_ 4 L A D A K. L A D A K, :>HYSICAL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTOEICAL; NOTICES OF THE SURROUNDING COUNTRIES. BY ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM, BREVET MAJOR, BENGAL ENGINEERS. LONDON: Wm. H. ALLEN AND CO., 7, LEADENHALL STREET. 1854. CARPENTIER LONDON: printed et cox (bros.) and wtman, great queen street, lincoln's-inn fields. PREFACE. I HAVE endeavoured in the following pages to give, to the hest of my ahility, and according to my means of information, a full and accurate account of Ladak. I have t^vice visited the country, in ISIG and again in 18i7, and on each occasion by a different route ; I have read every work that I could procure (and I have neither spared pains nor expense) regarding Ladak or Tibet. I therefore am willing to think that the various informa- tion which I have collected, may not prove altogether uninteresting, even to the general reader. For the antiquary and scientific enquirer, there are several subjects which I would fain hope may merit attention. The subjects for the antiquary are : — 1. The identification of Ladak, or Khd-chan, with the Akhassa Regio of Ptolemy, and with the Kie-chha of Fa Hian. — Chap. I. 2. The proof that G-raucasios was a Tibetan word, and the consequent deduction that the Tibetan people and language were once spread over a much greater extent of country than they now occupy. — Chap. XIV. 3. A copious vocabulary of the Tibetan language M41U'V8 VI PREFACE. compared with the various dialects of the Dards, of the Afghans and Kashmiris, of the Hindu races of the Himalaya, and of the Indo-Tihetans of Kanawar. — Chap. XV. 4. A concise account of the religious helief and practice of the Tibetan Buddhists, and of the rise of the present grand Lamas ; with a description of the different buUdirigs, rites and ceremonies, and ritualic instruments of their religion. — Chap. XIII. The subjects for the man of science are : — 1. The determination of the snow-Hne on the several mountain-ranges of the Panjab. — Chap. II. 2. The length of course, and the minimum discharge of the rivers of the Panjab, compared with that of the Ganges. — Chap. III. 3. The cataclysms of the Indus and the Sutluj ; the former caused by a glacier, the latter by the fall of a mountain. — Chap. III. 4. The determination of the cause of the prevailing day and night wind in Ladak. — Chap. VII. 5. The observations for temperature, Chap. VII. ; and the Tables of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations. — Chaps. XVI. and XVII. 6. The discovery of fossil fresh-water shells in the sandy-clay formations above the level of the present salt-icater lakes of Ladak, proving that the lakes were once fresh, and of much greater extent. 7. The tables of the stature and longevity of the people of Ladak, and the accurate measurements and drawings of sl^ulls compared with those of the Kash- miris. To several kind friends I am indebted for valuable assistance in this work. To Colonel Bates, for the landscape-views wliicli bear his name, and for many important observations for temperature. To Dr. Carter, A.B., for the cUfferent qualitative analysis of the salts and waters of the lakes and hot springs. To Lieut. Maclagan, Bengal Engineers, for the survey of the Pia VaUey, in Spiti. ALEX? CUNNIXGHAM, Srevet Major, Engineers. SIMLA, oOl/i Atiffugt, 1853. CONTENTS. I. — Inteodtjction. I. Early Notices of Ladak Tage 1 2. Modem Travellers 7 II. — Geogbapht. 1. General Description ... 16 2. Boundaries and Extent ... 17 3. Diiferent Names of Ladak ... 18 4. Districts of Ladak ... ... 20 5. Neighbouring Countries ... 25 [II.— MOUHTAIKS. 1. General Eemarks ... 41 2. Trans-Tibetan or Karakoran Eange ... 45 3. KaOas Eange ... 50 4. Trans-Himalayan Eange ... 52 5. The "Western Himalaya ... 57 6. Mid-Himalaya, or Pir Panjab ... 65 7. The Outer Himalaya, or Dhaola Dhar ... 74 rV. — ElTEES. 1. General Eemarks ... ... 82 2. The Indus ... 84 3. The Shayok Eiver ... 94 4. The Zanskar Eiver . 96 5. Other Tributaries ... 97 6. Cataclysm of the Indus ... 99 7. The Jehlam Eiver ... Ill CONTENTS. 8. The Chenab Eiver 9. The Eiu-i Eiver 10. The Eyas Eiver 11. The Suthij Eiver 12. The Spiti Eiver 13. Cataclysm of the Sutluj v. — Lakes and Speings. 1. Names of Lakes 2. Pangkong Lake 3. Tsho-EulLake 4. Tshomo-Eu'i Lake 5. Tsho-Kar Lake 6. Tunam-Tsho 7. Hanle-Tsho ... 8. Chandra Dal and Suraj Dal 9. Hot Springs VI. — EoADS, Passes, Beidges. 1. Principal Eoada 2. The Western Eoad 3. The South- Western Eoad 4. The Southern Eoad 5. The South-Eastern Eoad 6. The Eastern Eoad ... 7. The Northern Eoad 8. The North- Western Eoad 9. Passes — Heights 10. Passage of Eivers — Fords, Bridge VII. — Climate. 1. General Eemarks 2. Winds 3. Eain and Snow 4. Temperature 5. Moisture 6. Eadiation 7. Supposed Mildness of former Climate CONTENTS. XI VIII. — Peoductions. 1. Animal 2. Vegetable 3. Mineral 195 218 229 IX. — COMMEECE. 1. Home Trade 2. Poreign Trade 3. Foreisru Trade in Foreign Productions 238 ih. 241 X. — GOTEENMENT. 1. Nature of Government — Various Offices 2. Eelations with surrounding States 3. Administration of Justice ... 4. Eevenue 5. IVElitary Eesources . . . 6. Postal Establishment 257 261 262 268 275 283 XI. — People. 1. Population ... 2. Origin 3. Physical Description 4. Dress 5. Pood 6. Social Customs 7. Houses — Public and Private 285 290 291 303 305 306 312 XII. — HiSTOET. 1. Under Native Kulera 2. Conquest of Ladak ... 3. Conquest of Balti ... 4. Invasion of Tibet by Zorawar Sing 316 333 346 351 XIII. — Eeligion. 1. Early Eeligion of Tibet 2. Tibetan System of Buddhism 3. Different Sects — Lamas 4. Dress — Eitualie Instruments 356 360 367 372 XU CONTENTS. 5. Religious Buildings — Images ... ... ... 376 6. Eites and Ceremonies ... ... ... ... 383 XIV, — Language. 1. Alphabet — Pronimciation ... ... ... ... 387 2. Former Limits of the Tibetan Language .. . ... 390 3. Printing 392 4. Eeckoning of Time . . . ... ... ... ... 394 XV. — CoMPAEisoN of the Various Alpine Dialects, from the Indus to the Ghagra ... ... ... ... ... 897 XVI. — Magnetioal Obseevations 421 XVII. — Meteoeological Obseetations 442 LIST OF PLATES. 1. Section through the Mountain Ranges of the Panjab, from Kangra to Karakoram . ... . . page 18 2. Distant View of Dayamur taken from Harpo-La (Pass, 12,000 feet) 44 3. Bed of the Indus, at the Eongdo Bridge 88 4. Wooden Bridge over the Indus, near L6 ... ... ... 87 5. Ancient Lake System of Ladak 136 6. The Kyancj, or Wild Horse (Equus Kyang) ... ... ... 195 7. Homs of the 8ha., or Wild Sheep ; the Rdplio-chhe (Markhor, or Large Wild Goat) ; and the Skit, or Stag of Ladak ... 198 8. The Piirik Sheep 210 9. Extinct and Existing Shells of Ladak, Balti, and Kashmir . . . 231 10. Skull of Nomadic Boti of Ladak (4 Views) 296 11. Skidl of Settled Boti of Ladak (4 Views) 297 12. Pelvis of Nomadic Boti of Ladak 300 Cap of the Gyalpo of Ladak. The Jao of Ladak (6). 13. Skull of a Male Kasa of Kashmir City (4 Views) 300 14. SkuU of a Female Kasa of Kashmir City (4 Views) . . . 300 15. Women of Lower Kanawar . . ... ... ... . . 304 IG. Women of Upper Kanawar ... .. , . ... ... 304 17. Men of Pin, in Spiti 303 18. Man and Woman of Spiti, and Woman of Ladak ... ... 304 19. Landlords' Wives, from Nurla, in Ladak . . . . ... 304 20. View of the Monastery of Hanle, in Eukchu ... ... 313 21. Palace at Le 314 22. Portrait of Jigten-Gonpo, the Dharma Raja of Bhutan . 370 23. Abbot and High Lama of Lama Turru ... 372 24. A Low Lama, and a Getslml of Spiti . . . . 372 25. The Z)nZi«, or Bell (full size) 373 26. The Dorje, Sceptre or Thunderbolt 374 27. The ilf«»i-cA/jo«-^7ior, or Prayer-cylinder ... ... ... 374 28. The CT/jot^-^e?;, or Mausoleum 377 29. Eastern Pillar, called Chomo, at Dras 381 30. Western Pillar, called Chomo, at Dras 382 31. Tibetan Horn-Book 392 Map. RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION. Throughout this work the vowels and consonanta are to be pro- nouuced in the following manner : — <*, as in distance, America. d, as in dandy. a, as in father, half. n, as in ninny. i, as in din, sin. P, as in puppy. i. as ee in seen. ph, the same aspirated. u, as 00 in poor. i, as in baby. u, as u in pare. m, as in mummy. e. as in there, they. ts. as in catseye. ai, as y in my. tsh. the same aspirated. 0, as in more. ds, as ds in windsail, groundsel au, as ou in our. w, as in woman, dwarf. k. as in kick. zh, z aspirated. M, the same aspii-ated. s, as in zigzag. 9, as in giggle. A. aa in hair. «y. as in sing. y> as in yon. cTi, as in church. r, as in roar. chh the same aspirated. I, as in lull. J, as in jest. sh, as in ship. »!/, as ni/ in tanyard. s, as in senses. t, as in tittle. h as in heart. th, the same aspirated. I.-INTRODUCTION. 1. The earliest authentic notices of Ladak scarcely reach so far back as the beginning of the Clu'istian era. In A.D. 399-400, when the Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hian,* Hoei-King, and others, reached Yti-thian (or Kotan), the former determined to remain behind for some time to witness the procession of images, while Hoei-King proceeded in advance to Kie-chha. After the procession had taken place, Fa-Hian travelled by Tsu-ho and Yu-hoet, and over the Tsung-Ling moun- tains southward to Kie-chha, where he rejoined Hoei- King. On those mountains, which were one month's journey in breadth, the snow, it is said, never melted, and the natives of the country were known by the name of " men of the snowy moimtains." From Kie-chha the pilgrims proceeded westward to Tho-hj, which they reached in one month. From this account, it appears to me that there can be no doubt of the identity of the ancient Kie-chha with the modern Ladak. 2. To reach Ladak from Kotan there were two roads open to the pilgrims, the western by Kukeyar and the southern by B/uthog (or Rudok). By either route the * See the Fo-hue-hi, by INTessrs. Eemusat, Klaproth, and LanHresse, or the Translation bv LaiHlav. 2 LADAK. travellers would have to cross the Karakoram moun- tains ; hut as Tsu-ho is stated to have been only 1,000 li (about 166 miles) from Su-le (or Kashgar), it is clear that !Fa-Hian must have followed the western route. This is more distinctly proved by the Chinese identifi- cation of Tsu-ho with Chu-kiu-pJio, which was exactly 1,000 H to the westward of Kotan. Tsu-ho was there- fore midway between Kotan and Kashgar. Klaproth identified it with Kukeyar, and he is probably correct. I'rbm Tsu-ho the pilgrims proceeded to the south, and over the Tsung-Xdng, or " Onion Mountains." Prom Kukeyar to Ladak the road lies to the south over the Karakoram mountains, which, even as high as 17,000 feet, are covered with -ndld leeks, thus justify- ing the Chinese name of Tsung-Ling, or " Onion Moun- tains."* To the westward of Kie-chha, at one month's journey, was Tho-ly, or (as it is written by Hwan-Thsang) Tha-li-lo, which is an exact transcript of Darel, one of the Dardu districts on the Indus ; and which Hwan- Thsang places to the westward of Po-lu-lo or Bolor, that is, the modern district of Balti. As Darel is just one month's journey from Le, the district of Ladak corre- sponds exactly in geographical position with the ancient kingdom of Kie-chha. 3. But the other details, recorded by Ea-Hian, seem to place this identification beyond all doubt. The country was " mountainous, and so cold that no grain but corn ever ripened," which is exactly the case with Ladak. Kie-chha, moreover, possessed a stone vase of the same colour as Buddha's abns-dish, besides a tooth of Buddha. * I owe this fact to Dr. Thomas Thomson, my brother Commissioner on the Tibetan frontier, whose spirit of enterprise carried him to tlie top of the Karakoram pass. INTRODUCTION. 3 Now, one of these relics (the alms-dish) still exists in a temple to the north of L^. It is a large earthenware vase, similar in shape to the two largest steatite vases extracted from the BhUsa Topes.* But Ladak also pos- sessed a tooth of Buddha, which was formerly enshrined at Le in a dung-ten, or solid mound of masonry similar to the Topes of BhUsa and of Afghanistan. The dung- ten still exists, though ruinous : but the holy tooth is said to have been carried away by Ali Sher, of Balti, upwards of 200 years ago, when Ladak was invaded and plundered by the Musabnans of the west, who, most probably, threw the much-prized relic contemptuously into the Indus. At any rate, it has never since been heard of. 4. Lastly, the name of Kie-chha, and the designa- tion of the people as " men of the snowy mountains," both point unmistakably to Ladak, which is still known as Klia-pa-chan, or Kha-chan, " abounding in snow," or Snow-land, and the people as Klia-pa-chan-pa, or Klia- chan-pa, " men of the snowy land."t 5. In the Cesi of Pliny, and in the A-khassa regio of Ptolemy, I believe that we have the earliest mention of Ladak. Of the former PHnyJ says, " hos includit Indus montium corona circumdatos et solitudinibus." This description is literally true of the people of Kha- pa-chan, or Snow-land, whose whole coimtry lies along * By Lieutenant Maisey and myself. See ray account of the opening and esaminatiou of " The Bhilsa Topes, or Buddhist Monuments of Central India," printed for Smith, Elder, & Co. (1853). t Kha, or Kha-pa, is " snow," and chaii means " full." Perhaps Naser-ud-din KaMcliah, who reigned in !Midtan and Sindh, and after- wards disputed the empire of India with Altanish, was a Ladaki. Pto- lemy's ^-^7irtMa rf^/o is no ^oxibt Klin-chan-yul, " Snow-land," or Ladak. + Plin. Nat. Hist. vi. e. 20. B 2 the Indus and its tributaries, whilst at the same time it is completely surrounded by deserts and by mountains. The position of Ptolemy's A-khassa regio agrees equally well with that of Ladak ; for he places his district between the Chatse Scythse on the north, and the Chauransei Scythae on the south-east, and to the east- ward of the Bylta3. The first must be the people of Chang-thang* (or the " northern plains ") to the north and east of Ladak ; and the second are most likely the people of Khor, who dwell to the south-east of Ladak ; while the Byltse are certainly the inhabitants of Balti, or Little Tibet. 6. A later mention of Ladak, under a new name, is made by another Chinese pilgrim, Hwan-Thsang, towards the middle of the seventh century. He states, that from Khiu-lu-to (or Kullu, a hill district to the north of Simla), at 2,000 U (or upwards of 300 miles) across the mountains, is the kingdom of 3£o-lo-pho, which is also called San-pho-ho. The former is an exact transcript of Mar-po-yul,\ or " low land," to distinguish it from the high lands of Chang-thang and Ngari. The other name of San-pho-ho is a literal transcript of Tsang-po, or the " river," which is a common designation for the Indus in Ladak, and in fact for any great river in the Tibetan language ; San-p)ho-ho is, therefoi'e, the country on the Tsang-po, or Indus. 7. These notices of Ladak bring us down to that interesting period when the Devanagari alphabet of India was introduced into Tibet from Kashmir, in the first half of the seventh century of our era. Thumi Sambhota was the first who taught the Tibetans the use * Byang-thang, pronounced Chang-thang, the Chan-tJuin of our maps. t Mar-po-yiil, tlie " low-eoiiutry." INTRODrCTION. 5 of the Kashniirian characters, which remain unclianged to this day.* 8. In the begiunmg of the eleventh century Palgyi- gon occupied Ladak, and Tashi-Degon took possession of Purang.f In A.D. 1314, Rinchana Bhoti invaded Kashmir.^ As he entered the valley by Gagangir, on the Sindh river, he must have advanced through Dras, one of the districts of Ladak. It is probable, there- fore, that he was the ruler of Ladak. At that time Kashmir had been invaded by an army of 60,000 horse, under the command of Dallach, the minister of a neigh- bom'ing chief, named Karma Sena. The invaders ad- vanced to the capital, which, being deserted by the Raja Sena Deva, Avas plundered and biu'ned. Dallach con- tinued his devastations to the eastern end of the vaUey, and retired by the Pass of Tar-bal.§ Numbers of the Kashmiris then waited upon Rinchana, who was em- boldened to advance against the troops of the Raja Sena Deva. The raja fled ; the Bhotiyan chief was victori- ous, and assumed the sovereignty of the country. He strengthened himself by marrying the daughter of Rama Chandi'a, the general of Sena Deva ; and reigned for three years, from A.D. 1315 to 1318, the undisputed master of Kashmir. 9. Half a century before this time the celebrated Marco Polo had visited the court of the great Kublaij Emperor of China. He had sojourned in the hills of Badakshan for the sake of his health ; and he describes the countries of Wakham, Pamer, Bolor, and Kashmir. * Csoma de Koros, Tibetan Grammar, p. 178. t Csoma, in Prinsep's useful tables, p. 131. The names are written JPal-giji-mGon and hKra-sliis-lDe-mGon. X Eaja Tarangiui. § That is, tbe " Tar-biU " iu Kashmiri. 6 LADAK. By some it has been supposed tliat he must have entered Tibet ; but the wonderful account which he gives of the people proves that his information could only have been obtained by hearsay. Indeed, notwithstanding the early and wide-spread fame of Prester John, there is no authen- tic record that Tibet had been visited by any European prior to the seventeenth century. 10. Dui'ing the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the Jesuits and Capuchins possessed several mo- nasteries in Lhasa, a considerable number of missionaries must have resided for many years in Tibet ; and yet no more than two of these religious fraternities have left any record of their travels and observations behind them. 11. The first of these is Le Pere Hippolyte Desideri,* who travelled for six months, between August 1715 and March 1716, through the greater part of the country, from Ladak through Uuthog to Lhasa. Of his travels, the only account that I have seen is that Avhich was published by Klaproth. It is a concise, but very useful geographical account. 12. The second is Fra Pranciso Orazio della Penna di Billi, a Capuchin, who travelled to Lhasa in 1730, and resided for some years in the monastery of his order in that city. His account is exceedingly valuable, not- withstanding his prosy repetitions, t He was a man of observation, and his account of the Buddhist religion, as practised in Tibet, is full and accurate. 13. In A.D. 1774 George Boglej was deputed to * Nouveau Journal Asiatiqiie, torn. viii. pp. 117 — 121, by the cele- brated Klaprotli. t Nouveau Journal Asiatique, torn. siv. J See the Preface to Turner's Tibet, pp. xiv — xvi. INTRODUCTION. 7 Tibet by Warren Hastings. The Dalai Lama,* or Grand Lama of Lhasa, was then in his minority, and the coun- try Avas ruled by the Tashi Lama of Tashi Lhunpo. No account of this mission has been preserved, which is the more to be regretted as Bogle would seem to have been a man of superior intelligence. 14. In A.D. 1783 a second mission was despatched by "Warren Hastings to Tibet. Captain Turner, the head of the mission, succeeded in reaching Tashi Lhunpo, but he was prevented from going to Lhasa " by a consideration of the present state of that government,"! as the Gyat sub Rinpoche " had u.surped, even from the hands of the Dalai Lama, the greatest portion of his temporal power." The Regent of Tashi Lhunpo also dissuaded + the envoy from making the attempt, for fear of offending the Chi- nese. Captain Turner's account of his embassy is the most curious and interesting work on Tibet that has yet appeared. A Chinese work, called " Notice of the Provinces of Wei and Tsang," was written by Ma-shao-yiin, the Com- missary-General of the Chinese army, which was sent to expel the Gorkhas from Tibet in 1786. § His account is short but interesting, especially in the notices of the various religious festivals. The adventurous Moorcroft lived for two whole years in Ladak, from September 1820 to September 1822. His account of the country is marked by great shrewd- ness of observation, and by the most scrupulous accuracy. A more truthful chronicler than Moorcroft never lived. * Ta-lhi-bLa-ma, is the Dalai Lama of Europeans. t Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama, in Tibet, by Capt. Samuel Tiu-nor. % Turner's Tibet, 4to. p. 253. § Nouv. Journ. Asiatique, toni. iv. et vi. b LADAK. The Botis of Ladak, the Kahlou of Le, the merchants of Kashmir, and the Rajah of Rajaore, all spoke to me of the English traveller with the highest respect.* As there has always heen a suspicion of foul play in the manner of his death, the second of the following letters, addressed by Trebeck to Syad Muhammad Shah, is of considerable interest and importance, as it distinctly states that Moorcroft died at Andkhui, after some days' illness. Translation of a parwanali addressed by Moorcroft to Syad Muhammud Shah Kashmiri : — " Your letter has arrived, and your faithful services have become known to us. The paper bearing the seals of the merchants and other friends at that place (Kabul), addressed to Muhammad Murad Beg, the ruler of Kunduz, wliich you forwarded, has been shown. Our escape has been effected, and we have started for Bokhara. Remain in Kabul until our retm-n, and consider your salary fixed at the same rate as formerly. Take fifty pieces of gold from Khoda Baksh Khan, the merchant, for your expenses, and continue day and night to note whatever takes place. More is superfluous." Syad Muhammad Shah was a young Kashmiri, who had accompanied Moorcroft from his native country to Kashmir. On the dcpartui-e of the travellers for Ballvh, he was discharged at his own request ; but as he remamed in Kabul, he was employed by them as a news- writer, and on the occasion of Moorcroft' s deten- * Biirnes has recorded the estimation in which Moorcroft's memory was held by the people of Balkh ; and I am happy to add here the testimony of Major Edwardes (A Tear in the Panjab, i. 52) to the same effect. " I am glad to be able to contribute the smallest white pebble to poor Moorcroft's cairn ; and cannot pass on without recording that my friend Swahn Khan spoke of him highly in every way." INTKODUCTIOX. 9 tion by Murad Beg, of Kunduz, the Syad was of some service in procming letters from the authorities and merchants of Kabul to prove that the travellers were merchants,* and that the object of their journey was, as they professed it to be, " the establishment of a com- mercial intercom'se which would be as beneficial to Turkistan as to India. "f The published account of Moorcroft's travels states that fifty of the principal mer- chants and bankers of Kabid, unsolicited, had forwarded a certificate that Moorcroft was, as he pretended to be, a merchant ; but the above ^;rt;vrrt/?n'//, addressed by Moorcroft to the Syad, shows tliat this certificate liad been obtained through him. Translation of a par-u-anah, addressed by Trebeck (after Moorcroft's death) to Syad Muhammad Shah Kashmiri : — " The afi'airs of that place (Kabul) have become known from the perusal of your letter. Day and night contmue to note whatever may occur. You may have heard that ]Mr. AVilliam Moorcroft, ofter a few days' illness, died at Andklm'i, whither he had gone to pur- chase liorses. As he had written to you to remain at Kabul imtil his return, you had better stay until my arrival, which you may expect shortly. Consider your salary fixed at the same rate as formerly, and set your mind at rest in every respect as far as I am concerned. Continue to write the news," &c. The Syad's services on these occasions were afterwards attested in a certificate, which was fm-nished to liim * Moorcroft's Travels, vol. ii. p. 418. " I found ou 1113- arrival a Kdsid from Kabul, vrho brought me a certificate that I ■« as, as I pre- tended to be, a merchant." t Moorcroft's Travels, vol. ii. p. 425. 1 LADAK. under the seals of Yar Muhammad Khan and Sultan Muhammad Khan. The original is now in my posses- sion. In this certificate they state that, " when the Sahibs arrived at Kiinduz, they got into trouble, and were relieved from their difficulties by the services of the Syad, who was then at Kabul, and that, in conse- quence of his zeal and devotion, the Sahibs begged him to remain in Kabul until their return." I obtained all these documents in original from the Syad himself, who, as a Shiah Musulman, had sought and obtained service at the Shiah court of Lucknow. Towards the end of the year 1834<, the eccentric Dr. Henderson reached Le, the capital of Ladak, dis- guised as a Musulman, calling himself Ishmail Khan. His disguise was soon penetrated, but he was kindly treated by the Gyalpo, who at once saw, in the oppor- tune arrival of a British officer, a possible means of averting the ultimate conquest of his kingdom. In August 1834, Ladak had been invaded by Zorawar Sing, the local Governor of Kashtwar, under Raja Gulab Sing, of Jammu. At the time of Dr. Henderson's arrival at Le, the invaders had taken possession of the western provinces of Suru and Dras, and had advanced into the vaUey of Paskyum. Henderson's presence immediately recalled to the Gyalpo' s memory the offer \A'hich he had once before made, through Moorcroft, of allegiance to the British Government. The rulers of India had abeady snatched Sindh from the rough grasp of the Lion of Labor, and the simple Tibetan vainly thought that they would be equally willing to save Ladak from the arms of his lieutenant. Dr. Henderson was therefore applied to ; but as he had crossed the British frontier against the positive prohibition of his INTRODUCTION. 11 Government, and was now in Ladak Avlien he ought to liave been in Calcutta, he was unwilling to make any communication which would at once expose his violation of the orders of his Government. The draft of the original tender of allegiance which was forwarded by Moorcroft was shown to him ; but his position prevented him from acting as Moorcroft had done. His refusal irritated the Gyalpo, and he was prevented from leaving Ladak without being actually imprisoned.* MeanwhUe the people were informed that a British envoy had arrived, and that the invaders would speedily be obliged to depart. Zorawar Smg immediately reported the circumstance to his master, Raja Gulab Sing, who applied to the Maharaja. Ranjit Sing at once " ad- dressed the political agent at Ludiana to ascertain the meaning of such proceeding. The agent satisfied Ranjit Sing with an assm^ance that Dr. Henderson, the traveller, had passed the Sutlej in direct violation of the orders of his Government ; and that there was not the slightest idea of interfering with E,anjit's plan of extending his conquests northwards. Zorawar Sing, after this explanation, was desired to proceed with his operations ;"t upon which Henderson was allowed to depart. In fact, he was detained so long as his pre- sence was of service to the Gyalpo in delaying the loss of his kingdom. J Dr. Henderson was provided with instruments ; and as, according to Baron Hugel, he had some tact for * My information agrees with Hugel's. The Baron obained his version from Henderson himself. I got mine from the Botis of Ladak, and the officers of Zorawar Sing's force. t Qnotcd from Hugel's Travels, p. 102. J Vigne, vol. ii. p. 337, says that Henderson himself complained to Ranjit of his detention at Le. 12 LADAK. observation, an account of his travels would have been particularly valuable. He vras probably the first Euro- pean who had ever visited Skardo, or Little Tibet. He took that route to avoid the invading army of Dogras, and succeeded in reaching Kashmir in November 1835. All his observations were lost, along with his baggage, on the road between Ladak and Kashmir.* In 1847, I made repeated inquiries for English books, or English writing, with the hope of recovering some of Hender- son's notes, but all in vain. Ladak was visited by Mr. Vigne shortly after Ilore- Tdtsi had been placed on the throne by ZoraAvar Sing. Erom Balti he proceeded through L6 to the Nubra valley, and returned by the same route. His short stay in Ladak was unfortunate ; for, owing to the mutual jealousy of himself and the Dogra authorities, he was deprived of all means of obtaining information. His notice of Ladak is therefore the least interesting part of his rambles in the Alpine Panjab. His accounts of Kashmir and Balti are fidl of valuable information, which is half lost for want of arrangement. Early in 1846, when the result of the first Sikh war had made Uaja Gulab Sing the undisputed master of Ladak and its dependencies, and he had no longer to guard himseK against the power of the Sikh chiefs, it seemed not improbable that the hope of plunder and the desire of revenge might tempt him to repeat the expe- dition of 1841 into the Lhasan territory. Such an occurrence would at once have stopped the importation of shawl wool into our territory, and have closed the * Baron Hugel's Travels, pp. 129, 151. Hendersou's servant re- ported that liis baggage was lost in the suow iu the Naubak Pass. I presume that tlie Namijika Pass is intended. INTRODUCTIOX. 13 whole of the petty commerce of our hill states \\h\i Tibet. It was possible also that our peaceful relations with the Chinese emperor might be considerably embar- rassed by his Celestial Majesty's ignorance of any dis- tinction between the rulers of India and the rulers of Kashmir". As it seemed desirable to prevent the chance of such an occiu-rence, the British Government deter- mined to remove the most common cause of all disputes in the East, — an unsettled boundary. For this purpose two officers were deputed, in August 18i6, to the Tibetan frontier of Ladak, to ascertain the ancient boundaries between the two countries, and to lay down the boundary between the British territories and those of Maharaja Gulab Sing. The settlement of this boimdary was one of some importance to the hill states, and more especially to our new acquisition of Nurpur, which received all its shawl wool from the traders of the eastern hill states, and not fi"om Kashmir. Immediately after the war, I had pointed out that, by giving up to Maharaja Gulab Sing the southern dependencies of Ladak, we had actually interposed a rival territory between our own provinces on the Sutluj and the shawl- wool districts of Chang-Thang. The southern boundaiy of Spiti was, in fact, not more than thirty miles from Rampur, on the Sutluj. As the annual revenue of the Spiti district, derived from all sources, does not amount to more than seven hundred rupees, no difficulty was experienced in making an exchange of territory with Maharaja GuMb Sing, and Spiti was added to the British dominions. It then became necessary to define the northern boundary of Spiti, with the other districts of Ladak. The two commissioners deputed for this purpose were 14 LADAK. the late lamented Vans Agnew and myself. We left Simla on the 2nd August, 1846, and proceeded due north through Mandi, Kullu, and Lahul, to the Bara Lacha Pass, just beyond which stands the well-known phdlang-danda, or boundary-stone, between the British province of Lahul and the Ladaki district of Zanskar. From this point we proceeded to the Tshomoriri lake, and I mapped in the British boundary from the phdlang- danda to the Chinese frontier. We were accompanied by Anant Ram, the Vazir of Shassa, in Kanawar, who was deputed to attend us by the Raja of Bisahar, because he knew Hindustani, and could both speak and write Tibetan. To him we in- trusted the Governor-General's letter addressed to the Chinese Governor of Lhasa. Anant R^am proceeded by Tashigong and the valley of the Indus to Garo. On his arrival, the people at first refused to let him see the Governor ; but as he persisted (according to liis instruc- tions) in declining to make over the letter to any one but the Governor himself, he was at length admitted within the fort, and then presented the letter. The Governor remarked that no letter had ever yet been received from the British authorities, and that his only communications to the westward were with the Raja of Bisahar. Anant Ram replied that he was the servant of the Bisahar Raja, who had directed him to accompany the British oflScers to the Chinese frontier, for the purpose of delivering the letter in question. On this, the Governor remarked that he would forward the letter to Lhasa, but that an answer could not be received for a whole year. A tent was then provided for Anant Ram, and he remained at Garo for eight days, and was well treated the whole time. INTRODUCTION. 15 Early the following year, as soon as the passes were open, the Raja of Bisahar reported that some Chinese authorities had arrived at Garo, and that they had been despatched by the Governor of Lhasa. It was therefore determined to send a second commission to the Tibetan frontier for the purpose of laying down the ancient boundary between Ladak and Tibet. Three commissioners were ajipointed, — Captain (now Major) Alexander Cunnuigham, of the Engineers. Lieutenant (now Captain) Hemy Strachey. Dr. Thomas Thomson. Captain Henry Strachey had already distinguished himself by liis bold and successful visit to the holy weU of Manasarovara in the previous year, and Dr. Thomas Thomson was well known as one of the first botanists in India. The mission was supplied with portable mag- netic and meteorological instruments ; but as only one barometer was procurable, the observations for atmo- spheric pressure were confined to the parts of the country which Captain Strachey visited. My observations for temperature and moisture were continued from the south-eastern boundary of Spiti, throughout Ladak and Kashmir, to Shamsabad on the western frontier of the Panjab. I observed the magnetic dip, declination, and intensity at Puga, Le, and MolbU in Ladak, at Trinagar, the capital of Kashmir, and at Shamsabad. All these observations, with the exception of those at Ladak, were taken on the regular term-days laid down for monthly magnetic observation. 16 II.-GEOGRAPHY. 1.— GENEEAL DESCEIPTION. The most striking feature in the physical aspect of Ladak is the parallelism of its mountain-ranges, which stretch through the country from south-east to north- west. This general direction of the mountain-chains determines the courses of the rivers as well as the houn- daries of the natural divisions of the cotmtry. The general aspect of Ladak is extreme barrenness. Seen from above, the country would appear a mere succes- sion of yellow plains and barren mountains capped with snow, and the lakes of Pangkong and Tshomo Riri would seem like bright oases amidst a vast desert of rock and sand. No trace of man nor of human habita- tions would meet the eye : and even the large spots of cultivated land would be but small specks on the mighty waste of a deserted world. But a closer view would show many fertile tracts along the rivers, covered with luxuriant crops, and many picturesque monasteries, from which the chant of human voices ascends on high in daily prayer and praise. The yellow plains along the Indus would then be seen covered with flocks of the shawl-wool goat, and aU the principal thoroughfares of the country dotted with numerous flocks of sheep laden with the merchandise of China and of India. BOUNDARIES ANB EXTENT. 17 The territory of Laddk is one of the most elevated regions of the earth. Its different valleys He along the head-waters of the Indus, the Sutluj, and the Chenab ; and the joint effects of elevation and of isolation amidst snowy mountains produce perhaps the most singular climate in the kno\\TL world. Burning heat by day is succeeded by piercing cold at night, and everything is parched by the extreme dryness of the air. The rarefied atmosphere offers but little impediment to the sun's rays, which during a short summer are sufficiently powerful to ripen barley at an elevation of 15,000 feet, although the temperature falls below the freezing point every night. This climate is equally favourable to animal life. The plains between 16,000 and 17,000 feet are covered with wild horses and hares and immense flocks of domestic goats and sheep ; and the slopes of the hUls up to 19,000 feet abound with marmots and Alpine hares. Such is the extreme dryness of the atmosphere, that no rain falls and but little snow, and both meats and fruits are cured by mere exposure to the air. 2.— BOUNDAEIES AND EXTENT. Ladak is the most westerly country occupied by the Tibetan race who profess the Buddhist faith. On the north it is divided by the Karakoram mountains from the Chiuese district of Kotan. To the east and south- east are the Chinese districts of Rudok and Chumurti ; and to the south are the districts of Lahul and Spiti, now attached to British India, but formerly belonging to Ladak. To the west lie Kashmir and Balti, the former separated by the western Himalaya, and the c 18 LADAK. latter by an imaginary line clraAvn from the mouth of the Dras river to the sources of the Nubra river. Its greatest extent is from north-west to south-east, from the head of the Dras river, in longitude 75° 30', to Chibra, on the Indus, in longitude 79° 10', a dis- tance of 240 miles. Its greatest breadth is 290 miles, from the Ivarakoram Pass, in north latitude 35° 10', to the Rotang Pass in Lahul, in latitude 32° 25'. Its mean length is 200 miles, and its mean breadth 150 miles. Its whole extent is therefore only 30,000 square miles. The natural divisions of the country are : 1st, Nubra on the Shayok : 2nd, Ladak Proper, on the Indus : 3rd, Zanskar, on the Zanskar river : ^th, Eukchu, around the lakes of Tshomo Ru'i and Tsho-Kar : 5th, Purik, Suru, and Dras, on the different branches of the Dras river : 6th, Spiti, on the Spiti river : and 7th, Lahul, on the Chandra and Bhaga, or head-waters of the Chenab. These also are the actual divisions of the country, for the natural boundaries of a mountainous district gene- rally remain unaltered, in spite of tlie changes wrought by war and religion. Ladak is divided politically between Maharaja Gulab Sing and the East-India Company. To the former belong all the northern districts, to the latter only the two southern districts of Lahul and Spiti. 3.— DIFFEEENT K^AMES OF LADAK. Ladak, in Tibetan La-tags, is the most common name of the country ; but it is also called Mar-yul,* or * AMar-yul or AMar-po-yul, " Eed-land." Csoma de Koros spells the name Mar-yul, the " low-coimtry ;" but as Hwan Thsang, in A.D. DIFFERENT NAMES OF LATIAK. 19 Low-land or Red-land, and Kha-clian-pa, or Snow-land, both of which names are used by the old Chinese travellers ; by Fa-Hian, A.D. 400, who calls the king- dom Kie-chha ; and by Hwan Thsang, A.D. 64-0, who calls it 3Ia-lo-pho. The name oi Kha-chan-pa, or Snow- land, is also applied to the Lhasan kingdom of Great Tibet. The two central districts of Great Tibet are (IBus, and gTsang, usually pronounced Z7and Tsang, or jointly TJ-Tsang. But the uncorrupted pronunciation is preserved by Ptolemy in Dahasce, who must be the people of dBus ; and in Tm'ner's Pue-lcoa-chin, which is most probably dBus-Kha-pa-chcoi, or the " snoTvy land of dBus.'" Laddk was formerly subject to Lhasa, to which it paid a small tribute xmtil A.D. 1834, when it was seized by Zorawar Sing, the enterprising general of Maharaja Gulab Sing, of Jammu ; and it now forms a part of his new kingdom of Kashmir. Ladak is inhabited by a peculiar race of people, who call themselves Bot-pja,* who speak a peculiar language called Tibetan, and who profess the religion of Buddha, vmder a peculiar hierarchy of monks called Lamas. The name of Tibet is entirely unkno^vn to the people as well as to the Indians, who call them Bhotiyas, and their country Bhutan. The use of the names of Bot and Bhutan is probably not older than the tenth or twelfth centmy, when the Buddhists, having been expelled from India, the hill country in which they settled naturally acquired the name of Bauddha-sthan or Bauddh-than, and Bod-tan or Bot. According to Klaproth, Tibet is a Mogul word, which 640, calls it Ma-lo-pho or Mar-jJO, that is " red," there is still some doubt about the true meaning of the name. * The name is spelt £od, but pronounced Bot. c 2 20 LABAK. should more properly be written Tubet. But the name of Ti-bat (t-^i^rJ) is mentioned by Abu Zaid Al Hasan, in A.D. 915, by Ibn Haukal in about A.D, 950, by Abu Rihan in 1030, and afterwards by Edrisi in A.D. 1154', all long jirior to the Mogul conquests of Changez Khan in the 13th century, before whose time it is highly improbable that any Mogul names could have been in use in Persia. Mir Izzet Ullah says that Tibet is a Turki word sig- nifying shawl-wool : but I should tliink the shawl- wool was called Tibeti because it came from Tibet. One might as well derive the name of India from indigo. There is no trace of the name of Tibet nor even of Bot in any of the classical authors : but the people are most probably described under the name of Seres, the inhabi- tants of Chinese Tartary, from whom the western mer- chants obtained their silks. According to Pausanias,* " the Greeks called the silkworm Ser, but the people of Serika probably gave it another name." Now the Tibetans call a worm Srhi, or Srin-bu, and the silkworm JDar-kyi-Srin ; and Pausanias says that the silkworm was twice the size of a beetle, S£A. Cunningham. 9 c 19,948 10 b 20,064 11 a 21,786 12 Kali Debi Peaks 18,500 J Mean he ght 18,920 feet. F 2 68 LADAK. lAhUL range — PASSES. Passes. Feet. Authority. 1 2 3 Rotang Pass Kali Debi Pass Saj Pass 13,000 16,700 15,500 f Moorcroft, ( Dr. Gerard, A. C. A. Ciumingham. Dr. Thomson. Mean height 15,066 feet. The mean height of the Ltihul range is therefore close upon 17,000 feet, and that of the united Bisahar and Liihul ranges upwards of 17,000 feet. PIR-PANJAL RANGE. Of the Pir-Panjal itself we know much less than of the other portions of the Mid-Himalaya. The height of the loftiest peak was ascertained by Jacquemont to be 15,000 feet, and that of the lowest pass 9,690 feet. The mean of these two gives 12,345 feet for the average height of the crest, which is certainly not too much, as the heights of two of the most frequented passes ap- proach 12,000 feet. The Pir-Panjal Pass is 11,970 feet, and the Mirbal Pass is 11,400 feet ; and the mean height of the three measured passes is 11,020 feet. The following are the heights of different points in the Pir- Panjal. Points. Feet. Authority. 1 2 3 4 Highest Peak Tatakuti Dydyum Kol-Narwah 15,000 14,000 13,000 12,500 Jacquemont. A. Cunningham. Vigne. Ditto. Mean height 13,625 feet. THE MID-HIMALAYA BAKGE. 69 The mean of the mean heights of the peaks and passes is 12,322 feet, which agrees with the mean before deduced from the greatest elevation and greatest de- pression. Of the height of the Swat range I cannot speak with any certainty. The peak of Mahaban, as seen from the Yusiifzai plain, at diiferent distances between twenty-five and thirty miles, I estimated at 6,000 feet, or rather more, and the highest point in the range is probably not more than 7,000 feet. On the Pu'-Panjal and Swat ranges, the snow en- tirely disappears; but it remains throughout the year on the lofty ranges of Bisahar and Lahul. Of the glacial lines of the Bisahar ranges, we know but little, although the Gerards made a special excursion to most of the passes in tliis range for the purpose of ascertaining the snow-Hmit. The following passages, however, bear upon the subject and corroborate each other. In describing the Buranda Pass (15,179 feet), which they visited in October, 1818,* the two brothers. Dr. John Gerard and Captain Alexander Gerard, state that " the eastern wall rises "with a considerable inclination for 500 or 600 feet ; thence starting backwards, it ter- minates in a crown of snow, perhaps 1,500 or 2,000 feet higher." * * * «« its western side rises to a towering summit deeply clad in snow, and corresponds with the opposite or eastern one, being about 2,000 feet in height." Prom these statements, we learn that both flanks of the pass were certainly bare of snow to 15,179 + 600 = 15,799 feet, and most probably much higher ; for the eastern peak is said to terminate in a " crown of snow," and the western peak in a " summit * Tour of 1818, p. 22, Calcutta edition. 70 LADAK. deeply clad with snow." Now, as the height of the peaks on hoth sides is stated at 17,000 feet or somewhat less, we may fairly estimate the snow-line on the southern faces of the Bisahar range at about 16,000 feet. Another passage* leads to a similar conclusion : " Tufts of moss and grass with a light soil are seen all the way to the top (of the Buranda Pass), and even rise on each side to 200 and 300 feet, whUe higher up on the rugged cliffs that are doomed to sustain perpetual snow, ani- mated nature finds a habitation." The snow-limit by this account was therefore certainly as high as 15,179 + 300 = 15,479 feet, which was the boundary of vege- table life, and was no doubt somewhat higher. Again, some days later, on the Rupin Pass, 15,460 feet, at the head of the Pabar river, Alexander Gerard f de- scribes the strata of the range to the south of the Pabar as vertical, and that above the summit of this " mural portion," which " preserves an elevation of between 15,000 and 16,000 feet, to near Jangleg," the "rocks slant towards the summit, and upon the slope lie banks of congealed snow and ice, having a perpendicular broAV of packed appearance, so much resembling blocks of marble and quartz, that I doubted for some time of their reality." This account is more explicit than any other that I have seen in Alexander Gerard's travels. Prom the Pupin Pass to near Jangleg, a distance of about eight miles, banks of snow lay upon the slope of the ridge, while the summit was entirely covered with packed snow. This agrees with the other statements that no exposed snow was seen below 15,500 feet ; that above that Hne it was observed in banks or patches ; and * Tour of 1818, p. 24, Calcutta edition. f Ditto, p. 27. THE MID-niMALAYA RANGE. 71 tliat everywhere at 17,000 feet the snow was lying in undisturbed masses. The B/upin Pass, 15,460 feet, was crossed by Captain Ilerbert and Captain Patrick Gerard, on the 30th Septem- ber, 1819. In his map, Ilerbert writes along the upper course of the Rupin river, " all snow in September ;" but Patrick Gerard describes the snow wliich they found on their way to the Rupin Pass in detail.* " Distance from encamping-groimd to large snow-bed 2j miles, where crossed a dangerous chasm. Steep ascent through patches of snow (half a mile), fresh and melting fast. A quarter of a mile farther on, 7io snow. To pass over snow, soft, knee-deep, thigh-deep, and neck-deep, 3^ miles across eternal snoAv." The soft knee-deep and neck-deep snow was of com*se freshly fallen. We have thus another independent and distinct proof that the llupin Pass (15,460 feet) was clear of old snow on the last day of September. These different observations of the Gerards on the Bisahar range may be taken as sufficient evidence to prove that there is no perpetual snow below 15,500 feet, and that the actual snow-Hmit is somewhere about 16,000 feet. On the 17th September, 1849, I took from Simla the bearings and altitudes of several peaks and snow-lines in the Lahul range with a very good theodolite, reading to half-minutes. To test the performance of the instru- ment, I first took the altitude of the Shall Peak, which gave an elevation of 9,629 feet above the sea, or six feet in excess of that determined by the trigonometrical survey. I next turned it upon the Tural Peak, which is the highest in the Dhaola Dhar or Kangra range, * Patrick Gerard's Mauuscript Journals. Toui- of 1819. 72 XADAK. with a resiilt equally satisfactory ; the deduced altitude being 16,167 feet, or ten feet less than the mean alti- tude obtained from my former observations at Kangra and Nurpur. Lastly, I took the altitude of the Kotgarh peak beyond the Sutluj, to the north of Rampur. The altitude obtained was 17,353 feet, or eighty-one feet less than Captain Herbert's elevation by trigonometrical survey. These altitudes do not of com'se pretend to any very great accuracy, but they may be depended upon as near approximations to the truth. Their errors will arise chiefly from the difficulty of obtaining the correct distances of points that have not yet been laid down by a regular trigonometrical survey. The following table gives the heights of the snow-lines on the Lahul range as observed from Simla.* Height of Pk. Lower Edge of Snow. 1 2 3 4 5 6 One „ e „ f „ g, Kotgrah Peak . . . „ j, Obelisk Peak ... „ k 19,948 19,366 19,310 17,434 18,062 17,730 17,656 16,837 17,399 15,983 16,179 15,940 Mean. [ 17,297 [ 16,034 Mean height 16,665 The difference between the heights of the snow-line is simply accounted for by the difference of position in the observed points. The first three are situated in the Kullu range, and are fully exposed to the action of the south-west monsoon, which blows direct up the valleys of the Parbati, Gomati, and Sainj rivers. The other points are situated at the intersection of the lofty trans- * See Plate I. THE 3IID-niMALAYA RANGE. 73 verse chain which forms the watershed hetween the valleys of the Byas and Sutluj rivers, and which runs in the same direction as the monsoon. In its passage along the ridge, the heat of the blast is gradually abs- tracted, until when it reaches the snow it is reduced to the temperature of the surroundmg atmosphere. We have thus foiu* distinct and independent observa- tions for the height of the southern snow-line in different parts of the Mid-Himalayan range. Feet. Authority. 1 2 3 4 In Kumaun In S. Bisahar ... In j\^. Bisahar In E. Kullu 16,000 16,000 10,034 17,297 Lieut. R. Strachey. The Gerards. A. Cunningham. Ditto. Mean heighl 16,333 feet.* On the same range, but farther north, I found the KaH Debi Pass, 16,700 feet, covered with snow in July, and I was assured that the snow never disappeared from the crest of the Pass. On the whole, therefore, the mass of observations agree in fixing the snow-limit on tlie southern exposure of this range, at 10,000 feet and upwards. On the northern exposure, the snow-line is probably about 17,000 feet. On crossing the llotang Pass, in the end of Avigust, 1816, I observed that the snow on the northern face of the Lahul range did not generally descend below 17,000 feet, although on particular peaks it was lying in masses as low as 16,500 feet. On the * Even if we allow only 15,500 feet for the height of the snow-line in the South Bisahar range, as observed by the Gerards, the mean height of the southern e.\posiu'e of the outer Ilimalaya will be 16,208 feet. 74 LADAK. Bisaliar range, as we have already seen from the obser- vations of the Gerards, the snow remains throughout the year ; and as the mean height of the peaks which came under their observation, does not exceed 17,200 feet, it is certain that tlie northern snow-line cannot be higher than 17,000 feet. Erom the correspondence of these observations with my own, we may conclude that the northern snow-line of the Bisahar and Lahul ranges is somewhat under 17,000 feet. According to Herbert, the great mass of the Bisahar range is gneiss. The same rock occurs in the Lahul range, on both flanks of the Uotang Pass : but beyond this it is succeeded by limestone, which forms the crest of the Kali Debi ridge, flanked by silicious schist on the north, and by trap on the south. Beyond this, at the Saj Pass, Dr. Thomson found mica and clay slates; and limestone at the Banahal Pass, on the Pir-Panjal. But the mass of the Pir-Panjal, according to Vigne, is basaltic. VII.— Gtli. THE DIIAOLA DHAE or OUTEE HIMALAYA. The outer, or Sub-Himalaya, stretches from the bend of the Byas, at Mandi, to the well-known peak of Gandgarh, on the Indus. It attains its greatest height between the Byjis and Uavi, in the precipitous range of hnis called the Dhaola Bhdr* or White Mountain, to * This range is called by several names in our maps; as, " Mony Mas Kidar" tliat is, Mani-Mahes-hi-dhar, or the mountain of the holy lake of Mani-Mahes, which, however, is not situated in this range, but beyond the Eavi. Hugel calls the range " Palam Kidar " and " Chamba Kidar," from the names of the districts to the north and south of the range. The true name is Dhaola, from the Sanscrit Bliavala, white ; and this was most probably the original name written by Abu Eih'an, THE OUTER HIMALAYA. 75 tlic north of Kangra. The general direction is from south-cast to north-west, as in the other ranges, and the whole length is nearly 300 miles. The Sub-Himalaya is pierced by the Ravi, the Chenab, the Punach, and the Jelilam rivers, wliicli divide it into several distinct ridges. The most easterly of these separate ridges is the Dhaola Dhar, which forms the natiiral boundary between Kullu and Mandi, and between Chamba and Kangra. It is about eighty miles in length, and is of sufficient height to be covered with snow for about eight months of the year. I have observed this range for four suc- cessive years, and I can state positively that the snow entirely disappears from it every year, although the crest of the ridge has an average height of 15,000 feet. In the end of November, 1846, I marched from Kangra to Nurpur, and observed these mountains daily, and they were then entirely bare of snow. On the night of the 30th November, snow fell in considerable quantities, and did not disappear until the end of the following rains. In September and October, 1848, when I was at Simla, I observed this range carefully ^\dth a telescope, and could not discover a speck of snow on any part of it. Again, on the 16th and 17th of September, 1849, before leaving Simla, and when not a patch of snow was visible with a telescope sufficiently powerful for observing the occultation of Jupiter's satellites, I took the bearing and altitudes of several peaks and passes, for the purpose of verifying the measiu'ements which I had formerly made from Kangra and Nurpm\ The following table gives the results of all these measm'cments. ■who calls these mountains JjUj Bhdlel, an easy corruption of J.lj>J Dhaola. See Reiuaud's " Fragments Arabes et Persans," p. 94. 76 L.VDAK. Nurpur. Kangra. Simla. Mean Height. A Balen Peak ... 13,783 ft. — 14,138 13,960 B Cleft Peak ... 14,981 — — 14,981 C Andrar Peak . . . 15,642 — — 15,642 D Tural Pass . . . — — 14,808 14,808 E Tural Peak ... 16,145 16,210 16,167 16,174 F Tkilau Peak ... — 15,220 — 15,220 G Sangiir Peak . . . — 14,529 — 14,529 II Satmaru Peak — 13,575 — 13,575 K Peak — 14,240 14,701 14,470 L Peak — 15,109 14,244 14,676 M Sural Peak . . . — 15,644 15,207 15,425 N Peak — — 15,975 15,975 P Thamsar Peak — — 15,826 15,826 Mea n height ol tlie range 15,020 The discrepancies \\'hicli appear iu these results are mostly attrihutahle to the difficulty which I experienced in identifying the peaks from the different stations. I had taken the precaution of making outline sketches of the crest, as seen both from Nurpur and from Kangra ; but from Simla, at a mean distance of eighty-five miles, and at a much greater elevation, the ridge presented such a different appearance that I could not satisfy my- self as to the identity of more than two or three points. The Tural peak, which is the highest in the range, was, of course, readUy recognized, as well as the Tural Pass to the Avestward. Two other peaks, K and M, agreed tolerably well with the outlines, and with the bearings on the map : but the others were all doubtfid. One, L, which I thought I had recogrdzcd, was most probably not the same peak, but I have retained it in the table because its height, as determined from Simla (although it is so much beloAv the other), docs not decrease the THE OUTER HIMALAYA. 