LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 GIF-T OF 
 
 SENT BY 
 
 BENJ. IDE WHEELER 
 BERKELEY 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
> 
 
 < L^-*stS*l 
 
 / 
 
 CONCEPTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Electrical Phenomena of Planetary Systems 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE ADAM, M.D. 
 
 Author of "Eledlricity, the Chemistry of Ether"; " Radio- Activity"; "From 
 Ether to the Physiologic Unit"; " The Physiologic Unit"; " Medicinal 
 Vibration"; " Origin and Character of X-Rays "; National- 
 ization of the Practice of Medicine", Etc. 
 
 Monograph Applying a Fundamental Hypothesis 
 to Astronomical Fads. 
 
 ( ILLUSTRATED ) 
 
 Containing: 
 
 THE HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 THE SOLO-PLANETARY SPACE. 
 
 A CYCLE OF ENERGY. 
 
 A GREATER CYCLE. 
 
 A CYCLE OF LIFE. 
 
 DYNAMICS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 COMETS. 
 
 THE MOON. 
 
 COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 
 
 Strenuitas. 
 
 UNIVE 
 
 %-,- 
 .. ' - : 
 
,, V 
 
 COPYRIGHT, APRIL, 1905. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, U. S. A. 
 
 DR. GEORGE ADAM, 
 
 1196 GREEN STREET 
 
 MAY, 1905. 
 
 (REGISTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENG.) 
 
 PHILLIPS & VAN ORDEN Co., PRINTERS; 
 
 508 CLAY STREET, 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., U. S. A. 
 
THE HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 The desire of the writer to generalize a Hypothesis, 
 which he considers fundamental, prompted him to apply 
 it to Astronomical Facts. In approaching the subject, it is 
 imperative to build up from the central idea, although it 
 necessitates traveling from the Infinitesimal to the In- 
 f.hp lentil of this article demands 
 
 ERRATA 
 
 Page 40, Caption, read: Andromeda. 
 
 Page 35, line 6, read: photometer. 
 
 Page 39, line 27, read: than instead of that. 
 
 or no they coincide wnn me 
 writer concludes that the ether molecule is composed 
 of two fundamental units or atoms; that these atoms 
 are equal in quantity, and possess inherently such op- 
 posite properties as to entirely neutralize each other 
 that they are quantitatively equal but qualitatively 
 opposed; moreover, that ether atoms are identical 
 with, or equivalent to the fundamental units of 
 all matter. If we concede that the ether molecule is com- 
 posed of two fundamental units (which may be termed 
 positive and negative) having a contact surface of maxi- 
 mum extent, with almost if not complete immolecular 
 neutralization, it is evident that we can formulate a con- 
 
COPYRIGHT, APRIL, 1905. 
 
 508 CLAY STREET, 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., U. S. A. 
 
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 t A * i H' hii3uure3^^i^u 
 
 3 M V -4^^^ // 
 
 / 
 
THE HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 The desire of the writer to generalize a Hypothesis, 
 which he considers fundamental, prompted him to apply 
 it to Astronomical Facts. In approaching the subject, it is 
 imperative to build up from the central idea, although it 
 necessitates traveling from the Infinitesimal to the In- 
 finitely Great; and as the length of this article demands 
 conciseness in its parts, this quality must be adhered to 
 even at the risk of being judged as arbitrarily stating the 
 conclusions. However, no statement will be made but such 
 as the writer is prepared to support by deductive reasoning 
 and relative facts. 
 
 ETHEE. Elsewhere the writer has formulated the 
 hypothesis : "That Ether is the simplest form of matter, 
 that it is molecular, and that it has a chemistry." Having 
 adopted this hypothesis, as an arbiter, our effort will be to 
 follow its inductive lead over the stepping stones of relevant 
 facts, and to form our conclusions irrespectively of whether 
 or no they coincide with the accepted theories. The 
 writer concludes that the ether molecule is composed 
 of two fundamental units or atoms; that these atoms 
 are equal in quantity, and possess inherently such op- 
 posite properties as to entirely neutralize each other 
 that they are quantitatively equal but qualitatively 
 opposed; moreover, that ether atoms are identical 
 with, or equivalent to the fundamental units of 
 all matter. If we concede that the ether molecule is com- 
 posed of two fundamental units (which may be termed 
 positive and negative) having a contact surface of maxi- 
 mum extent, with almost if not complete immolecular 
 neutralization, it is evident that we can formulate a con- 
 
4 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 ception of the character of the ether molecule, and concur- 
 rently gain a clear understanding of the properties, or ab- 
 sence of properties, of the substance ether itself. 
 
 Figure 1 indicates ether molecules, each composed of two 
 units or atoms, the central nucleus inherently representing 
 the principle attraction or concentrativeness, and the outer 
 film inherently representing the principle repulsion or 
 diffusibility. The central atom consists of purely positive 
 matter, and the outer atom of purely negative matter, thus 
 clearly differentiating ether atoms from those of ponder- 
 able matter, in as much as the latter are composed of mixed 
 units. Ether atoms may be defined, as the ultimate quan- 
 tities of matter or force which no other force can split up. 
 The size of the positive atom is determined by the resist- 
 ance of its inherent concentrativeness to dissociation by 
 external forces, and the size of the negative atom is deter- 
 mined by the size of the positive atom, or by the amount 
 of negative matter which is neutralizable by the positive 
 atom. The writer believes that the universe is constructed 
 of such units. 
 
 FIG. I. Ether Molecules: The dark nuclei denote purely 
 Positive Matter of concentrative character; and the sur- 
 rounding gray films denote purely Negative Matter of dif- 
 fusive character. When dissociated the atoms constitute 
 Electric Matter. It is important to observe that no fields 
 of induction surround ether molecules; although inter- 
 spaces are shown. The relative position of the atoms as 
 indicated corresponds to the differential distribution of 
 matter in space, and to the inherent character of the units. 
 
 , suppose that the two atoms of an ether molecule, 
 from th'ir relative position and from the diminutive size of 
 the molecule, have such surface contact as to allow complete 
 
ETHER. 5 
 
 neutralization of each other according to the law that forces 
 react inversely to the square of distance, then surely extrin- 
 sic forces, in general, must be excluded from the ether mole- 
 cule, and accordingly it is imponderable and insensible. 
 Again, suppose that molecules of other matter have not an 
 equal number of positive and negative units within their 
 construction, and the molecules being of larger size, their 
 units cannot have maximum surface contact, then surely, 
 according to the same law, these molecules are sensible and 
 ponderable. Thus matter is in general differentiated into 
 two great divisions : Ether, insensible and imponderable ; 
 Other matter, sensible and ponderable. An important 
 consideration in the indicated (Fig. 1) structure of ether 
 molecules is the apposition of negative molecular sur- 
 faces, which represent repulsion. It must be remembered 
 that ether, being the medium of transmission of heat and 
 light, is in this respect sensible matter. 
 
 The universal equilibrium demands the ether condition, 
 and abnormally large ether molecules would immediately 
 divide by polar attraction, and equilibrate as smaller mole- 
 cular masses. Ether molecules above the normal size would 
 form ponderable matter, and are impossibilities. They 
 must be the most minute of all molecules. Let us see : 
 In an electrified vacuum tube, with the greatest decrement 
 of pressure consistent with electric conduction, there is 
 found in the cathode rays a positive particle or "electron" 
 estimated to be 1/2000 the mass of the hydrogen mole- 
 cule. This particle must be the ultimate of ponderable 
 tenuity, and as it possesses a free potential, its constituents 
 must be equal to three ether units or atoms (two positives 
 and one negative). If constituted of a larger number it 
 would be still reducible, and its free potential denotes that 
 it cannot be constituted of a less number. As the ether 
 molecule possesses two units its size must be 2/3 of that 
 
6 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 of the electron, or 1/3000 the mass of the hydrogen 
 molecule. When the cathode particle or electron is united 
 with two negative ether atoms it is electrically negative, 
 and of such charged particles the cathode rays must be 
 constituted when under extreme decrement of pressure. 
 
 From these conceptions we must conclude that the sub- 
 stance ether is imponderable; that it possesses no fric- 
 tional or cohesive properties; offers no (or a minimum) 
 resistance to bodies passing through it; is extremely elas- 
 tic; is a non-conductor of electricity; is incapable of being 
 projected, not having weight ; that it is compressible by the 
 attractions and repulsions of its atomic units (polarization) 
 (Fig. 2) ; that its units possess the property of impenetra- 
 bility or extensibility ; that owing to its molecular construc- 
 tion being of two units qualitatively opposed and quanti- 
 tatively equal, it is capable of transmitting force without 
 neutralization or modification of the force transmitted. 
 However, radiating forces offer resistance to other radia- 
 tions independently of the quality of the medium. 
 
 It must be conceded that all forces may be modified by 
 the relation of matter to space. Thus positive and nega- 
 tive chemic elements which synthetically react under cer- 
 tain degrees of pressure may be even dissociated under 
 greater decrement of pressure. We might allow that the 
 forces of gravitation will act slightly on the substance ether, 
 but that this force is neutralized by the spacial equilibrium, 
 or the relation of the whole of matter to the whole of 
 space, just as chemic affinity is neutralized in a 
 partial vacuum. Whether we contend that gravitation 
 is wholly excluded from the system of the ether molecule 
 by the immolecular neutralization, or that it enters and is 
 counteracted by the spacial equilibrium, we must inevitably 
 conclude that the substance ether is imponderable. An 
 
ELECTRICITY. 7 
 
 imponderable substance will occupy all space not occupied 
 by other matter. This substance therefore fills the inter- 
 stellar and intermolecular spaces, and is the medium of 
 conveying force between the potentialized bodies winch we 
 call suns and planets. 
 
 ELECTEICITY. Although the ether molecule is gen- 
 erally insensible to extrinsic forces, yet under intense con- 
 ditions it is split up, and although the substance ether is 
 chemically at zero potential, when dissociated its atoms pos- 
 sess the greatest of all potentials the potential of elec- 
 tricity. We must regard electricity as being related to ether 
 as chemic action is to other matter. Moreover, there 
 must be an interaction between electric matter and pon- 
 derable matter. We must regard ether atoms as chemic 
 ultimates reacting with each other and with ponderable 
 matter according to the law of affinities, and we must re- 
 gard their dissociation and association as constituting elec- 
 tricity in its broadest sense. The important consideration 
 is that in a positive electric charge we have a mass of purely 
 positive matter, and that in a negative charge we have a 
 mass of purely negative matter (Fig. 1), and that we 
 have only to study the differential properties of these 
 masses to determine the character of positive and negative 
 chemic elements in all varieties of mixed or ponderable 
 matter. Thus, ether atoms, as moving matter, associate 
 and dissociate with other forms of matter according to 
 chemic laws. When the fundamental units of matter are 
 united, positive to negative, with maximum surface-con- 
 tact, they have a minimum potential and form the sub- 
 stance Ether. When the ether atoms are separated they 
 form Electric Matter, and at a minimum distance have a 
 maximum potential. By following these lines of thought 
 
8 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 further (impossible in an article of limited extent), it 
 will be clear that Electric, Chemic and Physical actions 
 are fundamentally identical, all being subject to the same 
 great law of ultimate units reacting inversely to the square 
 of distance. 
 
 Electric matter, however, must not be confounded with 
 so-called "electrons" or "corpuscles," which are ponderable 
 matter, and which may be electrified or non-electrified, as 
 any other ponderable matter may be. A correct conception 
 of electric matter ether atoms is essential to the com- 
 prehension of the questions to be considered.* 
 
 PONDERABLE MATTEE. If it be shown that the 
 laws of force can be generalized, then surely all forces must 
 be fundamentally identical ; and as force is the property of 
 matter, then all matter must have identical units. Pon- 
 derable matter may be thus diiferentiated into two great 
 divisions which accord with the divisions of electric matter 
 or ether atoms : ( 1 ) Ponderable positive matter, in whose 
 molecular construction positive or concentrative funda- 
 mental units predominate; (2) ponderable negative mat- 
 ter in whose molecular construction negative or diffusible 
 fundamental units predominate. To illustrate: If a 
 given number of fundamental negative units are combined 
 
 *In his work entitled "Electricity the Chemistry of Ether," 
 the writer has followed the lead of his hypothesis through 
 Electricity, Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology, and his re- 
 searches have convinced him that upon the basis of this hypoth- 
 esis, reiterated in this article, a generalization is possible. 
 On the other hand it is clear that facts, even of Radioactivity 
 or of Electrified Vacua, do not support the Electron Theory of 
 Electricity. The writer is fully aware that only the most dili- 
 gent and extensive inquiry (not confined to one scientific 
 branch) will enable one to correctly value a hypothetical truth; 
 while at a glance he seemingly determines the importance of 
 a discovery of fact: Hence innumerable theories when there 
 should be but one; and hence an incomprehensible labyrinth of 
 laws when there should be but few. 
 
PONDERABLE MATTER. 9 
 
 with a larger number of fundamental positive units, in such 
 relative position as to offer resistance to dissociating in- 
 ihiences, according to the law that forces react inversely as 
 the square of distance, then the combination is a molecule 
 of positive character. Conversely a molecule of negative 
 character may be constructed. The difference between the 
 number of positive and negative units which enter into the 
 construction of the molecule constitutes molecular poten- 
 tial. It will thus be seen that molecular potential and 
 electric potential are identical in as much as they depend 
 upon the unneutralized fundamental units; and that elec- 
 tric and ponderable matter have reciprocal action just as 
 two forms of ponderable matter react on each other. It is 
 conclusive that a molecular potential will possess a field of 
 induction just as an electric potential possesses a field of 
 induction, and that we have only to study the features 
 of the latter to determine the character of the former; al- 
 lowing for such modifications as are incident to molecular 
 conditions. The writer is aware that these conceptions are 
 not in accord with the kinetic theory of gases accepted 
 by scientists; and that he contradicts the idea that atoms 
 have movements independent of those of their molecules. 
 That the molecule is the ultimate vibratory unit can be 
 demonstrated physiologically if not physically. An atom 
 can no more move independently of its molecule than a part 
 of an electric charge can vibrate independently of the 
 whole charge. Any part of an electric charge can become 
 an independent charge, and an atom can become a mole- 
 cule. The atomic and molecular conditions are mutually 
 transformable, but the molecular condition is the motor 
 unity; and the motion must be initiated by extrinsic 
 stimulus. 
 
10 
 
 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 I ' 
 
 xMtjv. 
 
 x- v*++* ' x 
 
 B 
 
 FIG. 2. Electric and Molecular Potentials: A and B, insu- 
 lated and electrically charged bodies surrounded by induced 
 fields, demonstrable by the polarisation of the conductors 
 C and D. The smaller figures E and F denote Ponderable 
 Molecules; the inner circles denote the molecular masses; 
 the plus and minus signs on which denote the quality of 
 the molecular potentials. The molecular masses are sur- 
 rounded by Fields of Induction in which ether or other 
 matter is polarized as in electric fields. The chemic union 
 of E and F neutralizes the molecular potentials thus set- 
 ting free ether from the fields of induction. The ether 
 is evolved as heat or light if it maintains its molecular 
 character, or as electricity if it is split up into atoms. 
 
