to diversity of view upon the 
 relationship of many of the swallow-tails ; but 
 ^4 jx*- to judge only from those 
 
 ^^^tijjjri&jjSS agreed by all to be most near- 
 ly allied to it, there is no 
 question whatever that the 
 
 Jft&1JStittfi stri P ed character prevails. 
 
 It will be noticed in this 
 case and others I have given that wherever partial 
 antigeny or dimorphism is confined to one sex, it 
 is always to the female ; and I am not aware of any 
 exception to the rule, excepting in the case of the 
 Spring Azure. In these instances, on my hypoth- 
 esis, half of the females depart from the type ; on 
 Darwin's, half of the females and all of the males. 
 But if, on Darwin's theory, sometimes half and 
 sometimes three-fourths of a species have diverged 
 from the type, why does it never happen that 
 only one-fourth of them diverge ? This seems to 
 me a very pertinent and damaging inquiry. 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 191 
 
 The instances given by Darwin which strongly 
 sustain his view are drawn from specimens of a 
 South American genus, Epicalia, found in the 
 rich cabinet of Mr. Bates, who travelled so long 
 upon the Amazons. The facts as stated are these : 
 There are twelve species of the genus Epicalia dis- 
 cussed ; of these nine have gaudy males and plain 
 females, one has plain male and plain female, and 
 two have gaudy males and gaudy females. The 
 plain females, he adds, " resemble each other in 
 their general type of coloration, and likewise re- 
 semble both sexes in several allied genera found 
 in various parts of the world." To examine this 
 case fairly would need a large collection of exotic 
 butterflies. If we confine ourselves to Epicalia 
 we evidently cannot say whether the gaudy or the 
 plain coloring be normal. There would be less 
 variation from the standard on the supposition 
 that the gaudy were the normal color ; and in 
 this case it is the female which has departed from 
 the type ; but the difference is not enough to 
 form an objection ; it is only when we look out- 
 side of Epicalia that judgment seems to lean 
 toward Darwin's side ; but, from the total want 
 of material, I cannot fairly discuss the point, and 
 can certainly see no flaw in his argument. 
 
 Take, however, a case which appears to be 
 somewhat parallel, our native coppers, we have 
 one species in which both sexes are fiery red [see 
 
192 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 Fig. 105] marked with, black ; another where 
 both are fulvous, marked with black ; others 
 where both sexes are brown, and several where 
 the male is brown marked with fulvous, and the 
 female fulvous marked with brown [see Fig. 117] ; 
 others, again, where the male is wholly brown 
 and the female fulvous spotted with brown ; and 
 still others with fiery male and brown female. 
 We have nearly every possible variation, but the 
 prevalent feature is a dark male often with more 
 or less metallic reflections, which sometimes in- 
 crease so as to give the insect a fiery coppery hue ; 
 and a fulvous spot-ted and margined female. I do 
 not see how we can discover with any certainty 
 from within the limits of the group of coppers, 
 what should be considered the normal type ; nor 
 are we much better off in an examination outside 
 the group ; there the prevailing tint is either 
 brown or blue ; but I am inclined to think that 
 brown tending strongly to copper should be con- 
 sidered the normal type ; in which case the males 
 are generally normal, and the species antigenic. 
 
 But sexual dimorphism is not confined to color 
 or pattern ; there is also structural as well as col- 
 orational antigeny ; this term embraces all those 
 minor features which, in these and other animals, 
 have been classed as accessory sexual peculiari- 
 ties ; in general, they are such characteristics as 
 the wattles and special plumage of the cock and 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 193 
 
 other birds, and, in direct opposition to the feat- 
 ures we have been discussing, they are wholly 
 confined to the males. 
 
 In butterflies structural antigeny is mostly con- 
 fined to the wings and the legs. Sometimes it 
 affects the contour of the wings ; one of the most 
 conspicuous cases among our own butterflies is in 
 the Coral Hair-streak (Strymon Titus), where the 
 front wings of the male have a pointed tip, and 
 the hind wings have the inner angle sharply de- 
 fined ; while in the female both the tip of the 
 front wings and the inner 
 angles of the hind wings 
 are rounded. Another 
 maybe seen in the two FIG. m-veins of fore wing of 
 
 Thecla Calanus ; a, male ; 6, fe- 
 
 emperor butterflies rep- male ? nat. size. 
 resented in Figs. 182 and 184, where, besides 
 minor differences, the hind wings of the female 
 are full and rounded, while those of the male are 
 angulate, the outer margin being nearly straight. 
 Or it may affect the direction of the veins of the 
 wings ; usually the difference between the sexes 
 is slight and concerns the point of origin of one 
 or two of the upper branches of the subcostal vein 
 of the front wings ; but occasionally it is very 
 marked, as in many of the hair-streaks [Fig. 
 160], where the branches of the subcostal vein 
 near the end of the cell are thrown far out of 
 place to accommodate a patch of peculiar crowded 
 
194 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 scales. This patch itself, moreover, is a feature 
 of the males alone, and occurs in many hair- 
 streaks where the position of the vein is not 
 altered. 
 
 One of the most curious patches of this kind is 
 found in the males of certain yellow butterflies, 
 although wholly absent from others intimately 
 allied to them ; it is a little patch of lustreless 
 scales which occurs at that part of the base of the 
 hind wings which is always covered by the 
 front wings, so that it is quite 
 concealed from sight. 
 
 Patches of a different nature 
 also mark the male sex ; thus 
 
 the costal fold opened ; . , . -. -, , ,-, -, 
 
 nat. size. next the middle of the lower 
 
 median vein of the hind wings of the Monarch [see 
 Fig. 106], and in some of its allies, we have a 
 thickening and inversion of the membrane, con- 
 spicuous from its covering of black scales. 
 
 In very many males of the larger skippers 
 (Hesperides) the front edge of the fore wing is 
 abnormally expanded and folded compactly upon 
 the upper face of the wing, so snugly that often 
 it can be only discovered with the lens [Pig. 161] ; 
 moreover the scales within this fold have turned 
 to white silken floss, which, when the fold is 
 raised, contrasts conspicuously with the ordi- 
 narily dark surface of this part of the wing. In 
 certain swallow-tails, also, the inner border of the 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 
 
 195 
 
 hind wings is folded over in a similar though 
 looser manner, but is so much larger that when 
 opened it often exposes a white downy surface 
 as large as the abdomen. 
 
 Again, there is much variety of male adornment 
 in special modifications of hairs or scales upon the 
 wings ; the patch of the hair- 
 streaks, just mentioned, is 
 one instance of this ; another 
 example is found among the 
 fritillaries in a row of long 
 fulvous, partially erect hairs 
 along the upper edge of the 
 cell of the hind wings [Fig. 
 162] ; this is accompanied by 
 a curious apparent thicken- 
 ing of the veins in the middle 
 of the fore wing, due alto- 
 gether to the presence of a 
 multitude of small and dense- 
 ly clustered black scales 
 crowded against the veins at 
 this point. A faint oblique patch of minute and 
 crowded lustreless scales, accompanied by long 
 silky hairs, is often seen crossing the wings of some 
 of the satyrs or meadow-browns ; but this feature 
 finds fullest expression in the group of smaller 
 skippers (Astyci), where a large proportion of 
 males have a patch or oblique dash of peculiar 
 
 FIG. 162. Wings of Argymris 
 Cybele, to show the apparent 
 thickening of some of the 
 veins of the fore wing, and the 
 row of hairs near base of hind 
 wing; nat. size. 
 
196 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 scales covering veins and membrane indiscrimi- 
 nately, but usually, and in our native butterflies 
 always, occupying the middle of the front wing 
 and crossing the median veins obliquely near their 
 base [Fig. 163]. This dash is variously formed, 
 but the scales which compose it are usually much 
 larger than the ordinary scales, are black and 
 often partially erect ; they may also differ in vam 
 ous parts of the patch itself and alter their char- 
 acter abruptly ; for instance, some comparatively 
 huge and brilliant scales may occupy the middle 
 
 line and be buttressed by 
 a multitude of minute 
 crowded, lustreless 
 FIG. i63.-ForewingofThymeii- scales ; or there may be 
 
 cus Aetna, showing the oblique , , /. 
 
 patch or stigma peculiar to the at One point a SOrt OI 
 males, X 2. . . 
 
 whirlpool of large parti- 
 colored scales, set at all angles ; next it similar 
 scales, imbricated in the most regular fashion, like 
 the normal scales ; and beyond them again a multi- 
 tude of the minute, crowded, lustreless scales ; 
 these peculiarities, however, must be studied 
 with a glass ; the naked eye may indeed discover 
 that the patch differs in different insects, but the 
 general effect, in all alike, is a variably formed 
 velvety patch or oblique streak of black. 
 
 Before leaving the wings, I will call attention 
 to one striking fact. Wherever antigeny, colora- 
 tioual or structural, manifests itself in the wings 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 197 
 
 of butterflies, the differences between the sexes 
 almost invariably occur upon the upper surface, 
 and generally upon the front wing only ; it occa- 
 sionally happens that there is a slight difference 
 in the general tone of color on the under surface 
 of both sexes, corresponding to what appears 
 above. Diana is an extreme example of this ; 
 but it rarely affects the markings of the wings ; 
 these are invariably similar, almost precisely sim- 
 ilar, in both sexes, no matter what marvellous 
 pictures nature may have drawn with her colors. 
 The differences upon the upper surface, however, 
 and especially upon the front wings, are, as we 
 have seen, often conspicuous and very curious. 
 It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact 
 that in moths the markings of the wings are 
 almost entirely confined to the upper surface, and 
 especially to that of the front wings, which in 
 these lower groups usually cover the hind wings 
 when in repose. This subject, however, will be 
 more fully discussed in the next chapter. 
 
 Sexual dimorphism shows itself in the legs in 
 the proportional length of the different pairs in 
 the two sexes, in the special development of cer- 
 tain joints, in the appendages and clothing. The 
 appendages we will not now consider, as it will be 
 necessary, in discussing the classification of butter- 
 flies, to enter into details concerning them ; and 
 we shall then point out how striking the antigeny 
 
198 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 becomes. As to the differences in the length of 
 the leg-joints, I have not discovered that they fol- 
 low any general law, although there are few of 
 our butterflies whose sexes do not vary in this 
 particular. This form of antigeny is most con- 
 spicuous in the Rurales, the family which in- 
 cludes most of our smaller butterflies, the blues, 
 coppers, and hair-streaks. The males of certain 
 coppers also present another curious feature in a 
 tumid swelling of the basal joint of the middle 
 and hind tarsi. Finally, the front legs of but- 
 terflies are frequently furnished with a spread- 
 ing brush of hairs, or the thighs and shanks of 
 the other legs are supplied with curious pencils 
 or fringes of long stiff hairs, which appear to have 
 much the same significance as similar adorn- 
 ments in higher animals. 
 
 Darwin supposes that all these various male 
 appurtenances, which occur throughout the animal 
 kingdom, such as cocks' combs, peacocks' tails, 
 and other paraphernalia of the lords of creation, 
 have all arisen by sexual selection ; that one of 
 rival males being selected as a mate whose out- 
 ward charms are greatest. He certainly brings 
 powerful argument and a strong array of facts to 
 support this hypothesis. But what then shall we 
 say of the following illustration of sexual anti- 
 geny ; namely, the presence in many males 
 among butterflies, but in no females, of scales of 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 
 
 199 
 
 the most exquisite beauty and delicacy, scattered 
 among the more common sort, and invisible to 
 the naked eye. Even with the help of the micro- 
 scope they can often only be discovered by ruf- 
 fling the plumage and forcibly extracting them 
 from their concealment. And so far as we can see 
 they rarely give the wing any peculiar character by 
 which it may be distinguished from other wings. 
 
 These peculiar scales, or an- 
 droconia as they may be termed, 
 in reference to their masculine 
 nature, were first noticed by Ber- 
 nard-Deschamps more than forty 
 years ago, but have never been 
 properly studied throughout the 
 butterflies. Deschamps called 
 them plumules from their feathery 
 tips ; but this term is utterly 
 inappropriate to most of them ; 
 and 
 
 only some word expressing their 
 masculine character should be accepted, since this 
 is their single common peculiarity. 
 
 These androconia are very capricious in their 
 occurrence ; a number of allied genera may pos- 
 sess them, while a single genus, as closely allied, 
 may be quite destitute. This is true throughout 
 the butterflies ; and yet there are large groups in 
 which they are altogether wanting, and others in 
 
 FIG. 164. Scales of 
 
 , -, . . . -. , Senmopsyche Diana ; 
 
 their lOrin IS SO Varied that a, androconium ; b, 
 
 ordinary scale ; X 285. 
 
200 
 
 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 which their absence is extremely rare. In the 
 highest butterflies they are long, slender, and 
 invariably feathered at the 
 tip [Pig. 164]. In one small 
 group they are toothed as 
 
 a "b 
 
 FIG. 165 Scales of Pieris 
 rapae ; a, androconium ; &, 
 ordinary scale ; x 285. 
 
 FIG. 166. Scales of Leptotes 
 Theonus ; a, androconium ; 
 6, ordinary scale ; X 785. 
 
 well as feathered. With the exception of this 
 small group they may be dis- 
 tinguished from ordinary scales 
 by the absence of any dentation 
 at the tip. In the whites they 
 are fringed [Fig. 165], and with 
 a single known exception their 
 extreme base is expanded into 
 a sort of bulb ; elsewhere, even 
 in the other groups of the 
 family to which the whites 
 
 .belong, they are not fringed, 
 but have a smooth rounded 
 edge. In the blues they assume 
 a battledore or fan-shape, with a smooth edge, 
 
 FIG. 167.-Scales of Bre- 
 phidium Pea ; a, androco- 
 nium ; b, ordinary scale ; 
 X 785. 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 201 
 
 and are generally beaded and more heavily striate 
 than the scales [Figs. 166, 167]. The same is true, 
 but with more variations, in the coppers and hair- 
 streaks. In the swallow-tails, where they have 
 been supposed to be wanting, they differ very 
 little from the scales, but are much smaller and 
 more coarsely striate. In the skippers, where 
 
 FIG. 168. Scales of Thanaos fnneralie, X 285 ; a, one of the large riband- 
 shaped androconia, the striated markings of which are excessively delicate and 
 can only be seen when magnified more than 500 times ; b, one of the hair-like 
 androconia ; c, one of the ordinary scales. 
 
 also they have not before been noticed, they pre- 
 sent the greatest variety in the same individual ; 
 in one group there are hair-like androconia and 
 others which are exceedingly large and riband- 
 shaped [Fig. 168]; in the other group, besides hair- 
 like and gigantic androconia, there are usually 
 some which are spoon-shaped with long handles, 
 
202 
 
 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 or of other odd shapes [Figs. 169, 170]. As a 
 general rule these androconia are present in the 
 patches to which we have alluded as forming one 
 phase of the antigenic characters of the male ; but 
 more often, as in the blues and whites, they are 
 scattered indiscriminately, or in rows, over the 
 upper surface of the wings ; and there are many 
 patches, like those at the base of the hind wings 
 
 of some yellows and next 
 the median vein in our 
 Milk-weed butterfly, where 
 androconia are not found ; 
 they do, however, some- 
 times occur in patches on 
 the hind wings, as in the 
 fold next the inner margin 
 of the swallow-tails ; but, 
 with the exception of the 
 discal spot of the hair- 
 streaks, they seem to be 
 present in all patches 
 found on the front wings, occasionally forming the 
 principal part of such patches, as in many yel- 
 lows, and again taking no part in the display. 
 Take, for example, the fritillaries, where so many 
 small black scales are crowded against certain 
 veins as to give them a thickened appearance [see 
 Fig. 162] ; the androconia are also present in great 
 numbers, but entirely concealed ; only by remov- 
 
 FIG. 169. Scales of Limochores 
 Taumas, X 285 ; a, spoon-shaped 
 androconium ; 6, large thin andro- 
 conium ; c, ordinary scale. 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 
 
 203 
 
 ing the scales can even the tassels of their long and 
 slender blades be seen. Perhaps even more curi- 
 ous than this is the arrangement by which all the 
 
 Fro. 170. Scales of Thymelicus Aetna, X 285 ; a, club-shaped androconium; 
 b, gigantic spindle-shaped androconium ; c, ordinary scale. 
 
 androconia of the swallow-tails and of one large 
 group of skippers are tightly inclosed in the fold 
 of the membrane to which reference was made. It 
 
204 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES 
 
 is not impossible that this fold can be opened at 
 will by the insect, although I can hardly under- 
 stand how it can be done in the skippers ; and it 
 would then become conspicuous and probably an 
 attraction to the butterfly's mate. But what pos- 
 sible advantage can there be in partially or wholly 
 concealed androconia, scattered separately over 
 the wing ? In some blues they are exceedingly 
 scarce, numbering not more than one to a hundred 
 scales, and the exposed surface of this not one 
 tenth that of the scales about it. One might 
 search an hour with the microscope over an un- 
 ruffled wing and overlook it. Remember, too, 
 that it is the merest speck of dust in a dust-heap. 
 Does the sight of these creatures surpass our 
 power of vision with the microscope ? The theory 
 of sexual selection, proposed by Darwin, appears 
 to fail here, just where it should most aid us ; and 
 it seems as if we should be forced to conclude that 
 there is a principle underlying these phenomena 
 which may yet be found to cover both them and 
 those which have been used in support of the in- 
 genious hypothesis of Darwin a law of variation 
 for its own sake.* 
 
 * Since this was written, Fritz Miiller has in various places de- 
 clared these androconia to be scent- scales (Duftsehuppen), having 
 an odor presumably attractive to their consorts. That the males 
 of many butterflies exhale odors has long been known ; it is very 
 marked in our Mountain Silver-spot (Argynriis Atlantis), which 
 
IN COLORING AND STRUCTURE. 205 
 
 We find, then, that antigeny or sexual dimor- 
 phism is of two kinds, colorational and struc- 
 tural ; that the former is confined to the female, 
 as the latter is to the male sex. Going a little 
 farther, we may observe that the features by 
 which females diverge from their type are those 
 upon which specific differences are founded ; 
 while those which distinguish the males are gen- 
 erally such as we employ in characterizing 
 genera. If species originate by the gradual di- 
 vergence of variations once established, and if 
 we concede, as by our argument we should, that 
 the special characteristics of males and females 
 in butterflies are among the most pliable, we 
 should expect to find that the females of different 
 species of the same genus, as well as of allied 
 genera, agree together much more closely than 
 the males. This we do find ; and nowhere is it 
 
 has a musky smell, even perceptible long after death. But the 
 location of the scent organs has never been properly attempted ; 
 it is idle to suppose that in so small a creature one may fix the 
 region of the body where they belong by such rude tefctsas merely 
 smelling of various parts, as Fritz Miiller and his family have 
 done. Until the odor is found to be confined to the wings after these 
 have been detached from the body and separately tested, all analogy 
 leads to the belief that they will be found upon the body proper 
 of the insects, and probably near the hinder extremity of the ab- 
 dnmen. It should also be added that the attractiveness of the 
 odor to the opposite sex has never been proven, and that some 
 caterpillars, such as that of our White-spotted Skipper (Epar- 
 gyreus Tityrus), have a distinct musky odor. 
 
206 DIVERSITY OF THE SEXES. 
 
 more striking than in the skippers, where anti- 
 geny of a remarkable kind, and especially struc- 
 tural antigeny, is almost universal. 
 
 When this chapter was written, it was my pur- 
 pose to discuss still another element of permanent 
 variation, affecting in a very striking manner the 
 color of butterflies, and to a certain degree their 
 form, namely, Mimicry ; but this must be deferred 
 to another occasion, with the mere mention that 
 there are proofs of the action of this force, even 
 among our native butterflies. One of them in 
 particular, the Viceroy [see Fig. 84], of which 
 mention has often been made, departs altogether 
 from its nearest allies to mimic the attire of 
 another butterfly, the Monarch [see Fig. 106], dif- 
 fering widely in structure. But without entering 
 into details upon this point, I trust I have already 
 accomplished my purpose in showing that there 
 is something more than mere external beauty in 
 the color, design, and infinite variety of markings 
 which make the butterfly the common type of all 
 that is exquisite in nature. 
 
CHAPTEE XL 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORNAMENTATION. 
 
 DOUBTLESS every one is aware that the patterns 
 on the painted wings of butterflies are a sort of 
 mosaic, formed by tiny colored scales, which by 
 varied combinations make the most exquisite de- 
 signs. The very regular arrangement of these 
 scales may be less generally known ; for though 
 mere specks they overlie one another as slates on 
 a roof ; and just as figures made by the oblique 
 arrangement of colored slates appear from a dis- 
 tance to have straight and not serrate borders ; 
 so, through the minuteness of the scales, mark- 
 ings on a butterfly's wing, which really have rag- 
 ged edges, appear perfectly uniform. 
 
 From this peculiarity of wing adornment a 
 whole order of insects, including those popularly 
 known as moths, millers, hawk or humming-bird 
 moths and butterflies, was named by Linne Lepi- 
 doptera scaly- wings. As a general, but by no 
 means universal, rule, the lowest of these insects 
 fly by night, those which hold a middle rank by 
 twilight, while the highest fly almost exclusively 
 by day. Many of the night or twilight species 
 
208 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 rest by day in exposed situations, and then cover 
 the hind wings with the front pair, and often the 
 abdomen by both ; in such insects the upper 
 surfaces of the front wings are marked with varie- 
 gated patterns, while the hind wings and the 
 under surfaces of both pairs are usually of a uni- 
 form brown color. Even upon the upper surface 
 of the front wings the tints are usually very 
 sombre, bright colors being exceptional among the 
 moths ; while in the lowest tribes there are many 
 examples of almost uniform drab or brown color- 
 ing throughout. To this last statement, however, 
 many exceptions could be given of insects with 
 front wings pictured with variegated designs of 
 such excessive minuteness that their real beauty 
 can be appreciated only when the surface is mag- 
 nified. So, too, in the large family of Phalaeni- 
 dae, or gometrids, we have moths which often fly 
 by day, and rest with all their wings fully ex- 
 panded ; and here the hind wings are ornamented 
 like the front pair. 
 
 It is, however, only when we come to the but- 
 terflies, the highest Lepidoptera, that we find, as 
 a general rule, all the wings and both surfaces 
 highly ornamented. Even within this group we 
 may see differences corresponding to their relative 
 perfection of structure ; for in the lowest family 
 sombre colors prevail, and in very many instances 
 the under surface is almost uniform in tint ; 
 
OF ORNAMENTA TION. 209 
 
 while, with the sole exception of those butterflies 
 known as Swallow-tails (a highly specialized type 
 of low organization), the most variegated and ex- 
 quisite patterns are to be found in the highest 
 families, and are far more generally distributed 
 among them. 
 
 I am not aware that such a direct relation be- 
 tween beauty and rank has been pointed out in 
 other groups of the animal kingdom. There can 
 be no question of its existence here, and in an 
 order of animals at once a synonym for all that is 
 delicate and exquisite it is what should be ex- 
 pected on the theory that the lower represent 
 earlier and the higher later forms developed from 
 a common stock. That complicated or variegated 
 patterns of coloring must have had their source 
 in simpler and less varied designs, and these in 
 slight variations from an absolutely uniform tone 
 of color will not be denied by any who believe in 
 the evolution of complicated structural forms 
 from those of simpler organization ; and must be 
 regarded as possible if not probable by all who 
 study the past life of the globe and see the march 
 of life, with its constant tendencies to differentia- 
 tion, reaching its climax in its latest and most 
 complex product, man. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that, as far as the 
 direct influence of physical agencies is concerned, 
 we are dealing here with a class of acts very dif- 
 
210 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 ferent from those we meet in discussing the orna- 
 mentation of vertebrated animals. In birds and 
 quadrupeds, the feathers, hair, and other dermal 
 appendages have developed to maturity and even 
 wasted and been replenished under all the vicissi- 
 tudes to which animal life is exposed during a 
 period of several years. In butterflies, on the 
 contrary, the ornamentation we are considering 
 is confined to the brief final epoch of life, there is 
 no replenishing of the scale-tissue, and the scales 
 are formed rapidly and once for all, at a definite 
 period, viz., immediately upon the change from 
 larva to pupa ; and being then concealed from 
 light and excesses of temperature within a thick 
 integument, and often also behind the walls of a 
 dark chamber of silk, vegetable fibres, or earth, 
 they are as far removed as possible from external 
 agencies. In the depths of this retreat the scales, in- 
 cluding all the pigment of the wings, are complete- 
 ly developed, the insect appearing full-fledged and 
 perfectly caparisoned, subject to no further change. 
 Nevertheless, the general phenomena of orna- 
 mentation in vertebrates are so exactly repeated 
 in butterflies that no one can plausibly claim that 
 these phenomena originate, in the two groups, in 
 distinct proximate causes. The same relation of 
 color to locality which has been so well brought 
 out by Mr. Allen* reappears in butterflies, as I 
 
 * In various papers upon our native birds and mammals. 
 
OF ORNAMENTA TION. 211 
 
 shall presently mention. It would, therefore, 
 seem not unlikely that we shall be forced to dis- 
 card the idea of direct physical causation in the 
 one case as in the other. This thesis, however, it 
 is not my purpose here to maintain. I merely 
 wish to draw attention to the point before pro- 
 ceeding to discuss the origin and development of 
 ornamentation in butterflies. 
 