77 average elevation of the range by more than thirty-four feet. By striking out this one observation, the average height will be 15,05i feet. The elevation of tliis range is of considerable import- ance in determining the long-unsettled question of the snow -line, which, on the joint authority of the great Ilumljoldt and the learned Colebrook, had been fixed at 13,000 feet, between 30^ and 32° of latitude. Lieut. Richard Strachey,* of the Engineers, was the first to correct this error, and to determine by observation that " the height of the snow-line on the more prominent points of the southern end of the belt, may be fairly reckoned at 16,000 feet, at the very least." This con- clusion is fully borne out by my omti observations, one half of which were made before the publication of Lieut. Strachey' s paper. The ascertained height of the Dhaola Dhar, which rises abruptly from the low plains of Kan- gra, 3,000 feet, to a mean elevation of 15,000 feet, and of 10,000 feet in its loftiest peaks, proves most clearly that the snow-line, in the southern Himalaya, cannot be under 16,000 feet. The geological structiu'e of this range is almost un- known. In 1839, when I descended the valley of the Ravi, along the northern spurs of the Dhaola Dhar, I noted that the whole of the formations, at from 3,000 to 8,000 feet, were of clay and mica slates, and mostly of a very fine description, well adapted for roofing. The crest of the ridge is, however, most probably granite and gneiss, both of which I found on crossing the Chuari * Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. xviii. p. 292. Since the publication of this paper, however, Alex. Keith Johnston, in his beautiful Physical Atlas, p. 16, has stated the height of the southern snow-line on the Himdlaj'a at 15,000 feet. 78 LADAK. Pass, to the south of Chamba. Between Chamha and Chiiari, the gneiss was overlaid by chlorite and mica slates. On the south of the range, the same fine roofing- slates (both mica and clay) are found to the north of Kangra, and to the north of Mandi. Both on the north and south of the range, the beds of some of the small streams are washed for iron-sand, which, after washing, yields as much as 90 per cent, of pure metal. The same iron ore is worked at Kuman, near Mandi, where it occurs in thin black, sparkling ribands, in a soft grey sandstone. The sandstone is pounded with, a hard round boulder, and after wasliing yields about the same quantity of metal as the other. The second portion of the Sub-Himalayan range ex- tends from the Ravi to the Chenab, a distance of fifty- five miles, and forms the natural boundary between Chamba and Bhadrwar, on the north, and the small dis- tricts of Chaneni, Bandralta, and Balawar, on the south. Between Bhadrwar and Chamba, the passes of Bhadr Dhar and Chatr Dhar are upwards of 10,000 feet in height, and the ridge may therefore have an elevation of 12,000 feet, or even more. To the south of Chaneni it breaks into a remarkable triple-peaked mountain, which is held sacred by the Hindus, under the name of Tr6-kuta Devi (the three- peaked or trident goddess). The central portion of the Sub-Himalaya is the well- known Ratan Panjal, which is crossed by the Bhimbar road to Kashmir. The pass of Ratan Pir, from which the mountain (Pmijdl) derives its name, has an eleva- tion of 7,700 feet, and the highest peaks rise to about 11,000 feet. It is clothed to the very summit with magnificent trees, and its glens are not surpassed in THE OUTER UIMALAYA. 79 beauty by anything that I have seen in the Himalaya, always excepting the lovely valley of the Byas. The length of tliis ridge is eighty miles, from the neighbour- hood of Chaneni to the southern bend of the Punach river. The foiu'th portion of the Sub-Himalaya is altogether unknowTi. It extends from Koteli to Dhangali, the Ghakar capital on the Jehlam, a distance of twenty-five miles. The fifth, and most westerly portion of the Sub- Himalaya, stretches from the Jehlam to the Indus, a distance of nearly seventy miles. It rises to an eleva- tion of more than 7,000 feet, and is well clothed with trees on its northern slopes. In this general survey of the mountain-ranges that bound the Panjab to the north, I have purposely omitted all mention of the vegetable products that occur at dif- ferent heights, as this subject naturally forms a part of Dr. Thomson's botanical labours. I have also omitted all notice of glaciers : not that I am unaware of their existence, but because I have seen so few of them that I have nothing to say of them which is worth recording. In 1839, 1 traversed a magnificent glacier which spanned the valley of the Cheli rivulet, below the Kali Debi Pass (16,700 feet). It was fissured in all directions, and down the main fissure, which was five feet wide, I saw the stream trickling at a depth of more than 300 feet. The surface was covered with hardened snow and im- bedded stones ; but the mass, as seen in the fissures, was clear transparent ice, filled with white specks. This glacier was about one mUe long, and a quarter of a mile broad, with an average depth of 200 or 300 feet. In 80 ladak. the same range, Dr. Thomson saw a similar glacier to the north of the Saj Pass, about thirty miles to the north-west of Kali Debi. In 18i7, I crossed a second and larger glacier, to the north of the Parang Pass, 18,500 feet. It extended dowai the head of the Para river for 2f miles. At its termination, it was fifty feet high, but a quarter of a mile upward it was fully 150 feet thick. Its upper end was covered with hardened snow, but the lower end was half-hidden in fragments of stone, which were mixed into the ice for several feet in depth. It was fissured in many places. A still larger glacier was observed by Dr. Thomson, on the northern side of the Umasi-La, on crossing into Zanskar. It ex- tended from the top of the pass, 18,123 feet, down to a level of 14,500 feet, and cannot have been less than three or four miles in length. All these glaciers are mere still masses of ice, that are only dangerous when one has to cross them ; but both above and below Sassar there are several gigantic glaciers that span the noble vaUey of the Khundan river. At diflFerent times, the river has been completely dammed for several months by these mighty barriers, until the accumulated waters have burst their icy chains, and swept away all traces of man and his puny labours, for several hundred feet above the river. The folloTving table gives a summary statement of all the information collected regarding the great mountain- chains in the north of the Panjab.* * See Plate I. for a general section through all those mountain-ranges, which exhibits the heights of the loftiest peaks, and the elevations of the different snow-lines and table-lands. THE OUTER HIMALAYA. 81 Length Elevation Mean Snow-line. No. Chains. in Miles. highest Peak. Height of Chain. South. North. 1 Kiirakoram, or Trans-Tibetan . 450 24,000? 20,000 18,500 18,000 2 Kailas or Gangri, or IVIid-Tibetan . 550 20,700 29,000 19,000 18,500 3 Trans- Himalaya, orTshomoriri... 350 21,000 19,300 20,000 19,500 4 Western Hima- laya, or Bara Lacha 650 25,749 20,000 18,500 19,000 5 Mid-Himalaya, or Pir-Panjal ... 470 21,786 17,000 16,000 17,000 6 Outer Himalaya, Dhaola Dhar . . . 300 16,174 15,020 the disappears inow annually. 82 IV.-RIVEES. I.— GENEEAL EEMAEKS. From the lofty mountains around the holy lake of Manasarovara, spring four celebrated rivers, the Indus, the Sutluj, the Gogra, and the Brahmaputra. These four sources are represented in the ancient Chinese maps ; and the well-known story regarding them is common both to the Hindus and the Tibetans. The classical Ganges is fabled to flow from a cow's mouth ; and to each of these four rivers is assigned an equally wonderful origin. The Indus is said to flow from a lion's mouth, S'mgge-kha-bab ; the Sutluj, from an elephant's mouth, Langclien-kha-bab ; the Gogra, from a peacock's mouth, Macha-kJia-bab ; and the Brahma- putra, from the holy horse's mouth, Ta-chhog-kha-bab.* The fable is evidently of Indian origin, as elephants and pea-fowl are only known to the Tibetans by pictures, and because the source of the Brahmaputra, or river of Lhasa, is ascribed to Ta-chhog, the holy steed of Sliakya Thubba, or Buddha. * Kha-po, or in composition simply Kha, is a moutli, and hah means " descended." The different names are Seng-ge-Mia-hab, " lion's mouth- descended ;" gLaiig-chen-kha-hah, " elephant's mouth-descended ;" rMa- hga (pronounced Ma-cha)-]cha-hah, " peacock's mouth-descended ;" and rTa-mChJiog-kha-bah, " Ta-chhok's mouth-descended." Ta-chhok is the name of Sakya's steed, and means " the best horse." GENERAL REMARKS, 83 The most remarkable feature about the Indus and its tributaries, is the general parallelism of their courses, which has been determined by the directions of the principal mountain-chains. In the " Novum Organum," Bacon has noticed the " sLniilitudines physicae in configu- ratione mundi," and the same similarity may be ob- served in the peculiar knee-bends which are common to all the Panjab rivers. For the curious southward sweep which occurs in the Sutluj below Bilaspur, is also found in all the other rivers : in the Byas, below Hajipur ; in the Ravi, near Bisoli ; in the Chenab, below Kashtwar ; in the Jehlam, below Mozafarabad ; and in the Indus, at the gorge of Makpon-i-Shang-Rong. The same re- turning bend also occurs in the Kishen Ganga, above Mozafarabad. The most common name for a river is chhu ;* as, S'mgge-chlm, the Lion river, or Indus; and Zaiiskar- chlm, the river of Zanskar. "VVlien a river is spoken of generally, it is either called Chhu-chhen, or Tsangpo, or Tsangchhen. The first means simply the "great river," but the latter is a genuine name for a river, and is applied to the Indus as weU as to the Brahmaputra, although it belongs strictly only to the great river of the Lhasan territory, which flows through the province of Tsang. It is now used to signify any large river, in the same way as Ganga is applied in India. Smaller streams are called Dok-po, the "narrow water," or brook; and Drag-po, the " rapid water," or torrent ; or Tsang-chung, the " small stream ;" but Dok-po is the common term.f The river system of Ladak consists entirely of the three great mountain-feeders of the Indus, the Singge- * Chhu, " wiiter," generally, a river, t Gro(j-po, pronounced Dokpo. It is also spelt Dog-po. G 2 84 LADAK. chlm, or Indus Proper, the Shayok, and the ZansJcar rivers. But as my account of Ladak embraces the dis- tricts of Lahul and Spiti, which once belonged to it, my description of the rivers must necessarily extend to the Chenab and Sutluj : and to complete the subject I will add some short notices of the other three rivers of the Panjab, — the Jehlam, the Ravi, and the Byas. II.— THE INDUS. By some the real source of the Indus is at present considered an unsettled point,* notwithstanding the dis- tinct and explicit statement of Moorcroft,t that "the Sinh-kha-bab rises from the Gangri or Kailas range, a short way to the south-east of Gartop" (Garo). The infor- mation collected by Moorcroft agrees exactly with that which I obtained from different people, that the Garo river is the Singge-clahu or Indus, and that there is no gi^eat eastern branch. My principal information was derived from Anant Ram, the vazir of Shasso, in the Sungnam valley, who was despatched to Garo by the late Vans Agnew and myself in September 1846, with * Thornton, Gazetteer, in voce Indus, relies upon Gerard, whom he calls " probably the highest authority upon the subject." The two Gerards are certainly the highest authorities for mountains, as they discovered some that were not less than 30,000 feet in height, or 2,000 feet higher than the loftiest known peaks. These are stated to be on the left bank of the Indus, in Eupshu : but when Dr. Gerard visited Eupshu he actually passed, unconscious, within eight or ten miles of the position of those stupendous peaks, which, at a distance of eighty-four miles, had thrown both the brothers into raptures ! Thornton strangely quotes Vigne as confirming the height of these mountains ; but Vigne simply says that he looked for them, but they were " not in sight." Vigne was too honest a traveller to lend his name to such a statement. t Travels, I. p. 3G3. THE INDUS. 85 the Governor-General's letter to the Governor of Lhasa. He went from IIanl6 tip the valley of the Slnggd-chu to Garo, or rather to Higong, which is the winter residence of the Governor. For the Garo of our maps, wliich was visited by Moorcroft, is chiefly a summer encampment, as its name implies, on the right bank of the Iligong-chu, while the other Garo is situated two marches lower down the river, and on the left bank. The former is called Gar- Yarn, or upper encampment, and the latter Gar-gang,* or the snowy encampment, because the people retire to it during the winter, or snow season. Anant Ham passed by Tashigong, but he saw nothing of the great eastern branch, which I believe owes its existence entirely to Gerard, who could only account for the two names of Higong-chu and Singge-chu by supposing them to belong to different streams. Thornton, who never misses an opportunity of sneer- ing at Arrowsmith, states in a note that " the existence of this river and confluence is alleged on the credit of the map accompanying Moorcroft's Travels, and stated to have been compUed from his notes and field-books." Now the map referred to, which was published in 1841, represents the eastern Sinh-kha-bab by a dotted line, whereas in Arrowsmith's map of Northern Asia, pub- lished in 1834, the eastern branch is defined as distinctly as the Garo river. This branch is just as boldly deli- neated by the "accm'ate" Walker in Sheet XI. of the map of India, published in 1836, by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. These dates prove that previous to the publication of the map of Moor- croft's and Trebeck's Travels, an eastern branch of the Indus had been inserted in our best maps, and that * sGar, a cainp ; Yar, or Yam, up, upwards; aud Gangs, ice, snow. 86 LADAK. Arrowsmith, after he had seen Moorcroft's and Trebeck's notes and field-books, was so doubtful of its existence, that he only represented it by a dotted line in the map illustrating Moorcroft's travels,* According to my iuformation, the true source of the Indus lies to the north-west of the holy lakes of Manasa- rovara and Rawan Hrad, in the south-western slopes of the Gangri or Kailas mountain, in north latitude 31° 20', and east longitude 80° 30', and at an estimated height of 17,000 feet. From its source to Garo, the Indus was followed by Moorcroft in 1812. Within eight or ten miles of its source it was 240 feet broad and 2^ feet deep in July, and at Garo, about forty miles from its source, it was " a clear, broad, and rapid, but not deep river." On the 19th September, 1847, I measured the Indus at an uninhabited spot named Ranak, a few mUes above the junction of the Puga rivulet, and about 2G0 miles from the source. The stream was there 240 feet broad, with a mean depth of 1*7916 feet, and an extreme depth of only three feet. Its greatest surface velocity was 3"658 feet per second, or 2| miles per hour, and its mean surface velocity was 2*727 feet per second, or * Mr. Thornton, Gazetteer, in voce Hindu Kush, accuses Arrowsmith of embellishing the Hindu Kush with " a goodly peak." Mr. Arrow- smith might return the compliment by pointing to the " Panda Talao," with which the Walkers have emhellished the eastern branch of the ludus. Mr. Thornton then contrasts Mr. Walker's " usual admirable accuracy," as displayed in his map of the countries between the Sutluj and the Oxus. But in this " admirably accurate map " I find Baron ITugel's Mulial, and Vigne's MUiil Mori, inserted as two distinct places ten miles apart ! Walker's excellent map of Afghanistan is likewise disfigured by several errors : thus I find Shabkader and Chep- koder, the latter being only the French spelling of the same name ; Daueh Chekow is printed instead of Danish-kot ; and Antre Koustam instead of Kustam's Cave. THE INDUS. 87 nearly one mile and seven furlongs per hour. Prom these data I found the discharge of the Indus to be only 774 cubic feet per second. The stream was quite clear, but sluggish, running between grassy banks, half sand, half mud, the sand being quick, and the grass coarse, long, and yellow. The banks were flat and low, and the bottom generally muddy. Below this the character of the stream was quite changed, and the waters rushed impetuously down a narrow channel full of huge boul- ders and enormous rocks. It will be observed that the Indus at H&nak had the same breadth, and but little more depth than where Moorcroft saw it above Garo ; but as the current was "rapid," its velocity cannot be estimated at less than five or six miles an hour. TMs would give a discharge of about 1,500 cubic feet for July, and of 560 feet for September. If this estimate be correct, it is certain that no large stream can join the Garo river above Ranak. The course of the Indus from its source to Ranak is to the north-west, and the distance is about 260 mUes, and the fall 2,600 feet, or about ten feet per mUe. From Ranak to Pitak, opposite to JA, the distance is 130 miles, and the direction the same as before, almost due north-west. The fall of the river is 3,200 feet, or 24'6 feet per mile. Above Ranak the Indus is generally fordable, but from thence to lA it can only be crossed by bridges. From Le to ^le junction of the Dras river, a distance of 125 mUes, the river changes its course to west-south-west. From this point to the junction of the Shayok river, a distance of seventy-five mUes, its course is generally north-north-west, and from thence to Skardo, a distance of thirty mUes, it makes a .'A 88 LADAK. sweep up to the northward, and retviming to the south resumes its former course to the north-north-west. At Nyimo, just twenty-five miles below Le, the Indus is joined by the Zanskar river, a dark and turbulent torrent of equal, or perhaps of greater size. The junc- tion of the united Waka, Siiru, and Dras rivers with the Indus takes place at Moral, and the confluence of the Shayok and Indus just above Keris (7,500 feet). On the 26th of November, Dr. Thomson foimd the Indus at Skardo 520 feet broad, with a mean depth of 7'11 feet, and an extreme depth of 9^ feet. The mean surface velocity was 2*128 feet per second, or about 1^ mUe per hour. The greatest surface velocity was 2"586 feet per second, or rather more than If mile per hour. From these data I calculate the discharge at 4,525 cubic feet per second in the winter. Of this amoimt about 2,000 cubic feet are probably supplied by the Shayok river, and the remaining 2,500 cubic feet by the Indus Proper. The small rivers of Wanla, Waka, Suru, and Dras probably supply 500 cubic feet, and the Zan- skar river about 1,000 cubic feet; thus leaving 1,000 cubic feet for the discharge of the Indus at Le during the winter season. Prom Skardo to Rongdo and from Rongdo to Makpon- i-Shang-Rong, for upwards of 100 miles, the Indus sweeps sullen and dark through a mighty gorge in the mountains, which for wild sublimity is perhaps un- equalled.* Rongdo means the " country of defiles," and Makpon-i-Shang-Rong means the "craggy defile of Astor." Between these points the Indus raves from side to side of the gloomy chasm, foaming and chafing with * See Plate III. for a view of the bed of the ludus at the Kougdo Bridge. L THE INDUS. 89 ungovcniable fury. Yet even in these inaccessible places has daring and ingenious man triumphed over opposing nature. The yawning abyss is spanned by frail rope bridges, and the narrow ledges of rock are connected by ladders to form a giddy pathway over- hanging the seething caldron below. At Makpon-i- Shang-E/ong, 4,500 feet, the Indus cuts the Trans- Himalayan chain of mountains by a bold and sudden sweep round to the southward, where it receives the waters of the Gilgit river, a mighty stream, perhaps not inferior to any one of the mountain tributaries. From Skardo to Rongdo the distance is 40 miles, and the fall of the river 800 feet, or 20 feet per mile. From Rongdo to the Shang-Rong the distance is 75 miles, and the faU 1,700 feet, or 22-6 feet per nule. From the junction of the Gilgit river to Attock, 1,000 feet above the sea-level, the course of the Indus is to the south-west. The distance is 300 mUes, and the fall of the river 3,500 feet, or 11-G feet per mile. This part of its course is but little known ; but even at Ohind, 15 mUes above Attock, I found the current of the Indus much more rapid than that of any other river of the Panjab. From its source to RA-nak, the Indus is a broad and fordable stream, rolling its sluggish waters through open grassy plains. Its general width is about 250 feet. From Ranak to the junction of the Zanskar river, the stream is a brawling rapid from 100 to 150 feet broad ; and thence to the confluence of the Shayok it is a furious torrent, raving from side to side of a narrow ravine. At the Khallach bridge, the channel is only 50 feet vnde below and 60 feet above. In the winter the lower part of the Indus is frequently frozen over, 90 LADAK. and in 1841 Zorawar Sing's troops crossed the Indus on the ice. The whole length of the mountain course of the Indus from its source to Attock is 1,035 miles,* and the whole faU is 16,000 feet, or 15-4! feet per mile. From Attock to the sea the length is 942 miles, and its whole length from the Kailas mountain to the Indian Ocean is 1,977 miles. The minimum discharge of the Indus between Attock and Mithankot is about 16,000 cubic feet, which I have estimated in the following manner : — Discharge at Skardo 4,500 cubic feet. Shigar, Gilgit, and Astor rivers . . . 4,000 Small unknown streams ... ... 2,500 11,000 Kabul river ... ... ... ... 5,500 16,500 Loss by evaporation between Attock ") , ^.-^ and Mithankot ... ... ) ' Total discharge 15,000 In May, when it has been increased by the meltiag of the snows, its discharge is six times as great, or 91,791 cubic feet ; and in July and August, when swollen by the seasonal rains, it reaches its maximum discharge of 135,000 cubic feet, or nine times that of the winter discharge. These estimates are for the Indus itself above the confluence of the Panjnad. Below the con- fluence, the minimum discharge of the Indus is about * My measurements have all been made by adding one half to the measured lengths obtained by the compasses. Thornton reckons the mountain course of the Indus at 700 mOes, but the practised Geogra- pher Alex. Keith Johnston estimates it at 1,060 miles, which is within a few miles of my own estimate. See Johnston's Physical Atlas, p. 45. THE INDUS. 91 27,000 cubic feet. The discharge in May is 160,671 cubic feetj* and the maximum discharge is 230,000 cubic feet. The discharge of the Indus at R^nak has ah-eady been stated at 774 cubic feet in September ; and I estimate its winter discharge below Le at 1,000 cubic feet. As the Zanskar river is about the same size, the minimum discharge of the Indus Proper may be taken at 2,000 cubic feet ; and tlie maximum discharge, at nine times the minimum, will be 18,000 cubic feet. That this esti- mate is not too great, can be proved by the known rise of the river (36 feet) at the Khallach bridge, where the stream is confined between almost perpendicular rocks, only 55 feet apart. A discharge of 18,000 cubic feet at this point would require a surface velocity of not more than 8^ miles per hour, or of 12-46 feet per second. The waters of the Indus are supplied by the rivers of the Panjab in the following proportion. 1 2 3 4 5 Sutluj Byas Ravi Clienab Jehlam Loss Cubic Feet. Authority. 5,700 3,100 2,700 4,700 4,000 Major Baker, Engineers. Major Cunningham. Col. Napier, Engineers. Major Cunningham. Estimated. evaporation, permeation, &c. 20,200 .. 8,200 by Panjnad ... Indus Proper Minimiun discharj .. 12,000 cu .. 15,000 bic feet, discharge. 'e 27,000 cu bic feet. Wood, in Barnes's Cabul, p. 374. 92 LABAK. The following table exhibits the discharge of the Indus below Mithankot in several months of the year.* Dr. Lord corrected. Wood. Burnes corrected. In Marcb 26,357 „ April 66,660 „ May 160,162 „ June 163,483 „ July 223,678 „ August 230,177 „ September ... 217,110 160,674 67,837 In his Memoii- on the Indus, Sir A. Burnes has as- signed to the Indus a discharge of 80,000 cubic feet in April, and then contrasted this amount Avith the mini- mum discharge of the Ganges, as published by George Prinsep. But the comparison is doubly incorrect, for the lowest state of the Indus occurs in March, when, as we have seen, the discharge is not more than 27,000 cubic feet : and the discharge of the Ganges, at Sikrigali, as stated by George Prinsep, is so manifestly wrong that it is quite astonishing how any one could have repeated such an absurd mistake. On turning to George Prin- sep's statement, I find that he assigns 21,500 cubic feet * Dr. Lord, Medical Memoir of tbe Valley of tbe Indus, p. 65, states the discbarge in May at 310,393 cubic feet ; but bis calculation must have been made from the surface velocity instead of from the mean velocity of the mass. I have therefore reduced all his discharges by multiplying them by the factor '5 16. This makes the May discharge agree with that of the accurate Wood. Sir A. Burnes makes the breadth of tlie Indus, at Tatta, 670 yards or 2,010 feet, the depth 15 feet, and the velocity 1\ miles per hour. From these data I have calculated the discharge according; to the formula v=- (,/.,_l)2 + , 1 ; in which s is the surface velocity, and w tbe mean velocitj' of the mass. The result agrees closely with Dr. Lord's corrected discharge. THE INDUS. 93 as the discliarge of the Ganges at Sikrigali, and 20,000 at Benares. The latter, as Burnes remarks, " differs in but a trifling degree from that at Sikrigali;" and the near agreement of these two, he conceives to be a proof in favour of the correctness of the estimated discharge.* Had any one told him that the discharge of the Indus at Mithankot was the same as at Dera Ghazi Khan, above the junction of the Fanjnad, he would at once have exposed the absui'dity ; and yet he takes the Ganges at Sikrigali to be the same stream as the Ganges at Be- nares, although between these points it receives the tribute waters of the Gumti, the Gogra, the Son, the Gandak, the Baghmati, the Gogari, the Kosi, and the Mahanadi; of which the Gogra alone is fully equal to the Ganges at Benares. As the comparison of the two rivers is a subject of much interest, I will here state all that I have gathered regarding the discharge of the Ganges. The estimated discharge at Benares was, without doubt, derived from the measui'cments of James Prinsep, who was for several years Assay Master of the Benares Mint, and whose high attainments in all branches of science are sufiicient to guarantee the correctness of his calculations. Indeed the accuracy of James Prinsep's discharge of the Ganges at Benares is most satisfactorily proved by the measured discharge at Ghazipur, which from data published by the Rev. R. Everest,! I have calculated at 21,757 cubic feet. The only other minimum calculation which I possess, is luckily that which is most wanted, the mini- mum discharge of the Ganges at the head of the Delta. For this I am indebted to the late Colonel Wilcox, who * Burnes's Travels, I. p. 199. t Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal, I. p. 241. 94 LADAK. was formerly employed on the Great Trigonometrical Survey, and afterwards in the Observatory of the King of Oude. The measurements were taken above Comer- colly and Pubna, and included the streams of the Ja- linghi and Bhagirathi, as well as the main river. The discharge of the Ganges at this point was found to be 96,000 cubic feet, or more than three and a half times that of the Indus. The maximiun discharge of the Ganges at Ghazipur, calculated from the data furnished by the Rev. R. Everest, I find to be 476,761 cubic feet, or more than double that of the Indus at its greatest height. The maximum discharge of the Ganges, at the head of the Delta, cannot therefore be estimated at less than 1,500,000 cubic feet, or just six times that of the Indus. George Prinsep* states the maximum discharge at Sikrigali, at 1,850,000 cubic feet ; but my calculation, from his data, gives only 1,430,800 cubic feet. This re- sult might have been anticipated from the much greater extent of the Himalayan chain, drained by the Ganges, and from the known greater fall of rain in the Gangetic basin. The latter cause is probably the chief one, as it is known that the annual faU of rain increases rapidly from the Jamna, eastward. III.— THE SHATOK EIVEE. The principal mountain tributary of the Indus is the Shayok, or Khundan river, which rises in the Karako- ram mountains, to the northward of L^, in N. latitude 36°, and E. longitude 78°, and to the south-eastward of the Karakoram Pass. Prom its source to the neigh- bourhood of Sassar, it makes a bold sweep of sixty miles * Gleanings in Science, III. p. 185. THE SHAYOK KIVEE. 95 to the west and south. Thence, for fifty miles, to Man- dalik, it takes a south-easterly course ; and onward, to the town of Shayok, which gives its name to the stream, it flows due south for fifty miles more. Erom the source to this point, the whole length of the river is 170 miles, and the faU 6,000 feet, or 35-3 feet per mile. A short distance above the great north-western bend, the Shayok receives the waters of the Chang -chhen-mo, or Great Chang river, whose course has been explored by Captain H. Strachey ; and below the bend it receives the waters of the Long-Komna, from the south-east. From Shayok to Hundar, the course is west-north-west, and the distance is about eighty miles. Near this place it receives the Nubra river, a considerable stream, about 100 miles in length, from the north-west. Beyond this point it pm-sues the same direction to its confluence with the Indus, at Keris, a distance of 150 miles. Erom Shayok to the junction, the distance is 230 miles, and the fall is 4,500 feet, or 19"6 feet per mile. From its source in the Karakoram to Keris, where it joins the Indus, the whole length of the Shayok is just 400 miles, and the total fall is 10,500 feet, or 26*4 feet per mile. The general character of the Shayok is exactly the reverse of that of the Indus. Its upper course is rush- ing and tm'bulent, down a narrow glen, but its middle course is either broad and rapid, or divided into nume- rous channels, in an open valley ; and in these places where the waters are much scattered, the river is generally fordable, although not without difficulty.* Between Tertse and Unmaru, there are seven distinct branches, of which three are between 300 and 400 feet in width, and the others much smaller, with an average depth of * For this iiiformatiou I am indebted to tlie kindness of Dr. Thomson. 96 LADAK. two feet. At Surmu, the Shayok is also forded by two separate channels, each 300 feet broad, with a depth varying from two to three feet. At the Tm-tuk bridge, the river narrows to seventy feet, and in the lower part of its course, the Shayok is generally a furious rapid, confined between precipitous cliffs. In the height of summer, when the stream is much swollen by the melted snows, the fords are always difiicult. In the winter, the passage is easy ; and even in the lower part of its course the Shayok is frequently frozen over, and the stream is crossed upon the ice. I estimate the winter discharge of the Shayok at 2,000 cubic feet, the increased discharge in May at 12,000, and the maximvim discharge in August at 18,000 cubic feet. IV.— THE ZANSKAE EIVEE. The Chiling-chhu, or Zanskar river, is formed of two principal branches, Zanskar '^xo^ev, and the Sum- Gal, or river of the " Three Fords." The head- waters of the Zanskar river are the Yunam, the Serchu (or YeUow River), and the Cherpa, all of which rise to the north of the Himalaya range, near the Bara Lacha Pass. The head of the Cherpa river, which is the most remote source of the Zanskar river, is situated in N. latitude 32° 40', and E. longitude 78°. The united stream, below the junction of the Cherpa, is not fordable until the end of September ; and the Cherpa itself is not fordable after mid-day, even in the beginning of September, as both the rapidity and depth of the stream are much increased by the daily melting of the snow. The united stream, called Lingti, follows a north-westerly coui-se, as far as Phadam, the chief place in the Zanskar district. Prom OTHER TRIBUTARIES. 97 its source to Phadam, the distance is 130 miles, and the fall 4,000 feet, or 34-6 feet per mile. At Phadam the Lingti receives a small stream from the west, and then takes a due northerly course for upwards of eighty miles, to its junction mth the Indus, opposite Nyimo. In this part of its course the faU is only 1,500 feet, or 18-7 feet per mUe. The whole length of the Zanskar river is 210 miles, and the total fall is 6,000 feet, or 28-5 feet per nrile. About twenty-five mUes above its junction with the Indus, the Zanskar river receives the waters of the Sum- Gal, or river of the " Three Pords." The head-waters of this tributary rise in the mountains to the westward of the Tshomo-Riri lake, in N. latitude 33°, and E. longi- tude 78°. Three branches, of about equal size, join their waters to form this river ; and as each of these streams is forded separately within the short distance of one mile, the united stream has received the descriptive name of Sum-Gal, or the river of the " Three Pords." Prom its source to its junction with the Zanskar river, the course of the Sum-Gal is north-north-Avest ; its length is 110 miles, and its fall is about 5,000 feet, or 45-4 feet per mile. I estimate the discharge of the Zanskar river at 1,000 cubic feet in the winter, at 6,000 cubic feet in May, and at 9,000 cubic feet at its maximum, m August. v.— OTIIEE TEIBUTAEIES. Of the other mountain tributaries of the Indus, there are only four that are deserving of particular notice : the rivers of Dras, Shigar, Gilgit, and Astor. The Dras river is formed of the united streams of the Waka, the Suru, the Dras, and the Kuksar rivers. The H 98 LADAK. Waka-chu is formed of two main branches, the Waka and the Phu-gal, both of which take their rise to the north of the Hunalaya, near the Vingge-la, in N. lati- tude 33° 40', and E. longitude 76° 30'. Each stream is fordahle above the junction, biit the united stream is crossed by bridges. The whole length of the Waka-chu is about 100 nules, the general direction being north- north-west. The Suru river rises to the north of the Hunalaya range, in N. latitude 34°, and E. longitude 76°. Its length is about sixty miles, and its direction about north-north-east. The Dras river rises to the north of the Himalayan range, near the Seoji La Pass, in N. lati- tude 34° 12', and E. longitude 75° 45'. Its whole length is about eighty-five miles, and its general dh-ection is north-east. The Kuksar river rises to the westward, in about 34° 40' N. latitude, and 75° E. longitude. The length of its course is unknown ; but it is probably not less than 100 miles. Its general direction is easterly. The whole of these streams unite near Kargyil, below which they cut the Trans-Himalayan range, at the narrow gorge called the Wolf's Leap, and join the Indus oppo- site Mural. I estimate the discharge of the Dras river at not less than 500 cubic feet. The Shigar river rises in the Karakoram moimtains, in N. latitude 36° 20', and E. longitude 75°. It takes a south-easterly direction for 100 miles, and then tm'ns to the south-south-west for nearly forty miles, to its jimc- tion with the Indus, opposite Skardo. The discharge of this stream is probably about 500 cubic feet. The Gilgit river is one of the principal moimtain- feeders of the Indus. Its upper course is formed of two principal branches, the Yasan and Parasot rivers. The former rises in N. latitude 37°, and E. longitude 73°, at CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. 99 the point where the Kiirakoram merges into the Hindu Kush. The source of the Parasot is in 3G° 10' N. lati- tude, and 72° 40' E. longitude, on the eastern face of the range which gives rise to the Chitral, or Kunar river. After a separate course of seventy-five miles each, the two streams join above Roshan, in latitude 36° 20', and longitude 73° 30', and take an easterly course for twenty- five mUes, to Gakuch, where they are joined by the Chator-Kun river, from the north. Thence to the town of GUgit its course is east-south-east, for fifty mUes, below which it receives the joint tribute of the Hunza- Nager rivers. It continues the same course for about thirty miles further, to its junction with the Indus, below the defile of Makpon-i-Shang-Rong. The general direction of the stream is to the east-south-cast, and its whole length not less than 180 miles. The minimum discharge is probably 2,000 cubic feet, or even more. The Astor, or Hasora river, falls into the Indus in latitude 35° 30', and longitude 74° 35'. It rises to the cast of the great mountaia of Dayamur, and takes a northerly course of about 100 miles. VI.— CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. Since Moorcroft visited Ladak, there have been no less than three inundations of the Indus, of which the last and greatest occui-red in 1811. Vigne was the first to make known the second of these cataclysms, which, from the information of the people, he attributed to its right cause,* the bursting of a glacier in the upper course of the Shayok river. In 1812, when Izzet Ullah went from Le to Yarkand, he travelled up the Shayok * Kashmir, II. p. 362. H 2 100 LADAK. river, from its great western bend to its source in the Karakoram mountains ; and in 1822, when Moorcroft was at Le, the road by the Shayok was still clear. The information which I obtained regarding the Shayok or Khundan glacier, dates the first stoppage of the river in the fourth year after Moorcroft left Ladak, and in the same year that Jeliangir Khoja came from Yarkand, or in A.D. 1826. The river was dammed only for a short time, but the road was permanently obstructed. The second cataclysm happened in 1833, when, to use Vigne's account, " the protecting glacier gave way, and the mighty flood, no longer confined, rushed down the valley of the Shayok, destroying every village that came within its reach." The third cataclysm occurred in 1841, when the gallant Syam Sing Atariwala (who fell at Sobraon) was encamped in the bed of the river. Suddenly down rushed the wave of the inundation, thirty feet in height, and the whole camp took to flight : most of the men were saved, but the baggage, camp equipage, and gims, were swept away. The cataclysm of the Val de Bagnes, a small feeder of the Rhone, is the only great flood of this kind of wliich I can find any account ; but the Val de Bagnes is scarcely five mUes in length, wliile the glacier of the Khundan river is not less than 800 miles from the fort of Attock, past whose walls the flood rushed in one tremendous wave about 30 feet high, and continued its overwhelming coiu'se to the Indian Ocean, a distance of 1,750 miles. Who that from Alpine heights his laboring eye Shoots round the wide horizon, to survey Indus or Ganges rolling their bright floods Through mountains, plains, through empires black with shade, And continents of sand, will turn his gaze To mark the windings of a scanty rill ? Akexside. CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. 101 The Val de Bagiies is a petty brook, while the Khun- dan is a mighty river, scarcely inferior to the Indus itself at their junction above the fort of Skardo. As a magnificent natural catastrojihc on so grand a scale as that of the cataclysm of the Indus is Avorthy of the most particular examination, I trust that the follow- ing details will prove both interesting and valuable. When Vigne and Dr. Falconer* were at Skardo in 1837, they heard that the Shayok or Khundan river had been often "blocked up by avalanches and masses of ice," and that a flood had occurred not many years before. Both of these travellers heard of a lake in the upper course of the Shayok river, but as j\Iir Izzet Ullah does not mention it, I conclude that my informa- tion regarding the origin of the lake is correct. In two different parts of the Shayok or Khundan river, above and below Sassar, the bed of the stream is completely spamied by enormous glaciers. The upper glaciers above Sassar were seen by Dr. Thomson in 1848. They had descended from two lateral ravines on the western bank, and had been thrust right across the bed of the river by their own weight. But the lower glaciers on the Khun- dan are those to wliich my informants attributed the obstruction of the river, and they were imanimous in ascribing the flood to the long stoppage and sudden escape of the accumulated waters of the Khundan. The exact position of the great glacier is known within a few mUes. It is situated somewhere between Sassar and the jvmction of the Chang-Chhenmo, and as the distance between these points is only 50 mUes, we may place the glacier with tolerable certainty at about 30 miles below Sassar, and 20 nules above the junction of * Journal Asiatic yoc. Bengal, X. p. 617. J02 LADAK. the Chang-Chhen-mo. This part of the course is now quite iaaccessible, owing to the accumulated mass of ice and snow. The high road from Le to Yarkand formerly- ascended the bed of the Khundan or Shayok river the whole way to its source in the Karakoram mountains ; but since the obstruction of the channel, the road now takes a more westerly direction up the Nubra river, and then crosses a lofty pass to Sassar on the Khundan. At tliis point it again leaves the Khundan, on account of the upper glaciers seen by Dr. Thomson, and proceeds over a rugged and elevated tract to the head-waters of the river. In these cold and lofty regions, almost every ravine is filled with a glacier, which, except during a very warm summer, never moves, but is bound to the rocks every night by the icy chains of frost. A glacier is melted on its under surface by the liigher temperatm-e of the soU, and on its upper surface by the thawing of the snoAV under the direct rays of the sun. The heated stones that lie on the top form hollows and clefts that admit the external air, and little rills of water trickle over the sides in aU directions. The glacier is thus furrowed by holes, penetrated by cracks, and undermined below, until it becomes narrower than the ravine which contains it. It then descends by its own weight, and is either rent to pieces by unequal pressure, or checked by some opposing obstacle. In a very warm and dry summer the glaciers in the lateral ravines of the Khundan would be so much diminished by melting and evaporation, that they would be impelled onwards by their own gravity right across the channel of the river. This I suppose to have been the case towards the end of September 1826, from which time the channel of the Ivhundan river has CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. 103 never been clear, and the accumulated waters have formed a lake of considerable size, to which the people have given the name of Niibra Tsho, or the Nubra Lake. The accoimts which Vigne received were "various and most conflicting, but all agreed that it was very large ;" and he concluded that it might be " three or four miles in length and less than a mUe in width." My informant, who had seen the lake, said it was four or five kos (eight or ten miles) in length, and less than a quarter of a kos (half a nule) in breadth ; and such is the shape, that I should suppose it must take in the confined channel of the Khundan river. In 1833* this barrier was burst, and the accumulated waters rushed down the valley of the Shayok, destroy- ing every village within their reach ; from Nubra to Skardo, a distance of 120 mUes, the flood-wave descended in a single day, at the rate of ten miles an hour ; and the marks of its fury were still to be seen at Skardo in 1837. So well was the cause of this iaundation known to the people, that it was believed " that the same terrific visitation might be expected to occur agaia at no very distant period. "f The expected cataclysm occvirred in June 1841, but it was immensely greater in volume and more devastating ia its efi'ect* than the previous inundation of 1833. Diu-ing December 1840 and January 1841, the Indus was observed to be unusually low between Torbela and Attock. X In February and March it became lower, and * Two dift'erent informants fixed the date as follows: — one said four- teen years before 18i7, that is in 1833 ; the other said " just before Zorawar Sing invaded Ladak." As the invasion took place in ISSJt, the cataclysm may be dated in 1833. t Vigne's Kashmir, II. p. 362. + Major James Abbott. Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal, XVII. p. 230. 104 LADAK. was even fordable not> far above Attock ; but in April and May, tliough still very low, it was no longer fordable, as tlie depth of the stream had been much increased by the melted snows. Early in June the barrier was burst, and the collected waters of nearly six months rushed with overwhelming violence down the narrow valley of the Shayok, sweeping everything before them. Houses and trees, men and women, horses and oxen, sheep and goats, were carried away at once, and all the alluvial flats in the bed of the river, which had been irrigated with laborious care, were destroyed in a moment. Tliis happened in the middle of the month of Jyeth in the Sambat year 1898, or about the 1st Jvme, A.D. 18-il. According to the testimony of the people of Chulung and Tartuk, on the western boundary of Chhorbad, the wave of inundation passed their villages at two o'clock in the afternoon. As these villages stand on opposite sides of the river, and are ten miles apart, the concur- rence of testimony may be taken as a proof of its correct- ness. Two days afterwards, and exactly at the same hour, the flood passed by Torbela, a distance of 550 miles. The rate is 11-4583 miles per horn-, or 16-81 feet per second, being only just half that of the flood- wave of the Val de Bagnes in 1818 at its first burst into the valley of the Rhone. The fall from the Khundan gla- cier to Torbela is 16,000 feet, or just 20 feet per mile. The devastating effects of this terrible flood were still quite fresh in 1847. At Tertse, one of the widest parts of the valley, they could be traced to a height of more than 20 feet above the stream, where straws and twigs were massed together in lines two or three feet broad, and upwards of half a mile from the channel of the river in October 1817. But the most striking eftect of the flood CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. 105 was the entii*e absence of trees in the valley of the Shayok, while the lateral vaUey of Nubra was full of trees upwards of a hundred years old.* There were of coiu'se many young trees in the bed of the Shayok, but they were the growth of only a few years. At Surmu and at other places in the Khapolor district, numbers of fruit-trees Averc observed standing amidst large tracts of sand and gravel. The following table shows the loss of life and property in most of the villages along the Shayok from the junc- tion of the Nubra river to the fort of Skardo. Districts. Houses. People. Horses. Oxen. Sheep, Goats. Khals of Land. Trees. Nubra Chborbad Khapolor Keris Skardo Parguta Total ... 19 140 163 20 9 S3 8 1 18 1 114 4 1,040 178 364 859 127 107 10 140 4,900 1,190 1,200 351 92 19 118 1,040 1,645 7,430 From this list we learn that the principal loss of life occmTcd in the Nubra district, where the valley of the Shayok expands to about half a mile in breadth. There the shepherds and herdsmen, with their flocks and herds, Avere overwhelmed in the midst of the open plain, with- out a chance of escape. In the lower part of the valley, where the channel is confined, and where the vUlages are generally built high above the stream, there was no loss of Ufe. Even amongst the low-lying hamlets in the bed of the river, the loss of life was trifling, for the distant roar of the rusliing waters was a sufficient warning to * Thia fact was commuuicated to mu by Dr. Thomson. 106 LADAK. the people who had beheld the inundation of 1833, and with a few exceptions they all made their escape up the mountains. The effect of the inundation at Torbela has been so graphically described by Major James Abbott from the lips of an eye-witness, Ashraf Khan, of Torbela, that I wUl quote it entire.* " At about 2 p.m. a murmuring soimd was heard from the north-east among the moun- tains, which increased until it attracted universal atten- tion, and we began to exclaim, ' What is this murmur ? Is it the sound of cannon in the distance ? Is Gandgarh bellowing? Is it thunder?' Suddenly some one cried out, ' The river's come.' And I looked and perceived that all the dry channels were already filled, and that the river was racing down furiously in an absolute wall of mud, for it had not at all the colour or appearance of water. They who saw it in time easUy escaped. They who did not, were inevitably lost. It was a horrible mess of foul water, carcases of soldiers, peasants, war-steeds, camels, prostitutes, tents, mules, asses, trees, and household furniture, in short, every item of existence jumbled toge- ther in one ilood of ruin ; for Raja Gulab Sing's army was encamped in the bed of the Indus at Kulai, three kos above Torbela, in check of Painda Khan. Part of the force was at that moment in hot pursuit, or the ruin would have been wider. The rest ran, some to large trees which were aU soon uprooted and borne away ; others to rocks, which were speedUy buried beneath the waters. Only they escaped who took at once to the mountain-side. About five hundred of these troops were at once swept to destruction. The mischief was immense. Hundreds of acres of arable land were Licked * Journal Asiat. ISoc. Bengal, XYII. p. 231. CATACLYSM OF THE INDUS. 107 up and carried away by the waters. The whole of the Sisu-trees which adorned the river's banks, the famous bargat-tree of many stems, time out of mind the chosen bivouac of travellers, were all lost in an instant." Throughout the mountain-course of the Indus the devastation caused by this terrible flood in the low lands along the bank of the river was complete. All the cul- tivated lands were swept away, and not even a single tree was left standing to mark the spot where careful tillage and laborious irrigation had for hundreds of years wrung luxiu'iant crops from the thirsty soil. The fields, the houses, and the trees, were all overwhelmed in one common ruin ; while man and the animals which he has domesticated, horses and oxen, sheep and goats, gene- rally managed to escape. The ruin caused by tliis awful inundation in the bed of the Indus, between Torbela and Attock, was so over- whelming and so vast, that " it will take hundreds, if not thousands of years, to enable time to repair, with its healing hand, the mischief of that terrible hour. The revenue of Torbela has in consequence dwindled from 20,000 to 5,000 rupees. Chach has been soAvn with barren sand. The timber, for which the Indus has been cele- brated from the days of Alexander untU this disaster, is now so utterly gone, that I vainly strove throughout Huzara to procure a Sisu-tree for the repair of the field-artillery carriages. To make some poor amends, the river sprinkled gold dust over the barren soil, so that the washings, for several successive years, were farmed at four times their ordinary rent."* Opposite Attock, the waters of the Kabul river were checked and forced backward for upwards of twenty * Major James Abbott. 108 LADAK. miles, by the mighty wave of inundation. The fort of Akora, and the village of Messabanda, were overthrown ; and when I saw them in January 1848, were mere scat- tered heaps of ruin. As everything connected with this tremendous inun- dation must be interesting, I have attempted to ascer- tain, approximately, the mass of the accumulated waters in the Nubra Tsho, or Lake, formed by the glacier bar- rier, as well as the mass and height of the cataclysmal wave. In calculating the accumulation of water, I have estimated the usual winter discharge of the Khundan river at 800 cubic feet, or less than one-half of the dis- charge at its confluence with the Indus. The increased discharges in April and May are based upon the known rates of increase in the discharge of the Indus, which have already been given. The accumulation began in December. Date. Velocity. Accumulation. December 1840 January 1841 February „ March „ April „ May „ 800 cubic ft. per sec. 800 „ 800 „ 800 „ 2,000 „ 4,800 „ 1,249,920,000 cubic ft. 1,249,920,000 1,128,960,000 1,249,920,000 5,064,000,000 12,918,320,000 22,861,040,000 From this amount a considerable deduction must be made for loss by evaporation and percolation. I do not, therefore, estimate the whole mass of accumulated waters at more than 20,000,000,000 cubic feet. But even this would be sufficient to form a lake twelve miles in length, with an average breadth of 526 yards, or 1,578 feet, and an average depth of 200 feet. The surface of the lake would CATACLYSM OF THE INBTJS. 109 have been half a mile or more in breadth, and the depth at the lower end, against the glacier, would have been 400 feet. As the fall in this part of the bed of the river is somewhat less than thirty-five feet, a lake of tliis depth would be exactly twelve miles in length. The bursting of the barrier was, I have little doubt, caused by the cutting powers of the overflowing waters, which must quickly have worked enormous clefts in the outer face of the glacier. In a few days these clefts would have been worn deeper and deeper, until the icy mass at length gave way under the mighty pressure of the vast liquid body. Then the imprisoned waters burst forth with a roar of exultation, lashing themselves into foam against the rocks, careering madly from side to side, and sweeping all things before them in the wild might of their untamed strength. According to the information given by the people of Chulung, on the Shayok, the flood was three whole days in passing ofi"; two days in full height, and the third day considerably decreased ; on the fourth day the flood had mostly gone by, but the stream was still much swollen. The following calculation shows the daily discharge of water for each of the three days of flood, with a small allowance for the fourth day. Daily discharge. 1st day at 100,000 cubic feet per second, 8,640,000,000 cubic feet. „ 6,998,400,000 „ 3,499,900,000 „ 1,728,000,000 2nd „ 80,000 3rd „ 40,000 4th „ 20,000 Total discharge in four days ... 