 It is obvious that ponderable matter may be formed 
 of molecules of incalculable variety depending upon the 
 relative numerical proportions, absolute numbers and rela- 
 tive placement of the fundamental units in the molecular 
 construction. On the other hand, it is obvious that ether 
 molecules never vary in their construction, although 
 numerically they must be measured by the capacity and 
 immensity of interstellar space. 
 
TRANSMUTATION OF FORCE. 11 
 
 TRANSMUTATION OF FORCE. In previous pub- 
 lications the author has expressed in the following formula 
 the modus of the transmutation of force and its radiation : 
 "That the transformation from chemic force to electricity, 
 heat, or light, is accomplished through the setting free of 
 ether from the induced fields of ponderable molecules, con- 
 current with the reciprocal rearrangement and further 
 immolecular neutralization of their atoms; that the trans- 
 formation from electricity to heat and light is by atomic 
 ether becoming molecular; that heat and light are a dis- 
 turbance of the equilibrium between ether and other mat- 
 ter, caused by freed or nascent molecular ether, and mani- 
 fested as waves of readjustment." In illustration: Sup- 
 pose that E (Fig. 2) represents two molecules of sodium 
 with induced fields in which 128 molecules of ether are 
 polarized ; and that F represents two molecules of chlorine 
 in the induced fields of which there are also 128 molecules 
 of ether. Thus 256 molecules of ether are compressed 
 within the interspaces of four ponderable molecules. By a 
 chemical reaction four molecules of sodium chloride are 
 formed, but with decreased molecular potentials, decreased 
 induction in the molecular fields, diminished interspaces; 
 and hence some part of the ether is set free. We will say 
 that the four molecules of sodium chloride have within 
 their fields 156 molecules of ether, then by the synthetic 
 reaction 100 molecules of ether are liberated. If the freed 
 molecules of ether maintain their molecular state, they will 
 disturb the general equilibrium and manifest as heat or 
 light; if the freed ether molecules are brought under the 
 influence of differential potentials or polarities they will be 
 split up, and their atoms will assume the electric state of 
 matter (Fig. 4). 
 
 A hypothesis, to be elementary, must be upheld by all 
 facts, however far removed by evolutionary processes. An 
 
12 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 unexplained fact, though remote, impairs the value of a 
 hypothesis, and a contradictory fact is destructive to its 
 fundamentalitiy. These postulates have been kept in mind 
 by the writer in applying the previous theory to the prob- 
 lems of astronomy; and he writes this article for the pur- 
 pose of calling the stars as witnesses to the correctness of 
 his conceptions. He believes that these conceptiors fur- 
 nish a basis from which to attack the problems of the 
 universe; and he expects to present astronomical evidence 
 that the density and tenuity of matter, and its differential 
 distribution throughout space, are based on the inherent 
 properties of fundamental units concentrativeness on the 
 part of positives and diffusibility on the part of negatives. 
 (Fig. 13). 
 
 FIG. 2A. Indicating the Ultimate of Ponderable Tenuity the 
 Cathode or Beta Particle When Not Electrified. 
 
THE SOLO-PLANETAKY SPACE. 
 
 By this term we designate the domain of the sun and his 
 tributary planets. We may regard this space as being occu- 
 pied by a great wheel, the sun constituting its hub and the 
 planets being placed along the spokes at different distances 
 from the center. One of the important differences between 
 the solo-planetary wheel and a common one is, that if we 
 allot a spoke to each planet, we find that each spoke has a 
 different length and a different rate of revolution from the 
 others. The spoke on which the earth is located, when 
 produced, is called the plane of the ecliptic. The plane of 
 each spoke has a slight inclination to the plane of the 
 ecliptic, just sufficient, as it were, to allow the spokes to 
 pass each other in their revolutions. The rim of the wheel 
 may be conceived as marking the boundary of the solo- 
 planetary space in its equatorial extension. This space, 
 however, may be considered as globular or elliptical in 
 shape. We believe that we can show that the necessities of 
 the solar system demand that the polar diameter of the 
 space allotted to the system be about equal to its equatorial 
 diameter; and that the space is occupied by two great 
 streams of energy, the one imparting to the system the 
 property of equatorial extension, the other the property of 
 polar extension (Fig. 7). Clearly, such energies must be 
 causal factors of a cosmic pressure. 
 
 On looking at the solar system as arranged on an astro- 
 nomical map, it will be seen that the poles of the bodies are, 
 in general, uniformly directed. Hence the solo-planetary 
 space may be considered as having a north and south. But 
 polarity has a different meaning than mere direction. It is 
 conclusive from a study of the behavior of the compass 
 
14 EARTH AN ELECTROLYTE. 
 
 needle, and other phenomena, that the north and south 
 poles of the earth are the seats of qualitatively differential 
 potentials. Physicists have assumed that the earth is a 
 magnet. 
 
 THE EAETH AN ELECTKOLYTE, NOT A MAG- 
 NET. It is only necessary to critically examine the prop- 
 erties of a magnet to doubt the correctness of the assump- 
 tion that the earth is a magne.t. If a magnet is broken 
 into pieces each piece retains the magnetic properties. If 
 a chip, however small, is taken from it, the chip is a com- 
 plete magnet. No such conditions obtain as regards the 
 earth. It is true that there is the natural magnet, but 
 quantitatively the polar differential properties of the earth 
 cannot be ascribed to it. When a substance, subject to 
 electrolytic action, is placed between the poles of a battery, 
 the substance as a whole becomes polarized the more 
 negative part of the electrolyte is attracted towards the 
 positive electrode and the more positive part is attracted 
 toward the negative electrode. This polarization applies 
 to gases, fluids and semi-fluids. That solids under these 
 conditions do not manifest polarization is owing to the 
 fact of the molecules being more firmly fixed, and not ow- 
 ing to any principle in the one that does not pertain to the 
 other. It is consistent with facts to suppose the poles of 
 the earth to be those of an electrolyte rather than those of 
 a magnet that the differential potentials are analogous to 
 the potentials of the plates of a battery, or rather to the 
 poles of a substance undergoing electrolytic action. 
 
 When the solid part of the earth is viewed as an electro- 
 positive body, the fact of there being more land in the 
 northern than in the southern hemisphere must be regarded 
 as evidence of a relatively positive north to a relatively 
 negative south. However, all solids are not positive in 
 quality. A fair proportion of the sulphates, chlorates, 
 
SOLO-PLANETARY SPACE. 15 
 
 chlorides, iodides and other compounds having the negative 
 principle well represented must be electro-negative. An 
 accumulation of negative solids at the south pole will ren- 
 
 ooooooo oj^J^o oooooooooooo 
 
 FIG. 3. An Electrolyte: The dark figures denote positive and 
 the light figures negative elements. In exemplification: If 
 the electrolyte be steam, and separated at its center, an 
 excess of oxygen will be found at one pole, and an excess 
 of hydrogen at the other. 
 
 der it potentially negative, not only relatively but specifi- 
 cally. Figure 3 indicates an electrolyte, say of steam, 
 which is positive in potential as the earth is positive, with 
 electrolytic differentiated poles. 
 
 Investigation of the causes of molecular and mass 
 polarization makes it obvious that a mass or a molecule will 
 not polarize by its own forces. A magnet of soft iron im- 
 mediately depolarizes when the extrinsic force is withdrawn. 
 A so-called permanent magnet inclines towards depolariza- 
 tion. An electrolyte only polarizes under the influence of 
 two different forces. A muscle depolarizes on withdrawal 
 of the stimulus ; and nerves and all other physiologic units 
 do likewise. Hence it is conclusive that external forces 
 are engaged in the polarization of the earth. Also, it is ob- 
 vious that if we find that all of the north poles of bodies 
 within the solo-planetary space are positive in character, we 
 may conclude that this space has not only north and south 
 poles, but that these are positive and negative respectively, 
 when polarizable matter is present, and that a force ex- 
 ternal to the solar system at least gives direction to this 
 polarization. 
 
 Deductively, we must conclude that the common direc- 
 tion of polarities of the solo-planetary bodies is indicative 
 of influence between planetary systems ; and that the polar 
 
16 EARTH AN ELECTROLYTE. 
 
 direction points to a general direction in the polarities of 
 the universe, and that planetary systems are inter- 
 dependent. Nevertheless, the direction of the poles of the 
 system, although caused by universal polarity, must be 
 entirely consistent with, and supported by the forces within 
 the solo-planetary space. In fact, we believe it can be 
 shown that the intrinsic forces of the solar system are suffi- 
 cient for the maintenance and even initiation of the polari- 
 ties of the system, it being only the common polar direction 
 that denotes extrinsic influence. 
 
A CYCLE OF ENERGY. 
 
 It is agreed that energy as heat and light emanates from 
 the sun and is absorbed by the earth. We will take up the 
 course of energy at the point of its passing from the sun 
 to the earth and attempt to follow the cyclic movement. In 
 the first place: What is energy ? We may say that it is a 
 condition of matter not in equilibrium. We must then 
 define equilibrium, and this we determine as: A balance 
 of matter and force depending on the relationship of all 
 matter and all force to all space. Thus, a molecule of 
 oxygen in the air is in equilibrium, but when placed in a 
 partial vacuum, it is entirely out of equilibrium, and imme- 
 diately splits up until an equilibrated condition is attained. 
 Here we must postulate that although ether is not energy 
 all transformations of energy produce ether changes, and 
 that transformative processes consist of reciprocal phe- 
 nomena. Thus an ether molecule (Figs. 1, 2) set free by 
 electric or chemic action on the sun's surface, disturbs the 
 equilibrated relation of matter and force to space, radiates 
 by displacement as a light or heat vibration, and is mani- 
 fested by an equivalent but converse reaction, say, on the 
 earth's surface. Then this energy that we have to consider 
 as passing from the sun to the earth is molecular ether ra- 
 diating by displacement or undulatory motion. If all space 
 were not occupied by matter such radiation by displacement 
 could not occur. 
 
 THE EARTH ABSORBS ENERGY AT THE EQUA- 
 TOR AND EMITS IT AT THE POLES. Our globe is 
 an inverted electrolyte. The sun's rays are incident to the 
 earth's surface. We will not discuss here the side processes 
 of storing energy as vegetable matter, but will consider only 
 the more direct course of the cycle. We have elsewhere 
 
18 THERMO ELECTRIC CELL. 
 
 formulated the following law : "When molecular ether not 
 in equilibrium, as in heat or light, is brought under the 
 influence of differential potentials, it splits into atoms, 
 forming electric currents or charges." Heat or light radia- 
 tions incident to the surface of the earth come under the 
 differential potentials of the earth as a polarized body, and, 
 molecular ether being dissociated, electric currents pass 
 from the equator to the poles, the north or posi- 
 tive pole is negatively electrically charged, and the south 
 or negative pole is positively electrically charged. The 
 difference of electric potential however can never be 
 sufficient to neutralize the primary difference of 
 potential between the poles, and they must still main- 
 tain their differential character of the north being 
 positive and the south being negative, the polar potentials 
 of the earth as an electrolyte being always greater than the 
 polar electric charges. That there are terrestrial electric 
 currents admits of easy demonstration, but how they are 
 generated, or where they go, have not been heretofore satis- 
 factorily explained. As the earth is within the inductive 
 field of the sun, there must be two causal factors in the 
 production of terrestrial currents: (1) Inductive influ- 
 ence of solar forces; and (2) direct influence of the poles 
 of the earth. 
 
 THE THERMO-ELECTRIC CELL presents an anal- 
 ogy to the equator of the earth in its relation to incident 
 energy. In Figure 4 two metals are joined as indicated, 
 the dark part being bismuth and the light part antimony. 
 The junction A is heated and the junction B is kept cool. 
 The ether as heat applied to junction A is split up by the 
 difference of potentials between the metals, negative ether 
 passes to the relatively positive bismuth, and positive ether 
 to the relatively negative antimony, and are shown as elec- 
 tric currents passing through the metals. Now let the June- 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 
 
 19 
 
 tion A represent the equator of the earth and the applied 
 heat the sun's rays, and the analogy, so far, of the earth 
 and the thermo-electric cell is complete. Numerous photo- 
 
 FIG. 4. Thermo-Electric Cell. 
 
 electric experiments might be quoted to show that light is 
 transformed into electric charges when radiating under the 
 influence of differential potentials. In the neighborhood 
 of arc lights, of heated surfaces, or of glowing metals, such 
 electrifications are manifested. Thus the transformation 
 of light and heat radiations into electric currents by the 
 polarity of the earth can be shown to have a multitude of 
 analogies. The disposal of the electric polar charges will 
 be further considered. 
 
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE IN VACUO. Energy fol- 
 lows the course of least resistance. When electrodes having 
 intense difference of potential are placed in a partial 
 
20 
 
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE IN VACUO. 
 
 vacuum tube with only slight decrement of pressure, the 
 tube may not be electrified, that is, the electric resistance 
 may be too great for the current to pass through the tube. 
 By decreasing the pressure of the gas, it begins to glow 
 the particles of the gas are electrified and radiate within 
 the tube. The electric resistance decreases, therefore, 
 
 FIG. 5. Indicating Electric Discharge in Vacuo-cathode and 
 X Rays. 
 
 in direct proportion to the decrease of pressure of the gas. 
 There is a critical point, however, in the decrease of the 
 resistance of the electric flow, and when the minimum is 
 reached increase of resistance occurs. But mark this: 
 The critical period is not determined by a change in the 
 conditions that lessen resistance to the current, but by a 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 
 
 21 
 
 change in the number of electric chips which carry the 
 convection-current. In other words if we could produce 
 a complete vacuum and still be able to supply electric 
 carriers the decrease of electric resistance would progress 
 up to the vacuum point. Here we may say that a vacuum 
 is a space from which ponderable matter is excluded, and 
 occupied with no other substance except ether. Ether 
 then offers no (or a minimum) resistance to the passage 
 of ponderable matter. 
 
 AURORA POLARIS. The aurora occurs at both 
 polar regions of the earth. According to Nordenskiold 
 the poles of the earth are continuously surrounded by a 
 
 FIG. 6. Aurora Polaris. Manifestations of energy from a pole 
 of the earth on its way to a pole of the sun. 
 
 ring or crown of light, the upper edge of which he esti- 
 mated to be 120 miles above the earth's surface, and its 
 diameter to be about 1250 miles. Other estimations have 
 been made to the effect that aurorae extend 500 or 600 
 
22 POLAR CHARGES. 
 
 miles above the earth's surface. During "magnetic 
 storms/' and more especially during the occurrence of 
 spots on the sun, auroral phenomena are so intensely mani- 
 fested as to be observed all over the earth; and these in- 
 tensities seem to have a period of Iiy 2 years, which cor- 
 responds to the length of the cycle of maximum magnetic 
 storms and of sun-spots. Spectroscopic examinations of 
 aurorae show the presence of gaseous matter, the exact 
 character of which is not known. The spectra, however, 
 consist of a few bright lines having a general resemblance 
 to those of the electric discharge through rarified dry air. 
 