 I have seen only a single attempt to trace the 
 origin of the color-patterns of butterflies by the 
 light of modern ideas. This was the subject of a 
 short article by Rev. Mr. Higgins, published 
 some years ago in the Quarterly Journal of 
 Science. This writer maintains that what he 
 terms the primary or fundamental pattern was a 
 " pale ground with darker linear markings fol- 
 lowing the course of the veins ;" and he explains 
 its origin from the earliest monochromatic wing, 
 by supposing that " the scales growing on the 
 membrane upon or near the veins would be dis- 
 tinguished from the scales growing on other parts 
 of the membrane by a freer development of pig- 
 mentary matter" within them. From this simple 
 form of linear markings he would derive all those 
 patterns which bear definite relations to the veins, 
 such as the dark bands which cross them at an 
 angle and are scalloped between each pair ; thus 
 he says : " a portion of the dark scales begin to 
 diverge on each side from the veins," and " the 
 
212 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 dark lines thus formed will meet in the middle of 
 the areas between the veins, producing a band of 
 scallops." But all the lighter-colored and more 
 brilliant spots he would derive from modifications 
 in the extent and intensity of the ground-color, 
 or, as he afterward terms it, the " blush." 
 
 It will hardly be worth while to follow his line 
 of argument ; for, plausible and simple as this 
 hypothesis appears at first glance, it is unsatisfac- 
 tory. An examination of an extensive series of 
 specimens and illustrations convinces me that an 
 even simpler explanation can be given, in which 
 the darker and lighter markings have a common 
 origin. Moreover there are definite objections to 
 Mr. Higgins' theory. Its basis, that the scales 
 next the veins would have a freer development of 
 pigmentary matter within them, although per- 
 haps true, is a pure assumption, to support which 
 no facts are given. His observations are drawn 
 wholly from butterflies, with no reference to the 
 ornamentation of moths, which naturally would 
 give some clue to the previous simpler condition 
 of butterflies, and finally, if the earliest form of 
 ornamentation were linear markings on a pale 
 ground, from which the scalloped bands were de- 
 rived, we ought now to find, as one form of varia- 
 tion, transverse series of dark spots seated on the 
 veins ; actually, however, while transverse series 
 of dark spots are, next to cross-bands, the very 
 
OF ORNAMENTA TION. 213 
 
 commonest pattern in Lepidoptera, I do not know 
 of a single instance in butterflies, and only one or 
 two in moths, where such spots are seated upon 
 the veins, excepting only such as occur at the ex- 
 treme margin ; such spots, in the body of the 
 wing, are invariably placed in the interspaces 
 between the longitudinal veins. The mode of de- 
 velopment "of eye-like spots, which Darwin has 
 shown to be extremely simple, is also opposed to 
 Mr. Higgins' theory, since these have their origin 
 in a simple dark point in the interspaces, and yet 
 give rise to some of the most brilliant colors pos- 
 sessed by butterflies. 
 
 We can hardly hope to obtain a rational ex- 
 planation of the origin and development of orna- 
 mentation in butterflies without studying the 
 color-patterns of the lower members of the same 
 order. This should be our starting-point, since 
 the mode in which the scales originate in the in- 
 dividual precludes, I conceive, all hope of assist- 
 ance from anatomical or embryological study. 
 We have, indeed, an especial advantage in study- 
 ing the numerous living types of moths, from the 
 fact that, as far as the hind wings are concerned, 
 all differentiation in coloring has been greatly re- 
 tarded by their almost universal concealment by 
 day beneath the overlapping front wings. In 
 such hind wings we find that the simplest depart- 
 ure from uniformity consists in a deepening of 
 
214 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 the tint next the outer margin of the wing ; next 
 we have an intensification of the deeper tint along 
 a line parallel to the margin ; it is but a step 
 from this condition to a distinct line or band of 
 dark color parallel to the margin. Or the mar- 
 ginal shade may, in a similar way, break up into 
 two or more transverse and parallel submarginal 
 lines, a very common style of ornamentation, 
 especially in moths. Or, again, starting with the 
 marginal shade, this may send shoots or tongues 
 of dark color a short distance toward the base, 
 giving a serrate inner border to the marginal 
 shade ; when now this breaks up into one, two, or 
 more lines or narrow stripes, these stripes become 
 zigzag, or the inner ones may be zigzag, while 
 the outer are plain a very common phenom- 
 enon. 
 
 A basis such as this is sufficient to account for 
 all the modifications of simple transverse mark- 
 ings which adorn the wings of Lepidoptera, and 
 explains why, amid all the profound modifica- 
 tions the color patterns have undergone, the trans- 
 verse style of markings holds a fundamental posi- 
 tion ; and why such markings are far more prev- 
 alent on the outer than on the basal half of the 
 wing, and are also so frequently scalloped. All 
 the steps of this process, as I have explained it, 
 apply equally well to the front wing, excepting 
 that we cannot there so well trace the initial step 
 
OF ORNAMENTATION. 215 
 
 in the differentiation of the primordial uniform 
 coloring. 
 
 To carry this theory another step : By the 
 breaking up of any one or more of these bands 
 into spots or bars, we may conceive two new 
 forms of pattern according as the break occurs in 
 the interspaces or at the veins. In the former 
 case, the tendency of dark scales to cluster along 
 interruptions of any nature in the surface, 
 whether veins, folds, creases, or margins, to- 
 gether with the concentrating force presumed in 
 a rupture of the band, will be sure to cause the 
 scales to collect along the veins, and, uniting 
 with similar spots upon them, to border the vein 
 on either side continuously. This will map the 
 veins very distinctly upon the ground, producing 
 in fact that condition of things which Mr. Higgins 
 considers the primary pattern, but which, cer- 
 tainly, we rarely find in moths and not very com- 
 monly in the highest butterflies. Indeed, when 
 carried to an extreme, as in the dark- veined in- 
 sects with otherwise diaphanous wings, we find it 
 only in some of the very highest moths (Aegerians 
 and Sesiadae) or butterflies (Heliconians). The 
 junction of these darkened veins with the darkened 
 border of the wings produces, I suppose, the 
 series of spots upon the tips of the veins which 
 sometimes occur there, but, as already stated, on 
 no other part of the veins. 
 
216 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 If, on the other hand, the break be supposed to 
 occur at the veins themselves, then the tendency 
 would be to form short transverse bars, or quadrate 
 or more or less rounded spots in the interspaces ; 
 and, finally, by a differentiation of the exterior 
 and interior portions of a round spot, a more 
 or less perfect ocellus would be formed. Occa- 
 sionally we find long streaks of dark color down 
 the middle of the interspaces, similar to those 
 along the veins, produced, no doubt, by the fre- 
 quent presence of a crease in such places, and the 
 tendency of scales to follow it ; the comparative 
 weakness of such breaks in the continuity of the 
 membrane is the reason of the comparative rarity 
 of this form of ornamentation. The formation of 
 ocelli has been shown by Darwin, who traced, in 
 specimens of a South African butterfly (Cyllo 
 Leda) a perfect gradation " from excessively mi- 
 nute white dots, surrounded by a scarcely visible 
 black line, into perfectly symmetrical and large 
 ocelli ;" and instances are common in our own 
 butterflies where one can follow a similar series 
 onward from a uniform circular dark spot. First, 
 a central white dot appears in it ; next the whole 
 is encircled by a light-colored halo, and so on. 
 Darwin mentions one moth with a magnificent 
 ocellus consisting of a black centre with eight 
 concentric zones of colors. 
 
 Ocelli not infrequently surpass the bounds of 
 
OF ORN AMENTA TION. 217 
 
 the interspace in which they originate, but among 
 the hundreds of ocellate specimens examined 
 with this point in view, I have failed to find a 
 single ocellus of a simple character which could 
 not be definitely referred to some particular in- 
 terspace. But there are other ocelli, of a complex 
 character, such as those of the Peacock butterfly 
 of Europe (Hamadryas lo), where, assuming it 
 had a similar origin, we cannot possibly say 
 where it belongs ; but in this butterfly, the other 
 markings of the wing are seen directly through 
 the ocelli, as through a veil ; and I believe they 
 can be shown to have arisen in an entirely differ- 
 ent way, by an alteration in the relative position 
 of certain bars and spots common to butterflies of 
 this group. No doubt all other complex ocelli, 
 such as those with spiral annuli, could be shown, 
 upon special study, to have originated in some 
 similar manner. 
 
 After reaching such a stage of complication, 
 and assuming the known tendency to suffusion of 
 markings in butterflies, that is the blending of 
 neighboring spots, we may easily see that, by the 
 amalgamation of adjoining spots in different 
 transverse rows, every conceivable pattern can be 
 explained. There is nothing left to consider but 
 the diversity in color itself ; and observation 
 shows that although there are prevailing tints as 
 well as prevailing patterns in special groups of 
 
218 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 butterflies, that nevertheless these colors are often 
 very pliable ; for instance white, yellow, and 
 orange are readily interchangeable ; and a similar 
 reciprocal relation exists between orange and red, 
 or between certain tones of yellow and brown. 
 
 Again, when we compare individuals of the 
 same species, especially if of opposite sexes, the 
 great difference between them in the profusion 
 with which scales of metallic blue are sprinkled 
 upon a normal dark ground shows how easily 
 black or dark brown is replaced by metallic 
 blue ; the latter again is readily interchange- 
 able with metallic green, or with purple or or- 
 dinary blue or green. Some instances of this 
 interchangeability must be given farther on, and 
 it is not therefore worth while to dilate upon it 
 here. It should, however, be stated that the iri- 
 descence on the wings of many butterflies is of an 
 entirely different nature, being due to a micro- 
 scopic striation of the outer surface of the scales. 
 
 The hypothesis, then, of the origin and devel- 
 opment of color-patterns in butterflies which I 
 would maintain is based upon the scale of compli- 
 cation seen in the markings of living Lepidoptera, 
 and the prevalence among them of certain special 
 patterns. According to it, the wings first showed 
 signs of divergence from uniformity by a deepen- 
 ing of the color next the outer margin, which 
 thereafter became separated into distinct trans- 
 
OF ORN AMENTA TION. 219 
 
 verse bands ; these bands, in breaking up, gave 
 rise to dark- veined or to spotted wings, which 
 served as the basis for all the variegated patterns 
 of the present day, including ocelli, which are 
 only specialized forms of simple interspacial 
 spots. 
 
 This discussion leads naturally to the consider- 
 ation of the intimate connection between the 
 color-patterns and the frame- work of the wings in 
 Lepidoptera ; this relation, indeed, must be con- 
 sidered one of the most important features in 
 the topography of the wings, if I may use the ex- 
 pression. It is seen with the first appearance of 
 ornamentation, in the wavy outline of the trans- 
 verse bands, each wave corresponding to the posi- 
 tion of the adjacent veins. It is still more con- 
 spicuous when these bands break up into bars or 
 spots. But its full force is shown when the pat- 
 terns become, most complicated, where, indeed, 
 we should naturally expect that ornamentation 
 would be least restrained by such limitations. 
 The rod-like veins of the wing are often com- 
 pletely concealed beneath the downy covering of 
 scales, and yet there is scarcely a spot in the wing 
 of any butterfly whose precise position is not 
 fixed by the nearest veins. This, however, is a 
 very imperfect statement of the facts ; to con- 
 sider them fairly we must recall the general struc- 
 ture of the wings in butterflies. These consist, 
 
220 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 as explained more fully on an earlier page, of a 
 thin double membrane supported by tubular rods, 
 which extend between them and diverge some- 
 what like the rods of a fan. In butterflies, the 
 number and distribution of the main rods or veins 
 are essentially the same in the front and hind 
 wings, although the wings themselves differ 
 greatly in shape. Omitting details, there is a 
 single unbranched vein in front and another be- 
 hind ; while between these are two others, both 
 branched, of which the front one (the second vein 
 of the wing) throws out branches on both sides 
 and the other only behind. This distribution of 
 the veins may, for our purpose, be considered as 
 dividing the wing longitudinally into four sepa- 
 rate areas, each occupied by a distinct vein with 
 its branches. The principal difference between 
 the two wings is found in the branches of the 
 second vein ; in the front wing the anterior 
 branches are numerous and most of them run to 
 the front border of the wing ; this arrangement is 
 plainly for greater strength, the front edge of the 
 fore wings having to bear the brunt of flight , 
 while the front edge of the hind pair requires no 
 such special provision, these wings in flight being 
 practically a part of the front pair ; and they 
 therefore have only a single front branch to the 
 second vein terminating on the outer margin. 
 Notwithstanding these great differences, but in 
 
OF ORNAMENTA TION. 
 
 harmony with the fundamental idea in articulated 
 animals that similar parts on successive rings 
 should have similar structure, the markings of 
 the two wings harmonize even to a greater extent 
 than appears at first glance ; for although there 
 is a distinct tendency toward symmetrical repeti- 
 tion of markings upon the front and hind wings 
 of a butterfly, this symmetry is not absolute, 
 being subordinated to the distribution of the 
 veins, and this again to the diverse needs of the 
 two wings. The distributions of spots on these 
 wings may therefore appear very different, when 
 in reality they hold the same position on either, 
 relative to the structure. 
 
 The number of instances in which similar mark- 
 ings appear in the same areas of the two wings, 
 and in the same relative position in those areas, 
 is far too common to be a mere coincidence ; it is 
 most readily traced in the disposition of ocelli, 
 which are very apt to be similar in size and per- 
 fection and to be situated between the same 
 branches of homologous veins. As one of a thou- 
 sand examples of this kind, the Peacock butterfly 
 may again be cited. On the front wing of all the 
 butterflies of this type, the basis for a complex 
 ocellus exists, as already remarked, in the dispo- 
 sition of the bars and colored patches in the sub- 
 costal area, or the area of the second vein ; in the 
 Peacock butterfly such an ocellus is formed and 
 
222 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 extends to the front margin of the wing, because 
 the subcostal area reaches that margin. On the 
 hind wings of these butterflies almost the only 
 element for the formation of an ocellus is a short 
 bar in the same area resembling one on the front 
 wings ; yet from this a complex ocellus, not so 
 imposing as that of the front wings certainly, but 
 still a marked ocellus, has been formed ; which, 
 true to law, just fails of reaching the front mar- 
 gin, keeping within the normally narrower limits 
 of the subcostal area of the hind wing. 
 
 This distribution of the veins enables us also to 
 point out an interesting relation between the orna- 
 mentation of the front and hinder portion of a 
 single wing, which seems never to have been 
 noticed, and which shows again both the strength 
 and the weakness of symmetry. The relation of the 
 ornamentation of the hind to the fore wing is not 
 one of slavish repetition ; indeed our ingenuity 
 may often be taxed to discover it. But the rela- 
 tion of the two parts of the same wing has even 
 less of repetition ; for to a certain extent there is 
 a polar distribution of markings. For instance, 
 there is often a bright-colored ocellus at the inner 
 angle of the hind wing, in the area of the fourth 
 principal vein ; should a single similar ocellus, or 
 a bright-colored spot corresponding to it, occur in 
 any other part of the wing, there is only one 
 place where it will fall, viz., at an exactly cor- 
 
OF ORNAMENTA TION. 223 
 
 responding position in the area of the first (i.e., 
 the other unbranched) vein of the wing. I do 
 not mean there will be a corresponding spot, for 
 one often occurs in one of these positions and 
 fails in the other ; nor that there may not be sim- 
 ilar spots in all the areas ; but that if there is a 
 brilliant spot in the area of the fourth vein, and 
 only one other similar spot elsewhere, the latter 
 will fall in the area of the first vein. This is the 
 more curious, because I do not discover the same 
 polarity in the repetition of markings in the areas 
 of the branching veins ; here repetition is fre- 
 quent, but it is far more common to find similar 
 markings between the hinder branches of the one 
 and of the other, or between their front branches. 
 Can such a play of plan in ornamentation, 
 affecting more than our mere sense of beauty, 
 awakening indeed in us an intellectual pleasure 
 which does not rest upon the surface of things as 
 a purely sensuous appreciation must do can 
 this be explained as purely for the purposes of 
 the ephemeral creature itself ? If it cannot ; if, 
 for instance, it is of no advantage to the butterfly 
 that its second brilliant ocellus should occur in 
 the area of the first rather than of the second 
 vein, then it cannot have arisen through natural 
 selection, without the guidance of a higher law, 
 which has other ends for beauty than the mere 
 survival of the creature possessing it. 
 
224 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The relation of the markings to the areas is still 
 further shown in a curious way. Transverse 
 markings, as has been said, are a predominating 
 feature of butterfly ornamentation. If in the 
 transverse markings of the outer part of the wing, 
 there is a break, a sudden shift of direction, a 
 removal, perhaps, of a fragment of a band to one 
 side ; such a change invariably takes place, I 
 believe, at the line of demarcation between the 
 areas, or at one of the immediately adjacent 
 veins ; never within the limits proper of any one 
 area. On the front wings of the lowest butter- 
 flies we frequently find a submarginal band of 
 spots, of which one or two are situated in the 
 space between the adjacent branches of the sec- 
 ond and third veins. The continuity of this 
 otherwise uniform band is almost always broken 
 by the shifting of these particular spots a little 
 toward the margin of the wing. This is a single 
 instance of which very many could be given. 
 
 It will be seen then that the relation of the 
 markings of the wing to the disposition of the 
 underlying framework is an important one, and 
 actually seems to increase in importance with the 
 complexity of the ornamentation ; so that the 
 study of the diversity of patterns becomes an in- 
 tellectual pleasure. Indeed my first appreciation 
 of .this relation arose from the necessity of describ- 
 ing these markings in professional work ; it was 
 
OF ORNAMENT A TION. 225 
 
 not until the minute examination which this re- 
 quired had forced it upon me that I learned how 
 subservient is ornamentation to the requirements 
 of structure, or how much reflex light was thrown 
 by mere color patterns upon the very plan of 
 structure itself. 
 
 In all that has been said I have only attempted 
 to trace the probable lines along which ornamen- 
 tation increased in complexity. Causes I have 
 purposely left in the background, although I 
 have here and there intimated that I do not be- 
 lieve change is wholly due either to the action of 
 physical agencies or to natural selection. That 
 each of these forces has borne its part in the 
 work, there can, I think, be little doubt ; but in 
 a case like this, where we find beauty of the most 
 exquisite and refined character in creatures of an 
 inherently low organization, I can only express a 
 deep-seated conviction that a preordaining pur- 
 pose and plan governs these proximate causes, 
 and that beneath both structure and beauty we 
 may discern far-reaching and controlling thought. , 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 IN the history of human life nothing is more 
 apparent than that individuals are born and 
 perish, while families survive ; families die out, 
 while nations continue to exist ; nations also 
 have their limits, and mankind outlives them. 
 
 It is the same in the past history of life in gen- 
 eral, revealed to us in the stony book of nature. 
 Species come and go, while genera still maintain 
 their ground ; and, in their various times, genera, 
 families, and orders of animals appear and disap- 
 pear, while the groups higher than they outlive 
 them. From this it follows that the existing 
 members of any group are but the merest frag- 
 ment of its true whole ; and yet it is in large 
 measure from this fragment that we must deduce 
 the true character and relations of the group, as 
 well as its past history. Nowhere is this more con- 
 spicuous than in the butterflies. There are prob- 
 ably at least ten thousand species now living ; 
 countless myriads must have enlivened the face of 
 nature in past ages ; yet only a dozen have been 
 found in a fossil state ; and these fossil remains 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 227 
 
 are so recent in geologic time, and so similar in 
 structure to existing forms, that we only seem to 
 be carrying the present state of things a stage or 
 two farther back, and becoming no wiser than be- 
 fore concerning the ancestry of the group. 
 
 Since, then, palaeontology refuses her aid, we 
 must look within the limits of the group itself 
 for indications of its past history. In the New 
 Zoology, classification and ancestry go hand in 
 hand ; it is only as present structure gives us n 
 clue to past history that it possesses much inter- 
 est ; and habit and modes of life have such close 
 connection with structure that they bear willing 
 testimony where formerly they were debarred a 
 hearing. Our classifications are only expressions 
 of confessedly imperfect attempts to represent the 
 natural affinities of animals, and natural affinity 
 is but another term for blood relationship, more 
 or less remote. It is therefore impossible, in 
 these days, to consider classification without 
 assuming as a postulate that it is a present ex- 
 pression of a past history ; and in that light no 
 single feature is wanting in interest. In fact, 
 nothing in nature is without its meaning, its con- 
 nection with the past ; and though in itself alone 
 we may despise a senseless stupid fact, yet when 
 it is placed beside others, with which it has har- 
 monious relations, it becomes fruitful in meaning. 
 
 One of the most striking things we meet in 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 studying the natural history of insects is the curi- 
 ous character of their metamorphoses. Those of 
 butterflies are perhaps as complete as any, and 
 differ widely from the transformations of the 
 lower insects, grasshoppers for example, where 
 the young animal is born with a very close resem- 
 blance to its parent. Has this disparity between 
 the different tribes of insects always existed, since 
 insects were \ Or if not, what was the nature 
 of the changes undergone by the primitive insect 
 during its existence ? And what have been the 
 steps by which the passage has been made from 
 homogeneous to dissimilar metamorphoses \ Since 
 the history of life everywhere shows continuous 
 progress from a simple to a complex condition, it 
 may be presumed that the more uniform meta- 
 morphoses of the grasshopper have preceded the 
 more complicated changes we have discussed in 
 butterflies. But is there in the present structure 
 of these insects any evidence of such a presump- 
 tion ? The differences themselves between the cat- 
 erpillar, chrysalis, and imago of the butterfly we 
 have given in detail. The only distinction of im- 
 portance between the young and fully grown grass- 
 hopper, on the other hand, lies in the absence, in 
 the former, of wings. These are assumed during 
 growth, and so gradually that it has been asserted 
 there are no distinctive larval and pupal stages, 
 as in insects generally. This, however, is a mis- 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 229 
 
 take ; the principal difference, so far as the 
 wings are concerned, between the early stages 
 of the grasshopper and of the butterfly, is that 
 in the former they are external appendages of 
 the integument, in the latter internal (although 
 morphologically external) ; in the pupal stage 
 they are external in both, and the branching 
 vessels that penetrate them then first assume a 
 definite position, corresponding closely with the 
 direction of the veins which appear in the perfect 
 insects. It is plain that external wing-pads would 
 greatly inconvenience a soft caterpillar, while 
 they are of no disadvantage whatever to the 
 young grasshopper ; and that if the caterpillar 
 state of the butterfly formerly resembled the 
 grasshopper larva, the removal of the wings from 
 the exterior to the interior of the body would be 
 a natural step in the progress of the changes 
 which have culminated in its present condi- 
 tion. 
 
 In the lower insects, like grasshoppers, there 
 are throughout life breathing pores on all the 
 thoracic segments, even on those which bear 
 wings. In the butterfly they are absent from 
 the segments which bear wings, both in the cater- 
 pillar and in the imago. In both these stages, 
 however, as has been stated, these segments bear 
 a distinct tuft of tracheae next to the natural 
 position of a spiracle, which can have no other 
 
230 ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 
 
 meaning than that the ancestors of butterflies had 
 spiracles on these segments, as grasshoppers do 
 to-day. Moreover this original condition is less 
 aborted in the caterpillar than in the butterfly, 
 for false spiracles sometimes do occur in the larvae 
 of the lower Lepidoptera as well as slender tubes 
 connecting them with the tracheal tufts ; and this 
 is exactly what we should expect, since the abor- 
 tion of these parts is evidently connected with 
 greater adaptability of the wings to their purpose ; 
 in fact they are aborted in the caterpillar only to 
 prepare for a more completely rudimentary con- 
 dition in the perfect butterfly. 
 
 There is another feature in the early stages of 
 a butterfly' s life which still more strikingly re- 
 calls the primitive condition of its metamor- 
 phoses. One important difference between the 
 lives of grasshoppers and butterflies is that the 
 pupal stage of the former is active, while that of 
 the latter is quiescent. In a previous chapter at- 
 tention was called to the ocellar riband of the but- 
 terfly chrysalis [see Fig. 53], an organ which bore 
 no special relation to the parts beneath, was par- 
 tially covered by the folded antennae, and which 
 possessed no significance whatever unless it had 
 once been useful, presuming in its possessor an 
 active life. Examine the eye of a grasshopper 
 just from the egg and one will find its surface 
 closely studded with low rounded prominences, 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 231 
 
 arranged in regular rows like the surface of the 
 ocellar riband in the butterfly chrysalis ; while in 
 the perfect stage of both these prominences have 
 crowded together, met, and therefore assumed a 
 hexagonal outline. This condition of the eye in 
 the chrysalis, immature, yet at present altogether 
 unnecessary and superficial, and partly concealed 
 by another organ, clearly points to an earlier 
 stage of usefulness, when it was in direct connec- 
 tion with the underlying parts, and when the 
 organs now concealing a portion of it were ex- 
 tended and free, that is, an active pupal stage. 
 But activity in the pupal stage implies something 
 more ; such differences as now obtain between 
 the mouth-parts of the caterpillar and of the 
 imago require a period of inactivity for their 
 alteration : but if no such period existed, there 
 must have been similarity of mouth-parts in the 
 archaic caterpillar and imago. Was it then a 
 biting or a sucking insect ? We find nothing in 
 the present structure of the group which answers 
 this question, but is it not possible that the insect 
 may have possessed a mouth, such as Lubbock 
 describes in certain low insects, which was neither 
 distinctly biting nor sucking, but of " a peculiar 
 type, capable of modification in either direction 
 without loss of utility" ? Or, as Darwin writes 
 with regard to insects in general, we have only to 
 suppose " an upper lip, mandibles, and two pair 
 
232 ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 
 
 of maxillae, these parts being very simple in 
 form : and then natural selection will account for 
 the infinite diversity in the structure and func- 
 tions" of the mouth in all insects. If, however, 
 we were to choose between biting and sucking, 
 there can be no doubt that the former is the more 
 primitive condition, since insects existed before 
 tubular flowers. 
 