20,866,300,000 Total mass of accumulated water, 20,000,000,000 By dividing the maximum discharge of 100,000 cubic feet per second by the ascertained velocity of ll'4i583 110 LADAK. miles per hour, or 16-81 feet per second, we obtain 5,948 square feet as the sectional area of the cataclysmal wave. Prom this I have deduced the rise of the river in differ- ent parts of the channel according to its width. These heights, however, do not give the actual rise of the water, which must always have been greater immediately above every narrow part of the channel. Width of River. Rise. Above Tertse 250 feet broad 2379 feet. NearTurtuk 100 „ „ 59-48 „ The height of the flood below Tertse was ascertained to have been between twenty and thirty feet, by the broad lines of straw and twigs which marked the ex- treme limit of the inundation. In the open plain of Unmaru, the waters must have been kept at the same level as at Tertse, by the obstruction offered to their passage ia the narrow channel between Chulung and Turtuk. Tliis would account for the lines of straw and twigs being observed about half a mile from the present bed of the river. The valley of the Indus, below the junction of the Shayok, narrows in some places to 100 feet, and even less. At these points, therefore, the flood must have risen to a height of sixty feet at least, and must have caused a considerable back wave up the confined channel of the Indus proper, or Le river. And this was actually the case, for the effect of the inundation is said to have been felt for nearly thirty miles up the Indus, whUe at Sarmik, ten miles above the confluence, the lower cul- tivated lands were destroyed, and no less than 1,200 fruit-trees were swept away by the back-water flood. At Skardo, where the river expands to 520 feet in width, and where the sandy flats rise at least thirty feet* * Vigne, II. p. 2C0, states that water is found at a deptli of ton yards. THE JEHLAM RIVER. Ill above the general level of the stream, it is probable that the flood did not spread much beyond the usual limits. The rise would, therefore, *not have been more than ten feet. But below Skardo, in the confined and rocky channel, which is the prevailing character of the bed of the Indus throughout the Rongdo district, the flood- wave would have risen to its full height of sixty feet ; and at the " Craggy Defiles" of Makpon-i-Shang-Rong, the cm-bed waters must have been massed up at least 100 feet in height. At Ghori Trap, below Attock, where the width of the river is not more than 250 feet,* the wave of inundation must have attained a height of at least 23*79 feet ; and this will at once account for the height of the waters at Attock, which are said to have submerged the fort of Khairabad by their sudden rise of nearly thirty feet. From Attock to the sea the inimdation pursued its ruinous course, but I have no information as to the extent of the coimtry flooded, or the numbers of people swept away. According to the papers of the day, the devastation of the three Deras, — Ismad Khan, Ghaze Khan, and Fateh Klian, was very great ; and I trust that fidl particulars of this extraordinary flood may yet be collected by some of the many British ofiicers now stationed along the Indus. YII.— THE JEHLAM EIVEE. The Jelilam river takes its name from the town of Jehlam, beneath which it flows. In Kashmir, it is called Beliat, a contraction of the Sanskrit VUasta, which the Greeks slightly altered to Hydaspes. The Jelilam drains * Wood's Oxus, p. 125. 112 , LADAK, the whole valley of Kashmir : and the reputed sources of its principal feeders are all esteemed holy. The Behat takes its rise in. the small pool of Vira Nag, which Je- hangir walled round ; bvit its true som'ce is some mUes fm-ther to the south-west, m N. latitude 33° 30', and E. longitude 75° 25'. Its most distant som'ce is in the lake of Sesha Nag, at the head of the Lambodari, or Lidar river, which joins the Behat below the town of Islama- bad. Between Shahabad and Islamabad, it receives the river of Brang ; and a few miles below Bij Bihara, it receives the united waters of the Veshau and Shupyen rivers. The Veshau, or Veshavi, rises in the holy fount of Kosa Nag ; and the Shupyen river in the Lake of Nandan Sar. Below the city of Srinagar, the Behat is joined on the east by the Sindh, which is the largest of aU its tributaries. Erom this junction the river con- tinues its north-westerly com-se to the Wular lake, which it leaves above the town of Sopur, and then flows on in a south-west direction to Barahmula, receiving midway the waters of the Lolab river. The whole length of the Behat, from its source to Barahmula, is 150 mUes. From Shahabad to Barahmula, the river is navigable. The fall is only 400 feet in 120 miles, or 3'33 feet per mile ; and the usual rate of the em'rent is about a mile and a half per hour. Vigne* says that a piece of wood throAvn into the stream at Kanibal, will reach the city in 24 hours. As the distance is about 04 miles, the rate will be 2f miles per hour : but I was 2y hours in descending the stream from the Islamabad bridge to the Bij Bihara bridge, a distance of little more than six miles, with two men gently paddling the boat. Again, in descending the stream from Bij Bihara to Wantipur, I went on shore to * Kashmir, II. p. 22. THE JEHLAM RIVER. 113 warm myself by walking, and I distanced the boat, although it was paddled by two men. I do not therefore estimate the velocity of the current at more than 1^ mile per hour, and I believe that it is considerably less. At Islamabad, the breadth of the stream is 120 feet, with a maximum depth of 12 feet 3 inches. It is spaimed by a log bridge, 118 feet in length, with two openings. At Bij Bilulra, below the junction of the Lidar river, it is spanned by a bridge 250 feet in length, with foiu" openings. BetAveen these points the water is beau- tifully clear, and the bed of the river is generally sandy, and ripple-marked, and covered with shells and broken pottery. In a few places the bottom is stony, but the stones are all small and rounded. At Pampur the Beliat is spanned by another log bridge, 325 feet in length, with five openings ; but the water is slightly muddy, and the bed of the river can no longer be seen. Below Pam- pur, and opposite Panthasok, the abutments and two piers of a stone bridge are just visible above the water. In its course through the city of Srinagar, the channel of the river is narrowed to 250, and even to 200 feet, with, a varying depth of from six to twelve feet. The stream is very sluggish, and the surface of the water in many j)laces is covered with the green slime common to stagnant pools. In December, Moorcroft found the river 210 feet broad, with a mean depth of nine feet, and a velocity of 2,400 feet per hour, or of 0-6666 feet per second ; which gives a discharge of 1,150 cubic feet per second. At Sambhal, or Sambhalpur, below the junction of the Sindh river, the Behat is spanned by another bridge, 310 feet long, with five openings. The average depth of the water is about fourteen feet at the same place. On I 114 LADAK. the 16th December, Trebeck* found the depth of water from one to three fathoms. Assuming twelve feet as the average depth in December, and the rate of the current at 2,400 feet per hour (the same as at Srinagar), the winter discharge of the united streams of the Behat and Sindh rivers will be 2,480 cubic feet. At Barahmulaf the dis- charge is most probably not more, as the waters of the Lolab river may be supposed to supply the great loss by evaporation on the Wular lake. From Barjxhmula to Mozafarabad, the Behat pursues an easterly course for 100 miles. The total fall between these places is 3,800 feet, or thirty feet per mile ; and the character of the river entirely changes from a placid and sluggish stream to a raving torrent. Below Tattamula, and about sixteen miles from Barahmula, the rocky cliffs rise almost perpendicularly fi'om the river to a height of 300 and 400 feet ; and in some places that I noticed, the bare steep cliffs were not less than 800 feet above the stream. As the height of the Behat, near Tattamula, is about 5,000 feet above the sea, the whole of Kashnur must have been submerged by the waters of the river, before the wearing down of these cliffs. J The level of the Kashmirian lake would have been about 5,800 feet above the sea, and from 50 to 100 feet above the Karewahs, or isolated alluvial flats now remaining in Kashmir. * Moorcroft's Travels, II. p. 220. t Tills name Is properly Vardha-mula, the Boar Avatar's spring. The Vardha Ganga is now a dry hole, fifty feet long,°thirty feet broad, and twenty feet deep. The spring has become dry, but the place is stiU esteemed holy. X As Tattamula (Sanserif, Tapta-mida), tlie " hot spring," may indicate volcanic action, the immediate cause of the bursting of the lake may have beau the sudden rending of the rock by an earthquake. THE JEHLAM RIVER. 115 The grovit Karewah of Nonagar, opposite Avantipiir, which rises from 200 to 250 feet above the plain, is a mass of lacustrine deposit. I searched in vain for shells as I crossed over the Karewah to Payachh : hut I was more fortunate at Wantipur, where I obtained numerous specimens of Cyclas rivicola in the horizontal strata of clay and sand at different heights up to nearly 200 feet above the present level of the river, and about eighty feet below the presumed level of the lake. The high level land of Marttand was probably not submerged, but the horizontal beach-marks are still quite distinct on the limestone cliffs above the cave of Bhaumajo and the holy spring of Bhawan, Above Ramuki Serai, on the Shup- yen river, the Karewah forms a bank about 100 feet in height, in horizontal strata of different kinds. The uppermost twenty feet are composed of stiff alluvial soil ; the next twenty feet of rolled stones and loose earth ; and the lowermost sixty of iudm'ated blue clay. The last must have been deposited by the lake in its state of quiescence ; but the middle stratum could only have been formed by the fixst grand rush of waters on some sudden burst of the rocky barrier below Tattamula ; and the uppermost would have been deposited by the subsiding waters as they reached the newly-formed level. Then, as the rocky bed was gradually worn down, the different streams worked new channels for themselves in the former bed of the lake, until the present Karewahs of Nonagar, Pampur, and Kanikpur were left first as islands in the decreasing lake, and eventually as long flat-topped hills in the midst of the open plain, just as we now see them. The Karewah of Nonagar is about five miles in length by two and a half miles in extreme breadth. I 2 116 Above Uri the Behat has once been spanned by a stone bridge thrown across a very narrow part from cliff to cliff; but to judge from the lowness of the remaining portions of the abutments, the bridge must have been swept away by the very first extraordinary rise of the river. High up on the right bank stands a ruined serai of the Mogal emperors. Opposite Uri the river is now crossed by a suspension-bridge of leather ropes. Above Hatiya there is a second suspension-bridge of twisted leather ropes 258^ feet in length. At Mozafarabad the Behat is joined by the Kishen Ganga, a considerable stream which rises in the moun- tains to the north of Kashmir, in N. latitude 34° 30', and E. longitude 75° 20'. It flows first to the westward through the districts of Gures, Suti, and Drawa, then turning to the south-west it pursues its course through Kerigam and Kama to Mozafarabad. The late Mr. Vans Agnew ascended tliis river on his way to Gilgit ; but as he was not a surveyor, his travels were confined to a mere descriptive account. The whole length of the Kishen Ganga is not less than 180 miles, and its probable discharge about 1,000 cubic feet. The total discharge of the Behat below Mozafarabad wiU therefore be 3,500 cubic feet. Below Mozafarabad the Behat sweeps suddenly round to the southward, and after receiving the Kunihar river continues the same course to the town of Jehlam, a dis- tance of 150 miles. The fall in this part of the river is 1,200 feet, or only eight feet per mile. The Kunihar river rises in the Nila moimtain, eight days' jom-ney to the north of Mozafarabad. Its \\'liole length is about 100 miles. From the junction of the Kunihar to Dhan- gali the Behat has been surveyed by Mr. Ingram, an THE CHENAB RIVEK, 117 assistant to Lieut. D. Robinson, of the engineers ; and in tliis part of its course it receives no tributary worth mentioning. Near Mangali, at the foot of the hills, it is joined by the Punach river, a considerable stream, which is said to rise in the lake of Nandan Sar, in N. latitude 33° 35', and E. longitude 74° 40'. It takes an easterly coui-se between the Pir-Panjal and Ratan-Panjal, ranges past Bahramgala to Punach, where it turns to the southward, and follows a south-westerly course to its junction with the Behat or Jehlam. Its whole length is 140 miles, and its discharge about 500 cubic feet. The whole discharge of the Behat or Jehlam as it enters the plains is therefore just 4,000 cubic feet ; this estimate is borne out by the statements of Moorcroft, who says that the river at Jehlam in October was 450 feet broad and from twelve to sixteen feet deep, with a current of about a mile an hour. These data give a discharge of 4,800 cubic feet per second for October, which would certamly be reduced to 4,000 cubic feet by Pcbruary and March. The whole mountain course of the Behat, from beyond Virnag to Mangali, is 380 miles, and its fall is about 8,000 feet, or twenty-one feet per mile. From the hills to its junction with the Chenab between Jhang and Uch, its general direction is south- south-westerly, and its length about 240 miles. Its whole length from its source to its confluence with the Chenab is therefore about 620 miles. VIII.— THE CHENAB EIVEE. The Chenab is formed of two principal feeders, the Chandra and the Bhaga, from which it derives its Saus- 118 LADAK. krit name of Cliandra Bhaga. Ptolemy calls it Sandabal; but the Greek historians of Alexander named it the Akesines, because its proper name was one of ill omen.* The Chandra and the Bhaga rise on opposite sides of the Bara Lacha pass, in N. latitude 32° 45', and E. longitude 77° 22', at an elevation of 16,500 feet above the sea. The Chandra flows at first to the south for fifty-five miles, and then sweeps suddenly u^p to the north-west for sixty miles farther, to the junction of the Bhaga river at Tandi. The fall to this point is 7,500 feet, or sixty-five feet per mile, for the Chandra river, and 125 feet per mile for the Bhaga river, which has a course of only sixty miles to the south-west. At Koksar, twenty-five miles above Tandi and 10,000 feet above the sea, the Chandra river averages 200 feet in width, with a mean depth of two and a half feet, and a current of not less than four miles per hour in October, when it is fordable with very great diffi- cidty. The discharge at that time is therefore not less than 2,000 cubic feet per second ; and the minimum dis- charge is probably about 1,500 cubic feet, or of the united stream below Tandi about 2,000 cubic feet, Trom Tandi the Chandra Bhaga pursues a north-westerly com-se to Kashtwar, a further distance of 115 miles. The whole length to this point is 330 miles, and the fall is 11,500 feet, or 34 '8 feet per mile. Between Tandi and Kashtwar the Chandra Bhaga receives many snow-fed torrents of considerable size, of which the largest are the Cliukam and Chatrgarh rivers. The discharge at Kashtwar cannot therefore be less than * Bishop ThirlwaU says perhaps owing to its similarity in sound to AXf Joi'Opou (pnyns, " devourer of Alexander." Aka-sin in Pushtu -n-ould mean river of the Akas ; who probably gave their name to the town of Akanawar or Aknur. THE CHENAB RIVER. 119 4,000 cubic feet, or just double that at Tancli, which is half-way between the source and the town of Kashtwar. Below the town it receives from the north the large river of Wardwan, about sixty miles in length, by which the discharge is probably increased to 4,500 cubic feet. At Koksar, 10,000 feet above the sea, which is the liighest inhabited village on the Chandra river, a suspen- sion-bridge of twisted birchen ropes is annually con- structed. A second suspension-bridge of the same kind formerly spanned the mouth of the Bhaga river at Tandi, but this was carried aAvay some time after Dr. Gerard's visit in 1830. In 1839 I saw the ropes lying high and dry on the northern bank ; but when I visited Tandi again in 1846, there was no trace of them. A small wooden bridge of thirty-eight feet span, and forty feet above the stream, is thrown across the Bhaga river about four miles from Tandi. Kfteen miles below Tandi, and five miles above Treloknath, the Chandi'a Bhaga is crossed by a couple of spars covered with loose planks. The bridge is eighty-five feet long and forty-three feet above the water. Two miles above this bridge the river was not less than 300 feet broad. Above Chatrgarh and opposite Kashtwar, the Chandra Bhaga is crossed by suspension-bridges. Prom Kashtwar the river sweeps suddenly round to the south-west as far as Doda. It then tm^ns due west towards the fort of Biyasi, where it resumes its south- westerly course to Aknur, at the foot of the hUls, a total distance of 150 miles. In tliis part of the course the fall is 4,000 feet, or 26-6 feet per rmle. It receives the Banahal and the BudhU, above Aknur, and the two Tohis of llajaori and Chaneni above Vazirabad. By these and some other smaU streams, its winter discharge is increased 120 LADAK. to 4,750 cubic feet per second. This discharge has been calculated from my own data obtained at Eamnagar in January 1849. Our military bridge of boats afforded me every facility for obtaining the most accurate mea- surements, and I have therefore full confidence in the correctness of the result. The river was divided into two streams ; that on the left bank having a maximum depth of fifteen feet four inches, and that on the right bank a maximum depth of ten feet six inches. The total breadth, including the sand-bank in the centre, which was barely covered with water, was 646 feet, or, excluding the sand- bank, 533 feet. The greatest sm-face velocity was 3'6666 feet per second, or just two mUes and three-quarters per hour. The mean depth was exactly five feet, and the mean surface velocity 2*3 feet per second, or nearly one mile and five furlongs per hour. I have calculated each portion of the stream separately, and the result gives a discharge of 4551"038 cubic feet per second. A similar result may be obtained from the rough measurements of Sir Alexander Burnes,* made at the same place in the middle of February. His data make the breadth 900 feet, greatest depth nine feet, and current one and a half mile per hour. Taking four and a half as the average depth, the discharge will be 4,860 cubic feet. I only give this to show the correctness of my own measure- ments. From the Bara Lacha pass to Aknur, the length of the Chenab is 380 miles, and the whole fall is 15,500 feet, or 40*8 feet per mile. From Aknur to Mithankot the length is 570 mUes in a south-south-west dii'ection, and the Avhole length from its source to its junction with the Indus is 950 miles. * Burucs' Travels, Vol. I. p. -t6. THE CHENAB KIVEK. 121 During the dry season the ChenAb is fordable in many places between Sodi-a and Ramnagar. Opposite Sodra in 1848 there was a good ford, crossing no less than seven branches of the stream. The Ramnagar ford was open diu-ing the whole of our operations in December 1848, and January and Pebruary 1849. The other fords were constantly liable to shift, but three days before the battle of Gujrat I discovered a good ford between Vazir- abad and Ramnagar, by which Brigadier Markham's brigade crossed the Chenab on the 19th Febrviary. I have no means of ascertaining the maximum dis- charge of the Chenab during July and August. Macart- ney measured it in July at Vazirabad, when the stream was 7,590 feet (nearly one mile and a half) broad, with a depth of fourteen feet, and a current of five miles an hour ; but these data are too vague for even an approxi- mate result. The depth for one half of this breadth was probably not more than one or two feet. In July 1839, I found the main channel of the Chenab above Vazirabad to be 2,760 feet broad, but the depth could not be ascertained with any certainty; in. many places it was more than eighteen feet. The mean depth was probably about nine feet, and if Ave allow two and a half mUes as the average rate of the current, the maximum discharge woidd be 56,000 cubic feet, or with the sis small branches to the westward, not less than 60,000 cubic feet. The increase of the Indus is nine- fold, while that of the Ganges is fifteen-fold. The mean between these is twelve-fold, which, if applied to the Chenab, would give a discharge of 54,000 cubic feet for the maximum. The actual maximum discharge is pro- bably between 50,000 and 60,000 cubic feet. 122 LADAK. IX.— THE EAVI EIVER. The Kavi is tlie smallest of tlie Panjab rivers. In the hills it is generally called Rawa or E,awati, which is only a spoken form of the Sanskrit Travati, from which the Greeks made Hydraotes. The E,avi is formed of three principal branches, — the Uavi proper, the holy BudhU, and the Nai, wliich make a triple junction below Wulas, in the district of Chamba. I have seen all these rivers myself, and am indeed the only European who has yet visited the head-waters of this stream. The E-avi rises in the petty dismembered state of Bangal, in N. latitude 32° 20', and E. longitude 77° 0'. It takes at first a south-westerly course, and then bend- ing to the north-west receives its principal tributaries at Wulas, a distance of sixty miles from its source. Its highest springs rise at the junction of the Dhaola Dhar and Lahul mountains, at an elevation of not less than 16,000 feet. As the height of the river at Wulas is only 5,000 feet, the faU is 183-3 feet per mile. Erom AVulas to Bisoli it continues its easterly course for fifty miles, and then turns to the south-west for twenty mUes, to the neighbourhood of Tirikot, where it enters the plains. Its whole length is only 130 miles, while its faU is 15,000 feet, or 115-4 feet per mUe. The sacred Budhil rises in the Lahul mountains, to the north of the Ravi. Its whole com'se is not more than thirty-five mUes from east to west, while the fall is 11,000 feet, or 314-3 feet per mile. Below Barmawar, the former capital of Chamba, the Budhil is crossed by a Avooden bridge formed of spars covered with loose planks. The width is four and a half feet, the span sixty-eight feet, and the height above the river ninety- THE RAVI RIVER. 123 eight feet. This bridge has a hand-rail knee high on each side. A petty feeder of the Budhil rises in the small and holy lake of Mani Mah^s. The Nai river rises on the western face of the KaH Debi mountain, in the Lahtd range. Its general course is to the south-west, and its whole length is only thirty miles. Its fall is therefore 366-6 feet per mile. The E,awa or Hawati, just above the junction of the BudhU and Nai at Wulas, is spanned by a birchen-rope suspension-bridge 116 feet in length. It is therefore about double the size of the BudhU river. Below Wulas the road leaves the river and crosses over the mountains, to avoid the precipitous cliffs which overhang the stream. At Mahila, ten miles above Chamba, the Ravi is crossed by another suspension-bridge of 169 feet span. Between the bridge and Chamba the river takes a sudden sweep to the left, between overhanging rocks not more than fifteen feet apart. A curling wave returns to meet the rushing stream, and a shower of mist is perpetually rising from the shock. Then all is smooth, and the stream pours headlong into a gulf below, and is instantly dashed back by the opposing rocks in a huge curling wave. Just below Chamba the Ravi receives a considerable feeder from the north. This is the Sawa, or Sar Nala, which rises in the Saj Joth, in the Lahul range. On entering the plains the Ravi takes a south-westerly course past Lahore for 430 miles to Chichawatni, where it turns to the west, and after seventy miles more falls into the Chenab below Sirdarpur. The whole length of the Ra\'i from its source to its confluence with the Chenab is 630 miles, and its minimum discharge is 2,700 cubic feet. The Ravi is fordable throughout the winter season, but the bed is full of quicksands. 124 X.— THE BYAS EIVEE. The Byas is perhaps tlie best known of all the Panjab rivers, from its source to the foot of the hiUs below Mirthal. Its Sanskrit name is Vipdsa, from which the Greeks made Hyphasis and Bibasis. The common name of Byas is derived from the small pool at the source of the river, wliich is called Vyas Biklii or Vyasa Bishi. This sacred spot is situated in the Botang pass, at the head of the Kullu vaUey, in N. latitude 32° 25', and E. longitude 77° 10', at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the sea. Por seventy-five miles the river flows nearly due south past Sultanpur, the capital of Kullu, to the village of Larji, where it is joined by two large tributa- ries, — the Sainj and the Tirthan. Above this it receives the Parbati and the Gomati rivers from the east, besides many smaller streams. The Gomati is fordable vnth difficulty, but tlie others can only be crossed by bridges. The Sainj has a com'se of about fifty miles, the Parbati and the Gomati of forty miles, and the Tirthan of thirty miles. Prom the source to Larji the faU is 9,400 feet, or 125-3 feet per mile. Prom Larji the Byas sweeps suddenly to the westward through a narrow chasm in the rocks several hundred feet in depth. The stream is deep and rapid, but before the wearing do^vn of this cleft the whole of the lower part of the valley must have been submerged. Prom Larji to Mandi the distance is not more than twenty-five miles, while the fall is 1,000 feet, or forty feet per mUe. The Byas continues its westerly course through tliis narrow channel to Mandi, above Avhich it receives the Ul river from the north, and the Sukhet river from the THE BYAS KIVER. 125 south. The former is upwards of fifty miles in length, and the latter about thirty mUes. At Mandi the river is crossed by a boat for the greater part of the year, but during the height of the seasonal floods the cur- rent is too strong for a boat, and the passage is then made on inflated skins. Between Sultanpur and Larji the river can only be crossed on skins, but from Sultanpur upwards it is spanned in many places by spar bridges. From Mandi to Mirthal the general direction of the river is to the west ; but the course is very winding, and the length cannot be less than 150 miles. Between these points it receives several large streams from the north, of which the cliief are the Binwa, the Nigwal, the Ban-Ganga, the Gaj, and the Chakki. The Jjiiiica rises in the Dhaola Dhar range, and after a southerly course of forty miles past Baijnath falls into the Byas opposite Kamalagarh. The road from Kangra and Mandi ascends this stream to its source, and crosses over the Sm-ai pass into Chamba on the upper course of the Ra^ i. The Nigioal rises in the same range, and after a southerly course of forty miles through the beautiful districts of Palam, falls into the Byas opposite the large town of Shujanpur-Tira. The Ban-Ganga is formed of two principal feeders, — the Ban-Ganga and the Patal-Ganga, which rise in the Dhaola-Dhar, and join immediately below the fort of Kangra. The general direction as far as Kangra is south-west, but below the fort the stream winds very much, and changes its direction first to the south and then to the west as far as Haripur and Guler, from whence it resumes its south-west direction, and falls into 126 LADAK. the Byas at the village of Nireyana, after a course of about sixty miles through the district of Katoch. The Gaj or Ghar-Gaj is one of the largest feeders of the Byas, and was thought worthy of mention by Abu E;ihdn, who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni to Kangra. It is formed of the united streams of the Gaj, the Kohli, the Bral, the Debar, and the Bhet, all of wliich rise in the Dhaola Dhar range, and flow to the south through the district of Guler. The whole length of the Gaj to its junction with the Byas below Siba is not less than sixty miles. The Chakki rises in the western end of the Dhaola Dhar, and is the smallest and longest of all these northern tributaries of the Byas. Its whole length from its som'ce near the Chuari pass to its junction with the Byas at Biyanpiu'a below Mirthal is not less than seventy miles. On the sou-th the Byas receives only one feeder of any consequence, — the Kunihar, which joins it a few miles above Nadon ; but except in the rains, it contains very little water. Erom Mandi to Mirthal, a distance of 150 miles, the fall of the river is only 1,600 feet, or 10'6 feet per mile. The whole fall from the source to Mirthal is 12,000 feet, or forty-eight feet per mile. In this part of its com'se the Byas maintains its supremacy as the most beautiful river in the Panjab. From Biyanpura, below Mirthal, the Byas flows in a south and south-westerly du'ection past the towns of BahUa, Bhairowal, and Govindwal, to its junction with the Sutluj at Hariki-patan, a distance of 100 miles. The whole length of the Byas, from its source to its confluence with the Sutluj, is 350 niUcs, and its minimum discharge is not less than 3,000 cubic feet. THE SUTLUJ RIVER. 127 On tlie lOth November, 1838, I measured the Byas a few miles above its junction with the Sutluj. Its breadth was 450 feet, and its greatest depth seven feet four inches. Its greatest surface velocity was 4'04! feet per second, or a little more than two miles and three-quar- ters per horn*. The discharge was then 3,425 cubic feet, from wliich w^e may calculate the minimum discharge at not less than 3,000 cubic feet. During the melting of the snows the Byas rises every night in the plains from one foot to one foot and a half. It attains its maximum in the morning and subsides during the day. When I was making the bridges at Govindwal for the passage of the army in March, 1846, I pitched my tent on the sand close to the water's edge, and in the morning I was surprised to find one line of tent-pegs completely under water. This rise is caused by the melted snows of the Dhaola Dhar, which are brought down duxing the day by the Binwa, the Nigwal, the Ban-Ganga, and the Gaj, and which do not reach Bhau'owal and Govindwal untU past midnight of the second day, after a lapse of 36 hours. The Byas is fordable in many places in the plains. XI.— THE SrTLUJ EIVEE. The Suthij is the largest and longest of all the Panjab rivers. Its Sanskrit name is Satadm, or the " hundred channelled," from which the Greeks made Hesudros and Zadadros ; but the common names throughout the hills are Satludr, or Satrudr, and Sutluj. The Tibetans call it Lang-chlien-kha-bah, or " elephant-mouth-fed " river, according to the commonly received notion of the descent of rivers from animals' mouths. 128 LADAK. The rise of the Sutluj iu the holy lakes of Manasaro- vara and Rawan-Hrad has been satisfactorily ascertained by the adventurous journeys of Captain H. Strachey and Lieut. R. Strachey. The most remote sources of the Sutluj are the eastern feeders of the holy lakes, in N. latitude 30° 35', and E. longitude 81° 35'. Numerous small streams flow from all sides into the great lake of Manasarovara, which overflows at its north-eastern corner into the lake of Rawan-Hrad. From this point to its junction mth the Spiti river, at the base of Porgyal, the Sutluj takes a west-north-westerly direction through a country but little kno-mi, but which I believe to be similar to that of the upper valley of the Indus. From its som-ce to the confluence of the Spiti river the length of the Sutluj is 280 miles, and the whole fall is 9,400 feet, or 33"8 feet per mile. From the base of Porgyal to Bilaspur the Sutluj takes a west-south-westerly direction for 180 miles. In this part the fall increases to thirty-nine feet per mile, and the river becomes a furious torrent. Many old channels still exist to show that the Sutluj once flowed at a higher level, and that all the aUuvial flats must have been the deposits of a series of lakes. Eddy-worn holes also may be seen high up in the rock, even up to 1,000 feet above the present level of the river. Two of these ancient channels are on the left bank, one just above Rampur, and the other opposite the Wongto bridge. The Rampur channel is 150 feet above the stream, and 100 feet broad, between large dykes of quartz, the intervening mica- slate ha-\-ing been scooped out for some depth. A little higher up, the river has made a perpendicular cut through one of these quartzose dykes about sixty feet deep. THE SUTLUJ RIVEK. 129 From Biltispur the Sutluj makes a sudden sweep to the north-west, and then back again to the south-east, roimd the end of the lowermost range of hills, and finally enters the plains at Ropar. The distance is 100 mUes, and the fall about 500 feet, or five feet per mUe. The whole length of the Sutluj, from its source beyond Manasoravara to the foot of the hills at Ropar, is 560 mUes, and the whole faU about 17,000 feet, or thirty feet per mUe. From Ropar, the Sutluj takes an easterly direction for 120 miles past Lodiana, to the confluence of the Byasat Hari-ki-patan, beyond which it flows to the south-west for 400 miles to its junction with the Chenab opposite Uch. The whole length of its course is, there- fore, 1,080 miles, or 130 miles more than the length of the Chenab. The minimum discharge of the Sutluj at Ropar is 5,400 feet. As a small addition must be made for the Sirsa Nadi, the Kali Vehi, and the Dhaoli Vehi,* we may reckon the discharge of the Sutluj, above its confluence with the Byas, at 5,500 cubic feet, or just 1,000 cubic feet more than that of the Chenab. The Sutluj is ford- able in many places above the junction of the Byas, below which it becomes deeper, and is usually called the Ghara river. Like the other Punjab rivers, the Sutluj has a daily rise and fall, owing to the increase and decrease of the melted snows. On 29th May, at Kepu, below Kotgarh, I measured a rise of ten inches, the higher level being obtained at 3 a.m. In July the Spiti river at Kyi attained its maximum of four inches and a half at * In November, 1838, I measured the Kali Vehi and Dhaoli Vehi, an^ found tliat each of them discharged a little more than 100 cubic feet per second. K 130 LADAK. 3 P.M. This is in fact the hour at which I have found that all these snow-fed streams reach their highest leveL If, therefore, we assume that the Sutluj, at tlie mouth of its last great feeder, the Baspa, reaches its maximum at 3 P.M., we shall obtain a mean velocity of six miles and a quarter per hour as far as Kepu, a distance of seventy- five miles. XII.— THE SPITI EIVEE. The Spiti river, which is perhaps as large as the Sutluj itself, is formed of two principal branches, — the Spiti and the Para-ti or Zang-sum river. It takes its rise near the Bara Lacha Pass, in N. latitude 32° 4', and E. longi- tude 77° 40', at an elevation of 16,500 feet (the height of the Bara Lacha Pass). From its source to the village of Mane, it flows in a south-easterly direction for eighty- five miles, and then turns to the eastward for thu'ty- five miles to its junction with the Para river. The fall is 6,000 feet, or fifty feet per mile. Prom Chang- Ra- zing the river tiirns to the south for twenty-five miles, through a narrow rocky channel to its confluence vsdth the Sutluj. The fall to this point is 2,000 feet, or eighty feet per mile ; and the whole fall, throughout its entire course of 145 miles, is 8,000 feet, or fifty-five feet per mile. In the upper part of its course, the Spiti river partakes of the general character of the Tibetan streams, and spreads its waters over a breadth of nearly half a mile. It thus becomes fordable, during the winter season, as far as Dangkhar, where it receives the Pin river from the south. Below this, it is crossed by several suspen- sion-bridges. Opposite Rangrig, it is spanned by a spar THE SPITI RIVER. 131 bridj^e with a hurdle footway. At Shalkar, below the junction of the Para, it is crossed by another spar bridge ninety- two feet long ; and there is a third wooden bridge between Liya and Nako. The Para-ti, or Para river, was considered by Alex- ander Gerard to be larger than the Spiti ; but there is no comparison between the two. The Pard is only a very large rushing torrent, while the Spiti is a very deep rapid river. The Para rises in the Parang Pass, to the north of the Bara Lacha range, in N. latitude 32° 25', and E. longitude 77° 50', at an elevation of 18,000 feet. It first flows for about twenty-five miles to the north- east, and for about twenty-five miles to the east as far as Chumur. From this point it turns to the south-east, and afterwards to the south-west, to its junction with the Spiti at Chang-Razing. Its whole length is 130 miles, and its fall about 7,500 feet, or 57'7 feet per mile. Just above the confluence of the two rivers, there is a hot spring named Zang-sum, and the lower part of the Para is sometimes called by this name. Alexander Gerard took the Zang-sum for another river, and has accordingly entered it in his map. But it is quite evi- dent that he mistook the Gyu, a small tributary which joins the Spiti just above the confluence of the Pari'i, for the Para itself. I surveyed this locality with some care, and can therefore state positively that Alexander Gerard was mistaken. Four miles above its confluence with the Spiti, the Para river is spanued by a single block of granite, which forms a vast natural bridge eighty-five feet in length, and from twenty -five to tlm-ty feet in breadth and depth. The stream below is contracted to a raging torrent, not more than fifteen feet in width. K 2 132 LADAK, XIII.— CATACLYSM OF THE SUTLUJ. About midniglit on tlie 2Gtli day of the montli of Kartik, and in the Sambat year 1819 (10th November, A.D. 17G2), the shoulder of a vast mountain gave way, and fell from a great height headlong into the Sutluj. The sUp took place in the neighbourhood of the hot springs at Seoni, about twenty miles nort h by west fom Simla, where the river is confined between precipitous cliffs that i-ise several thousand feet above the sti'eam. The narrow channel was instantly choked with a vast mass of rock, earth, and rubbish, to a height of more than four hundred feet, and the stream for the space of forty days was so completely dammed that the water ceased to flow below the barrier. The bed of the Sutluj was reduced to a succession of deep pools, scattered amongst the huge boulders and angular masses of rock, and the people passed over with dry feet. The waters of the river accumulated till they rose nearly four hundred feet in height opposite the E,ana's residence at Bhaji, and the effect of the obstruction is said to have been felt as high up the river as Rampur, a distance of forty kos, or about sixty miles. At Bhaji, a lofty semal, or cotton- tree, which was half-submerged, is still pointed out ; and as the height of this cotton-tree above the Sutluj is esti- mated by the Eana at 120 yards, the rise of the river cannot have been less than 400 feet. A similar account was obtained by Alexander Gerard* in 1817, when numbers of people who had witnessed the flood were still aUve. "About fifty-five years since, forty or fifty miles above this towTi (BUaspur), an im- * Kanawar, p. 55. G-erard says fifty-five years ago ; that is, from A.D. 1817 ; wliidi gives A.D. 17C2, agreeing with my date. CATACLYSM OF THE SUTLUJ. 133 mense moimtain gave way, filled the bed of the Sutlnj, and arrested the stream for six weeks. During this time the inhabitants were anxiously looldng out for the biu'sting of the embankment. "When it did give way, the rush of such an overwlichning body of water may be more easily conceived than described. People Avere sta- tioned on the heights all along from the place where the stream was stopped as far as Bilaspur, and they gave notice of the approach of the flood by firing matclilocks. The news arrived in time to save the inhabitants, but the whole of the town was swept away." This account is not quite correct, for it was only the lower town that was swept away, as the houses of the upper town, including the Raja's palace, and several old temples, are situated on an elevated flat far above the reach of any inundation. The distance from Seoni to Bilaspur is not more than forty-five miles by the river, and about thirty mUes by land. The wave of inundation would therefore have reached Bilaspur in three hours, at the rate of fifteen mUes per hour, while the news of the bursting of the barrier coidd have been signalled by matchlocks in half an hoiu*. As my information is derived from the Eana of Bhaji, in whose principality Seoni is situated, I have full confi- dence in the general accuracy of my account, even in- cluding the statement that the bed of the Sutluj became quite dry for the space of forty days. At first I was disinclined to believe this startling fact, but a little reflection showed me that it must have been the case ; for as the fall of the Sutluj in this part of its course is not more than twenty feet per mUe, the accumulated waters must have filled the bed of the river for twenty mUcs before they attained a height of 400 feet, level 134 LADAK. with tlie top of the harrier. To fill this gulf would have required the accumulated discharge of the river for ahout forty days. The minimum discharge being 5,400 cubic feet at Ropar, the discharge at Seoni in November cannot be less than 5,500 cubic feet. This discharge accumulated for forty days would have amounted to 19,008,000,000 cubic feet, a mass of water which would only just have been sufficient to fill the gulf in the bed of the Sutluj for twenty mUes above the barrier to a mean depth of 200 feet, with an average breadth of 900 feet. The flow of the river must therefore have been quite stopped below the barrier for the whole period of forty days. When the accumulated waters once began to pour over the obstructing barrier, the mass of loose earth and rocks must have been speedily cut up in all directions, until it soon yielded to the pressure of the mighty body of water ; and the long-imprisoned river burst its fetters and rushed headlong down its rocky channel in one mighty wave, from fifty to more than one hundred feet in height This occurred on the fifth day of the month of Paiis/i, or the 19th of December. Of its progress in the hills I know nothing more than Avliat I have already quoted from Gerard of the destruction of the lower town of Bilaspur. But after reaching the plains, the mighty wave was swept more and more to the northward by its own speed off the Sewalik hills at K-opar, and thus took a new course under Phalor to the north of the old chan- nel until it joined the Byasat Hari-ki-patan, where its further course to the northward was stopped by the stiff high cliffs on the right bank of the Byds. From this time the Su.tluj, when swollen by the annual rains, con- tinued to pour its waters down the new channel until CATACLYSM OF THE SITTLUJ. 135 ^ about A.D. 1790, when the whole body of water finally deserted the old bed by Lodiana and Dharinkot, and jomed the Byas at Hari-ki-patan, some thirty miles above the former point of junction at Firozpur. Tor six months the Sutluj remained above its usual level until the rise of the river in June, when the last remains of the once mighty barrier were swept away by the swollen river. The following table embodies aU the principal points of information contained in the preceding pages. Length. Fall per mile. Discharge. Rivers. In Hills. In Plains. Total. In Hills. In Plains. Min. Max. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Indus Proper Shayok Zanskar Jelilam Chenab 1,035 400 210 380 380 130 150 560 942 240 570 500 100 520 1,977 400 210 620 950 630 350 1,080 16 26 28 21 40 115 48 30 4 4 5 8 4 1-06 16,500 2,000 1,000 4,000 4,550 2,700 3,000 5,500 54,000 Rivi By.-is Sutluj PanJQa^l Indus alone Indus and Panjnad - - - - - 12,000 15,000 100,000 130,177 27,000 230,177 Ganges at Ghazipur Ganges at Pubna . . 250 1,500 1,750 52-0 0-66 21,757 96,000 476,761 1,500,000 Ancient LAKES A>'D SPKIXGS. 137 unknown ; but from the neighbourhood of Ruthog to its north-western extremity beyond Pangmik, the Pangkong Lake is not less than eighty-five miles in length, with an average breadth of about thi-ee miles.* The extent of the kno^Ti portion is, therefore, upwards of 250 square mUes, or about the same size as the holy lake of Mana- sarovara. The superior size of this lake may be ioferred from tlie probable etymology of its name, Pang-kong, which means the " extensive concavity" or hoUow ; or Fang-Miing, the "extensive pit." The water is clear and extremely salt.f This lake has been surveyed by Captain H. Strachey, whose observations place it at an elevation of 14,224 feet above the sea. In former ages there can be no doubt that the Pangkong Lake had an outlet at its north-western extremity, through a gorge ia the limestone clifi"s,i into the present scanty stream that passes by Muglib, and joins the Shayok river just above the village, which gives its name to the stream. At some remote period, therefore, the waters of the Pangkong L^e must have been fresh ; a fact which has been placed beyond all doubt by Captain H. Strachey's discoveiy of fossil shells of the Z'/mncea aiiricularia in the ancient clay deposits above the present level of the lake. The mountain-ranges at the north-western ex- tremity of the lake are of limestone, which probably affects the waters of the lake, as the small pebbles on its shores are firmly united tosrether by calcareous matter. The Tslio-Hiil,^ or "Bitter Lake," is situated about five mUes to the south of Pangkong. It is about sixteen miles in length, and somewhat less than two miles in * Moorcroft, I. p. 435. + Ibid. I. pp. 434-35. t This gorge was traversed by Moorcrolt (I. 434.) § Bui-la bad. felid, bitter. 138 LADAK. breadth. Its waters are extremely bitter. On its shore Captain H. Strachey likewise fouad fossil shells of the lAjmncua auricularia and of some kind of Helix, of which the specimens are perhaps too small to be identified with certainty. The waters of this lake must, therefore, once have been fresh. The Tsliomoriri,* or "Mountain Lake," is a very fine sheet of water, about sixteen miles in length from north to south, and from two to three miles in breadth. It is situated in the middle of the elevated district of Rukchu, in N. latitude 32° 50', and E. longitude 78° 15', at a height of 15,000 feet above the sea. Its name is charac- teristic of its situation in the midst of moimtains, by which it is completely shut in. The summits of these movmtains rise to a height of about 5,000 feet above the lake, and 20,000 above the sea. To account for its name, the Ladakis have invented a story, wliich though silly enough, is quite as good as many that have been gravely recorded by learned Greeks. The story was probably originated by the inventive Kashmiris. "A woman riding a yak was carried into the lake. At first the yak swam boldly out, and the woman was delighted : but after a time the animal grew tired, and sank deeper in the water. The woman {chomo) became frightened, and screamed out Ri-RL Ri-Ri,i until the yak sank and she * TsJto-mo-Iiki-ri, " Lake Mountainous." — Running water, being active, is considered as a male, as Tsanrj-po, the river of Tsang ; — and still water, being passive, as a female, as Tsho-mo. Po and Mo are the mas- culine and feminine affixes, but they are seldom used in composition. Ri is a mountain ; and Eld-ri-yi, or simply Bld-ri, is the adjective, mountainous. t A-ra-ra, commonly pronounced Re-re, or Ri-ri, is the Tibetan exclamation of surprise or fear. As the word is wTitten with an initial vowel, it is certainly borrowed from the ludiau Ari-ari, ibr there is no word in the Tibetan language beginning with a vowel that is not of foreign origin. LAKES AND SPllINGS. 139 was drowned : since whicli tlic people liave always called the lake Chomo-HlrL" This lalce has no outlet at present, and the waters are consequently brackish, although not very perceptibly so to the taste. But the time has perhaps once been, when the Tshomoriri lake was a noble sheet of fresh water, about thirty miles in length, from the foot of the Nakpo Gonding Pass to the low ridge that now separates the lake from the bed of the Para river. When encamped at the south end of the lake in September, 18-iG, both the late Mr. Vans Agnew and myself estimated the height of this ridge at 700 feet ; but it must have been somewhat more, as the bed of the Parang river at Norbu Sumdo is 15,700 feet. From this point, however, the apparent height of the ridge is not more than 150 feet. Tliis will make its actual height above the lake between 800 and 900 feet. Such, therefore, must have been the depth of the lake in former days, if, as is supposed, it once had an outlet towards the Para river. In September, ISiG, I was encamped for three days on its banks. The water was beautifully limpid and of a deep blue colour. Here and there I observed white patches of saline matter, but I could not discover any shells. The salts are hydro- chlorate of soda and hydro-chlorate of magnesia. I could not see any fish in the water, but the wild fowl were numerous at the northern end of the lake. On the 18th September I fixed a pole in the water, wliich I ex- amined twice dm'ing that day, and again early the next morning ; but I found no perceptible difference between tlie levels of the day and night. The extra quantity of water that is supplied during the day by the melted snow must, therefore, be compensated by the greater evapora- tion during the heat of the day. In the same month of 140 LADAK. the year, Di*. Gerard* could not find any water-mark above five feet, whicli he consequently fixed as the limit of fluctuation ; but I doubt whether the rise and fall of the lake amount to so much as one foot. In the middle of May, Trebeckt says that it is " frozen over sufficiently to be crossed by a man ; " and according to the informa- tion that I received, it is usually frozen over by the end of October. During the winter there can be no fluctua- tion of level, as the whole surface of the ice is protected from the sun's rays by a mass of snow about knee deep. Towards the end of May or the beginning of June the ice breaks up and melts, and by the end of July the surface of the lake attains its highest level, which from the water-marks that I saw, cannot be more than one foot above the winter level. Tliogji-CJimimo is the name of the "Salt-covered Plain," J in the midst of which lies the Tslio-Kar, or " White Lake," or as it is called by the Hindus of Chamba and Bisahar, Khaorl-Talao, or the Salt Lake. It is situated about thii-ty miles to the north-west of the Tshomoriri, in N. latitude 33° 15', and E. longitude 77° 50', at an elevation of 15,684 feet§ above the sea. It is extremely irregular in shape ; its greatest length from east to west being about five miles, and its extreme breadth about two and a half miles. It is supplied at its south-eastern corner by a small stream ten feet broad and one foot deep, which flows slowly from a small fresh- water lake. In the middle of the south side, where a * Eesearches As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xviii. p. 259. t Moorcroft's Travels, II. p. 52. X The proper name is probably TJiani^-TsJia-chan-yno, " Plain-sait- fuU-of." § Dr. Gerard, As. Ees. Bengal, vol. xviii, p. 200, makes the elevation 15,500 feet. LAKES AND SPRINGS. 141 rocky pi'omontory juts out into the lake, the water is very deep. On the north and east sides it is shallow ; but on the west, the steep slope of the mountains appears to be continued beneath the surface. The water is exceed- ingly brackish and bitter, and the whole of the ground on the south-eastern shore glitters Avith a saline matter, which forms a thick crust of some extent. The southern road passes over this vast cake of salt, which cracks and crunches beneath the feet of the traveller. The salt is natron, or sub-carbonate of soda. On all sides the mountains stUl retain the ancient beach-marks in distinct bnes, at all heights up to about 150 feet above the present level of the lake. In the numerous deposits of fine alluvial clay, both white and yellow, we found myriads of fossil shells of the LymncBa auricularia, and a few specimens of a Cyclas, preserved inside the Lymntea. When these animals existed, the lake must have formed a vast sheet of fresh water with a narrow passage to the westward, which connected it with a second and larger lake, that must have covered the whole of the present plain from Kyang, from the foot of the Thung Lung Pass to the forks of the Sum Gal river, a length of about thirty-five miles. In the clay deposits of this plain, as well as in the connecting gorge, we found myriads of the same fossil shells {Li/mncea auri- cularia) before mentioned. The Tsho-kar lake abovmds "with many kinds of water-fowl, especially with wild geese and Avild ducks. To the south of the Tsho-kar there is a small fresh-water lake of no great depth, that supplies the salt-water lake. It is a very favourite haunt of the Kyang, or wild horse. The Yunam Tsho is a small sheet of fresh water in the 142 LADAK. bed of the Yunam river, which flows through it. In former times it must have been of some extent, and of considerable depth. Wlien I saw it, in September, 1846, it was only 1,000 yards long and 500 yards broad. Moorcroft was informed " that it had been more exten- sive, but had been contracted by the falHng into it of masses of rock." The gradual decrease in size has, however, been brought about by a very different cause ; by the constant wearing away of the rocky barrier, which once dammed the river about one mile below the present end of the lake. Between these points the river has worn a channel through a mass of fine cream-coloured clay,* which once formed the bed of the Yunam lake. I found the lake of a very pale yellowish colour, which it had received from the cream-coloured clay deposits in the bed of a small stream upwards of half a mile above the lake. The extreme length must once have been about three mUes, and the breadth varying from a quarter of a mile to more than a mUe. The Smile-Tsho is the largest sheet of fresh water that to my knowledge exists in Ladak. The extent of open water is not great, but the whole extent of swamp is between three and foiu" miles in length. It is princi- pally supplied by a rivulet called the Kongra-chu, which drains the lofty range of mountains to the westward of the Tshomoriri lake as far south as the Lanak Pass. A second feeder flows from a southern range of mountains, that divide Hukchu from the Chinese district of Chu- mur-ti. A third small stream, which joins it from the north-west, is fuU of fish, which attain a size of fourteen or fifteen inches. To the east of the lake is situated the * Moorcroft, I. p. 217, also notices tliis fine clay. LAKES ANU SPRINGS. 143 picturesque monastery of Hanle, on the end of a rocky spur about 500 feet above the plain. Round the foot of this spur the waters of the lake find an outlet into the long and level plain of Mangkang, through which the Ilanle ri'vailet winds from side to side for a distance of tliii'ty miles. Towards the northern end of the valley there are several low flat-topped hills, wdth large masses of alluvial clay deposits still adhering to them in hori- zontal strata. As the total fall from Hanle to the northern end of the valley cannot be more than 150 feet, there can be little doubt that the Hanle Tsho once covered the whole of these level plains, and formed a noble lake fully forty miles in length by fifteen mUes in extreme breadth, to the south of Hanle. The plain is now pretty thickly covered with Dama or Tibetan furze, which here grows to the unusual height of three and four and even five feet. Small pieces of water are numerous all over Ladak, but none that I have seen are deserving of notice for any peculiarity, excepting the celebrity of their names. Two of them are mentioned by Abul Fazl in the Ayin Akbari.* " From the top of the mountains of Keetwar (Kashtwar) issue two springs, one called Chancba and the other Bhaga ; * * they unite their streams and are then called Chandi-a Bhaga," which is the well-known Sanscrit name of the Chenab. The Suraj Dal is a smaU oblong sheet of clear green water, dammed at the western end by masses of splintered rock that have fallen from above. It is about a quarter of a mile long and only half as broad. A small rill of melted snow flows into it from the east ; but the rill is altogether so * Gladwin's Ajan Akbari, II. p. 108. 