 Relative to auroral phenomena a remarkable fact may 
 be noted: The position of the electric (so-called mag- 
 netic) pole of the earth, as determined by the vertical 
 dip of the magnetic needle, was located by Sir James 
 Ross (1831) at 70 5' north. The same navigator nearly 
 attained the corresponding southern pole. (1839-43) and 
 its position is probably about 73^ south. The earth is 
 supposed to have two magnetic north and two magnetic 
 south poles. The notable fact is that the polar area em- 
 braced by the south circle of latitude of vertical dip is 
 much more contracted than that embraced by the north 
 latitudinal circle. In Fig. 7 these polar areas are indi- 
 cated as positive and negative electrodes. 
 
 TERRESTRIAL POLAR CHARGES. In the cycle, 
 we have traced energy to the poles of the earth which as 
 stated are differentially electrified. As the sun's rays 
 continue to act on the equatorial regions, and ether con- 
 tinues to be dissociated, the electric pressure at the 
 poles increases, rupture of the medium must take place, 
 and neutralization must occur in the direction of least re- 
 sistance. The electric energy may follow one of two 
 paths, and these we will consider in reference to their 
 respective resistances: (1) The north and south polar 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 23 
 
 charges may select the nearest available terrestrial route 
 towards each other and thus mutually neutralize. (2) 
 The north and south polar electric charges may be at- 
 tracted respectively towards the poles of the sun and 
 neutralize within that body. 
 
 Now here is electric energy,, as manifested in aurorae 
 polares, that has been estimated by observers as 120 
 to 600 miles from the earth's surface, and evidently with 
 no disposition to point toward the equator. The ques- 
 tion is: From this point which is the direction of least 
 resistance? If we consider that the space of 92,000,000 
 miles between the sun and the earth is occupied by ether, 
 and that the space of about 8000 miles between the points 
 of north and south aurorae as designated is occupied by 
 the earth's atmosphere, we will at once see that distance 
 is not the only factor of resistance. But more important 
 than distance as an element in determining the course 
 of this energy is the fact that the intervening terrestrial 
 space is occupied by another stream of energy, as heat 
 and light, from the sun, which would resist its crossing. 
 The writer has to express a positive opinion that only 
 when great magnetic storms occur and the area of emis- 
 sion of electric energy extends a great distance from the 
 poles, and towards the equator, could neutralization of 
 the electric charges take place by an intra-terrestrial route, 
 either through or near the earth's atmosphere. When the 
 slight resistance offered by partial vacua is considered, 
 the conclusion is inevitable that convection currents start- 
 ing from polar regions must travel through inter-planetary 
 space to the poles of the sun. It must be admitted that 
 distance is only an element of resistance to the travel of 
 energy when ponderable matter is involved as a resisting 
 agent. The electric currents of the earth are directed by its 
 polar potentials, and are taken from the terrestrial poles 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 
 
 FIG. 7 
 
POLAR CHARGES. 25 
 
 by the stronger forces of the sun, just as oxygen is taken 
 from hydrogen by a stronger chemic element, and just as a 
 negative charge leaves a zinc plate to be neutralized within 
 the circuit. 
 
 What is the form of the polar electric radiations? Un- 
 doubtedly ions or chips dissociated by the electric 
 charges. It is possible that they may be identical with 
 rays from radio-active matter alpha rays from the south 
 pole and beta rays from the north. However, there are 
 many other instances of convection-currents carrying 
 matter. In sparks evidence of metallic substances are 
 found. Carbon is dissociated from the positive ter- 
 minal of an arc-light and deposited on the negative ter- 
 minal; and chips of molecules constitute the cathode rays 
 in electrified partial vacua. 
 
 FIG. 7. Indicating a cycle of Energy between the Sun and 
 Earth. Convection currents from the planets arrive at the 
 poles of the sun, where ions are deposited; the currents 
 pass, by conduction, through the central core, C C; and 
 at the equator are transformed into heat and light. A A 
 indicate reversed ionic currents in the photosphere. 
 B B denote ions at the poles which ultimately neutralize 
 within the photosphere. D D point to a certain decrement 
 of pressure at which the electrified ions will dissociate as 
 they leave the poles of the earth. Mark the different 
 sizes of the north and south polar areas of the earth, and 
 compare them with analogous areas as shown in Figs. 
 15 and 16. The figure represents a galvanic circuit with 
 the earth as a thermo-electric cell. 
 
 Fig. 7 indicates energy as heat or light striking the 
 earth, passing as electric currents to the poles, where 
 convection-currents are found, manifesting as aurorae. The 
 convection-currents at first may consist of electrified 
 molecules or ions of the common type hydrogen nega- 
 tively electrified from the north pole, and oxygen posi- 
 tively electrified from the south. As these charged mole- 
 cules or ions pass upwards they will become further dis- 
 sociated, as indicated in Fig. 7o, and as occur in a 
 partial vacuum tube. At the north the hydrogen may be 
 
26 SOLAR CHARGES. 
 
 dissociated into a minute particle as in beta rays, and 
 this being negatively charged will continue its way to the 
 sun's positive pole. The residual particle of hydrogen 
 will diffuse through the earth's atmosphere. At the south 
 pole the charged oxygen will dissociate at proper de- 
 crement into an ion the size of an alpha particle (helium), 
 which being charged positively will seek the south (nega- 
 tive) pole of the sun. The residual particle of the dis- 
 sociated oxygen will diffuse through the atmosphere and 
 neutralize the residual particle of hydrogen. Radiant 
 matter from the poles of the earth may, however, con- 
 sist of various elements as may be analogously evidenced 
 in electric sparks from electrodes of various materials. 
 
 THE SUN ABSORBS ENERGY AT THE POLES 
 AND EMITS IT AT THE EQUATOR. The sun is 
 
 not a self-luminous body, but an electric light. Elec- 
 tric energy emitted at the poles of the earth and other 
 planetary bodies constitutes an immense stream of radiant 
 matter which, according to the law of Ohm, spreads out 
 in the direction of least resistance, fills the solo-planetary 
 space to the north and south of the plane of the ecliptic, 
 or rather the plane of the solar equator, and again con- 
 verging at the poles of the sun enters that body with a 
 concentrated force of inconceivable immensity, and only 
 comparable to the equivalent energy of heat and light 
 emitted at the solar equator. Thus electric currents 
 of immeasurable intensity pass from the solar poles toward 
 its equator, and neutralizing in the equatorial region are 
 transformed into energy which illuminates and vitalizes 
 the world. (Fig. 7.) 
 
 How does electricity travel through the central body of 
 the sun? Undoubtedly by vibratory movements, as 
 through a copper wire or other solid conductor. This is 
 no doubt the method by which electricity travels through 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 27 
 
 the earth from its equator to its poles. The ions with 
 their electric charges reach the poles of the sun, the ions 
 are there deposited, and electric currents proceed toward 
 the equator by vibratory movement. The spectroscope 
 reveals the presence of metallic elements in the photo- 
 sphere, carbon being the only non-metallic element for 
 the presence of which there is any evidence. There is 
 no evidence of electro-negative metalloids, such as 
 oxygen, nitrogen, or other non-conductors; and even in 
 the chromosphere hydrogen, an electro-positive element, 
 according to spectroscopic evidence, is the prevailing con- 
 stituent, although there is also evidence of helium being 
 present. Thus we see, under solar conditions, evidence 
 of positive concentrativeness, and also evidence, although 
 of negative character, of negative diffusibility. Below 
 the photosphere, and perhaps including the polar photo- 
 spheric areas, matter must be more dense. The photo- 
 spheric mass of electropositive concentrativeness must 
 create an axial core of extreme density and of metallic 
 character. That matter at the center of the earth is of 
 great density is the opinion of Lord Kelvin, arrived at 
 from certain experimental evidences. The axial metallic 
 core of the solar body, possessing but slight electric re- 
 sistance, must be the great conducting medium of elec- 
 tric currents passing from the poles to the equator. 
 When the currents neufralize in the equatorial regions 
 great quantities of molecular ether must be produced, 
 and these must seek equilibrium by disturbing surround- 
 ing matter (Fig. 7c.). The conducting core, how- 
 ever, will not be disturbed any more than a copper wire 
 is disturbed by the passage of a current. It is the heat 
 and not the electricity which is the disturbing element. 
 Molecular ether as heat will penetrate and seek equilibra- 
 tion by molecular disturbance in the photosphere, pro- 
 
8 
 
 SOLAR CHARGES. 
 
 ducing the grains or nodules of Herschel; and by vola- 
 tilization will carry some of its elements into the chromo- 
 sphere. The photosphere then is a boiling surface, and 
 the chromosphere is analogous to the steam arising from 
 it. Further, at times, owing to the relative positions of 
 planets the currents in the axial core become more in- 
 tense; or owing to an excessive accumulation of ions at 
 the poles ionic floods occur which, meeting at the equator, 
 produce enormous chemical results; great masses of 
 ether are thus set free, immense ebullitions perturb the 
 photosphere, and volcano-like, great cavities are seen on 
 its surface. These cavities or sun-spots, as seen from 
 the earth, present a dark central portion of irregular 
 form called the umbra, surrounded by a fringe, less dark 
 and mostly made up of filaments directed radially in- 
 wards. Fig. 8 shows a typical sun-spot. The largest 
 spot, observations of which are recorded, had a breadth 
 of 143,000 miles, or nearly eighteen times the diameter 
 of the earth. 
 
 FIG. 8. A Sun Spot. 
 
CYCLE OF ENERGY. 29 
 
 FIG. 9. A Miniature Sun Spot surrounding a heated glass rod. 
 
 To understand the results ensuing from the liberation 
 of large masses of molecular ether, we must remember 
 that ether, being matter, must possess impenetrability; 
 and that owing to the property of cohesion it takes time 
 for ponderable matter to mix and equilibrate with the 
 ether. An experiment made by Frederick Hovenden 
 illustrates this idea. Fig. 9 shows a cross section of a 
 glass rod heated, and viewed, by means of an electric 
 light lantern, through an atmosphere of motes created 
 by means of tobacco smoke. The ether given off by the 
 heated glass creates a dark ring surrounding the rod, and 
 as it ascends it parts the mote-laden air. Ether set free 
 beyond the capacity of ponderable molecules to work it 
 up into light vibrations presents darkness, or heat move- 
 ments; and this is what occurs in sun-spots, and round 
 the heated rod. 
 
 Molecular ether freed by electric neutralization per- 
 turbs the immediate elements situated in the photosphere, 
 and, radiating as from an electric lamp, furnishes light 
 and energy to the tributary planets. This energy, 
 emanating from the solar equatorial region, radiates along 
 
30 SOLAR CHARGES. 
 
 the solar equatorial plane (approximately the plane of 
 the ecliptic), and is returned to the sun as electric 
 energy. The sun gathers electric energy and converts 
 it into heat and light; the planets take up the heat and 
 light and convert their energy into electricity. The sun 
 is an electrolyte, the earth is an inverted electrolyte; the 
 sun absorbs energy at its poles, and emits energy at its 
 equator; the earth absorbs energy at its equator and emits 
 it at its poles. The equatorial plane of the solo-planetary 
 space is filled with a stream of energy of heat and light 
 emanating from its solar center; the polar regions of 
 the space are filled with electrified ions emanating from 
 the poles of the planets, radiating sunward, and con- 
 centrating at the solar poles; and so the cycle is complete. 
 But, mark, with the absorption of energy the sun gains 
 ponderable matter, and this fact is indicative of a greater 
 cycle. 
 
A GREATER CYCLE. 
 
 The sun is a dilating body. The continuous accession 
 of charged molecules to the poles of the solar mass, car- 
 ried by convection-currents from the poles of the .planets, 
 gradually, although slowly, increases its dimensions. 
 Probably it has already engulfed one or two planets by 
 extending its equatorial circumference. Mercury already 
 anticipates its coming doom and is preparing for its final 
 absorption. 
 
 It must be remembered that matter in the sun has only 
 one-fourth the density of the earth, and that the density 
 of Mercury is seven-eighths that of our globe. Other 
 planets vary in density. Hence matter lost by the planets 
 and gained by the sun will increase the sun's mass much 
 more than it will decrease the masses of the planets. 
 Again, it is not necessary for the sun's circumference to 
 reach Mercury in order to absorb it, as, long before that 
 period arrives, the solar heat will have dissolved the 
 planet. The intense radiations of molecular ether from 
 the sun falling on the surface of Mercury are partly trans- 
 formed into electric currents which carry particles from 
 its poles to the sun. Mercury is being thermically and 
 electrolytically dissolved, and truly the duration of its 
 life as a planet is short. 
 
 Astronomers state that the sun is a small body in com- 
 parison to some of the fixed stars, which are great sun- 
 centers of solo-planetary spaces. It is estimated that 
 Algol has a diameter of 1,060,000 miles. It is probable 
 that there are some suns of such dimensions that if one 
 were placed in the center of the solo-planetary system it 
 would dissolve Venus, and render conditions rather un- 
 pleasant for us. Yet, the solo-planetary spaces of such 
 central bodies may not be any larger than ours; and the 
 
32 PLANETARY REBELLION. 
 
 only reason for suns being so large is that they are at 
 a different period of a cyclic movement, which is per- 
 petually modifying the conditions within the solo- 
 planetary spaces. Our sun is growing. Mercury and 
 Venus will be melted and absorbed. The solar circum- 
 ferential area will embrace the orbit of Venus. Its 
 diameter will then be 69,000,000 miles. Our earth may 
 then be about the size of Mercury at the present time, and 
 we may have lost our atmosphere. We may even have 
 been robbed of our moon, which may be dragged on* 
 bodily at a tangent to its orbit. Our "Last Man" will 
 have sung the last dirge long before the close of this 
 cyclic phase. The life of our planet is escaping at its 
 poles, shortly it will be absorbed into the constitution of 
 the great Sun, and its constituents will part company, 
 never more to combine as an individual planet. Our 
 people, their experiences, their histories, their attach- 
 ments, the results of their efforts to immortalize, will 
 pass. The events of our planet may not even live in 
 memory. But a planet will then have passed through 
 one cycle, and surely a condition will be attained by evo- 
 lution, which, in some form, must be capital to start the 
 next. 
 
 A PLANETARY REBELLION. At this stage we 
 have to retrovert somewhat in our story: Once upon a 
 time there was a great rebellion iri the solo-planetary space 
 against the dominion of the Sun. It was headed by 
 Jupiter, supported by Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, and 
 occurred during the formative stage of planets. It came 
 about in this wise: The Sun was then a comparatively 
 small body, and his chief advantage was the central posi- 
 tion. He was receiving electric energy at the poles, and 
 emitting heat and light at the equator, and the planets 
 were revolving round him as their common center. 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 33 
 
 Jupiter conceived the idea of intercepting the electric 
 radiations of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and thus be- 
 coming a sun himself. Certain periods in the revolution 
 of the outer planets favored the scheme, and the outer 
 planets poured their electric energy into Jupiter's poles. 
 Jupiter increased in strength beyond all the other planets, 
 and this fact made him ambitious to extend his sphere 
 over the asteroids. Thus, the path of the asteroids being 
 middle ground between the Sun and Jupiter, they were 
 prevented from concentrating as one planet, and thus 
 formed several. Further, being near to Jupiter, dur- 
 ing the epoch of his greatness, they lost considerable 
 matter as electrically charged ions radiating outward to 
 Jupiter's poles. Mars also was stinted in his growth by 
 the action of Jupiter. By and by the Sun, through his 
 central advantage, becoming more massive, drove Jupiter 
 from the asteroids, and, attacking the planet directly, 
 broke his rebellious spirit by bombarding his surface with 
 heat and light radiations, and seizing his supplies from 
 the outer planets. The Sun thus established his suprem- 
 acy over the solo-planetary space. Jupiter even now, at 
 times, shows a refractory spirit, as mark his great "red 
 spot" from about 1880 to 1885, which, sun-like, was 
 probably formed by the absorption of electric energy de- 
 rived from Saturn or Uranus, and transformed into heat 
 at the planet's equator. A study of the position of the 
 planets, and of Fig. 7, will show that the relative posi- 
 tion of Jupiter is favorable to the interception of this 
 energy. 
 