 We may then consider it probable that the 
 metamorphoses of the ancient butterfly were of 
 a very simple nature, and that the present alter- 
 ations of form, structure, and life have been grad- 
 ually induced. We have seen, even in the exist- 
 ing species, striking variations in form, color, and 
 period of appearance ; and in the divergence of 
 the present metamorphoses from those of the 
 past we have a signal proof of the same tendency 
 to variation, and of the magnitude which it may 
 attain ; in their earliest stages these variations 
 were probably confined to individuals, but gradu- 
 ally, by accretion and persistence, were impressed 
 upon the group. We may even see proofs of the 
 continued action of this tendency to change, of 
 the unstable equilibrium of the present condition 
 of things, of the pliability of structure and modes 
 of development, in a hypermetamorphosis, as it 
 may be called, which caterpillars undergo. The 
 extremities of the series of transformations in 
 butterflies are complete ; nothing can be simpler 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 233 
 
 than some butterfly eggs; no defect nor unful- 
 filled purpose can be conceived in any of the 
 organs of the butterfly. So too in the changes 
 from caterpillar to butterfly, what could more com- 
 pletely accomplish its end than the chrysalis ; it 
 is a perfect mummy. Only in the caterpillar is 
 there any opportunity for additional change. 
 The first step toward the formation of a new 
 stage I believe may be seen in the differences in 
 the appendages of immature and of full-grown 
 caterpillars, described on an earlier page. I 
 have not yet ascertained any common feature by 
 which the peculiarities of the earliest stage of 
 caterpillars may be contrasted with those of later 
 stages, unless it be the comparative length of the 
 appendages. But certainly no caterpillar has 
 been examined which does not show between 
 these stages differences in form, in the relation of 
 parts, or in the disposition and character of the 
 appendages, greater than occur between caterpil- 
 lars of different tribes. While if we go outside 
 the families of butterflies we shall find here and 
 there conspicuous examples of this tendency to 
 hypermetamorphosis, which the mere mention 
 of the young larva of Meloe and Sitaris will recall 
 to the mind of any entomologist. All these I 
 conceive to be examples of the present working of 
 the same law, which from simple transformations 
 like those of our grasshoppers and plant bugs 
 
234 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 has produced the extraordinary metamorphoses 
 of the butterfly. 
 
 Let me here call attention to the various paths 
 through which new forms of butterflies may 
 spring from previously existing species. For be- 
 sides those which butterflies follow in common 
 with all animals, there are many, which, if not 
 peculiar to them, are, at least so far as known, 
 more conspicuous in this group. Ordinary varia- 
 tion, due to unknown or diverse causes, as well as 
 that which springs from latitudinal range and 
 distinct climatic influence, appears in butterflies 
 as in other creatures. In these cases we suppose 
 advantageous variations to be perpetuated and 
 intensified by the survival of the fittest, through 
 the law of inheritance. In this way, by slow 
 accretions, a species multiplies into varieties, each 
 departing from the other and from the original 
 type, until all become firmly fixed as species, 
 again to undergo division. Now just as the 
 climatic influences of latitude appear to be an 
 important factor in the development of new 
 forms, so the difference of the seasons may work 
 similar alterations in double-brooded butterflies ; 
 we have merely to suppose the Zebra Swallow- 
 tail to hibernate exclusively in the imago state, 
 to fix the variety Marcellus as the only form that 
 will survive ; on the other hand, let the insect 
 hibernate as now in the chrysalis and be only 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 235 
 
 single-brooded, and the variety Marcellus would 
 become extinct ; suppose again both features to 
 hold with different sets of individuals, gradually 
 communicating this tendency in greater and 
 greater force to their offspring, and we should 
 behold the spring and summer varieties changed 
 to separate species. This is one example of a mode 
 in which seasonal dimorphism may become an 
 originator of new forms. It is plain that entirely 
 similar results may follow from unequal lethargy 
 in one brood of caterpillars, such as have been 
 referred to in some of the fritillaries. In one in- 
 stance we saw reason to believe that there were 
 two series of individuals in a single species, more 
 or less independent, and with a distinct cycle of 
 changes ; very slight differences have been found 
 between the individuals belonging to these two 
 series ; but with complete independence we may 
 be sure that these differences would intensify, and 
 distinct species be formed. 
 
 Ordinary dimorphism again, or the appearance 
 of different varieties in each brood, running 
 through both sexes, must surely be a precursor of 
 a division in the species ; no doubt the change is 
 gradual, so that centuries of direct experimenta- 
 tion would throw no light upon the change ; but 
 we have only to suppose each form breeding true 
 to itself and the separation will be accomplished. 
 In the case of the Yiolet-tip, we have two strik- 
 
236 ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 
 
 ingly different forms, which may be distin- 
 guished, not only by their coloring and markings, 
 but even by the form of the wings and the sculp- 
 ture of the hard parts of the abdomen ; in fact, 
 we have two forms, permanently distinct from 
 each other, to which we cannot apply the name 
 of species simply because we know they have the 
 same immediate parentage ; we can hardly doubt 
 that the separation of this species is nearly ac- 
 complished. 
 
 The same may be affirmed of antigeny ; we find 
 melanic antigeny both partial and complete ; in 
 its partial condition in our Spring Azure it grows 
 more and more nearly perfect as we pass south- 
 ward ; we see its form fixed in some species, and 
 in others the melanic feature has been superin- 
 duced upon the male. The same is true of struc- 
 tural antigeny. Some species, which we can 
 hardly doubt have had a common ancestor, 
 scarcely differ from each other excepting in the 
 character of their antigenic peculiarities, and this 
 accounts for the close resemblance of the females 
 of allied species of skippers. Origin through 
 antigeny probably occurs with other animals, 
 but in butterflies it must be unusually common. 
 So too with mimicry. The Viceroy and the 
 Red-spotted Purple are nearly identical in all 
 their earlier stages, and yet utterly diverse in 
 the perfect butterfly ; both must have sprung 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TlOtf. 237 
 
 from a common source, from which the Vice- 
 roy has diverged through mimicry in its final 
 stage. 
 
 These are only a few examples, but sufficient 
 to show in how many ways butterflies may vary 
 and how these variations may be appropriated for 
 the development of species ; the distinctions be- 
 coming gradually intensified into complete and 
 permanent diversity. This is natural selection. 
 And by the avidity with which natural selection 
 seizes every possible variation to produce new 
 forms, one would fairly suppose that its constant 
 action would lead to endless variety. And if on 
 this theory we should maintain that all existing 
 forms of animal life have sprung from a few origi- 
 nal sources, then we may fairly conclude that nat- 
 ural selection, by itself alone, would also lead to 
 inextricable confusion, through which it would be 
 impossible now to trace one thread of harmony. 
 That it is not so, that the groupings and relations 
 of structure among animals are clear to the human 
 mind, that they present an orderly arrangement 
 and a harmonious intercombination, which ap- 
 peals to his reason, is sufficient proof that natural 
 selection, in all its wondrous and pervading 
 power, acts under law, a law of evolution, which 
 is no slave to the forces of nature, but brings them 
 into subservience to its ends, a law which is 
 working out the plans of a Supreme Intelligence, 
 
238 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 by ways which man may apprehend, but has not 
 yet comprehended. 
 
 Let ns now return to this question of classifica- 
 tion, in considering which we had only ascer- 
 tained the probable development of butterflies 
 from creatures similar in transformation to our 
 grasshoppers, and inquire how they are related to 
 other Lepidoptera. The more complicated struc- 
 ture, the more finished ornamentation, the more 
 complete and open metamorphoses, and the diur- 
 nal life of butterflies place them at once higher 
 than the moths, a position which has been uni- 
 versally accorded, and upon which it is not neces- 
 sary to linger. Let me simply mention one char- 
 acteristic, first noticed by Agassiz ; namely, that 
 the downward sloping position of the wings, 
 almost universally assumed by moths when at 
 rest, is very different from the erect position 
 which the wings of butterflies then assume ; and 
 that the former resembles the position of the 
 wings in the pupal state, while the latter differs 
 widely. 
 
 We will attempt to draw a picture of the pri- 
 meval butterfly when it has so far advanced in 
 structure toward the tribes at present existing 
 that it is fairly butterfly and not moth. This 
 original form must have possessed not only most 
 of the features of the lowest family, but also, in a 
 nascent condition as it were, all or nearly all the 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLASSIFICA TION. 239 
 
 characters now common to the group, or which 
 exist under some modified form in this or that 
 offshoot, such special peculiarities being subse- 
 quent, more individualized developments of the 
 ancestral type. 
 
 With this clue, a careful study of the structure 
 of each stage will give a result not far removed 
 from the following. 
 
 The egg was globular, with flattened base, its 
 surface nearly smooth, but covered with faint re- 
 ticulations, growing more minute next the micro- 
 pyle, which formed a series of five to seven kite- 
 shaped cells arranged symmetrically around a 
 common centre. 
 
 The caterpillar had a large, smooth, rounded 
 head, a body composed of thirteen segments, 
 nearly uniform in size, the first bearing above a 
 chitinous shield, the first three a pair of horny 
 legs, the sixth to the ninth and the last segments 
 a pair of fleshy legs, spiracles upon all the seg- 
 ments except the last two, but those of the second 
 and third in a very rudimentary condition, so as 
 to be physiologically useless. The surface of the 
 body was covered profusely with little papillae, 
 from each of which sprung a minute simple hair. 
 The new-born caterpillar, however, differed per- 
 haps in this respect from the full-grown, in that 
 its body was furnished with short club-shaped 
 hairs arranged in dorsal, pleuro -dorsal, and sub- 
 
240 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 stigmatal series, there being two appendages to a 
 segment in the lower series, and one to a segment 
 in the others. In short, hypermetamorphosis 
 was already established in a simple condition. 
 
 So, too, metamorphosis was complete, and the 
 chrysalis a perfect mummy with ensheathed 
 limbs, its contours smooth, the head rounded, the 
 ventral outline of the abdomen as curved as the 
 dorsal, and the tail somewhat pointed ; it was 
 protected by a slight cocoon, and probably also 
 secured within, in a definite position, by attach- 
 ment at the tail and a girt around the middle. 
 
 The butterfly was heavy -bodied and covered 
 with scales and hairs. The head was broad, the 
 antennae did not encroach upon the eyes and were 
 moderately long and clubbed at the tip ; the club 
 was about three times longer than broad and 
 curved at the base, but not hooked at the tip ; 
 the tongue was about as long as the body, with 
 simple inconspicuous papillae near the tip ; the 
 labial palpi were bushy and rather long, the 
 apical joint smaller than the others, and directed 
 forward. 
 
 The front wings were somewhat triangular, 
 twice as long as broad, with rather a pointed 
 apex ; and the hind wings rounded triangular, of 
 about equal length and breadth. In the neura- 
 tion of the former the costal and subcostal veins, 
 with the upper branches of the latter, were closely 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLASSIFICA TION. 241 
 
 crowded toward the front edge, at the middle of 
 which the costal vein terminated ; the subcostal 
 vein ran to the outer border just below the apex of 
 the wing and had four upper branches and one 
 lower branch, none of them forked, the last upper 
 branch striking the front edge just before the tip 
 of the wing ; the median had four equidistant 
 branches, the last branch uniting by a cross vein 
 a little beyond the middle of the wing with the 
 lowest subcostal branch ; the submedian ran to 
 the inner angle and the internal was soon lost in 
 the membrane. In the neuration of the hind wing 
 the subcostal and median veins with their branches 
 occupied the middle and larger part of the wing ; 
 each divided into three branches, all, excepting 
 perhaps the first branch of the subcostal vein, 
 originating beyond the middle of the open cell ; 
 the costal and subcostal veins were connate at the 
 base, suddenly diverging when they parted, the 
 former just reaching the costal margin, but not 
 extending beyond it ; the submedian and inter- 
 nal were simple and of nearly equal length. 
 
 In coloring and pattern they might have been 
 divided into three general types : first, those 
 whose wings were uniformly dark brown, darker 
 above than below ; second, those of similar ap- 
 pearance, but more or less enlivened in the middle 
 with tawny above and yellow below, and having, 
 besides, minute spots bare of scales near the 
 
242 A NCESTR Y A ND CLA SSI PICA TION. 
 
 centre of the wings, especially of the front pair ; 
 third, chequered species, black and white above, 
 but below pale and sometimes washed with dashes 
 of brown and yellow. In addition, the front 
 wings of the male, especially in the first two types, 
 often bore patches of peculiar, probably lustreless 
 scales, next the base of the lower median inter- 
 space. When at rest, the wings were fully or 
 almost fully expanded, and the places on which 
 they chose to alight were the upper surface of 
 leaves or the ground. 
 
 All the legs were perfectly developed, the tibiae 
 and tarsi spined above, the latter also furnished 
 with a pair of longer spines at the tip and middle 
 of all the legs ; the tarsi were longer than the tibia, 
 the first joint as long as all the others, and the last 
 supplied at tip with claws and pad and special 
 hairs. Finally, the primeval butterfly was single- 
 brooded and wintered in the chrysalis state. 
 
 When now we come to consider what modifica- 
 tions of this primeval type exist at the present 
 day, that is, how butterflies should be grouped 
 into their various tribes, we may venture at the 
 outset to remark that progress in the classi- 
 fication of butterflies, or in the appreciation of 
 their true inter-relationships has been grievously 
 checked by the very charm which so often attracts 
 men to their study. There is such a rage for 
 their collection by amateurs, enchanted only by 
 
A NCESTR Y A ND CLA SSIFICA TION. 243 
 
 their exquisite beauty, that their scientific study 
 has been largely abandoned by those who are best 
 fitted for this work by special scientific training. 
 The description of a large proportion of the 
 known species, the characterizing of very many 
 of the genera, involving in either case the desig- 
 nation of each such group in a system, has been 
 done by those who without previous training in 
 any branch of natural history commenced their 
 career by the formation of a cabinet, continued it 
 by the description or illustration of the new 
 species they were able to acquire, then essayed 
 the foundation of new genera, and all without 
 any proper knowledge of other animals, even of 
 those most nearly allied to butterflies. Of course 
 such persons are quite incompetent to judge of 
 the relative subordination of characters in the 
 single group they examine. The result has been 
 exactly what might have been predicted a con- 
 fusion and a contradiction in current classifica- 
 tions that is at war with the harmony of nature. 
 Much is due no doubt to our comparative igno- 
 rance of the early stages of butterflies. Strange 
 as it may seem, amateurs seldom collect, still 
 more rarely preserve for comparative study, eggs, 
 caterpillars, and chrysalids. 
 
 The family groups into which butterflies should 
 be divided have been variously given all the way 
 from two to sixteen. As the structure of the 
 
24 i A NCESTR Y AND CLA SSI PICA TIOJST. 
 
 different stages becomes better known there is 
 an increasing proof of the intimate connection of 
 many of the groups formerly believed very dis- 
 tinct ; and it is generally conceded by the better 
 class of recent writers that there are only about 
 half a dozen principal groups. My own study of 
 their structure and transformations leads me to 
 divide them primarily into four families :* 
 
 The Brush -footed butterflies, or Nymphales. 
 
 The Gossamer- winged butterflies, or Rurales. 
 
 The Typical butterflies, or Papilionides. 
 
 The Skippers or Urbicolae. 
 
 The family nature of the last group has never 
 been questioned by any who look upon the but- 
 terflies as composed of more than one family ; in- 
 deed their distinction from the others is so marked 
 that some have considered the remainder of the 
 butterflies their equivalent in value ; that is, they 
 divide all butterflies into only two families. 
 Doubtless these skippers first separated from the 
 common stock, and never developed to a high 
 degree, since they still remain by far the lowest 
 of the group, and are in many points more closely 
 ;allied to some of the higher moths than they are 
 to any other butterflies. They are peculiar for 
 their robust body, broad head, such as we have 
 given our archaic butterfly, hooked antennae, 
 
 * For the subdivisions of these groups, see the list at the end 
 of this book (Appendix II.). 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 245 
 
 which are widely separated at base, great length 
 of tongue, and the presence of a middle pair of 
 spurs on the front and usually on the hind legs, 
 in the former developed as a curious foliate mem- 
 brane ; their eggs are broadly truncate spheres, 
 sometimes ribbed ; their caterpillars have a large 
 head with a very thick skull and a very con- 
 tracted neck, formed of the first body segment, 
 and bearing a corneous shield above ; their chrys- 
 alids are smooth and uniform, like the pupae of 
 most moths, but in rare instances are pointed in 
 front. In nearly all these features they resemble 
 the picture we drew of the primeval type ; but 
 in the hooked antennae and foliate appendage of 
 the fore tibiae of the butterfly, the frequently 
 ribbed eggs, the constriction of the neck of the 
 caterpillar, and in the occasional projection of the 
 head of the chrysalis, they have departed from 
 that type, and most of these peculiarities they 
 share with no other butterflies. The other fam- 
 ilies appear to have diverged simultaneously from 
 each other shortly after their common separation 
 from the skippers ; and by means of the accom- 
 panying rough diagram [Fig. 171], which, like 
 most attempts at genealogical trees, possesses 
 anything but artistic merit, I have attempted to 
 exhibit the apparent relation of the different 
 groups to each other ; the position of the main 
 branches and their divisions is supposed to indi- 
 
PIG. 171. Diagram to illustrate the 
 affinities of the different groups of 
 butterflies. A, Nymphales, Brueh- 
 footed butterflies : B, Eurales, Gossa- 
 mer-winged butterflies ; C, Papilioni- 
 
 , Typical butterflies ; D. Urbicolae, 
 Skippers ; 1, Praetores, Satyrs ; 2, 
 Festfai, Danaids ; 3, Heliconii, Heli- 
 conians ; 4, Najades, Nymphs ; 5, Hy- 
 pati, Snout butterflies ; 6, Vestales, 
 Erycinids ; 7, Plebeii, Lycaenids ; 8, 
 Danai, Pierids ; 9. Equites, Swallow- 
 tails ; 20, Parnaasii, Parnassians ; 11, 
 Ilesptrides, Larger skippers ; 12, AK- 
 tyci, Smaller skippers ; 13, Castnioi- 
 des, Castniarians. 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. . 247 
 
 cate, on the basis of existing affinities, the rela- 
 tive time at which the different groups diverged 
 from each other or from the main stem ; and the 
 height which each branch attains the relative 
 perfection of the highest members of that group. 
 It is of course impossible to represent this with 
 any accuracy on a flat surface ; for one may prop- 
 erly conceive of a group only as a mass, with 
 branches springing from a common central core. 
 The swallow-tails and lycaenids are thus brought 
 at opposite extremities of the tree, whereas 
 they are closely related to each other, and dis- 
 agree with all other groups in the relation of the 
 head of the caterpillar to the segment behind it ; 
 this relationship, however, is indicated by each 
 occupying the lowest twig of the branch on which 
 it is seated, both branches being closely connected 
 at their base. The striking and unique peculiar- 
 ities of certain groups is shown by their extreme 
 divergence from the main stem ; thus the swal- 
 low-tails stand apart from all others in the posses- 
 sion of dorsal osmateria in the caterpillar, and in 
 certain special characters of the butterfly, shortly 
 to be mentioned ; the lycaenids at the opposite 
 extreme, in the onisciform nature and diminu- 
 tive heads of their caterpillars ; the castnioides 
 among the skippers by their close approach to the 
 moths, and the satyrs or meadow browns by the 
 forked tail of their caterpillars. The superficial 
 
248 A NCE STRY A ND CLA SSI PICA TION. 
 
 affinity of this last group to the skippers is also 
 indicated on the diagram by the directness of 
 their line from the very base ; it is one of the 
 most curious features in the structure of butter- 
 flies that its highest and lowest members should 
 resemble each other in so many minor points. 
 For instance, the tone of coloring and pattern of 
 markings on the wings of many satyrs, as well 
 as the position and general nature of the sexual 
 marks on the front pair of some males, find a 
 close counterpart on the wings of some skippers ; 
 so also the chrysalids of satyrs are among the 
 simplest, most rounded, and compact in the whole 
 family, approaching in this respect the lowest 
 butterflies. Nevertheless, in all the prime feat- 
 ures of their organization, the satyrs outrank all 
 others or divide the honors with another small 
 group. 
 
 It may be remarked that, with slight variations, 
 this distribution of the groups of butterflies, 
 founded upon the relative perfection of their 
 organization, is generally accepted by the best in- 
 vestigators, and is based upon a mass of minor 
 features which cannot be recounted here. A 
 single exception to this statement should, how- 
 ever, be made in regard to the typical butterflies, 
 whose position is the point of greatest dispute, 
 many continuing to place them highest of all on 
 account of the beauty and special perfection of 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSI PICA TION. 249 
 
 character of a single member of that family, the 
 group of swallow-tails. Nothing can exceed the 
 gorgeousness of the huge Ornithoptera of the 
 East Indies, and the most queenly of our own 
 New England forms are its nearest relatives. 
 They also show a unique development in the di- 
 minutive size of the palpi of the imago, in the pos- 
 session of four distinct branches to the median 
 nervure of the front wing [see Fig. 75], and in the 
 dorsal and extreme development of osmateria in 
 the caterpillar [see Fig. 32], to which we have 
 already alluded. But there is no reason whatever 
 for considering the brevity of the palpi or the 
 extra branch of the median nervure marks of high 
 organization, the one arising from deficiency, the 
 other from excess of development. On the con- 
 trary, in these very points they resemble the 
 skippers more closely than they do any other 
 butterflies, and these features are therefore traces 
 of their low organization. The possession of the 
 peculiar scent-organ, however, is unquestionably 
 a mark of high development. Wallace writes : 
 " When we consider this singular apparatus, 
 which in some species is nearly half an inch long, 
 the arrangement of muscles for its protrusion and 
 retraction, its perfect concealment during repose, 
 its blood-red color, and the suddenness with 
 which it can be thrown out, we must, I think, be 
 led to the conclusion that it serves as a protection 
 
250 ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 
 
 to the larva, by startling and frightening away 
 some enemy when about to seize it, and is thus 
 one of the causes which have led to the wide ex- 
 tension and maintained the permanence of this 
 now dominant group. Those who believe that 
 such peculiar structures can only have arisen by 
 very minute successive variations, each one advan- 
 tageous to its possessor, must see, in the posses- 
 sion of such an organ by one group and its com- 
 plete absence in every other, a proof of a very 
 ancient origin and of very long-continued modifi- 
 cation. And such a positive structural addition 
 to the organization of the family, subserving an 
 important function, seems to me alone sufficient 
 to warrant us in considering the Papilionidae as 
 the most highly developed portion of the whole 
 order, and thus in retaining it in the position 
 which the size, strength, beauty, and general 
 structure of the perfect insects have been gener- 
 ally thought to deserve." (Nat. Select., p. 135.) 
 It is unphilosophical, however, to accord high 
 rank to any group for a single characteristic, and 
 especially when in nearly all its other important 
 peculiarities it evinces its low origin. Moreover, 
 extensile fleshy scent organs do occur in other 
 groups. Guenee, as we have pointed out, discov- 
 ered them on the abdominal segments of the cater- 
 pillars of certain blues [see Figs. 34, 35] ; and 
 caruncles, as they are called, entirely similar to 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 251 
 
 osmateria in function, general structure, and de- 
 gree of development, occur in single genera of 
 beetles, while totally absent from their nearest 
 allies ; yet nobody on that account claims for 
 them a high rank. In the larvae of certain moths, 
 such as Cerura, we find a much more extraor- 
 dinary special development than the caterpillars 
 of the swallow-tails can boast ; the anal prolegs 
 become long cylindrical tubes, extending back- 
 ward and upward, from out of which, when pro- 
 voked, the caterpillar thrusts a highly colored 
 and banded fleshy tentacle, with which it lashes 
 its body to frighten away intruders. Yet in 
 other points of its structure it perfectly agrees 
 with its kindred. Then again, if we examine the 
 lips of the closed osmateria of the swallow-tails, 
 we shall find them of a corneous nature, resem- 
 bling no other feature in butterfly larvae than the 
 chitinous dorsal shield on the first segment of the 
 caterpillars of skippers. We have therefore in 
 the very osmateria indications of a low origin, a 
 relationship with the skippers, which most other 
 points in the structure of the swallow-tails ex- 
 hibit. The recurved club of the antenna recalls 
 most strikingly the structure of the antennal tip 
 of the higher skippers, and is unlike that of any 
 other group of butterflies. The inner border of 
 the hind wing also is folded, just as it always is 
 in the skippers and rarely in other butterflies. 
 
252 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 But perhaps the most striking point of affinity 
 between these two groups lies in the possession, 
 on the front tibiae, of the same characteristic foli- 
 ate appendage [see Fig. 173], which is wanting in 
 all other butterflies ; this, like the possession in 
 the skippers of two pair of spines on the hind 
 tibiae is certainly a mark of degradation, by which 
 they are allied to the lower families of Lepidop- 
 tera. We find therefore that in the very peculi- 
 arities of their structure wherein they depart from 
 the higher butterflies, they are most closely re- 
 lated to the skippers. 
 
 But, again, the swallow-tails are universally 
 conceded to be so closely allied to the white and 
 yellow butterflies that they are invariably placed 
 next them. Consequently, if the swallow-tails 
 are placed highest in the scale, the yellows must 
 go with them ; nobody questions this ; yet the 
 yellows possess not a single one of the character- 
 istics by which a high rank is claimed for the 
 swallow-tails ; commentary upon this is needless. 
 