144 LADAK. insignificant, that tlie Suraj Dal may fairly be considered, as it is reputed to be, the source of the Bhaga river. But the Chandra Dal, although double the size of the Suraj Dal, is situated at least twenty-five miles below the real source of the Chandra river, in the Bara Lacha Pass. It is, however, always spoken of as the source of the Chandra river. Dal is a Kashmiri term for any sheet of water, whether large or small : but it is also a Tibetan word, signifying " stiU, quiet."* Many hot springs exist in different parts of Ladak ; but the best known are those of Nubra, Puga, and Chushul. The first two were visited by Moorcroft, who found the waters " quite clear, and of the same tempera- ture of 167°, at mouths distant two hundred yards from each other," Below the springs were beds of soda. The hot springs of Puga,-\ I have myself examined. The springs occur in the bed of a rivulet called the E.ulang-chu, for a length of about two miles. The springs vary in strength, from gentle bubbling to strong ebullition, and in temperatm'e from 80° to 148°, the hottest containing chloride of soda and sulphuretted hydrogen in solution, and those of low temperature con- taining chloride and borate of soda, both in solution. Sulphur occurs on the northern bank of the rivulet in pure transparent crystals, and in thin laminfE dissemi- nated throughout the gypsum rock. The volcanic neigh- bom-hood of Puga is something like that of the Tuscan lagoons near Monte Cerbole, which now supply Eui'ope with the same minerals : " These lagoons consist of springs in a furious state of ebullition, whose vapours * JDal, " quiet ;" compare the Euglisli " dull." t Bu-ga, a liolo. LAKES AND SPRINGS. 145 contain boracic acid, and the ground is covered with crystallizations of sulphur and other minerals."* The volcanic agency is stUl active in Tuscany ; in Ladak, though not extinct, it is evidently dying. The hot spring of Chushul was visited by Moorcroft and Trebeck. It is without taste or smell, but is said to have medicinal properties. Its temperature is 96°. * M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary — Art. Borax. 146 VI.-ROADS, PASSES, BRIDGES. I.— EOADS. In Tibetan every road is called Lam ; but the high- roads are distinguished by the name of Lain-chhen, or " Great Roads," and Gya Lam, or " Passable Eoads."* The principal road is that between Kashmir and Yar- kand ; the next in importance is the road to Lhasa, via. Garo, and the third is that which leads through Rukchu, Ldhul, and Kullu, to the cities of Nurpur, Amritsar, and Ludiana. Some of the other roads, though not mvtch frequented by merchants, are still deserving of notice, as they have on three different occasions been made use of by the conquerors of Ladak. About A.D. 1600, the Musalmans of Balti, under Ali Sher, invaded Ladak on the west by the valley of the Indus. In 1686, the Sokpos or Sacse invaded it on the east by the Eudok road ; and in 1834, the Hiadus of Jammu, under Zora- war Sing, invaded it on the south by the route from Kashtwar into Sum. Moorcroft mentions another com- mercial line between India and Kotan,t " which was frequented in the time of Shah Jehan and closed by the Chinese subsequently to their acquisition of Kashgar." * Lam, a road ; Lam-chJien, a great road ; l),rOya-lam, a passable road. t Transactions Koyal Asiat. Soc, I. p. 55. ROADS. 117 In another place* he says that this road ran through Garo and lluthog to Sarikia, half-way hctwcen Yarkand and Kotan ; and in a third placet he states that from Iludok across the mountains to Kotan is a journey of three or four days only. Now both the Chinese geo- graphers and the Jesuit missionaries agree in placing Kotan in N. latitude 37°, or just three and a haK degrees, or about 250 miles, to the north of Rudok. The journey must therefore be one of three or four weeks, instead of three or four days. The only probable explanation of Moorcroft's statement is, that the frontier of Kotan is only three or four days' journey from Iludok. His very mention of Sarikia, a place half-Avay between Yai'kand and Kotan, shows that Moorcroft must have known the true distance of Kotan, as his own munshi, Izzet Ullah, makes Sarighout (or Sarikia) just tliirteen marches from Le. It cannot, therefore, be less than eighteen or twenty days' journey from Iludok. The road from India to the Niti Pass, through Garo and Iludok to Yarkand, is, therefore, the same as that from Lhasa to Yarkand, by the valley of the Indus. The two routes join at Garo, and follow the Indus to Kak-jung, from whence the traveller may proceed cither down the Indus to Le, and across the mountains to the Shayok river, or he may cross the Tsaka La and proceed direct to the Shayok by Chushal or Pangkoug. The different roads that lead to Le, on all sides, are the following : — 1. The western road from Kabul and the Punjab, through Kashmir. 2. The south-western road from the central Punjab, through Jammu, Kashtwar and Zanskar to L6. A * Travels, I. p. 373. t Travels, I. p. 3G1. L 2 148 ladAk. brancli of this road runs from Zanskar through Rukchu toL6. 3. The southern road from Lahor and Amritsar, through Kullu, Lahul and Rukchu to L^. A branch road from Bisahar, via Spiti, joins this road in Rukchu. 4. The south-eastern road from Lhasa to Garo and the Indus to Le. A branch from India, via the Niti Pass, joins this road at Garo. 5. The eastern road from Chinese Tartary, through Rudok and the valleys of Chushal and Sakte to Le. 6. The northern road from Yarkand and Kotan, over the Karakorum mountains and down the Shayok and Nubra rivers to Le. The old route, which is now closed by glaciers that dam the stream, followed the Shayok from its source to Sassar, and thence either continued down that river, or across the mountains and down the Nubra river to L^. 7. The north-western road from Balti, via the Shayok and Indus rivers, to Le. II.— 1st. THE WESTERN EOAD. The road from Kashmir traverses nearly the whole extent of Ladak from west to east, from the Seoji La, at the head of the Dras river, to Le. From the Kashmi- rian Pass it follows the course of the Dras river to its junction with the Suru river, up which it proceeds as far as Kargyil. From thence it ascends the Purik vaUey past the fort and town of Paskyum, as far as Waka, where it leaves the Waka river, and crosses the Namyika Pass (13,000 feet) to the bed of the Kanji river. Thence over the Photo La, an easy pass (13,240 feet), to the village of Lama Ymnai, from which it foUows the course THE WESTERN ROAD. 119 of the Wanla-clui to its junction with the Indus, below the bridge of Khallach, where it crosses the river to its right bank. Erom this point it ascends the Indus, past the villages of Nurla, Saspul, Bazgo, and Nyimo, to Pitak, where it leaves the river and turns to the north- east for a few mUes to the city of Le. The whole distance from Kashmir to Le is 228 nules. I have travelled this road myself, and I can vouch for its being one of the most excellent and most easy routes to bo found throughout the Alpine Punjab. It is passable from March till November, when it is closed by the vast masses of snow that accumulate on the Kashmir side of the Seoji La, and which render the passage very dangerous, both in ]\Iarch and April as well as in November. The greater portion of this road which lies in Ladak was made by Zorawar Sing after the conquest of the country in 1834. The large bridge over the Indus at Khallach, as well as the smaller bridges on this road over the Wanla, Kanji, Waka, Suru, and Dras rivers, were all built by the energetic invaders, who, knowing the value of good communications, have since kept them in excellent repair. No road can well be worse than the few marches on the Kashmirian side of the pass, which are stiU in the same state as described by Izzet Ullah* m 1812 : " The road is diflacult and rocky, so as to be impassable to a mounted traveller." This is the most frequented of all the roads into Ladak, with perhaps the single exception of the northern line from Yarkand to Le. The following table shows the names and distances of the stages. * Quarterly Oriental Magazine, INIarch 1825, p. 104. 15a LADAK. 1 Grandar Bal 2 Kangan 3 Surbara 4 Gagangir : 5 Sonamarg G Baltal .. 7 Maten . . S Driis . . . 9 Jasgund 10 Kbarbu 11 Kargyil 12 Dok ... 13 Molbil 14 Cbarak 15 Hesku IG Lama Turru 17 Kballach 18 Nurla ... 19 llemis-tokpo 20 Siispul . . . 21 Bazgo ... 22 Tharu... 23 Le .. PROM KASHMIR TO l6. Miles. . 9f left bank of Sindh river, . 9-J rigbt bank ditto. . 9f left ditto ditto. . lOf rigbt ditto ditto. . 7} ditto ditto ditto. . 8f ditto foot of Pass. . 15|- cross the Seoji La (Pass). . Hi left bank of Dras river. . 7| on the left bank (opposite). . 121 right bank ditto. . llf at junction of Waka and Suru river. . llf left bank of Waka river. . 8f right bank ditto. . 7i cross the Namyika Pass. . Ill right bank of Kanji river. . 9 cross the Photo La (Pass). . Sf cross the Indus by bridge. . 8i right bank of Indus. . 8f ditto ditto. . 9f ditto ditto. 8 ditto ditto. . 11^ ditto ditto. . 11| ditto ditto. 228 miles. III.— 2ud. THE SOUTH-WESTEEN EOAD. During the first years of the occupation of Ladak by Zorawar Sing, the different roads from Jammu to Le were constantly traversed by the Dogra troops, who latterly always took the route through Kdshtwar and Zanskar in preference to that of Kashtwar and Suru — ■ which they thought considerably longer. Dr. Thomson travelled from Jammu to Le, in 18 18, but he took the hill route, from Bhadawiir to Chatrgarh. In the same TUE SOUTH-WESTEKN ROAD. 151 year he had also traveUed from Kashmii- to Jammu. We are therefore able to compare the route from Jammu to Jj6, via Zanskar, with that by Kashmir. The com- parison is altogether in favour of the road by Kashmir, with respect to the facility of crossing the different passes, which are less lofty and much more easy of ascent and descent than those of the other road. With respect to distance, the two roads are much about the same. The road travelled by Dr. Thomson is actually eighteen miles longer than the route by Kashmir ; but as the route from Zanskar to Le, via Marka and ICiyo, is two days' journey less than that followed by Dr. Thomson, the two roads by Kashmir and Zanskar may be con- sidered about the same length. From Jammu the Zanskar road proceeds direct through Ramnagar to Bhadarwdr, a distance of seventy- three miles. From thence it crosses the Bhadri-Dhar Pass, 10,165 feet, into the Chamba district, and over the Saj-Joth (li,794- feet) into the vaUey of the Chandra- bhaga near Chatrgarh, a further distance of 116 miles. From the Chenab the road crosses the Bara Lacha range by the Umasi-La or Bvirdar Pass (18,125 feet) to Phadam, the chief town in Zanskar, a distance of fifty-six mUes. In this rugged district the road is bad and difficult. At first it follows the com'se of the Zanskar river as far as Chand-La, where it enters the mountains. Beyond Pangache it proceeds over another pass (16,495 feet) and descends rapidly to the river, which it crosses by the Nira bridge. From thence it ascends the lofty moun- tains that bound Zanskai' on the west, and enters the Wanla district by the Sing-ge-La (16,952 feet), from which it follows the Wanla river to Lama Yurru, and 152 LADAK. thence to L6, as in the first route. The lofty passes on this road are seldom open before June, and they are always closed by the end of October. The following are the marches made by Dr. Thomson from Jammu to L6. Miles. Miles. 1 Tuton-ki-kui (the mul- Brought forward . . . 189 berry well) . . 8 23 Chishot 8 2 Sarolii Sar ... . 7 24 Sumcham ... 8 3 Thalaura 8 25 Camp ... ... 6 4 Eamnagar .. 10 26 Ditto ... ... 5 5 Garta ... 7 27 Ditto ... ... 10 6 Pata 9 28 Markim ... 10 7 Dudu .. 6 29 Phadam ... 9 S Camp ... .. 8 30 TuBgde ... 8 9 Bhadarwar .. 10 31 Chandla ... 10 10 Camp ... 7 32 Sumdo ... 10 11 Langera 8 33 Pangache ... 9 12 Dego .. 11 34 Nira ... ... 8 13 Buju .. 10 35 Tulchimg ... 5 14 Kaltor .. 11 36 Plutaksa ... 11 15 Banderi .. 7 37 Haunpata ... 8 16 Camp 7 38 Wauk ... 10 17 Ditto .. 9 39 Khallach ... 11 18 Ditto .. 12 40 Nurla ... ... 8 19 Pargwal .. 8 41 Saspol ... ... 10 20 Asdhari .. 10 42 Nyimo .. 10 21 Shol 9 43 l'c ... ... 11 22 Lyundi 7 Total m dies ... 374 Carried forward .. 189 From Phadam there are two other routes to Le, the direct route through Zanskar and the winter route through Eukchu. The latter was taken by the Vazir Zorawar Sing, in the winter of 1835, when all the passes on the more direct road had loner been closed. THE SOUTHERN EOAD. 153 TWO ROUTES FROM PHADAM IN ZANSKAR TO Lfi. "VVlNTEE EOUTE. Direct Eoute. 1 Muni. 1 Tonde. 2 Yang Jhiil. 2 Jand-ld. 3 Maleug. 3 Sum do. 4 Kina Jhula. 4 Dagmoche. 5 Zougmar. 5 Kama Sumdo. e Chuniik Marpo. 6 Rabrang. 7 Tokpo Soma. 7 Marka. S Chanip. 8 Kyo (Skyo or Skio) 9 Dong cliechan. 9 Sliingo (Pass). 10 Pachiilong. 10 Eiimbak. 11 Kyang-cho. 11 Pitak. 12 13 Rukchin. Debraug. 12 L<5. 14 Gya. 15 Miru. 16 17 Ugshi. Hemis. 18 Thagua Goupa. 19 Chachot. 20 Le. IV.— 3rd. THE SOUTHEEN EOAD. By tliis route the shawl wool is hrought to the large cities of Nurpur, Amritsar, and Ludiana, all of which make a return in manvifactured shawls and coarse hrocades. The roads from all these places meet at Mandi (the market) or Maudinagur (market-city) on Ihe Byas river, the capital of the small state of that name. From Nurpur the merchants proceed via Kangra and Baijnath; from Amritsar, via, Hushiyarpoor and Nadon ; and from Ludiana, via Eopar and Bilaspur ; the distances of the first and last heing about 120 miles; of the second, about 150 miles. Erom Mandi this road proceeds by the u-on-mines of Kuman to Sultanpur, the cnpital of Kullu. From 154 LABAK, thence it ascends the Byas to its source on the E-otang Pass (13,000 feet), and descends upon the Chandra river at Koksar, the flbrst village in Lahul, at an elevation of 10,000 feet. It then follows the Chandra river to its junction with the Bhaga, opposite Tandi, from whence it ascends the latter to its source in the Bara Lacha Pass (16,500 feet). Prom this pass it descends the Yujiam river into Rukchu, and thence crosses the Ltmga-Lacha Pass (17,000 feet) to the triple confluence of the Sumgal river. There it ascends the plain of Kyang to the crest of the Thuug-Lung Pass (17,500 feet), from whence it descends the Gya rivulet to the Indus at Ugshi, and thence down that river to Le. All the passes on this route are easy, especially the Bara Lacha, over which a road might be made passable for carriages, so gradual is the ascent and descent. The Bara Lacha and Rotang Passes are generally closed in the end of October, and are not open again until the end of May or beginning of June. The most difficult part of this route is the crossing of the Chandra river, as the suspension- bridge of birchen-twig ropes is annually overwhelmed beneath a dense mass of di'ifted snow. In August, 1846, the late Mr. Vans Agnew and myself were detained for two days opposite Koksar until the bridge was partially put up, when with the assistance of plenty of rope, which we had purposely carried with us, we managed to pass over all baggage without any difficulty. From Mandi the route is as follows : — Miles. 1 Kuman ... ... 11 an iron-mine. 2 Bajaora ... ... 14 riglit bank of Byas river. 3 Sultanpiir ... ... 9 capital of Knllu. 1 Dwara ... ... 10 right bank of Byas river. Carried iorw ard . . 41 THE SOUTHERN KOAD, 155 Miles Brought forward .. 4t 5 INIonali .. 14 right bank of Byaa river. 6 Ralha .. 10 camp foot of Pass. 7 Koksar .. 11 cross the Rotaiig Pass. 8 Sisu .. 10 riglit bank of Chandra river. 9 Gundla 9 ditto ditto. 10 Kiirdang .. 10 left bank of Bhaga river. 11 Kolang .. 13 right bank ditto. 12 Darclia .. 10 ditto ditto. 13 Patseo .. 8 a rude stone bridge. U Mongba .. 10 foot of Pass. 15 Kelang .. 12 cross the Bara Lacha. 16 Charpa .. 8 mouth of Cherpa river. 17 Sumdo .. 14 foot of Pass, 18 Siimgal .. 12 cross Langa Lacha Pass. 19 ]\Iiire-Tslio . . . .. 10 a small pond of fresh water. 20 Eukchin .. 7 Boti camp. 21 Larsa .. 14 foot of Pass. 22 Gya • • 14f cross the Lunga Lacha. 23 Miru • • 7i 24 Ugslii .. 7i left bank of Indus. 25 ]\larchalang . . . .. Si ditto ditto. 26 Chacliot .. 11 ditto ditto. 27 Le .. 91 cross Indus by bridge. Total .. 283| miles. The Bisahar road, via Kullu, joins this road at Siil- tanpur, the capital of Kullu, from which llampur is eight marches distant. Since 1846, this road has heen much improved by the British government, and the access to Kullu, both from Simla and from Bampm*, is now easy. The road from Bisaliar, through Spiti into Rukchu, joins the above road either at the crest of the Bara Lacha Pass or at the foot of the Thung Limg Pass. The former is the more easy route, but the latter is the more frequented. From Bampur the road ascends the Sutluj river to the Wongto bridge, where it passes over and enters the mountains to Babe. Erom thence it 156 LADAK. crosses the Tari Pass (15,282 feet) into the Pin valley, which it descends to the junction of the Pin river with the Spiti. The latter is crossed by a jhula to Dangkhar, from whence the road proceeds to the monastery of Kyi and up the left hank of this stream to Losar, where it changes to the right bank. Beyond Losar it leaves the Spiti river and crosses the Kulzum Pass (14,821 feet) into the upper course of the Chandra river, which is quite uninhabited, and ascends the stream to its source in the Bara Lacha Pass. The other road branches off from the monastery of Kyi and crosses the Parang Pass (18,502 feet) into Rukchu at the source of the Para river. It then follows the river to Norbu Sumdo, whence it crosses a low range of hills to the southern end of the Tshomo-lliri lake. From this lake it crosses the Nakpo Gonding Pass (18,000 feet) and the Polokonka Pass (16,500 feet) to the Tsho-kar or Wliite Lake, beyond which it joins the first road at the foot of the Thung- Limg Pass. The following are the stages on the road by the Bara Lacha Pass. FROM RAMPm TO ti. Miles 1 Gaora .. 10 left baiik of Sutlej. 2 Sarahau .. 10 ditto ditto. 3 Tranda .. 14 ditto ditto. 4 Nichar .. 12 ditto ditto. 5 Tangpa .. 11 cross the Sutlej. 6 Larsa .. 16 cross the Tari Pass. 7 Mud .. 12 on Pin river in Spiti. 8 Tangti .. 12 ditto ditto. 9 Dauglikar .. 15 cross the Spiti Pass. Lara ... .. 8f left bank of Spiti river. 1 liangrig .. Si ditto, halting-grouud. Carried Ibrward .. 128'- THE SOUTH-EASTERN KOAD. 157 Milea. Brought forward ... 128^ 12 Chikyam 10 13 Kirla 12 14 Losar ... ... ... 12 right bank. 15 Camp... ... ... 10 foot of Pass. 16 Ditto ... ... ... 9 cross the Kiilzum La. 17 Ditto 12 left bank of Chandra. 18 Ditto 14 ditto ditto. 19 Ditto 12 ditto ditto. 20 Ditto ... ... ... 12 cross the Bara Lacha Pass. 232i Thence 12 to Le, 122| miles. Total ... 355-1- miles. The following are the stages on the road by the Tsho- mo-E.iri Lake. FROM RAMPUR TO L^. Miles. 11 Rangrig 129i 12 Gyihbar 6* 13 Bongrochan 8f 14 Tratung Kongma 7 cross the Parang Pass 15 Camp 11 16 Norbu Sumdo 11 17 Tshomo Eiri ... 10 south end of lake. 18 Korzo Gonpa 13 19 Earazung 11 20 Polokouka Pass 15 2 miles to W of Pass 21 Tsho-kar 11 22 Larsa 16 252| Thence 6 to L e, 57|- Total ... 310 miles. v.— 4th. THE SOUTH-EASTEEN EOAD. Of the portion of this road that lies between Lhasa and Kailas, very little is known except by report. 158 LADAK. From Lhasa, which I do not think can be less than ten or eleven thousand feet above the sea, the road ascends the Sanpu river, past Tashi Lhunpo and Galdan to its source on the eastern face of the Kailas mountain. It then crosses tliis moimtain to the northern bank of the holy Manasarovara Lake (15,200 feet). The dii-ect dis- tance between these points on the map is upwards of 10° of longitude, which in the 30th degree of latitude are equal to 600 English miles, to which one-haK* more must be added for the windings and ascents and descents of a road in a mountainous country. This will give a dis- tance of 900 miles, equal to a journey of three months, which the people always state it to be. From the Manasarovara Lake to Garo the road has been traversed by Moorcroft. The distance is about 110 miles, or ten days' journey— past the Lake of Rawan Hrad, and over several lofty spurs of the Kailas range, which give rise to numerous small feeders of the Sutluj and Indus. Garo itself is situated, according to my information, on the main branch of the Indus, which is there called the Higong-chu or Higong river, simply because it flows past the village of that name. From Garo to Chibra, and thence to Le, the road lies dowa. the valley of the Indus, and generally along the bank of the river. The distance from Garo to Le is not less than 350 miles, or * This is not a mere assumption, but a fact deduced from actual surveys. Thus my survey makes the distance between Le and Kashmir 228 English mUes. The difference of longitude is 2° 40', which, in the latitude of 34°, is equal to 154 miles ; to which by adding one-half more, we obtain 231 miles, which is within three miles of tlie actual measurement. Again, tlie difference of latitiide between Mandi and Le is 2° 30', equal to 174 English miles. By adding one-half more, we obtain 2G0 miles, the measured distance, according to my survey, being 283 miles. THE EASTERN ROAD. 159 about tliirty-fivG days' journey. The whole distance from Lliasa to Ld is therefore about 1,350 miles, a journey of four months and a half. The principal places on this route are the well-known Tashi-Lhunpo, the residence of the Tashi Lama, who was visited by Turner ; Galdan, wliich Avas for some time the residence of the Tibetan court ; Garo, which is now a great mart for the interchange of the productions of India and China ; and Tashi Gong, which is a cele- brated monastery. I will say nothing more regarding this road, as all the accessible portions of it have been traversed by Captain H. Strachey. VI.— 5th. THE EASTEEN EOAD. This road leads from the unknoT^Ti countries inhabited by various Mongol tribes, through Rudok to Le. Notliing whatever is known of it to the eastward of Rudok, except that by it the Mongol tribe of Sokpo invaded Ladak in 1686 and 1687 ; and again in the beginning of 1841, immediately after Zorawar Sing's death, about three thousand Changpas* are said to have entered Ladak for the pm-pose of assistiug the young Gyalpo. They advanced to Le, where they remained about six weeks ; but on the approach of Dewan Hari Chand and Vazir E-atanu with troops from Kashmir, they fled hastily back again by the same route. As this road has been surveyed by Captain H. Strachey, from the neigh- bourhood of E-uthog to JA, any further remarks from me are quite unnecessary. * Byang-pa, pronounced Chanff-pa, " northern men," or men of Chang-thang, the northern plains. 160 VII.— 6th. THE NOETHERN EOAD. This road leads from Yarkand and Kotan, over the Karakoram mountains (18,660 feet) to Le. The best account of it that we possess is that by Izzet Ullah, who traversed it in 1812. But since that time several glaciers have stretched their mighty masses across the bed of the Shayok, and the old road by the river has been com- pletely closed. The new road from Karakoram leaves the Shayok, or Khundan, river at the foot of the pass, and crosses over an elevated table-land to Sassar, where it again meets the Khundan. A short distance above Sassar Dr. Thomson examined two glaciers that stretched across the river. From this point the road quits the Khundan and crosses a lofty range to the bed of the Nubra river, above Panamik. It then follows the course of the Nubra river to its junction with the Shayok, from which it proceeds direct to Le. Izzet UUah's route was the following : — FROM YARKAND TO L^. Hours Miles. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chagachag Tokaji Langer Aurtang Ak Masjid Khalastau 4 9 10 2 9 7 — 6 134 on the Kerghalek r 15 3 13i 10* 7 Chakilak 6 = 9 8 Mizar ... 6 = 9 9 10 11 Tezak Lak Payin Tagni Dawan Yartoli 8 9 5 = 12 134 74 right bank of river. 12 13 Bagh Haji Mohammad Igersal di 2 9 = 3 134 14 Taghteh 7 = 104 Carried forward 93 = 1394 THE NORTHEUN TJOAU. IGl Brought forw Khatalim Aktagh Surighout Camp . . . 1 Camp to S. of Pass 2 Tapchau 3 Khundaii 4 ChongTasli ... 5 Tartobi Maudalik 7 Dong Bailak ... 8 Cliong Aolang 9 Clioug Jangal 10 Chunchar 11 Dakclui Dunga 12 Adgain 13 Digar... 14 Camp ... 15 Lahu . . . 16 Le ... Miles. 93 =139,V 9 = 13J 10 = 15 9 = 13, V 7 = 10 J foot of Karakoram Pass. 128 =192 miles. 10 = 15 10 = 15 10 = 15 right bauk of Sh.ayok. 9 = 13 ^T right ditto. 7 = 10^ 5 = 7| left ditto. 10 = 15 left ditto. 9 = 13| right ditto. 4=6 right ditto. 9 = 13^ right ditto. 4 = G right ditto. 7 = lOi left ditto. ... 4| ... 12 7i cross a Pass. Karakoram to Le 18 Tarkand to Karakoram 172i miles. 192 34 marches. Total SGU miles. Dr. Thomson's route from Le to Karakoram Pass is a more dii'ect one, and consequently a shorter one ; the whole distance being only 147^ mUes, or twenty-five miles less than Izzet UUah's route. But the longer route up the Khundan river had the advantage of being tolerably level, whereas the present route crosses no less than three lofty passes, and is besides much more rugged and difficult. The Karakoram Pass is not less than ISjGOO feet above the sea, and it is perhaps very nearly 162 19,000 feet high. Dr. Thomson's route from Lc to the Karakoram Pass is as follows : — 1 Camp 2 Kardong 3 Kalsar 4 Diskit 5 Lyakj ung 6 7 Chirasa 8 Panamik 9 Takshe 10 Changlmi Carried forward Miles. G 10 9 8 5 ]" 10 4 Brouglit forward 11 Camp 12 Ditto... 1.3 Ditto... 14 Sassar 15 Margai 16 Camp 17 Ditto... 18 Ditto... 19 Karakoram Pass Total Miles. .. 68^ 9 12 12 10 1471 VIII.— 7th. THE NORTH-WESTERN ROAD. Tlu's road leads from Balti and the neighbouring Musalman district up the bed of the Indus to Le. During the svimmer season, when the waters of the river are much swollen by the melted snow, the Indus route is very difficult, and travellers generally prefer ascending the Shayok river as far as Chhorbad, and thence crossing the mountains by the Hanu Pass, 16,890 feet, to the Indus at the fort of Hanu. Prom Hanu to Le the route ascends the Indus. Both of these routes have been travelled by Mr. Vigne. Dr. Thomson's route was by the Shayok alone ; and to him we are indebted for the survey of that river between Tirit and Keris, where it joins the Indus. The distance from Skardo to Le, by this route, is 236 miles, or just eight miles more than the road from Kashmir to L(5. The following are the marches from Le to Skardo, by the Latsa Pass, 17,666 feet. THE NORTH-WESTERN ROAD. 163 Miles. Miles 1 Sabu G ]?rought forward 147 2 Foot of Pass 12 17 Turtuk 7 3 Digar 5 J IS Pranii 11 4 Chatti IG 19 Siksa 7 5 Tirit 8h 20 Kabus 8 6 Tagar 81 21 Surma 12 7 Panamik 13 22 Khapolor 7 8 Chirasa 10 23 Karku 10 9 Lyakjung 9 24 Bragar 4 10 Hundar 9i 25 Klines 6J 11 Tertse 10 26 Kuril 6 12 Unmaru 5i 27 Keris 8 13 Karu 9i 2S Uolochu 9 14 Waris 8 29 Camp 9^ 15 Bogdan 7 30 Skardo 4 IG Chulungka .. 9 Total 236 Carried forward . . 147 The above are the principal thoroughfares through- out Ladak. Many other roads might be enumerated in all directions, but they arc less frequented and more difl&cult. These by-paths are called Lam-than,* and Lam-dogpo. They are used chiefly by the people of the country in passing from their own districts into the next ; such are, — 1st, the road over the Omba La, between Suru and Dras ; and 2nd, the road over the Vinge La, between Zanskar and Purik. Other roads are used only by smugglers ; but these are always difficult, although frequently more direct than the high-roads. One of the best known of these smugglers' paths is that which leads from the Chinese district of Chumurti into Lahul and Kullu. Erom Chumtirti the road is followed over the Budhpu Pass to the bed of the Para river. From thence a rugged path leads over a lofty mountain to the * Lam-phran, pronounced Lfim-ZJimi. " little road ;" and Lam-Doq- po, " narrow road." M 2 . 161 LADAK. upper course of the river, which is crossed a second time, and over another range of mountains to the head of the Charpa river. From the hed of the Charpa different routes were followed over the mountains to the upper and uninhabited course of the Chandra river, from whence the northern road leads over the Bara Lacha Pass into Laliul, and the southern i-oad direct into Ivullu by the Parbati river. IX.— PASSES. A Pass in Tibetan is called La. The crest of a Pass is named La-tse, and the foot of a Pass La-tsa* The last word is variously pronounced : by some it is called Larsa, of which spellmg many examples may be found in our maps at the bottom of Passes ; by others it is called Lacha, as in Bara Lacha (for Bara Latsa). Others again pronoimce the s distinctly ; which last has given rise to Dr. Gerard's spelling of Para Lassa. Rong is a defile, and chong-rong is a narrow defile. The principal passes have already been mentioned in my description of the high-roads of Ladak ; but a tabular enumeration of them may be useful for comparison. Names. Heights. Authorities. Positions. Karakoram ... 18,G60 Dr. Thomson . . . Head of Shayok river. Sassar 17,500 Ditto between Nubra and Shayok river. Hanu ... 10,890 Col. Bates between Indus and Shayok river. Le Pass 17,GGG Dr. Thomson ... between Le and Nubra. Lazgiing 17,500 (estimated) . . . ditto ditto. * L(i is the simple form. La-rTse, is the crest of a Pass. PASSES. 165 Names. Heights. Authorities. Positions. Changla 18,105 Moorcroft, MS. between Indus and Long Kongma. Kongta-la 15,495 Ditto between Long Kongma and Chushal. Singgc 16,952 Dr. Thomsou . . . between Zanskar and Lama Yurru. Vingge — Pangaehe 16,495 Dr. Thomson . . . in Zanskar. Photo La 13,240 A. Cimninghani between Kashmir and Le. Xamyika 13,000 Ditto ditto ditto. Thung Luug . . 17,500 Ditto South of Le. Polokonka 16,500 Ditto near the Tsho-kar. jVakpo Gouding 18,000 Ditto to North of Tshonio Eiri lake. Lanak ... 18,746 Ditto between Tshomo Eiri and Hanle. Lunga Liielia 17,000 Ditto between Zanskar and Eukchu. Parang Lii 18,502 Ditto North of Spiti. Bara Lacba ... 16,500 Ditto between LahiJ and Zanskar. Umasi La 18,123 Dr. Thomson . . between Kashtwar and Zanskar. Seoji La 11,031- A. Cunningham between Kashmir and Dras. Harapo La 12,104 Col. Bates in Astor. Kutzum 14,851 Capt. Broome ... between Laliul and Spiti. Manerang 18,612 A. Gerard between Kanawar and Spiti. TariPass 15,282 Lieut. Maclagan ditto ditto. Eotang Joth . . 13,000 A. Cunningham between Kidlu and Lahul. Kali Joth 16,700 Ditto between Lahul and Chamba. Saj Joth 15,500 Dr. Thomson . . ditto ditto. Pir Paiijal ... 11,970 A. Cunningham South of Kashmir. Tural Pass . . 14,808 Ditto between Kangra and Chauiba. 166 X— PASSAGE OF EIVEES. The great rivers of Ladak are crossed by ferries, fords, and bridges. Fording is the most usual means of crossing botli the Indus and the Shayok, in the upper parts of their sources, where their waters are widely spread and shallow. In the neighbourhood of Le, where the Indus becomes deep and rapid, it is spanned by three bridges, and just below L^, where the current is less rapid, people are ferried across on inflated skins. The Zanskar river is bridged in two places : and is not I believe ever fordable. In Lahul the Chandra and Bhaga rivers are both bridged ; but I have seen the Chandra forded at Koksar in October, and I have been ferried across it at the same place in September. In Spiti, the Para river is crossed by a natural bridge formed of an enormous mass of rock that has fallen across the stream ; and the Spiti river itself is bridged in several places. In the winter season it is fordable in many places. , A ford is called Gal in Tibetan ; and the name is applied to one of the principal branches of the Zanskar river, which is called Sum-gal, or the " Three Fords," because it is formed of three streams that are forded one after the other just above their junction. In the summer the fording of many of the streams can only be accom- plished in the morning ; for after ten and eleven o'clock the waters are so much increased by the melted snows that they become quite unfordablc. This I have myself witnessed with the Chandra river in October, and with the Charpa river in September ; and I have ascertained that it is also the case with the Spiti river. PASSAGE OF RIVERS. 167 A ferry is called Grn-kha, and the ferryman Gru-ba. In Ladak itself the ferrymen use only rafts made of inflated skins ; but on the Sanpu river, even above Lhasa, boats are said to be niunerous ; and there has always been one on the Indus at Skardo. The name, therefore, is well knoAvn in Ladak, more particularly as most of the Lamas have visited Lhasa. The common people are ferried over on a single inflated skin {jphagpa), but great men usually have a raft formed by placing a bed over two inflated skins. The skin is generally the lude of a butfalo, with the openings carefully sewn up, excepting one of the hind legs, which is kept for in- flation. The skin floats with the legs uppermost. The ferryman throws his arm over it, holding the closed leg in his left hand, and a small wooden paddle in his right. The passenger sits down, native fashion, on the skin, and secm-es liimself by holding the ferryman's shoulder as well as the leg of the skin. The ferryman paddles with his right hand, and pushes the skin forward by striking out his legs as in sAviniming. I have often crossed the Eyas and Chandra rivers in this way. The raft is managed in the same manner ; but it cannot be used either in such rough water or in such rapid currents as the single skin. The bridges of Ladak have different names, according to the materials of which they are constructed. The finest bridges, such as those of Le and Khallach, are caUcd Shing-zam, or " Wooden Bridges," because they span the river with large beams of poplar. A smaU. bridge over the Bhaga river in Lahul is dignified with the name of Bo-zam, or the " Stone Bridge," because the footway is made of rough stone slabs. Chag-zam* * Zam-pa is a bridge ; and the different terms of Slihig, wood ; rBo, 168 LADAK. or " Iron Bridges," and Gru-zam or " Boat Bridges," are known only in the Lhasan territory ; but the Chug- zam or suspension-bridge is common in many parts of Ladak. One of the finest specimens of the SJdng-zam or wooden bridge that I have seen, is the great bridge over the Indus near L6. I have given a sketch of it in Plate V. It Avas built by Zorawar Sing, and is called Clihog-lam-Sco'-Zampa,^ or the " New Bridge on the high-road." The Khallach Bridge is similar in con- stru.ction. They are both railed, and may be ridden over with perfect safety. As the details of construction may be seen quite as clearly in the sketch as in any description, I will only give the dimensions of these two bridges. The Le Bridge is a double one, the smaller one having a span of thirty feet, and the larger one of eighty feet. Both are strongly and substantially built of poplar spars, laid touching each other. On each side is a stovit railing — the clear breadth between the railings being eight feet. Height above the stream (on 2nd October) fifteen feet. The Khallach Bridge is seventy-seven feet long and eight feet broad, with a stout railing on each side. Height above the water (on the 15th October) forty- five feet. This bridge is protected by a small square field-work of sun-dried bricks, which covers the northern end on the right bank. It is occupied by twelve men, who are relieved regularly from Le. stone ; IChags, iron ; arc added to discriminate the material of w liicli the bridge is formed. * Chhog-Iam-Sar-zam-iia, " high-road new bridge." — See Plate V. fur a view of this bridge. PASSAGE OF RIVERS. 169 The Chug-zam or suspension-bridges arc different from i\\GJ hulas or swinging-bridges of the Hindu states of Chamba and Bisahar. The passenger wallcs across the former, but is pulled across the latter. Suspension- bridges are common on the Indus and Sliayok above their jimction. They are used also in Zanskar, Spiti, and Lahul ; and in the Hindu state of Chamba. Tlic Chug-zam is formed of two stout ropes of twisted birch- t^vigs, about the thickness of a man's arm. The ropes are suspended side by side, about five feet apart at the ends : but they are drawn nearer together in the middle by the weight of the side-ropes and roadway. The side- ropes, about one inch, thick, are also made of birchen twigs, and in them is laid the roadway : which, in the bridges that I have seen, always consisted of three ropes (of the same size as the suspension-ropes) laid side by side. In the best bridges of this kind the side-ropes are connected by a close wattling of wicker-work from end to end, to prevent passengers as well as sheep and goats from slipping through. The Chug-zam is a very cheap and a very easy mode of bridging a stream ; and when ncAV and well constructed, it is a very safe and not an unpleasant way of crossing. But some old bridges of this kind that I have crossed were both difficult and dangerous. In them the suspension-ropes formed a great curve, the sides were unwattled and completely open ; and the roadway in many places was reduced to a single rope. Alexander Gerard* states that he should "think the best Su-zum {Chug-zam) of 100 feet not altogether safe : " but I have crossed several of greater span, and one of very nearly double that span. * Kaiiiiwar, p. 35. 170 Span. The Koksar Chug-zam over the Cliandriti tlie noon-day sun is still 15° 182 LADAK. hotter than in India, while in Ladak it is about the same. The extremes of cold are equally great, and in the more elevated districts the wiaters are particularly severe. In Rukchu the thermometer falls as low as +9° of Fahrenheit, even in September, and the minimum temperature of the month is only 23-5°, while the mean temperature is 42° 93'. In Spiti, during the same month, the minimum temperature is only 37° 2', and I have seen the thermometer as low as 22°, the mean temperature being 55° 5'. Most of the travellers who have visited Rukchu have been there in September. Trebeck, it is true, traversed it alone in June, yet both Moorcroft and Dr. Gerard passed through it in Sep- tember, and I have twice visited it in that month. We have, therefore, good observations for the temperature of September, while that of the rest of the year is almost unknown. But as the climate of Spiti approaches nearest to that of Riikchu, both in its extremes of temperature and in its excessive dryness, we may obtain a tolerably accurate approximation to the annual mean temperature of the latter district by a comparison with that of the other. The following table gives the result of all my brother's observations for one whole year iu Spiti, Avith the addition of my own for the months of August and September. TEMPERATURE OF SPITI. January February March April Temperature. Extremes. Moisture. Sun. - + Max. - + Bulb. Wet. Diff. 11-7 7-3 10-8 31 -5 31-0 35-0 40-0 50 19-18 18-68 24-46 40-80 -11 - 6 - 4 + 26 35 40 45 65 60 56 71 84 TEMPERATURE. 183 Temperature. Extremes. Moisture. Sum. May.. - + Max. - + Dry Bulb. Wet. Diff. 38 '0 60-0 49-00 34 75 95 June.. 45-0 74-0 69-50 44 85 120 July . . 48-0 80-0 63-60 46 90-0 148 August 43-0 74-3 58-60 41 83-5 78-25 53-25 25 98 September . . 37-2 75-3 55-50 22 84-5 70 45 25 97-6 October 28-0 56-0 40-12 20 65 80 November . . 17-0 35-0 22-85 + 16 50 60-5 December . . 2-5 35-7 14-35 -13 42 50-7 Mean aunu al temperature 38 '89 By this table it will be seen that the mean annual temperature in Spiti is just one-third less than the mean temperature of September. On applying the same rule to the September mean temperature of Hukchu, 43"08°, we obtain 28-72° for the mean annual temperature. The extreme of cold is probably between twenty and tliirty degrees below zero,* and the mean temperature of the winter months cannot be more than a few degrees above zero. For Ladak Proper, I possess observations for the months of September and October, which, when com- pared with the Spiti observations, would give a mean annual temperature of 39° for the vaUey of the Indus. The following are the observations. Min. Max. Mean. Extremes. - + September October 44-93 22-22 70-00 60-87 57-01 38-95 24-0 82-0 66-5 * Dr. Gerard, Asiat. Bes. Bengal, vol. xv-iii. p. 252, supposes —20° to —25°. He observed —2° in November, but this must have been in Spiti. 184 By deducting one-third from the September mean, we get 38-01° for the annual mean temperature, and by deducting one-twentieth from the October mean, we get 37'00°. The mean of these two gives 37*5° as the mean annual temperature of the vaUey of the Indus in Ladak. The climate of Zanskar is like that of Spiti, and that of Nubra like that of the valley of the Indus. The climate of Lahul is similar to that of Kanawar, but somewhat colder, as Lahul is more elevated. The mean height of Lahul is 10,535 feet, while that of Kanam, in Kanawar, is only 9,296 feet. The following results are calculated from the observations made for two successive years by the celebrated Tibetan scholar Csoma de Koros, while he was studying with a Lama in the monastery of Kanam.* TEMPERATURE OF KANAWAR. Min. Max. Mean. Extr ;mes. | January 24-87 40-00 34-00 14 February 28-82 46 00 36-00 21 March 30-04 52-37 40-49 18 April 4 -23 59-23 49-88 26 68 May ... 50-30 68-80 59-77 40 78 June ... 57-60 74-94 66-28 48 82 July 61 -26 77-59 69-22 56 80 August 59-91 75-40 67-65 56 79 September 54-78 73-71 63 -90 49 78 October 47-27 67-82 56-16 40 74 November 36-46 65-43 43-68 32 67 December 30-71 49 05 37-25 26 Mean Annu al temperatu pe 52 02 * In Manuscript, taken ;it Dr. Gerard's request; these observation^ are now in my possession. TEMPERATURE. 185 Lahul is subject to gi-eater extremes both of heat and cold than Kanawar. The greatest temperature observed by Csoma de Koros was only 82°, whereas I have seen the thermometer at 84° on the 2nd September in Lahul. The lowest temperature of Kanawar in August was only 56°, but in Lahul the minimum temperature is always under 50°, and the lowest that I observed was 42°. The temperature of Lahul for several days in August was Min. Max. Mean. Extremes. - + 46 00 78-2 62 1 42 84 From the similarity of climate and of geographical position, the mean annual temperature of Lahul may be deduced from its September temperature by taking the same proportion as we find in the Kanawar observations. This proportion will give a mean annual temperature of 47° 30' for the inhabited parts of Lahul. The uninhabited portions of the district on the upper courses of the Chandi-a and Bhaga rivers partake more of the climate of Spiti. The mean annual temperature for the whole of Ladak may be obtained approximately from the details before given. See also the detailed Meteorological Observa- tions, Chapter XVII. TABLE OF ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE. Districts. Height. Annual Temperature. Eukchu Garo . Eudok Zanskar Spiti 15,634 15,500 14,500 13,154 12,986 28°72 28-62 30 00 39 00 38 -89 186 LADAK. Diatricts. Height. Annual Temperature. Nubra Ngari Ladak Purik Lahul ... Mean ... 12,763 12,500 11,500 11,196 10,535 39°00 38-00 37-00 42-00 47-30 13,026 36-85 The following table shows the mean daily range of the thermometer; by which it will be seen that the differ- ence between the temperature of day and night increases with the elevation. DAILY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE. Districts. Height. Daily Range. Extreme Range. Eukchu Spiti Ladak Purik Lahul 15,634 12,986 11,500 11,196 10,535 40°2S 36-00 33-00 32-50 31 14 57°-00 43-50 39-75 39-50 34-00 v.— MOISTIJEE. The excessive dryness of the climate of Ladak is due chiefly to elevation, by which the air is so rarefied as to be incapable of holding much moisture va suspension. It is also partly due to the great radiation of heat from the bare soil, by which any moisture is rapidly evapo- rated. The dryness of the climate increases with the height, and the temperature of the dew-point is so very low, that the deposition of dew is quite unknown in the more elevated districts. The depression of the wet-bulb MOISTURE. 187 thermometer in different districts of Ladak is shown in the following table, to which I have added for compa- rison the mean of one week's observations at Gwalior dui-iag the hot winds in the end of May 1850, and the mean of another week in the end of March and begin- ning of AprU, which is the more correct time for com- parison. TABLE OF MOISTURE. Moisture. Month. Districts. Height. Dew Greatest Point. Dep°. Dry. Wet. Dep". ^ g J, September Eukchu 15,634 67-5 40-5 27-0 18-9 31 September Spiti 12,986 70 45 25-0 25-0 30-0 September Ladak 11,500 65 7 42-9 22-8 24-6 23-5 October Purik 11,196 55-8 37-2 18-6 20-5 19-7 August Lahul 10,535 74-3 52-9 21-4 38-0 28-0 May — June Gwalior 110 12 33-80 33-80 35-32 38-5 Mar. — Apr. Ditto 91-75 25-83 25-83 42-68 28-75 The hottest time ia India is the end of May and the beginning of June, and the hottest month in Ladak is July. The fairest comparison therefore that can be made between the dryness of the two climates is that of September in Ladak, and of the end of March and the beginning of April in India. By this comparison it will be seen, that the plains of India are less arid than the lofty table-land of Eukchu, and that their dryness is about equal to that of the Spiti vaUey. The most con- ^'incing proof which I can give of the excessive dryness of the climate of Eukchu is the fact, that the stock of my gim, which had been exposed to fourteen hot seasons ia India, shrank at least one-eighth of an inch during a single month's residence in Eukchu. 188 LADAK. VI.— EADIATION. I have already observed that the noon-day radiation of heat from the elevated table-lands of Ladak is one of the principal causes of the great dryness of the climate. The following table exhibits the maximum radiation of solar heat at about 1 p.m. iu different districts of Ladak during the months of September and October, and in the plains of India in May and June, and in March and April. The observations were taken with a black-bulb thermometer, by Newman, the instrument being invari- ably placed at a height of three inches above the ground, and fully exposed to the sun. TABLE or SOLAR RADLATION. Month. District. Height. Air. Black Bulb. n;ff Greatest ^^*^- 1 Diff. September Euichu 15,634 65°- 75 86°-75 23°-00 23°-5 September Spiti 12,986 70 00 91-31 21-31 28-5 October Ladak 11,500 58-54 85-33 26-79 39-5 October Purik 11,196 55-83 73-16 17-33 25-5 May — Juue Gwalior 109 -87 129 -66 19 -46 23 -75 Mar. — April Ditto 88 -37 111 -40 23 -37 26 -25 As the climate of India dm-itig March and April is just two months removed from the hottest season of the year, a fair comparison can be made between it and the climate of Ladak during the month of September. The comparison shows that the mean noon-day radiation of solar heat throughout Ladak is about the same as it is in the plains of India. My observations for the terrestrial radiation of Ladak were all taken during the day, as I was afraid to leave the instrument exposed on a dark night amongst loose RADIATION. 189 cattle. The instrument was one of Newman's register spirit thermometers, with the bulb fixed in the focus of a parabolic metallic mirror exposed to the clear northern sky. Compared with the observations taken on the plains of India for March and April, the terrestrial radi- ation of Ladak is extremely great. The lowest tempera- ture observed at Gwalior was 10° below the external air, and the mean of the minima was only 6° below it. The minimum generally occurred about sunrise. TABLE OF TERRESTRIAL RADIATION. Puga Hours. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. Noon. '• II. III. IV. V. Mean daily dep. Air Ead. Th. 18 9 25 18 38-5 27-5 45-7 35-0 54 43 56 45 58 49 61-75 55 59-75 52-5 56 48 50-5 44 Diff. 9 7 11 10-7 11 11 9 6-75 7-25 8 6-5 8-84 Gya Air Ead. 39 40 31 40-75 32 45-5 36 45-75 36-5 45 36-5 47 38 Diff. 9 8-75 9-5 9-25 8-5 9 9-00 U Air Rad. 38 33 46 48-5 37 42 55 48 56-5 49 58-5 49 60-5 55 57 51 58 47 Diff. 5 9 1 6-5 7 7-5 9-5 5-5 6 11 6-80 U Air Rad. 36 31 39 '41-5 32 I36 45-5 40 53 47 52-25 47-5 5-80 Diff. 5 7 5-5 5-5 6 4-75 Gwalior Air Ead. 78-5 77-0 86-25 87-00 87-75 87-00 Diff. 1 1-5 -75 In the lofty table-land of Ladak, the greatest de- pression, which usually took place at 9 a.m., was 11° lower than the temperature of the external au'. This was in Ftukchu ; but even in Ladak Proper the depres- sion was no less than 9°. The mean hourly depression throughout the day was 8° 92' in Rukchu, but only 6° 30' in Ladak. 190 VII.— SUPPOSED MILDNESS OF FOEMER CLIMATE. Various circumstances induce me to believe that the climate of Ladak was formerly much milder and much less dry than it is at present. The occurrence of vast quantities of ios^ii fresh-water shells va. the sandy allu- vium above the level of the present salt-xoater lakes of Lad^, proves that these lakes must once have been very extensive sheets of fresh water. In the case of the Tsho-kar or " White Lake," this is proved beyond all doubt, by the occurrence of fossil shells on the plain of Kyang, and in the deep gorge through which the waters of the lake once had exit into this place. As the plain itself had a gradual slope from the foot of the Thung- Lung Pass to the Sumgal River, the whole extent of this double lake can be seen by a glance at the accom- panying sketch-map,* which illustrates the ancient lake system of Ladak in those parts of the country which I have visited. 1. The Kyang-Tsho formerly extended from the foot of the Thung-Lung Pass to near the source of the Sum- gal River, a length of thirty -five miles. It is difficult to ascertain the mean breadth, but it must have been about five miles. This would give an area of 175 square miles. 2. The Tsho-har formerly flowed into the Kyang-Tsho, and was about twenty-five miles in length by five miles in breadth. The old beach-marks are distinctly visible on the mountain-sides, both to the north and south of the lake. I traversed along the southern end of the Tsho-kar in two different du-ections in 1846, and in 1847 along the northern end, and through the gorge which * See Plate VI. SUPPOSEB MILDNESS OF FORMER CLIMATE. 191 formed its old exit into the Kyang-Tsho. Its principal feeder is a small fresla-Avater lake to the south, which once formed part of the old lake. The greatest extent of the Tsho-kar must have been about twenty -five miles by five miles, or 125 square miles. The two lakes together covered about 300 square miles. 3. The Tshomo-Rlri formerly included a small salt- water lake, now lying about eight miles to the north- ward of it. The greatest extent was about twenty-five miles by five miles, or 125 square miles. It seems highly probable that it once had an exit from its south- ern end into the Para River, or perhaps into the Sum- gal River. 4. The Hanle Lake is stiU of considerable size ; but the clay deposits, which are found adhering in horizontal strata to the small isolated hiUs in the middle of the valley, and in sheltered positions at the sides, show that this lake must once have been one of the largest sheets of water in Ladak. Its greatest extent must have been about twenty-five miles by twelve miles, or 300 square miles, with a mean depth of at least 100 feet. 5. Lam-TsJio is now only a small piece of fresh water, but it was most probably once a fine sheet of water about fifteen miles long by three miles broad, or forty- five square miles in extent. 6. The bed of the Indus, like that of all the other rivers, has once been crowded ^"ith a series of lakes. Two of these which came under my observation are shown in Plate VI. The smaller one must have filled the valley, opposite Nyimo and Mud, for a length of twenty-five miles by three miles, or for about seventy- five square miles. 7. Above Le, the vast plain of Chachot must once have 192 LADAK. been covered with water for some miles above Marcha- lang down to Le and Pitak. At Pitak, the lacustrine deposits of fine clay are still adhering to the rocks in horizontal strata, to a height of 750 feet above the level of the river. The whole extent must have been about thirty-five miles by six miles, or 210 square miles. Below Pitak, the former channel of the Indus can be traced for many mUes, by Phyang and Tharu, to Nyimo. It is impossible to say what may have been the whole extent of the former lakes of Ladak, but as the ancient lakes of Rukchu, which I have described, must have covered a space of 840 square mUes, or nearly one-sixth of the whole extent of the district, a vague idea may be formed of the general extent of the lake system, which must once have prevailed over Ladak. The vast lake of Pang-kong was probably not less than twenty miles in breadth by 100 miles in length, and must have covered an area of 2,000 square miles. This lake, with the others which I have described, would have occupied about one-tenth of the whole extent of the country. The former existence of these vast sheets of fresh water rests neither upon general appearances nor upon the vague assertions of tradition, but upon the distinct evidences of vast beds of fine clay, which are foimd adhering to the rocks in horizontal strata, and which could only have been deposited in comparatively still water. Their existence is further proved by the abundance of fossU fresh-icater shells that arc found in the sandy clay deposits around the present salt-water lakes, and on the dry plain of Kyang. These shells are of two kinds, — LijmrxEa anricularia of all sizes, and SUPPOSED MILDNESS OF FORMEK CLIMATE. 193 Cyclas rivicola, which is only found of very small size preserved in the interior of the larger shells.* As these moUusca do not now exist in Ladak at a greater eleva- tion than between eleven and twelve thousand feet, it seems a probable conclusion that the country must at some former period have enjoyed a very much milder climate than that of the present day. This conclusion might indeed have been deduced from the former ex- istence of the vast lakes which have been described. For the waters vapovirized by the sun must have been condensed by the cold of night, and the plains would then have been fertilized by raiu, and the mountains covered by snow. Numerous streams would have flowed down the hill-sides in all directions, and the overflowing lakes would have formed mighty rivers. Throughout Ladak there are numbers of vast raAones, many of them 500 feet deep, and as many yards broad, which could not possibly have been formed by the scanty brooks that are now nearly lost in their meanderings from side to side of these enormous channels. In one of these vast river-beds the scanty rill of the Sum-gal now purls along at the southern end of the plain of Kyang. The sides of this channel are masses of alluvial boulders and gravel, wliich once formed the bed of the Kyang-Tsho. The rocky barrier, below the junction of the Sum-gal rivers, was probably worn away, gradually at first, until the plain of Kyang became almost dry : after which, on the occurrence of any sudden disruj)tion, the -paters of the Sum-gal would have rushed violently onward, cutting for themselves a deep channel in the soft bed of the lake. The Kyang-Tsho must have been * See Plate IX. for these sliells. O 194 LADAK. gradually drained ; but I have a suspicion that the Tshomo-Riri Lake once had an exit into the Sum-gal, and that its accumulated waters were suddenly drained off by the disruption of the Sum-gal barrier. That the subsidence of the waters of the Kyang-Tsho must have been very gradual is proved by the abimdance of shells now lying on the upper part of the plain, all of which would have been swept away by even a moderate current. Is it possible that the whole mass of the country can have been gradually elevated ? t'U'ir YI The KYANG, or Wild. Horse . Ec^uus Kyang. A Cunntn^hi^i,, ouii TxiliSmjMh'ftoneL 195 YIIL-PRODUCTIONS. I.