 THE CYCLE CONTINUED. Eeturning to the 
 cyclic movement we find the sun's circumference becoming 
 equal to the orbit of our late earth. Great tongues of 
 matter and flame project millions of miles further. In 
 this connection it must be understood that the density of 
 
34 SPACIAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 the sun is comparatively small, and that each planet at 
 the sun's surface density is capable of occupying a 
 spacial band on each side of its orbit extending half way 
 to the next planet's position. Hence, as the sun grows 
 in mass and absorbs other planets, and in addition receives 
 electrified matter from those remaining, its circumfer- 
 ence must be well over the orbit of the last-absorbed 
 planet. The solar body gets progressively less dense, as 
 it increases its dimensions, according to the disposition, 
 of positive and negative matter within the solo-planetary 
 space. (Fig. 10.) 
 
 Jupiter has declined, and the histories of his civiliza- 
 tions, of his giant strifes, and still more giant accom- 
 plishments, have been written. Saturn long since has 
 lost his rings and is now the seat of great "human" ac- 
 tivity, denoting such a high civilization inconceivable to 
 a mind in our present status. Uranus is just arriving at 
 those conditions of density, and of the relative con- 
 sistencies in the states of its matter, essential to vital 
 processes. A polar view of the conditions of this period 
 is undoubtedly shown in the great nebula Lyra. (Fig. 
 21.) 
 
 SPACIAL BOUNDARIES. Here we must more par- 
 ticularly define the solo-planetary space. We will divide 
 the space allotted to our system into: (1) The True or 
 Primary solo-planetary space, consisting of that portion 
 which is more or less occupied by ponderable matter; and 
 (2) the Secondary or Greater solo-planetary space, a 
 vast area surrounding the primary, bearing a similar 
 relation to it as a field of induction does to its primary 
 potential, and into which probably no ponderable sub- 
 stance ever enters. If we travel to a point many millions 
 of miles beyond Neptune, keeping on the plane of the 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 
 
 sun's equator, and passing through the region of negative 
 and tenuous ponderable matter (Fig. 10), we will find 
 the sun's rays, as manifesting under present conditions, 
 diminished, but the rays of the numerous suns beyond, 
 in the aggregate correspondingly increased. If we ad- 
 just our photimeter we will find that at some such point 
 in space (perhaps ten millions of millions of miles from 
 ponderable matter) the outgoing and incoming radiations 
 will be exactly equal. Here we may plant our boundary 
 post as marking the limits of the greater solo-planetary 
 space. Our post is on a line with the great solo- 
 planetary wheel which turns on the plane of the sun's 
 equator, and the hub of which is the sun's mass; but we 
 have left ponderable matter behind and we are in the 
 midst of interstellar space. On looking telescopically 
 towards the wheel we are struck with our changing 
 scenes. We see Uranus, now appearing as the largest of 
 the planets, taking on all the phases of the moon, but 
 fading in the distance at its full phase to the merest 
 point. We will see a partial eclipse of the sun by Saturn, 
 and the glorious sight will be enhanced by rays of light 
 passing between Saturn's ring and the central body. Our 
 earth is the merest speck in the heavens. We are in the 
 midst of the celestial desert, where even the mental eye 
 fails to distinguish landmarks; but our delicate instru- 
 ment detects the billows in the ocean of ether as they 
 pass and repass the gulf separating borderland from 
 borderland of solar systems infinitestimal waves of 
 force traveling through boundless space. The intensity 
 of the loneliness terrorizes the soul, and the zero pres- 
 sure threatens its integrity. The most minute particle 
 of ponderable matter would appear as a friend. We are 
 surrounded by a medium that transmits vibrations with- 
 out modification, and without resistance. We place our 
 
36 SPACIAL BOUNDARIES. 
 
 vibrator and send a message through infinite space, which 
 will roll through the aeons; and the message reads. 
 ALONE WITH GOD. 
 
 Let us further define our boundary lines. Keeping on 
 the line as already defined (where radiant energies 
 equalize) we will travel towards a point directly opposite 
 the south pole of the sun and on a plane of the sun's axis. 
 We find that our line of travel describes a curve indicat- 
 ing that we are bounding a space of globular or elliptical 
 form. From a view-point on a plane of the solar axis, 
 and at the south pole of the greater solo-planetary space, 
 we place our telescope so that we can examine the sun's 
 pole. Our first glance gives a delightful surprise, and we 
 look at the telescope to see if it has been converted into 
 a spinthariscope. The splendid sight presents a field of 
 scintillations similar to that of a platinum surface bom- 
 barded by alpha rays. On consideration we see at once 
 that this is a matter of fact and that alpha energy from 
 the poles of the planets is beating against the south pole 
 of the sun, and is partly reflected with magnificent bril- 
 liancy. We now adjust the telescope, at low power, so 
 as to have a general polar view of the solar system. It 
 manifests as one glimmer of light, more intense than, but 
 similar in character to the glow of an electrified Crookes 
 tube. We raise the telescopic power so as to examine 
 each planet's pole separately, and we view the glories of 
 aurorae polares. A stream of energy is emanating from 
 each pole, spreading out fan-like, and again concentrat- 
 ing, enters the sun's mass at its pole. Without the 
 telescope this light has a faintish yellow tint like the 
 light of an electrified vacuum. We conclude that all 
 space is filled with energy, and that radiant glory every- 
 where prevails. 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 37 
 
 A CEITICAL POINT. Again we return to the greater 
 cycle, the course of which we take up at a critical point. 
 The sun has extended his boundaries until they are co- 
 equal with the boundaries of the solo-planetary space. 
 There is no sun, and there are no planets. The density 
 is almost uniform, only a relative positive condensation, 
 showing the axis of the space, which is a production of 
 the former sun's axis; and a relative negative diffusion 
 towards the rim. Matter still revolves around the axis. 
 The matter of the space also shows some polarity, that is, 
 at the north pole of the space there are more positive 
 ions than there are negative, and at the south pole of the 
 space there are more negative ions than positive; a con- 
 dition similar to that of an electrolyte (Fig. 3). It 
 would be chaotic but for this electrolytic arrangement, 
 and for the relative placement of positive and negative 
 matter throughout. There is no electric manifestation, 
 there is no light, and there is no heat. Matter is in 
 equilibrium at the highest point of general diffusibility. 
 In this respect it must be remembered that heat and light 
 must result from relative motion. Viewed from a "fixed 
 star," the solo-planetary space presents darkness. 
 
 The Nebular Theories of Kant, Laplace and Herschel, 
 formulated by different processes of reasoning, assumed 
 the creation of gaseous matter in rotary motion, with 
 conditions somewhat similar to those of this phase of 
 the cycle. They reasoned that rings of matter were left 
 behind through a contraction-process, and that the outer 
 planets were formed first. 
 
 A KETKOACTION. At this stage of the cyclic move- 
 ment all the elements and conditions for chemic action 
 exist. As long as there were two or more bodies within 
 the solo-planetary space their mutual action caused in- 
 ductively synthetic reactions, or the separation of positive 
 
38 
 
 RETROACTION. 
 
 and negative elements with larger molecular potentials 
 and increased induced fields, which ended in diffusing 
 matter. When the last planet was absorbed by the sun, 
 and the sun himself by this action lost his identity, 
 chemic action changed in character. Electric action 
 had disappeared, and with it the power of matter to dif- 
 fuse. Positive and negative elements then had a tendency 
 to come together and to assume denser conditions. Mat- 
 ter at this stage had only one form of potential, which 
 was chemic or molecular in character. Probably all 
 matter was ionic in character, the ions being separated by 
 large intermolecular spaces filled with ether, and the 
 ether being dominated by the molecular potentials of the 
 ions. 
 
 Let us draw a mental picture of the true solo-planetary 
 space with the almost uniform density of its matter dur- 
 ing this period, as indicated in Fig. 10 from B to E. If 
 
 FIG. 10. A semi-cross-section of the true Solo-Planetary 
 Space, showing its equatorial plane, P E. The lighter 
 portion, above N R, indicates the region of Nega- 
 tives. The darker central portion, P R, indicates the region 
 of Positives. As matter contracts Ether Spaces are formed 
 from the Sun, S, outwards. 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 39 
 
 we note the tendency of elements to react on each other, 
 thus setting free molecular ether, as heat, we will have 
 no difficulty in seeing that at different intervals within 
 the solo-planetary space large bodies of ether will be 
 segregated, and thus the contracting ponderable matter 
 will be confined to limited areas. Fig. 10 shows such 
 ether spaces in process of formation. It is evident that 
 as the ponderable masses continue to contract that ether 
 spaces will continue to grow. Space A will extend across 
 the equator through BB and unite with space Al. A 
 and Al will extend along the circumference until uniting 
 respectively with C and Cl. The other ether spaces will 
 extend also until they are all united into one great inter- 
 space. Then, it will be seen, that there is a central rod 
 of ponderable matter, S, along the axis; and great 
 bands, probably about twelve in number, encircling the 
 rod at different distances. Each of these bands has for 
 its center the orbit of a future planet. The central rod, 
 S, is the future sun. During this phase of the retro- 
 active period there have been three modes of action within 
 the solo-planetary space: (1) A circular mass movement 
 of the rod and the bands on an axial center the mo- 
 mentum of former rotation. (2) Contraction of ponder- 
 able masses as a result of chemic action. (3) Contraction 
 from gravitation. However, it must be recognized that 
 contraction takes place at a greater rate in matter placed 
 towards the center that in that placed towards the circum- 
 ference of the space; and that matter is less dense and 
 more negative in direct proportion to the distance from 
 the axis of the space. The conditions of this period, and 
 of that which follow, may be observed in the great nebula 
 of Andromeda. The outer ether spaces and bands of 
 ponderable matter are distinctly shown, but the inner 
 
40 BIRTH OF ELECTRICITY. 
 
 spaces are too small, and too obliquely presented to be 
 observed. (Fig. 11.) The three active forces will now, 
 be modified by an event of importance. 
 
 FIG. 11. A Polar View of a Solo-Planetary System during 
 the contracting period. The nebula of Andomeda. From 
 Mr. Roberts' Photograph. 
 
 THE BIRTH OF ELECTRICITY. Up to this time 
 matter has not, to any great extent, been physically dif- 
 ferentiated, but now along the centers of the rod and 
 bands small nuclei of solid matter might be observed. 
 Those in the rod quickly develop into a solid core, while 
 those in the more central bands develop more quickly 
 than those eccentrically placed. During this period the 
 radiations from the surfaces of each band are neutralized 
 by the radiations from the opposing surfaces of adjoin- 
 ing bands. These radiations are caused by the contraction 
 of matter as a result of chemic action, and are in the 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 41 
 
 nature of heat and light waves. But now the radiations 
 from the rod strike the solid nuclei of the first band, and 
 these becoming polarized dissociate the radiating ether 
 and electricity is for the first time manifested. From the 
 poles of the nuclei electrified chips fly off, which, seeking 
 the poles of the rod, electrify its core, and the first elec- 
 tric circuit is made. 
 
 We conclude that matter within the solo-planetary space 
 is in some degree polarized by external forces, and that 
 polarization is universal and uniform. Independently of 
 external force we find that the forces within the space 
 are sufficient for the production of all relative phenomena, 
 but for this uniform direction. Thus a solid nucleus of 
 matter when exposed to the sun's rays would immediately 
 polarize, but the fact of the direction of the polarization 
 being universally uniform indicates a directing force be- 
 yond the solo-planetary space. When a nerve is exposed 
 to a stimulus, such as the optic to light, the initiatory 
 nerve unit polarizes, and the polarization is always in 
 the same direction, and is independent of the character 
 of the stimulus. So it is with the direction of polariza- 
 tion of the nuclei of planetary bodies. 
 
 Under the influence of electric currents flowing in op- 
 posite directions the rod and the nuclei revolve with 
 greater velocity. The first band rapidly contracts later- 
 ally, and the rays of the rod begin to fall on the second 
 band. The nuclei of this band become polarized, the 
 ether radiations are dissociated, and convection-currents 
 are established between the second band and the central 
 rod. The nuclei in this band begin to revolve on their 
 axes, and they acquire greater speed than other matter in 
 the same band, thus aggregation takes place around these 
 as centers. Some of the nuclei, being more favorably 
 situated and nearer the central rod, move with a greater 
 
42 BIRTH OF ELECTRICITY. 
 
 velocity than others. Thus, as they cross each other's 
 spheres they unite, until only one nucleus remains in the 
 band of matter, which becomes a planet. Other planets 
 follow from the same processes of condensation, and in 
 order from the sun outwards. 
 
 In the meantime the central rod, by the chemic re- 
 actions of its elements, and from its increased revolu- 
 tionary speed, assumes the globular form, and thus is 
 gradually transformed into the sun of the present time. 
 The sun speedily develops from the accession of radiant 
 matter from the poles of the planetary nuclei, and he 
 gradually assumes control over the planetary space. The 
 radiations of heat from his equator striking against the 
 first band retard the further formation of its nuclei, and 
 as these radiations become more intense the nuclei of the 
 first band dissolve, the material of the band reassuming a 
 more uniform consistency; and as the dimensions of the 
 sun continue to increase this band becomes his great 
 medium for transmitting light to the planets the photo- 
 sphere. 
 
 As the sun increases his dimensions successive bands 
 are brought under his sway, and the order of the solar 
 system of to-day is established. The only departure from 
 this systematic procedure was the rebellion of Jupiter, 
 which we have already recorded. However, when the 
 sun's circumference corresponds to the orbit of Neptune, 
 there will be still a vast sphere tributary to him, where 
 matter may be conceived as available for the formation of 
 new planets; always bearing in mind that as the sun's 
 circumference approaches the rim of the solo-planetary 
 wheel his influence is over matter, which is progressively 
 more negative and more diffusible. Thus the solo- 
 planetary system, on the line of its equator, may be sur- 
 rounded by an atmosphere of negative matter (Fig. 10) 
 
GREATER CYCLE. 43 
 
 which is never condensed; just as each planet is sur- 
 rounded by an atmosphere. This circumferential band 
 of negative matter must exercise a repelling influence on 
 similar surfaces of proximate systems, hence, large inter- 
 spaces filled with ether exist between the stars; and this 
 repulsion must be a factor in determining, subject to 
 cosmic pressure, the dimensions of greater or secondary 
 solo-planetary spaces. A molecule, a nucleolus, a cell- 
 nucleus, an electrically charged body, a planet, a sun, are 
 each surrounded by a space such as surrounds the solo- 
 planetary system. According to the distribution of 
 energy emanating from the solo-planetary system our 
 nearest neighbors should be the celestial north and 
 celestial south of us, and, as will be afterwards shown, 
 should present a nebulous appearance. 
 