 Having thus in a general way attempted to ex- 
 hibit by the diagram the relationship and relative 
 perfection of the different types, reducing them 
 primarily to four larger groups, we may, through 
 several features in their structure and habits, 
 prove the general correctness of our estimate, by 
 tracing a regular progression in passing from the 
 lower to the higher butterflies. These features 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 253 
 
 indicate with little doubt the progress of events 
 in the geologic history of higher lepidopterous 
 life, and leave a record of advance 
 which is completely falsified by 
 removing the swallow-tails to the 
 summit of the order. Attention has 
 
 recently been 
 
 drawn to one of 
 
 these features by 
 
 Bates, who at the 
 
 view. 
 
 same time has pro- 
 posed one of the most rational 
 systems yet advanced ; it has, 
 however, been known and used 
 in dividing butterflies since the 
 time of Linne and Geoffroy. I 
 refer to the 
 s t r u c ture of 
 the front legs, 
 where funda- 
 FIO. i73.-side view of mental distinc- 
 
 forc legs and appendages 
 
 of Euphoeades Troilus, tlOUS O C C U r 
 
 X 5 ; a, tibia and tarsus of 
 
 SffinVtougSteMle. flies In ^ 
 
 lowest family, or skippers [Fig. 
 172], as in the moths, all the 
 
 legS are developed tO an equal further enlarged ; c, mid- 
 dle leg of mate. 
 
 extent ; they only differ in pro- 
 portional lenth ; in the swallow-tails [Fig. 173] 
 
 FIG. 174. Side view of 
 and appendages of 
 ~ioe,x5; 
 
254 A NCESTR Y A ND CLA SSI PICA TION. 
 
 and in all the other members of that family 
 this also is true. But the moment we leave these 
 two lower families a change ap- 
 pears in the front legs and pro- 
 gresses regularly ; in the gossa- 
 mer-winged butterflies all the 
 legs of the female are alike, but 
 c the front legs of the male are 
 
 FIG. 175. Side view of 
 l^gs and appendages of 
 Calephelis borealis, X 5 ; 
 a, tibia and tarsus of fore 
 leg of male, with tarsus 
 on right still further en- 
 larged , b, tibia and tarsus 
 of fore leg of female, 
 with last joint of tarsus SeCtS 
 on right still further en- 
 larged; ;c, tibia and tarsus an autlgeny 
 of middle leg of male. 
 
 of a remark- 
 able character. In the lower 
 
 cmh-faTYiilv to \vhirTi nnr Klnp<3 FIG. 176. Side view of 
 
 ictmiiy, to w ii. les ]egg and a pp endage8 of Eu _ 
 
 anrl prvrmprcs P h y drvas Phaeton, x 5 ; , 
 
 Coppers tibia and tarsus of f9re leg 
 
 T -, r-rr of male, with last joints of 
 
 belong [I 1 Ig. tarsus on right still further 
 
 . enlarged ; 6, tibia and tar- 
 
 174], the tarSl BUS of fore leg of female, 
 with last joints of tarsus on 
 
 of this sex gftfiatsrM 
 
 b w ^ have lost the dle leg of male - 
 
 c terminal claw, and are densely 
 
 FIG. 177. Side view of 
 
 spined beneath ; even within 
 this sub-family we can trace 
 gradations, the claw being first 
 
 of female, with tarsus on -. -, , n 
 
 right stiii further eniarg- replaced by a single curving 
 
 eiT; c, tibia and tarsus of 
 
 middle leg of male. spine, and then by a pair of 
 straight spines only a little longer than the 
 others ; in the higher sub-family, the erycmids 
 
ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 255 
 
 FIG. 178. Spiral 
 
 pa 
 
 (Yestales) [Fig. 175], the tarsi are spineless and 
 
 the joints reduced from five to one or two. In 
 
 the highest family, the brush-footed 
 
 butterflies [Fig. 176], atrophy of the 
 
 front legs has reached both sexes, 
 
 so that they are practically useless, 
 
 although the atrophy is much more 
 
 excessive in the male ; the legs of 
 
 the female are greatly reduced in 
 
 size, and lack the terminal arma- 
 
 ture ; while in the male of the very * 0n ^ e 8 f 
 
 highest groups [Fig. 177] they are 
 
 exceedingly diminutive, and the tarsi 
 
 are reduced to a single minute* joint. Now when 
 
 we remember that this atrophy affects only the 
 legs borne by the first segment of the 
 thorax, and that this very segment, 
 and this only, has become greatly 
 reduced in size in passing from the 
 low larval stage to the perfect form, 
 we must accept atrophy of these legs 
 as a conclusive mark of high organi- 
 zation. 
 
 If again we examine the spiral 
 
 FIG. 179.-Spiral , 
 
 tongue of Vanessa tongue W6 Sliall find, as W6 paSS 
 cardui, with pa- 
 
 pillae, x 40. upward, a regular increase of com- 
 plication in the structure of the papillae, or organs 
 of taste. In the swallow-tails, as in the skippers 
 CFig. 178), these papillae are merely minute dis- 
 
256 A NCES TRY AND CLA SSI PICA TION. 
 
 tant tubercles, situated near the tip, half a dozen 
 or less on either side, seldom rising much above 
 the surface. In the gossamer-winged butterflies 
 they are longer and more frequent ; while in the 
 brush-footed butterflies [Fig. 179] the papillae 
 are often half the breadth of the tongue in length, 
 crowded closely together and often trifid at their 
 tip. 
 
 Finally, how do the modes of transformation 
 affect the question ? The moths, as a general 
 rule, pass their chrysalis stage in a cocoon of silk 
 
 or earth, in which 
 they lie loosely in a 
 horizontal position. 
 The skippers also al- 
 ways undergo their 
 transformations in a 
 
 FIG. 180. Cocoon of Epargyreus Tityrns, -,. -, ., 
 
 nat. size, the front removed to show the two COCOOU, a Him I, iraglle 
 Y-shaped shrouds by which it is suspended. . . . 
 
 affair, it is true, but 
 
 still unquestionably a cocoon ; one or two other 
 butterflies also make a slight cocoon w^herein to 
 change to chrysalis, and these few instances, such 
 as Parnassius and Zegris, belong exclusively to 
 the same family as the swallow-tails, though not 
 to the same exact division. The skippers, how- 
 ever [Fig. 180], do not lie loosely in their cocoons 
 as do the pupae of moths, but spin at either end a 
 Y-shaped thread, into the centre of one of which 
 they plunge their hooked tail, while in the upper 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLA SSIFICA TION. 257 
 
 loop of the other they rest their body, changing 
 the form of the upper arms of the Y from a V to 
 a U. Now when we reach the next family, the 
 typical butterflies, the cocoon, save in the excep- 
 tional instances mentioned, is lost ; while the 
 silken attachments of the chrysalis still remain, 
 modified to suit the circumstances. Instead of 
 the Y-shaped band, wherein to plunge the tail, a 
 carpet of silk is woven upon some branch into the 
 midst of which the hooks are thrust, while the 
 omission of the stem of the other Y leaves a 
 U-shaped loop or girt about the middle. To ac- 
 commodate the chrysalis thus hung next a solid 
 substance, instead of in the middle of an oval 
 cell, the segments of the abdomen must curve up- 
 ward toward the ventral line (for the chrysalis 
 lies back downward), and thus the ventral line 
 becomes straight, while the dorsal is strongly 
 arched [see Fig. 139]. This condition of things is 
 perpetuated and often intensified in the next 
 higher family, the gossamer- winged butterflies, 
 which differ in this respect from the typical but- 
 terflies only in the closer binding of the girt 
 around the middle [see Fig. 58]. In the high- 
 est family, the brush-footed butterflies, the girt 
 around the middle is lost and the chrysalis hangs 
 suspended by the tail alone. We see, therefore, 
 a regular progression from the lower to the higher 
 butterflies, in the loss, first, of the cocoon, next, 
 
258 ANCESTRY AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 of the girt ; and, as if this were not enough, some 
 of the highest butterflies (among the satyrs) have 
 even lost the last remnant of silk and fallen to the 
 ground, where, amid stubble or in crevices in the 
 ground, they undergo their transformations with- 
 out more ado. As if, moreover, to show that this 
 suspension of the chrysalis by the tail alone is a 
 stage beyond that of hanging by tail and girth, 
 we have a clear proof that all the Suspensi, as 
 Boisduval happily calls them, have 
 passed through the stage of the Suc- 
 cincti, since the straight ventral sur- 
 face of the abdomen [Fig. 181 ; see 
 also Figs. 54, 57], assumed perforce 
 by the Succincti, when they left the 
 cocoon stage and became attached to 
 PIG. isi.-chrys- hard surfaces, still remains in the 
 chrysalis of the brush-footed butter- 
 
 nat. size. 
 
 flies, where it no longer serves any 
 purpose ; as clear and striking an indication that 
 the Suspensi outrank the Succincti, as that the 
 pupa is higher than the larva. 
 
 What sort of arguments were formerly used by 
 a certain class of speculative philosophers may be 
 judged from the following passage published 
 forty -five years ago : " The chrysalis of the [true] 
 butterfly, the pre-eminent type of annulose ani- 
 mals, is fixed with its head upward, as if it 
 looked to the pure regions of heaven for the en- 
 
ANCESTR Y AND CLASSIFICA TION. 259 
 
 joyment it is to receive in its last and final state 
 of perfection ; but the chrysalis of the brush- 
 footed butterflies, whose caterpillars are stinging, 
 is suspended with the head downward to the 
 earth, thus pointing to the world, as the only 
 habitation where its innumerable types of evil are 
 permitted to reside ; or to that dark and bottom- 
 less region, where punishment awaits the wicked 
 at their last great change."* 
 
 * Swainson, Geogr. and Class. Auim., p. 248. London, 1835. 
 
CHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. THE COLONIZATION OP NEW 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 THE four great families of butterflies are found 
 in every quarter of the globe. All are represented 
 even on the inhospitable shores of Labrador and 
 in the accidental fauna of the South Sea Islands. 
 They are, however, very unequally represented in 
 every distinct zoological province, and some of 
 the minor groups are peculiar to one or more of 
 such regions. The most striking general feature 
 in the distribution of the larger groups is the al- 
 most exclusive restriction of the sub -family of 
 Erycinids to tropical America, quite as promi- 
 nent a fact as the similar limitation of humming- 
 birds to the same region. The species of hum- 
 ming-birds are the smallest of their class and 
 number nearly four hundred, or about four per 
 cent of the known birds ; they are exclusively 
 American, and more than ninety per cent of them 
 are confined to the tropics. The Erycinids are 
 among the smallest of butterflies and number 
 nearly eight hundred species, or about ten per 
 cent of the known butterflies ; of these only 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 261 
 
 thirty species, or less than four tenths of one per 
 cent of the family, are found in the Old World, 
 and of the American species ninety-seven per 
 cent are confined to the tropics. Only six hum- 
 ming-birds, and similarly but seven Erycinids, are 
 known within the limits of the United States. 
 
 All the families of butterflies are infinitely rich- 
 er in specific forms within the tropics than in the 
 temperate zones, and the Gossamer- winged butter- 
 flies and the Skippers much more richly in the 
 New than in the Old World. The highest fam- 
 ily, or Brush-footed butterflies, is perhaps more 
 numerous than any of the others, and though, like 
 them, it reaches its maximum of development 
 within the tropics, its numerical superiority is 
 most evident in temperate zones, and especially in 
 the north temperate region of the Old World, 
 where its numbers equal those of all the other 
 families combined. 
 
 In this respect we shall find a great difference 
 between the European and the eastern North 
 American butterflies. Writers, in comparing the 
 insects of these two regions, have usually called 
 attention to their similarity ; and since these 
 regions are embraced between the same isothermal 
 lines and nourish the same cereals, we should 
 naturally look for a great resemblance. But if 
 we omit from each the extreme southern species 
 we shall find, first, that eastern America is poorer 
 
262 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 than Europe, having about one fifth less butter- 
 flies ; again, while half of the European butter- 
 
 FIG. 182. Chlorippe Herse ; a, eggs ; b, caterpillar ; c, chrysalis ; rf, upper 
 surface of male butterfly ; the dotted line at left indicates the contour of the 
 wings of the female ; nat. size (Riley). 
 
 flies are Brush-footed butterflies [Figs. 182-185], 
 less than one third of the American* butterflies 
 
 FIG. 183. Chlorippe Her=e; g, half grown caterpillar ; A, under surface male 
 butterfly ; i-m, the heads of caterpillars from first to fifth stage enlarged (the 
 lines at the side indicating their real length) ; n, o. top and side view of one 
 segment of caterpillar ; p. egg, x 20. the natural size at right ; g, caterpillars 
 of the size at which they hibernate (Riley;. 
 
 * By American, in this and the folio wing places, 1 mean North 
 America east of the Great Plains. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 263 
 
 belong to this family. The Gossamer-winged 
 butterflies [Figs. 186, 187] are also proportion- 
 ally a little less abundant in America than in 
 
 PIG. 184. Chlorippe Lycaon; a, eggs on under side of leaf : b, caterpillar ; 
 ', d, chrysalis ; e, upper surface of male butterfly ; the dotted line at left mdi- 
 ates the contour of the wing of the female ; nat. size (Kiley). 
 
 c, 
 cates 
 
 Europe, while the Typical butterflies are slightly 
 more abundant. The balance on the American 
 
 FIG. 185. Chlorippe Lycaon ; /, egg, nat. size and X 18 ; </, caterpillar ; A, 
 under surface of male butterfly ; i-m, the heads of caterpillars from first to fifth 
 stages, nat. size and magnified ; n, o, top and side view of one segment of 
 caterpillar, enlarged (Riley). 
 
 side, however, is made up in the lowest family, 
 since nearly one third of the American fauna is 
 composed of Skippers [Fig. 188], while scarcely 
 
264 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 more than one tenth of the European fauna is 
 composed of this family. As contrasted with 
 each other, then, Europe is 
 peculiar for its wealth in 
 Brush - footed butterflies, 
 America in Skippers. 
 
 The disparity of represen- 
 
 FIG. 186. incisaiia Niphon, tation is rendered more strik- 
 
 nat. size ; under surface on 
 
 right (Harris). j n g wne n we compare the 
 
 minor groups. We will not here enter into many 
 
 details, but only point out the 
 
 following facts : first, that the 
 
 great disparity of numbers in 
 
 the Brush-footed butterflies 
 
 on the two continents is almost 
 
 ~**&!$85&' V: ' 
 
 wholly due to the vast number 
 
 J Fi. 187. Catephehs bo- 
 
 of Satyrs or Meadow-browns & ^f^ 6 ; under sur ' 
 
 in Europe it has seventy- 
 
 seven species while we have but nineteen ; second, 
 
 that the preponderance 
 of Skippers in this 
 country is due to the 
 great proportion of the 
 Astyci or smaller Skip- 
 pers [Fig. 189], which 
 
 FIG. 188. ThorybesP.vlade8.nat. size; number forty - four 
 under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 with us, against nine in 
 
 Europe ; third, that while the Hair-streaks are 
 twice as numerous in America as in Europe, the 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 265 
 
 balance in the sub-family is more than restored 
 by the superior number of Blues in Europe, 
 where there are thirty-eight species to our thir- 
 teen ; fourth, that while the numbers of the Typ- 
 ical butterflies on the two continents are almost 
 equal, there is no similarity of representation in 
 the groups composing the family, excepting in the 
 Whites ; for the Orange-tips (Frugalia) number 
 seven in Europe and two in America, the Yel- 
 lows ten in Europe and twenty in America, the 
 Swallow-tails [Fig. 190] 
 three in Europe and nine in 
 America, and the Parnas- 
 sians (Parnassii) six in Eu- 
 rope and none in America. 
 Notwithstanding such 
 
 ,-! . ,, FIG. 189 Euphyes Metacomet, 
 
 Striking Contrasts, there nat. size ; the left side represents 
 
 the upper surface of the male ; the 
 
 are many apparent resem- right the upper surface of the 
 
 female, attached to the body. 
 
 blances ; but upon analysis 
 
 nearly all of these disappear. Take, for example, 
 the two most striking cases, the Angle- wings 
 and the larger Skippers [Fig. 191], in both of 
 which the numbers are the same in the two coun- 
 tries ; in the latter only two of the eight Amer- 
 ican and four European genera are common to 
 both countries, and in these two the representa- 
 tion is very unequal, one genus having six spe- 
 cies in America against two in Europe, and the 
 other fourteen in Europe and two in America. 
 
li 
 
 II 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 267 
 
 In the Angle- wings there are eight genera, of 
 which four are represented on each continent, the 
 others being equally divided between the two 
 countries. We have in this instance a closer re- 
 semblance than in any other group of butterflies, 
 because its genera are mainly genera of the north 
 temperate zone ; and a careful study of all other 
 points of resemblance between the two countries 
 
 FIG. 191. Epargyrens Tityrns, nat. size ; under surface on left. 
 
 will show that they are almost all confined to 
 groups which are boreal in their aspect ; while, 
 if we had excluded from the comparisons the 
 species inhabiting in either country the high 
 north, and had included those of the extreme 
 south, not only would the number of species in 
 either country have been considerably augmented, 
 but the resemblances would have been greatly 
 
268 THE COLONIZA TION OF NE W ENGLAND. 
 
 diminished, and the differences more than pro- 
 portionally increased. 
 
 It will be evident from what has been stated 
 that a considerable portion of the present butter- 
 fly fauna of the eastern United States has been 
 derived from the north, and a still greater portion 
 from the south. If we are to judge of the deriva- 
 tion of the present fauna by the geographical dis- 
 tribution of its nearest allies, we shall come to no 
 uncertain conclusions. Omitting from consider- 
 ation such species as belong properly to the ex- 
 treme north or south, and the few species believed 
 to have been introduced, there will be left about 
 one hundred and forty, which may be considered 
 the foundation of the fauna, including nearly 
 twenty genera peculiar to it. A careful study of 
 the affinities of these one hundred and forty 
 species shows that more than three-fourths of 
 both genera and species have their nearest allies 
 in the south, mostly in Mexico and Central 
 America. Nearly all of the remainder belong to 
 genera represented around the entire temperate 
 zone of the northern hemisphere. Excepting 
 those which are closely connected either with 
 European or with Western American species, I 
 do not recall a single genus peculiar to the region, 
 unless it be Feniseca, one of the Coppers, which 
 is unique. We may therefore conclude that our 
 fauna is in no respect endemic, and that by far 
 
THE COLONIZATION OF NEW ENGLAND. 269 
 
 the greater part of it was derived from the 
 south. 
 
 We are thus led from a consideration of the 
 structure and relationship of the present butterfly 
 inhabitants of New England and the neighboring 
 region to the same conclusion to which the recent 
 geological history of the country would force us. 
 The great glacial sheet which covered the land 
 was no fit residence for butterflies ; but many 
 sorts, companions of the cold, which it had driven 
 southward in its advance from the pole, hugged 
 its southern boundaries in the Middle States, and 
 when this huge continental glacier commenced 
 slowly to retreat, they too were driven back to 
 their ancient sporting grounds, by the too fierce 
 heat of the summer's sun and the parching of 
 their food, the plants which love the snow. 
 Others followed at a more cautious distance, and 
 of these insects perhaps a fourth of our fauna is 
 composed. That this is a true history appears 
 from many facts, but from none more curiously 
 than the presence, on the summit of Mount Wash- 
 ington, of a fragile butterfly [Fig. 192], whose 
 home is there limited to a few acres of ground, 
 but which occurs again two thousand miles away, 
 on the alpine summits of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and is represented at half that distance, in the 
 north, by another butterfly, doubtless descended 
 from the same ancestor at no very remote epoch. 
 
270 THE COLONIZATION OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 A recent writer in the American Naturalist, Mr. 
 Grote, has drawn a picture of the way in which, 
 like many plants peculiar to the same alpine 
 heights, it was left behind on the retreat of the 
 glacial covering of the continent. " Year after 
 year," he says, " the great glacier retreated 
 farther and farther north, followed by the main 
 body of its train, plants, butterflies and animals, 
 the while some of these foolish butterflies were 
 beguiled by the shallow ice-rivers, which then 
 
 FIG. 19?. Oeneis semidea, nat. size ; the under surface on right (Harris). 
 
 filled the ravines of Mount Washington. Return 
 became at length impossible. They advanced 
 behind the descending local glaciers, step by step 
 up the mountain-side, pushed up from below by 
 the warm climate, which to them was uncon- 
 genial, until they reached the mountain-peak, 
 now bare of snow in the short summer. Here, 
 blown side wise by the wind, they patiently 
 cling to the rocks. Or, in clear weather, on weak 
 and careful wing, they fly from flower of stemless 
 mountain pink to blueberry, swaying from their 
 
THE COLONIZA TION OF NE W ENGLAND. 271 
 
 narrow tenure of the land. Drawn into the cur- 
 rents of air that sweep the mountain's side they 
 are forced downward, to be parched in the valleys 
 below. Yet they maintain themselves. They are 
 fighting it out on that line." 
 
 That the great bulk of our fauna, however, is 
 composed of southern types is evident, and may 
 be explained by the direction of the mountain 
 chains, which form no barrier to the northward 
 march of animals ; while our poverty, as com- 
 pared with Europe, may be due to the form of the 
 continents themselves, the tropical lands of 
 America being scattered about among islands, or 
 connected with the northern temperate zone by 
 a very narrow isthmus ; while Europe, on the 
 other hand, has easy connection with all parts of 
 the Old World. 
 
APPENDIX I . 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING, REARING, PRESERVING, AND 
 STUDYING. 
 
 HAPPILY the time is past when butterfly-collectors 
 devote their entire attention to the perfect insect. 
 They at least rear them from the caterpillar or chrysalis 
 to obtain fresher and more beautiful specimens for 
 their cabinets ; and it is to be hoped that any young 
 enthusiasts who may read this book will be quite as 
 ready to collect, preserve, and study their earlier stages 
 as the full grown insect. It therefore needs no apology 
 from me in giving here more space to instructions con- 
 cerning the pursuit of the immature than of the mature 
 form. 
 
 The best method of raising butterflies is to obtain 
 eggs from the parent and rear them to maturity. This 
 is by no means difficult and is full of interest ; it is 
 only necessary to know the food plant of the cater- 
 pillar and that of nearly all our northern species 
 is ascertained ;* or if it is not known, it may often 
 be inferred from that of neighboring species, or dis- 
 covered by patiently following the female as she flits 
 from leaf to leaf, and noticing the plants she chooses 
 whereon to lay her eggs. The butterfly generally 
 selects the middle of the day for this duty, but the 
 eager youth must not expect at once to obtain her 
 secret, for he will find himself only too often foiled. 
 Once known, the way is comparatively easy ; catch a 
 female, selecting for the purpose one which has evi- 
 dently been flying for at least a few days, and which is 
 
 * A list of the foot plants of such species as are mentioned in 
 this book is given in Appendix II. 
 
274 APPENDIX /. 
 
 gravid with eggs, and inclose her beneath a gauze cov- 
 ering upon the growing plant. If it be a tree or bush, 
 tie a muslin bag over a bough, taking care that there 
 are some tender leaves upon it (and no ants), and so 
 arrange the bag that the butterfly may rest naturally 
 upon them ; inclose the butterfly and she will pretty 
 certainly deposit eggs in the course of a day or two. Or, 
 if the plant be one of small size, use a headless keg, 
 covered at one end with gauze ; even a discarded vege- 
 table can will servo the purpose. 
 
 After a day's or two days' confinement, the prisoner 
 should be set free. If she has not then laid eggs, she 
 probably cannot, and she should be released. If she 
 has yielded the desired harvest, she should be rewarded 
 with liberty. When obtained, the leaves or twigs upon 
 which the eggs are found may either be left where they 
 are or carried home to more convenient quarters. 
 
 It is not easy to preserve eggs entire. If they do not 
 hatch they are apt to shrivel, excepting such as have a 
 dense pellicle, like the hemispherical eggs of the smaller 
 skippers or the echinoid eggs of the blues and cop- 
 pers ; it is nearly impossible, too, to prick the egg and 
 save its form. The best way is to watch for the egress 
 of the caterpillar and the moment it is free separate it 
 from the shell, which it will otherwise devour ; in that 
 way I have obtained a considerable collection of these 
 little gems. Or they may be obtained from the plants 
 on which they have been laid naturally, by searching the 
 food plants carefully ; they are not so difficult to detect 
 as might be supposed ; many of these will be found at- 
 tacked by minute parasites, which generally make their 
 exit through a single minute hole, leaving the egg in 
 an admirable condition for the cabinet. The eggs can 
 then be gummed, with or without the leaf on which 
 they are laid, upon triangular bits of card-board, 
 pinned and transferred to the cabinet. Inspissated 
 ox-gall, diluted with an equal quantity of thick gum 
 arabic, makes the best material for attachment to the 
 card. 
 
APPENDIX 7. 275 
 
 In rearing from the egg the greatest difficulty is 
 during early life ; young caterpillars must have the 
 freshest and tenderest food and not too much confine- 
 ment. With all precautions many will be lost, for 
 they are so small that it is difficult to keep track of 
 them, and some are very prone to wander when their food 
 does not suit them. Some open vessel with the grow- 
 ing plant is the best receptacle ; in place of this a 
 similar vessel (the larger the better) holding moist sand 
 in which a sprig of the food plant is plunged may be 
 used covered if convenient with gauze to prevent the 
 escape of the caterpillar. The vessel should be placed 
 in the light, but not in the sun, and for many kinds it 
 is well to lay chips or bits of bark upon the ground, be- 
 neath which the caterpillars may hide. At each moult 
 the caterpillar remains motionless, refusing to feed for 
 twenty-four hours or more, and at such times it should 
 not be disturbed. It is best never to touch them, and 
 when necessary to change the food, the old leaf with 
 the caterpillar upon it should be put beside or upon the 
 fresh food, and only removed when deserted by the 
 caterpillar. When older the creature will bear rougher 
 treatment and may often be confined in a nearly tight 
 tin or earthen vessel with freshly plucked leaves ; but 
 all caterpillars will not bear this treatment, and care 
 should always be taken that their quarters do not be- 
 come foul. 
 