— A N I M A L. The animal productions of Ladak are particularly interesting, as they comprise the wild horse, the yak, or long-haired hull, whose tail furnishes the Indian chaori, the shawl-wool goat, whose fine under-fleece is woven into the heautiful Kashmiriau shawls, and the piirik sheep, of which some twenty specimens have been ex- hibited in the Zoological Gardens of London. WILB ANIMALS. The wUd animals of Ladak are both numerous and interesting. " The high hUls are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the conies."* The elevated plains of the Indus and the lofty table-lands of Rukchu abound with the wild horse, the marmot, and the hare : while the snowy mountains and rugged glens teem mth many varieties of the wild goat, sheep, and deer, some of wliicli are most probably stUl unknown. The Kyang,-\ which has been called a horse by some, and an ass by others, is the Equus hemiomts of Pallas, and the Equus Kyang of Moorcroft. The animal when * Psalm civ. 18. t The male is called simply rKyang, and the female Mo-rKyang. See Plate VI. for four vieivs of the Kyang's skull. o 2 196 LADAK. full grown is about fourteen hands high : the facial line is highly arched, like that of the zebra and quagga, and the ears (like theirs) are longer than those of a horse, but much shorter than those of an ass. A liae of black hair extends along the whole of the back, but there are no cross stripes across the mthers as ia the ass. The tail has a long tuft of hair at the end like the zebra. The general colour is reddish-bro^ii on the back and sides, and_ white on the stomach. Moorcroft* remarks, that it is certainly not the gorkhar, or wUd ass of Siudh, and I can vouch that it is quite different from the gorkhar of the Bikanar and Bahawalpur desert. Trebeck,t who saw herds of them on his trip to Chibra, to the south-east of Le, states his opinion of the Kyang's shape as follows. " The form, from the fore to the hind leg and feet, to a level with the back, is more square than that of an ass, his back is less straight, and there is a dip behind the withers and rounding of the crupper, which is more like the shape of the horse. His neck is also more erect and arched than that of the ass." The following are the dimensions of a skull in my possession. Ft. In. Greatest length ... ... ... ... 1 9-|- depth 10 „ breadth ... Weight of upper jaw „ lower jaw Weight of skull Lastly, the Kyang neighs like a horse, which in my judgment is conclusive that he does not belong to the * Travels, I. p. 311. f In Moorcroft's Travels, I. p. 443. 8i lb. oz. 5 04 3 15i 9 ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 197 genus As inns, but is very nearly allied to the Equus caballm. If the Kyang is a different genus from the Eqims hemioims of Pallas, he should be called Equus Tibetamts. A living specimen of the animal has been sent to England by the Hon. Mr. Thomason, the Gover- nor of Agra, but as the naturalists of Europe have not, I believe, yet had an opportunity of examining the skeleton, I have given several careful tkawings of the skull of a Kyang, which I shot in 1846, at an elevation of 17,000 feet, on the summit of the Nakpo Gonding Pass, to the north of the Chomorh^i Lake. This skull has forty teeth ; and there is now no trace of any pre- molar teeth in the vipper jaw, such as have been found in other specimens, and which led Mr. Hodgson to give the Kyang the new name of Equus polyodon* or rather Asiniis polyodon. The wild yak, called Erowj or Dong,-\ is said to inhabit the grassy plains on the upper courses of the Sutluj and Sangjio. The people generally believe in their existence, but I could neither procure any of their horns, nor find any person who had actually seen the living animal. VigneJ was informed that the wild yak was to be found " on the northern slopes of the Hima- laya that descend upon the plains of Yarkand." Mr- Blyth§ quotes Wood to the same effect. My brother || also mentions that wild yaks are to be found " to the north and east of Garo," that is, in the district of Gnari. As the tame yak has been domesticated from time * Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XVI. p. 354. Note by Bljth. t hBroncf. The female is called hBroiuj-liBri, which is commonly pronounced Dong-di. X Yigiie's Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, II. p. 277. § Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XI. p. 282, note. II Ditto ditto, XII. p. 222. 198 XADAK. immemorial, the existence of wild herds in the same comitry may perhaps be doubted ; but the general prevalence of the belief is worthy of being recorded. The largest of the wdld sheep is the Nyan or Ovis Ammon of naturalists. It is found only in the most inaccessible places, near the snow-Umit. Specimens of the horns may generally be seen along with those of the ibex and sha {Ovis montana) on the religious pUes of stones called Mane, where they are placed by the shepherds as votive offerings. The Nyan of the Tibe- tans is closely allied to the Kachkar of Badakshan and Chitral. Mr. Blyth has, however, distinguished them by separate names, calling the latter Ovis Polii, after Marco Polo, who gave the first description of the animal. Another species of wild sheep is the Nd. Vigne* calls it Sad, and describes it as of " the size of an ordinary sheep ; of a dull brownish-gray colour, with curved, smooth, and four-sided horns." Csomo de Koros calls it a " large sheep-like deer." It is appa- rently the same as the Ndhur of Nepal, and the Ovis Ndhur of Hodgson and Blyth. f A third species of wild sheep is the Shd,X which I have seen browsing in large flocks on the mountains, on the left bank of the Indus below Le. The animal is as large as a stag, with strong wiry hair of a reddish-brown colour on the back, gradually changing to white on the stomach. The chest is covered with a long fringe of * Travels, II. p. 280. The name is written rNa, in Tibetan. See also Csomo de Koros, Diet, in voce. t Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XVI. p. 360. X Slid-ha, and the female Shd-mo. Csomo de Koros calls the Slid, a stag (Diet, in voce) ; but the real stag is called Shu. The horns of the Slid are shown in Plate VIII. HORNS. TJie SHA of LaclaLk., aWilci f/icep . The RAPHO-CHHE (Marl?;]iOT ) or Large Wild Goa 1 e'i -t-Cunncngham.. Ael/ J>ai/iiSenyLtffirfu>J%»^>ueerL ANIMAJL PRODUCTIONS. 199 dirty black hair. The massive horns, which touch at theii" bases, are curved backward and downward, the tips being tui'ned forward, upward, and inward. Each horn thus forms about three-quarters of a circle. The Slid is the Ovis montana of naturalists. The horns of a specimen, which I obtained on the banks of the Indus, below Le, have the following measurements. Ft. In. Length of horn . . ... ... ... 2 4^ Base of horn, greatest depth ... ... 3f „ „ breadth 3 Extreme interval ... ... ... ... 1 8 Interval between tips ... ... . . 1 0\ Greatest circumference ... ... . . lOi Weight ... 12 lbs. The age of this specimen was nearly seven years, the rugce of the third year being the boldest and most deeply marked. The wild goat called Hapho-clilie,* or the " great goat," is the Mdr-khor, or " snake-eater" of the Musal- mans. It is common in Balti, and in Badakshan and Chitr^ ; but I was ujiable to procure any specimen of its horns in Ladak. A pair obtained by Colonel Bates in Balti is represented in Plate VII . These horns meet at the base, rise straight upward, then turn backward and again upward. The following are the measurements : — Ft. In. Length of horn ... ... . . ... 3 9 Circumference of base Breadth of widest face Perpendicular rise Extreme width "Width from tip to tip 11 4 2 3.^ * Hd-pho-chhe. or simply Bd-chhe; the female Bd-mo-chlie. Mr. Vigne says that Bawa means a horn, and chcegho, great ; but rdrdcho is simply a " horn," and not a " great horn." See Plato VII. for a pair of horns. 200 LADAK. No specimen of this magnificent goat has, I believe, yet been obtained by any naturalist, nor have I heard of any traveller who has seen the animal. I would suggest that it might be called Capra megaceros. Another species of wild goat is the Tibetan ibex, or Skyin.* Mr. Vigne procured a pair of horns that were four feet three inches in length. In his opinion the Skyin " is larger than the European ibex, and the horns are longer, more cm'ved, and more tapering." The Skyin frequents the most inaccessible rocks, and the animal, when shot, is frequently much mutilated by its headlong plunge down some precipitous cliff. Vigne states that between one and two hundred of them are killed in Balti during the winter, when they are forced to descend into the valleys.! In Ladak they are also snared at night, and shot in the grey dawn of the morning, when they venture down to the streams to drink. They are killed for the sake of the soft under-fleece, which, in Kashmir, is called Asali Tiis.X This is an exceedingly fine and soft wool of a light brown colour, which is exported to Kashmir, where it is used as a lining for shawls, woollen stockings, and gloves. It is also woven into a very fine cloth, called Tusi, of a soft and delicate texture, which is much prized for its warmth. The high price of the Tus is caused by the difficulty of procuring the animal, and by the uselessness of the hair. The person who separates the hair from the wool of the domestic shawl- * Skyin; the female is called Dan-mo. In Kullu and Spiti, the Skyin is called Kyiu ; and Spiti is called Piti, but the spelling in Tibe- tan always preserves the initial s. t Vigne's Travels, II. p. 279. % ^/-y XA means simply " genuine Tus" or the wool of tlic wild goat; Tus incaus " nature." ANIMAL PKODUCTIONS. 201 goat is paid by the hair itself, which is manui'aetured into coarse blanketing for tents, and twisted into ropes. But the hail' of the wild goat is short,, wiry, and coarse, and the cost for picking is charged to the price of the Tus, or fine wool. Moorcroft says that neither the do- mesticated shawd-goat, nor theVigog-na,* furnishes a wool so full and rich to the feel, nor has so fine a material ever yet graced a British loom. The frequent occurrence of ibex-horns on the temples of Kanawar, Lahul, and Chamba has often suggested to me the idea that a similar religious feeling amongst the Greeks may have prompted the dedication of real ox- skulls, perhaps of animals that were slain in sacrifice, in the ancient Hellenic temples. In process of time, when the rude posts became Doric pillars, and the rough ends of the sloping beams were carved into triglyphs, the real ox-skulls were supplanted by their sculptured repre- sentations, which afterwards adorned the metopes of the Doric frieze. At least it seems difficult to account for their frequent representation on any other supposition. The Shu or Tibetan stag has been described by Mr. Hodgsont from a specimen obtained near Phari, in Tsang, the central province of Tibet. A second specimen was procured from the district of Chumbi, to the south of Phari, where the country is more wooded and less arid than most other districts of Tibet. In 1839 I procured a most magnificent pair of stag's horns from the upper glens of the Lidar valley, in Kashmir ; and in 1847 I obtained a second but smaller pair from the same valley. % The former pair had six snags on each horn, and was * Transactions Eoy. As. Soc. I. p. 53. t Journal As. Soe. Bengal, XIX. p. 460; and XIX. p. 518. X See Plate VIII. 202 LADAK. therefore a genuine Barah-singha (twelve-horned). The latter specimen agrees in aU respects, save that of size, with those described by Mr. Hodgson. One of his spe- cimens was procured from the most southern part of Tibet, where the climate is less rigorous and the country more wooded. My specimens were obtained in the upper course of the Lidar river, in the eastern end of Kashmir towards Ladak, where the climate may be called haK-Tibetan from its dryness. The horns of my Kashmirian specimen are represented in Plate VII. Their dimensions are the following, which I have placed beside those of Mr. Hodgson's Tibetan specimen. Length of horn Girth above burr Chord of arc, or bend of horn Basal interval between horns Interval between extreme snags „ „ „ tips The Musk deer, called La,* is found both in Tibet and in Kashmir, but I had no opportunity of procuring any specimens. Vigne mentions the Kashmirian La, and states that Dr. Falconer thought it was a new species. Other wild animals of Tibet are the leopard, the bear, the wolf, the fox, and the dog. The leopard, wolf, and fox, are described by Mr. Hodgson, and noticed by Vigne. t Moorcroft % adds the ounce and the lynx. The * gLMia, or simply gLd ; and the female gLd-mo. t Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XI. p. 275, and Vigne's Travels, II. p. 281. The leopard is called Zig {-gZig) ; the bear. Bom; the dog, Khyi ; and the fox, Mikpa (clMig-pa) ; from dMig, a hole ; it is also called d£gi. X Travels, I. p. 312. • Cash mirian. Tibetan. Ft. In. Ft. In. 3 41 .. . 3 lOi 7i . 7A 10 1 Oi H ■ . 4i 3 5 3 9 2 2 Gi ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 203 (log is mentioned by Mr. Hodgson only, wlio describes it as a rare animal of a pale wolf- like colour, Tbe hare, called Ri-hong, is abundant amongst the rocks on the grassy plains of Rukchu. It is called lli-bong, or the " hUl-ass," on account of the length of its ears.* The Botis do not eat hares, as they consider the animal as a species of donkey. In 1846 I shot five in half an hour in one of the glens to the eastward of the plain of Kyimg. They sit behind the rocks, with their long ears pricked, and half their heads just raised above the stone. When roused they run from rock to rock, reminding one of the words of the Psalmist, " The rocks are a refuge for the conies." The Ri-bong is as large as an English hare, has longer ears, and is of a bluish-grey or slate-colour. It is the Lepus jyalUpes or " white-foot " of Mr. Hodgson, who gives the following dimensions of his specimen, f Ft. In. Length from head to tail ... ... 11 „ oftail 4 „ ofhead 4J „ of ear ... ... ... .. 4J Mr. Hodgson describes a second species of Tibetan hare under the name of Lepus mostolus, and he refers to Moorcroft as his principal authority for this variety. J But on a reference to Moorcroft (I. 225), I find that the hares shot by Trebeck and himself on the plain of Bvikchu, were of a " bluish-white colour, and not much larger than English rabbits." Both in 1846 and in 1847 I shot these bluish-coloured hares on the plains of * Ei-bong, and also Pliyi-pa. Mi-honrj means the " hOl-ass." The Hmdus also liken the ass to a hare, by naming the wild ass Ghor-Tchai; or the " horse-hare." t Joiu-nal As. Soc. Bengal, XI. p. 288. : Ditto ditto, XI. p. 288. 204 labak. Rukchu, and I feel satisfied tliat they are the same as the Lepus pallipes of Mr. Hodgson ; and the more so, as several that I shot were fully as large as any English hare. Moorcroft evidently saw only one species, as he refers to the Rukchu hares a second time.* The smaller species of hare, or Lagonijs, is extremely common aU over Tibet. It is the Lepus alpinus of PaUas. I have shot them near the summit of the Lanak Pass, 18,750 feet above the sea, and on the very crest of the Pu- Panjal Pass at 12,000 feet. The table-lands of Pukchu, and the plains along the Yunam River, are literally honey-combed with then burrows. The Tibetan Lagonys is named Shippi, or the " whisperer," and is thus closely allied to the " calling hare " of America. The marmot of Tibet, according to Mr. Hodgson, f is of two distinct species, the large and the small, which he has distinguished by the names of Arctomys Tibetensis, and Arctomys hemachalanus. The former obtains a length of two feet, with a tail of six inches. The latter does not reach more than thirteen inches in length. I have seen only the larger animal, which is common on the sandy plains of Rukchu. Moor- croft J mentions that he obtained the skiu of the squirrel in Ladak ; by which I believe that he meant the Arctomys. Of the Mustelidce, or weasel tribe, I am acquainted with only one species, — the llustela, or true weasel. I saw one specimen of it in 1846 near the Polokonka Pass, at an elevation of 16,000 feet ; and in 1847 I shot one close to the crest of the Lanalc Pass, 18,700 feet. The * Travels, I. p. 312. t Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XII. p. 409. X Travels, I. p. 312. ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 205 skin and skull were preserved by Dr. Thomson, in Avliose collection they have been carried to England. The length of body was about seven or eight inches, the legs short, and the nose long, and the whole of a Light sandy coloiu'. Mr. Hodgson* has described a second species of Mus- telklcB, in the Tibetan polecat, and he refers to a third in the Tibetan badger. BIRDS. The lai-ger birds of Ladak are not many, and few of them, I believe, are peculiar to the country. The gi- gantic Chakor, or snow-pheasant, is found in Lahul and Spiti, and also in Kanawar, but only near the snow. The common Chakor, ]lehpa,-\ is abundant throughout the cultivated part of the country. Moorcroft invariably identifies the Chakor with the FrancoHn, or Greek par- tridge. According to GriflB[th,J Perdrix FrancoUnus is the black partridge of India, and Swainson§ calls it the Francolin Chcetoptis, and associates it with the grey partridge of India (Chset. Pondicerianus). The eagle {Cha-nak,\\ or the " black bird") and the kite {Chakor, or the " white bu'd ") are common enough, and so is the large raven. Smaller birds also are niune- rou.s, but I had no opportunity of procuring specimens. On the western side of the Lanak Pass, about 16,500 feet, I saw a hoopoe. * Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XVIII. p. 448. t sReg-pa, pronounced Rehpa. X MS. note by Griffith in his copy of Swainson's Birds. § Swainson's Birds, II. p. 344. II -Sy^i generally pronounced Cha, is simply a bird. Bya-nag, is the " black bird ;" and Bya-clKar, means the " white bii'd." 206 LADAK. The water-fowl, Chlm-cha,* swarm on the lakes and on the still waters of the Upper Indus. I have shot the wild goose, Nang-gyod, on the Thogji Chenmo and Chomoriri lakes, at 15,000 feet, and Colonel Bates and I shot three teal on the Suraj Dal, or small lake at the head of the Bhaga Biver, at an elevation of upwards of 16,000 feet. I have shot hoth ducks and teal on the banks of the Indus below Hanle, and in the swamps of Chachot just above Le. REPTILES. The only reptile that I saw in Ladak was a single species of lizard, from four to seven inches in length. I noticed them on the lofty table-land between Gurkhyam and Hanle, at an elevation of 15,000 feet. I captured one lizard as a specimen, but it managed to make its escape before I reached Hanl^. FISH. " Fishf abound in all the streams ; but the chariness of life which is taught by the religion of Buddha, pre- vents their being caught." We procured fish from fourteen to fifteen inches in length in the stream at Hanl4 at an elevation of 15,000 feet, and agaia in the Puga rivulet at the same height. They were a kind of trout. Opposite the villages of Mud and Nyimo I ob- served fish jumping in the Indus. Vigne| mentions that the fish in the Indus at Skardo were all of one species of Himalayan trout, the largest weigliing between two and three pounds. * Clilm-bya, the " water-bird." t Moorcroft's Travels, I. p. 313. Fish are called Nya. X Travels, II. p. 282. ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 207 MOLLUSCA. The only existing moUusk I observed in Ladak was tlie Lynmcea anricularia. In Plate IX. I have given three specimens, from Pitak and Nubra in Ladak, and from Skardo in Balti. Beside them I have placed for comparison a specimen of the same moUusk from Kash- mir; and above them two extinct specimens from the old lacustrine formations on the banks of the Tliogji Chenmo and Fangong salt lakes. The superior size of the Kashmir specimen is perhaps no more than might be expected from the greater mildness of the climate ; but that of the extinct species is most remarkable. The largest existing specimen from Pitak measxires only six- eighths of an inch in length, and rather less than five- eighths in breadth ; whereas the extinct specimens are upwards of an inch in length, and more than three- quarters of an inch in breadth. These fresh-water fossil shells are found in a fine yellow sandy clay, many feet above the present level of the salt-water lakes. Wlien they existed, the lake of Thogji Chenmo must have been a noble sheet of fresh water, upwards of forty miles in length by about twenty miles in extreme breadth, covering the whole plain of Kyung, from the foot of the Thung-Lung Pass to the rocky glen of the Sumgyel (triple junction) River. These fossil shells are now lying in myriads in the narrow pass between the old bed of the Thogji Lake and the plain of Kyung, and they are equally numerous in the upper part of the plain of Kyimg. At what period these vast plains were covered with water will be an interesting subject of inquiry for the geologist ; but the mind gets bewildered in trying 208 LADAK. to pierce the infinite obsciu-ity of bygone ages. One point alone seems clear; that when all these lakes existed, more moisture must have been evaporated, and more snow must have fallen as well as more rain ; and the humid atmosphere would have produced a milder climate more favourable to animal and vegetable life. The hUls would, perhaps, have been clothed with trees, and the still waters of the magnificent lakes would have teemed with myriads of LyniiKsa, of which only the shells now remain. But the gradual wearing down of the water-com'ses, and the continual biu'sting of the lakes, have nearly dried up aU the primeval waters of Laddk ; and the consequent loss of moistiire has occa- sioned the present general scarcity of rain and snow, and that extreme dryness of atmosphere which has caused the total dearth of trees. The only sheets of water that now exist are landlocked and salt. A second extinct species of shell is a bivalve ( Cyclas) ; but as all the specimens that have been found were preserved inside the Lymncea, they are necessarily small ; it is now perhaps impossible to determine exactly whether they are river or lake shells. Fossil shells are also found in the fine clay deposits near Skardo, of which I have given a specimen in Fig. 4, Plate IX., which contains a Flanorbis and a Luccinea (or perhaps a small Lymncea). One specimen of the existing Planorbis of Skardo is given in Fig. 9. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The domestic animals of Ladak are ponies, asses, oxen, sheep, goats, and dogs. The Argons, or mixed race of half-Kashmiris half-Botis, resident at Le, now keep a number of common fowls, but they have only ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 209 within the last few years heen introduced from Kash- mir. Ponies. — The ponies, according to Moorcroft,* who was a good judge, are " small, active, and hardy, but uot numerous nor much used." At least one-half of the ponies used in Ladak are brought from Yarkand ; but they are all geldings. The asses are small, and only equal to half-pony loads, f Oxen. — The oxen are the Yak, or Chaori-tailed bull, and the yak cow, BHmo or Dimo, and their hybrid produce with the common cattle. The Yak J is short, but broadly and strongly built, with a small head, short horns, and a wild-looking eye. His long black hair reaches close to the ground before it is cut, and he has usually a shaggy and savage appear- ance. The Yak is used chiefly for carrying loads, as he is generally too intractable for the plough. The cow is kept only for milk. The most valuable hybrids are the Dso bull and the Dso-mo cow, which are the produce of the male yak and the common cow. The Dso is used, throughout Ladak, for the plough as well as for carrying loads, as he is much more tractable than the yak and quite as strong. The Dso-mo yields much more milk than the yak cow, and of a much richer quality. The milk is used chiefly for bvitter, of which almost every Ladaki consumes a certain quantity daily in his tea, in the same way as milk is used in England. Tlie Dso is a very handsome * Travels, I. p. .S09. t Poniea of all sizes are called Td (in Tibetan rTa). Asses are called Banff. X The Yak (in Tibetan 9 Tay) is the Bos grunniens, or gi-unting ox. The buU is called Pho-qTaq, or Pho-yak ; and the oow hBri-mo. See Plate XLII. 210 LADAK. animal, with long shaggy hair, mostly black and white, but frequently reddish-brown and white, and sometimes altogether white. The hair is cut annually like that of the yak, and is used for the same purposes. The price of a good Dso varies from sixteen to twenty rupees. The other hybrids are little valued. The Brepo or Drelpo is the male produce between the common bull and the Dso-mo ; but it is inferior in strength, and the Dremo, or female, does not yield more milk than a common cow. The cross between the yak and the Dsotno is still less valued. Other crosses are few and accidental ; as the produce of all these hybrids quickly degenerates.* The number of neat cattle I had no accurate means of ascertaining ; but as amongst the encampments I generally found that there was about one yak for every ten sheep, the present number may be estimated at about 25,000. Their total value, at the average rate of sixteen rupees each, will be Rs. 3,40,000, or £34,000. Sheep. — The Ladaki sheep are of two distinct kinds, the tall black-faced Simiya, which is used chiefly for carrying burdens, and the pretty diminutive sheep of Furik, which is used only for food. All sheep are called by the general name of LuJc ; a flock is called luk-khyu ; the shepherd, luk-pa or luk-dsi ; and the sheepfold, luk-ra.f The common sheep is the Huniya, which, with the exception of the pretty little Purik breed, is almost the only kind of sheep to be found throughou.t Tibet. This fine sheep is much larger than any of the Indian breeds, * Moorcroft, I. p. 309, and my brotber, Capt. J. D. Cunningham, in Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XIII. p. 221, both say the same thing, t Lug, pronoimced Luk, Lug-kh/u, Lug-pa, Lng-rDsi, Ltig-ra. ANIMAL PRODTJCTIONS. 211 the height averaging from twenty-seven to thirty inches. It might, tlieretbre, witli advantage he crossed with the common small sheep of our hill provinces. Nearly the whole of the traffic of Ladak is transported on these sheep. They are food, clothing, and carriage, and form the principal wealth of the people of Ladak. I have seen a single flock of six hundred sheep, entirely laden with wool ; and in one day I have counted as many as from five to six thousand sheep laden with shawl wool and common wool, borax and sulphm', and quantities of dried apricots, aU making their way to the hill provinces on the south-west. The Huniya* is, therefore, much prized ; and a man's wealth is generally estimated by the number of his sheep. The average price is two rupees and a half (or five shillings), but fine strong rams are worth from three to four rupees. The whole trade of Ladak does not exceed 30,000 small maimds of sixteen seers each, equivalent to the same number of sheep-loads. But the large importation of grain, which took place yearly before the population had been thinned by disease, emigration, and war, must have employed some 400,000 sheep. Of these, probably about one-half belonged to the Ladakis, and the other half to the hill people of Kashtwar, Chamba, Lahul, Kullu, and Kanawar. After making a due allowance for lambs, I should estimate the former number of sheep at upwards of 300,000, or rather more than twelve sheep per house. At present the number is not so great, probably not more than 250,000. At the rate of 2 seers (4 lb.)t per sheep, the annual produce of wool * Huniya is the Indian term, of which the Tibetans have made Hii- nhi-yi. The sheep is called Huniyi-luk. t The English sheep yield an average of 4 lb. each, and even the little Purik sheep of Ladak yield 3 lb. See Moorcroft, I. p. 310. p 2 212 LADAK. would be about 400,000 seers, or 25,000 small maunds, of which about 5,000 maunds are exported. The re- mainder is consumed in the country; which gives an allowance of one maund per house, or of 2^ seers (5 lb.) annually, for each individual for clothing and other purposes. This is probably correct, as each person possesses at least the following amount of woollen garments. One blanket 7x5 feet, weighing 4 lb. One whole fleece, for a cloak ... ... ... 4 „ Two fleeces for bedding and stuffing of pillows ... 8 „ A woollen choga, or coat ... ... ... ... 5 „ Cap, waistband, stockings, boots . . . ... ... 3 „ Seers 12=24 „ Allowing a change of clothing about every five years, the annual consu.mption of wool wUl be two seers and two-fifths for each person, or 300,000 for the whole population. To this must be added the number of blankets used by the rich and consumed in the manu- facture of bags for the conveyance of grain and other produce. Atta (coarse floiir) is always carried in skin bags : but I would estimate the number of blanket bags at about one-half of the whole. The number of sheep employed in carriage being 200,000, the quantity of blanketing will be 100,000 yards, weighing 17,500 seers. The total produce and consumption may therefore be thus stated. Maunds. Value. Wool, exported 5,000 . . . Rs. 10,000 „ for home consumption 20,000 ... 40,000 Total produce 25,000 Ea. 50,000 or 800,0001b. .. £5,000 The value of the sheep at an average price of two rupees and a half each, will be Rs. 6,25,000, or £62,500. The Purik sheep attracted the particular attention of ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 213 Moorcroft,* whose account of them has been published in the lloyal Asiatic Society's Transactions. He was so impressed with the value of this breed, that he collected a small flock for transmission to England : but unfor- tmiately jvist as he was lea\dng Ladak the whole flock of sixty-seven was carried off by the chief of Hasora.t It was Moorcroft's opinion that the British cottager might keep three of these sheep with more ease than he now supports a cm--dog ; and that every small farmer might maintain fifteen or twenty of them without any extra expense : as they would be entirely supported on that kind of produce which now runs whoUy to waste or is thrown out on the dunghill. The Purik sheep will eat crumbs and parings of all kinds. Apricot-skins, turnip- peelings, pea-shells, and tea-leaves are eagerly picked up by this domestic animal ; which, as Moorcroft has also noticed, will not disdain to nibble a bone. It will also eat grass, straw, chaff, and leaves. I brought a small flock of twenty from the Purik district to Simla, from whence they were despatched to England by the Go- vernor-General. The Court of Directors presented them to Prince Albert, by whom they were first exhibited in the Zoological Gardens, and afterwards distributed to different persons interested in the breeding of sheep. This pretty little sheep when full growTi is not larger than a South-down lamb of five or sis months : but " in the fineness and weight of its fleece, and in the flavour of its mutton it is equal," says Moorcroft, " to any race hitherto discovered." It gives two lambs within twelve months. It is tmce shorn during the year, and the total clip yields fully three pounds of wool, of which * Transactions Eoyd As. Soc. I. p. 49 ; and Travels, I. p. 310. The name is written Pu-rig and Bii-rig, but always pronounced Pui-ik. t Travels, II. p. 92. 214 LADAK. the first cKp in Moorcroft's estimation was "fine enough for tolerably good shawls." The Purik sheep is much prized for the flavour and delicacy of its mutton ; and in the western districts of Ladak, scarcely any other meat is eaten. In Le, the average price of a fine Purik sheep is about two rupees, but in their native district they can be procm'ed at one rupee each, and at this price I purchased the little flock that was sent to England. The accompanying sketch of these animals was published in the Illustrated News.* The total number of this particular breed cannot be more than one-tenth of the whole, or about 25,000. The flocks may be thus distributed throuc^hout the different districts. 25,000 Huniya. In Dras ... 25,000 Suru .. 25,000 Purik ... 25,000 Kanji, Wanla ... 25,000 Ladak proper ... 75,000 Nubra ... 25,000 Zanskar ... 20,000 Eukchu ... 5,000 225,000 25,000 Total 250,000 Goats. — The common domestic goatt of Ladak is the Avell-known shawl-goat, which thrives only in the most elevated districts. It is bred in Nubra, Zanskar, and Rukchu ; but the finest wool is brought from Ruthog and Ngari, which formerly belonged to Ladak, and from Chang Thang, or the southern and mountainous districts of Kotan. The fleece of the shawl-kid is soft, curly, and beautifully glossy. It is used as a lining for cloaks by the m.ore wealthy, and is exceedingly warm and comfortable. The shawl-goat is only shorn once a * Platf IX. t All goats are called Ba-ba, or simply Ed. ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 215 year, and the wool is at once separated from the coarser hair. The hau* is manufactured into blanketing for tents, coarse sacking, and ropes for home consumption. The wool is exported to Kashmir, and to Niirpur, Amritsar, Lahor, Ludiana, Ambala, E-ampur on the Sutluj, and Nepal. To Rampur and Nepal the wool is exported dh'ect from Ruthog and Ngari, but Le is the entrepot between the other shawl-marts and the wool- producing countries. In Le the wool is roughly cleaned, by which process it loses two-fifths of its weight. The picker receives the hair as the price of his labour.* Between JA and Kashmir only one tixed duty, of half a rupee per maiind of sixteen seers, is now charged ; but in former days, before Gulab Sing's acquisition of Kash- mir, the duties, or rather exactions, were numerous and vexatious. The packages were made up in pony -loads of from sixty to seventy seers each, on which the charges were as follows : — the Ladak government Duty levied at Dras „ Gagangir ... „ Gonda Sarsuig Rs. .. 5 .. .. 1 .. a. 3 8 P- „ Kandarbal ... .. 5 6 „ Maliriana ... .. 8 Total ... 7 8 6 Kasb. Es. or ■! 11 Comp.'s Ks. The present duty is only , . . Es. 2 showing a difference of 2 11 0, or of 5s. on every load. * The fine shawl-wool is called Ze-na ; the common wool, Bal ; and the hair, sPit. The Tibetans are not ignorant of cotton, which they caU shing-hal, or " tree-wool," for the same reason that the Greeks called it IvXivnt; or " tree-flax." The Tibetan names of Lena and Bal, are the same as the Latin lana, and the English wool. 216 LADAK. In Kashmir the wool is sold by the trader to the regular wool-merchants at an average price of Kash- miri Rs. 4. 8 a., or of Company's Rs. 2. 10 a. per seer. It is then made over to the cleaners, to be cleared from the dirt and grease wliich still remain in it. This is effected by steeping it in a mash of rice for several days, disposed in alternate layers of wool and mash. The rice is first soaked for three or four days in water until it begins to smell ; the water is then poured off, and the rice is bruised into a mash. After the wool has been soaked for a short time, it is pulled lightly but briskly into pieces, and rubbed between the hands. The mash is squeezed out, and the wool is left perfectly clean. The cleaning costs one and a quarter Kashmiri rupee per seer, or three-quarters of a Company's rupee. The hair is next separated from the fine wool by the tedious process of picking by hand. Even after the wool is woven into cloth, many people are employed to pick out the dark-coloured hairs by hand ; and the wool itself is separated into two kinds, the white and the brown, which are spun into thread. This work is all done by the poorer classes. One seer of uncleaned wool yields Of White wool ... 20i- Es. weight, or ith. Brown wool ... 5^ „ iV*^- Comniou wool . . . 54i „ -Hths. The common wool is manvifactured into the soft stuffs called pattu. The thread is purchased from the wool-merchants by the thread-merchants, who pay according to fineness, and afterwards sell it to the shawl-merchants, by whom it is made over to the dt/ers. The prices of the undyed threads are — ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. 217 Weight. Of very fine white single thread IJ Eupee for 1 Eupee. „ „ double „ IJ „ „ „ light brown (phiri) 5^ „ „ Fine white silky (reshami) 3^ „ „ Very fine brown {khudrang) 3 „ „ Fine ditto ditto 4^ „ „ The thread-merchants are contented with the usual custom {dasturi of India) of half an anna in each rupee, or about six per cent. I have now traced the gradual additions in price of the shawl-wool from the time that it leaves the hands of the producer, at one rupee per seer, until it is spun into thread and sold to the shawl-merchant at ten times the original price. About one-third of this increased price might be avoided by cleaning the wool more thoroughly in Ladak, and by the direct purchase by the shawl-mer- chant from the producer. The intervention of three different traders, the Ladaki, and Kashmiri wool-merchant and the Kashmir thread- merchant, between the producer and the manufacturer, enhances the price by at least six per cent, each, or about twenty per cent, altogether. The average quantity of shawl-wool exported to Kasli- mir is the same as in Moorcroft's time, about 800 loads, or 3,200 small maunds of sixteen seers each ; and about the same quantity is exported to all other places. The average price in Ladak is about two rupees per seer, or Rs. 2,04,000 (£20,400). Of the 6,400 maunds exported, about 4,000 maunds are imported from Chang-thang, Ruthog, and Ngari ; and the remaining 2,400 maunds are the home produce of the highlands of Nubra, Ladak, Zanskar, and Rukchu. As the usual yield of fine wool for shawls and pattus is half a seer, the total number of 218 LADAK. goats in Ladak must be about 80,000. The average price of a shawl-wool goat is four rupees, and the total value of the flocks of Ladak Es. 3,20,000, or £32,000. Bog. — The domestic dog* of Ladak is the weU-known shepherd's dog, or Tibetan mastiff. They have shaggy- coats, generally quite black, or black and tan ; but I have seen some of a light-brown colour. They are usually ill-tempered to strangers ; but I have never found one that would face a stick, although they can fight well when attacked. The only peculiarity that I have noticed about them is that the tail is nearly always curled upward on to the back, where the hair is dis- placed by the constant rubbing of the tail. II.— VEGETABLE PEODUCTIONS. I.-TEEES. The vegetable productions of Ladak are few and unim- portant. The trees consist of willow, two varieties of poplar,! a kind of tamarisk, the pencU-cedar, and the Blcsagwm Moorcroftu.% The tamarisk and the pencU- * The Tibetan name for a dog is Khyi. t gShol-po and dByar-pa. X Capt. Madden, in the Horticultural Society's Journal, has quoted a passage from Moorcroft, to the effect that " a few wiUows and poplars are the only trees in Ladak," and he then produces the authority of Capt. H. Strachey to show that Moorcroft was wrong. But the fact is, that Moorcroft is right in ivJiat he does say, for either Capt. Madden or Capt. Strachey has misquoted him. In his Travels, I. p. 267, Moor- croft distinctly states that willows and poplars are the only timber-trees in Ladak ; and in I. p. 306, he repeats the same thing. But in both places he says timber-trees ; and he is right ; for the Shukpa (Skiiy-pa) is too small a tree to yield timber, although, if not held sacred, it might yield wood for hoses. Capt. Madden should have recollected that the Ser-shing had been iirst described by Moorcroft, and was therefore named Elaagnus Moorcroftii. VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 219 cedar {Shukpa) are indigenous ; the others are all regu- larly planted. The plane-tree has been introduced iuto Skardo, where its size and beauty have obtained for it the name of Shing-Gyal, "the prince of trees." The poplar is the most valuable wood in the country, as its long straight bole is particularly adapted for bridges, and for the rafters and beams of houses. It is generally planted in straight rows. The wiUow abounds in all the water-courses, but generally in the state of a pollard, as its supple twigs and branches are extensively used for baskets of all kinds and hurdles. These two trees were first met with at Gya, at a height of 13,500 feet. They furnish the only fire- wood procurable in Ladak; but wood is too valuable m. this barren country to be thus wasted, and the principal fuel used by the people is short Tibetan furze, called Ddma, and dried dung of all kinds. The Elseagnus is an ornamental tree with a yeUow flower, from which it derives its name of Ser-shing, or yellow tree. It is the Persian Savjit. The tamarisk is abundant in the narrow glen of the Rulang-chu, or Puga rivulet, below the hot springs, where they attain fifteen and sixteen feet in height, the warmth of the water, 66°, being favourable to their growth. The fruit-trees are the apple, the apricot, the walnut, the mulberry, and the vine.* The apricot is the only one found as high as Gya, 13,500 feet. The vine and apple make their first appearance at Bazgo and Saspul, the walnut at Saspul, and the mulberry at the monastery of Tamisgong. The apples, which are plentiful along the Indus, are of large size and good flavour. The apri- cots are large, but not so well flavoured as those of Balti. The grapes are much inferior to the splendid fruit of * The vine is CcolleJ Oun, rGun. 220 LADAK. Kashmir, but they had a peculiarity which was new to me ; the same bunch would yield large grapes an inch and a half in. length, and small round seedless grapes like black currants. The latter are dried in the sun, and find their* way to the Zimla bazaar, where they are kept by the merchants in large earthenware jars, duly labelled as " fine Zante currants," and sold at the rate of two rupees a pound, the proper price being about one quar- ter of a rupee per pound. The cherry is found tu the warm districts. II.— GEAINS. The crops consist of bearded and beardless barley, common wheat and buck-wheat, peas, turnips, and mus- tard. In the southern pro\dnce of Spiti, wheat* grows at a height of 13,000 feet (at Lara and Lidang above Dangkhar). In the valley of the Indus it first appears at Ugsh6 and Chimra, between 11,000 and 12,000 feet. Buck-wheat t generally affects the same elevations as common wheat. Both kinds of barley J are grown at an elevation of 15,000 feet ; at Hanl^, at the Korzo Gonpa, on the bank of the Tshomorirl lake, and above Gyihbar in Spiti. Peas§ are cultivated at Gyihbar and Loxar, the loftiest villages in Spiti, between 14,000 and 15,000 feet, and at Miru, in the Gya valley, from 12,500 and 13,500 feet. Mustard also is found at the same elevation ; at Gyihbar in Spiti, and at Gya and at Miru in Ladak proper. Turnips are grown at 16,000 feet at the Korzo Gonpa, on * Wheat is called G-ro, which in some districts is pronounced To. t £ro, by many pronounced Do. X iVaw is the name for all kinds of barley. Nas-karmo is white bar- ley, and Nak Nas is black barley. § Hoiiina, which is spelt Sronma. VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 221 the banks of the Chomoriri lake, but they are small and hard. The turnips at L6 and at Tamisgong are good and palatable. III.— CULTIVATION. All cultivable land is called Zhing,* and this term is also generally used for a field of any kind. Good rich land is called Zhlng-zang ; stony land is called Iti-zhing, that is literally, " hilly land ;" and meadow land is called Tliang-zhing, that is, " plain land." AU the cultivable land in Ladak lies along the courses of the small streams, and in patches on the banks of the great rivers. In the bed of the Indus especially there are large tracts of grass-land which are never brought under cultivation, but are kept solely for the grazing of cattle. Landlords are called Zhing-pa and Zhing-dag. The poor cultivate the lands themselves, but the wealthy employ regular labourers. The Glapa,\ or labouring man, holds the plough [thong or sholX), while the Glapa- mo, or labouring woman, breaks the clods or digs the upturned earth. The Avomen also irrigate the fields, and cut the crops. The ploughman. Thong-pa or Moba, and the diggers, Ko-pdpo and Kopdmo,^ are usually paid by the month {cla-phok |1 ) . Yaks are employed in drawing the plough, which is of wood, the share being only tipped with iron ; but many of the fields are dug by the hand with a pecidiarly-shaped mattock, ko-hyed,^ of which * Zhing, arable land ; Zhing-bZang, rich land ; Si-Zhing, hilly land ; Thang-Zing, plain land. t Gla-pa, a labouring woman is called Ola-pa-mo. X Thong or Shol, or sometimes Thong-shol. § Thong-pa or rMo-ba, a ploughman. The diggers are rKo-pa-po and rKo-pa-mo. II Zla-Phogs, pronounced Da-Pholc, " monthly pay." % rEo-hyed, called also Tog-tse. 222 LADAK. the handle forms a very acute angle with the blade. After ploughing, the fields are prepared with manure, lud,* which consists either of Ydk-lud, yak's dung, or of Jjuk-lud, sheep's dung. Occasionally they use cow- dung, Ydk-chi or Ba-cJti. But in a country where fire- wood is so scarce as not to be obtainable by any but the richest classes, all kinds of dung are in daily use as fael, and but little can be spared for emdching the land. In a dry country like Ladak, where it seldom snows and scarcely ever rains, the harvest is entirely dependent upon artificial irrigation. The waters of the smaller streams are arrested by dams (chhu-lon), and conducted with considerable skill and care from terrace to terrace, and from field to field. I was particularly struck with the laborious irrigation bestowed upon the rich lands of Saspul, and with the bold ingenrnty displayed in the aqueducts of Kambo and Hardas. The former is a small village on the left bank of the Purik river (the Waka-chu). The latter is on the left bank of the Dras river. The Kambo aqueduct is only about one mile in length, but the Hardas aqueduct is nearly three miles long. These canals, which are conducted several hun- dred feet above the villages, are mostly built vip with a retaining wall, and puddled with clay to hold the water. In a few places the rock itself was excavated to form a passage for the water, but in other places, where the hill was too precipitous, or the rock was too hard, the water was passed along hoUow poplar and willow trunks, which were supported by uprights standing on ledges of the rock, or on huge pegs driven into its crevices. The land in Ladak is all measured by the Khdl, or * iarf, dung. Cow-dung is called yloy-ZCTJ or -B«-ZCAi. VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 223 Bhdra-khdl-kyi* wliich is a field that requires one khdl of seed. The produce is likewise reckoned in khdls. This word klial means simply a load or burden of any kind, and is apparently the same as the Indian khdra, or khdri, which is a measiu'C of twenty bharas ; while the kharika is that sized field which requires a khdri of seed. In the Hindu Himalayas, a bharao (bharavat) is that sized field which requires a blidra of seed. Thus, in each country the estimate is made according to the most usual means of transport. In Tibet and in the Botiyan Himalayas, where sheep are almost the only means of transport, aU estimates are made in the khal, or luk-khdl, that is, a sheep's load of from 12 to 16 seers each (24 to 32 lb.). In the Hindu Himalayas, where men or women cany everything, all measures are reckoned in the bharao, or man's load (bhdra) of 32 seers (64 lb.). In the plains of India, where gdris, or carts, are used, the reckoning is made by the khdri, which is a load of 20 bhdras, equal to 12 or 15 cwt. "Vnien the term khdl is used alone, a sheep's load is always intended, for aU other loads are distinguished by a prefix, as Ydk-khdl, an "ox-load;" Ta-khdl, a "horse- load." The common khal, or sheep's load, is equal to 5 battis of 2^ seers or 5 lb. each, or 8 battis of 2 seers or 4 lb. each, or just about half a bushel ; and as in England the usual quantity of seed per acre is about two bushels, or one cwt., the size of a khal of land wUl be equal to a quarter of an acre, or one rood. But as the seed is much more broadly sown in Ladak than in * Klidl or £hdra-khdl-ki/i. The occurrence of bh shows that Bhdra is a word of Indian origin. Khdl-hBo is a " khal measure." t Bhdrava, from Bhdra, a load. 224 LABAK. England, I should estimate the khdl of land at about one-third of an English acre, or even more. The seed is sown in May, and the crops are cut in September, before the first fall of snow. On the 16th of September, 1846, on the bank of the Tshomoriri lake, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I found the Lamas of the Korzo Gonpa (monastery) cutting a field of unripe barley. The sky was very cloudy and threatening, especially to the southward, and the poor Lamas expected snow, which, if it fell upon the standing crop, would, they said, destroy it. The crop was all cut by the evening, and removed, and the next day it snowed vathout intermission for twenty-four hours. The crops are either pulled up by the roots or cut close to the roots, with a zorpa, or sickle, to get as much straw as possible for the winter fodder of the cattle. When cut, it is generally spread out on the ground to ripen and dry, but occasionally it is loosely bound in sheaves.* The return varies according to the quality of the soil and the quantity of manure. In Dras, Moorcroft heard that it was " about twenty for one ;" but according to my informants, the best lands in Ladak Proper, at Sabu, near Le, and at Sakte, in the Chimra valley, do not yield more than ten-fold ; whUe the poorer lands give a return of only five or six-fold, or on an average eight- fold. But the richer lands, in the Suru valley, and on the Waka and Dras rivers, which enjoy a mUder climate and a moister atmosphere, generally yield from ten to fifteen-fold. The average return for the whole of Ladak may therefore be estimated at about ten-fold, or perhaps less. Two ears of bearded barley from Le gave a return of * A sheaf is called Chhun-po. VEGETABLE PKODUCTIONS. 225 fifty grains each, and the same number of ears of beardless barley, from the banks of the Tshomoriri lake, gave a return of forty-five grains each. Moorcroft, however, mentions that the Hasora wheat gro^vn in Laddk yields from forty to seventy grains in each ear.* From these statements it is clear that not more than one-fourth of the seed can germinate. Much of it is, no doubt, eaten by the vast flocks of pigeons and chakors, which abound in Ladak ; but the greater proportion, perhaps, rots. Many of the young plants must be destroyed by the night frost ; for in most of the districts of Ladak it freezes almost every night, even during the month of June. The total produce of Ladak may be ascertained approximately in the following manner. In 1847 I obtained the census and other statistical details of 142 villages in the different districts of Ladak, containing 1,890 houses, with 20,815 hhdls of cultivable land, or just 11 khdls per house. As the total number of landed or paying houses! in Ladak is 18,000, the whole amount of cultivable land throughout the country may be reckoned at 198,000 khals, or about 66,000 acres. Each khal requires 16 seers of seed, and yields about ten-fold. The total available produce for food is therefore only nine-fold, or about 28,512,000 seers, equal to 1,000,000 bushels, which, with the former population of 165,000, would not give more than 7 chittaks (14 oz.) of food to each person daily, while the average consumption is at least 8 chittaks (1 lb.). The deficiency is about 24 seers for each person ; which, at the rate of 16 seers per * Travels, I. p. 275. t In Ladak no houses are taxed except those which liave lands attached to them. 226 LADAK. rupee,* would entail an annual outlay of Rs. 1. 8 a. (about 3s.), or a total importation of Rs. 2,47,500 worth of grain. This sum, divided over the whole adult male population of about 40,000, shows an annual expenditure of six rupees per man ; or, if divided amongst the whole niunber of 24,000 houses, about ten rupees per house. This sum was defrayed entirely by the profits of the carrying trade, of which the Ladakis have an entire monopoly between Yarkand and Kashmir. With the present population of 125,000 people, the land would yield fully enough for home consumption, or 9 chittaks (1 lb. 2 oz.) daily for each person ; but scarcely more than three-fourths of the lands are now under cultivation. The present annual produce is, therefore, not more than twenty-two millions of seers, or some- what less than 800,000 bushels, which will yield only 7f chittaks (15y oz.) of food for each person daily. The deficiency is half an ounce daily for each individual, or about 5^ seers annually, equal to 5^ annas (about 9d.). The whole annual importation is, therefore, only 687,500 seers, in value about Rs. 43,000. This sum divided over the whole adult male population of 30,000 persons, shows an annual expenditui-e of Rs. 1. 6 a., or if divided over the 18,000 houses, about Rs. 2. 6 a. 2 p. per house. There is a curious custom in Ladak, which has a counterpart in the arwmi of India and the neck of England. At every harvest the farmer selects a small bundle of the finest ears of barley, which he fastens round * This was the rate in Lahul in 1846, and at Le in 1847 ; but in the grain-growing districts I was informed that wheat was sold at thirty- two seers, and even at thirty-six seers per rupee. The individual expense of each family or house was therefore perhaps not more than half of the sum stated above. VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 227 the neck of a pillar in the largest room of his house. At Gya, I was told that the first cuttings were thus dedicated on the occasion of every harvest. Moorcroft* was infoi'med that it was the custom " to consecrate the two or three first handfuls of each year's crop to a spirit who presides over agricvdture." The necks of pillars would appear to have been the usual in-door place for the deposit of votive offerings of every kind ; for Captain Turner,! when leaving Tashi-Llmnpo, bound a white scarf round the capitals of each of the four columns of the apartment which he occupied. He did this " in conformity with the custom of those regions." At L6, Moorcroft saw ears of wheat : at Gya, Bazgo, and Saspul, I noticed only ears of barley. Perhaps different places may have different customs, as wheat is used in England and barley in India for the same purpose ; but as no wheat is grown at Gya, the use of barley was there a matter of necessity. In India, the fu'st cuttings of barley (arioan) are brought home to be eaten by the family, and pre- sented to the houshold gods and Brahmins. The grain is mixed with milk and sugar, and tasted seven times by each member of the family. The festivity of the season is proverbial, t Phula, phula, Icyunphire? Gliar Arwan dya. Jhuka, jhuka, kyunphire? Piydda dya. Why so very, very glad ? Because it's harvest-home. Why so very, very sad ? The collector 's come. * Travels, I. p. 318. t Tamer's Tibet, p. 329. J Sir H. M. Elliot's Glossarj'. Every page of this valuable work teems with most interesting information regarding the history of India, and the manners and customs of its people. Q 2 228 LADAK. In Devonshire, the " neck " consists of the finest ears of wheat, wliich are selected and tied np in a small sheaf by some old man, who stands in the midst of the reapers holding the " neck " with both hands. It is possible that the name may be derived from the sheaf having once been carried home and fastened round the neck of a pillar or wooden post, as in Ladak. In Scotland, the farmers have a custom similar to one wliich prevails amongst the Botis of Spiti, Hangorang, and Kanawar. The Scotch farmer weaves the first-cut corn into a threefold plait, which he places over his chimney-piece until the next harvest. The Boti peasant fixes three or more ears of barley outside his own door, and makes a votive offering of three or five, or some odd number of ears to his native divinity in the \allage Thdkurdwdra. * AU these various customs would seem to have a common origin in the celebration of the harvest season, which in every country has been a time of rejoicing. The adwan and juri of the Hindus and the harvest-home of the English are similar to the private ambarvalia of the Eomans. So also the votive offerings of the Tibetans were consecrated for the same object as the lustraUo of the Romans. The former offered his first cuttings of corn with a prayer for a plentiful harvest, the latter performed their lustrations (ambarvalia) immediately before the sickle was put to the corn, to obtain the blessing of the gods on the fields which were thus lustrated. * Gerard's Kanawar, p. 98, and Capt, J. D. Cunningham's Notes on Moorcroft and Gerard, in the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, vol. xiii. p. 246. MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 229 III.