A CYCLE OP LIFE. 
 
 The history of one planet is, in the main, the history 
 of all. The rule must obtain that the nearer to the sun 
 the shorter the history of the planet, the shorter the 
 period that vegetable and animal life is possible on its 
 surface, and perhaps the shorter the life of its individual 
 plants and animals. Inside of Neptune there were prob- 
 ably about twelve planetary bands in the embryo of the 
 solar system. Others may be developing beyond Neptune. 
 The sun never develops physical conditions suitable for 
 plant or animal life. Its function is to convert electric 
 energy into heat and light, and as a central body to regu- 
 late the conditions of its tributary planets. It is the 
 great diffusive agent of matter as the transformation of 
 energy at this seat is accompanied by ionization. Two 
 great processes go on in the universe, alternately pre- 
 dominating: (1) One embracing chemical action ac- 
 companied by the concentration of matter; (2) the other 
 embracing electric action accompanied by the diffusion 
 or ionization of matter. The sun is the great and prin- 
 cipal organ of ionization. 
 
 Probably Mercury was the fourth planet from the 
 center. The third was Vulcan, which may have been 
 absorbed by the sun a few years ago. The orbit of the 
 first planet was less than 1,000,000 miles in diameter and 
 it still maintains its revolutions, and embryonic band 
 form, as the photosphere. The life of the second planet 
 must have been of short duration, and probably was elec- 
 trically torn to pieces, its constituent ions being deposited 
 on the poles of the sun, or dissolved into vapor, according 
 to the degree of positivity or negativity in their mole- 
 cular potentials. The duration of the life of a planet 
 must be influenced by the intensity of incident radia- 
 
CYCLE OF LIFE. 45 
 
 tions and the dimensions of its mass. Obviously life on 
 the more immediate inner planets must have been short 
 and intense. However, we must not altogether judge 
 past conditions by the present. For instance, during the 
 life period of Mercury the sun was comparatively small, 
 and Jupiter may have partially assumed the properties 
 of a sun, thus depriving the central body of its intensity. 
 At that time Jupiter may have been a number of scat- 
 tered planets, which at all times during the periods of 
 their revolutions may have intercepted electric rays from 
 the Saturn and Uranus regions. Again the extreme outer 
 planets may not have been sufficiently condensed at this 
 period to promote electric energy. Thus the conditions 
 favorable to life moved from Mercury to Venus and in- 
 creased in duration in the latter; thence to the earth and 
 again increased in duration. The law of progressive in- 
 crease, however, will have a break in the case of Mars, 
 but this is fully explainable by considering the influence 
 of Jupiter on that planet. Conversely Jupiter will have 
 a corresponding excess of increase of the period during 
 which life can be supported. So life scenes shift from 
 one planet to another, from within outward, from the 
 proximity of the sun to the outermost possible planetary 
 condensation, from being short and intense to being long 
 and calm, until one turn in a perpetual cycle has been 
 accomplished. Incomprehensible as to its magnitude, 
 simple in its plan, uniform in its principles, great and 
 glorious in its results, in its contemplation the infinite 
 system of cycles, from the evolution of planets to the 
 mitosis of cells, calls forth a venerable worship for the In- 
 herent Force that directs all. 
 
DYNAMICS OF THE SOLAE SYSTEM. 
 
 As factors in the production of dynamic phenomena 
 the following laws are noted : 
 
 1. Newton's first law of motion: "A body once set 
 in motion and acted upon by no force will move forward 
 in a straight line, and with a uniform velocity, forever." 
 We do not question the correctness of this law, but the 
 extent of its application in explaining phenomena is cer- 
 tainly unwarrantable. It assumes an initiatory force 
 which it does not name, and is not satisfactory as to 
 changing conditions. If we could place our hands on the 
 earth and stop its revolutionary movement, the planet 
 would immediately resume that movement on removal of 
 the force which stopped it. Let us see: Fig. 12 shows 
 a wire through which is flowing an electric current. 
 Within the electric field is placed a north-seeking pole of 
 a magnet bent and pivoted in such a way as to be free to 
 
 FIG. 12. Rotation of an Electric Field. The northseeking 
 pole N revolves from left to right when the positive cur- 
 rent passes from A to B. 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 47 
 
 rotate. The positive current enters at A and escapes at 
 B. When the current is present the pole rotates in the 
 direction indicated, from left to right; when the current 
 is absent the rotary movement stops. Newton's law is just 
 as applicable to such a movement as it is to that of the 
 earth. This law finds expression in the term momentum. 
 2. The electric or magnetic law is rendered thus : "Un- 
 like forces mutually attract; like forces mutually repel." 
 Newton's gravitational law is formulated as follows: 
 "Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every 
 other particle with a force inversely proportional to the 
 square of the distance." Obviously these two laws are not 
 in harmony, and hence are not basic to a generalization. 
 Newton's law is defective in that it eliminates repulsion as 
 an inherent property of matter; the electric or magnetic 
 law is not cognizant of the concentrativeness of positives 
 relative to the diffusibility of negatives. The writer sub- 
 mits the following as a general law : Unlike forces mutu- 
 ally attract; like forces if negative mutually repel; like 
 forces if positive mutually repel to the extent of their fields 
 of induction, and attract by an inherent principle of 
 concentrativeness. It will be observed that it is only in ref- 
 erence to positives that the electric or magnetic law is 
 modified. Figure 13 illustrates the writer's conception 
 of the primary forces. The arrows indicate the direction 
 of the reactions. Between positives the inner arrows denote 
 the impenetrability of the fields of induction, while the 
 outer arrows denote inherent attraction. It must always 
 be borne in mind that positive potentials will separate by 
 means of attraction between the positive forces and prox- 
 imate negative forces. As Newton framed his law as apply- 
 ing to the ret ion of planets, and as these bodies are posi- 
 tive, we will define Newtonian attraction as that form which 
 occurs between positive masses, as indicated by the outer 
 
48 
 
 LAWS OF DYNAMICS. 
 
 arrows (Fig. 13). Thus it will be identical with the cohe- 
 sion of positive molecules. For convenience we wUi tabu- 
 late the reactions as follows (Fig. 13) : (1) Newtonian 
 attraction, or positive mass attraction,, taking place between 
 positive masses; (2) polar mass attraction folio wing the ap- 
 proximation of unlike poles; (3) mass attraction occurring 
 
 * ^#*^%z* * * * > -^^ 
 
 FIG. 13. Indicating Differential Manifestations of Elementary 
 Forces: The centers represent insulated potentials, 
 whether Electric, Molecular, or Mass; the primary poten- 
 tials being surrounded by fields of induction. 
 
 between positive and negative masses. (1) Pcjitive mass 
 repulsion limited to the impenetrability of fields of induc- 
 tion, as in the interspaces of positive molecules (inner 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 49 
 
 arrows, Fig. 13) ; (2) polar mass repulsion following the 
 approximation of similar poles, also limited to fields of in- 
 duction when positive; (3) mass repulsion occurring be- 
 tween negative masses, and acting inversely as square of 
 distance (applying also to proximate negative poles). A 
 relative movement of poles may occur, without mass 
 translation. 
 
 3. Eelative Direction. Around an electric current there 
 is a magnetic whirl. Clerk Maxwell formulated the follow- 
 ing rule as to its direction. "The direction of the current 
 and that of the resulting magnetic force are related to one 
 another as are the rotation and forward travel of an or- 
 dinary (right-handed) corkscrew." (Fig. 14.) 
 
 FIG. 14. The arrows denote the direction of positive currents, 
 and induced whirl of positive ions. 
 
 This rule applies to the positive electric current, and to 
 the north-seeking magnetic pole. The writer formulates the 
 following general law: Facing a receding positive, or ap- 
 proaching negative, primary current, a positive potential 
 positive magnetic pole, positive ion, or positive body with- 
 in the field of induction, rotates from left to right, in the 
 upper segment of its cycle. 
 
 Scientists are not entirely agreed as to the quality of 
 the north-seeking pole of a magnet. It is the opinion of the 
 writer that it is positive, and similar to the terrestrial 
 north : The compass does not behave as if it were directed by 
 a fixed potential such as the pole of a magnet, or even 
 by the polarized potential of an electrolyte; but it does be- 
 have as if directed by current potentials. We have shown 
 
50 LAWS OF DYNAMICS. 
 
 (Fig. 7) that from the earth's equator a negative current 
 flows northward, and a positive current southward, each of 
 which escapes at its respective pole. Now mark the differ- 
 ence between the area embraced within a circumferential 
 line passing through the north electric, or so-called mag- 
 netic, pole of the earth, and the similar electric area of the 
 south. It is apparent that the positive and negative elec- 
 trodes of the earth bear a wonderful analogy to the elec- 
 trodes of a static machine selected as to size so as to give a 
 maximum spark with a constant electro-motive force (Fig. 
 15) ; and to the different dimensions of blood-clotting at 
 positive and negative electrodes, as shown in Fig. 16. Truly, 
 these are evidence of the concentrativeness of positivities, 
 and the diffusibility of negativities; and they are also evi- 
 dence that the construction of Fig. 7 accords with ter- 
 restrial electrical facts. 
 
 The writer concludes that the positive pole of the mag- 
 netic needle points northwards, and that its actions are the 
 result of a couple the electric currents of the sun as ex- 
 pressed by the earth's rotation on its axis, and the electric 
 currents of the earth. The magnetic dip belongs to the 
 influence of the earth's currents and is similar to the at- 
 traction of a current for iron filings. The dip gets larger 
 as the rotation velocity of the earth decreases towards the 
 poles, and as the earth's electric currents condense and 
 approach nearer the surface. If the earth's currents en- 
 tirely controlled the needle it would point east and west, 
 or at right angles to the currents. The needle being acted 
 upon by two currents of opposite direction, its positive pole 
 takes the electrolytic direction of a positive ion going in an 
 opposite direction to a negative current, or, seeking the 
 cathode of the sun. The north-seeking pole is certainly 
 positive, and obeys the rotary law (Fig. 12) as formulated, 
 as do also the sun and planets. The poles of the earth, of 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAK SYSTEM. 
 
 51 
 
 the compass-needle, and of the elements of the photosphere 
 (Fig. 7, AA) have a uniform general direction, and the 
 primary currents of the sun (Fig. 1, CC) must be a com- 
 mon directive cause. The currents of the earth being di- 
 rected by its polar potentials point differently. 
 
 FIG. 15. Electrodes of such relative size as to give a maxi- 
 mum spark. 
 
 FIG. 16. Differential clotting of blood at Positive and Nega- 
 tive Electrodes. Compare these with the polar electric 
 areas of the Earth. (Fig. 7). 
 
 4. Ampere's laws: (1) "Parallel electric currents of 
 opposite direction mutually repel; those of the same direc- 
 tion mutually attract." Fig. 17 indicates the manifesta- 
 tions of this law. When the currents are of the same direc- 
 
52 
 
 SOLAR MOTIONS. 
 
 tion the induced lines of force tend to embrace the two 
 currents; when they are opposite in direction, the lines of 
 force tend to pass between and repel them. (2) A series 
 of laws may be summed up: "Currents obliquely directed 
 induce stresses in the surrounding media tending to 
 straighten their paths, as nearly as possible, in parallel 
 direction." (3) The force exerted between two parallel 
 
 FIG. 17. Attraction of currents of the same, and repulsion 
 of those of opposite direction. The arrows denote the di- 
 rection of the whirl. 
 
 portions of circuits is proportional to the product of the two 
 currents, to the length of the portions, and inversely pro- 
 portional to the simple distance between them." This law 
 of Ampere's is fundamental to Kepler's second law : "The 
 radius-vector of a planet describes equal areas in equal 
 times." The distinctive quality of Ampere's laws is their 
 fundamentality, being as applicable to solar systems as to 
 simple electric circuits. His was one of the greatest minds. 
 SOLAE MOTION'S. We have described the sun's mass 
 as possessing a central nucleus or rod of extreme density, 
 metallic or positive in quality, and having in a high degree 
 the property of electric conduction. Surrounding the cen- 
 tral nucleus the masses are less dense, and according to 
 spectroscopic evidence are made up of positive matter in 
 which hydrogen largely figures. The following are types 
 of chemic elements proved by means of spectroscopic ob- 
 servation to exist in the photosphere: Hydrogen, carbon, 
 iron, nickel, copper. Electronegative elements have not 
 been spectroscopically observed in the sun.. 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 53 
 
 We may assume that the central nucleus extending from 
 pole to pole is constituted of the more dense of the elec- 
 tropositive elements. We have concluded that electrified 
 matter emanating from the poles of the planets is being 
 perpetually deposited at the poles of the sun, and that elec- 
 tric currents pass from the poles to the equator. The ques- 
 tion arises: What effect do these current forces produce 
 on the photosphere ? The answer must be rotation. 
 
 It is evident that the photosphere must be the induction 
 field of currents passing through the central sun. Now, if 
 we apply the corkscrew rule to the electric forces of the 
 sun we find that if we mentally stand off the south pole, 
 the positive current is receding and the negative approach- 
 ing, and as the photosphere is made up of positive ions 
 the rotary direction should be from left to right, and this is 
 just what we find. We can mentally assume a position off 
 the south pole of the sun and see the great solo-planetary 
 wheel, its hub, its immense spokes .of force, their terminal 
 planetary bulbs, and its fanciful marginal rim of nega- 
 tivities, rotating from left to right in the upper segment of 
 the cycle, just as we can mentally picture the cyclic whirl 
 of matter in the field of induction of a wire through which 
 flows an electric current. The fundamental principle is the 
 same, and the cyclic direction follows a common law. 
 
 Observation of the sun's spots has shown that the 
 equatorial zone has a rotary period of 25 days, while at the 
 latitude of 40 the period is 27 days. In regard to this 
 phenomenon it must be remembered that cohesive force in 
 the photosphere is relatively absent. The explanation of 
 this rotary peculiarity is rendered possible when we con- 
 sider the sun as a great electrolyte. Fig. 7 indicates the 
 direction of the central electric currents in the sun towards 
 the equator. Positive ions accumulate at the north and 
 negative ions at the south pole. The induced currents are 
 
54 SOLAR MOTIONS. 
 
 shown as flowing in the opposite direction, or from the 
 equator to the poles, as charged ions (Fig. 7). Now, we 
 see that the positive ions accumulating at the north pole 
 will exercise a retarding influence over the induced positive 
 current, and the negative ions accumulating at the south 
 pole will retard the negative induced current. The retard- 
 ing influence will be in direct proportion as the distance 
 from the equator. It is possible that the portions of the 
 sun's mass around the poles (including its central rod) 
 have no rotary motion, or rotate in the opposite direction 
 to that of the photosphere. It is obvious that the velocity 
 of photospheric rotation is directly proportional to the dis- 
 tance from the inhibitory polar potentials. 
 