 A very convenient form of breeding cage or vivarium 
 is shown in Fig. 193, and is thus described by Mr. 
 Riley : " It comprises three distinct parts : first, the 
 bottom board (a), consisting of a square piece of inch- 
 thick walnut with a rectangular zinc pan (ff) four 
 inches deep fastened to it above, to prevent cracking or 
 warping, facilitate lifting, and allow the air to pass 
 underneath the cage. Second, a box (b), with three 
 glass sides and a glass door in front, to fit over the 
 zinc pan. Third, a cap (c) which fits closely to the 
 box, and has a top of fine wire gauze. To the centre 
 of the zinc pan is soldered a zinc tube (d) just large 
 
276 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 enough to contain an ordinary quinine bottle. The 
 zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand (e), 
 and the quinine bottle is for the reception of the food 
 plant. The cage admits of abundant light and air, 
 and also of the easy removal of excrement and frass 
 
 FIG. 193. Breeding cage, described in the text. 
 
 which falls to the ground ; while the insects in trans- 
 forming attach themselves to the sides or the cap ac- 
 cording to their habits. The most convenient dimen- 
 sions I find to be twelve inches square and eighteen 
 inches high ; the cap and the door fit closely by means 
 of rabbets, and the former has a depth of about four 
 
APPENDIX I. 277 
 
 inches to admit of the largest cocoon being spun in it 
 without touching the box on which it rests. The zinc 
 pan might be made six or eight inches deep, and the 
 lower half filled with sand, so as to keep the whole 
 moist for a greater length of time. A dozen such 
 cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a 
 great number of species, as several having different 
 habits and appearance, and which there is no danger 
 of confounding, may be simultaneously fed in the same 
 cage." 
 
 The best success will always attend efforts to place 
 the prisoner in conditions as nearly natural as possible ; 
 but in rearing out of doors it is more difficult to keep 
 track of your charge, and they are of course more 
 subject to their natural enemies, which are numerous 
 and vigilant. Moreover it is then impossible, or nearly 
 so, to obtain the cast-off heads of each moult, which 
 are well to preserve for comparative study at leisure, or 
 to complete the tangible marks of the life history of 
 the insect. 
 
 Such caterpillars as construct nests in which to live 
 when not feeding, and especially such as then live a 
 great while in the caterpillar state, as for instance 
 nearly all the skippers, are the hardest to rear satisfac- 
 torily apart from their natural homes ; they do not 
 like to live in a dried-up house, nor to be continually 
 wasting their energies in the construction of new ones, 
 so that one's ingenuity is often taxed to keep them 
 happy ; but patience and careful attention to their 
 natural conditions will reap their reward, and I believe 
 it is possible with care to breed any of our species in 
 confinement. Caterpillars found partly grown in a 
 state of nature maybe reared in confinement for the 
 rest of their lives with equal ease ; only one labors then 
 under the disadvantage, if he cares pnTy for the butter- 
 fly, of being rewarded for his pains only by a fine 
 batch of minute hymenopterous parasites or a bristling 
 fly or two. To one, however, who is interested in the 
 entire history of these creatures, this is not altogether 
 
278 APPENDIX /. 
 
 a loss, for he will add perchance to his stock of butter- 
 fly parasites, of which for some species many different 
 kinds are already known. 
 
 The search for caterpillars in their haunts is often 
 very easy, especially if their food plant, habits, and 
 seasons are known ; to search for a caterpillar out of 
 season is an anachronism one will not enjoy. Partly 
 eaten leaves are one of the best guides to the discovery 
 of caterpillars ; while such as construct nests of any 
 sort are very readily detected, especially when the nests 
 are so built as to expose the under surfaces of leaves, 
 where their upper surfaces would be expected, as in 
 the case of many of the higher skippers [see Fig. 94]. 
 The caterpillars of the blues, coppers, etc., are perhaps 
 the most difficult to find, because they so nearly resem- 
 ble in color the surfaces on which they rest ; the same 
 is true of the caterpillar of our common yellow butter- 
 fly ; but when one has once discovered them, and 
 knows how they look in their natural situations, the 
 search becomes much easier. Others again feed mostly 
 by night and retire by day to the covert of dead leaves 
 on the ground or beneath sticks, and must be sought 
 by the aid of the lantern. Such in particular are the 
 caterpillars of our satyrs and fritillaries. 
 
 Some caterpillars, as stated in the body of this work, 
 pass the winter in that state, either just hatched, 
 half grown, or nearly mature. To keep these safely 
 through our long winter and prevent their recovering 
 from their dormancy before food for them can be ob- 
 tained in the spring, is one of the most difficult tasks. 
 It is best, as a general rule, to place them in closed or 
 nearly closed vessels, not too small, in a dry but cool 
 cellar, and not to move them until their food plant is 
 again in leaf. Mr. Edwards has succeeded well with 
 some of those which have eaten little or nothing before 
 going into winter quarters, by placing them through 
 the winter in an ice-house, which would seem to be 
 rather heroic treatment at first sight ; but in almost 
 any other situation they are liable to rouse from their 
 
APPENDIX I. 279 
 
 lethargy too early in the spring, the critical period, no 
 doubt, of their life. For collecting caterpillars, pocket 
 tin boxes are the best receptacles. 
 
 The satisfactory preservation of the caterpillar for 
 the cabinet is far easier than is generally supposed. 
 For anatomical purposes it is much better to dissect 
 fresh specimens, but very much may be , done with 
 specimens that have been preserved in not too strong 
 alcohol, or in glycerine and carbolic acid. For the 
 study of the markings or of the external features or 
 form, nothing equals the method known as inflation, 
 where only the pellicle and its appendages are preserved, 
 and which has the advantage of allowing the caterpil- 
 lar to be readily placed in an ordinary cabinet beside 
 the other forms of the creature's life ; also of preserv- 
 ing in their natural relations all the spines and hairs 
 which clothe the body, and of allowing these to be 
 studied at pleasure ; specimens preserved in any fluid, 
 on the contrary, are difficult to handle conveniently, 
 and their examination is unsatisfactory from the mat- 
 ting of the hairs and spines. 
 
 The instruments necessary for inflating are a small 
 tin oven, a spirit lamp, forceps, a pair of finely pointed 
 scissors, a bit of rag, a little fine wire and a wheat 
 straw. 
 
 The oven is simply an oblong tin box, about 2 inches 
 high, 2 inches wide, and five inches long ; the cover 
 is of glass, and one end of the box is perforated by a 
 circular hole \\ inches in diameter. The oven rests 
 upon a wire standard as in the woodcut [Fig. 194]. 
 No soldering should be used upon the oven, as it would 
 soon be melted. 
 
 The wire should be very fine and annealed ; the best 
 is that wound with green thread and used for artificial 
 flowers. It should not be more than half a millimetre 
 in diameter. [Fig. 195.] 
 
 Kill the subject by a drop of ether or by a plunge in 
 spirits. Then placing the caterpillar in the left hand, 
 so as to expose its hinder extremity beyond the gently 
 
280 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 closed thumb and first two fingers, enlarge the vent 
 slightly at the lower edge by a vertical cut with the 
 scissors ; next lay the larva either upon bibulous paper 
 on the table, or upon soft cotton cloth held in the left 
 
 FIG. 194. Oven and lamp for preparing caterpillars by inflation. 
 
 hand, and press the extremity of the body with one 
 finger, always with the interposition of cloth or paper, 
 so as to force out some of the contents of the body ; 
 this process is continued from points successively far- 
 ^ ier back, a slight additional portion 
 of the contents of the body being 
 gently pressed out with each new 
 g movement. Throughout all this pro- 
 x 19. cess reat care should be taken lest the 
 
 skin should be abraded by too violent pressure, and 
 lest any of the contents of the body soil its ex- 
 terior or become entangled in the hairs or spines ; 
 to avoid the latber, the caterpillar should be frequently 
 
APPENDIX I. 281 
 
 removed to a clean part of the cloth. When a 
 portion of the intestinal tube itself becomes extruded, 
 it should be seized with a pair of strong forceps, and, 
 the head remaining in the secure hold of the left hand, 
 the tube should be forcibly but steadily torn from its 
 attachments ; with this most of the contents of the 
 body will be withdrawn, and a delicate pressure passing 
 with a rolling motion from the head toward the tail 
 will reduce the subject to a mere pellicle. 
 
 The alcohol lamp is now lighted and placed in posi- 
 tion beneath the oven ; a wheat straw is selected, of 
 the proper size to enter the enlarged vent, and the tip, 
 after being cut diagonally with sharp scissors or a knife, 
 is moistened a little in the mouth (to prevent too great 
 adhesion of the skin to the straw) and carefully intro- 
 duced into the opening of the caterpillar ; the process 
 may be aided by blowing gently through the straw. 
 When the skin is slipped upon all sides of the straw to 
 the distance of about a fifth of an inch, without any 
 folding of the skin and so that both the anal prolegs 
 protrude, a short delicate pin (Edelston and Williams, 
 No. 19, is best) is passed through the anal plate and 
 the straw. 
 
 By this time the oven will be sufficiently heated to 
 commence the drying process, which consists simply in 
 keeping the caterpillar in the oven, extended horizon- 
 tally by blowing gently and steadily through the straw, 
 as one uses a blow-pipe. Too forcible inflation will 
 make the caterpillar unsightly by distending unnatu- 
 rally any spot that may have been weakened or bruised 
 in the previous operation ; the caterpillar should be 
 kept slowly but. constantly turning, and no harm will 
 result from withdrawing the creature from the oven 
 and allowing it to collapse, to gain breath or rest ; only 
 this relaxation should be very brief. The caterpillar 
 should be first introduced into the oven while inflated 
 by the breath, and so placed that the hinder extremity 
 shall be in the hottest part, directly above the flame, 
 for it is essential that the animal should dry from be- 
 
282 APPENDIX I. 
 
 hind forward ; yet not altogether, for as soon as the 
 hinder part has begun to stiffen (which can readily be 
 detected by withholding the breath for a moment) the 
 portion next in front should receive partial attention, 
 and the caterpillar moved backward and forward, round 
 and round over the flame. During this process any 
 tendency of the caterpillar to assume unnatural posi- 
 tions may be corrected at least in part by with- 
 drawing it from the oven and manipulating it ; during 
 inflation, the parts about the head should be the last to 
 dry and should be kept over the flame until a rather 
 forcible touch will not cause it to bend. 
 
 To secure the best results, it is essential that the 
 oven should not be too hot ; the flame should not be 
 more than an inch high, and its tip should be one or 
 two inches from the bottom of the oven. 
 
 When the skin of the caterpillar will yield at no 
 
 FIG. 196. Wire bent into shape to insert into the caterpillar ; not enlarged. 
 
 point, it is ready for mounting. The pin is taken 
 from the straw, and the caterpillar skin, which often 
 adheres to the straw, must be gently removed with 
 some delicate, blunt instrument, or with the finger 
 nail. 
 
 A piece of wire a little more than twice the length of 
 the caterpillar is next cut, and, by means of forceps, 
 bent as in Fig. 196, the tips a little incurved ; a lit- 
 tle shellac* is placed at the distal extremity of the 
 loop, the wire is held by the forceps so as to prevent 
 the free ends of the wire from spreading, and they are 
 introduced into the empty body of the caterpillar as far 
 as the forceps will allow ; holding the loop and gently 
 opening the forceps, the caterpillar is now pushed over 
 
 * To prepare this, the sheets of dark shellac should be prefer- 
 red to the light, and dissolved in forty per cent alcohol. 
 
<? 7* 0:& ' 
 
 the wire with extreme care, until the hinder extremity 
 has passed half-way over the loop, and the shellac has 
 smeared the interior sufficiently to hold the caterpillar 
 in place when dry ; the extremities of the parted wires 
 should reach nearly to the head. Nothing remains 
 hut to curve the doubled end of the wire tightly around 
 a pin with a pair of strong forceps and to place the 
 specimen, properly labelled, in a place where it can dry 
 thoroughly for several days before removal to the cabi- 
 net. 
 
 For more careful preservation and readier handling, 
 each specimen may be placed in a glass tube, like the 
 test tube of the chemist. The wire is then first bent in 
 the middle and the bent end inserted in a hole bored in 
 the smaller end of a cork of suitable size, so as nearly 
 to pass through it ; the loops are then formed as above ; 
 both ends of the cork are varnished, and a label pasted 
 around the portion of the cork which enters the tube, 
 thus guarding both specimen and label from dust, and 
 the latter from loss or misplacement. After two or 
 three days the cork with the caterpillar attached is 
 placed in its corresponding tube, and the tube may be 
 freely handled. 
 
 Modifications of this system will occur to every one. 
 Dr. Gemminger uses a syringe for the extraction of the 
 contents as well as for the inflation of the emptied skin. 
 For an oven, the Vienna entomologists employ an 
 ordinary gas chimney, open at both ends and inserted 
 in a sand bath, which prevents, perhaps, the danger of 
 too great heat. 
 
 In rearing caterpillars for the after stages, season- 
 able care must always be taken to provide a suitable 
 place in the breeding cage for the chrysalis to suspend 
 itself : a twig for such as prefer such situations ; a bit 
 of shingle near the top of the cage for those that sus- 
 pend themselves by the tail, or fasten themselves pref- 
 erably to flat surfaces ; leaves for those that construct 
 some sort of a cocoon. The search for chrysalids in 
 the open air is not likely to meet with great success 
 
284 APPENDIX I. 
 
 excepting in a few instances, sncli as the imported 
 Cabbage butterfly, whose chrysalids can be found in only 
 too great abundance beneath palings or on the under 
 edge of clapboards on farm houses ; those of the blues 
 and their allies may often be found beneath stones, but 
 one must be an enthusiast to follow the search at all 
 successfully ; such as fall into the hands of the general 
 entomologist must be counted as clear gain ; yet these 
 will often repay him who studies also the parasites of 
 butterflies, so often are they found to be infested. 
 
 The preservation of chrysalids with their colors is 
 easy for all that are not of some green tint ; and these 
 are few. Long-lived chrysalids are not easily killed ex- 
 cepting by extreme dryness. Some will survive a 
 twelve hours' plunge in alcohol, and those that could 
 not would generally lose some of their colors by the im- 
 mersion. Dry heat is the best method, but it should 
 be accompanied after death by further drying after an 
 opening has been made into the body, lest the contents 
 should decay. Parasitized specimens form the best 
 material for the cabinet, but even shells from which 
 the inmate has escaped can by careful manipulation 
 and a little glue have their separated parts so joined 
 as to answer fairly the desired purpose. Solid speci- 
 mens can be pinned through one side of the thorax, 
 but the mere pellicle should have the hooks of the tail 
 securely fastened to a little ball of cotton wool or bit 
 of felt, through which the pin may be passed. It is not 
 easy to glue empty chrysalids permanently to cards, and 
 these are very apt to hide the parts one wishes at some 
 future time to examine. Skilful persons may attain 
 some success with thin-skinned chrysalids, like that of 
 the Monarch, for instance, the shape of which is difficult 
 to retain, by removing the contents through a small 
 opening at one side and stuffing with cotton. 
 
 The best form of net for the capture of butterflies is 
 a bag fastened to a hoop or ring of some sorb, to which 
 a handle may be attached. The hoop should be made 
 of galvanized iron wire, forming a circle about twelve 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 285 
 
 to fourteen inches in diameter, and the bag, made of 
 double bobbinet and attached to the wire by strong linen 
 or cotton, should taper regularly, have a rounded bot- 
 tom, and be about thirty inches long, so as to double 
 over the net and have a few inches to spare. By 
 bending the two ends of the wire, as in Pig. 197, 
 they can be dropped into a brass tube 
 and securely fixed in place by a tight 
 plug of hard wood, leaving the other 
 end of the tube open for the insertion 
 of a removable handle ; or a very con- 
 venient form of net can be construct- 
 ed on the following plan shown in 
 Fig. 198, and thus described by Mr. 
 Riley : " Take two pieces of stout wire, 
 each about twenty inches long ; bend 
 them half circularly and join at one end 
 by a folding hinge having a check on 
 one side (Z). The other ends are bent 
 and beaten into two square sockets (/), 
 which fit to a nut sunk and soldered into 
 one end of a brass tube (d). When so 
 fitted they are secured by a large-headed t net ha ~ ndl < 
 screw (e), threaded to fit into the nut- 
 socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the 
 back of a common pocket-knife blade. The wire 
 hoop is easily detached and folded, as at c, for con- 
 venient carriage ; and the handle may be made of any 
 desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the 
 hollow tube , which should be about six inches long." 
 The stick should be about four feet long. Mr. Lintner 
 makes use of a rod with a head [Fig. 199] screwed to 
 one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass ribbon, on 
 which the net is drawn, but which when not in use 
 may be placed inside the hat, while the stick serves as 
 a cane, and the head and bag may be placed in the 
 pocket. An entomologist becomes a less conspicuous 
 personage with such an outfit. 
 
 The " chase" for butterflies should rarely be a ques- 
 
 FIG. 197. Net 
 frame for butter- 
 flies ; a, wire-ring, 
 with ends bent to 
 insert into the fer- 
 rule b ; c, point 
 where the plug 
 
286 
 
 APPENDIX /. 
 
 tion of speed ; caution and stratagem are better arts ; 
 a butterfly should rarely be alarmed, or the game is 
 
 lost 
 
 FIG. 198. Folding net frame, explained in the text. 
 
 intent upon a flower, one may even be captured 
 with the fingers by slow approach upon 
 the shady side ; many have the habit of 
 returning to a twig they have left, and can 
 be captured by lying in wait near the spot ; 
 others will course up and down a roadside, 
 a forest lane, or a hedgerow, and may be 
 easily netted by taking advantage of this 
 habit. Nor should it be forgotten that 
 not a few are very limited indeed in the 
 selection of their haunts, and every kind 
 of spot should be visited ; some confine 
 their flight to marshy spots and even to 
 particular bogs ; some prefer the open 
 fields ; pastures where thistles and other 
 weeds are in flower attract a great crowd ; 
 
 FIG. 199. Net- 
 head for a remov- 
 able frame. 
 
APPENDIX /. 287 
 
 others may be found in openings in the forest where 
 the fire- weed conceals the charred timber beneath its 
 panicles of blue flowers ; one will not look in vain upon 
 the golden-rods and blossomed vines which fringe the 
 roadside or stone walls ; the shrubbery which loves the 
 margin of slender streams or the edge of thickets is a 
 favorite haunt of many ; sheltered valleys with their 
 varying verdure are always a choice resort of the ento- 
 mologist ; but even the tops of rugged mountains or 
 sandy wastes given to sorrel and feeble grasses wilt 
 yield their quota ; the garden too, the vegetable field, 
 and even the roadside puddles must not be neglected. 
 
 One soon learns to capture with a dexterous turn of 
 the net, and no description of the method is worth 
 anything beside a very little experience : when captured 
 the net should be turned to prevent escape and the but- 
 terfly gently seized from outside the net, with the wings 
 back to back to prevent its struggling and so bruising 
 itself ; it should then be removed to the cyanide bottle, 
 where, especially if placed in the dark pocket, it will 
 soon be motionless, and speedily dies ; this is the quick- 
 est and easiest mode of death, besides leaving the in- 
 sect in the most perfect condition. The " cyanide 
 bottle" is simply a phial with a mouth wide enough to 
 readily admit the largest specimens (a smaller size is 
 better for the smaller kinds), into which a little plaster 
 of Paris has been poured over a small lump of cyanide 
 of potassium (a deadly poison be it noted). The cork 
 should be removed only when necessary and for as little 
 time as possible ; a season's use will exhaust its best 
 strength even when the utmost care is taken. Some 
 butterflies, especially those having yellow colors, should 
 be left in the bottle only a short time, for they are in- 
 jured by too long exposure to the vapors, the yellow 
 turning reddish. When removed, on reaching home, 
 or sooner if needed, they should be pinned through the 
 thickest part of the thorax, and in an hour or two, when 
 the fixity of the wings which follows their violent death 
 has passed away, removed to the setting board. 
 
288 APPENDIX /. 
 
 The best pins for butterflies are Nos, 2, 3, and 4 of 
 Klaeger's make. The setting board needs no descrip- 
 tion apart from the figure given [Fig. 200], more than 
 to say that beneath the groove a strip of cork or pith is 
 attached to the board. Bits of glass cut to different sizes 
 answer as well as the card braces represented in the 
 illustration and permit one better to see whether the 
 wing is lying perfectly flat. A needle inserted in a han- 
 dle is required to move the wings into the desired posi- 
 tion, and "'" to set " the antennae and legs in a natural 
 attitude ; to secure these in the proper place they are 
 supported by insect pins stuck into the board upon one 
 side or the" other of the member, as required. The 
 
 FIG. 300L-Se:ting-lrid. 
 
 butterflies should remain upon the setting board for a 
 fortnight or longer, and placed where they will dry 
 readily but not be exposed to dust. At the "expiration 
 of that time they are ready for the cabinet. 
 
 When one is away from home conveniences, a very 
 simple device for "transportation is to fold oblong 
 bits of paper (rather thin writing paper is 
 best) into "triangles" as along the dotted 
 lines in this sketch : into this the butter- _ 
 
 fly is placed, its wings folded back to back and 
 antennae tucked carefully away. The place, date, 
 and circumstances of capture (or a number corre- 
 sponding to a journal) may be written upon the paper. A 
 
APPENDIX I. 289 
 
 great number may thus be packed into a cigar box or 
 other receptacle, and spread for the cabinet at leisure, 
 months or even years after collection. For this pur- 
 pose moistening pans are needed. A glass or stone 
 ware dish is the best, the top ground so as to allow a 
 sheet of glass to cover it perfectly ; upon the bottom 
 moistened sand is placed, covered by fine brass wire- 
 netting. A few papers with their inclosed butterflies 
 are placed in it, and the cover left on for twenty-four 
 hours or thereabouts, when the insects may be handled 
 nearly as if just caught. 
 
 Damp, grease, and museum pests are the great de- 
 stroyers of insect collections. To avoid the first, one 
 has only to see that his cabinet is in a dry place, with 
 a play of air around it. To avoid grease, insects 
 should be thoroughly dried before being admitted to 
 the cabinet, and all use of cedar wood in constructing 
 the latter should be avoided. Against museum pests 
 one can be safe only by a constant, vigilant, searching 
 oversight of his collection, or the use of boxes which 
 they cannot enter ; even then care must be taken not 
 to introduce them oneself by placing infested speci- 
 mens in the collection ; for this purpose it is well to 
 establish a safe quarantine. 
 
 For a permanent cabinet nothing can excell the 
 drawers made after the Deyrolle model, now in use by 
 the Boston Society of Natural History. I have tried 
 them for six years and find them entirely pest-proof. 
 They are made [Fig. 201] with a cover of glass set in a 
 frame which is grooved along the lower edge, and thus 
 fits tightly into a narrow strip of zinc, set edgewise into 
 a corresponding groove in the drawer ; the grooves be- 
 yond the point of intersection of two sides are filled 
 with a bit of wood firmly glued in place ; it is hardly 
 necessary to say that the sides of the drawer and the 
 frame of the cover should be made of hard wood ; soft 
 wood would not retain the zinc strip ; the zinc should 
 be perfectly straight and the ends well matched ; if this 
 be done nothing can enter the box when it is closed. A 
 
290 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 similar box with a wooden rabbet is used at the Museum 
 of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge ; but it cannot 
 possibly be so tight, and requires hooks on the sides to 
 keep the cover down ; it has the advantages of greater 
 cheapness, as it can be made of soft wood, but is at the 
 same time clumsier. My own drawers are made of 
 cherry sides, and have also a false front attached to 
 them, furnished with mouldings and handles so as to 
 present a not inelegant appearance ; and, exclusive of 
 the cork with which they are lined, cost $2.65 each ; 
 
 FIG. 201. Model of the Deyrolle insect-drawer, side view of front end, with 
 the cover raised. D, bottom of drawer ; C, cover of same, raised a little ; /, 
 front piece, with moulding (m) and handle (A), glued to bottom piece ; sa, eash ; 
 si, slit in cover, into which the zinc strip (z) fits ; si', slit in bottom, into which 
 it is fastened ; g, bevelled groove, to allow the finger to raise the cover ; Hv, 
 hind view of one end of the bottom to show the insertion of the bottom (b) ; Be, 
 reverse of one corner of cover to show the grooves filled beyond their junction. 
 All the figures half size. 
 
 they measure inside 18f inches long, 14 inches wide, 
 and If inches deep, not including the cork lining. 
 
 It is best always to cover the bottom of such drawers 
 with cork or pita wood or similar soft substance, as it 
 is difficult both to insert and to withdraw the pins 
 readily in any ordinary wood, however soft ; and the 
 sides and bottom should afterwards be covered with 
 thin white paper for neatness' sake. 
 
 Drawers like these are rather large for small collec- 
 tions, but any smaller size is wasteful of space for 
 arranging the larger species of wide expanse of wing. 
 
APPENDIX I. 291 
 
 Some, however, still prefer smaller sizes for convenience 
 of study, and use boxes shaped like a quarto volume, the 
 cover hinged and the whole lined with binder's cloth. 
 The volumes can then be lettered on the back and 
 arranged as in a library, and certainly have a neat ap- 
 pearance. Such books can be made safer either by a 
 bevelled wooden rabbet where the top and bottom 
 meet, or by arranging within a second glass cover, but 
 they can never be made so fully proof against pests as 
 an unhinged drawer. 
 
 A very common box, but unsafe so soon as a collec- 
 tion becomes at all large and cannot be constantly 
 watched in every part, is a simple wooden box nine by 
 fourteen inches in size, in which both top and bottom, 
 made separate, are put to use by being lined with cork. 
 In this case the box must, of course, be much deeper. 
 Such cases can be made in numbers for fifty cents each, 
 exclusive of the cork, and answer very well for begin- 
 ners, but will be discarded after a time if the collection 
 increases, unless the owner has sufficient leisure and 
 patience to watch his treasures carefully. 
 
 Insect-drawers of the modified Deyrolle pattern de- 
 scribed above will be made, on ordering a considerable 
 number, by Leander Greeley, 113 Broadway, Cam- 
 bridgeport, Mass. 
 
 Entomological supplies, such as pins, forceps, sheet 
 cork, blank labels, etc., may be obtained of: 
 
 John Akhurst, 32 Nassau Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Canadian Entomologist, London, Ontario, Canada. 
 