— MINERAIi PRODUCTIONS. The mineral productions of Ladiik are more interesting to the geologist than important to the economist. The most striking geological features, and the principal localities of some of the prevailing rocks, have already been noticed in my description of the mountains : but the more useful minerals still remain to be mentioned. Slcite. — " The use of slates,"* says McCulloch, " is entu-ely Eurojiean. From the Hellespont to China there is not a single slated house." This statement is correct, as far as my observation goes in the i^lains of India, where slates cannot be procured, but in the hills the use of slates is very common. The best slates that I have seen are those of the clay-slate formation, in the Bhaola-Bhar range, between Kangra and Chamba. There are quarries on both sides of the range. The roof of the great temple at Ilahila, on the Ravi, is roofed with large slates, which are nailed to the planking in the usual manner. On the south sides of the range, the use of slates is universal. All the houses in the large toTvns of Kangra, Tira, and Jwala-Mukhi, are roofed with slates of a very fine description. AU the temples, and many of the houses in the districts around Simla, are also roofed with slates, but of an inferior kind. In Mandi and Kullu, however, the mica-slate formation yields very large thin slates of an excellent description. In Lahul and Ladak the clay and mica schists could be split into slates of a smaller size ; but the extreme scarcity of timber prevents the construction of large rooms, and for small ones the people find that flat roofs are the simplest and the most commodious. * M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary, art. Slate. 230 LADAK. Lime. — The most prevalent rock in Ladak is lime- stone. In Spiti, the whole formation is of this rock, excepting near Losar, where it changes into clay slate. It forms the range that divides Rukchu from Zanskar, and again changes into clay slate near the junction of the Sum-gyel rivers. It pervades Zanskar, and is found on both banks of the Indus ; in the Photo La and Hanu passes. It occurs at both ends of the Pangkong lake, and extends from Sassar to the crest of the Karakoram range. Not- withstanding this general prevalence of the rock, the scarcity of wood is so great that none but the wealthy can afford to use lime mortar in theu' houses. Marble. — Por ornamental pm-poses none of the Ladaki limestones that I have seen would be considered of any value ;* but the fossiliferous limestone of Kashmir takes a very high polish, and the splendid pillars of the Shalimar are the only beautiful things now remaining in that once celebrated garden. Gypsum. — This useful mineral is found at the sul- phur-mines, on the banks of the Puga rivulet, either in pure white flakes regularly disposed, or in a compact rock, with crystals of sulphur attached to it, and thin veins of nearly pure sulphur desseminated through it. It occurs also on the right bank of the Spiti river, below Losar, at the celebrated cave of Amaranath, in Kashmir, and on the banks of the Shigar river, in Balti.t No use whatever is made of it by the people. Clay. — Extensive deposits of the finest clays of all * Mir Izzet Ullah, however, mentions a striped marble-like Siilimani stone as occurring in the bed of the Shayok river, between Chong- XJlang and Dong-Bailak. — Quart. Orient. Magazine, 1825, p. 113. t See Vigne's map for Gypsum. EXTINCT and EXISTING SHELLS, from LacL5Lk.,BaltL, and Easiimir. fossils \;-^^r5*' TSHO-KAR [Lai:.e)anl PLAIN of KVANG ISLAMABAD A Cumiin^/utmy d£l l!x)$ or 1^5R"r^. Nala kdnda, or river-reed. It is plentiful in the Sindh at R 2 244 LADAK. Turlad, Convolvulus Turpethum, or Turbitli, ii purgative root. Hdhilistan. Khurma or CJihuhdra, dates. Salt. CHINESE IMPORTS FOR INDIA. Shmcl-ivool. — The principal article of Ladaki trade between the Chinese provinces and India is shawl-wool, of which about 3,200 maunds are annually sold to the Kashmiris, and an equal quantity to the traders of Nurpur, Rampur, Amritsar, and Ludiana. Of this, some 2,400 maunds are the produce of the country, and the remainder, amounting to 4,000 maunds, or 128,000 lb., is obtained from Chang-Thang and Euthog. As the average value of shawl-wool in Ladak is 2 rupees per seer, or 1 rupee per lb., the total value of the annual import of shawl-wool is Rs. 1,28,000, or £12,800. The whole is again exported. Sheep's wool is imported only in small quantities, as the country itself supplies more wool than it consumes. About 1,000 maunds are said to be brought annually from Ruthog, of which the value in Ladak, at the rate of 8 seers per rupee, is only Rs. 500. It is all exported again. Charas, or Bang, is brought from Yarkand. About 500 maunds are imported annually, at the average price of three rupees per seer. The whole value of this article is therefore Rs. 24,000, or £2,400. About 300 maunds of charas are consumed in Ladak, and the remaining 200 maunds are exported to the neighbouring countries. Tobacco is imported largely from Yarkand, the annual supply being stated at 4,000 maunds, or 128,000 lb., of Narwar or Nalwar ; aud it is possible that the name may have been derived from this itlebrated fort. FOREIGN TRADE. 245 which the whole is consumed in the country. This amount allows one pound for each individual, which is somewhat more than the quantity annually consumed in England : * which in 1842 was twenty-two millions of pounds, amongst twenty-eight millions of population, or three-quarters of a pound each. This difference arises no doubt from the difference of habits, as the use of tobacco is only partial in England, while in Ladak it is universal. The average price of tobacco at L6 is one rupee per seer, and the value of the whole import is Rs. 64,000, or £6,400. Small quantities of tobacco are also imported from Bisahar and Kashmir, but I could not ascertain the amount. Borax is imported from Chang-Thang, to the amoimt of 2,500 maunds, or 80,000 lb., annually. Its price in Chang-Thang is one rupee for four maunds, or sixty-four seers. In Ladak it averages about thirty-two seers per rupee, and in the lower hill bazaars it is sold at sixteen seers per rupee, in its original impure state. The total value of the import is Rs. 1,500, or £150. Sulphur is also imported from Chang-Thang ; but the quantity is small, not exceeding 400 maunds, or 12,800 lb. Its price is usually one anna per seer, and the whole value of the import only Us. 400, or £40. Ojiium is the chief article of trade between India and China, through Ladak, as it is between India and China generally. The annual supply was stated at 500 maimds, or 16,000 lb., which, at the average rate of fifteen rupees per seer, amounts to Rs. 1,20,000, or £12,000 worth. The stated quantity is most probably less than the truth, as the total amount of opium that was destroyed at Yarkand in 1840, after the imperial edict of 1839, is * M'CiiUocli's Commereial Dictioiiarv. 246 LADAK. said to have been worth one lac of kurus, equal to Rs. 166,00,000, or £1,660,000 ! This vastly exaggerated amount, which was repeated by several people, was most probably the round sum total of all the confiscated opium throughout the Chinese empu-e,* although liiv simple informants fully believed that this enormous quantity had been destroyed at Yarkand alone. The imperial edict is now as little respected on the western frontiers as it is on the eastern sea-coasts ; from which politicians may learn how vain and useless is the attempt to thwart the wishes of a whole people. The drug produced ia our hill states is of a superior quality, and as it is much prized by the Chinese, the land trade in opium is yearly on the increase. Shawls of inferior descriptions are taken to Yarkand in considerable numbers. The finest shawls, such as we see in India and in England, are only manufactured to order ; but the commoner shawls of coarser material and large patterns are preferred in the Yarkand market, on account of their cheapness. Their prices range from Rs. 50 to Rs. 300 per pair : the average being about Rs. 100. The nimaber of shawls annually exported amounts probably to 500 pairs : but this number is only an average of the widely different statements of the merchants — some of whom said 200 pairs, and others * The value of the Opium destroyed may be thus stated — Indian Opium, 20,000 chests, at Es. 625 each = £1,250,000 Turkish Opium, 1,000 chests, at Es. 800 each = 80,000 £1,330,000 This sum is equal to more than 80,000 kurus, aud might, wdth the additional value of the Ladaki opium, be commonly stated in round numbers at one lac (100,000) of kurus. FOREIGN TRADE. 247 1,000. The value of 500 pairs of shawls is about Rs. 50,000, or £5,000. Brocades arc another article regarding which I found great difficulty in obtaining any definite information. The commoner kinds, ranging from Rs. 50 to E-s. 300 each, are preferred for the Yarkand market. Perhaps about 400 may be exported annually, which at an average price of Rs. 100 each, are worth Rs. 20,000, or £2,000. Ldki, or skins of red leather. — These are goat-skins tanned and coloured at Niu'pur. There is a great demand for them all over the hills, but more par- ticularly in Ladak and Yarkand, where bright-coloured leathers are generally employed in the manufacture of boots, and of bridles and trappings of horses. About 200 maunds, or sheep-loads (6,400 lb. weight) of these skins are said to be annually unported into Ladak ; which at the mean rate of one pound per skin, and of one rupee each, are worth Rs. 6,400, or £640. Half of this quantity (100 mavmds), or 3,200 skins, worth Rs. 3,200, or £320, are exported to Yarkand. Spices to the value of about Rs. 1,000, or £100, are said to be annually imported into Ladak, of which the greater part, or Rs. 800 worth, are carried to Yarkand. Saffron is supplied entirely by Kashmir. The quantity varies ; but the usual supply is said to be twenty maunds, or 640 lb. ; which, at the rate of forty rupees per seer, is worth Rs. 12,800, or £1,280. The whole is exported to Yarkand. Cloths of all the coarser sorts, and a considerable number of flowered cottons and bright-coloured chintzes, form an important article of Ladaki trade. The annual amount is about 100 maunds, or 3,200 lb., in value Rs. 10,000, or £1,000. A small quantity is used in 248 LADAK. Ladak for the bordering of skull-caps, but the remainder is exported to Yarkand. Tea is more or less drunk by everybody in Ladak, and a considerable quantity is therefore imported both for home consumption and for the supply of Kashmir and the Punjab. The gross annual import is said to be 1,000 maunds, or 32,000 lb. ; which, at the rate of three rupees per seer, is worth Rs. 9,600. About 200 maunds (6,400 lb.) is exported, leaving only 800 maimds, or 25,600 lb., for the use of the people of Ladak. This will not give more than three ounces to each person ; but there is good reason for believing that a considerable quantity of Cliinese tea is smuggled into Ladak ; and we know that the black tea of Bisahar is now largely imported to be mixed with the Chinese tea. The average supply for each individual cannot therefore be less than half a pound. In England it reaches a pound and a quarter for each person.* DUTIES.— IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. YARKAND. On Imports. Rs. a. p. On Charas, per maund 2 4 „ Wool 2 4 „ Tea 8 „ Cloths 8 On Expobts. Rs. a. p. Ou Cloths, Laki, &c. per maund . . 4 „ Opium 4 No other duties are now taken on exports to Tarkand. On Cloths, per maund 10 „ Saffron „ ...300 „ Brocades, per piece 8 „ Shawls, per pair 8 „ Tobacco 4 „ Ghi 4 KASHMIR. On Wool, per maund 8 „ Tea, per dauia . . 1 „ Langa and Siling, per piece ... 2 * M'Culloch's Commereial Dictionary. FOREIGN TRADE. 249 On Impoets. On Exports. Rs. a. p. On Sugar-caudy ... 1 4 „ Spices ... ... 1 4 „ Opium 2 8 „ Otter-skina ... 2 8 BISAHAR. On Opiiim, per maund 14 „ Spices 10 „ Cloths 10 ,, Iron 10 On Charas, per maund 10 „ Gold and Silver, peryambu ... 8 NURPUR. 1 On every pony-load ZANSKAR. On Laki, per maund 2 2 6 „ Ghi 4 „ Honey . . 2 „ Opium ... 2 8 „ Otter-skins 2 8 3 The following tables show the annual amount and value of all the imports and exports of the trade of Ladak, with the total amount of duty levied on each article. IMPORTS FROM THE CHINESE TERRITORIES. Articles. Quantity. Value. Duty. Maunds. lb. Rate per Seer. Rupees. ^. Rate per Maund. Rupees. dS. Shawl-wool Wool .... Tea Charas .... Tobacco . . Borax .... Sulphur Total . . 4,000 1,000 1,000 500 4,000 2,500 400 128,000 32,000 32,000 16,000 128,000 80,000 12,800 2 2 3 3 1 0. 6 1 1,28,000 2,000 48,000 24,000 64,000 1,250 400 12,800 200 4,800 2,400 6,400 125 40 8 8 2 2 4 4 4 4 2,000 500 2,000 1,125 1,000 625 100 200 50 200 1124 100 62| 10 13,400 428,000 2,67,650 26,765 7,350 735 250 LADAK. IMPORTS FROM THE INDIAN TERRITORIES. Quantity. Value. Duty. Maimds. lb. Rate per Ser. Rupees. £. Rate per Maunii. Rupees. £. Opium Shawls, pail Brocades, pc LiSki s 3. 500 500 400 200 20 100 16,000 6,400 640 3,200 15 100 50 32 40 1,20,000 60,000 20,000 6,400 1,000 12,800 10,000 12,000 5,000 2,000 640 100 1,280 1,000 2 8 8 8 2 2 6 15 3 10 1,250 250 200 431 100 60 100 125 25 20 43 10 6 10 Saif ron Cloths Total . • 820 26,240 2,20,200 22,020 2,391 239 EXPORTS TO THE INDIAN TERRITORIES. Articles. Quantity. Value. Duty. Maunds. lb. Rate per Ser. Rupees. £. Rate per Maund. Rupees. £. Shawl-wool* Ditto t . . . . Total . . WoolJ .... Ditto § Total . . Tea Charas .... Borax .... Sulphur .... Total . . 3,200 3,200 102,400 102,400 2 2 1,02,400 1,02,400 10,240 10,240 8 12 1,600 2,400 160 240 6,400 204,800 2,04,800 20,480 4,000 400 5,000 1,000 6,000 160,000 32,000 2 2 10,000 2,000 1,000 200 2 2 625 125 62i 124 192,000 12,000 1,200 700 70 200 200 3,000 500 32,000 32,000 96,000 16,000 3 3 6 10 9,600 9,600 1,500 500 960 900 150 50 4 10 4 4 800 125 750 125 80 12i 75 124 16,300 521,600 2,38,000 23,800 6,550 655 * Exported to Kashmir. X Home produce. t Exported to other places. § Imported from Chang Thang FOREIGN TRADE. 251 EXPORTS TO THE CHINESE TERRITORIES. Articles. QuEuitit>'. Value. Duty. Maun (Is. lb. Rate per Ser. Rupees. *. Rate per Maund. Rupees. £. Opium Shawls, paira Brocades, pes. Laki Spices Saffron Cloths ToUl . . 500 500 400 100 20 100 16,000 3,200 640 3,200 15 100 50 32 40 1,20,000 50,000 20,000 3,200 800 12,800 10,000 12,000 5,000 2,000 320 80 1,280 1,000 4 4 125 25 124 2i 720 23,040 2,16,000 21,600 150 15 TOTALS OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Impoets. From the Chinese Territories . . . „ Indian „ Total Imports EXPOETS. To the Indian Territories „ Chinese „ Total Exports Value. Duty. Rupees. £. Rupees. £. 2,67,650 2,20,200 26,705 22,020 7,350 2,391 735 239 4,87,850 48,785 9,741 974 2,38,000 2,16,000 23,800 21,600 6,550 150 655 15 4,54,000 45,400 6,700 670 The total amount of duties thus collected is E,s. 16,441. This, with the addition of other small duties on Chinese sUks, salt, iron, and copper vessels, will amount to about Rs. 18,000, which was the acknowledged amoimt 252 LADAK. of the duties collected in Ladak both before and after Gulab Sing's conquest. I have therefore some reason to believe in the general accuracy of the statements vfhich I received from the merchants, although perhaps not one of them may be strictly correct. Statistical questions are particularly puzzling to ignorant men, who are unaccustomed to deal with large numbers, and when they get beyond hundi'eds begin to talk of lacs. I found too, that the statements of the Kashmiris were generally false, and I believe wilfully so ; at least the returns which they gave me of the numbers of people and khdls of land in the different villages of Dras, were undoubtedly manufactured for the occasion. Thus every house had exactly one man, one woman, and one boy, and every village possessed exactly three kluils of land. But the mis-statements of the Botis arose, I believe, generally from ignorance, as I never could find any obviously manufactured statistics, like those of the Kashmiris. I have already noticed the close agreement between the sum of my detailed accounts of the import and export duties, and the gross amount of Rs. 18,000, which was universally said to be the total amount of all the duties collected in Ladak. I will now add another fact that will most probably tend to increase the reliance which the first would induce us to place in the genei*al accuracy of these details. A considerable quantity of silver in ingots, or bars, is annually brought into Ladak by the Tarkaudis, thus proving that the value of the merchandise which they import is less than that which they export. Now these details exhibit precisely the same fact, as I will now show. FOREIGN TRADE. 253 IMPORTS FROM TARKAND. Shawl-wool Es. 28,000 Tea 48,000 Charas 24,000 Tobacco 64,000 164,000 Add ponies, sugar-candy, drugs, skins, turquoises 16,000 180,000 Exports to Tarkaud 216,000 Excess of Exports Es. 36,000 This sum is equal to upwards of 216 silver ingots, called yamhu and huru, each of which is worth Rs. 166. The fact that Yarkandi bullion is constantly being brought into the Ladak market is further proved by the duty of half a rupee, which is levied on each ingot when it is exported to Bisahar. All merchandise is called Tshong, and the merchants or dealers Tshong -pa ; as. Bed- Tshong, a wool-merchant ; Chhang-Tshong, a spirit-dealer. Merchants are also called Don-thun, or " Ware-gatherers ; " but the usual term is Tshoug-pa. The chief, or head merchant, is Tshong-poii. i\jiy regular gathering of merchants, such as annual meeting at Garo, is called Tshoug-dus, a fair ; and the friendly glass, which is partaken together after the completion of a bargain, is named Tshong-chhang, " the mercantile glass." COIXS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. In Ladak one meets with the coinage, as well as with the merchandise, of all the surrounding countries. The golden tilds of Bokhara and Kokand (or Kokan), the sycee silver and pierced copper coins of China, the thin 254 LADAK. silver pieces of Nepal, the copper clumps of Bisahar, the almost pure rupees of the Moguls of Delhi, the Nanak- sahi and Govind-sahi rupees of Ranjit Sing, and the hroad rupees of British India, bearing the head of the Queen of England. The only native coin is the sUver Jiid, or Jao, which is worth one quarter of a rupee. The Tiki is the common gold coin of the Mahomedan countries, and is worth six rupees in Le. The Chinese sUver ingot, called Kiiru by the Yar- kandis, and Yamibii by the Tibetans, is a plain bar of pure metal, weighing Us. 156^. In 1847 it was valued at Rs. 166. These limips of bullion are often bent in the middle into the shape of a horse-shoe. They are then called Td-M/kma, or horses' hoofs. The Nepal coins are of silver, each being worth half a rupee, or two Jaos of Ladak. The coins of several of the Nepal Rajas are still current in Ladak. They consist principally of the currency of the Gorkha chiefs ; but a few specimens of the Newar sovereigns are stUl to be found. One which I obtained belongs to Jai/a Banajita Malla Deva of Bhatgaon, and is dated in the year 842 of the Newar era, eqmvalent to a.d. 1711. The Mogul rupees have very nearly been superseded by the Ndnalc-sdhi and Company's rupee. In Moorcroft's time they would appear to have been plentiful, and more particularly the coinage of Muhammad Shah.* Even in 1839 I found the Mogul coinage prevalent in Kullu, Lahul, and Chamba ; where I obtained two rare spe- cimens of the pageant kings Mafi-ud-Darjdt and Raji- iid-Dcmlat. The Jao or Jud of Ladak is coined at Kashmir. It * See his Travels, I. p. 353, where he mentions the price of Bisahar tea at fifteen Muhammad Shahi rupees per Pakka maund. FOREIGN TRADE. 255 is a thin irregular-shaped piece of silver, about the size of a shilling, with a Persian inscription on each side. On the centre of the obverse is the name of Mahmud Shah, suiTounded by a circle of large dots. The in- scription on the reverse is difficult to read, but the upper line is certainly Butdn, which is the Kashmiri name of Ladak. The second, or middle line, is perhaps Zarb ; and the two together form Zarb-i-Butan, " struck in Batan." Below is the word scmh, or sanat, and a figured date, which looks like 878, but of what era it is impossible to say.* As the coins bear the title of Mahmud Shah, they cannot date earlier than a.d. 1687, when the Gyalpo of Ladak was nominally converted to Muliammedanism, after the expulsion of the Sokp'os by the troops of Ibrahim Khan, the governor of Kashmir vmder Aurangzeb. The coins which I possess all bear the same date ; and, as they are but little worn on the smface, they cannot have been minted for any great length of time. The date, which I should have expected to find on these coins, is the BUjra year 1099, equivalent to A.D. 1687, which was the year of the Gyalpo's conversion. The gold coins in use are called Ser-jao, or " golden jao," or simply Ser-ki-doug, or " golden coins." All coins are called Dong, or Dong-tse. The silver coins are named Nul-ki-dong, or simply Nuk-dong, and the copper coins Zangi-dong, or Zang-dong.-\ Ready money, or cash, is called Marba, or Marltyang. The weights of Ladak are the Batti and the Man, or Maund. The Batti is equal to two Indian seers or * See Plate XIV. for a sketcli of one of these coins, t (jSer-l-iji-Dong, golden coin ; dUful-kyi-Jong, silver coin ; and Zangs- kgi-dong, copper coin. 256 LADAK. thirty-two chitaks. The name is no doubt derived from the Hindi word Battis, " thu'ty-two."* Indeed the measure itself, as well as the name, is Indian, and the Ladakis most probably derived it from the neighbouring hill states. The man or maund is equal to eight battis, or sixteen seers, and is therefore the same as the small maund of India. The only other Ladaki measure with which I am acquainted is the Klidl. This term has ah'eady been explained with reference to the measurement of land, in my accoimt of the vegetable productions. The Khdl, which is the universal measure for all kinds of heavy produce, but more especially for grain, is of two kinds : the Dek-khdl, or the " weight khal," and the Shor-khdl, or " measm'e khal."t The common Khdl, whether by weight or measm'e, is the well-known quantity of a sheep's load, Liik-khdl, which is equal to eight battis, or one maund of sixteen Indian seers, or thirty -two pounds English.! This is usually named simply khdl, but when the larger measures are mentioned, the prefix is always used, as Td-khdl, the " horse khal," which is equal to four maunds, or 128 lb. ; and the Yak-khal, which is the same. * In Hindi Wlft^. t liDegs-Tchal and gShor-hhal or Pre-bu. X Trebeck's valuation is the same. See Moorcroft's Travels, II. p. 70. 257 X.-GOVERNMENT. I.— NATUEE OF GOVERNMENT.— VAEIOUS OFFICERS. The government of Ladak was formerly a mild despotism under a ruler who bore the title of Gyalpo.* The conduct of affaii-s was generally intrusted to the prime minister, or Kahlon ; and the king was well satisfied both with his minister and with his subjects, if the former gave him suflB.cient meansf for the enjoyment of his royal pleasure, and if the latter never disturbed his quiet ease with their complaints. The king literally did nothing, except when roused to exertion by some unusual occm-rence. His subjects could behold his royal presence only by the presentation of an offering in money, according to their circumstances. But this was a costly pleasure ; and the mental abstraction of the Buddhist prince was rarely distiirbed by the curiosity, or loyal zeal, of his people. Occasionally an ambitious prince would arise, who (like Singhe Namgyal) retained * The ruler was usually called rGyaZ-/)o, or the emperor; and the queen was called rOyal-mo, or the empress. In writing more formality was used, and the ruler was either entitled rGyal-po-chen-po, " the great emperor," or he was designated by his own name Singge-rNam-rOyal, " King Singge." t The prime minister was always the Gyalpo's treasurer, or keeper of the privy purse. 258 liADAK. the Avhole power in his own liands. The apparent power of the prime minister was ahsolute, but his real power was much curbed by the wide-spread authority of the monastic estal^lishments, and by the partial indepen- dence of the petty Gyalpos and district Kahlons. In Great Tibet the Kahlons of the four chief provinces of Ngari, U, Tsciiig, and Khdm, were elected by the civil power in subordination to the Grand Lama, while the inferior Kahlons, and all other petty officers of state, were elected by the four chief Kahlons. But in Laddk the prime minister's office was almost hereditary ; that is, it was restricted to a member of one of the families of the principal Kahlons, or governors of districts. The choice was determined, as in other countries, either by royal favoiu' and successful intrigue, or by greater popularity and superior abilities. Possession, however, gave so firm a grasp of power, that the office was usually retained in one family for several generations. The Kahlon of Moorcroft's time was the Kahlon or petty Gyalpo of the Chimra valley ; and the power remained in the hands of his family until the final settlement of Zorawar Sing, at Le. Many of the principal nobility of Ladak were petty chiefs of valleys, which had once been independent. Thus there was a Gyalpo in Nubra ; another in Gya ; a third in Spiti ; a fourth in Zanskar ; a fifth in Pask- yum ; a sixth in Soth ; a seventh in Suru ; and an eighth in Hembabs, or Dras. The chiefs of Paskyum and of Soth distinguished themselves by their protracted resistance on the first invasion of Ladak by Zorawar Sing. The prime minister was simply styled Kahlon, or " the minister," or Bangki-Kahlon, " the chief minis- NATURE OF GOVERNMENT. — ^VARIOUS OFFICERS. 259 ter,"* while his deputy was usually known by the addition of his own name, as Kahlon-Rigsen, " minister Higsen,'" or by prefixing the term Nono, as Nono Kali- lon, " the younger, or deputy minister."t The other Kahlons were distinguished by the names of the districts over which they ruled, as Kahlon-Bazgo, " the governor of Bazgo." The next great officers were the Lonpos, % or governors of towns, and the Kharpons,^ or commanders of forts. The former were distinguished by the names of their respective towTis ; as Le-pon, "the governor of Le ;" Gar-pon, " governor of Garo.'" In L6, also, there were the 3£ak-p)on,^ or "commander-in-chief," and the Chag- sot*^ or " lord liigh treasurer ; " the Shogam-Chagsot** or " head collector of taxes ;" as well as the Shakspon,'\-\ or " chief justice ;" and the Khrimpons,XX or " magis- trates." Lastly there was the Kdkd-Tddsi,%^ or " head master of the horse ;" and the CJiagsi-Goba, or Kotwal, an office equivalent to that of mayor. * This is the " Banka khalun " of Moorcroft (I. pp. 238—249). The true title was dBang-k-yi-hKali-hLon or Bangki-hahlon, that is, " the powerful minister." t No-no is the usual term of respect which is used in addressing any young man of the higher ranks, and when prefixed to Kahlon it means the younger or deputy minister. Moorcroft (I. pp. 334, 335) gives the term, without the title, as the usual designation of the deputy minister, just as we should say " the deputy " instead of the deputy chairman. Nono is also applied to all under-ofEcers, as Nono-Chagsot , the " under- treasurer;" Nono-Shakspon, the " deputy justiciar)'. " J hLon-po, " the manager, arranger, or governor." Moorcroft (I. p. 25-5) calls him Lompa. § mKhar-dPon, the " fort-chief." || dMag-dPon, the " war-chief." ^ Phyag-mDsod, pronounced Chag-sot. ** Shogam. " a duty, a tax." ff gShags-dPon, "justice-chief" X+ Khrims-dPon, " law-chief." §§ Gd-gd-rTd-rDsi, " head master of the horse." s 2 260 LADAK. The inferior officers were the Mipons,* or Gobasf (that is, literally, the " head men " of the villages), and the Sliogamiia, or provincial collectors of taxes and customs. The Gobas (who were also called Grongiwns,X or " village chiefs ") were directly responsihle to the Kali- lons, or Gyalpos, of their respective districts, in all criminal matters, and in most accounts of revenue ; although the Mipons, or head men, of some of the principal towns, rendered their accounts direct to the Clwfjsot, or lord high treasurer of Le. But these exceptions were, I helieve, orJy made in the cases of such villages as were set apart for the particular main- tenance of the queen, or of some members of the royal family. The Chagsot, or lord high treasm'er, rendered his accounts to the Kahlon, or prime minister, who kept the privy purse of the king and his family. The titles of the different functionaries varied in different districts ; hut the most common were those which I have just given. The petty Gyalpos and provincial KaJdons were frequently called Depons,^ or " district chiefs," a name which recalls the Sanscrit Des-pati, and the Greek Aso-ttottj?. Among the Maho- medans of Ladak (both the pure Kashmiris and the hybrid Argons), the petty chiefs are invariably called Chho ; as Gya-pa-chho,\\ "the Gi/alpo of Gya." * Mi-dPon, " man-chief or head man." t hGo-ba, emphatically the head man, from h6o, "the head, the top of anything." J Grong-dPon. In Great Tibet, and in some parts of Ladak, this word is pronounced Tongpon. The Lamas more especially adhere to the pronunciation of Lhasa. § sDe-dPon, " district-chief" || mChhog, " the head, the chief" 261 II.— EELATIONS WITH SURROUNDING STATES. The few questions of foreign polity that the govern- ment of Ladak had to deal with ^verc simple and easy. They were chiefly confined to political relations with Balti and Rudok ; to commercial ties with Yarkand and Kashmir ; and to the religious connection with Lhasa. The last was a national bond of union between two people speaking the same language, and holding the same faith ; and the presents which were annually sent to Lhasa, by the Gyalpo of Ladak, were an humble offering to the Dalai Lama, as the head of the Buddhist religion, and not an extorted tribute to the emperor of China as lord paramount. The difficulties of the passage of the Karakoram moun- tains prevented the Chinese governors of Yarkand and Kotan from attempting the conquest of Ladak ; and the poverty of the country offered no temptation to the Ma- homedan rulers of Kashmir. The Ladaki i-elations vdth these states were therefore friendly. With Rudok on the east there has been a long peace. The boundary is well defined by piles of stones, which were set up after the last expulsion of the Sokj)o, or Mongol hordes, in a.d. 1687, when the Ladakis received considerable assistance from Kashmir. With Balti on the Avest, however, there existed a continual state of border-plundering, accom- panied with fire and sword, which occasioned frequent references, and which created and kept up unfriendly feelings between the two states. The difference of religion greatly added to the natural antipathy of neigh- bourhood ; and two centuries ago these two causes combined to lure Ali Sher and the Mahomedans of Balti to the invasion and partial conquest of Ladak. 262 LADAK. III.— ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. The administration of justice in Ladak was truly patriarchal. When any one was injured or aggrieved, he proceeded straight to the Qyalpo or Kulilon of his district, or to the Goha of his village, and represented his case. An assembly of five, or of seven elders* of the community was then called to hear and to decide upon the case. In the capital the proceedings were conducted with the observance of more form. The complaiaant made his case known to the Lonpo, or mayor, who reported it to the KaJilon, or prime minis- ter. The Shakspon, or chief justice, was then directed to assemble a regular court, composed either of five or of seven members, according to the importance of the case. The members were selected, as in the provinces, from amongst the Oatpas, or " elders ;" but to them were joined two or more Khrimpons, or " sitting magis- trates," whose duty it was to expound the Yul-khrim,\ that is, the " law of the land," or civil law. The Shaks- khang,X or "court of justice," was opened and closed by the sounding of the Khrim-dung,% or "trumpet of justice," and the sentence of the court (excepting in capital cases) was carried into execution without delay. * rOad-pa, prouounced Oatpa, an " old man," an " elder." The number of members points to a common origin witb the universal and stiU prevailing Panchayet, or " assembly of five," throughout India. Five must have been the ancient number, as even a single arbitrator or umpire is now called " Fanch." t Yul-kJirims, "land-law." In Ladak this word is pronounced Yid- khrim, but in Great Tibet it is corrupted to Yid-thim. X Sliags-hhang, "justice-hall." § KJirims-dunff, " justice-trumpet ;" there was also a Khrims-rNga, "justice-drum." ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 263 The punishments were few in kind, being only stripes, fines, and imprisonment, and in extreme cases, banish- ment or death ; but they were numerous in degree, apportioned to the amount of guilt. The punishment of death was seldom awarded, and still more rarely executed. In cases of sacrilege, such as spoliation of temples, or in horrible cases of murder, the criminals were either crucified, or thrown into the Indus, bound hand and foot and weighted with stones. But the more usual punishment for murder was banishment, or rather ignominious expulsion from society, preceded by stripes and branding, and accompanied by every indignity that could be imagined by the ingenious malice of men, or that could be perpetrated by the elaborate mischief of boys. The brand was made of iron, and was about one inch in length. It bore a dog's head, with the inscrip- tion, " dog-marked — expelled." Thus after being weU flogged and branded, the unfortunate criminal was drummed out of society, followed by hooting crowds,* who pelted him with stones and dirt. Por the mm'der of a child, a woman was sentenced to the loss of one hand, and to expulsion with the same indignities as above. In cases of killing in a scufile, the custom of Great Tibet was to bind the homicide to the corpse, and at the end of twenty-four hours to cast the living and dead together into the river. I did not hear of this custom in Ladak ; but as commutation of punishment is almost * The expression used by my informant was ho-ho, that is, the man was Jio-ho-ed, or hooted. The brand of a dog was also used iu Kashmir as a mark of disgrace at least nine hundred years ago. In the Haja Taringini it is related that Eeja Saugrame, in A.D. 948, punished the Brahman Chakramela by marking his forehead with the " paw of a dog" {Swapddena) . 264 LADAK. always procvirable for money, it is probable that the sentence of the law may have been death, although in practice the culprit was permitted to compromise by stripes, imprisonment, and fine. Such a course was in strict keeping with the precepts of their religion, which is averse to the taking of any animal life. The two modes of capital punishment were clroioning and crucifixion. In the former the culprit was bound hand and foot, and thrown into the Indus with a stone fastened to his neck.* In the latter mode the criminal was conducted to the Songsa, or " place of execution," by the Shetma, or " executioner." The Sal-sh'mg,-\ or " crucifix," was a St. Andrew's cross fixed to an upright stake. The culprit was stripped naked ; his hands and feet were bound to the extremities of the cross, while his head was secured to the vipright stake by his own hair. In this position he was either quickly tortured to death by boiling oil, or was slowly allowed to expire under all the agonies of thirst and physical suffering. It is worthy of notice that in both of these modes of capital punish- ment, the shedding of blood was studiously shunned ; for the sentence of crucifixion was carried out by hlnding, instead of nailing, the criminal to the cross. I presume, therefore, that there must have been some religious re- pugnance to putting a culprit to death by any mode that involved the shedding of blood. Mutilation of one or of both hands was, however, occasionally employed. * Fea Oeazio, p. 291. The same punishment was carried into effect in the same manner in Great Tibet. The culprit was " getta al flume con un gran sasso al collo." t gSal-sliing, " clear wood." For what reason such a name was given to the stake, it would perhaps be difficult to discover. Perhaps it was intended for the tree tliat cleanses from guilt. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 266 For Tlieft and other crimes, the punishment (chkad- jm) was threefold : 1st. Li'is-chhad, that is, " corporal pmiishment," or stripes ; 2nd. Nor-chhad, " property- punishment," or fine, which was nearly always taken in goods at a ruinous valuation ; 3rd. Tson-chhad, " prison- punishment," or imprisonment. The corporal punishment was the same for man and woman. The culprit was placed full-length on the ground, and received the awarded numher of stripes on the bare posteriors. This punishment, however, could always be avoided by the payment of a commensurate fine. The punishment by fine was always enforced, except in cases of poverty and absolute inability ; but the culprits were made to pay in person by a double amount of stripes for what they were unable to pay in money or in goods. In cases of imprisonment the culprits were confined in the Tson-khang, or jail, secured with fetters {skrog), and superintended by the Tson-dsi, or jaUer. Theo- retically food was allowed during the term of imprison- ment ; but practically, both in the provinces and in the capital, the prisoners' friends were obliged to supply food to save them from starvation. In cases of conmaon theft, the stolen property, if recovered, was restored to its owner, and a fine, equal in value to the amount of the stolen goods, was levied on the thief for the benefit of the state. If the property was not recovered, a double fine was levied, one half being given to the robbed party, and the other half to the government. This was the punishment for a first offence. For a second ofi'ence the sentence was loss of the left hand ; for a third offence, loss of the right hand ; 266 LADAK. and for a fourth offence, death by drowning. These at least were the allotted punishments, and, with the ex- ception of the last, they were generally carried into effect in all cases of robbery of public property or of church goods. But in cases of private robbery the usual influ- ences had their weight. Near relationship might sway the judges to a milder sentence ; or a fair bribe, judi- ciously bestowed, might induce the chief Lama of the monastery of Hemis to interfere, by an appeal to the king's mercy, which it was unusual to refuse. A direct appeal could also be made to the king by the prisoner's relatives, on the presentation of an offering of four or five rupees, if the criminal was a poor man, or of fifty to a hundred rupees, if he was a rich man. For Adultery, where the woman was the guilty party, the paramour, as in Europe, was fined according to his means, or received an equivalent corporal punishment, while the husband had the option of taking back the woman, if he chose to do so. Or if he did not wish to keep her, he could retain her dowry. Wlien the hus- band was the guUty party, the wife could demand back her dowry. Common disputes, involving blows and abuse, were settled at once by fines and stripes. In doubtful cases, where the evidence was unsatisfac- tory, a decision was obtained either by casting lots, or by ordeal. In the latter case, the accused had either to draw a red-hot iron through his hand, or to take a stone out of a pot of boiling oil without injury. In Great Tibet both of these ordeals are practised ; but the latter is rendered much more complicated and difficult by the immersion of two stones, one black and the other white, ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 267 in the boiling- oil.* The extraction of the wMte stone, with an uninjm-ed hand, is held as a complete proof of innocence; while the extraction of the black stone, with uninjm-ed hand, is equivalent to the Scotch verdict of " not proven," of which the accused receives the benefit. The foregoing is a concise account of the practical laws of Ladak under its native rvilers. Amongst a people who were averse to the taking of any animal life, the . sentence of death was but seldom enforced ; the last case of capital punishment, wliich was executed in 184-5, being the only one during thirty years ; and I suspect that even this sentence would not have been carried into effect but for the stern and unbending firm- ness of Magna, the dogra thanadar of Le. The culprit was a blacksmith of Chachot, who had been repeatedly punished by imprisonment, fines, and stripes, for pilfer- ing the gilt leaves of books from the monasteries and the gilded pinnacles of the Chodtens, or mausolea. His last exploit was the entire removal of the copper-gilt pinna- cles from the Chodtens attached to the large monastery of Hemis. The thanadar was proof against aU appeals for mercy, chiefly, I believe, with a view to conciliate the religious brotherhood of Hemis, and partly as a stroke of policy in a newly-conquered country, to exhibit a marked example of unflinching firmness in the execu- tion of the law. As a Hindu, Magna Thanadar was quite indifferent in the matter of life or death. The unfortunate thief was therefore bound hand and foot, * Fea Oeazio, del Eegno del Thibet, p. 290. The Capuchin father declares that the Tibetans can save their hands from injury by the use of some secret art (si servono d'un certo secreto, o per arte magica). 268 LADAK. and, with a stone fastened to his neck, was cast head- long into the Indus from the Chachot bridge. The laws of Ladak still contiuue in force under the rule of Maharaja Gulab Sing, with the single exception of death for the slaughter of kine. This punishment was early carried into effect in some eight or ten cases in the different districts of Ladak. In 1841 and 1842 at Nuhra, Chachot, Le, and Nyimo, single individuals were put to death, and their bodies exposed on gibbets, by Jhandu, the thanadar of Le, for killing and eating kine. All these were Musulmans from Balti. In Dras, where all the population are Mahomedans, several were put to death by Gusami Thanadar for the same cause. The skeleton of the man gibbeted at Le, in 1841, was stiU nearly perfect in October 1847, when I saw it. IV.— EEVENUE. The chief sources of revenue in Ladak were a tax on property and a duty on merchandise. The tax, called Kliral, Thang, or Slid,* was levied on the dwellings and not on the lands ; for as the lands did not produce suffi- cient food for the sustenance of the people, the establish, ment of a land-tax would have been absurd. The mass of the people obtained their living l)y the transport of wool and other goods through their own country, to and from Yarkand and Kashmir. The duties, called Shogam, Avere imposed on merchandise, both imports and ex- ports, and the whole revenue thus obtained was called Thob-thang. The tax on houses was collected partly in kind, BriU * Khral, pronounced Thai in some districts, Thang, and dFya, the last being pronounced Sha or Cha. REVENUE. 269 khral, and partly in money, Nnl-khral* The collectors, called Skai/ffHcljiftpOji transmitted their various quotas, at stated periods, to the Chag-dsot, or lord high trea- surer, at Le, where they were all deposited in the Ter- dsot,X or treasury. The poorer classes, who were unahle to pay either ia money or in kind, were obliged to pay by bodUy service as labourers. They were appropriately named Kanggro, or " foot-goers," that is, porters or labourers on foot, in contradistinction to the others, who were called Lagdon, or " hand-doers," that is, payers by hand. The duties were collected at the custom-houses (57w- gamgyina) by the Shogampas, or customs-officers ; and the tolls on the high-roads were taken by the Ldchanpas, or toU-gatherers. These duties were taken partly in kind and partly in money, and generally in equal portions. The gross annual collections usually averaged Rs. 18,000. The tax on houses was regulated according to their size. Eor a large or "full-sized" house {Khang-chhen) there was a charge of seven rupees ; for a middle-sized or " half-house," three and a half rupees ; and for a small or " quarter-house," one and three-quarter rupee. § Under the Gyalpo's rule there were reckoned 18,000 paying houses, of which 400 of large size paid Es. 7 each = Es. 2,800 1,600 middle „ .3^ „ = 6,600 16,000 smaU „ 1^ „ = 28,000 18,000 houses paying Es. 36,400 * hBru-khral, " corn-tax," and dNgul-kJiral, " money-tax." t dPya-sNgud-pa-po, pronounced as in the text, Shangudpapo. X gTer-mDsod, cakXeA ?t\s.o gTer-mTsong ,Le Fac. Ang. 6 lar: Cap.72"7 c*^!^ A.Cu^fuc^/tjim del DaytSon,Zilf'^toriie(( PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 297 part to any natural tendency to curl, but solely to the tangled and thickly agglomerated matting of the hair, consequent upon its never having been combed or washed from first to second childhood. In the accompanying plates* I have exhibited four different views of two Botian skulls which I procured at Hanle and at Le. The first is a specimen of the nomadic dwellers in tents, the second of the settled inhabitants of houses. There is a considerable difference in the shapes of these two skulls, but I believe that the Le specimen is a departure from the usual type ; its elongated form being most probably due to some malformation at the time of birth. This is I think fully proved by the continuation of the longitudinal suture from the top of the cranium down to the nose. As a second skull from Le, which I have in my posses- sion, resembles very closely that of the nomadic Boti of Hanle, this cranium may be taken as a very good specimen of the Ladaki type of Boti. The characteristics of this type are almost the same as those of the Mongolian. The more strikiiig are a round and globular shape of cranium, and a great lateral extension of the zygomatic arches, coupled with a narrow forehead, which gives what Prichard has called a pyramidal form to the front view of the skull ; that is, if lines be drawn from the outside of the cheek- bones touching the temples, they wUl meet in a point at a short distance above the head. This form is quite different from that of the European skull, in which the width of the forehead is often greater (but I believe never less) than that of the cheek-bones. In other respects these Boti skuUs appear to resemble very closely * Plates X. and XI. 298 LADAK. those of the civilized Chinese. Indeed, if the statements of their own historians* are to be credited,'^that the Chinese originally came from the Shensi forests of the frontiers of Tibet, we can scarcely come to any other conclusion than that they were originally of the same stock as the people of Tibet, or in other words, that they were actually Botis. The Mongolian origin of the Chinese and of the Botis is, I believe, universally admitted ; and I would attribute the differences between them and the present nomadic Mongols partly to the early civilization of the Botian race, and partly to the admixture of Hindu blood. The form of the skulls in my possession, and more particularly of the frontal bone, also shows a considerable affinity to the Hindu race. In corrobora- tion of this view, I am happy to quote the opinion of M. D'Halley,t who says, " Peut-etre que les Bhots sont des Hindus modifies par leur melange avec des Mongols." The following table exhibits the facial angle, the cranial capacity, and the present weight of the four Botian skulls, three of which are in my possession. Skulls. Facial angle. Cranial capacity. Weight. Cubic in. lb. oz. No. 1 from Hanle 80° 74-5 1 4-44 2 „ Le GS" 72-7 1 6-44 3 „ Le 73" 70-0 1 7-46 4 „ Balti 75° 72 1 2-40 74° 72-3 1 5-18 The facial angle in these specimens ranges from 68° * Pricliard, N.atural History of Man, p. 227. t Des Eaces Humainea, p. 128, note. PHYSICAL BESCRIPTION. 299 to 80°; but as there is good reason for supposing that the skull which yields the lower number has been a malformation, I would deduce the mean facial angle from the other three skulls, wliich agree with each other in general appearance. This would fix the facial angle of the Botis at 70°, which is somewhat less than the Em?opean average of 80°, but at the same time it is a considerable improvement upon the Mongolian and Kalmuk average of 70°. That some individuals may occasionally approach the Caucasian standard, we have an example in the cranium of the nomadic Boti of Hanle, which has a facial angle of 80°. The amount of the cranial capacity is another dis- tiaguishing characteristic of different races. In this respect the Botis arc i*emarkably deficient, but perhaps not more so than might be expected from the small svze of the race generally. Taking the average height of Europeans at five feet and a half, and the average capa- city of their skulls at eighty-eight cubic inches, then the cranial capacity of a Boti five feet in height should be ten-elevenths of the other, or eighty cubic inches. But the average of the three Botian skulls in my possession falls much below tliis number ; that of the most capacious being only seventy-four cubic inches and a half. The three Botian skulls now described agree very closely, in their respective weights, with that of a Chinese, recorded by Prichard, which weighed 1 lb. 7^ oz. Had the teeth been perfect, the agreement would have been still more close : for No. 1 has but half a tooth ; No. 2 has only three teeth, while No. 3 has twelve teeth. The true average would therefore most probably range 300 LADAK. from 1 lb. 7 oz. to 1 lb. 8 oz. These skuUs are aU thin and smooth, and of compact texture, excepting only the jaws, which aj)pear to me to be rather massive for the size of the head. Of the configuration of the Boti skeleton, I can give but little positive information. The shoulders are square and broad, and the trunk is rather long in proportion to the statiu'e. I obtaiued the pelvis* belonging to No. 1 cranium, which has a longitudinal axis of 3*75 inches, and a transverse axis of 3"6 inches, with a form inclining to the square. According to Professor Weber, as quoted by Prichard, this shape prevails generally amongst people who resemble the Mongolians. The Botian tribe would, therefore, seem to possess the same physical characteristics, both in outward form and in their bony structure, as those which distingidsh the Mongolian race generally, with only some slight modifi- cations, which are most probably due to their con- nection and occasional mixture with the Caucasian race of India. For the sake of comparison I have given sketches of two Kashmirian skulls, f one male and one female, which I procured in the city of Kashmir. The dif- ferences are very striking ; but more particularly the oval shape of the skull, the flattened form of the zygomatic arches, and the narrowness of the jaws ; aU of which peculiarities are characteristic of the Caucasian race. The measurements of my Kashmii'i skulls are as foUows : — * See Plate XII. f Plates XIII. and XIV. PliUeXn Pelvis from Hanle Tke J AO of Ladak ' G^ Cunn.i'u/fLa'K del Y ^SorvJ^u^^'' t^ThaQueen naCcXUJ Male KASAofKASHMIR City Fac:Ang73 5 J^a.yi.SonlttVI'wThe Oae^n. Temaie K ASA of KASH M IR Citv Cxaii: Cap: c"? i n . A CiiTtTtz^hamy. ^Let- -Day I Sm-JneC^to The(^iieen. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 301 Male Facial angle. Cranial capacity. Weight. 73-5° 97 lb. oz. 1 14 -4* 1st Female 2nd Female Average Female 8.5° 84° Cubic in. 68 67-5 1 5-2 84-5° 67-75 liONGEVITT. One of the most interesting subjects of inquiry wliicTi I pursued daUy in Ladak was the extreme ages attained by the oldest people in all the villages in my route. To test the value of the information thus collected, I have added to the following table the number of persons per cent, of each sex who reach the respective ages of seventy, eighty, and ninety years throughout the whole of Great Britain. The table requires little explanation. The fii'st and second columns give the actual number of males and females in the several villages where the ages of the people were ascertained. It is necessary that this should be stated, as it will at once account for the great per-centage of females in Kixkchu who had passed the patriarchal age of seventy. The number is 2'45 per cent., or three out of 122. But the general average is stiU much below that of Britain ; and I feel satisfied that the whole table gives a very fair approximation to the truth. I have added a column showing the duration of life in Balti and the small Musalman states on the * This very large skull vrants the lower jaw, and has only three teeth in the upper jaw ; but the bone of the skull averages about one quarter of an inch in thickness. The whole weight, if complete, would bo nearly 2i lb. 302 LADAK. Indus. The differences between this and the average of the Ladakis can only be accounted for by the general dissoluteness of all Musalmans, and the consequent spread of loathsome and fatal diseases. TABLE OF LONGEVITY PEE, CENT. Rukchu Numbers. 70 to 80. 80 to 90. 90 to 100. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 113 122 -880 2-459 0-880 0-820 — — Spiti 686 751 1-157 1-164 0-291 0-693 — — Ladak 1,342 1,492 0-745 0-670 0-447 0-268 0-074 — Purik 867 883 1-268 0-905 0-807 0-792 0-115 0-113 Nubra Average .... Balti, &c Great Britain 788 1,030 1-269 2-336 0-507 0-777 0-127 0-194 3,796 4,278 1-064 1-507 0-586 0-670 0-063 0-061 13,662 13,387 0-537| 0-527 0-184 0-175 0-070 0-022 1 2 -2181 2-401 0-700 0-756 0-059 0-074 I heard of only one person who was more than 100 years of age. She was an old nun of Sakte, in the Chimra valley, whose sons were seventy and eighty years old. She was said to be 110 years of age. I had no means of ascertaining the rate of mortality ; but diffe- rent people stated the annual number of deaths at Le at from twenty-five to fifty, or about forty persons. As the population of the capital is nearly 4,000 persons, the annual mortality will be rather more than one per cent. The population of the country, except in times of war or disease, remains nearly stationary ; but this is not owing to any unhealthiness of climate, but to the system of polyandry, which most effectually checks any increase. In 1822 the number of houses in Spiti was 267,* and in 1847 the number was 262. * Trebeck in Moorcroft, II. p. 71. ""X ^«'A^ 1 1%: ^^'^ i ^ I i "^g -=>• Cliang-jok. Men ;f PIN in S P I T I . 