 Another aspect of the electric conditions of the sun must 
 be referred to : Great embankments of positive and nega- 
 tive ionized matter, absorbed from the planets, and built 
 up at their respective poles (Fig. 7) periodically exceed the 
 control of the primary electric currents, and just as ions 
 in an electrolyte are attracted, and by union set energy free, 
 so the ions in the sun are attracted towards the equator 
 and by union set free vast quantities of ether, thus causing 
 the disturbances manifested as sun spots. Analogous re- 
 verse or polarized currents admit of easy demonstration. 
 
 Viewing the sun as a great electrolyte with the primary 
 currents passing through its center, and a diffused periphery 
 constituting the field of induction, we must regard the lines 
 of force radiating from the primary current as extending 
 in a wheel-like manner to the limits of the solo-planetary 
 space. These lines of force will extend until neutralized 
 by induced or opposing forces; but we must consider that 
 the greater part of this space is filled with the non-neutral- 
 izing substance, ether. Hence, we must conclude that the 
 primary currents of the sun are neutralized by the induced 
 currents of the photosphere and potentials of the planets, 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 55 
 
 interplanetary ether being only a medium of conveying 
 force. Further as the photosphere rotates so must the 
 planets rotate, only the former maintains the normal cir- 
 cular path,, and thus the explanation of the movements of 
 the photosphere merely involves the law of positive ions 
 rotating round a current in a given direction, together with 
 certain laws of attraction and repulsion. In the photo- 
 sphere we see evidence of a circular movement in which 
 forces, acting according to Newton's law of gravitation 
 between positive elements, and Ampere's law of repulsion 
 between currents of opposite direction, are mutually neu- 
 tralized. Although the mutual neutralization of these 
 forces acting according to their respective laws is preserved 
 throughout the solo-planetary space, yet, problems of plan- 
 etary orbits are more numerous than those of photospheric 
 rotation, and are more difficult of solution. It must be 
 clearly comprehended that static forces merely attract or 
 repel, and that it requires a current movement to produce 
 a rotation, which in its simplicity is circular or cyclic in 
 form. It will be evident that all deviations in the orbits 
 of planetary bodies from the simple circular movement of 
 the photosphere are explainable by the action of static 
 forces; and it will be evident that the circular movement 
 and its direction are the effects of current forces, and that 
 true circularity is the primary element of all orbits. 
 
 PLANETABY MOTIONS. The motions of the earth 
 and those of the other planets are mainly responsive to 
 current and static forces in the sun. The electric currents 
 of the earth (as those of the photosphere) are induced cur- 
 rents, although the induction is directed by the differ- 
 ential polarities of the earth as an electrolyte. To solve 
 the problem of the earth's motions we must clearly under- 
 stand that the sun and planets are positive bodies having 
 a mutual attraction according to Newton's second law of 
 
56 PLANETARY MOTIONS. 
 
 force (Newtonian attraction). If we conceive that matter 
 within the solo-planetary space consists of an equal amount 
 of positive and negative units, but that owing to the con- 
 centrativeness of positive units and diffusibility of negative 
 units they become unequal in their distribution, the posi- 
 tive quality of certain bodies and the negative quality of 
 others will be easily understood. A study of the move- 
 ments of cometary bodies, together with spectroscopic evi- 
 dence, is convincing that comets are negative masses, per- 
 haps in some instances with positive nuclei, condensations 
 from the distant sphere of negativities; and that the sun 
 and planets, including our moon, are positive bodies con- 
 densed within the central sphere of positivities. (Fig. 10) 
 
 If the forces according to Newton's law of gravitation, 
 and those according to Ampere's law of repulsion, are ap- 
 plied to the earth, and that body placed so that its equa- 
 torial plane is identical with that of the sun, the earth 
 would describe a complete circle, if not disturbed by other 
 forces. Accepting the circular path within the plane of the 
 sun's equator (with terrestrial equinoctial conditions ob- 
 taining) as the normal orbit, we will proceed to consider 
 the causes which produce the departure from normality. 
 It is evident that the direction of the rotary movements 
 of the earth and other planets conform to the direction of 
 the rotation of the photosphere, all being within a common 
 electric field, and all moving as positive ions round electric 
 currents flowing in constant directions. 
 
 In Fig. 18 let the broken line indicate the normal circu- 
 lar pathway of the earth round the sun, and the unbroken 
 line the present elliptical orbit, and let us account for the 
 deviations from normality by the application of the laws 
 noted. We have already stated that the obliquity of the 
 earth's orbit from the plane of the sun's equator was at- 
 tained as a resultant of two or more orbits by the union 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 57 
 
 s 
 
 NJ 
 
 
 \ V 
 
 \ *"* 
 
 FIG. 18. The Broken Line indicates Normal Circularity; the 
 Unbroken Line the Earth's Orbit; the plane of the paper 
 indicates the Plane of the Ecliptic; and the Radiating 
 Lines the Plane of the Sun's Equator. The letters N S de- 
 note the Approximating Poles of the Sun and Earth. The 
 North Pole of the Sun is indicated as pointing upward. 
 The eccentricity of the earth's orbit is only 1-60, it being 
 exaggerated in the figure; and the points at which the 
 ellipse cuts the circle are only approximately indicated. 
 
58 PLANETARY MOTIONS. 
 
 of different masses. The obliquity does not account for 
 the phases of the earth's orbit, but is an essential element 
 which allows static forces to act on the planet, as it changes 
 its relative position to the sun. 
 
 If we consider the application of gravitational attraction 
 according to Newton's law, and of repulsion according to 
 Ampere's law of opposite currents, we must conclude that 
 in all cases they will balance each other. If the earth ap- 
 proaches the sun nearer than the normal circuit attraction 
 according to the first and repulsion according to the sec- 
 ond are increased ; if the earth is beyond the normal circuit 
 both attraction and repulsion are decreased according to 
 their respective laws. We can therefore eliminate these 
 laws as factors of modification of normal circularity of the 
 earth's orbit. Only, as the law of gravitation is based on 
 static forces, and the law of repulsion is based on current 
 forces, it is clear that the nearer the earth is to the sun it 
 must travel at a greater rate according to Ampere's third 
 law, the velocity not being opposed by Newton's law ; which 
 accords with Kepler's second law. This is an important 
 consideration : Newtonian attraction and Amperian repul- 
 sion oppose each other to the limit of the gravitational 
 force, but there is no factor in gravitational law opposing 
 velocity according to Ampere's third law. Hence, the 
 earth approaches the vernal equinox with increased momen- 
 tum, and approaches the autumnal equinox with decreased 
 momentum. It is apparent that as Newton's law of attrac- 
 tion and Ampere's law of repulsion give the normal orbital 
 path, and as the oblique modification of this path has been 
 shown to be the result of union of two or more bodies, we 
 may eliminate these elements from further consideration, 
 only remembering that according to Ampere's or Kepler's 
 law the momentum is increased or decreased in accordance 
 with the distance of the earth from the sun. 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 59 
 
 Heat and light radiations may possess the property of 
 repelling bodies and thus reinforce the repulsion of electric 
 currents of opposite directions. These energies, however, 
 are chiefly important (as regards orbital revolutions) in 
 being sources from which electric currents are transformed. 
 We see comets approach the sun and retreat from that body, 
 when apparently they are equally under the influence of the 
 solar rays. 
 
 On March 20th the vernal equinox the poles of the 
 earth are equidistant from the sun's center. At this date 
 the earth is 7.15 south of the sun's equatorial plane, and its 
 orbit and the normal circuit are about straight. Obviously 
 the two south poles (Fig. 18 SS) of the bodies approximate, 
 and hence their electric currents are not parallel. Mass 
 attraction according to Newton's law, and repulsion accord- 
 ing to Ampere's law, being balanced, the acting forces are 
 those of repulsion. Two south poles approximating cause 
 mass repulsion, while the currents tend to straighten by 
 repelling the south and attracting the north ; and the polar 
 forces also act in the same way by likes repelling and un- 
 likes attracting. In addition, the earth enters this portion 
 of its orbit with increased momentum, as a result of the 
 increased rotary velocity, according to Ampere's third law, 
 which tends to force it in a straight path, according to 
 Newton's first law. The planet is thus carried beyond the 
 normal circuit. 
 
 The electric currents of the sun and earth must become 
 parallel shortly after March 20th, when there is attraction 
 between the proximate poles the north of the earth and 
 the south of the sun (Fig. 18) ; and the polar attraction 
 is accompanied by polar mass attraction. But both phases 
 of attraction are slight at the beginning, and the first is 
 resisted by the action of the currents against distortion of 
 their paths from parallel directions (Ampere's second law), 
 
60 PLANETARY MOTIONS. 
 
 and the latter by momentum (Newton's first law). As the 
 earth, on moving forward in its orbit, turns its north more 
 towards the sun's south pole, polar mass attraction in- 
 creases, but evidently just as attraction would become pre- 
 dominant the earth crosses the solar equatorial plane on 
 June 3d, when two north poles approximate, and polar 
 mass attraction ceases, and is replaced by repulsion from 
 the strain of distorted fields, due to the angular paths of the 
 electric currents of the two bodies, according to Ampere's 
 second law. Polar approximation, however, has gained an 
 impetus which carries the north of the earth sunward until 
 the summer solstice on June 21st. The increased orbital 
 speed according to Ampere's or Kepler's law, and the re- 
 pulsive force of two south or negative poles approximating, 
 from the perihelion to the equinox, give a momentum, 
 which with the straightening of the paths of the electric 
 currents of the two bodies after June 21st, carry the earth 
 to its aphelion on July 6th, the maximum divergence of its 
 orbit from the normal circular path; the main opposing 
 force being mass attraction resulting from approximation 
 of opposite poles during the period ending June 3d. 
 
 At the summer solstice, June 21st, the north pole of the 
 earth reaches its relatively maximum approachment to the 
 sun. This pole has pointed sunward since June 4th against 
 the relatively greater attraction of the south pole by the 
 sun's north, and against the resistance of parallel currents 
 to the distortion of their paths since the end of March. 
 The opposing forces now become dominant: The electric 
 currents tend to straighten their course, and the south pole 
 of the earth is attracted by the north pole of the sun, hence, 
 relatively the north pole of the earth is turned back by the 
 conjoint action of these forces. In addition, although the 
 two north poles still approximate, there is an absence of 
 polar mass repulsion, owing to the concentrativeness of 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 61 
 
 positive potentials. Now mark: Notwithstanding that 
 theie is approximation of similar poles north to north 
 from July 6th to the autumnal equinox, the earth's orbit 
 contracts, and the conclusion is inevitable that the chief 
 cause is the absence of polar mass repulsion owing to posi- 
 tive concentrativeness. In fact, reversely, apposition of the 
 positive poles, with an intervening mass of ether in the 
 interstellar space, may give polar mass attraction. Concur- 
 rently with the positive polar action there is decreased 
 momentum, which lessens the resistance to the approach- 
 ment of the two bodies; and at the same time the electric 
 paths tend to straighten, which is done by relatively attract- 
 ing the negative and repelling the positive pole, which, it 
 must be remembered, is not a movement of translation of 
 the earth's mass. 
 
 On September 22d, the autumnal equinox, the earth's 
 orbit is about even with the normal circuit, and its poles 
 are equidistant from the sun's center. At this time the 
 earth is 7.15 north of the equatorial plane, and hence the 
 two north poles approximate, and therefore the paths of 
 the electric currents are not parallel. The same forces are 
 dominant, although modified, for a short period after Sep- 
 tember 22 d, as those previous to that date. When the elec- 
 tric currents become parallel the south pole of the earth and 
 the north pole of the sun approximate, and this presentation 
 prevails until December 5th, when the earth crosses the 
 equatorial plane of the sun. Hence, during this period 
 there is polar mass attraction between the two bodies. Now, 
 observe that the earth enters this period from September 
 22d onward without the increased momentum, and with- 
 out the repulsion of like forces which occur at the vernal 
 equinox. It follows that the planet's course during the 
 period of polar mass attraction from the approximation 
 
62 PLANETARY MOTIONS. 
 
 of the south, pole of the earth to the north of the sun effects 
 a contracted orbit, which, after December 5th, is continued 
 to the perihelion by the momenta. 
 
 On January 4th the earth is at the perihelion, its point 
 of maximum orbital constriction relative to the normal cir- 
 cuit. The two south poles approximate and the south of the 
 earth is repelled and its north is attracted. The approxima- 
 tion of two south poles implies mass repulsion. The move- 
 ment of translation and the relative polar movement con- 
 tinue until the vernal equinox, at which date we com- 
 menced the consideration of this part of the subject. 
 
 This period from perihelion to the vernal equinox 
 is the great repulsive period of the earth from the sun dur- 
 ing its orbital course. The period is analogous to the re- 
 pulsive phase of cometary orbits, and the same fundamental 
 force of repulsion between negative potentials, or the dif- 
 fusibility of negative units, is the cause in both instances. 
 When we come to study the causes of the eccentric paths 
 of comets this fact will be more clearly shown. 
 
 Compare the period from aphelion to the autumnal equi- 
 nox with that from perihelion to the vernal equinox, and 
 we see in the one a contracting orbit although two north 
 (positive) poles approximate, in the other an expanding 
 orbit when two south (negative) poles approximate, and 
 we must be struck with the correctness of the great funda- 
 mental conception of the concentrativeness of positive ulti- 
 mates and the diffusibility of negative ultimates, as ex- 
 pressed in Fig. 13. It is true that there is increased mo- 
 mentum during the expanding period and decreased mo- 
 mentum during the contracting period, but these facts are 
 sequential to the same great law of ultimate units being 
 differentiated on the bases of an inherent attraction in posi- 
 tives, and an inherent repulsion in negatives. We observe 
 in the earth's orbit manifestations of negative diffusibility 
 
DYNAMICS OF SOLAR SYSTEM. 63 
 
 just as we observe in its atmosphere manifestations of the 
 same principle; of positive concentrativeness just as we 
 observe in the earth's mass manifestations of this prin- 
 ciple; and just as we observe manifestations of both prin- 
 ciples in the distribution of matter within the solo-plan- 
 etary space; and we have a right to conclude on this addi- 
 tional evidence (as we have formerly concluded from elec- 
 trical, chemical, physical, and physiological evidence) that 
 these principles are fundamental, and of universal appli- 
 cation. 
 
COMETS. 
 
 The number of these bodies is considered to be enormous ; 
 perhaps they are innumerable. It is only the ones that ap- 
 pear brilliant from the earth that are rare. The perihelia 
 of some of them are less than five million miles, and a large 
 proportion of them come within the earth's orbit. The in- 
 clination of their orbits to the ecliptic range from to 
 90. The constituent parts of a comet are: (1) The coma, 
 a nebulous cloud of matter, faintly shining, and spherical 
 or oval in shape. (2) The nucleus, a bright star-like point 
 near the center of the coma, commonly appearing as the 
 comet approaches the sun. There may be two or more 
 nuclei. The coma and nucleus constitute the head. (3) 
 The tail, a train of light, stretching from the comet, follow- 
 ing the head when approaching, and preceding the head 
 when receding from the sun the tail is always directed 
 from the sun. The dimensions of comets are enormous, 
 the head being sometimes larger than the sun. A comet 
 less than 10,000 miles in diameter would likely escape ob- 
 servation. When a comet approaches the sun its head 
 usually contracts, and expands again on receding. This 
 feature was particularly noticeable in Enckes' comet, which 
 at perihelion had a volume l/10,000th of its original dimen- 
 sion, expanding in an equal degree on receding. The length 
 of the tail of a comet varies from 10,000,000 to 100,000,000 
 miles. The comet of 1882 was 8,000 times the bulk of the 
 sun. Notwithstanding their bulk, their densities being 
 low, the aggregate amount of ponderable matter is ex- 
 tremely small compared with that of planetary bodies. 
 