 The following low-priced books will be found useful 
 to the student of American butterflies : 
 
 Packard, "Guide to the Study of Insects.' 7 8vo. 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 Harris. " Treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegeta- 
 tion." 8vo. Orange Judd Co., New York. 
 
 Morris. " Synopsis of the Described Lepidoptera of 
 North America." 8vo. Smithsonian Institution, 
 Washington. 
 
292 APPENDIX I, 
 
 Gosse. " Canadian Naturalist.' 12mo. London, 
 1840. 
 
 Gosse. " Letters from Alabama." 16mo. London, 
 1859. 
 
 (These works of Gosse can only be found upon occa- 
 sion.) 
 
 The following existing publications of entomological 
 societies also furnish much information : 
 
 " Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Phila- 
 delphia/' 1861-67. 6 v., 8vo. Now called "Transac- 
 tions of the American Entomological Society," 1867- 
 80. 8 v., 8vo. 
 
 ".The Canadian Entomologist," 1869-80. 12 v., 8vo. 
 
 " Psyche." Organ of the Cambridge Entomological 
 Club, 1874-81. 3 v. 8vo. 
 
 " Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society," 
 1878-80. 3 v., 8vo. 
 
 " Papilio ;" devoted to Lepidoptera exclusively. Or- 
 gan of the New York Entomological Club. 8vo. 
 Commenced in 1881. 
 
 Then there are many expensive works which are in- 
 valuable, of which, the following may be particularly 
 specified for their excellence or importance : 
 
 Doubleday & Westwood. " Genera of Diurnal Lepi- 
 doptera," 2 v., fo. London, 1846-52. 
 
 Edwards. " Butterflies of North America, >? 2 v., 
 4to. New York, 1868-81. The second volume is not 
 quite completed. 
 
 Abbot & Smith. " Natural History of the .Rarer 
 Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia," 2 v., fo. London, 
 1797. 
 
 Boisduval & LeConte. " Histoire Generate et Ico- 
 nographie des Lepidopteres et des Chenilles de 
 1'Amerique Septentrionale. " 8vo. Paris, 1829-42. 
 
 Boisduval. " Species General des Lepidopteres." 
 Vol. 1, 8vo. Paris, 1836. 
 
 Hiibner. " Sammiung exotischer Schmetterlinge. " 
 3 v., 4to. Augsburg, 1806-24. 
 
APPENDIX I. 293 
 
 Hiibner. " Zutrage zur Sammlung exotischer 
 Schmetterlinge," 5 parts, 4to. Augsburg, 1818-37. 
 
 Cramer. " Papillons Exotiques." 4 v., 4fco. Ams- 
 terdam, 1775-82, and supplement by Stoll', 1 v., 4to, 
 Amsterdam, 1787-91. 
 
 Felder. " Novara Reise. Lepidopteren. " 4to., n. d. 
 Wien. 
 
 A convenient catalogue of the butterflies of the world 
 is Kirby, " Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidop- 
 tera." *8vo. London, 1871, and supplement, 1877. 
 
 For catalogues of our own butterflies see Edwards' 
 list in the " Transactions of the American Entomolo- 
 gical Society," vol. 6, 1877, and Scudder's lists in vols. 
 2 and 3 of the " Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of 
 Natural Sciences," 1875 and 1876 ; these last include 
 only the two higher families. See also Strecker's 
 " Butterflies and Sloths of North America," 8vo, Read- 
 ing, 1878; and Gerhard's " Systematisches Verzeich- 
 niss der Macro-Lepidopteren yon Nord-Amerika," 8vo, 
 Berlin, 1878. 
 
 Much relating to our butterflies will also be found in 
 the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
 Philadelphia, the Boston Society of Natural History, 
 and the California Academy of Natural Sciences, as 
 well as in the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural 
 Sciences. 
 
 The best way to commence the study of butterflies is 
 to attempt to follow out the life-history, write the bi- 
 ography in short, of every kind found in one's own 
 neighborhood. No one place will yield much above 
 one hundred species, and, if the rarer kinds be omitted, 
 not nearly so many. Yet any one who will accomplish 
 this will add materially to what is known, and he will 
 find his way pleasanter, his occupation more fascinat- 
 ing at every step. He need be provided at the outset 
 with a very moderate stock of the articles mentioned in 
 the preceding pages. He should keep a journal devoted 
 exclusively to a record of his daily notes, which will 
 
294 APPENDIX I. 
 
 prove more and more useful in each succeeding year. 
 Commencing with the eggs laid by imprisoned females 
 or found in the open field, he should note every change 
 which transpires, describe and, if possible, draw in de- 
 tail every stage, giving to each separate lot a distinctive 
 number, which it should keep until its name is known. 
 As his stock enlarges and his knowledge increases, 
 comparative study will supersede many of his earlier 
 descriptions ; but these will not have been without their 
 value ; they will have cost no more than they are 
 wortli ; his knowledge will have been gained through, 
 as well as at the expense of, his earlier work, none of 
 which will he rightly regret ; he can therefore be neither 
 too minute nor too exact, nor can he afford to relax 
 any endeavor until he has proved it unnecessary. 
 
 He should preserve in his permanent collection speci- 
 mens to illustrate every condition of the creature's life, 
 as well as all objects which illustrate its habits and 
 vicissitudes. Especially should all variations be pre- 
 served. The egg with the leaf upon which it is laid in a 
 state of nature ; not only the caterpillar at every stage, 
 but in all the attitudes it assumes, the nests it weaves, 
 the half devoured leaves to show its manner of feeding, 
 the ejectamenta, the parasites by which it is beset ; not 
 only the chrysalis, but the emptied skin ; the butterflies 
 of each brood together with some preserved in their 
 natural attitudes when at rest, and when asleep ; and 
 such dissections of the external parts as can be sepa- 
 rately mounted and cannot otherwise be readily seen ; 
 also the wings and body of the butterfly denuded of 
 their scales, to study the structural framework of the 
 insect ; and, when possible, dissections of the internal 
 parts preserved in alcohol. 
 
 Every pinned specimen, excepting such as illustrate 
 the anatomy only, should bear upon the pin a label giv- 
 ing the place and date of capture, and, when necessary, 
 a number referring to a catalogue or note book in which 
 memoranda may be entered to any extent that is de- 
 sired. The name of the species may be given on a 
 
APPENDIX I. 295 
 
 separate label at the head of each collection of objects 
 which illustrate its history ; and the name may of 
 course also be added at will to any specimens which 
 once determined may require redetermination if mis- 
 placed and not specially marked. 
 
 In rearing it is essential that every breeding cage or 
 pot should be marked with a number or by other means 
 to indicate its contents. Nothing should be left to 
 memory in this particular. Nor should caterpillars 
 which are only presumably of the same species be placed 
 in the same cage, as there are many allied kinds which 
 are almost indistinguishable at sight, and a lack of ex- 
 actitude here will vitiate one's observations. 
 
 Any one pursuing vigorously such a course of study 
 and collection of native butterflies will be enchanted to 
 see how fascinating the study is, how rapidly his collec- 
 tion grows, what an endless" source of interest attaches 
 to these humble but exquisite creatures, and into how 
 many lines of real investigation his steps are tending. 
 No one can undertake it without being himself the 
 gainer by it, and without infusing others with his own 
 ever fresh enthusiasm. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC LIST OF BUTTERFLIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT, 
 
 WITH THEIR SCIENTIFIC AND POPULAR NAMES, AND 
 
 REFERENCES TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Family NYMPH ALES Linne [Nymphalidae Steph.]. 
 Brush-footed Butterflies. 
 
 Subfamily PBAETOKES Herbst. 
 
 Tribe OREADES Borkhausen [Satyridae Swains]. 
 Satyrs, or Meadow Browns. 
 
 Genus Oeneis Hiibner [Chionobas Boisd.].. 
 
 Oeneis semidea (Say). White Mountain Butterfly. 
 
 (Fig. 192, butterfly.) 
 Genus Cercyonis Speyer. 
 
 Cercyonis Alope (Fabr.). Blue-eyed Grayling. (Figs. 
 143, 144, butterfly ; fig. 57, chrysalis ; figs. 37, 38, 
 caterpillar details. ) 
 Genus Satyrodes Scudder. 
 
 Satyrodes Eurydice (Linn.-Johanns.) [Boisduvalii 
 Harr.]. Eyed Brown. (Fig. 120, butterfly ; figs. 19, 
 36, caterpillar details.) 
 Genus Cissia Doubleday. 
 
 Cissia Eurytus (Fabr.) \Eurytris Fabr.]. Little 
 Wood Satyr. (Fig. 121, butterfly ; fig. 177, but- 
 terfly details.) 
 
 Subfamily HELICONIDAE Swains. 
 
 Tribe FESTIVI Fabricius [Danaides Boisd.]. 
 Danaids. 
 
298 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Genus Danais Latreille. 
 
 Danais Plexippus (Linn.). Monarch ; or Milk-weed 
 Butterfly. (Fig. 106, butterfly ; figs. 67, 68, 69, 70, 
 71, 73, 74, 79, 107, butterfly-details; fig. 61, 
 chrysalis ; figs. 48, 78, chrysalis details ; fig. 22, 
 caterpillar; figs. 21, 33, 39, 78, caterpillar de- 
 tails ; figs. 17, 18, egg.) 
 
 Tribe HELICONII Linne. Heliconians (no species 
 mentioned. Tropical America). 
 
 Subfamily 1ST A JADES Borkhausen [Nymplialinae 
 Bates]. Naiads or Nymphs. 
 
 Tribe ARGOI^AUTAE Cramer \Apaturidae Staud.- 
 
 Wocke]. 
 
 Genus Auaea Hubner [Paphia Auct., nee Fabr.]. 
 Anaea Andria (Scudd.). Goat-weed Butterfly. (Figs. 
 156, 157, butterfly; fig. 97, chrysalis and caterpil- 
 lar-figs. 20, 88, caterpillar details.) 
 Genus Chlorippe Boisduval [Apatura Auct., nee 
 
 Fabr. ] . Emperors. 
 Chlorippe Herse (Fabr.) [Clyton Boisd.-LeC.]. 
 
 Tawny Emperor. (Figs. 182, 183, all stages.) 
 Chlorippe Lycaon (Fabr.) [Celtis Boisd.-LeC.]. 
 (Figs. 184, 185, all stages.) 
 
 Tribe ARCHONTES Herbst [Limenitides Butl.]. 
 
 Sovereigns. 
 
 Genus Basilarchia Scudder [Limenitis Auct., nee 
 Fabr.]. Purples. 
 
 Basilarchia Arthemis (Drury). Banded Purple. 
 (Fig. 99, hibernaculum.) 
 
 Basilarchia Astyanax (E'abr.) [Ursula Fabr.]. Red- 
 spotted Purple. (Fig. 40% spine of caterpillar.) 
 
 Basilarchia Archippus (Cram.) [Disippus Boisd.- 
 LeC.]. Viceroy. (Fig. 84, butterfly; fig. 62, 
 chrysalis; fig. 29, caterpillar; figs. 29, 40 b , 85, 
 86, 87, 98, caterpillar details ; figs. 2, 16, egg.) 
 
APPENDIX IL 299 
 
 Tribe PRAEFECTI Herbst [Vanessidae Dup.]. 
 
 Angle-wings. 
 Genus Epicalia "Westwood (no species mentioned 
 
 South America). 
 Genus Polygonia Hiibner [Grapta Kirby]. 
 
 Polygonia interrogation is (Fabr.). Violet Tip. (Fig. 
 
 142, butterfly; fig. 181, chrysalis.) 
 Polygonia comma (Harr.). Orange Comma. (Fig. 
 
 83, cluster of eggs.) 
 Polygonia Faunus (Edw.). Green Comma. (Fig. 
 
 126, butterfly ; fig. 54, chrysalis.) 
 
 Polygonia Progne (Cram.). Gray Comma. (Fig. 
 
 119, butterfly.) 
 Genus Aglais Dalman [ Vanessa Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Aglais Milberti (God.). Nettle Tortoise-shell. (Fig. 
 
 127, butterfly ; tig. 82, cluster of eggs.) 
 
 Aglais urticae (Linn.). Small Tortoise-shell. (Eu- 
 rope. ) 
 Genus Papilio Linne [Vanessa Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Papilio Antiopa Linn. Camberwell Beauty, or 
 Mourning Cloak. (Fig. 137, butterfly; fig. 49, 
 chrysalis ; fig. 27, caterpillar ; figs. 23, 24, cater- 
 pillar details ; fig. 81, cluster of eggs.) 
 Genus Hamadryas Hiibner [Vanessa Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Hamadryas lo (Linn.). Peacock Butterfly (Europe). 
 (Fig. 80, rudiment of wing in caterpillar.) 
 
 Genus Vanessa Fabricius. 
 
 Vanessa Atalanta (Linn.). Red Admiral. (Fig. 128, 
 butterfly ; fig. 72, butterfly details ; fig. 95, nest 
 of caterpillar ; fig. 13, egg.) 
 
 Vanessa Huntera (Fabr.). Painted Beauty. (Fig. 96, 
 butterfly.) 
 
 Vanessa cardui (Linn.). Painted Lady. (Fig. 134, 
 butterfly ; fig. 179, butterfly details ; fig. 41, cat- 
 erpillar details. ) 
 
300 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Tribe DKYADES Borkhausen [Argynnites 
 Blanch.]. Fritillaries. 
 
 Genus Semnopsyche Scudder [Argynnis Auct. pars.]. 
 Semnopsyche Diana (Cram.). Diana. (Fig. 164, 
 butterfly, scales). 
 
 Genus Speyeria Scudder [Argynnis Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Speyeria Idalia (Drury). Eegal Fritillary. (Fig. 158, 
 butterfly.) 
 
 Genus Argynnis Fabricius. 
 
 Argynnis Cybele (Fabr. ). Great Spangled Fritillary. 
 (Fig. 162, butterfly.) 
 
 Argynnis Aphrodite (Fabr.). Silver-spot Fritillary. 
 (Fig. 118, butterfly.) 
 
 Argynnis Atlantis Edw. Mountain Silver-spot. 
 (Fig. 133, chrysalis.) 
 
 Genus Brenthis Hiibner [Argynnis Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Brenthis Bellona (Fabr.). Meadow Fritillary. (Figs. 
 129, 130, butterfly.) 
 
 Brenthis Myrina (Cram.). Silver-bordered Fritillary. 
 (Fig. 131, butterfly; fig. 132, chrysalis; figs. 3, 9, 
 egg-) 
 
 Tribe HAMADRYADES Borkh. [Melitaeidae 
 Newm. ] . Orescent-spots. 
 
 Genus Euphydryas Scudder [Melitaea Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Euphydryas Phaeton (Drury). Baltimore. (Fig. 89, 
 butterfly ; fig. 176, butterfly details ; fig. 90, nest 
 of caterpillar ; fig. 15, egg.) 
 
 Genus Cinclidia Hiibner [MelUaea Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Oinclidia Harrisii Scudd. Harris's Butterfly. (Fig. 
 47, chrysalis ; fig. 46, caterpillar details.) 
 
 Genus Phyciodes Httbner. 
 
 Phyciodes Tharos (Drury). Pearl Crescent. (Figs. 
 140, 141, butterfly.) 
 
APPENDIX II. 301 
 
 Subfamily HYPATI Hiibner [Libythides Boisd.]. 
 
 (No species mentioned. ) Long Beaks ; or 
 
 Snout Butterflies. 
 
 Family KUKALES Fabr. Gossamer-winged 
 Butterflies. 
 
 Subfamily VESTA LES Herbst [Erycinides Boisd. ] . 
 Virgins ; or Erycinids. 
 
 Genus Calephelis Grote and Robinson. 
 
 Calephelis borealis Grote-Rob. Large Metal-mark. 
 (Fig. 187, butterfly; fig. 175, butterfly details.) 
 
 Subfamily PLEBEII Cuvier [Lycaenidae Steph.]. 
 Lycaenids. 
 
 Tribe EUMAEIDAE Doubleday (no mention). 
 
 Tribe EPHORI Herbst [Theclides Kirby]. 
 Hair-streaks. 
 
 Genus Incisalia Minot [Thecla Auct. pars.]. 
 Incisalia Niphon (Hiibner). Banded Elfin. (Fig. 
 
 186, butterfly.) 
 Incisalia Augustus (Kirby). Brown Elfin. (Fig. 123, 
 
 butterfly.) 
 
 Genus Strymon Hiibner [Thecla Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Strymon Titus (Fabr.) [Mopsus Hiibn.]. Coral 
 
 Hair- streak. 
 Genus Erora Scudder \Tliecla Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Erora laeta (Edw.). Spring Beauty. 
 Genus Uranotes Scudder [Thecla Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Uranotes Melinus (Hiibn.), [humuli Harr. ; hyperici 
 Boisd. -Le 0.]. Gray Hair-streak, or Hop-vine 
 Thecla. (Fig. 124, butterfly.) 
 Genus Thecla Fabricius. 
 
 Thecla Calanus (Hiibn.). Banded Hair-streak. 
 (Fig. 122, butterfly; fig. 160, butterfly details.) 
 
302 APPENDIX //. 
 
 Tribe ADOLESCENTES Hiibner [Lycaenides Kirby]. 
 Blues. 
 
 Genus Everes Htibner [Lycaena Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Everes Comyntas (God.). Tailed Blue. (Fig. 125, 
 butterfly. ) 
 
 Everes Amyntas (Fabr.). (Europe.) 
 Genus Cyaniris Dalman [Lycaena Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Cyaniris pseudargiolus (Boisd.-LeC.) [violacea Edw. ; 
 neglecta Edw. ; Lucia Kirby]. Spring Azure. 
 (Figs. 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, butterfly; figs. 34, 
 35, caterpillar details.) 
 
 Genus Rusticus Hiibner [Lycaena Auct. pars.]. 
 Rusticus Scudderii (Edw.). Pearl-studded Violet. 
 Rusticus Argus (Linn.). (Europe.). 
 
 Rusticus Aegon (W. V.) Silver-studded Blue. (Eu- 
 rope. ) 
 
 Genus Brephidium Scudder [Lycaena Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Brephidium Fea (Edw.). (Fig. 166, butterfly, scales. ) 
 Genus Leptotes Scudder. 
 
 Leptotes Theonus (Let). (Fig. 167, butterfly, scales. ) 
 
 Tribe VILLICANTES Htibner [Polyommatidex 
 Kirby]. Coppers. 
 
 Genus Chrysophamis Htibner. 
 
 Chrysophanus Thoe (Boisd.). Bronze Copper. (Fig. 
 117, butterfly; fig. 174, butterfly details ; fig. 
 12, egg.) 
 Genus Heodes Dalman [Folyommatus Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Heodes Hypophlaeas (Boisd.) \americana Harr.]. 
 American Copper. (Fig. 105, butterfly ; fig. 58, 
 chrysalis ; figs. 25, 42, caterpillar ; figs. 4, 7, egg.) 
 Genus Feniseca Grote (no species mentioned). 
 
APPENDIX II. 303 
 
 Family PAPILIONIDES Latreille. 
 Typical Butterflies. 
 
 Subfamily DAK A i Linne [Pierides Boisd.]. 
 Pierids. 
 
 Tribe FUGACIA Hubner [Rhodoceridi Steph.]. 
 Red Horns ; or Yellow Butterflies. 
 
 Genus Catopsilia Hubner [Callidryas Boisd. pars.]. 
 
 Catopsilia Eubule (Linn.). Cloudless Sulphur. 
 Genus Eurymus Swainson [Colias Fabr. pars.]. 
 
 Eurymus Philodice (God.). Clouded Sulphur, or 
 Common Yellow Butterfly. (Figs. 102, 103, butter- 
 fly ; fig. 56, chrysalis ; fig. 52, chrysalis details ; 
 fig. 104, caterpillar ; fig. 42, caterpillar details ; 
 figs. 5, 11, egg.) 
 
 Eurymus Eurytheme (Boisd.). Orange Sulphur. 
 Genus Xanthidia Boisduval and Le Conte. 
 
 Xanthidia Nicippe (Cram.). Black-bordered Yellow. 
 (Fig. 66, butterfly details; fig. 155, chrysalis.) 
 
 Tribe VORACIA Hubner [Pieridi Steph.]. 
 
 Whites. 
 Genus Pieris Schrank. 
 
 Pieris rapae (Linn.). Imported Cabbage Butterfly. 
 (Figs. 110, 111, butterfly; fig. 165, butterfly, 
 scales ; fig. 112, chrysalis and caterpillar.) 
 
 Pieris oleracea (Harr.). Gray-veined White. (Fig. 
 138, butterfly ; fig. 139, chrysalis ; fig. 44, cater- 
 pillar details ; fig. 10, egg.) 
 
 Genus Pontia Fabricius [Pieris Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Pontia Protodice (Boisd.-Le 0.). Chequered White. 
 (Figs. 135, 136, butterfly; fig. 26, chrysalis and 
 caterpillar. ) 
 Pontia Daplidice (Linn.). Bath White (Europe). 
 
 Tribe FRUGALIA Htibner. Orange Tips. 
 Genus Zegris Rambur (no species mentioned Europe). 
 
304 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Subfamily PAKNASSII Latreille. Parnassians. 
 Genus Parnassius Latreille (no species mentioned). 
 
 Subfamily EQUITES Linne [Papilionidae Swains.]. 
 Swallow-tails. 
 
 Genus Laertias Hiibner \Papilio Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Laertias Philenor (Linn.). Blue Swallow-tail. (Fig. 
 109, butterfly ; fig. 75, butterflydetails ; fig. 59, 
 chrysalis ; fig. 28, caterpillar.) 
 
 Genus Euphoeades Hiibner \Papilio Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Euphoeades Troilus (Linn.). Green-clouded Swal- 
 low-tail. (Fig. 173, butterfly details ; fig. 60, 
 chrysalis ; figs. 50, 51, 53, chrysalis details.) 
 Genus Jasoniad.es Hiibner [PapiUo Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Jasoniades Glaucus (Linn.) \Turnus Linn.]. Tiger 
 Swallow-tail. (Fig. 153, butterfly ; fig. 6, egg.) 
 
 Genus Iphiclides Hiibner [Papilio Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Iphiclides Ajax(Linn.). Zebra Swallow-tail. (Figs. 
 145, 146, 147, butterfly.) 
 
 Iphiclides Podalirius (Linn.). (Europe.) 
 Genus Princeps Hiibner \Papilio Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Princeps Polyxenes (Fabr.) [Asterias Fabr.]. Black 
 Swallow-tail. (Fig. 190, butterfly ; fig. 32, cater- 
 pillar ; fig. 31, caterpillar details.) 
 
 Family URBICOLAE Fabricius \Hesperidae Leach]. 
 Skippers. 
 
 Tribe HESPERIDES Latreille. Larger Skippers. 
 Genus Epargyreus Hiibner. 
 
 Epargyreus Tityrus (Fabr.). White-spotted Skipper. 
 (Fig. 191, butterfly; figs. 65, 172, butterfly de- 
 tails ; fig. 180, cocoon and chrysalis ; fig. 93, 
 chrysalis ; figs. 63, 64, chrysalis details ; fig. 92, 
 caterpillar; fig. 91, nest of caterpillar.) 
 
APPENDIX II. 305 
 
 Genus Thorybes Scudder \_Eudamus Auct. pars.J. 
 Thorybes Pylades (Scudd.). (Fig. 188, butterfly; fig. 
 
 Genus Thanaos Boisduval [Nisoniades Auct.]. Dusky- 
 wings. 
 
 Thanaos Persius (Scudd.). Persius' Dusky- wing. 
 (Fig. 94, nest of caterpillar.) 
 
 Thanaos Brizo (Boisd.-Le C.) Sleepy Dusky- wing. 
 (Fig. 108, butterfly.) 
 
 Thanaos funeralis (Scudd. -Burg.). Funereal Dusky- 
 
 wing. (Fig. 168, butterfly, scales.) 
 Thanaos Ennius (Scudd.-Burg.). Juvenal's Dusky- 
 
 wing. (Figs. 77, 161, butterfly details ; fig. 101, 
 
 chrysalis ; fig. 100, caterpillar.) 
 
 Genus Pholisora Scudder [Nisoniades Auct. pars.]. 
 Pholisora Catullus (Fabr.). Sooty Skipper. (Fig. 
 14, egg.) . 
 
 Tribe ASTYCT Hiibner. Smaller Skippers. 
 Genus Ancyloxypha Felder \Heteropterus Harr., nee 
 
 Bum.}. 
 
 Ancyloxypha Numitor (Fabr.) [puer Htibn. ; mar- 
 ginatus Harr.]. Wee Skipper. (Fig. 159, butter- 
 fly.) 
 
 Genus Amblyscirtes Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia 
 Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Amblyscirtes vialis(Edw.). Roadside Skipper. (Fig. 
 178, butterfly details.) 
 
 Genus Ocytes Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia Auct. 
 pars.]. 
 
 Ocytes Metea (Scudd.). Cobweb Skipper. (Fig, 45, 
 caterpillar details. ) 
 
 Genus Atrytone Scudder [Pamphila nut Hesperia Auct. 
 pars.]. 
 
 Atrytone Zabulon (Boisd.-LeC.) [Hobomok Harr. ; 
 
306 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Pocahontas Scudd.]. Mormon. (Fig. 154, but- 
 terfly ; fig. 30, caterpillar ; fig. 8, egg.) 
 Genus Anthomastes Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia 
 
 Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Anthomastes Leonardus (Harr.). Leonard's Hes- 
 perid. (Fig. 114, butterfly.) 
 
 Genus Polites Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia Auct. 
 pars.]. 
 
 Polites Peckius (Kirby) [Wamsutta Harr.]. Peck's 
 Skipper; or Yellow-spot. (Figs. 115, 116, but- 
 terfly.) 
 
 Genus Thymelicus Htibner [Redone Scudd. ; Pam- 
 phila aut Hesperia Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Thymelicus Brettus (Boisd.-LeC.). 
 