303 IV.— DEESS. The men of Laclak wear a cloak* of woollen, thick and warm. It is usually white, or rather it has once been white ; for as the people only wash themselves once a year, and never wash their clothes, their cloaks are always of a dirty hue. Round their legs, from knee to ankle, they have coarse woollen leggingsf (of felt), fitting tightly, or else wrapped close round the leg and secured by a garter, J which is wound spkally round the leg from the ankle upwards. The garter is generally black, but sometimes red. On their heads they wear either quilted skull-caps, as filthy as their cloaks, or caps of sheep-skin with the wool inside, and with a large flap behind, which covers the back of the neck as well as the ears. Those in better circumstances have fur caps of the same shape. Their boots are of felt, with soles of sheep or goat-skin, which are turned up all round and sewn to the felt. The upper part of the felt boot is open to the front, and is allowed to faU over, something in the manner of the boots worn in England in Charles II. 's tune. The lamas have red boots, and the others mostly have theirs ornamented with small bits of coloured cloth in the front. § The Ladaki women wear a black woollen jacket with a large striped woollen petticoat of many colours, gene- rally green, blue, red, and yellow, reaching below the mid-leg. Over aU they wear a sheep skin "ndtli the wool inside, secured, or rather skewered, in front by a large * The cloak is called La-pasha. t The legging is called rKang-Phying. % The gai'ter is called rKang-gDuh. § See Plates XVII. and XXIII. for the men's dress. 304 LADAK. iron or brass needle. The poorer classes have the out- side of the skin plain, but those in better circumstances cover it with coarse woollen baize, either red, blue, green, or yeUow, with a broad border always of a different colour. The upper classes cover this sheep-skin cloak either with brocade or with sUk. Their heads are always bare, the hair being arranged in a border of narrow plaits, which hang round the head like a long Mage. Prom the forehead, over the division of the hair, they all wear a long narrow band of cloth studded with coarse many-flawed turquoises, which hangs do\vn behind as low as the waist, and is usually finished off with a tassel of wool or a bunch of cowrees. The ears are covered by semicircular woollen lappets, fastened to the hair and edged with brown or black fur, generally of the otter-skin, called Kimduz. These ear-flaps are always red, the inside being wooUen, and the outside brocade. These are made coarse or fine according to circumstances ; for the Lad^ki women seem to pride themselves upon the style and material of these lappets just as much as European ladies do upon the fashion of their bonnets.* The dancing-women wear similar dresses, but they sometimes also have long gowns, of different colours, instead of the jacket and petticoat. Their heads are always covered, either with a coloured and quilted skuU- cap, or with a cu'cular, flat-topped, stiff woollen hat, something like a short shako without a peak. These are ornamented mth cornelians and turquoises, t AH * See Plates XV. XVI. XVIII. XIX. and XXII. for the women's dress of Kanawar, Spiti, and Ladak. t Plate XXII. Moorcroft, I. p. 328, remarks that " a Ladaki female in full costume would create no small sensation amongst the fashionable dames of a European capital." I KANAWAK vr A C^mJ tc^i'Tr'-'thf- (htt^^/i. Height 4f* 9 DANCKHAR S FM r i Height 4f' '.'.I SHt :- I /KDAK NURLA -r. LADAK, FOOD. 305 classes of women wear, besides, a profusion of necklaces, made of cornelian, turquoises, or amber, and they have also massive ornaments of silver and brass, studded with turquoises. Both men and women wear in their waist- cloths or girdles a C/iakmak (or leather case ornamented with brass, containing flint, steel, and tinder), and the men, besides, usually carry a knife or dagger in their girdles. The women likewise carry a brass spoon, a convex brass mirroi*, and a case of coarse needles attached to their gu'dles ; to these may be added a small metal or wooden cup or quaigh, a single or double flageolet, a metal spoon, and plate, all of which are stuffed into the slackened breast of the dress, nest the skin, along with a ball of wool, a coil of rope, and a few unleavened wheaten or barley cakes. v.— FOOD. The food of the common people usually consists of thick barley cakes, or of barley-meal moistened with water, with a broth of turnips, either fresh or dried, according to the season, to which are added a few peas, and a seasoning of salt and pepper. Meat is seldom tasted by the poorer classes excepting upon occasions of rejoicing, at a birth or marriage. Tea is now, I believe, coming into common use, although I never myself saw any of the labourers drinking it. Amongst the upper classes tea is drunk two or three times a day. It is made in a strong decoction with soda, then seasoned with salt and churned with butter, until it acquires the colour and consistency of thick rich cocoa or chocolate. Wheaten cakes are eaten with it in the morning, either plain or with butter and sugar. The same meal is X 306 LADAK. repeated in the middle of the day, with any fruits that may be in season, — apples, grapes, and apricots, or with the last dried. In the evening they usually have rice, and a broth of turnips, or of sheep or goat mutton, for since the occupation of the country by the Hindu Dogras, Yak's flesh is no longer to be had in Northern Ladak. Even in the British district of Spiti, the Yak is now a sacred animal, as our Government have made over the district to the Hindu raja of Bisahar. All classes are exceedingly fond of spuituous liquors, although they have nothing better than their o^vn indigenous Chang. This is made from fermented barley and wheat flour, and has a most disagreeable sour smell, Like that of bad beer, and a thick appearance like dirty gruel. This is the usual beverage ; but it is sometimes distilled, by which process a clear spirit is obtained, something like whiskey, but of a most villanous flavour. VI.— SOCIAL CUSTOMS. The most remarkable social institution of the Botis is the system of polyandry, which is strictly confined to brothers. Each family of brothers has only one wife in common. The most usual number of husbands is two, but three and even four husbands are not uncommon. This system prevails of course only among the poorer classes, for the rich, as in all eastern countries, generally have two or three wives, according to theu^ circum- stances. Polyandry is the principal check to the increase of population, and however revolting it may be to our feelings, it was a most politic measure for a poor country which does not produce sufldcient food for its inhabitants. SOCIAL CUSTOMS. 307 The Botis are very social people in their habits, and every event is made the pretext for a feast, which usually ends in great uproariousnoss, and frequently in general drunkenness. Huge bowls of Chang form the chief attraction of an entertainment, and the song * and the laugh abound, until the liquor is finished. On these occasions they prefer merry or drinking songs. The singer is often accompanied by a fiddler, and sometimes by a drum. Exhibitions of female dancers frequently form a principal part of an entertainment ; but the performers are more remarkable for their costume than for theu* graceful movements. The principal occasions on which these entertainments are held, are births, marriages, and deaths. The ceremonies are the following : The bii'th-feast, Tsas- Ton, is held one week after the mother's confinement, when all the relatives assemble at her house to celebrate the child's birth. All the guests make presents to the mother, according to their means, of pieces of cloth and food, and occasionally of money. The party then dines, and the entertainment ends with a bowl of chang. The mother remains at home for one month. The naming-feast, Ming-Ton, which answers to om* christening, is held just one year after the birth. The child is then taken before some great lama, to whom an offering is made of a rupee or a quantity of wheat or barley, according to the means of the parties. The lama pronounces a name, and the relatives retu'e to the usual entertainment of dinner and chang. The marriage-feast, Bag-Ton, is a much more formal business. When betrothed, the bridegroom proceeds to * A drinking-song is appropriately called Chang-gLu, a " Liquor- song." X 2 o08 LADAK. the bride's house with a bowl of chang, and the relatives discuss the wedding-day and the spirits together. After the bridal day has been fixed, the bridegroom is obliged to send a portion of food and chang daily to his elect. After the end of fifteen or twenty days all the relatives of both parties assemble together to ask the bridegroom what present he wdll make to the mother of the bride. The bridegroom makes an oflPer, generally of a few rupees (one to ten), according to his means and the ardour of his love. A poor man will give a pot of chang and a silver jao (sixpence) to his bride's mother, while the thriving man will give a present of ten rupees. About ten or fifteen days after the '•' asking," the relatives of both parties assemble at the bride's house, and conduct the lady in state to the bridegroom's house, where prayers are read by a party of lamas, and the couple are declared man and wife. The whole party then sits down to dinner and chang, of which the supply on these occasions is always ample. The entertainment lasts for several days, according to the means of the bridegroom, and the assembled lamas read prayers every morning to tlie half-sober guests. The funeral- feast, Shid-Ton, varies according to the rank and circumstances of the deceased. For a rich man, a large party of lamas assemble, and read prayers daily until the body is burned, which does not usually take place for fifteen or twenty days. Eor a poor man, only a few lamas meet together and read prayers for four or five days (never beyond a week), while the body remains in the house. During this time a piece of cloth is fixed over the doorway as a sign of mourning. The lamas are regaled with food and tea daily ; and, when SOCIAL CUSTOMS. 309 the body has beon burned, they are presented with the clothes and cooking-vessels of the deceased. Wlicn a great man dies, such as the Gyalpo or any of the Kalilons, his corpse is kept in the house for fifteen or twenty days, while the assembled lamas read prayers daily. The number of the lamas depends on the means or pride of the relatives. The body is then carried to the Pur-Jchang, or place of cremation, and after being burned in a metal vessel, the ashes {Pur- thal) are carefully collected and made into an image of the deceased. A Chliorten, or pyramid, is erected on the spot for the reception of an urn or funeral vessel (Pur-Gom), in which the following articles are deposited with the figure: — 1. Wheat, barley, rice, and peas. 2. Pearls, coral beads, turquoises. 3. Gold, silver, copper, iron (either in money or vessels). 4. EoUs of prayers and holy writings. 5. Pieces of the holy Shukpa, or pencil-cedar, and of sandal-wood, both white and red. The body of the great lama is interred in a coffin {Pur-Gam), dressed in the usual clothes, with the knees brought up to the chin, and corded together in as small a compass as possible, and in a sitting posture. Beside the body are placed the deceased's plate and cup, his rolls of prayers, his praying-cylinder, and all his religious instruments, together with the grains, minerals, and metals, usually deposited with royalty. To these are added images of Shakya Thubba, Jamya, and Chanrazik, and a figure of the lama himself. The coffin is deposited in a Chliorten, before which, for some time, food and water are offered daily, and a light is kept burning every uio-ht. 310 LADAK. These details may appear trifling, but they are really of great value for the illustration of Indian Buddhism. In some of the topes or Chaityas, near Bhilsa, lieut. Maisey and myself found both precious stones and pre- cious metals deposited with the relics of Sariputra and Maha Mogalana, the right and left hand disciples of Buddha. On some of the relic-boxes we found inscrip- tions giving the names and patronymics, and occasionally the titles, of the holy men whose relics were enshrined. These short epitaphs are still used in Ladak, where they are called Dur-chang, or tomb-inscriptions. In the lofty districts of Rukchu and Chang-thang, where no wood is procurable, and where burning with the Tibetan furze would be a tedious operation, the bodies of the dead are always exposed on hills to be eaten by vultuxes and wild dogs. Trebeck* states that the faces of the dead are covered when thus exposed ; but my informants, both at Rukchu in 1846, and at Hanle in 1847, were silent on this point. The Hanle hill was literally covered with bones, from amongst which I obtained the skull and pelvis of the most perfect skeleton. In Great Tibet the bodies of the dead are cut into small pieces by professional corjDse-butchers, or pinliers {decoujieurs de mort), and given to the dogs. Tliis is called the " terrestrial funeral." The bones after being bruised in a mortar with parched corn are made into balls and thrown to the dogs and vultures. This is the " celestial funeral ;" and these two are considered the most fortunate modes of disposing of the dead.f * Moorcrot't's Travels, II. p. 49. t Nouv. Jour. Asiatique, toni. iv. 1829, pp. 254, 255, Fatliur Hya- cinthe's translation from the Cliinese. SOCIAL CUSTOMS. 311 The favoiu'ite amusement of the Botis, both of Laddk and of Balti, is Polo, in which all parties from the highest to the lowest can take a part. I saw the game played at MulbU, in a field 400 yards long and eighty yards Ijroad, Avhich was Availed round for the pui'pose with a stone dyke. There were twenty players on each side, all mounted on ponies and armed with sticks about four feet long, and bent at the lower end. One player took the ball and advanced alone into the middle of the field, where he threw up the ball and as it fell struck it towards one of the goals. The goals were formed of two upright stones placed about twenty-five or thirty feet apart. "When the ball was ckiven through a goal, one of the successful party was obliged to dismount and pick it up, for if the opposite party should have driven it back before it was picked up, the goal did not count. The game consisted in winning a certain number of goals, either five, seven, or nine. Numerous musicians were in attendance, who made a most lively din when- ever a goal was won ; and the noise was increased by the cheers of the successful party. The game is a very spu-ited one, and well calculated for the display of bold and active horsemanship.* Ac- cidental blows occur frequently, but the poor ponies are the principal sufi'erers. The game was once common in India imder the name of Chaogan, but it is now com- j)letely forgotten. The old chaogan-grounds still exist in every large town in the Panjab hills ; in BUaspur, Nadon, Shujanpiu', Kangra, Haripur, and Chamba, where the goal-stones are still standing. The game is * It is well and tersely described by Yigue as " liockey ou horse- back." Mr. Thornton calls it " criclcet on horseback ;" but it has nothing whatever in common with cricket. 312 LADAK. repeatedly mentioned by B&ber ; but after his time it gradually became obsolete. It was introduced by tlie Musalman conquerors, and the very first king, Kutb-ud- din Aibak, was killed by a fall from his horse when playing at chaogan in A.D. 1210.* The Pathan kings of India still continued to join in the game down to the time of Sikander Lodi, in A.D. 1498, when " one day, while the king and his court were playing at chaogan, the bat of Haibat Khan Shirwani by accident came in contact with the head of Suliman, the son of Darya Khan Lodi, who received a severe blow. This was resented on the spot by Khizr Khan, the brother of Suliman, who, galloping up to Haibat Khan, struck him violently over the skull. In a few minutes both sides joined in the quarrel, and the field was in uproar and confusion. Mahmud Khan Lodi and Khan Khanan Lodi interposing, endeavou.red to pacify Haibat Khan, and succeeded in persuading him to go home quietly with them. The king, apprehensive of conspiracy, retired immediately to the palace ; but nothing more transpiring, he made another party at the same game a few days after, "f VII.— HOUSES— PUBLIC AND PEIVATE. The finest buildings in Ladak are the monasteries, which are always placed on heights more or less lofty, and which generally have a very picturesque and im- posing appearance. Many of them would be places of some strength if they possessed water ; but I am not aware of a single monastery that has even one day's supply. The outer walls of the monastery are formed by * Briggs's Ferishta, I. p. 199. f Idem, p. 574. HOUSES — PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 313 the dwellings of the monks, and the interior, if large, is divided by other buildings into several open courts. One room, more spacious and much more lofty than the rest, is set apart as a temple for the performance of daily service. The outer walls are generally white- washed ; and the battlements are ornamented with broad bands of red, and surmounted with numerous small flags that flutter in the breeze and give a lively appearance to the whole place. Outworks are some- times added for the purpose of defence. These are generally plain curtain-walls connected by square towers croAvned by machicoulis.* The generality of the houses throughout Ladak are so much aKke that a description of one will serve for all. The houses usually consist of two or three stories and sometimes of four. The foundations and lower parts of the walls are built of stone, the upper walls of large sun- dried bricks, 20x10x6 inches. In the better houses some of the rooms are of considerable size, twenty-five feet long and eighteen broad ; but they are always very low, the highest not exceeding seven and a half or eight feet. The roofs of these large rooms are always sup- ported by plain wooden pillars. The roof is formed of poplar spars five or sis inches in diameter, peeled white, and laid only one to one and a half feet apart. The beams are covered in with small straight pieces of poplar branches about one inch in diameter, peeled white, and placed toucliing each other. Generally they are laid straight across the beams ; but sometimes at different angles, in the alternate intervals, so as to form a pattern Uke herring-bone. The whole is then covered with a layer of leaves and a thick coat of well-beaten * See Plate XX. for a view of the monaaterv of Hanle. 314 LADAK. clay. The floors are generally of earth, but the better sort are paved with small slit pebbles, about the size of turkeys' eggs, set in clay with the flat surfaces upwards. They form a clean, hard, smooth, and lasting floor. The principal room generally has a balcony towards either the south or the west, from ten to twenty feet in length, and usually about two feet and a half in width, where the family sit to enjoy the sun in the winter season. The doors are mere rough planks of wood, joiaed together by wooden tenons, and sometimes strengthened by cross bars fastened with wooden pins. Purdahs or wadded curtains are also used as an additional means of excluding the cold wind ; but when the doors are shut, there is only a dim light admitted into these apartments through one or two loopholes, which are closed with small shutters at night. If supplied with glass windows and fu'eplaces, many of these houses would form very comfortable residences; but at present they must be wretched habitations for the mnter. The houses of the poorer classes are generally of two stories : the lower story being appropriated to their cattle. The roofs are much more coarsely made, and the rooms are small and very low, being sometimes under six feet in height. In Ladak, the upper story is usually reached by a flight of earthen steps ; but in Lahul, by the sloping trunk of a tree notched into steps. The royal palace at Le is a large fine-looking building, that towers in lofty pre-eminence over the whole city. It is 250 feet in length and seven stories in height. The outer walls have a considerable slope, as their thickness diminishes rapidly with their increase of height. The ii!^-*>''i-*V^'J^;i5f^V^P'';,,^-:; HOUSES — PUBLIC ANU PRIVATE. 315 upper stories are furnished with long open balconies to the south, and the waUs are pierced with a considerable number of windows. The beams of the roof are sup- ported on carved wooden pUlars, and covered with planks painted in various patterns on the outside. The building is substantial and plain ; but its size and height give it a very imposing appearance.* * See Plate XXI. for a view of the palace at Le. 316 XII.-III STORY I.— UNDEE NATIVE EULEES. " The earlier history of Laclak is that of Tibet in general, as it originally formed one of the provinces of that kingdom, governed as to temporal matters by an independent prince, and in spiritual affairs by the Guru Lama, or chief pontiff of Lhasa." Such was Moorcroft's opinion ; * and such also is that of the present in- habitants : and there can be no reasonable doubt that such was the usual position of Ladak, although its political dependence was more nominal than real. Under vigorous rulers, such as Palgyi-Gon in the tenth century, and Singg6 Namgyal in the seventeenth century, its entire independence was asserted and upheld. But the original dependence at some distant period is, I tliink, clearly proved by the acknowledged descent of the Ladaki princes from Khri-T?aupo, the first recorded king of Great Tibet. The earliest historical notice of Ladak is that of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian, in A.D. 400. t At that time * Travels, I. p. 33G. t Fo-kwe-lci. French translation by Eemusat, &c., p. 26. Fo-kice- ki. English translation by J. W. Laidlay, p. 27, note 1. This trans- lation is enriched by many valuable notes, both geographical and religious. It should be in the possession of every one who takes any interest in the ancient history of India. UNUEK NATIVE IIULERS. 317 the country had a king, and a numerous clergy, all of whom were strongly attached to the popular Buddhistical doctrine of the " Lesser-advancement" which consisted of outward observances, both moral and religious. The ceremonial of the quinquennial assembly, which was originally established by Asoka, about B.C. 250, was duly performed with much rude magnificence, and with becoming gravity. Buddhism was then the prevailing religion of Ladak ; and there seems good reason to believe that it had been firmly rooted there for upwards of 400 years, since the first century before the Christian era, when the Buddhistical doctrines were first widely spread throughout Tibet by the preacliing of 500 Kashmirian missionaries.* In the tenth century, when the empbe of Great Tibet was finally broken up, several of the outlying districts were separated by ambitious chiefs, and erected into independent kingdoms. Thus Purang was occupied by Tashi-Degon, and Ladak by Palgyi-Gon.t From that time down to the end of the sixteenth century, no historical records now exist in Ladak itself, although it is possible that a copy of the royal genealogy may yet be found at Lhasa. Csoma de Koros was certainly misinformed regarding the existence of a book at Le containing the " names of the kings that successively reigned in that principality." f For, during the in- vasion of Ladak in the beginning of the seventeenth century, by Ali Mir, the Musulman chief of Skardo, all • Klaproth's Chinese Chronology, in Prinsep's useful Tables, p. 128. It was however &st introduced about B.C. 240. t Csoma de Koros, Kings of Tibet. Prinsep's useful Tables, p. 131. See also Deguigne's Hist, des Huns, &e. torn. i. p. 165. X Note appended to his list of Tibetan kings. Prinsep's useful Tables, p. 132. 318 LADAK. the temples and monasteries of the country are said to have been destroyed, and their libraries throwTi into the Indus. To this cause the Lamas attribute the entire want of all historical documents prior to that time ; and their only record accordingly begins with the conquest of the country by Chovang-Namgyal,* a descendant of Khri-Tsampo,^ the first king of Tibet. No date is given : but as his brother's son was a contemporary of the emperor Jehangir, this conquest could not have taken place much earlier than A.D. 1600, or perhaps about 1580. During my stay in Ladak I had a copy of the existing history of the country transcribed for me in the original Tibetan. The historical portion of this work is brief, as the greater part of the volume consists of the Lamaic ideas of the cosmogony and theogony. When in Ladak I had the principal historical parts read and explained to me, of which I made notes at the time ; and I had also an abstract prepared by a Munshi in Urdu. From these I have now arranged the only interesting parts of the history, extending over a century and a haK, during which period Ladak was conquered three different times. Chovang-Namgyal, a descendant of the ancient kings of Tibet, being expelled from Lhasa, took refuge in Ladak, where he established himself about A.D. 1580. He afterwards extended his conquests into the neigh- bouring districts of Chcmgmarangi, Lodang, Piirang, Gug4, Lhojiimlang, I/imgti, Shigar, and Khabkar. % He * Chlw-dVanrj-rNain-rOyal, that is, king Chovang. t Khri-rTsam-po, prouourced Tid-Tsanpo in Great Tibet. X The names of these places are thus written in Tibetan : Byang- dMa-rarujis, bLo-dang, Bu-rang, or sPu-rangs, Lko-JiJum-lang, Lung-ti, SU-dKar, Khah-dKar. Purang lies to the S.E. of Ladak, and Shigar UNDER NATIVE UULERS. 319 then returned to the capital to make preparations for the invasion of Yarkand by the Nubra road. On licaring of his intentions, the chief men of Nubra at (mcc waited upon Chovang at Le, to tender their sub- mission, and a trustworthy officer was despatched to receive charge of the district. After this, Chovang imposed a yearly tribute of one hundred golden tillas* upon the landlords of Kukiwdla, and upon those of Bitdok a yearly tribute of 207 golden tillas, besides one horse and ten unicorns. t He also levied a con- siderable svim from the neighbouring districts. Having acquired a large sum of money by these conquests, Chovang Namgyal resolved upon erecting an image of Buddha, under the name of Sankya-Bldung, or the " replete with extreme holiness." When the image was finished, all the people assembled to make theii" offerings, and a great feast was celebrated upon the occasion. Some time afterwards, about A.D. 1600, when he was meditating the erection of other images, he was prevented by death, and having no children, he was succeeded by his brother. The new king, named Jdmya Nmngyal,X upon his to the N.W. of it. The ambitious Chovang therefore would seem to have aspired to the conquest of Ngari, and of Haiti, as well as to that of Ladak. But the historian has most probably dignified some success- fill plundering expeditions with the name of conquests. * A tilla is worth about six rupees. The proper name for the gold coin is sir-jao, or a golden _yao. t In the original, bSe-ru, an animal with one horn. Csoma de Koros calls it a kind of deer (see Diet, in voce). Klaproth has a long note upon this animal (see Xouv. Journ. Asiat. tom. vi. pp. 229, 230, 231). He states that Mr. B. H. Hodgson's Chiru of southern Tibet is the same as the Sej-it ; of which I think there can be no doubt. Mr. Hodgson himself assigns the animal to the " open plains of N.E. Tibet," but he has published no description. See Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, IV. p. 522. X hJam-dVyangs, " sweet harmony." 320 LADAK. accession, received the usual oflPerings of suljmission from all the Ladakis, excepting only a petty chief of Purik who was in the interest of Ali Mir, the Gyalpo of Balti. Chovang Malig, the head chief of Purik and the elder brother of the rebel, applied to Jamya for a small force to coerce the refractory cliief. The king assented and accompanied his troops to the Purik district, where they were suddenly overtaken by a violent snowstorm. The royal troops were dispersed ; and the king and many of his principal followers were taken prisoners by the rebel and sent to Skardo,* where they were confined. The remainder of the troops were permitted to return to Ladak. Ali Mu', the ruler of Skardo, taking advantage of the helpless state of the country, immediately marched upon Le with a large force, and took possession of the whole of Ladak. t The temples and monasteries were burned ; J the images of Buddha and of his various personified emanations were destroyed by the bigoted Mahomedans ; and all the religious and historical books were thrown into the Indus. The conquest was complete ; and arrangements having been made for the future govern- ment of Ladak, Ali Mir marched back to Skardo. Shortly after his return, the conqueror released Jamya, the imprisoned Gyalpo of Ladak, and gave him one of his daughters in marriage. No reason is assigned for * Skar-mDo, pronounced Skardo, " the starry place," or " starry fort." t This conquest is also recoi'ded in Vigne's brief historical notice of Balti (Kashmir, II. p. 253) ; but the chief of Skardo is there called Ali Shcr, and not Ali Mir. Ali Sher is the true name, as all the petty chiefs of the Balti district claim their descent from him. X The buildings in Ladak are readily burned down, as all the walls are bonded together with timber, which in so dry a climate is readily igiiitod. UNBEll NATIVE RULEllS. 321 a proceeding so foreign to the usual tyrannical bigotry of a Musalman. It is probable that Ali Mir, iinding it difficult to retain Ladak as a permanent province of Iiis kingdom, thought it more politic to secure by a display of apparent generosity, even the lukewarm friendship of the king of Ladak, than to encounter the active hostility of a whole people. Jamya's return was hailed with joy by his people, who all hastened to present their offerings of submission and congratulation, and to beg that he would restore the temples and images of Buddha, and procure new copies of their sacred books from Lhasa. All this he was able to effect by his prudent management, as well as to extend the boundary of his dominions to TaiicJd. By the Baltian princess, Jamya had two sous, named Singge Namgyal and Norbu Namgyal. The former was married to the daughter of Chovang Gi/almo* who bore him two sons, named Navaiig Namgyal and Tan j in Namgyal. On this occasion the king sent a costly present of money, gold, silver, pearls, and coral to the temple of Johorlnche, at Brak2npiilka,\ near Lhasa. He also ordered to be copied in letters of gold, silver, and copper, the two books called Gyatok'isangsmn, % after which he is said to have died of grief or chagrin upon learning that two temples of Buddha still remained * rQyal-mo, a " queen." She must have been one of the petty prin- cesses of the country. t TiBrag-p,lii-s}>rul-ku, pronounced Bralcpipidka. The neighbour- hood of Lhasa is literally a vast suburb of temples. The names of many are given by Father Hyaciuthe in his translation from the Chinese, but I can find no mention of Johorinclie. See Nouv. Journ. Asiat. tom. iv. pp. 294-5-6. J rGya-tog-gSen()-gSum, the " three secrets of Gyatok.'" The lamas read " tico " to me ; but as gSum means " three" there are probably three books of this name. .' 322 LADAK. unfinished. His reign probably extended from A.D. 1600 to 1620. Jomiya was succeeded by his eldest son Singge Namgyal, who, feeling emulous of the military fame of his uncle Chovang, began his reign by conducting an expedition into the districts of Guge, Kiprok, and Tipichangyap, from which he carried off many cattle and other property of the zamindars. Dm'ing his reign a monk, named Staktshang-Rasj)a, who had travelled through Gtyagarnag, TJrgyan, and Khdche,* arrived at the viUage of Tamosgang,\ iu Ladak, where he made and consecrated an image of Charaba.J To this image he attached five monks for the performance of daily service, and having seen the complete establishment of the worship, he gave away in alms all that he possessed and departed. After this Ahmed Khan, the chief of Balti, with the assistance of Jehangir Shah, invaded Ladak with a very large force ; but Singge Namgyal having collected his own troops to oppose them,§ the invaders were defeated * rGya-gar-nag, literally the " white and black plains," that is, India and China. U-rgyan, the country of mixed races, perhaps the ludo- Persian district of Udydna, and the valley of the Kabul river. Khd- chhe, Kashmir. t gTany-mo-sgang, on the right bank of the Indus below Le. It is now the most populous village in Ladak. J Byams-pa, pronounced Chamba, the " Clement." This saint is now very popular in Ladak. He is the future Buddha, Maitreta. § Jehangir reigned from A.D. 1605 to 1628. The defeat of the Baltis may therefore be placed about A.D. 1625. This defeat is confirmed by the chronicles of Skardo, which (according to Vigne, Kashmir, II. p. 253) refer the loss of Ladak to the reign of Ahmed Khan, the son of Ali Sher. The subsequent invasion of the Lhasan territory probably took place in 1630. It is at least certain that these events could not have occurred later than 1630-1635, because in 1640 the celebrated and UNDER NATIVE RULERS. 323 with great slaughter at Kharbu* After this victory the king returned to his capital, and then proceeded at once against the people of Gtufe, Chaprang, and Lomo- stang, who had taken advantage of the j\Iuhammadan invasion to rebel against the authority of Ladak. They were quickly reduced by the active Singge, and at the same time he took the opportunity of adding the neigh- boui'ing district of Ptudok to his kingdom. Flushed with success, Siugg^ Namgyal next determined to attack Lhasa itself; but when he had advanced as far as Si^ Kirkir,i he was met by a deputation from the people of the country, headed by Deba-Changpa, with several mule-loads of gold, sUver, tea, and other articles as a peace-offering. On receipt of this present, Singge Namgyal consented to evacuate the Lhasan territory. Accordingly he fell back to Lomostang, % and afterwards took possession of the districts of Furang, Chige, Zanskar, Spiti, Purlk, Mangyumla, Seclakh, and Shaky amclio.^ ambitious Grand Lama Navang-Lozang had conquered the whole of Tibet. * Khar-hu. There are two places of this name in Ladak, the larger of which is situated on the left hank of the Kanji river. The other stands on the right bank of the Dras river. The battle must have been fought at the former place, because it is on the high road iroui Balti to I Le, whereas the Kharbu of Dras is out of the way. t Shi-ri-Kyir-lcyir. This means a " winding or whirUng stream," and is probably the river Sekor of our maps, which joins the Isangpo about half-way between Le and Lhasa. Kyir-hyir, " circular," is evidently the same word as the Latin circulus, and the Greek kvkXo^. X This is probably the Stang of our maps on the right bank of the Sutluj, and on the high road between Spiti and Garo. § Purang, a district of Ngiiri to the west and south of the Manasa- rovar lake, and the Pruang of Capt. H. Strachey's map. Gu-ge is also a district of Ngdri to the west of Purang : its chief places are Chaprang land Toling. The districts of Zanskar and Spiti are well known. Pu-rig 3 upon the Kanji and Waka rivers, to the eastward of Suru ; its chief I places are Kharbu and Paskii-um. Mang-yum-la is certainly the district T 2 324 LADAK. Singg^ Namgyal had three sons, named Deldan Nomgi/al, Indra Namgyal, and Tenchhog Namgyal, amongst whom, by the advice of the lama Tlmnsliak,* he divided his dominions. To Deklan he gave Laddk, Pnrile, Rudok, and Mmigyum, as far as Dali, on the Indus ; to Indra he gave the district of Guge ; and to Tenchhog he gave Spitl and Zanskar. By this division of his territories the province of Ngari was finally alienated from Ladak, and was soon after lost by the family of Indra Namgyal to the Lhasan authorities.f Singge Namgyal reigned from about A.D. 1620 to 1670. Singge Namgyal was succeeded by his son Deldan Namgyal in the government of Ladak, Rudok, and the of Katakshe or Manrj-hliar, on tlie Indus, which still includes the large village of Dah. Katakshe iisuaUy belonged to Balti. Sed-hha and Sliag-hyar-rGyam-cliho are unknown to me. * Thun-shags ; in Sanskrit Amsglta Siddha. t It is to this petty state that Moorcroft alludes when he says that " Chanthan was formerly subject to independent princes, but their autho- rity gradually merged into the supremacy of the chief pontift" at Lhasa." (Travels, I. p. 364.) According to the information obtained by my brother, Capt. J. D. Cunningham (see Journal As. Soc. Bengal, 5III p. 231), it would appear that the Gyalpo of Guge was killed in a war with the Ladakis. The invaders were however expelled b}' a force from Lhasa, which the last chief had asked for, and the Lhasan authorities afterwards retained the province in their own hands. A treaty was then formed with the ruler of Ladak, who married the daughter of the Lhasan commander, and received the district of Spiti as the bride's dowry. This is stated to have taken place about the beginning of the last century, or about A.D. 1720, that is, some fifty or sixty years after the division of his territories by Singge Namgyal, and the foundation of the principality of Guge by his son ludra Namgyal. As the district of Spiti is said to have belonged to Guge, the family of Then-chhog Namgyal must have been dispossessed by that of Indra Namgyal some time beforehand. According to the above account also, the Spiti district must have been alienated from the kingdom of Ladak from about A.D. 1660 to 1720, when it was reconquered by the Ladiiki ruler Delek Namgyal. UNDER NATIVE IIULEHS. 325 western districts of Purik, Suru, and Ilombabs. lie began bis reign with a display of great zeal in the cause of religion by constructing a large image of gold and silver in the village of She.* He also built a lofty tomb with a pinnacle of gold and silver, to the memory of his father, and constructed a wall around the mo- nument of his mother. He erected temples at Zanskar, Pushbuz, and Tumnuz, each at a cost of Rs. 10,000. In the fort of Le, also, he set up an image of Chandra, t and appointed several priests for the per- formance of daily worship. In the same place too he consecrated a silver image of Chanrazik, the god of the dead. I The appointment of Shaky a-gya-cho to the post of chief minister having produced a revolt in the disti-ict of Purik, the minister with a large force marched in person to Kharbu, where, having seized the principal officers, he returned to Le and imprisoned them in the fort of Hemis. About a year afterwards the people of Cliigtan, Shako, and S6d,§ rebelled against the govern- ment. The minister was again despatched to queU the disturbance, wliich he effected vidthout any difficulty ; and Tliai Sultan, the author of the rebellion, being * This image, which still exists iit She, has now lost all its gildiug. It is a colossal copper figui-e of ShaJeya Thubba, or Shakya in a sqiiatliny posture. She is on the right bank of the Indus, a few miles above Le. t ICham-hdrc. Moorcroft calls this image by the name of Chamha {Byams-pa, the " Clement "), but his description of it differs somewhat from the paintings of Chamba which I possess. (See Moorcroft's Travels, I. p. 343.) X Spyan-ras-rigs, pronounced Ghan-razih. It is equivalent to the Sanscrit Avalokita or AvaloTciteswara, the " seen." This image is also described by Moorcroft, and most accurately (I. p. 31'2). § Clugfan, Sha-rJcar or Shako, in the Suru valley. Sod, near Paskyum in Purik. 326 LADAK. seized at the village of Karcliu,* was sent as a prisoner to Le. After this the minister with a large army invaded the district of Khapalor, one of the dependencies of Balti. On his way he took possession of the district of Chhorbat ; and at Thorchekhar, near Khapolor, he received the submission of Hatim Khan, Sultan Khan, and ALi Khan, the chiefs of the district.! But the chiefs of Karchu and Balti having obtained aid from the Mahomedan governor of Kashmir, advanced against the invaders, whom they encountered at Sariru.J The Ladakis, under their leader Farak Namgyal, gained a signal victory ; the Kashmiris having lost many of their officers as weU as their colours and drums. In consequence of this victory, the chiefs of Karchu and Balti tendered their submission, and became tributary to Ladak. But this success was shortly followed by an alarm- ing invasion of Sokpos.§ Under their leaders, named Galdan Cliobar Jongar and Lohzang Sherab,\ these marauders routed the Ladaki troops at Dalang- * This place is the chief toft-n of the Suru disti-ict. It is the same as Moorcroft's Lang-kartse. t Kha-po-lor and hChhor-hBad are botli upon the Shayak river, and were both dependencies of Balti until the Dogra conquest in 1840. TJio-rche-mKhar is perhaps the Hajaclia of Vigne's map, which lies immediately to the eastward of Khapolor. Hatim Khan was the chief of Pargutu, and Ali Khan of Keris. X Sa^ri-ru, position unknown. § Sog-])o, the people of the Sog tribe. They are the Sakas of the Hindus, the ZuKai and "ZayapavKcu of the Greeks, and the Moguls of the present day, who, under the celebrated Janghez Khan, only a few centuries ago, spread terror throughout Europe. Their country is called Sog-yul, and also Li-yid, or Brass-land. II (IGali-ldan-Ohho-dBar, with the affix of liJong-hGar. The name of the other leader was hLo-hxang-She-rah. UNDER NATIVE RULERS. 327 Khavmar, and pursued them as far as Lung-JOmng ; l)ut being' afterwards worsted by the Ladakis, they retired to their own country. In the following year, however, they again invaded Ladak, and having again defeated the Gyalpo's troops, at Balasl-ija, they took possession of the village of Chang-la* Here they were joined by the people of Guge, and having advanced as far as Sakti, near the pass of Chang-la, they halted Avhile the Ladaki troops retreated upon L6. This took place in the year of Chhnmo-phag-lo, or the "water- hog," the sixtieth year of the Tibetan cycle, equivalent to A.D. 1685-86. After this the Sokpos took possession of the whole country as far as Nyimo,t excepting only the forts of Tashigang, Baku, and Chimra.t Having failed in an attempt upon the fort of Tumnuz, they encamped at Bazgo,§ where they halted for six months. During that time repeated skirmishes took place between the two armies ; and the Sokpo chief, Galdan Jongar, tried in. vain to destroy a bridge by throwing stones upon it. These events occurred in the year of Shingpho-btjl-lo,^ * Byang-la, pronounced Cliang-la. From this and the following mention of the village of Sakti, it appears that the Sokpos invaded Ladak from the side of Euthog (or Eudok) by the Chang-la pass. The Sakti fort was in fact dismantled by the Sokpos. (See Mooreroft, I. p. 427.) t Nyi-mo, on the right bank of the Indus, about twenty miles below Le. X Chimra is most probably the village of Chum-ri, at the junction of the Chang-la rividet with the Indus. § Baz-go, a large village on the right bank of the Indus, about twenty-four mOes below Le. II In the original this date is written Shing-pliQ-hhyi-Jo, or the " wood- dog-year," which is the eleventh of the Tibetan cycle, and equivalent to either A.D. 1637 or 1697, neither of which is admissible. I have 328 LADAK. or the " wood-mouse," the first year of the Tibetan cycle, which is equivalent to A.D. 1686-87. The Ladakis now implored the aid of the Mu- hammadan governor of Kashmir, who, with the per- mission of Aurang Shah (the emperor Aurangzeb), despatched a force of 600,000 men (most probably about 6,000) under Nawab Fateh Khan, Murid Khan, Lashkar Khan, Kahgan Sultan Khan, Yahia Khan, and Jahangir Khan, to the assistance of the Gyalpo. They crossed the Indus at Khallach* by two wooden bridges ; and at Thanskya-tanag they encountered and com- pletely defeated the Sokpos. The Musulmans pursued them as far as Pitak,-\ and having taken that fort, they put the garrison to death, whUst the main body of the Sokpos took refuge in the fort of Le. After tliis the invaders having agreed to quit Ladak, retired to Kashiin, on which the Mahomedans returned to Kashmir, accompanied by Jig-hal Namggal, the younger son of the Gyalpo. This happened in the year of Shingmo-kmg-lo, or " the wood-ox," which is the second of the Tibetan cycle, and equivalent to A.D. 1687-88. In the following year, however, the Sokpos again invaded Ladak, and destroyed the fort of L6. But, afterwards, through the mediation of a lama, named Brug-pa-I'ham-Bang2W, the Sokpos agreed to retire on receiving possession of the district of Rudok. A large stone was then set up as a permanent boundary between therefore made a slight correction by changing Mtyi to lyi, whicli is fully justified by its tallying with the other recorded dates. * Klml-lach. The principal bridge across the Indus, on the high road from Kashmir to Le, is still at this place. t Pi-tag, a small rock-fort on the right bank of the Indus, only four miles from Le. UNDER NATIVE RULERS. 329 the two countries, the line of demarcation being drawn from the village of Dechhocj to the hiU of Karbonas. This invasion of Ladiik by the Sokpos is thus re- lated by Moorcroft.* " About a century and a half ago the Kalmak Tartars invaded Ladak and occupied L6, and the Raja flew to Kashmir and implored the aid of I])rahim Khan, the governor of that province in the reign of Aurangzeb. With the permission of the emperor, and on the condition that the Raja became a Musalman, Ibrahim Khan led a body of troops into Ladak, expelled the Tartars, and replaced the Raja on the throne by the title of Akabal Mahmud, conformably to his new faith. A mosque was erected in Le, which is still kept up. The son and successor of the Raja reverted to the national creed, and the apostasy was overlooked at Delhi in consideration of the encourage- ment given to Mahomedanism in the country, and a small annual tribute or present paid to the governor of Kashmir, as the representative of the emperor." A similar account is given by Mir Izzet Ullah,t who says, how- ever, that the title given to the Raja was Akabet Mah- mud Khan, and that " the Hakims at Kashmir still address the raja of Tibet liy that designation." Izzet UUah farther states that the Raja " coins the Ji'idX in the name of Mahmud Shah." This last fact seems to be conclusive of the Gyalpo's apostasy ; and I may add that the Dogra soldiers always called the last Gyalpo by the name of Akabet Mahmud Khan. The people, how- ever, both lamas and laymen, whom I interrogated upon this subject, stoutly denied that the Gyalpo had * Travels, I. pp. 336, 337. t Quarterly Oriental Magazine, No. Y. p. 109. I " Yovs juds make one rupee." — Izzet UUah. 330 LADAK. ever become a Musalman, although they acknowledge that from that time Ladak had continued to pay tribute to the governors of Kashmir. The real truth no doubt is, that the chief made an open profession of the Muham- madan faith in the presence of the Musalman troops at L6 ; but after their retirement to Kashmir he naturally reverted to his own creed. It is probable that the Gyalpo's younger son, Jigbal, who accompanied the Musalman troops on their return to Kashmir, may have become a Musalman ; and that the governor may have been satisfied with the real conversion of the son, and the permanent establishment of a masjid at Le.* Deldan Namgyal had several sons, one of whom, Jigbcd, accompanied the Muhammadan army to Kash- mir. Another, named Banchak, proceeded to Lhasa with the Sokpos, at the request of their leader. Of a third, called Thuptan, nothing is related. A fourth, named Delek, succeeded his father, who abdicated in his favour, and afterwards resided in the fort of Stuklakte. The reign of Deldan Namgyal probably extended from A.D. 1670 to 1705. Delek Namgyal married the princess, or Gyalmo, of Lomostang, by whom he had five sons : 1st, Nyima ; 2nd, Navang ; 3rd, Dechok; 4th, ChoUan-grub ; and 5th, Chortan.i Delek Gyalpo probably reigned from A.D, 1705 to 1740. It was during his reign that the district of Spiti was re-annexed to the kingdom ; and it was * Vigne (II. p. 253) saya that " the name of the first Ali Sher Khan, or Shah Murad, is stiU to be seen upon a mosque at Le." Moorcroft, however (I. p. 337), refers the building of the masjid to the period of the Gyalpo's conversion, and so does Izzet Ullah. t These names are written thus : 1st, Ni/i-ma ; 2nd, Kga-dVang ; 3rd, hBe-sh/ong ; 4th, Chho-dVal-ton-gruh ; 5th, Chlio-rtan. UNDER NATIVE RULERS. 331 perhaps towards the end of his reign, or more probably in the beginning of his successor's reign, that Laddk was invaded and conquered by Murad, the chief of Balti,* who reigned from about A.D. 1720 to 1750. From that time down to A.D. 1834, when the country was conquered by the Dogras under Zordwar Sing, the general of Raja Gulab Sing of Jammu, the history, as related to me, was uninteresting. I find, however, that Vignef mentions an invasion of Balti by an army of Ladakis, during the reign of AH Sher, the father of Alimed Shah, the last chief of Balti. The invaders were defeated and obliged to siu'render. As this must have happened not more than twenty or twenty-five years prior to Moorcroft's visit to Ladak, it is strange that he makes no mention of it. Vigne's account is farther confii'med by the existence of a tree, which was pointed out to him on the Ladaki frontier near Khallach on the Indus, which was said to have grown from a stick planted there by Ali Sher Khan on his return from a victory in Ladak. J When Moorcroft visited Ladak in 1822, the Gyalpo paid an annual tribute to the governor of Kashmir, with which Banjit Sing was probably contented. But the recent conquest of Kashmir, and the threats of the Sikh governor, had even then alarmed the Gyalpo, who made a tender of his allegiance § to the British Government, which, unfortunately for the prosperity of * Vigne's Kashmir, II. p. 253. t Kashmir, II. p. 254. J Kashmir, II. p. 254. It is possible, however, that this may refer to the conquest of Ladak by the first Ali Sher Khan. § Moorcroft's Travels, I. p. 420. I agree with Professor Wilson, » Preface, p. xxiii, that " a friendly footing in Ladak would be highly favourable for establishing a beneficial trade with Tartary and Tur- kistan." 332 LADAK.. Ladak and the commerce of British India, was refused. From that time the Gyalpo lived in continual apprehen- sion of an invasion of his territory hy the Sikhs from Kashmir ; hut the governors of that district were too frequently changed, and too closely watched hy the emissaries of the Jammu brothers, to he able to carry out such a design, even if they had formed it. Eor Raja Dhyan Sing, who was omnipotent in the Sikh durbar, was resolved that no one but his elder brother E-aja Gulab Sing should obtain possession of Ladak and Balti. The invasion of these countries was therefore postponed until Gulab Sing had consolidated his power in his newly-acquired territory of Kashtwar,* which he had lately wrested from its hereditary chief, f Accord- ingly, in 1834, when the power of the Jammu brothers had been extended over all the hill states lying between the Jehlam and the Ravi, excepting only Kashmir, a large body of Dogra troops under the Vazir Zorawar Sing invaded Ladak from the Kashtwar valley. The foUoAving account of this invasion was kindly dictated, at my request, by Mehta Basti Ram,i now governor of Le, who was one of the jirincipal officers of the expedition. As an authentic record of an interesting event, of which no other account exists to my knowledge, I should have * Kdslitavara, abounding in wood. t The representative of this family is now a Christian residing at Simla. He formerly lived at Ludiana, where he was converted by the American missionaries. X Mehta Basti Eam is a Hindu rajput of Kashtwar. He was the governor of Takla-khar, or Takla-kot, near the source of the Sarju or Ghagra river, at the time of Zorawar Sing's defeat and death, when he made his escape to the British provinces of Almora. He speaks in high terms of the kindness shown to him by the British resident, Mr. Lushington. CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGRAS. 333 preferred giving the narrative almost literally, but I found that in this shape it would entail the insertion of too many foot-notes, which would have completely dis- tracted the attention of the reader. I have therefore re- written the account entu'ely, and have given the Tibetan names, which my knoA\iedge of the localities enabled me to do without much difficulty. The narrative was of coui-se dictated in the first person, for which I have throughout substituted the name of " Dogra " and " the Dogra troops." II.— CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGRAS. 1. The chief officers engaged in this expedition imder the Vazir Zorawar Sing, were, 1st, Mia E,ai Sing ; 2nd, Mehta Basti Ram ; 3rd, Mirza Rasul Beg ; 4th, Rana Zalim Sing ; 5th, Singhe Mankotiah ; 6th, Mian Tuta ; 7th, Sirdar Uttam Sing ; and 8th, Vazir Khojah Bhunjah. 2. The Dogra troops marched from Kashtwar, and entered the Ladak territory by the pass at the head of the Suru valley,* where, on the 16th of August, 1834, they were opposed by the Boti leader Mangal, at the head of 5,000 men. The Dogras advanced to the attack up a hill, which was obstinately defended for a whole day, and at last succeeded in dislodging the Ladakis with a loss of only six or seven killed, and five or six wounded; whilst the enemy lost thirty killed, and as many wounded. They encamped on the north side of the hill for the night, and on the next morning marched to Suru, where they halted for eight days. Dui-ing that time the Vazir * This pass was described to me as being estremcly easy on the uorthem side, but very steep and difficult on the south. 334 LADAK. prohibited his troops from cutting the corn, which was then ripe, and his politic conduct was rewarded by the immediate submission of the zamindars, who came over to him in a body, and placed themselves under liis pro- tection. The Vazu- then built a small fort,* which he occupied for a month. He next advanced to Shakhar,j- where there was a fort belonging to Thai Sultan, and having reinstated the zamindars of Janguri and Shak- har in their villages, he made a summary settlement of the district by imposing a tax of four rupees upon each house. 