 Spectroscopic investigation shows the presence of lumin- 
 ous carbon compounds, cyanogen being suggested. When 
 a comet approaches very near the sun its spectrum gives 
 evidence of the presence of metals sodium, magnesium, 
 
COMETS. 65 
 
 iron. There is evidence pointing towards comets changing 
 their spectra with their distance from the sun. A comet 
 approaching the sun increases in brightness., and the newly 
 formed nucleus emits envelopes or streamers of light, from 
 the side nearest the sun, which concentrically follow each 
 other, with a periodicity of some hours. The nucleus during 
 these processes usually grows smaller and brighter just 
 before the liberation of each wave of light. Although the 
 nucleus of the comet seems to oscillate there have been no 
 evidence of continuous rotation. 
 
 The material forming the tail is supposed, at least partly, 
 to be emitted by the nucleus, and it is the opinion of ob- 
 servers that this material is repelled by both the comet and 
 the sun. As the comet passes around the sun at its peri- 
 helion, its tail swings round with a tremendous velocity, 
 so that the tail continues to be the relatively distant part. 
 (Pig. 7.) 
 
 When a comet moves in an ellipse it returns at regular 
 intervals, but if its orbit is hyperbolic it is never observed 
 again. Professor Pierce suggested that the home of the 
 comet is a shell of nebulous matter accompanying the solar 
 system, and lying between it and the nearest fixed stars. 
 
 We have designated the outer portion of the solo-plan- 
 etary space, constituting the rim of the great wheel, as the 
 region of negativities. This is the "home of the comets." 
 The first conception that presents in regard to these bodies 
 is that they are negative masses. Some of them, however, 
 act as if possessing positive nuclei. Evidently they are 
 not polarized, and do not possess electric currents; but 
 incident light may be transformed into electrical charges 
 by the differential potentials of their elements. This 
 method of charging can be demonstrated by throwing light 
 on a metallic surface, when the metal and the atmosphere 
 are charged differentially. 
 
66 COMETS. 
 
 Each molecule of ponderable material, whether positive 
 or negative, has a certain inductive potential, and the 
 greater this potential the greater the intermolecular spaces 
 of the material. (Fig. 2.) The intermolecular spaces are 
 modified by pressure. Now, when molecules are brought 
 under the influence of a greater potential (as the potential 
 of the sun) their inductive potentials are partially neutral- 
 ized, the intermolecular spaces are accordingly diminished 
 in size, and the substance becomes more dense. This phe- 
 nomenon is illustrated by the formation of a cloud of 
 vapor when aqueous gas is brought into an electric field; 
 a fact demonstrated by Townsend in experiments recorded 
 by Professor Thomson. It is easily understood that with the 
 increasing density, as the comet approaches the sun, there 
 will be evolved large quantities of ether from the molecular 
 interspaces, the radiation of which will cause streams of 
 light to emanate from the nucleus. In addition, a mole- 
 cule, or a mass, of high potential passing through ether will 
 polarize and depolarize the ether in its course, thus im- 
 pulses in the ether are sent out from the cometary mass. 
 
 When we come to consider the causes of differentiation 
 between the orbits of comets and those of planets, the most 
 striking features are the absence of polarity, and conse- 
 quent absence of electric currents in the cometary mass, 
 and their presence in the planetary body. Hence, in con- 
 sidering cometary phenomena, we can eliminate Ampere's 
 law of repulsion between currents of opposite direction, 
 and the orbital variations arising from the differentiated 
 poles in the moving body, which are determining factors as 
 to the course followed by planets. This simplifies the mat- 
 ter to gravitational attraction according to Newton's law, 
 and attraction or repulsion according to the law of likes and 
 unlikes as occurring between the north or south pole of the 
 sun and a body of similar or dissimilar quality to that of the 
 
COMETS. 67 
 
 proximate solar pole. In fact, if we confine Newtonian 
 gravitation as applying to attraction between two positive 
 bodies, we may be able to eliminate it from consideration 
 in reference to the orbital course of comets; leaving only 
 attraction between dissimilar, and repulsion between simi- 
 lar (negative) forces, as applying to these bodies. We 
 must consider a comet as a mass of negative matter, with- 
 out poles, and without electric currents ; although particles 
 of a cometary mass may be differentially charged by inci- 
 dent rays from the sun. Heat and light rays falling on a 
 mass, and meeting resistance, may be transformed into 
 electric charges, the more positive elements being positively 
 charged, and the more negative elements being negatively 
 charged; if, however, the resistance to the passing of the 
 rays is slight the elements will be charged oppositely to 
 their own potentials. It must also be considered that nega- 
 tive elements are not electric conductors. 
 
 We can conceive that from the domain of diffusible nega- 
 tivity, perhaps many times larger than the space embraced 
 within the orbit of Neptune, during the period of transition 
 from the nebulous state to partial condensation, great 
 masses of matter will gravitate towards the center of the 
 solo-planetary space. Matter within this region must ro- 
 tate round the sun in a common orbit, perhaps as a great 
 circular band of nebulosity, negative in character as a whole 
 but spotted with multitudinous condensations of positive 
 nuclei. At certain periods, when the relative positions of 
 the outer planets are favorable to attraction, immense 
 nebulous masses lose their equilibrium and start towards 
 the sun. We must here recall the relative position of the 
 sun's equatorial plane to the solo-planetary space (Figs. 
 7, 10) . It is conceivable that the cometary masses may be 
 diverted from their equilibrated orbits either north or 
 south of the sun's equator, by the planetary influence, the 
 
68 COMETS. 
 
 forces at work at this stage being the attraction of masses 
 positive potentials on the part of the sun and planets, and 
 negative potentials on the part of the comets. If, however, 
 processes of condensation have progressed to a certain rela- 
 tive point there may be a large positive nucleus to the 
 mass. In this case there may be a true Newtonian gravi- 
 tational attraction between positive bodies. It must be 
 considered, however, that as a body condenses, it becomes 
 polarized, with induced electric currents, and hence a true 
 planet is born, rotating in a true planetary orbit. 
 
 A comet may commence its centripetal course at any part 
 of the negative region, but at some point of its inward 
 course, probably in the neighborhood of the orbit of Jupi- 
 ter, it will get northward of the equatorial plane of the 
 sun. This relative position will be brought about by at- 
 traction between the north poles of the sun and inner 
 planets and the negative mass of the comet. Could a 
 negative cometary mass fall into the north pole of the sun ? 
 No. Eegarding the possibility of such an event resulting 
 from gravitation and momentum, it must be considered 
 that it is relative attraction that must decide the course. 
 When the comet approaches the north pole of the sun what 
 previously was attraction becomes a repulsion, the polar 
 region being the seat of tremendous negative electric en- 
 ergy seeking the solar positive pole. However negative the 
 comet may be, it is less negative than the charges on the 
 ions pouring into the north (positive) pole of the sun. 
 (Fig. 7.) Attraction when the comet approaches this 
 region of concentrated force becomes relative repulsion. 
 Eelative repulsion can be demonstrated by the attraction 
 of a feather by a positive charge, concurrently air being 
 relatively repelled although negative. The negative comet 
 then sweeps around the sun, crosses the equatorial plane, 
 and is brought under the influence of the solar south 
 
COMETS. 
 
 69 
 
 (negative) pole. No force of attraction ever manifests 
 in such velocity as the repulsive forces, between the two 
 negatives, shown by the rate of travel in the sweep of the 
 comet's tail, as it passes into the region of solar polar 
 negativity. Like a rifle ball the comet is shot into space, 
 the tail leading the way, as it is relatively more negative, 
 back again, if its orbit is hyperbolic, to its nebulous home, 
 where its elements are probably diffused never to reform 
 as a cometary body. Could a comet enter the solo-plane- 
 tary space from the outside ? Hardly ; it would be diffused 
 into ionic fineness to the limit of ponderable cohesiveness in 
 crossing the boundary where interspacial radiations 
 equalize. 
 
 Matter constituting a comet has a tendency to break up 
 into sections having mutual repulsion. Sometimes the 
 nucleus divides into two, and the tail also divides in like 
 form. The writer cannot miss an opportunity to compare 
 analogous conditions. Let the astronomer study karyo- 
 
 FIG. 19. Negative Diffusibility: The broken line indicates 
 the shape of the cathode, the rays from which diffuse un- 
 der great decrement of pressure, and assume the form of 
 the Phosphorescent Pattern. 
 
70 COMETS. 
 
 kinesis as manifested in a human cell, and watch the seg- 
 mentation of the nucleolus or centrosome (one of the larg- 
 est known molecules) . Let him see how the cathode rays, 
 independently of anodal attraction, spread out, as if each 
 electrified particle were endowed with the spirit of repul- 
 sion. This is strikingly manifested in Goldstein's phos- 
 phorescent patterns of cathodic streams. These and numer- 
 ous other phenomena are undoubtedly based on the principle 
 of repulsion inherent in negative units and exhibited when- 
 ever negative potentials predominate. 
 
 If it be conceived that matter within the solo-planetary 
 space is constituted of positive and negative units in equal 
 proportions, that these units are distributed within the 
 space according to the concentrativeness of the one kind, 
 and the diffusibility of the other (Fig. 10), and that these 
 react in accordance with the fundamental law of attraction 
 and repulsion as reformulated and generalized in this 
 article, and elsewhere by the writer, then, the differential 
 phenomena pertaining to the sun, planets and comets will 
 be more easily comprehended. 
 
THE MOON. 
 
 The surface of the moon nearest the earth presents 
 evidence of the absence of both ocean and atmosphere. 
 Our satellite is said to turn on its axis every time it 
 revolves in its orbit, its axial and orbital revolutions be- 
 ing considered as periodically equal. It shows some evi- 
 dence of polarity; that is, it slightly turns its poles al- 
 ternately towards the earth. All the evidence obtained 
 by observation points to the moon being incapable of 
 sustaining either plant or animal life, and this is the 
 opinion expressed by astronomers. 
 
 The moon turns on its axis just the same as the Him- 
 alaya Mountains turn on their axis! The mountains 
 keep their base towards the earth's center, and so does 
 the moon, and the same law of Newtonian attraction 
 governs both. The conception of the earth's circumfer- 
 ence having extended to the moon's orbit will render it 
 clear that there is no axial rotation of the moon as an 
 individual body. The moon, however, loses time, and 
 instead of revolving in its orbit every 24 hours as do the 
 mountains on the earth's surface, it takes 28 days, owing 
 to the resistance of the sun's forces. 
 
 Matter in the moon undoubtedly varies in its elec- 
 trical conductivity. If we compare dry and wet clay 
 electrodes we will at once see that part of the proximate 
 surface may not be an electric conductor, if moisture is 
 entirely absent, which Js doubted by some observers. 
 Matter in the interior of the moon, and part of its sur- 
 face, however, being metallic in character, must possess 
 this property in a high degree. Incidence of radiant 
 energy, conductivity and polarity of the body, elements 
 in the production of electricity, indicate the presence of 
 lunar currents. If currents are present, they would 
 
72 THE MOON. 
 
 tend to make the moon rotate on its axis ; but the rotation, 
 if made, would be in reference to the sun as a center, not 
 to the earth as a center, the lunar gravity conditions 
 would have to be overcome, and the satellite would then 
 become an independent planet. The conditions cannot 
 be ascertained from comparing the moon to the earth 
 because the rotation of the earth on its axis makes the cen- 
 ter of gravity at the geometric center, while the center of 
 gravity of the moon may be a point very near the proximate 
 surface, just as the center of gravity of the comet is within 
 its head. The moon's orbital revolution probably was 
 primarily identical with the earth's axial revolution, and 
 was the result of Newtonian attraction between the earth 
 and the sun; and the reaction of electric currents, primary 
 on the part of the sun, and induced on the part of the 
 earth; according to this conception the earth and moon 
 being then one body. The lunar proposition is that of a 
 body having electric currents induced by those of one cen- 
 ter, while it is rotating around another. The currents 
 of the earth, and those of the moon, having one general 
 direction, do not repel each other. Besides, both being 
 induced, they are largely neutralized by the solar currents. 
 It is conceivable, however, that the moon was entirely a sep- 
 arate condensation from that of the earth, both belonging 
 to the same primary band of matter, but having separate 
 orbits. The smaller body, coming within the gravitational 
 influence of the larger, assumed its present orbit as a satel- 
 lite. This speculative thought does not in any way modify 
 the conclusions formulated in this article regarding pres- 
 ent lunar conditions. 
 
 Furthermore, as the more diffusive elements of the 
 comet are always the most distant from the center round 
 which it rotates, this may be the case with the elements 
 of the moon. The moon in its orbit may be likened to a 
 
THE MOON. 73 
 
 comet approaching its center of attraction, all of its ele- 
 ments being attracted, but in different degrees, and the 
 more diffusible being left behind. The tendency to this 
 arrangement of the elements is obviated on the part of the 
 earth (and other planets) by an axial rotation which makes 
 the earth's atmosphere uniformly distributed. The polar 
 phases of the moon, however, may admit in principle 
 the same explanation as those of the earth. The distal 
 side of the moon may have an atmosphere,, may be an elec- 
 tric conductor, and may be the supporter of vegetable and 
 animal life. The evidence is negative, but deductive rea- 
 soning goes far to render it probable that the necessary 
 conditions for the support of life are present. Veritably, 
 if observers could find evidence of there being a lunar 
 aurora polaris, or other evidence of polar charges, the man 
 in the moon would be no longer considered mythical. 
 
 The polarity of the moon is evidence of the presence 
 of the aurorae now or in the past. When it is considered 
 that the molecules of solids are largely positive, giving a 
 mass like the moon a large positive potential, it is incon- 
 ceivable that such a body should exist without attracting 
 a negative atmosphere. The moon must be considered as 
 an island at a distance from its continent, but partaking of 
 the latter's general character. It may be considered as a 
 section of the earth embracing the atmosphere, ocean, and 
 land, lifted upwards (it may have been really left behind 
 in a contraction process) and presenting its base to the 
 earth, and we view it as we mentally view the base of a 
 mountain from the earth's center. We can mentally 
 picture the base of such a mountain as we view the lunar 
 barren presentation, while the opposite surface is covered 
 with the products of an advanced civilization. It may be 
 advanced as militating against the possibility of life on the 
 moon that the long (half its revolutionary period) cold 
 
74 THE MOON. 
 
 nights and hot days would be prohibitory, but the ter- 
 restrial conditions in the polar regions are based on prac- 
 tically longer days and nights, and life is consistent with 
 the sequent conditions. 
 