 Thymelicus Aetna (Boisd.) [Otho Boisd.-LeC. ; 
 Egeremet Scudd.]. (Figs. 163, 170, butterfly- 
 details. ) 
 
 Genus Limochores Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia 
 Auct. pars.]. 
 
 Limochores Taumas (Fabr.) [Cernes Boisd.-LeC. ; 
 Ahaton Harr.]. Tawny-edged Skipper. (Fig. 113, 
 butterfly; fig. 169, butterfly, scales.) 
 
 Genus Euphyes Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia Auct. 
 
 pars.]. 
 
 Euphyes Metacomefc (Harr.). Immaculate Skipper. 
 (Fig. 189, butterfly ; fig. 76, butterfly details. ) 
 
 Genus Lerema Scudder [Pamphila aut Hesperia Auct. 
 
 pars.]. 
 
 Lerema Accius (Smith- Abb.). Clouded Skipper. 
 (Fig. 55, chrysalis.) 
 
 Tribe CASTNIOIDES Riley. Castniarians. 
 (No species mentioned.) 
 
 Other figures. 72, arrangement of scales ; 171, 
 scheme to show the affinities of the groups of butterflies. 
 
APPENDIX III. 
 
 LIST OF FOOD-PLANTS OF THE CATERPILLARS OF AMERICAN 
 BUTTERFLIES MENTIONED IN THIS WORK. 
 
 Oeneis semidea. Car ex rigida, and probably other 
 sedges. 
 
 Cercyonis Alope. Grasses. 
 
 Satyrodes Eurydice. Do. 
 
 Cissia Eurytus. Do. 
 
 Danais Plexippus. Any species of Asclepias ; Apocy- 
 num androsaemifolium. 
 
 Anaea Andria. Uroton capitatum. 
 
 Chlorippe Herse. : Celtis occidentalis. 
 
 Chlorippe Lycaon. Do. 
 
 Basilarchia Arthemis. Tilia americana, Betula lenta, 
 Populus tremuloides, hawthorn, willow. 
 
 Basilarchia Astyanax. Apple, cherry, quince, haw- 
 thorn, wild gooseberry, willow, plum ; Quercus ilici- 
 folia, Carpinus americana, Vaccineum stramineum. 
 
 Basilarchia Archippus. Willow, apple, different spe- 
 cies of Populus, Prunus, Quercus ilicifolia, Q. nibra f 
 
 Polygonia interrogation! s. Ulmus americana, Urtica 
 dioica, BoeJimeria cylindrica, Humulus lupulus, 
 Tilia americana, T. pubescens, Celtis occidentalis. 
 
 Polygon ia comma. Humulus lupulus, Ulmus ameri- 
 cana, BoeJimeria cylindrica, Urtica. 
 
 Polygonia Faunus. Salix humilis, Betula lenta. 
 
 Polygonia Progne. Currant, wild gooseberry, elm. 
 
 Aglais Milberti. Urtica dioica and other nettles. 
 
 Papilio Antiopa. Willows, poplars, elms. 
 
 Vanessa Atalanta. Urtica dioica and other nettles, 
 Humulus lupulus, BoeJimeria cylindrica, Parietria 
 delilis. 
 
308 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Vanessa Huntera. Gnaphalium polycepJialum and 
 other species, Antennaria plantaginifolia, Myosotis. 
 
 Vanessa cardui. All thistles, Helianthus, mallows, 
 Lappa major, Althaea rosea, Silybum Marianum. 
 
 Semnopsyche Diana. Viola, Vernonia. 
 
 Speyeria Idalia. Sericocarpus conyzoides. 
 
 Argynnis Cybele. Violets. 
 
 Argynnis Aphrodite. Do. 
 
 Argynnis Atlantis. Do. 
 
 Brenthis Bellona. Do. 
 
 Brenthis Myrina. Do. 
 
 Euphydryas Phaeton. Ghelone glair a, Lonicera ciliata. 
 
 Oinclidia Harrisii. Diplopappus umbellatus. 
 
 Phyciodes Tharos. Aster Novae- Angliae. 
 
 Calephelis borealis. Unknown. 
 
 Incisalia Niphon. Pinus mitis, P. strobus, P. taeda, 
 
 IncisaJia Augustus. Quercus ? Gaylussacia resinosa ? 
 Strymon Titus. Conoclinium coelestinum, oaks, wild 
 
 cherry, cultivated plum. 
 Erora laeta. Unknown. 
 Uranotes Melinus. Humulus lupulus, Crataegus apii- 
 
 folia, Hypericum aureum, Phaseolus, Pinus ? 
 Tnecla Calanus. Quercus rubra, Q. falcata, Carya, 
 
 Cratagus ? 
 Everes Comyntas. Lespedeza capitata, Phaseolus pe- 
 
 rennis, Galactia. 
 Cyaniris pseudargiolus. Actinomeris squarrosa, A. 
 
 helianthoides, Apios tuberosa, Erytlirina herbacea, 
 
 Spiraea salicifolia, Ceanothus americanus, Cornus, 
 
 Ilex ; will eat willow in confinement. 
 Rusticus Scudderii. Lupinus perennis. 
 Brephidium Fea. Unknown. 
 Leptotes Theonus. Unknown. 
 Chrysophanus Thoe. Polygonum. 
 Heodes Hypophlaeas. Rumex acetpsella. 
 Catopsilia Eubule. Cassia marilandica and other 
 
 Caesalpinae. 
 
APPENDIX III. 309 
 
 Eurymus Philodice. Clover, garden-pea, lupine, lu- 
 cerne, and other species of Medicago. 
 
 Eurymus Eurytheme. Astragalus caryocarpus, Trifo- 
 lium, etc. 
 
 Xanthidia Nicippe. Cassia oUusifolia, C. occidentalis, 
 G. marilandica, Trifolium, and other Leguminosae. 
 
 Pieris rapae. Cultivated Cruciferae, especially cab- 
 bage ; also Reseda odorata. 
 
 Pieris oleracea. Cultivated turnip, cabbage, and rad- 
 ish, especially the first. 
 
 Pontia Protodice. Cruciferae, especially cabbage. 
 
 Laertias Philenor. Aristolochia serpentaria, A. siplw, 
 Polygonum convolvulus. 
 
 Euphoeades Troilus. Lauraceae, particularly Benzoin 
 odoriferum and Sassafras officinale ; also Syringa 
 vulgaris, Prunus scroiina,* and Zanthoxylum. 
 
 Jasoniades Glaucus. Liriodendron tulipifera, Tilia 
 americana, Ptelea trifoliata, Prunus serotina, P. 
 virginiana, Pyrus, Crataegus, Styrax americana, 
 Fraxinus sambucifolia, F. platycarpa, Catalpa ~big~ 
 nonioides, Syringa vulgaris, Humulus lupuhis, 
 Carya, Quercus, Betula alba, Alnus incana, Sassa- 
 fras officinale, Populus, Salix. 
 
 Iphiclides Ajax. Asimina triloba, and other species of 
 the genus. 
 
 Princeps Polyxenes. Umbelliferae, particularly car- 
 rots. 
 
 Epargyreus Tityrus. Robinia pseudacacia, R. viscosa, 
 Wistaria. 
 
 Thorybes Pylades. Clover. 
 
 Thanaos Persius. Lespedeza capitata, Populus bal- 
 samifera, Salix humilis. 
 
 Thanaos Brizo. Galactia glabella, Cynoglossum Mo- 
 risoni, oak. 
 
 Thanaos funeralis. Unknown, probably Leguminosae. 
 
 Thanaos Ennius. Filbert, oak, Glycine, Lathyrus, 
 and other Leguminosae. 
 
 Pholisora Catullus. Monarda punctata, Ambrosia? 
 Chenopodium album. 
 
310 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Ancyloxypha numitor. Lespedeza capitata. 
 
 Amblyscirtes vialis. 'Grasses. 
 
 Ocytes Metea. Do. 
 
 Atrytone Zabulon. Do. 
 
 Anthomaster Leonardus. Do. 
 
 Polites Peckius. Do. 
 
 Thymelicus Brettus. Do. 
 
 Thymelicus Aetna. Grasses, Sablattia gracili 
 
 Limochores Taumas. Grasses. 
 
 Euphyes Metacomet. Do. 
 
 Lerema Accius. Do. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 (Illustrations are indicated by heavy-faced type.) 
 
 Aberrant coloring, 191. 
 
 Accessory glands, 82. 
 
 Accessory sexual characteris- 
 tics, 192. 
 
 Adaptations to surroundings, 
 20,27,33,44,48,88,121, 133. 
 
 Admiral, Red, see Vanessa Ata- 
 lanta. 
 
 Adolescentes (Blues), 19, 23, 26, 
 30, 48, 184, 188, 189, 200, 202, 
 204, 250, 254, 265, 302. 
 
 Aegerians, 215. 
 
 Aestival series in Brenthis, 144. 
 
 Affinities of butterflies, 246. 
 
 Agassiz, L., 52, 238. 
 
 Aglais Milberti (Nettle Tortoise- 
 shell), 99, 137, 138, 152, 299, 
 307. 
 
 Aglais urticae (Small Tortoise- 
 shell), 152, 299. 
 
 Air reservoir, see Reservoir. 
 
 Air-tabes, 81. 
 
 Albinism, 180, 183. 
 
 Allen, J. A., 210. 
 
 Alpine butterflies, 269 ; of im- 
 pure tints, 161. 
 
 Alternate dimorphism, 164. 
 
 Alternation of habits, 133. 
 
 Amblyscirtes vialis (Roadside 
 Skipper), 255, 305, 310. 
 
 American Copper, see Heodes 
 Hypophlaeas. 
 
 American and European butter- 
 flies compared, 151, 261. 
 
 Anaea Andria (Goat-weed but- 
 
 terfly), 14, 23, 103, 111, 185, 
 186, 298, 307. 
 
 Ancient type of butterfly, 238. 
 
 Ancyloxypha Numitor (Wee 
 Skipper), 190, 305, 310. 
 
 Androconia, 199. 
 
 Angle- wings, see Praefecti. 
 
 Antennae, 38, 55, 82. 
 
 Anthomaster Leonard us (Leon- 
 ard's Hesperid), 124, 306, 
 310. 
 
 Antigeny, 180, 236 ; partial, 
 180 ; melanic, 180 ; atbinic, 
 183 ; complete colorational, 
 184 ; structural, 192. 
 
 Aortal chamber, 82, 92. 
 
 Apatura, 298. 
 
 Apaturidae, 298. 
 
 Appendages of tibiae, 65, 252 ; 
 of tarsi, 66 ; of abdomen, 74 ; 
 of tongue, 255. 
 
 Archaic butterfly ; its transfor- 
 mations, 232. 
 
 Architectural forms in eggs, 6. 
 
 Archontes (Sovereigns), 298. 
 
 Argonautae, 298. 
 
 Argynnis Aphrodite (Silver- 
 spot Fritillary), 125. 300, 308. 
 
 Aro-ynnis Atlantis (Mountain 
 Silver-spot), 150, 204. 300, 308. 
 
 Argynnis Cybele (Great Span- 
 gled Fritillary), 195, 300, 308. 
 
 Argynnites, 300. 
 
 Astyci (Smaller Skippers), 189, 
 195, 246, 264, 305. 
 
312 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Asymmetrical organs, 74. 
 Atrophy of parts, 67; of legs, 
 
 253. 
 Atrytone Zabulon (Mormon), 7, 
 
 23, 182, 305, 310. 
 Atrytone Zabulon, var. Poca- 
 
 hontas, 182. 
 Azure, Spring,ee Cyaniris Pseu- 
 
 dargiolus. 
 
 Baltimore, see Euphydryas 
 
 Pbaeton. 
 Banded Elfin, see Incisalia Ni- 
 
 phon. 
 Banded Hair-streak, see Tbecla 
 
 Calanus. 
 Banded Purple, see Basilarcbia 
 
 Artbemis. 
 Basilarcbia (Purples), 9, 29, 113, 
 
 121. 
 Basilarcbia Arcbippus (Viceroy), 
 
 6, 10, 22, 30, 45, 100, 102, 
 
 103, 112, 133, 206, 236, 298, 
 
 307. 
 Basilarcbia Artbemis (Banded 
 
 Purple), 99, 112, 113, 298, 
 
 307. 
 
 Basilarcbia Astyanax (Red-spot- 
 ted Purple), 30, 100, 112, 236, 
 
 298,307. 
 
 Bates, H. W., 188, 191,253. 
 Batb White, see Pontia Dapli- 
 
 dice. 
 
 Beaks, Loner, see Hypati. 
 Beauty, Cauiberwell, see Papilio 
 
 Antiopa. 
 Beauty, Painted, see Vanessa 
 
 Huntera. 
 
 Beauty, Spring, see Erora laeta. 
 Bernard Descbamps, 199. 
 Black-bordered Yellow, see 
 
 Xantbidia Nicippe. 
 Black Swallow-tail, see Princeps 
 
 Polyxenes. 
 Blue, Silver-studded, see Rusti- 
 
 cus Aegon. 
 Blue Swallow-tail, see Laertias 
 
 Pbilenor. 
 
 Blue, Tailed, see Everes Comyn- 
 tas. 
 
 Blue-eyed Grayling, see Cer- 
 cyonis Alope. 
 
 Blues, see Adolescentes. 
 
 Brain, 82, 88, 93. 
 
 Brentbis Bellona (Meadow Fri- 
 tillary), 143, 148, 300, 308. 
 
 Brentbis Myrina (Silver-bor- 
 dered Fritillary), 7, 8, 144, 
 300, 308. 
 
 Brephidium Fea, 200, 302, 308. 
 
 Brilliancy in butterflies fades in 
 going north, 161. 
 
 Bronze Copper, see Chrysopha- 
 nus Tboe. 
 
 Broods, one a year, 128 ; two a 
 year, 130; three or more a 
 year, 130, 141 ; mixed, 143 ; 
 different in allied butterflies 
 in Europe and America, 152 ; 
 independent series in broods 
 of same species, 142. 
 
 Brown Elfin, see Incisalia Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 Brown, Eyed, see Satyrodes 
 Eurydice. 
 
 Browns, Meadow, see Oreades. 
 
 Brush-footed Butterflies, see 
 Nymphales. 
 
 Burgess, E., 61. 
 
 BUTTERFLIES : their mode of 
 escape from the chrysalis, 
 49 ; their general structure 
 in the perfect state, 52 ; 
 changes in the external or- 
 gans from caterpillar to but- 
 terfly, 53 ; eyes, 54 ; antennae, 
 55 ; mouth-parts, 56 ; max- 
 illae, 58 ; their action, 60 ; 
 the pharyngeal sac, 61 ; pro- 
 thorax, 63 ; meso- and meta- 
 thorax, 64 ; legs, 64 ; foliate 
 appendage of front legs, 65 ; 
 sounds produced by, 65 ; ap- 
 pendages of foot, 66 ; atrophy 
 of joints and appendages of 
 front legs, "67 ; wings, 68 ; ar- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 313 
 
 rangeinent of scales, 69, 207 ; 
 veins and their distribution, 
 70 ; shape of wings, 72 ; pata- 
 gia, 73 ; spiracles, 73; abdo- 
 men, 74 ; appendages of same, 
 74 ; muscular system, 89 ; di- 
 gestive system,*90; respiratory 
 system, 92 ; nervous system, 
 92 ; reproductive system, 94 ; 
 formation of wings, 95 ; rela- 
 tions to landscape, 121 ; sin- 
 gle-brooded, 128 ; double- 
 brooded, 130 ; triple-brooded, 
 130 ; multiple-brooded, 141 ; 
 diverse-brooded, 143. 
 
 Butterflies of slow growth, 132 ; 
 those of old and new world 
 compared, 261 ; of New Eng- 
 land, 268. 
 
 Butterflies, Brush-footed, see 
 Xymphales. 
 
 Butterflies, Gossamer-winged, 
 see Rurales. 
 
 Butterflies, Snout, see Hypati. 
 
 Butterflies, Typical, see Papili- 
 onides. 
 
 Butterflies, White, see Voracia. 
 
 Butterflies, Yellow, see Fugacia. 
 
 Butterfly, Cabbage, see Pieris 
 rapae. 
 
 Butterfly, Cosmopolitan, see 
 Vanessa cardui. 
 
 Butterfly, Goat- weed, see Anaea 
 Andria. 
 
 Butterfly, Harris, see Cinclidia 
 Harrisii. 
 
 Butterfly, Milk-weed, see Da- 
 nais Plexippus. 
 
 Butterfly, Peacock, see xlam- 
 adryas lo. 
 
 Butterfly, White Mountain, see 
 Oeneis semidea. 
 
 Cabbage Butterfly, see Pieris 
 
 rapae. 
 Caleplrelis borealis (Large Metal 
 
 Mark, 254, 264, 301, 308. 
 
 Callidryas, 302. 
 
 Camberwell Beauty, see Papilio 
 Antiopa. 
 
 Caruncles, 26. 
 
 Castnioides (Castniarians), 246, 
 247, 306. 
 
 CATERPILLARS, 13, 33 ; their 
 formation in the egg, 11, 101 ; 
 their head, 14 ; mouth-parts, 
 14 ; mode of spinning, 16 ; 
 structure of body, 17, 51 ; 
 legs, 17; separation of tho- 
 racic and abdominal tracts, 
 18 ; movement of onisciform 
 kinds, 19 ; spiracles, 20, 229 ; 
 armature, 21 ; its regular ar- 
 rangement, 21 ; different on 
 thoracic and abdominal joints, 
 22 ; relative size of joints, 
 23 ; retractibility of head, 24 ; 
 osmateria, 24; other exten- 
 sile organs, 26 ; change in na- 
 ture of armature between 
 young and mature caterpil- 
 lars, 28, 233, 239 ; change 
 to chrysalis, 34 ; internal or- 
 gans, 76 ; muscular system, 
 78 ; digestive system, 80 ; re- 
 spiratory system, 81 ; circu- 
 latory system, 83 ; nervous 
 system, 85 ; reproductive sys- 
 tem, 87 ; their object, eating, 
 83 ; wings of butterfly in the 
 larva, 95 ; young caterpillars 
 eat egg-shells, 101 ; relation 
 between gregarious caterpil- 
 lars and clustered egg-masses, 
 104 ; construction of nests 
 and webs, 105. 
 
 Catopsilia Eubule (Cloudless 
 Sulphur), 141, 303, 308. 
 
 Cellular tissue, 88, 95. 
 
 Cercyonis Alope (Blue-eyed 
 Gravling, 29, 43, 115, 131, 
 168, 297, 307. 
 
 Cercyonis Alope, var. Nephele, 
 168. 
 
 Cerura, 250. 
 
314 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chequered White, see Pontia 
 Protodice. 
 
 Chionobas, 297. 
 
 Chlorippe (Emperors), 10, 193. 
 
 Chlorippe Herse (Tawny Em- 
 peror), 262, 298, 307. 
 
 Chlorippe Lycaon, 263, 298, 307. 
 
 CHRYSALIS, 34, 36 ; the regions 
 of the body, 36, 51 ; append- 
 ages, 37 ; arrangement of the 
 legs, 38 ; lid at base of tongue, 
 40 ; ocellar riband, 41, 230 ; 
 frontal projections, 42 ; at- 
 tachments, 43 ; guards to free- 
 moving chrysalids, 44; com- 
 parative size of thoracic 
 joints, 45 ; prothoracic spi- 
 racle, 46 ; abdomen, 47 ; cre- 
 master and its hooks, 47 ; 
 adaptation to surroundings, 
 48; suspension of, 256; form of 
 abdomen in, 258 ; eclosion of 
 the butterfly, 49. 
 
 Chrysophanus Thoe (Bronze 
 Copper), 18, 24, 128, 253, 302, 
 308. 
 
 Cinclidia Harrisii (Harris* but- 
 terfly), 32, 300, 308. 
 
 Circulatory system, 83, 92. 
 
 Cissia Eurytus (Little Wood 
 Satyr), 126, 254, 297, 307. 
 
 Classification, 238. 
 
 Climatic influences, 149 ; on dif- 
 ferent continents, 151 ; pecu- 
 liarities in America, 154. 
 
 Cloak, Mourning,see Papilio An- 
 tiopa. 
 
 Clouded Skipper, see Lerema 
 Accius. 
 
 Clouded Sulphur, see Eurymus 
 Philodice. 
 
 Cloudless Sulphur.see Catopsilia 
 Eubule. 
 
 Cobweb Skipper, see Ocytes 
 Metea. 
 
 Cocoons in transformations of 
 butterflies, 256. 
 
 Colon, 82, 91. 
 
 Colonization of New England, 
 268. 
 
 Colorational antigeny, 184. 
 
 Coloring, 159 ; suffusion of, 162 ; 
 affected by physical condi- 
 tions, 163 ; normal or aber- 
 rant, 191 ; different on upper 
 and under surface of wings, 
 197 ; its relation to locality, 
 210. 
 
 Comma, Gray, see Polygonia 
 Progne. 
 
 Comma, Green, see Polygonia 
 Faunus. 
 
 Comma, Orange, see Polygonia 
 comma. 
 
 Comparison of European and 
 American butterflies, 151, 261 ; 
 of European and American cli- 
 mates, 155 ; of young and old 
 caterpillars, 28, 233, 239. 
 
 Copper, American, see Heodes 
 Hypophlaeas. 
 
 Copper, Bronze, see Chrysopha- 
 nus Thoe. 
 
 Coppers, see Villicantes. 
 
 Copulatory pouch, 82. 
 
 Coral Hair-streak, see Strymon 
 Titus. 
 
 Cosmopolitan Butterfly, see Va- 
 nessa cardui. 
 
 Cremaster, 47. 
 
 Crescent, Pearl, see Phyciodes 
 Tharos. 
 
 Crescent Spots, 300. 
 
 Cyaniris Pseudargiolus (Spring 
 Azure), 26, 174, 175, 176, 188, 
 190, 236, 302, 308. 
 
 Cyaniris Pseudargiolus, var. 
 Lucia, 175, 176. 
 
 Cyaniris Pseudargiolus, var. 
 Pseudargiolus, 175, 176. 
 
 Cyaniris Pseudargiolus, var. 
 violacea, 175, 176. 
 
 Cyllo Leda, 216. 
 
 Danai (Pierids), 246, 303. 
 Danaids, see Festivi. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 315 
 
 Danais Plexippus (Monarch or 
 
 Milk. weed butterfly), 10, 15, 
 
 18, 25, 29, 35, 44, 57, 59, 61, 
 
 62, 63, 70, 82, 118, 119, 120, 
 
 136, 194, 202, 206, 298, 307. 
 Darwin, C., 58, 188, 190, 191, 
 
 198, 204, 213, 216, 231. 
 Derivation of New England 
 
 butterflies, 268. 
 Deschamps, B., 199. 
 Dewitz, H., 96. 
 
 Diana, see Semnopsyche Diana. 
 Digestive system, 80, 90. 
 Digoneutism, 128. 
 Dimorphism, 164 ; seasonal, 
 
 164, 234; simple, 167, 235; 
 
 mixed, 169 ; sexual, 180. 
 Distribution of butterflies, 260. 
 Diversity of sexes, 180. 
 Dorsal vessel, 82, 84, 92. 
 Dryades (Fritillaries), 123, 142, 
 
 144, 195, 202, 235, 300. 
 Dusky wing, Funereal, see Tha- 
 
 naos f uneralis. 
 Dusky- wing, Juvenal's, see Tha- 
 
 naos Ennius. 
 Dusky-wing, Persius', see Tha- 
 
 naos Persius. 
 Dusky-wing, Sleepy, see Tha- 
 
 naos Brizo. 
 Dusky-wings, see Thanaos. 
 
 Early form of butterfly, 238. 
 
 Eating, the end of caterpillar 
 existence, 88 
 
 Edwards, W., 118. 
 
 Edwards, W. H., 26, 34, 149, 
 166, 167, 168, 169. 
 
 EGGS, 6 ; their beauty, 6 ; form, 
 7 ; sculpture, 8 ; changes in 
 the interior, 11, 101 ; duration, 
 12, 101 ; manner of laying, 
 98 ; eaten by young cater- 
 pillars, 101 ; relation between 
 clustered eggs and gregarious 
 caterpillars, 104. 
 
 Elfin, Banded, see Incisalia Ni- 
 phon. 
 
 Elfin, Brown, see Incisalia Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 Embryonic changes, 11, 101. 
 
 Emperor, Tawny, see Chlorippe 
 Herse. 
 
 Emperors, see Chlorippe. 
 
 Epargyreus Tityrus (White- 
 spotted Skipper), 46, 48, 54, 
 107, 108, 205, 253, 256, 267, 
 304, 309. 
 
 Ephori (Hair-streaks), 23, 30, 48, 
 141, 193, 195, 201, 202, 264, 
 301. 
 
 Epicalia, 191, 299. 
 
 Equites (Swallow - tails), 24, 
 31, 108, 121, 135, 201, 202, 
 203, 246, 247, 249, 255, 265, 
 304. 
 
 Erora laeta (Spring Beauty), 
 187, 301, 308. 
 
 Erycinides, 301. 
 
 Erycinids, see Vestales. 
 
 Eudamus, 305. 
 
 Eumaeidae, 301. 
 
 Eupboeades Troilus (Green- 
 clouded Swallow-tail), 38, 39, 
 41, 44, 253, 304, 309. 
 
 Euphydryas Phaeton (Balti- 
 more), 9, 99, 104, 105, 106, 
 254, 300, 308. 
 
 Euphyes Metacomet (Immacu- 
 late Skipper), 71, 265, 306, 
 310. 
 
 European butterflies compared 
 with American, 151, 261. 
 
 Eurymus (Sulphurs), 105, 161, 
 184. 
 
 Eurymus Eurytheme (Orange 
 Sulphur), 153, 303, 309. 
 
 Eurymus Philodice (Clouded 
 Sulphur), 7, 8, 31, 40, 42, 115, 
 116, 134, 153, 164, 183, 189, 
 303, 309. 
 
 Everes Amyntas, 152, 302. 
 
 Everes Comyntas (Tailed Blue), 
 130, 152, 302, 308. 
 
 Extensile organs, 24. 
 
 Eye-like spots, 213. 
 
316 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Eyed Brown, see Satyrodes Eu- 
 
 rydice. 
 Eyes, 54. 
 
 Families of butterflies, 243. 
 Feniseca, 268, 302. 
 Festivi (Danaids), 246, 297. 
 Food-reservoir, see Reservoir. 
 Fossil butterflies, 67, 226. 
 Fritillaries, see Dryades. 
 Fritillary, Great Spangled, see 
 
 Argynnis Cybele. 
 Fritillary, Meadow, see Brentliis 
 
 Bellona. 
 Fritillary, Regal, see Speyeria 
 
 Idalia. 
 Fritillary, Silver-bordered, see 
 
 Brentliis Myrina. 
 Fritillary, Silver-spot, see Ar- 
 gynnis Aphrodite. 
 Frontal ganglia, 86. 
 Frost destroys much insect life, 
 
 135, 145. 
 
 Frugalia (Orange-tips), 265, 303. 
 Fugncia (Red Horns or Yellows), 
 
 31, 126, 135, 183, 194, 202, 
 
 252, 265, 303. 
 Funereal Dusky-wing, see Tha- 
 
 naos funeralis. 
 
 
 
 Ganglia, 82, 85 ; their distribu- 
 tion, 86 ; movements in 
 change to butterfly, 93. 
 
 Ganin, M., 96. 
 
 Genealogy of butterflies, 245. 
 
 Genera, characteristics of, 205. 
 
 Geographical distribution, 260. 
 
 Geological record, 67, 226. 
 
 Geometrids, see Phalaenidae. 
 
 Glaciation of New England, 
 269. 
 
 Glands, accessory, 82 ; for spin- 
 ning, 87. 
 
 Goatweed Butterfly, see Anaea 
 Andria. 
 
 Gossamer - winged Butterflies, 
 see Rurales. 
 
 Graber, V., 96. 
 
 Grade in the structure of but- 
 terflies: in their legs, 253; 
 tongue-papillae, 255 ; trans- 
 formations, 256 ; form of ab- 
 domen, 258. 
 
 Grapta, 299. 
 
 Grasshoppers compared with 
 butterflies, 228. 
 
 Gray Comma, see Polygonia 
 Progne. 
 
 Gray Hair-streak, see Uranotes 
 Melinus. 
 
 Gray veined White, see Pieris 
 oleracea. 
 
 Grayling, Blue-eyed, see Cercy- 
 onis Alope. 
 
 Great Spangled Fritillary, see 
 Argynnis Cybele. 
 
 Green-clouded Swallow-tail, see 
 Euphoeades Troilus. 
 
 Green Comma, see Polygonia 
 Faunus. 
 
 Gregarious caterpillars, 104 ; 
 butterflies, 117. 
 
 Grote, A. R., 270. 
 
 Groups among butterflies, 244. 
 
 Guenee, A., 26. 
 
 Habits, 97 ; in laying eggs, 98 ; 
 in the mode of feeding in 
 caterpillars, 102 ; in their 
 sociality, 104 ; in nest con- 
 struction, 105 ; in formation 
 of hibernacula, 112 ; in sleep 
 of butterflies, 115 ; in their 
 pugnacity, 116 ; in congre- 
 gating, 117 : alternation in, 
 133. 
 
 Hair-streak, Banded, see Thecla 
 Calanus. 
 
 Hair-streak, Coral, see Strymon 
 Titus. 
 
 Hair-streak, Gray, see Uranotes 
 Melinus. 
 
 Hair-streaks, see Ephori. 
 
 Hairs on wings, 195. 
 
 Hamadryades (Crescent Spots), 
 300. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 Hamad ryas lo (Peacock butter- 
 fly), 95, 217, 221, 299. 
 
 Hardy, R. W. H., 105. 
 
 Harris' Butterfly, Bee Cinclidia 
 Harrisii. 
 
 Hatching- of caterpillar, 101 ; of 
 . chrysalis, 34 ; of butterfly, 49. 
 
 Heart, see Dorsal vessel. 
 
 Heliconidae, 297. 
 
 Heliconii (Helicouians), 70, 215, 
 246, 298. 
 
 Heodes Hypophlaeas (American 
 Copper), 7, 20, 31, 43, 115, 
 117, 140, 162, 166, 302, 308. 
 
 Herold, M., 96. 
 
 Hesperia, 305, 306. 
 
 Hesperid, Leonard's, see Antho- 
 master Leonardus. 
 
 Hesperidae, 304. 
 
 Hesperid es (Larger Skippers), 
 194, 246, 265, 304. 
 
 Heteropterus, 305. 
 
 Hibernacula, 103, 112. 
 
 Hibernation, 112, 113, 132, 140 ; 
 premature, 141, 172, 178 ; in 
 butterfly state, 136 ; in sev- 
 eral stages, 139. 
 
 Higgins, Rev. H., 211. 
 
 Histories of butterflies, 127. 
 
 Hop- vine Thecla, see Uranotes 
 Melinus. 
 
 Horns, Red, see Fugacia. 
 
 Hypati (Long-Beaks, or Snout 
 butterflies), 246, 301. 
 
 Hyperuietainorphosis, 233. 
 
 Immaculate Skipper, see Eu- 
 phyes Metacomet. 
 
 Incisalia Augustus (Brown Elf- 
 in), 129, 301, 308. 
 
 Incisalia Niphon (Banded Elfin), 
 264, 301, 308. 
 
 Indolence, 132. 
 
 Instinct, 100, 101, 133. 
 
 Internal organs, 76 ; their inter- 
 relation, 77. 
 
 Intestine, 80, 82, 91. 
 
 Iplnclides, 154. 
 
 Iphiclides A jnx (Zebra Swallow- 
 tail), 141, 146, 154, 169, 170, 
 171, 178, 234, 304, 309. 
 
 Iphiclides Ajax, var. Marcellus, 
 170, 171,173,234. 
 
 Iphiclides Ajax, var. Telamoni- 
 des, 170, 173. 
 
 Iphiclides Ajax, var. Walshii, 
 169, 172. 
 
 Iphiclides Podalirius, 154, 304. 
 
 Jasoniades Glaucus (Tiger Swal- 
 low-tail), 7, 100, 108, 118, 147, 
 180, 181, 190, 304, 309. 
 
 Juvenal's Dusky Wing, see 
 Thanaos Ennius. 
 
 Kunckel, H., 47. 
 
 Lady, Painted, see Vanessa 
 cardui. 
 
 Laertias Philenor (Blue Swal- 
 low-tail), 22, 43, 71, 99, 122, 
 304, 309. 
 
 Landois, H., 96. 
 
 Large Metal -mark, see Calephe- 
 lis borealis. 
 
 Larger Skippers, see Hesperides. 
 
 Latitude, its influence on color, 
 160. 
 
 Leaves, how eaten by cater- 
 pillars, 102 ; nests of, 105. 
 
 Legs, atrophy of, 253. 
 
 Leonard's Hesperid, see Antho- 
 master Leonardus. 
 
 Leptotes Theonus, 200, 302, 
 308. 
 
 Lerema Accius (Clouded Skip- 
 per), 42, 306, 310. 
 
 Lethargy, 141, 235. 
 
 Libythides, 301. 
 
 Life in America, characteristics 
 of, 154. 
 
 Life-histories of butterflies. 127. 
 
 Limenitides, 298. 
 
 Limenitis, 298. 
 
318 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Limochores Taumas (Tawny- 
 edged Skipper), 124, 202, 306, 
 310. 
 
 Little Wood Satyr, see Cissia 
 Eurytus. 
 
 Locality affecting color, 210. 
 
 Long Beaks, see Hypati. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, 231. 
 
 Lycaena, 302. 
 
 Lycaenidae, 301. 
 
 Lycaenides, 302. 
 
 Lycaenids, see Plebeii. 
 
 Lyonet, P., 78, 96. 
 
 McCook, Rev. H. C., 26. 
 Males, peculiarities in adorn- 
 ment, 180. 
 Malpighian vessels, 81, 82, 91, 
 
 92. 
 
 Mandibles, 40. 
 Maxillae, 58, 59, 61, 82. 
 Meadow Browns, see Oreades. 
 Meadow Fritillary, see Brenthis 
 
 Bellona. 
 Melanism, 180. 
 Melitaea, 300. 
 Melitaeidae, 300. 
 Meloe, 233. 
 Metal -mark, Large, see Calephe- 
 
 lis borealis. 
 Metamorphoses compared with 
 
 those of grasshoppers, 228. 
 Micropyle, 6. 
 Milk- weed Butterfly,, see Danais 
 
 Plexippus. 
 Mimicry, 115, 206. 
 Mixed hibernation, 139. 
 Monarch, see Danais Plexippus. 
 Mormon, see Atrytone Zabu- 
 
 lon. 
 Mountain Silver-spot, see Argyn- 
 
 nis Atlantis. 
 Mourning Cloak, see Papilio 
 
 Antiopa. 
 Mouth parts, 56. 
 Muller, Fritz, 204. 
 Muscular system, 78, 89. 
 
 Naiads, see Najades. 
 
 Najades (Naiads, or Nymphs), 
 246, 298. 
 
 Natural selection not the high- 
 est law, 223, 225, 237. 
 
 Nervous cord, 82, 86, 93. 
 
 Nervous system, 85, 92. 
 
 Nests made by caterpillars, 105, 
 107. 
 
 Nettle Tortoise-shell, see Aglais 
 Milberti. 
 
 New England Butterflies, deri- 
 vation of, 268. 
 
 Nisoniades, 305. 
 
 Normal coloring, 191. 
 
 Northern butterflies of impure 
 
 tints, 161. 
 
 \Nymphales (Brush-footed but- 
 terflies^^*, 246,255, 256, 257, 
 
 I 258, 259, 261, 262, 264, 297. 
 
 Nymphalidae, 297. 
 
 Nymphalinae, 298. 
 
 Nymphs, see Najades. 
 
 Ocellar riband, 41, 230. 
 Ocelli on wings, 213, 216, 221. 
 Ocytes Metea (Cobweb Skipper), 
 
 31, 305, 310. 
 
 Oeneis semidea (White Moun- 
 tain butterfly), 98, 114, 270, 
 
 297, .307 
 
 Oesophagus, 80, 82, 91. 
 Oken, L., 51. 
 Old and new world butterflies 
 
 compared, 261. 
 Orange Comma, see Polygonia 
 
 comma. 
 Orange Sulphur, see Eurymus 
 
 Eurytheme. 
 
 Orange-tips, see Frugalia. 
 Oreades (Satyrs, or Meadow 
 
 Browns), 28, 114, 125, 195, 
 
 246, 247, 248, 258, 264, 297. 
 Organs, internal, 76. 
 Origin of ornamentation, 207, 
 
 211. 
 Origin of species in butterflies, 
 
 234 ; through ordinary varia- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 319 
 
 tion, 234 ; through seasonal 
 dimorphism, 234; through un- 
 equal lethargy, 235 ; through 
 simple dimorphism, 235 ; 
 through antigeny, 236. 
 
 Ornamentation, origin of, 207, 
 211 ; its relation to structure, 
 208, 224; compared to that 
 of Vertebrates, 210 ; sym- 
 metry in, 222. 
 
 Ornithoptera, 249. 
 
 Osborne, J. A., 34. 
 
 Osmateria, 24 ; their value in 
 classification, 250. 
 
 Ovaries, 82, 87, 94. 
 
 Oviduct, 82, 87. 
 
 Oviposition, 98. 
 
 Oxygenatioii of the blood, 84. 
 
 Painted Beauty, see Vanessa 
 Huntera. 
 
 Painted Lady, see Vanessa 
 cardui. 
 
 Palpi, 39, 82. 
 
 Pamphila, 305, 306. 
 
 Paphia, 298. 
 
 Papilio, 299, 304. 
 
 Papilio Antiopa (Camberwell 
 Beauty or Mourning Cloak), 
 18, 21, 37, 98, 163, 299, 307. 
 
 Papilionidae, 303. 
 
 Papilionides (Typical butter- 
 flies), 244, 246, 248, 257, 263, 
 265, 303. 
 
 Papillae of tongue, 255. 
 
 Parnassii (Parnassians), 246, 
 265, 304. 
 
 Parnas,sius, 256, 304. 
 
 Patagia, 73. 
 
 Patches on wings, 194, 196. 
 
 Patterns of color related to 
 framework of wings, 215, 
 219, 224 ; symmetrical, 222. 
 
 Peacock Butterfly, see Hama- 
 dryas lo. 
 
 Pearl Crescent, see Phyciodes 
 Tharos. 
 
 Pearl-studded Violet, see Rusti- 
 
 cus Scudderii. 
 
 Peck's Skipper, see Polites Peck- 
 ius. 
 
 Persius' Dusky- w^Ujg/'SEs-Tha- 
 naos Persius. 
 
 Phalaenidae (Geometrids), 208. 
 
 Pharyngeal sac, 62, 63, 82. 
 
 Pholisora Catullus (Sooty Skip- 
 per), 9, 305, 309. 
 
 Phyciodes Tharos (Pearl Cres- 
 cent), 166, 300, 308. 
 
 Physical conditions affecting 
 color, 163, 
 
 Pierids, see Danai. 
 
 Pierides, 302. 
 
 Pieris oleracea (Gray-veined 
 White), 8, 31, 100, 165, 303, 
 309. 
 
 Pieris rapae (cabbage butterfly), 
 100, 123, 124, 164, 165, 200, 
 303, 309. 
 
 Plebeii (Lycaenids), 19, 23, 24, 
 48, 131, 246, 247, 254, 301. 
 
 Plumules, 199. 
 
 Polites Peckius (Peck's Skipper, 
 or Yellow Spot), 124, 305, 
 310. 
 
 Polygoneutism, 141. 
 
 Polygonia, 167. 
 
 Polygonia comma (Orange Com- 
 ma), 99, 299, 307. 
 
 Polygonia Faunus (Green Com- 
 ma), 42, 136, 137, 299, 307. 
 
 Polygonia Progne (Gray Com- 
 ma), 125, 299, 307. 
 
 Polygonia interrogationis (Vio- 
 let Tip), 167, 235, 257, 299, 
 307. 
 
 Polyommatides, 302. 
 
 Polyommatus, 302. 
 
 Poutia Daplidice (Bath White), 
 153, 303. 
 
 Pontia Protodice (Chequered 
 White), 21, 153, 303, 309. 
 
 Praefecti (Angle- wings), 30, 117, 
 123, 265, 267, 299. 
 
 Praetores, 246, 297. 
 
320 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Primeval butterfly, 238. 
 
 Princeps Polyxenes (Black 
 Swallow-tail), 24, 148, 266, 
 304, 309. 
 
 Prodigality of nature, 135, 138, 
 145. 
 
 Pugnacity of butterflies, 116. 
 
 Pumping stomach, see Reser- 
 voir. 
 
 Purple, Red-spotted, see Basil- 
 archia Astyanax. 
 
 Purple, Banded, see Basilarcliia 
 Artkemis. 
 
 Purples, see Basilarcliia. 
 
 Reaumur, 34. 
 
 Rectum, 81, 82. 
 
 Red Admiral, see Vanessa Ata- 
 lanta. 
 
 Red Horns, see Fugacia. 
 
 Red-spotted Purple, see Basil- 
 arckia Astyanax. 
 
 Regal Fritillary, see Speyeria 
 Idalia. 
 
 Relation between ornament and 
 structure, 208. 
 
 Reproductive system, 87, 94. 
 
 Reservoir for food or air, 82, 
 91. 
 
 Respiratory system, 81, 92. 
 
 Rbodoceridi, 303. 
 
 Riley, C. V., 34, 47. 
 
 Roadside Skipper, see Ambly- 
 scirtes vialis. 
 
 Rudimentary organs, 40, 58, 67, 
 86. 
 
 Rural es (Gossamer- winged but- 
 terflies), 198, 244, 246, 254, 
 256, 257, 261, 263, 301. 
 
 Rusticus Aegon (Silver-studded 
 Blue), 152, 302. 
 
 Rusticus Argon, 152, 302. 
 
 Rusticus Scudderii (Pearl -stud- 
 ded Violet), 152,302,308. 
 
 Salivary glands, 81, 92. 
 Satyr, Little Wood, see Cissia 
 Eurytus. 
 
 Satyrodes Eurydice (Eyed 
 Brown), 14, 28, 126, 297, 307. 
 
 Satyrs, see Oreades. 
 
 Scales, arrangement of, 69, 207 ; 
 lustreless, 194, 196 ; of male 
 sex, 199 ; scent, 204. 
 
 Scent organs, 24; their value 
 in classification and occur- 
 rence in insects, 250. 
 
 Scent scales, 204. 
 
 Seasonal dimorphism, 164. 
 
 Seasons of appearance in but- 
 terflies, 121, 127 ; variation 
 in, 128. 
 
 Seasons of the year, effect of, on 
 butterflies, 149. 
 
 Secondary sexual peculiarities, 
 180. 
 
 Semnopsyche Diana (Diana), 
 186, 188, 197, 199, 300, 308. 
 
 Sesiadae, 215. 
 
 Sexes, diversity of, 180. 
 
 Sexual dimorphism, 180. 
 
 Sexual selection, 204. 
 
 Silk-vessels, 82, 87, 95. 
 
 Silver-bordered Fritillary, see 
 Brenthis Myrina. 
 
 Silver-spot Fritillary, see Ar- 
 gynnis Aphrodite. 
 
 Silver-spot, Mountain, see Ar- 
 gynnis Atlantis. 
 
 Silver-studded Blue, see Rusti- 
 cus Aegon. 
 
 Sitaris, 233. 
 
 Skipper, Clouded, see Lerema 
 Accius. 
 
 Skipper, Cobweb, see Ocytes 
 Metea. 
 
 Skipper, Immaculate, see Eu- 
 phyes Metacomet. 
 
 Skipper, Peck's, see Polites 
 Peckius. 
 
 Skipper, Roadside, see Ambly- 
 scirtes vialis. 
 
 Skipper, Sooty, see Pholisora 
 Catullus. 
 
 Skipper, Tawny-edged, see Li- 
 mochores Taumas, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 Skipper, Wee, see Ancyloxy- 
 plia Numitor. 
 
 Skipper, White-spotted, sec 
 Epargyreus Tityrus. 
 
 Skippers, see Urbicolae. 
 
 Skippers,Larger, see Hesperides. 
 
 Skippers, Smaller, see Astyci. 
 
 Sleep of butterflies, 115. 
 
 Sleepy Dusky-wing, see Tha- 
 naos Brizo. 
 
 Small Tortoise-shell, see Aglais 
 urticae. 
 
 Smaller Skippers, see Astyci. 
 
 Snout Butterflies, see Hypati. 
 
 Social caterpillars, 104. 
 
 Sooty Skipper, see Pkolisora 
 Catullus. 
 
 Sounds produced by butterflies, 
 65. 
 
 Sovereigns, see Arcliontes. 
 
 Spangled Fritillary, see Argyn- 
 nis Cybele. 
 
 Species, characteristics of, 205. 
 
 Spermatheca, 82. 
 
 Speyeria Idalia (Regal Fritil- 
 lary), 186, 187, 300, 308. 
 
 Spinneret, 82 87. 
 
 Spinning, 16 
 
 Spinning vessels, 82, 87, 95. 
 
 Spiracles, 73. 
 
 Sports in butterflies, 162, 163. 
 
 Spots, Crescent, see Hamadry- 
 ades. 
 
 Spring Azure, see Cyaniris Pseu- 
 dargiolus. 
 
 Spring Beauty, see Erora laeta. 
 
 Stomach, 80, 82, 91. 
 
 Structural antigeny, 192 ; in 
 form of wings, 193 ; in veins, 
 193 ; in patches, 194, 196 ; in 
 folds, 194 ; in hairs, 195 ; in 
 legs, 197 ; in scales, 199. 
 
 Strymon Titus (Coral Hair- 
 streak), 193, 301, 308. 
 
 Suboesophageal ganglion, 82, 
 85, 93. 
 
 Succincti, 258. 
 
 Sucking, how performed, 60. 
 
 Suffusion of colors in butter- 
 flies, 162. 
 Sulphur, Clouded, see Eurymus 
 
 Philodice. 
 Sulphur, Cloudless, see Catop- 
 
 silia Eubule. 
 Sulphur, Orange, see Eurymus 
 
 Eurytlieme. 
 
 Sulphurs, see Eurymus. 
 Suspensi, 258. 
 
 Suspension of chrysalids, 256. 
 Swainson, W., 258. 
 Swallow-tail, Black, see Prin- 
 
 ceps Polyxenes. 
 Swallow-tail, Blue, see Laertias 
 
 Philenor. 
 Swallow-tail, Green-clouded, 
 
 see Euphoeades Troilus. 
 Swallow-tail, Tiger, see Jasoni- 
 
 ades Glaucus. 
 Swallow-tail, Zebra, see Iphicli- 
 
 des Ajax. 
 
 Swallow-tails, see Equites. 
 Symmetry in ornamentation, 
 
 222. 
 
 Tailed Blue, see Everes Comyn- 
 tas. 
 
 Tawny-edged Skipper, see Li- 
 mochores Taumas. 
 
 Tawny Emperor, see Chlorippe 
 Herse. 
 
 Testis, 82, 87, 94. 
 
 Thanaos (Dusky Wings). 121. 
 
 Thanaos Brizo (Sleepy Dusky- 
 wing, 121. 305, 309. 
 
 Thanaos Ennius (Juvenal's 
 Dusky- wing), 74, 114, 194, 
 305, 309. 
 
 Thanaos funeralis (Funereal 
 Dusky-wing), 201, 305, 309. 
 
 Thanaos Persius (Persius' Dus- 
 ky wing), 108, 305, 309. 
 
 Thecla, 301. 
 
 Thecla Calanus (Banded Hair- 
 streak), 128, 193, 301, 308. 
 
 Thecla, Hop-vine, KM Uranotes 
 Mel in us. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Theclides, 301. 
 
 Thorybes Pylades, 6, 264, 305, 
 
 309. 
 Thymelicus Aetna, 196, 203, 
 
 306, 310. 
 Thymelicus Brettus, 185, 189, 
 
 306, 310. 
 
 Tibial appendages, 252. 
 Tiger Swallow-tail, see Jasoni 
 
 ades Glaucus. 
 
 Tone/tie, 58, 59, 61, 82; papil- 
 lae of, 255. 
 Tortoise-shell, Nettle, see Aglais 
 
 Milberti. 
 Tortoise-shell, Small, see Aglais 
 
 TJrticae. 
 
 Tracheae, 81, 85. 
 Transformations, 11, 27, 34, 49, 
 
 53, 89, 101, 256. 
 Trigoneutism, 130. 
 Tropical butterflies of brilliant 
 
 hue, 161. 
 Typical butterflies, their rank, 
 
 248 ; see also Papilionides. 
 
 Uranotes Melinus (Gray Hair- 
 Ptreak or Hop-vine Thecla), 
 130, 301, 308. 
 
 Urbicolae (Skippers), 23, 31, 106, 
 201, 203, 206, 236, 244, 245, 
 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252, 
 253, 255, 256, 261, 263, 304. 
 
 Vanessa, 299. 
 
 Vanessa Atalanta (Red Admi- 
 ral), 8, 64, 109, 110, 139, 
 163, 299, 307. 
 
 Vanessa cardui (Painted Lady), 
 30, 32, 110, 151, 163, 255, 
 299, 308. 
 
 Vanessa Huntera (Painted Beau 
 ty), 110, 299, 308. 
 
 Vanessidae, 299. 
 
 Vaudouer, 142. 
 
 Veins of wings ; their arrange- 
 ment, 70. 
 
 Vernal series in Brenthis, 145. 
 
 Vestales (Virgins or Erycinids), 
 246, 254, 260, 301. 
 
 Viceroy, see Basilarchia Archip- 
 
 pus. 
 Villicantes (Coppers), 23, 30, 
 
 123, 187, 188, 191, 198, 201, 
 
 254, 302. 
 Violet, Pearl-studded, see Rus- 
 
 ticus Scudderii. 
 Violet Tip, see Polygonia inter- 
 
 rogationis. 
 
 Virgins, see Vestales. 
 Voracia (Whites). 31, 123, 200, 
 
 202, 252, 265, 303. 
 
 Wallace, A. R., 249. 
 
 Webs made bv caterpillars, 105, 
 107. 
 
 Wee Skipper, see Ancyloxypha 
 Numitor. 
 
 Westwood, J. O., 105, 106. 
 
 White, Bath, see Pontia Dapli- 
 dice. 
 
 White, Chequered, see Pontia 
 Protodice. 
 
 White, Gray-veined, see Pieris 
 oleracea. 
 
 White Mt. butterflies, 269 ; see 
 also Oeneis semidea. 
 
 White-spotted Skipper, see 
 Epargyreus Tityrus. 
 
 Whites, see Voracia. 
 
 Wings developed in caterpil- 
 lar, 95 ; differing in color and 
 markings on upper and un- 
 der surface, 197. 
 
 Winter's destruction, 135, 145. 
 
 Wood Satyr, see Cissia Eurytus. 
 
 Xanthidia Nicippe (Black-bor- 
 dered Yellow), 56, 184, 303, 
 309. 
 
 Yellow Spot, see Polites Peckius. 
 Yellow, White-bordered, see 
 
 Xanthidia Nicippe. 
 Yellows, see Fugacia. 
 
 Zebra Swallow-tail, see Iphi- 
 
 clides Ajax. 
 Zegris, 256, 303. 
 
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