 A relatively large quantity of heat must be absorbed by 
 the surface of the moon during its day. This heat again 
 radiating during the night will modify the temperature 
 of its atmosphere, Another thought, although speculative, 
 will present possible conditions. We see in the thermo- 
 electric cell (Fig. 4) heat applied to one junction, A, con- 
 verted into electricity by differential potentials, and emit- 
 ted as heat at another junction, B. Now, when the sun is 
 shining on the proximate surface of the moon, the prox- 
 imate surface is represented by junction A; the polarities 
 of the moon are represented by the different metals, and 
 the opposite surface of the moon is represented by junc- 
 tion B. Clearly, the sun's rays, intensely beating on dry, 
 metallic areas of the proximate lunar surface, are split 
 up into electric currents flowing toward the lunar poles, 
 where, instead of creating aurorae polares, the currents 
 are reflected and neutralize in the equatorial regions on the 
 opposite lunar surface, and radiating as heat therefrom, 
 produce a warmth throughout the lunar nights. But 
 would not this thermo-electric action take place conversely, 
 and warm this side of the moon during its wintery night ? 
 No; at least not to the same extent. The opposite side of 
 the moon absorbs heat radiations and to a great extent 
 localizes the energy as does the surface of the earth. 
 Rays of light and heat incident to the proximate surface 
 of the moon to some extent are reflected, but their ether 
 must be largely dissociated into electric currents, there 
 being little localization of energy. Again, would not sim- 
 ilar thermo-electric action take place on the earth ? Again, 
 no. Such action is prohibited by the short nights, the 
 
THE MOON. 75 
 
 essential condition of the themo-electrie cell being a dif- 
 ference in the temperature of the junctions, of a magnitude 
 so great as to overcome the accompanying resistance to 
 electric currents. Surely, the moonites possess a veritable 
 paradise, their island home being heated by day and by 
 night. Is the long lunar night a period of darkness ? This 
 query leads to another conception. Evolutionary processes 
 in the moon must be more rapid than in the earth; hence 
 discoveries are made by intuitional reasoning. That the 
 poles of the moon were charged with a tremendous differ- 
 ence of potential was probably known early to the lunar 
 inhabitants. Therefore, not being content with the star- 
 light of their long night, they found a means of tapping 
 this polar energy and putting it to practical uses. Run- 
 ning insulated silver rods to the neighborhood of the poles 
 they could convey this electric energy to the habitable por- 
 tion of the moon and thus by means of the electric light 
 artificially set their whole domain ablaze. Could a similar 
 use of polar energies be made on the earth? It is doubt- 
 ful. Evidently terrestrial poles are not so strongly elec- 
 trified as those of the moon, and they are further apart. 
 The problem then is to find an electric conductor that 
 would give less resistance to the current than the resist- 
 ance offered to the convection currents, chiefly passing 
 through ether to the poles of the sun. On the moon from 
 natural advantages the problem is easier of solution. The 
 lunar electrolytic pole is evidently electrically charged to 
 about its full capacity, hence slight electrolytic polarity is 
 manifested. 
 
 Pressure depending on gravitation is different in the 
 moon from that on the earth, but the synthetic conditions 
 essential to an organic molecule do not depend on gravi- 
 tational pressure, so much as upon the pressure of inci- 
 dent light and heat radiations on a resisting surface. Life 
 
76 
 
 THE Moox. 
 
 may be more ephemeral, plants may assume forms of in- 
 conceivable delicacy, and the winged variety of animals 
 may predominate. Evolution may follow different lines 
 and the human type of beings may evolve along diiferent 
 pathways to those followed on the earth. It is true that 
 the atmosphere must be less dense than that of the earth, 
 but gravitational weight is less for equal masses, and thus 
 the equilibrium of a vital organism to its surroundings 
 
 FIG. 20. The writer's conception of the distant surface of the 
 moon. A glimpse through our satellite. 
 
 may be similar to that on the earth. It may be argued 
 that if there were water to any large extent on the moon 
 it would be attracted by the earth to its proximate surface, 
 and in support of the argument may be quoted the lunar 
 influence on our tides; but the relative position of the 
 physical elements in the moon, as we have said, is regu- 
 lated by the moon's motion, just as the relative position of 
 
THE Mocw. 77 
 
 the elements on the earth must be regulated by the earth's 
 motion, and as they are regulated in a cometary mass, ap- 
 proaching the sun, by its motion. As the moon's motion is 
 more like the comet's motion than like the earth's, com- 
 parison must be made with the former, rather than with the 
 latter. Nature delights in differentiations, and has evolved 
 two types of revolving bodies, the planet and the comet. 
 The moon partakes of some of the qualities of each. It is 
 a planetary body with cometary orbital conditions. 
 
 A peculiar circumstance in relation to an intelligent 
 being on the moon would be his inability to see the earth, 
 the center around which he revolves. He could reason 
 that such a center must exist, and he might send expedi- 
 tions to the margins of his habitation, just as we send ex- 
 peditions towards the terrestrial poles, but his efforts would 
 probably be vain in getting a view of our planet, owing 
 to the lunar atmospheric conditions. 
 
COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 
 
 A planetary system would fall to pieces, like an oxygen 
 molecule in a partial vacuum, if it were not bolstered up by 
 other systems. The light from the stars is evidence of this 
 interdependence, and of force passing from one system 
 to others. The grand equilibrium of all matter and all 
 force in all space under a universal pressure must be a 
 determining factor in the production of natural phenomena. 
 If the solar system be accepted as the celestial unit, then 
 we can conceive that the systems are arranged in some 
 form of order, in which their positive poles in general 
 point to the celestial north, and their negative poles to the 
 celestial south ; all in harmonious adjustment, each passing 
 through independent cycles, but each exercising a polariz- 
 ing influence on environing systems; each possessing all 
 the essential forces for its own evolutionary processes, yet 
 evolving in complete unison with interstellar forces. Each 
 unit system must possess a domain directly proportional 
 to the magnitude of its forces, and must bear a constant 
 relationship to the universal equilibrium, the maintenanace 
 of which must furnish a resistance to the mutual encroach- 
 ment of planetary systems. 
 
 The equilibrium of all matter in space must bear a 
 certain analogy to the equilibrium of a given amount of 
 gas in a partial vacuum. With the decrement of pressure 
 the molecules divide and redivide until an equilibrated con- 
 dition is attained, chemic affinity is overcome and the 
 law seems to be : ' As the pressure decreases the molecules 
 decrease in dimensions and increase in potentials, with in- 
 creased fields of induction which fill the space. Up to the 
 critical point the vacuum tube is occupied by force from the 
 increased potentials of the dissociating molecules, whose 
 fields of induction in the aggregate are commensurate with 
 
COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 79 
 
 the space. It is conceivable that if the solar systems 
 were reduced in number within a given space the others 
 would so adjust themselves that all space would be filled 
 with force, the universal equilibrium being thus maintained 
 as the equilibrium in a partial vacuum is maintained. 
 
 Astronomers describe a great luminous starry band en- 
 circling the solar system called the Galaxy or Milky Way. 
 This band apparently is relatively immovable, while the 
 solar system revolves on its axis within, and occupies part 
 of the area enclosed by the band. It was Herschel's opin- 
 ion that the plane of the Galaxy bears the same relation 
 to the universe as the ecliptic plane to the solar system. 
 The galactic plane cuts the ecliptic plane at an angle of 
 about 60. 
 
 The stars in the celestial vault, as seen through a tele- 
 scope, are mostly condensed near the galactic belt, appear 
 least numerous in the regions most distant frorn^ it, and 
 more numerous the nearer the region is to it. With pow- 
 erful telescopes a large majority of stars are actually ob- 
 served in the Galaxy. The nebulae appear as irregular 
 masses of luminous clouds, and appear to be most numer- 
 ous where the stars are least numerous, or, the more dis- 
 tant the region from the Milky Way the greater the num- 
 ber of nebulae are observed. 
 
 If Herschel's idea is correct, there are two great cos- 
 mographical lines at right angles to each other : One drawn 
 through the "galactic equator," and indicating, in general, 
 the equatorial direction of the universe; and the other 
 diawn through the " galactic poles" indicating, in general, 
 the polar direction of the universe. It is conceivable that 
 an infinite number of lines of infinite length drawn 
 parallel to the equatorial line may pass through the 
 equatorial planes of an infinite number of galaxies. The 
 conception may be expressed thus: At whatever point of 
 
80 COSMIC KEFLECTIONS. 
 
 space an observer may be placed, that point will be where 
 the "equatorial plane" of a galaxy is cut by a line drawn 
 through its "poles." The conception implies that the 
 view we have of the starry universe is, in the main, the 
 view presented independently of the location of the view- 
 point. 
 
 A solar system must vary in appearances: (1) Accord- 
 ing to the phase of the cycle through which it is passing, 
 and (2) according to whether the polar or equatorial as- 
 pect of the system is presented. The distance intervening, 
 the dimensions of the system, and the medium through 
 which its light is transmitted, must be modifying factors. 
 Accepting our solar system as a cosmographical unit, 
 and keeping in mind its equatorial and polar aspects, the 
 question presents: Whether cosmographical units are 
 thrown into space promiscuously, or are arranged in some 
 general order? It is true that the ecliptic plane does not 
 parallel the galactic plane as one might predict; but if we 
 Consider the form of solo-planetary spaces as being ellip- 
 tical (probably slightly distorted by cosmic pressure), and 
 that all space is occupied, not only by matter, but by solar 
 systems, then it is evident that all unit systems cannot be 
 arranged on exactly parallel lines; although, generally, 
 their equatorial and polar planes may be uniformly dis- 
 posed. Our system may be placed so as to fill a nook of 
 the universe, and hence the necessity of its lines being 
 oblique to the general direction. Moreover, if solar sys- 
 tems are endowed with the property of polarity then their 
 tendency to arrange themselves in uniform direction is 
 indisputable. Thus Herschel's great conception of the 
 galactic plane being an indication of an universal order 
 must be correct. 
 
 If we mentally picture the simple arrangement of solar 
 systems being placed so that their lines in the main are 
 
COSMIC KEFLECTIONS. 81 
 
 uniformly directed, we will see that when we point our 
 telescopes in the general equatorial direction we are on the 
 line of incidence of the equatorial blaze of innumerable 
 Buns, each a center of a solo-planetary space. The reflected 
 light of their tributary planets, aurorae polares, or any 
 other evidence of planetary systems, we have not, these 
 being darkened by the relatively brighter light of their 
 respective suns. Nor does it matter much, except as to the 
 brilliancy of the particular star, in what stage of evolu- 
 tion the system is presented to us ; only, if the solar dimen- 
 sions have reached that critical point where electric energy 
 is absent from the space, the space will show as a celestial 
 dark spot. Probably the most brilliant evolutionary stage 
 of a sun is when his dimensions are about equal to half of 
 those of his maximum growth. At this period the maxi- 
 mum amount of energy is probably being absorbed at his 
 poles, and such energy will regulate the intensities of his 
 equatorial light. The qualifying term "equatorial" may 
 be objected to, as apparently our sun gives out light from 
 his whole surface, but it must be understood that the 
 photosphere is a disperser of light; and that we mean to 
 convey the idea that transformation of electric energy oc- 
 curs in the central sun, and radiates as heat and light 
 along his equatorial plane. 
 
 Now let us turn our telescopes towards the celestial 
 north or celestial south. We are looking along the polar 
 planes of the systems, and we have a side view of solo- 
 planetary wheels. Mainly we are in the shadows of polar 
 energies, although here and there the electric light from 
 some great sun obliquely pierces the spaces. Further- 
 more, in viewing the polar aspect of the systems, we may 
 be able to judge, from polar activities, what particular 
 phase of its cycle a system is manifesting. If we could 
 interpret the significance of the manifestation? we might 
 
82 COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 
 
 know th<^ relative dimensions of a sun to those of his plan- 
 etary domain. It is, however, to be considered that the 
 sun's mass from the polar aspect may show as a relatively 
 dark spot, radiating energy being here absorbed, while the 
 soft diffusive light may be the stream of electrified ions 
 emanating from the various poles of his tributary planets. 
 For instance, the nebula of Lyra presents a comparatively 
 dark central area which may be a polar presentation of an 
 immense sun ; while the surrounding lighter area may be a 
 polar view of his photosphere; his accompanying planets 
 
 FIG. 21. The Nebula of Lyra. 
 
 being outside the latter area, and emitting auroral lights 
 from their poles. Lyra viewed from its equatorial aspect, 
 or as placed in a galactic arch, may twinkle as an ordinary 
 star. The nebula of Andromeda appears as an oblique 
 presentation of a solo-planetary space during the cyclic 
 epoch of chemical contraction, when matter exists in band 
 form with intervening ether spaces. The Andromedal Sun 
 evidently forms a central rod. 
 
 Could planetary systems revolve around a common cen- 
 ter? No. An orbital revolution is caused by current 
 forces, and an extraneous force sufficiently great to cause 
 
COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 83 
 
 a solar system to revolve round it, would interfere with 
 intrinsic forces, and produce a relationship of the planets 
 to the sun such as the moon's relation to the earth. The 
 forces between planetary systems are radiating or static 
 in character, and produce only static or polarized effects. 
 There is no evidence that heat and light will directly pro- 
 duce rotary movements, although it is conceivable that 
 they may possess a repulsive force, and thus be a cause of 
 cosmic pressure. It is only when these forces are trans- 
 formed into electric currents that rotation occurs. The 
 transformation takes place through the presentation of 
 differential or polarized potentials to the incident forces, 
 and no such presentation is made by a solar system as a 
 whole, although its individual parts possess the essential 
 polarities. Heat or light passing from one solar system 
 to another maintains its distinctive character as a dis- 
 placement movement or wave motion, and can have only 
 local effects at the points of incidence. In the broadest 
 sense of the term, interstellar forces may be classified as 
 follows: (1) Current forces (electric currents) producing 
 rotation; radiating forces (heat and light) producing 
 chemic and physical changes in matter; (3) static forces 
 producing polarization. 
 
 When we study the character of electric charges and 
 currents differentiated according to their positive or nega- 
 tive quality; when we study the chemical and physical 
 character of molecules differentiated according to their 
 positive or negative quality; when we study the physio- 
 logic properties of animal cells and tissues, exhibited 
 through the intricacies and delicacies of labyrinthian struc- 
 ture, yet reducible to the common ana ultimate units of 
 attraction and repulsion; and when we compare these dif- 
 ferentiations with those manifested in phenomena pertain- 
 ing to the sun, planets and comets, as constituting a unit 
 
84 COSMIC REFLECTIONS. 
 
 system, we must conclude that, however complex may be the 
 problems presented for solution, they must be solved through 
 the formulation of a hypothesis basic to a grand generaliza- 
 tion. The writer believes that the correctness of his concep- 
 tion of electric charges being composed of differential ele- 
 mentary units of matter is evidenced by the simple facts 
 of natural phenomena, and that in this conception there is 
 indicated a ground work upon which the physical structure 
 of the universe is built; leaving, however, untouched the 
 genetic problems of unit matter. 
 
 The Biblical Genesis might have been written thus: 
 God made two fundamental units, and endowed one with 
 the spirit of attraction and the other with the spirit of 
 repulsion. He gave them relative placement, and directed 
 one to circle to the right and the other to circle to the left ; 
 and behold, the units in their multiplicity filled all space. 
 God made the units and the units did the rest. He views 
 the work and pronounces it good. Glory to the Great Spirit 
 who inspired the units. 
 
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