8. Leaving thirty-five men in the fort and ten men over the bridge, the Dogras advanced by Langkarchu % and Manji to the bridge of Paskyum, where they were again opposed by the Ladakis. The struggle was desul- tory and protracted, the Dogras losing only seven killed, while the Botis had fifty or sixty killed, and a greater number wounded. By a skilful manoeuvre the Laddkis effected their retreat across the bridge, § which they then broke down. On the following day, however, the Dogras managed to cross the river on inflated skins without opposition ; on which the chief of the place abandoned Paskyum, and fled to the fort of Sod, |1 where, with the zamindars of the district, he determined to hold out. * This is the fort in Vigne's map called " KOali Siiru Kurri," be- longing to Giilab Sing. t 8hd-mKhar, the fort of Sha. X The Lang-kartse of Moorcroft. The true name I believe is " Lung- Jcarj-chii" or the " valley of the Karj river." The bridge here men- tioned is that which was crossed by Moorcroft on his journey to Dras. § The Waka-chu is not fordable at Paskyum, and the bridge is within musket-range of the fort, and of numbers of houses on the northern bank of the stream. II Sud, the Soth of Moorcroft, who mentions an interview that he had with the Eaja at Paskyum. CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGRAS. 335 4i. The Dogras aclvancocl towards the place and raised a battery against it ; but after ten days' firing nothing had been effected, although they had lost forty men in killed and wounded. The Vazir, who had remained beliind at Paskyum, then ordered Mehta Basti Ram, with a party of 500 men, to make a vigorous assault upon the place. Accordingly, early the next morning, wliilst it was still dark, the attack was begun by a discharge from the battery, under cover of which the Dogras advanced rapidly to the assault. By daybreak they had gained possession of the place, and had captured the Gyalpo. Altogether the number of prisoners taken at Paskyum and at Sod amounted to 6,000 men. A whole month was then wasted in fruit- less negotiations with the zamindars of the district, who would not agree to the terms of settlement proposed by the Vazir. 5. In the mean time Akabat Mahmud Khan, the Gyalpo of Ladak, -udth the Banka Kahlan * and four chiefs, named Gapaju, Dorje Namgyal, Chang or Chovang Nabdan,t the Kahlon of Bazgo, and Rahim Khan, of Chachot, accompanied by a force of about 22,000 men, arrived at Mulbil. From thence they despatched envoys to the camp, who at first talked boldly, and tried to frighten the Dogras, but they afterwards * bKah-bZon, the prime minister ; but the term is also applied to the chief men of all the districts. At this time the Kalilon of Chimra was the prime minister. t This man accompanied the unfortunate expedition of Zorawar Sing into the Lhasan territory. After the Tazir's death he was made prisoner and carried to Lhasa, where he is said to be now kept in rigorous confine- ment. His wife, a busom-looking dame, who manages the estate of Bazgo, informed me that she had sent several persons to Lhasa, not one of whom had been able to communicate with her husband. 336 LADAK. declared their readiness to agree to honourable terms, and proposed that some respectable and confidential agents should be sent back with them to treat with their chiefs regarding the terms of accommodation. To this the Vazir consented, and after having feasted the envoys and placed turbans on their heads, he deputed Mehta Basti Ram, with some other Dogra officers and a guard of 500 matchlock-men, to accompany them. When the men were ready to start, the Vazir was requested not to send so large a party, as their number would be more likely to alarm than to pacify the minds of their countrymen. Accordingly only five men, with two respectable zamindars, named Gola and Nanda, were sent with the envoys. On their arrival in the Ladaki camp, these men were treacherously seized by the chiefs, and despatched under a guard of 500 men to the bridge of Darkech. One of the men, however, a Suwar, named Eatan Sing, managed to escape, and returned to the Dogra camp. In the mean time Banka Kahlon, by a circuitous route, attacked the Dogras in their rear, and made many prisoners, who were thrown bound into the river in sight of their comrades. On this the Vazu", seeing the danger of his situation, ordered a retreat, which with some difficulty was eflPected to Lang-Karchu, in the Siiru valley, to the fort of Tliai Sultan. There the Dogras remained immolested for four months, procuring a precarious subsistence by plunder alone. 6. At the end of that time Banka Kahlon with his 22,000 men advanced towards Langkarchu ; but the Vazir, having received intelligence of their movements, despatched a party of 100 men to oppose them, when they were within one kos (one mile and a half) of the place. Now the straggling manner in which the Dogras CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGKAS. 337 were obliged to wade through the snow, and the un- soldier-like way in which their tents were scattered over the oyien country completely deceived the Ladakis as to the real number of their enemies. They were, besides, quite exhavisted with their long and fatiguing march through the snow ; and therefore, instead of attacking the Dogras at once, they halted for a considtation, which ended in the whole body sitting doAvn to prepare theu* evening meal of tea and wheaten flour. On seeing this the Dogras attacked them with theii" swords, and after five or six were kiUed on each side, and several were wounded, Banka Kahlon and the other Ladaki leaders became alarmed, and fled with numbers of their men. The remainder of the Dogras, who had hitherto held aloof, now rushed to the attack, and completed the rout of the Botis ; 400 Ladakis, in attempting to escape along the bank of tlie river, were overwhelmed by the fall of a snow-bed, and 1,200, who had been concealed behind a hUl, were made prisoners, along with Moru Tadsi,* the Kahlon of Bazgo, and his son Gyurmed.f The Dogras lost three of their leaders, namely, TJttam Vazir, Hazru Vazir of Una, and Surtu Rana, with twenty men, and between fifty and sixty wounded. 7. ^yter this victory the Dogras were again enabled to advance to Paskyum by making use of their prisoners for the carriage of their baggage. Prom thence they marched by Shergol to Mul])il, where they halted for fifteen days, and then proceeded by Kharbu to Lama- * Mo-ru-rTii-rDsi, or Mont, master of the horae. Yigue (Kashmir, II. p. 352) calls him Marut Tanzin. He was the Kahlou of Chimra, a district to the S.E. of Le, on the Eudok road. See Moorcroft's Travels, I. p. 425. t liGi/ur-med, pronounced Yiirmeil m Great Tibet. Z 338 LADAK. Yurru, where they were met by an envoy with a letter from Sultan Akabat Mahmud Khan,* suing for peace. Eight months,! he said, had now elapsed in the vain struggle for independence, and that, if the Vazir would promise faithfully that he should not be seized, he would himseK come to treat about the terms of peace. To this the Vazir at once assented, adding that the king need not be under any alarm, as the Dogras wanted nothing more than the payment of a regular tribute to their master, Maharaja Gulab Sing. On this the Gyalpo advanced to Bazgo, and intimated his -wish to have an interview, provided the Vazir would not bring a large body of men with him. Accordingly the Vazir, Zorawar Sing, with Mehta Basti Ram and 100 men, waited upon the Gyalpo, whom they found encamped upon the plain of Bazgo, J with a party of 2,000 men. The Gyalpo received the Vazir kindly, and begged that he w^ould move his camp to Bazgo, which was soon afterwards done. 8. When ten days had elapsed, the King wished the Vazir to accompany him to Le, but with only a small party, lest the inhabitants should become alarmed. Zorawar Sing assented, and started for Le with only 100 men. Soon after their arrival the Vazir waited upon the Gyalpo, and was preparing to make his usual offering * This is the name by whicli the Dogras always knew this chief. They had received it from the Muhammadans of Kashtwar, who of course used no other name for the descendant of one who was said to have been converted. The Gyalpo's real name was Tonduk Namgyal. t As the advance was made in the middle of August, 1834, the defeat of the Ladakis must therefore have taken place in the middle of April, 1835. Vigne (II. p. 353) says the spring of 1835. I Bazgo is a very picturesque place situate on the right bank of the Indus, twenty miles below Le. CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGRAS. 339 of a Sadka of Rs. 100* to the Gyalpo's son, named Chanp^-raplitan, then only seventeen years of aij^e, when the prince, mistaking the action either for an insult or for treachery, ch-ew his sword. His followers did the same, and the Dogras also drew their swords. On this the Gyalpo fell upon his knees and clasped the Vazir's hands, while the prince and his followers retired into the fort of Le. Some horsemen carried the intelligence to the Dogra camp at Bazgo, when 5,000 men started at once for Le, which they reached the next morning. 9. For foiu' months t the Vazir remained at Le, when it was finally arranged that the Gyalpo should pay Rs. 50,000 for the expenses of the war, and a yearly tribute of Rs. 20,000. Of the first, a sum of Rs. 37,000 was paid at once, partly in cash and partly in jewels. The balance the Gyalpo promised to pay in two instal- ments, the first of Rs. 6,000 at the end of one month, and the second of Rs. 7,000 at the end of four months. The Vazir then fell back to Lama Yurru. 10. At this place he heard that the chief of Sod had recaptm'ed his fort, and had put to death the Dogra garrison of fifty-five men. By forced marches the Dogras reached Sod ; but the enemy having dispersed, they halted there for thirteen days. Thence they marched thirty-seven and a half miles % in. two days to Suru, where they sm'prised the Botis by a night attack. Thirteen of the enemy were taken prisoners and hanged * A bag of money waved around the bead by the person who presents it. t As the march from Suru to Le, with ten days' halt at Bazgo, must have occupied nearly a whole month, the Vazir could not have left Le until the middle of October, 1835. X Twenty-five /I'o.s, each kos being as nearly as possible one mile and a half. z 2 340 LADAK. upon trees ; while by a promise of fifty rupees for every head the Dogras obtained 200 prisoners, who were at once beheaded. After this the zamindars of the district tendered their submission. 11. Here it was discovered that this rebellion had been excited by Mihan Sing, the Sikh governor of Kashmir, who had even sent a servant of his own, named Jala Sing Gopi, with fifty men, to the assistance of the chiefs of Suru and Sod. 12. Leaving Suru the Vazir marched in ten days to Jasku * or Zanskar, the chief of which, together with all the zamindars, waited upon him, and agreed to pay a tax of three rupees and a half for every house. 13. Intelligence now arrived that an insurrection had broken out in Le ; that the Gyalpo, at the instigation of Mihan Sing, the Sikh governor of Kashmir, had closed the roads to the merchants ;t that he had confiscated the property of Moru Tadsi and the Banka Kahlon, and that he had imprisoned and tortured his Munshi Daya E,am, on suspicion of his being a partisan of the Dogras. This news distressed the Vazir very much ; and his anxiety was further increased by the difficulty of finding a guide, who would conduct him by the direct route to Le, upon which he had determined to march at once. Every one professed entire ignorance of any du'ect route, untU at length a man named * Zanc/s-mKar, which the Dogras invariably call Jasku, and which is the Zanskar of our maps. t llihan Sing's intention was undoubtedly to force the whole trade through Kashmir, which otherwise, owing to the occupation of Ladak by the Dogras, would have been turned into other channels leading through Kashtwar, and the Dogra territories dependent upon Jamu to India. The amount of duties upon merchandise in transit through Kashmir had alreadv fallen oil" from this cause. CONQUEST OF LAUAK liV THE DOGllAS. 311 Midplii Sata offered his services, to whom the Vazir gave a present of a pair of goldou bracelets, worth E.S. 500, besides two rupees a day, and the promise of tlie district of Zanskar in perpetuity. 14. With twelve seers of wheaten flour, and a bag of barley upon each horse, the party, under the direction of their guide, marcliing from forty-iive to sixty miles * a day, in ten days reached the village of Tsumur,t where they most unexpectedly heard that the wife and son of the Gyalpo were then residing. A party of 500 horsemen was sent forward to capture them ; but they received early intelligence of the movement, and fled to L6. On this the Gyalpo waited upon the Vazir at Chachot,J and expressed his sorrow and contrition for what had occurred. The Vazir demanded why he had so shamefully broken his promises, and added, "iUthough * From thirty to forty kos a day ; but this is impossible in such a country. The probable length of each clay's march cannot be estimated at more than thirty uiOes, which would give a total distance of 300 miles in ten days. The exaggeration, however, is natural to men in such circumstances. This march must have taken place in the end of November, 1835, at a season of the year when the winter's snow baa already set in tliroughout Ladak, and when all the higher passes are finally closed. Their route was therefore most probably up the Zanskar river, and over the Lunga Lach and Thung-Luug passes to the Indus below Gya. By this route they would have travelled about 300 miles. I know of no other route that would be passable in November. The direct route to Gya from Zanskar is open but for a few months, and that which lies down the coui'se of the Zanskar river, and over the Singe La to Lama Turru, is closed in October. Besides which, the distance by either of these routes would not have been even 150 miles. t This is no doubt the large village of Chumri or Ghimra, on the right bank of the Lidus, opposite to Marchalang, and on the high road leading to Eudok. This position must have been chosen by the raja's family for the convenience of escape into the Chinese district of lludok. X Chachot is on the left bank of the Indus, between Chumri and Le. It is tlie Chushut of Moorcroft. 342 LABAK. we conquered your country with 10,000 men, we did not place a single man of our own over any of your districts, but left you in sole charge of the whole kingdom." The Gyalpo was much ashamed, and promised to be faithful for the future. 15. On the next day the Dogra troops, accompanied by the Gyalpo, proceeded to Le, where the Vazir demanded the balance of the tribute, amounting to Rs. 13,000, besides the additional expenses of the army. To pay the first, the Vazir was obliged to take the property of the royal ladies ; and in Heu of the second, the Kahlon, Achu Ganpu, oflPered tea and wool, gold and silver utensils, and other goods, which were accepted. The government of the country was then bestowed upon Moru-pa Tadsi, the Kahlon of Banka, while the Gyalpo was allowed a jaghir.* A fort was erected outside the city of L6, and Dalel Sing was ap- pointed thanadar of the place with a body of 300 men. After this Zorawar Sing proceeded to Jammu, taking with him the son of Moru Tadsi, and some other respectable men, as hostages for the good behaviour of the new king.f 16. Before leaving Le, the Vazir had ordered Lakpat RaiJ and Basti Ram to proceed against Balde.§ Ac- * This was the large viUage of Tok, on the left bank of the Indus, opposite to Le. It is stUl held by the Gyalpo's grandson, although three- fourths of tlie perquisites formerly attached to it have been resumed. t This must have taken place in the spring of 1836, according to the narrative, soon after which Vigne appears to have visited Le, where he found that the new king, called " Marut Tanziu," was installed, while the old king " was living at Tok, over the river, opposite to Le." — Vigne's Kashmir, II. p. 354. J Lakpat Eai was the governor of Kashmu' in lSi6, and was killed in the early part of the rebellion of Shekh Imam-ud-din. § Balde or Palder, the Phaldam of Moorcroft, is the chief place in Zanskar. CONQUEST OF LADAK BY THE DOGRAS. 343 coi'dingly they marched with fifteen hundred foot-sol- diers by the Zanskar road to Baldc, where they were opposed by Budlii Sing Mithania, the chief of the district. Victory declared for the Dogras, with a loss of eighteen or twenty men killed on their side, and about twenty or twenty-five on that of the enemy. After a halt of seventeen days, they proceeded towards Jammu, leaving a garrison of twenty men in the fort of Chatrgarh.* 17. Maharaja Gulab Sing and the Miaf were both very much displeased with the Vazir Zorawar Sing for having made over the country to Moru Tadsi, who had no claim to it. The Vazir replied that Moru TMsi belonged to the royal family of Ladak ; but that since his elevation was displeasing to the Maharaja, he would depose him on his return to Le. One year after this, news was brought that the new king had revolted, that he had kUled the thanadar of Balde and his twenty men, that twenty others had been made prisoners ; and that the Dogra troops throughout the country were beleaguered in their different forts. 18. On hearing this, the Vazir started at once with a body of three thousand infantry, and in two months reached the district of Balde ; but owing to the swollen state of the river he was unable to accomplish anything for two months more. J At the end of that time, when the river had become passable, the Dogras attacked the * Chatrgarh is on the right bank of the Chanab river, t Uttam Sing, the eldest son of Gulab Sing, a fine soldier-like young man, was kUled at Labor, along with No Nihal Sing, by the faUing of a J The swollen state of the river points to the months of July and August. The capture was, therefore, most probably made in Sep- tember. 344) LADAK. fort of Chatrgarh, which they carried hy storm with a loss of fifteen men on their own side, and of twenty on that of the enemy. Some twenty or thirty prisoners that were taken, had their ears and noses cut off, which frightened the people so much that they immediately tendered their suhmission. 19. Leaving a garrison in the fort of Chatrgarh, the Vazir again marched into Zanskar over the hills.* On this march twenty-five men died from the severe cold, and ten men lost their feet and hands in the snow.f On reaching Zanskar the Dogras found that the people had fled ; but during a halt of two months everything was arranged satisfactorily. After that, Rai Sing and Mia Tota, with about 1,000 men, advanced towards Le, on which Moru Tadsi, the new Gyalpo, who was formerly Kahlon of Banka, fled with precipitation from the capital. Being closely pursued, he was nearly over- taken, when, by the resistance of some of the more trustworthy of his followers, he was enabled to continue his flight. He was at length captured at the village of Tabo,| in Spiti, after a loss of six or seven men on * Their route lay over the high pass which leads from Chatrgarh to the Balde district of Zanskar. This pass was crossed by Dr. Thomson, in June, 1848, who found the boiling point to be 180'3°, at a tempera- ture considerably below freezing. The height of the pass must there- fore approach very nearly to 19,000 feet. On the Zanskar side there was a glacier extending down to 14,500 feet. The loss of so many men by the frost is therefore quite credible. t As the fort of Chatrgarh did not fall until September, the crossing of this pass could not have taken place until October, when, from its extreme height, it would of course have been covered with fresh snow. X Tabo is on the left bank of the Spiti river, and within five miles (by the road) of the British frontier of Upper Kaniiwar. The Banka Kahlon's intention was, no doubt, to cross the Spiti river by the Pog Jhula, which is only five miles from Tabo. In another hour, therefore, he would have been safe. CONQUEST OF LABAK BY THE DOGRAS. 3i5 each side ; on which he was taken back to L6 and imprisoned. The old Gyalpo, Akabat Mahmud, and the new one, Moru Tadsi, were both brought before the Vazir, who deposed the latter, and reinstated the former, upon the old terms of Rs. 23,000 yearly tribute, but with the stipulation that the expenses of the troops which oc- cupied the country should also be defrayed by him. The Vazir then again proceeded to Jammu, where he remained for a whole year,* after which he returned to Ladak with 5,000 men, for the purpose of seizing Moru Tadsi, the Kahlon of Banka, and Chang Nabdan, the Kahlon of Bazgo, both of whom had been plotting against the Gyalpo Mahmud Khan.f They had been in correspondence with Ahnied Shah of Balti, whom they wished to engage in a general rise against the Dogra authority. The Balti chief impru- dently lent too -oalling an ear to their overtures, and by a subsequent act fui'nished the long-looked-for pretext for invasion, which Zorawar Sing was but too glad to seize upon. Early in 1835 Ahmed Shah being dissatis- fied with his eldest son Muhammed Shah, had formally disinherited him by the inaugvu'ation of his yovmger brother Muhammed Ali. On that occasion Muhammed Shah fled to the camp of Zorawar Sing in Suru, and claimed his protection. This the wily Vazir readily granted ; but not wishing to embroil himself with the chief of Balti while the campaign in Ladak was stUl before him, he contented himself with giving promises * From different statements in the narrative, Zorawar Sing's resi- dence at Jammu must have been during the latter half of 1838 and the beginning of 1839. t Basti Barn's narrative ends here. The remainder of this history lias been compiled from other information. 346 LADAK. of future assistance to the Balti prince. After a time tlie prince returned to his father ; hut the reconciliation could not have been very cordial, for early in 1840 the prince fled to Le, and sought refuge with the Gyalpo, whom he believed to be a puppet of the Dogra chief. The real authority was not, however, in the Gyalpo's hands, but in those of his two ministers, the Kahlon of Banka and the Kahlon of Bazgo ; and as they were anxious to have Ahmed Shah on their side during their intended outbreak against the Dogra authority, they suggested to him the propriety of sending a party to seize his son, to which no resistance would be offered. Ahmed Shah at once agreed to this proposal, and a small party of fifty men was allowed to carry off the Balti prince to Le. III.— CONQUEST OF BALTI. When Zorawar Sing arrived in Zanskar and heard of the flight of Muhammed Shah, he sent strict orders that the prince should be treated with kindness and respect, intending, perhaps, to use him as a tool for the further- ance of his master's view upon Balti. But shortly after, when he heard of the prince's seizure by a party of Balti troops, he determined at once upon the conquest and annexation of that principality. A letter was, however, first addressed to Ahmed Shah, informing him that his son, who had sought the Maharaja's protection, had been forcibly carried off by a party who had invaded the Ladak territory, and that, unless the prince was sent back again, the Dogra troops would enter Balti and force his release. To this letter Ahmed Shah deigned no reply. CONQUEST OF BALTI. 317 Accordingly, in the end of the year 1810, the Vazir assembled an army of 15,000 men, and a large body of Ladakis, for the conquest of Balti. Ahmed Shah also prepared himself for the struggle, and was joined by a large party of discontented Ladakis, who, after crossing the Indus, destroyed the bridge, to delay the advance of the Dogras. Zorawar Sing was obliged, therefore, to march down the right bank of the river, which he followed steadily for twenty-five days, receiving the sub- mission of the chiefs of Khatakchau and Khapolor, but without finding any place where the army could be crossed. He then detached Mia Nidhan Sing, with a body of 5,000 men, by way of Shigar, to look for a road, and to collect provisions, which had now become very scarce in the Dogra camp. But the Baltis kept a good look-out, and had early intelligence of this movement. Mia Nidhfin Sing was allowed to advance unmolested for about fifteen miles, when his party were surrounded and attacked by thousands, and he himself was cut off with nearly the whole of liis detachment. About 400 men only managed to find their way back to the Dogra camp with the tale of their defeat. At the same time the winter set in with a heavy fall of snow,* and as provisions were extremely scarce, the Dogra troops became so much dispirited, that their discipline was seriously affected. With an impassable river in their front, and certain starvation both from cold and hunger, whether they retreated or remained in then* present position, the majority of the troops paid no attention to orders, and of the few who still obeyed, none did so with alacrity. * Vigne, II. p. 266, states that there are occasional winters of great severity. 348 LADAK. The Dogra army had halted in this position for fifteen days, exposed to frost hy night and to hunger by day. Many had sought shelter from the snow amongst the overhanging rocks, and there they sat listless and vacant, and utterly indifferent whether they should be cut off by the sword of the enemy, or be frozen to death by the cold. The Vazir saw the desperate state in which he was placed, and roused himself to discover a passage across the river, but after several hours' vain search he returned in the evening wearied and desponding. Upon this Mehta Basti Ram and some others, to the niunber of about forty, determined to make a last effort to extricate them- selves from their difficulties. At midnight, with only one companion, Basti Bam examined the bank of the river for several miles, while his party kept up a smart fire upon the Botis on the opposite banlv, to distract their attention. At length they discovered a place where the river was frozen over sufficiently thick to bear a man's weight, save about twenty feet in the middle, where the ice was thin. Then, sending for assistance, they cut down trees and placed them over the weaker parts of the ice, and by five o'clock in the morning the Indus was passable. Intelligence was sent at once to the Vazu", by whose order this small party of forty men was the first to cross the Indus ; but they had been so benumbed by their night's work, and by then* previous exposure, that ten of them sank down exhausted, and afterwards lost their hands and feet, and eighteen others were unable to get through the snow. Basti Bam was then left with only twelve men, which the Botis percei\dng, they moved to attack him ; but, in the mean time, Zorawar Sing, having roused a number of his men, pointed out to them CONQUEST OF BALTI. 349 that the river was passable, and that it had ah-eady been crossed by some of their more adventurous fellow-soldiers. Upon this a nimiber of Dogras advanced gladly to the attack. The Indus was rapidly passed, and the small party of daring men, after a smart fight, was safe. The Botis retreated, leaving 200 men dead on the field, and 100 men wounded. The Dogras lost only 25 killed, and 15 or 16 wounded in the action ; but they had about 500 men more or less disabled by the loss of hand or foot during the exposure to the snow of the last few days. The retreating Botis were pursued, and slaughtered for nine miles, as far as Marwan, where the ^dctorious Dogras pitched their camp. The Vazir halted there for a few days to re-organize his troops, and to reward those who had distinguished themselves in the last action. To Mehta Basti Ram he gave Rs. 500 and a pau' of gold bangles, and to thirty-two others of his party he gave similar presents of less value, to some Bs. 100, to some Bs. 50, and to others Bs. 40, according to their deserts. Zorawar Sing then advanced to Skardo, and after some desultory fii'ing, the fort was sm-rendered by Ahmed Shah for want of water.* He Avas shortly after- wards deposed by Zorawar Sing, who installed his eldest son Muhammed Shah in his room, on the promised payment of an annual tribute of Bs. 7,000. But the astute commander, who had profited by his experience in Ladak, would not leave this new conquest to the doubtful faith of a son of Ahmed Shah. A small garrison of trustworthy soldiers was placed in a new" fort on the bank of the river, to confirm the faithfulness of the new king, and Ahmed Shah and his favourite son * Ahmed Shah retired to the fort before Zorawar's arrival, having first set fire to his own palace. 350 LADAK. were carried off as prisoners to Ladak. In tliis campaign the invaders lost about 200 men, and tlie Botis about 300 men. Previous to the conquest of Skardo, the old king of Ladak, Tonduk Namgyal (or Akabat Mahmud), had been accused of having intrigued vrith Ahmed Shah for a simultaneous and organized rising of the Tibetans of Ladak and Balti. He may, perhaps, have been wrongfully accused ; but as his feelings must naturally have inclined him to think favourably of any enemy of the Dogras, it would have been impolitic to have left him behind, as the absence of the conquering troops might have tempted him to rebel. Zorawar Sing there- fore carried Tonduk Namgyal with him on his expedition against Skardo. The old man had outlived the downfall of his country ; he had survived close personal restraint and bitter indignity ; but when his last hope was cut off with the fall of Skardo, he gave way to despondency, and being attacked with small-pox, he died within a month after the anjiexation of Balti to the Jammu vice- royalty of the Sikh dominions. On the death of Akabat Mahmud, his grandson Jigmet Singge Namgyal, a mere boy, was acknowledged as Gyalpo by Zorawar Sing. The father of this lad. Prince Chovang (or Chang) Raphtan Namgyal, fled first to Hundar in Nubra, and afterwards to Spiti, on the deposal of Akabat Mahmud. In October, 1837, he reached Sara- han, in Bisahar ; and in April, 1838, he came to Kotgurh, where he resided until his death in 1839. He was then about twenty-one years of age. His vdfe, a daughter of the Kahlon Chovang Tandup, remained in Ladak with her young son Jigmet Singge. 351 IV.— INVASION OF TIBET. Elated with his success, Zorawar Sing now threatened the neighbouring states, and even talked of invading Yiirkand. But the Lhasan provinces of Rudok and Ngari were more accessible ; and the unscrupulous conqueror revived the old claims of Ladak to those districts which had been alienated siuce the time of Singge Namgyal. It was enough for him that the monasteries were known to possess vessels and in- struments of gold and silver for the service of religion ; and that the country produced the finest shawl-wool. The plunder of the first would enrich himself and his soldiers, and the acquisition of the latter would be highly pleasing to his master, as it would throw the whole trade in shawl- wool into the hands of the Jammu Raja. In the month of May, 1811, vdih an army of 5,000 men, he advanced up the valley of the Indus, and plimdered the monasteries of Hanle and Tashigong. His troops penetrated to Rudok and Garo, both of which submitted without striking a blow. The con- queror then passed the sources of the Indus, and established his head-quarters on the Sutluj at Tirtha- puri, in Guge, the priucipal place in the holy district of Lake Manasarovara. The whole cotmtry was now occupied by parties of Dogra and Ladaki soldiers. Basti Ram was stationed at Takla-Khar, on the Karnali or Gogra river, close to the frontiers of Kumaon and Nepal. Rahim Khan, a half-blood Musalman of Chachot, was placed over Spiti, while Ghulam Khan, his son-in-law, was employed in the congenial occupation of pkmdering the monasteries and temples. This work he executed with iconoclastic fury. The gold and the 352 LADAK. silver were reserved for his master; but the plastic images of clay, the books and the pictures, excited the religious bigotry of the Musalman, and were indiscrimi- nately destroyed. The news of this invasion was speedily carried to Lhasa ; and about the 7th of November, Zorawar Sing first heard of the approach of a Chinese force. He at once detached a small party of 300 men, under Nono- Sungnam,* to oppose the advance of the Chinese ; but the detachment was surroimded at Kar-dam-Khar, to the south of the Rawan-Hrad lake, and almost cut to pieces. The Nono himself escaped, and was again detached on the 19th of November, with a larger force of 600 men, under the joint command of himself and Ghulam Khan ; but this party was also surrounded and cut to pieces, and the leaders were both made prisoners. Zorawar Sing, still treating the Chinese with contempt, although they numbered about 10,000 men, or three times the strength of his own force, at once advanced from his position at Tirthapuri with the whole of his available troops. The two armies first met on the 10th December, and began a desultory fire at each other, which continued for three days. On the 12th Zoraw^ar Sing w^as struck in the shoulder by a ball, and as he fell from his horse the Chinese made a rush, and he was surrounded and slain. His troops -n^ere soon thrown into disorder, and fled on all sides, and his reserve of 600 men gave them- selves up as prisoners. All the principal oflficers were captured, and out of the whole army, amounting with * No-no is the title given to a younger brother. Nono Sungnam (or Sodnam) was the younger brother of Chang Eaphtan, the Kahlon of Bazgo. INVASION OF TIBET. 353 its camp-followers to G,000 men, not more than 1,000 escaped alive, and of these some 700 were prisoners of war. The Indian soldiers of Zorawar Sing fought under very great disadvantages. The battle-field w'as upwards of 15,000 feet above the sea, and the time mid-winter, when even the day temperature never rises above the freezing-point, and the intense cold of night can only be borne by people well covered with sheepskins and sur- rounded by fires. For several nights the Indian troops had been exposed to all the bitterness of the climate. Many had lost the use of their fingers and toes ; and all were more or less frost-bitten. The only fuel procurable was the Tibetan furze, which yields much more smoke than fire ; and the more reckless soldiers had actually bui'ned the stocks of their muskets to obtain a little temporary warmth. On the last fatal day not one-half of the men could handle their arms ; and when a few fled, the rush became general. But death was waiting for them all ; and the Chinese gave up the pursuit to secm'c theu" prisoners and plunder the dead, well know- ing that the unrelenting frost would spare no one. A few men made theu" way to their brethren at Takla- Khar ; but that garrison was so dismayed by the defeat, that they fled precipitately, even over the snowy moun- tain-range, near the head of the Kali river, into the British pro\4nce of Kumaon. But even in this un- opposed flight one-half of the men were killed by frost, and many of the remainder lost their fingers and toes. These few, and the prisoners, form the whole number that escaped with their lives.* * In this very month, and in tho same year, 1841, the British army, of about ttie same strength, \vas destroyed at Kabul. 2 A 354 LADAK. Amongst the prisoners were Ahmed Shah, the ex- ruler of Skardo, and his favourite son Ali Muliammed, whom Zorawar Sing was afraid to leave hehind. The old man was treated with kindness, and even with dis- tinction ; but his heart was broken, and he pined and died in a few months. Other prisoners of distinction were, 1st, Rai Sing, Zorawar's second in command, for whose liberation Maharaja Gulab Sing -washed the Gover- nor-General to intercede with the Lhasan authorities, 2nd. Chang-NaMan, the Kahlon of Bazgo, whose wife, a buxom rosy-cheeked dame, came crying to me in 1847 at Nyimo, to do something for her husband's release. She had written every year to him by different persons, but had never got any reply, as no communi- cations were allowed with the prisoners. 3rd. Nono-Sungnam, the brother of the last. These two brothers were considered particular friends of the invaders, and were therefore treated more harshly than the multitude. 4th. Ghuldm Khmi, the active plunderer and dese- crator of the Buddhist temples, was tortured mth hot irons. His flesh was picked off in small pieces with pincers ; and, mangled and bleeding, he was left to learn how slow is the approach of death to a wretch lingering in agony. During the A;\'inter the Cliinese re-occupied the whole of the Garo territory, and early in the spring of 1842 a body of about 3,000 men advanced into Ladak, and laid siege to the new fort at Le.* They were joined by the boy-king Jigmet Namgyal, and the unwarlike Tibetans * The people of Balti also rose ; but they were soon reduced by a small force under Vazir Lakpat, who destroyed the fort and palace, to prevent the chance of another insurrection. INVASION OF TIBET. 355 once more began to dream of independence. But after a short reign of six weeks, Dewdn Hari Chand and Vazir Ratanu advanced with, fresh troops, and the Tibe- tans were rudely awakened from their di-eam of liberty by the musketry of their old enemies, and the 3,000 would-be heroes who had talked of invading Kashmir, fled ignominiously towards Rudok. There they recovered themselves, and taking up a strong position, they deter- mined to await the approach of winter, and then join in a general rising against the Indian invaders. But the simple Tibetan was no match for the wily Indian, and the Lhasan commander was soon made a prisoner by stratagem. The strong position of the Tibetans was shortly afterwards turned ; and the Lhasan Vazir was glad to be permitted to retire on the single condition that the old boundary between Ladak and China should be re-established. In the autumn of 1846, during the rebellion of Shekh Imamuddin in Kashmir, there Avas a slight disturbance in Zanskar, which was promptly repressed by the Vazir Basti Ram, who is now one of the confidential servants of Maharaja Gulab Sing. Since then the whole country has been quiet ; and the passive Tibetans have yielded to a power which they find it unsafe to resist. The neighbouring districts of Gilgit and Chalas have been added to the Maharaja's kingdom ; and the same prince, whose dominions only twenty years ago were limited to the petty state of Jammu, now rules undisputed master of Kashmir and Western Tibet, from the sources of the Shay ok to the head of the Gilgit river. 2 A 2 356 XIIL-EELIGION. I.— EAELT EELIGION OF TIBET. The religion of Tibet is a modified form of Indian Buddhism. This faith was first introduced into Ladak dvu'ing the reign of Asoka, upwards of 2,000 years ago, when that great follower of Buddha was propagatiag his new religion with all the zealous ardour of a proselyte. In 241 B.C., at the close of the third synod, numerous missionary teachers were despatched to all the sur- rounding countries to spread the peaceful doctrines of Sakya Mvmi. The Thcro-IIajjhanUko (Sanskr. Sthavira Madhyamika) was deputed to Kashmir and Gandhara ;* and, upwards of six centuries afterwards, the people on the Indus still attributed the spread of Buddhism " beyond the river " to some Sramanas (or ascetics) who came with sacred hooks, 300 years after the Nirvana of Buddha,t or in B.C. 243. The agreement of these dates gives to the two events the relation of cause and eff'ect, the conversion of the people having been the result of the mission. The spread of Buddhism in Ladak was followed by its introduction into China, about the beginning of the * Mahawanso, p. 71. t Fo-kwe-ki, c. VII. EARLY RELIGION OF TIBET. 357 Christian era, and into Great Tibet in the middle of the seventh centauy. Previous to the occupation of Tibet by Khri-Tsampo, in about 250 B.C., there is nothing kno-mi of its history, oxccpting the fact that the people were of the Bon or Pon religion, which, like that of the Indian Tirthakaras, was an epicui-ean atheism. According to the Mogul author Sanang Setzen, Klm-Tsampo was an Indian prince of the Litsabyi (or Lichhavi) race, who, being conquered in war, had sought refuge in Tibet, where he was hospitably received, and afterwards proclaimed king by the people, who are called the Dehchin Bonbo of heaven, and the Yang Bonbo of earth.* Csoma de Koros repeats a similar story, with the addition that Nya-Khri-Tsampo, "being defeated in battle," fled to Tibet, where he was acknowledged as king by the Tons. The date of 250 B.C., assigned to this event by Csoma, makes the Lichha\'i prince a contemporary of the great Buddhist king Asoka, by whom he was most probably expelled from India ; for the Lichhavi family had been the leading people in the community of Vaisali for many centuries, during which time they distinguished themselves by their fierce opposition to the Buddhists. They opposed Sakya himself in argument, and were silenced, but not convinced by him. The Lichhavis of VaisaH professed entire belief in Swasti, from wliich they derived their name of Swastikas, or followers of * M. Sclimidt supposes that these terms indicate the people of the mountains and valleys. They may, however, denote only different sects ; the one aftecting heavenly aspirations, the other leaning to earthly objects. DehcJun is most probably Tibetan,- — the "blissful," — which is used by the Tibetans as an equivalent of the Sanskrit Sittjata, the " well- gone," or blessed, an epithet of former Buddhas. Yany may be the Tibetan Yangs, great, vast. 358 LADAK. the "mystic cross," which was a monogrammatic sign, formed of the letters su and ti. The combination stiti is the Pali form of the Sanskrit sicastl, wliich is compoxmded of su, well, and asii, it is. Wilson gives the meaning of "so-be-it;" but both versions equally imply complete resignation under all ckcumstances, which was the chief dogma of the fatalist Swastikas. These followers of the mystic cross held the doctrine of eternal anniliilation after death ; from which they derived theu- Tibetan name of Mu-stegs-pa, or "Finiti- mists."* According to the Tibetans, they were in- decent in their dress, and grossly atheistical in their principles. They called themselves Tlrthakara, or "pure doers;" and the synonymous name of Puny a, "the pure," was carried with them into Tibet, where it became celebrated for ages, and where it stUl sur- vives as Pon amongst the Finitimists of the eastern province of Kham According to the Chinese, the founder of the doctrine of the Tao-sse, or Rationalists, was Laotze, who Hved from about B.C. 604 to 523. He was therefore a con- temporary of Sakya Muni, by whom he is said to have been worsted in argument. By the Tibetan Buddhists he is called Sen-rabs ;t but this perhaps signifies nothing more than that he was of the race or family of Sena. His faith continued paramount in Great Tibet for nine centuries, until Buddhism was generally introduced by Srong-Stan in the middle of the seventh century. But the followers of the Yimg-drung-pa, or " mystic cross," were still powerful ; and in A.D. 899 Buddhism was formally abolished by Lang Tarma, and was not again * Csoma de Koros, Grammar, p. 192. t Id. ibid. p. ISl. EARLY RELIGION OF TIBET. 359 introduced for more than seventy years, until, in A.D. 971, it was finally restored, and lias since continued to be the dominant religion of Tibet. The great spread of the Pon-gyi-chho, or Pon religion, can be best appreciated by the traces of its former existence in the widely distant regions of Arakan and Ladak. The people of Arakan give a long line of fifty- live Piin-na princes * as theu' earliest sovereigns, a djTiasty which must have reigned for at least 600 years. In Ladak the great monastery of Lama Yttrru is still called Yung-druny-Gonpa, or the "monastery of the mystic cross." The establishment of this monastery is attributed to Naropa, a Lama from Brigung, near Lhasa ; but it seems more probable that the name of Lama Yurru was derived from the Lama, because he had suppressed the faith of the mystic cross (i/unff-dnii/g), and had established the Lamaic doctrine of Buddhism. But Buddhism was the prevailing religion of Ladak from the conversion of the people by Asoka's mission- aries down to A.D. 400, when Fa Hian visited India. At that time he found Buddhism flourisliing in the little state of Kia-chhe, or Ladak, as well as in Kotan and other small states to the northward of the Tsung Ling, or Karakoram. The king of Kie-chha (Kha-chan, or " Snow-land)" still celebrated the great qumquennial assembly t of the Sramanas which had been established by Asoka. The ceremony, which lasted for one month, was conducted A\ith becoming gravity, and closed by the * Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, XIII. p. 31, — Captain Latter. t In the Gryalpo's tune, the Lamas assembled annually at Le, in the month of Tang-po (March), and were dismissed with presents. They now assemble at Hemis, in June. In this monastery there are still 160 Lamas. 360 LADAK. distribution of presents amongst tlie Sramanas. As Fa Hian noticed nothing unusual in these proceedings, ayb may conclude that the Buddhism of Ladak was the same as that of India. The number of Sramanas was more than 1,000, all of whom were satisfied with the study of the " Lesser Advancement," as laid down in the Vinaya, or " Precepts of Discipline," which com- prised only the lowest class of Sakyas precepts. But though the Buddhism of the people of Ladak was perfectly orthodox in A.D. 400, yet Fa Hian noticed a peculiarity in their practice, which was unkno^Ti to the Indian Buddhists. " The Sramanas," he says, " make use of revolving cylinders, the efl&cacy of which is not to be described."* These were no doubt the prayer- cylinders which are seen in. the hands of the Indo- Scythian princes on their coins, and which may still be found in every Lama's hand throughout Ladak. II.— TIBETAN SYSTEM OE BUDDHISM. The religion of the Tibetan Buddhists is contained in a voluminous work called the Kah- G-yur, or " Transla- tion of Precepts," because it is a version of the precepts of Sakya, made from the Indian language. It is also frequently called De-not-sum, which is a mere transla- tion of the Sanscrit Tripitaka, or the " Three Reposi- tories," because it contains the three great divisions of the Buddhist doctrines : the Vinaya, the Sutra, and the Abhidharma. But the Tibetan version is more generally divided into seven distinct classes, of which the last treats of the mystical doctrines of the Tantrikas. These seven divisions are the following : — * Fo-kwe-ki, e. V., note, — " objet circulaire et toiirnant." TIBETAN SYSTEM OF BUDDHISM. 361 - Tibetan. Sanskrit. English. 1 Dul-va Vinaya Discipline. 2 Sber-cbin ... Prajnaparamita . . . Transcendental Wisdom. 3 Phal-cbhen BuddbavataSangba Baudha Community. 4 Kon-tsck ... Eatnakuta Pile of Gems. 5 Do Sutranta Aphorisms. 6 Nyang-Das jN'irvaua Final release from Existence. 7 Gjut Tantra Mystical Doctrines. The three divisions are as follows : — - Tibetan. Sanscrit. English. 1 2 3 Dul-va Do Cbhos-non-pa Vinaya Sutranta ... Abhidbarma Discipline. Aphorisms. Supreme Law. In this division the Do comprises all hut the first two of the seven classes. The doctrines contained in these works are of course the same as those of the Indian Buddhists, but the names have been translated instead of being transcribed. Sakya Muni, the founder of the Buddhist faith, is usually called Chom-dan-das, or "he who has been \dctorious," by the Lamas, but ShaJcya Tlmbba, or the " mighty Sakya," by the people. The Buddhist Triad, called in Sanscrit Batna Trayaya, or the Three Gems, is styled Kon-chhok-tun, or the " Three Supremacies," by the Tibetans, who give the following names to the different members of the Trinity. 1. Buddha is Sanyya-Kouchok, or the " Supreme " Intelligence. 362 LADAK. 2. Dharma is Chhos-Kotichok, or the " Supreme " Law. 3. Sangha is Gedun-Konchok, or the " Supreme " Congregation.* A Buddha, or one who has obtained Buddhahood, is styled Sangya ; a Buddhist, Sangya-pa ; and the Buddhist religion, So7igya-kyi-chlios. The whole Buddha community, in Sanscrit Sangha, is called Gedim, and is divided into the same number of classes as in India. 1. The Bodhisatwa, or True Intelligence, is called Chang-chlmb, the perfect or accomplished, and Chaiig- chhuh-Sempah, " Perfect Strength of Mind;" because he is supposed to have accomplished the grand object of a Buddhist's life, by the perfect suppression of all bodily desu-es, and by complete abstraction of mind. As the Bodhisatwa was often styled Arhanta, or Arhata, the " venerable," so the Chang-chhub is frequently called 'Pa-chom-pa, or " he who has subdued his enemy." The Fratyeka, or " Individual Intelligence," is called Rang-sangya, or " Self-intelligence ;" and his other name of Anaydmi is translated by Phyir-nii-Uong-ha, or " he who turneth not out of the way." The Srdwaka, or " Auditor," is called Nyau-thos, or the " Listener," and his Sanskrit title of Srota-panna is rendered by Gyun-dii-zJmg-pa, or " one who has en- tered the stream " that leads to happiness. In the earliest periods of Buddhism the worship of the people was confined to the holy triad of Bnddah, Dharma, and Sa/ngha. Much pious reverence was shown to the relics of former Buddhas, as well as to * The Tibetan names of the Triad are thus spelt: — 1. Sangs-rOijas- dKon-mChog. 2. Chlios-dKon-mChog. 3. dGe-mBun-clKoii-mChof/. TIBETAN SYSTEM OF BUDDUISJI. 363 those of Sakya himself, and his priacipal disciples. Even so late as A.D. 400, we find Fa Hian recording the devotions paid to the relics of Ananda, Sariputra, and Mogalana. But previous to this time I know of no mention of the great Dhyani Bodliisatwa, Fadma Pcmi, who is the regent or present lord of tliis world, nor of the equally celebrated Bodhisatwas Ifanjii Sri and Avalokltcsioara. These two are first noticed by Ea Hian ;* but he is quite sUent regarding Fadma Fdni, and the whole of the elaborate system of Dhyani Budhas and Bodhisatwas, which are, I presume, the invention of a much later date. In Ladak at the present day, though the people still reverence Shakya Thubba, or the great Buddha (Sangya Konchhog), yet their worship is equally given to Fadma Fdni, Jdmya, and Clianrazik (or Padma Pani, Manju Sri, and Avalokiteswara), and though they still confirm an oath by appealing to the Kon-chhog-Simi, or " Three Supremacies," of the Buddhist triad, yet, when they undertake any enterprise, or begin a journey, their prayers for success are almost invariably addressed to Padma Pani. The system of Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisatwas, which has long been known throughout Tibet, was first made known to the European world by Mr. Hodgson. t The self-existent Adi Buddha, by five spontaneous acts of divine wisdom {jnydn), and by five exertions of mental reflection (dhydn), created the Pancha-Dhyani Buddha, or " Eive Celestial Buddhas," whose names are as follows : — * Fo-kwe-ki, c. VII. t Hodgson's BuddliiBtri, p. 40. 364 - Sanscrit. Tibetan. 1 2 3 4 5 Vairocliana ... Akshobya Eatna Sambhava Amitabha Amogha Siddha Nam-par-snang-dsat. Hod-pag-med. Tung-shak. Each of these Buddhas again, by the mere exertion of his inherent jnydn and dhydn, is said to have created a Bodhisatwa. The invention of the Fancha Dhydni Buddha Sdktis, or female energies, which are known both in Nepal and in Tibet, must therefore belong to a later period. The Buddha Saktis are the following : — - Sanscrit. Tibetan. 1 2 3 4 5 Vajra Dateswari Lochana Mamiikhi Pandara Tara Nang-Sahna. Kos-kar-chen. G-rolma. The five Dhyani Bodhisatwas are the following : — - Sanscrit. Tibetan. English. 1 2 3 4 5 Samanta Bhadra... Vajra-Pani Eatna- Paui Padma-Pani Viswa-Pani Kuntu-Zang-po .. Lag-nivDorje Chakna-Padma* ... Supreme Happiness. Scepti-e-bearer. Jewel-bearer. Lotul-bearer. World-bearer. The Lokestoaras (Jigien-Bangchukf) arc also acknow- * Fhyag-na-Dorje, prououuccd CJiakna-Dorje. t liJig-rTen-dBang-Pliyug, " the Lord of the World." TIBETAN SYSTEM OF BUDDHISM. 305 ledged in Tibetan Buddhism. All these are celestial beings, the spontaneous emanations from the Divinity, who have never been subject to the pains of transmigra- tion. Inferior to them are the created or mortal beings, who are divided into six classes, named Droba-Bikdruk, the " six advancers or progressors," because then- souls progress by transmigration from one state to a better state, until they finally attain absorption into the divine essence ; after which they are no longer subject to trans- migration. These six classes are — 1. LM, " Gods," equivalent to the Hindu Sura and Beta. 2. Lhi-ma-yin, or Llia-min, " Demi-gods or Titans," equivalent to the Hindu Asura and Daitya. 3. Mi, " Man ;" the Sanskrit Manusluja. 4. Dudro, " Brutes ;" in Sanscrit Tiryyaka, " crookedly," because they walk a little out of the right path. 5. YiJok, " Goblins;" in Sanscrit preto. 6. Myalba, " the damned ;" in Sanscrit JVdraka.* It is one of the most essential dogmas of the doctrine of transmigration that the disembodied soul is incapable of receiving either reward or punishment. Hence the behef in other grades of mortal beings, both superior and inferior to man. The good man, after death, is supposed to be raised to the dignity of a Lhamayin, or demi-god, while the bad man is degraded to the state of a Dudro, or brute. These different orders of beings were not the invention of the Buddhists, for they existed long- before the rise of Buddhism, and were the offspring of man's yearning for a future and hetter state. Like as in India, where the Brahmans have declared all the ancient * The hells are divided into eight cold and sixteen hot hells, -nhich are favourite subjects of representation with the Chinese and Tibetan painters. The punishments are not everlasting ; finite sin is expiated by finite punishment ; and when the expiation is completed, the person is bom again. See also Fra Orazio, Nouv. Jour. As. torn. XIV. p. 410. 1. 2. miii-Llid Chhuhi-Lha ... 3. 4. 5. 6. Shinggi-Lha ... Zhi-Lha* ... Zhing-Lha . . . Khyim-Lha . . . 366 LADAK. village Thakiirs and Debis to be only so many different forms of Mahadeo and Parbati, so in Tibet the Lamas have craftily grafted into tbeir system all the ancient gods and spirits of the former inhabitants. Hence, though Buddhism is the prevailing religion of the country, yet the poorer people still make their offerings to their old divinities, the gods of the hills, the woods, and the dales. Some of these divinities are the fol- lowing : — Mountain Gods, or Oreades. Eiver Gods, or Naiades. Tree Gods, or Dryades. Family Gods, or Lares. Field Gods, or Leimoniades. . . House Gods, or Penates. In after-times the mystical system of the Tantrists was engrafted on the Buddhism of Nepal and Tibet ; and the pictures of the prevailing red and yellow sects are filled with representations of the three-eyed destroying VargcJmJc (Iswara), and of his blood-drinking spouse Chang-Simima (the three-eyed goddess Trilochana). These doctrines were named Ncoig-pa, the esoteric or orthodox, in contradistinction to the Phyipa, exoteric or heterodox. With them, I believe, originated the filthy system of Buddha Saktis, or female energies of the Pancha Dhyani Buddhas, in which the yoni, or female symbol, plays a prominent part. * gZhis-LTid. Lha is the generic name of God ; hence, Buddha is called LM-yi-LJid, the " God of Gods." The similarity of this name to the Eoman Lar, and to the old Arabic Hah, God, is very striking. I may notice here, that the usual translation of the Musalman Kalimeh, iw ill iW D La Hall ila Allah, " there is no God but God," is a manifest truism. The true translation is, " there is no God but Allah.'" 367 III.— DIFFERENT SECTS— LAMAS. DurinEj the palmy days of Indian Buddhism, the faith of the Tibetans most probably partook of all the different fluctuations of belief that prevailed in India. The most ancient religious sect that is noAV known is the Nyimapa, all of whom wear red dresses. Most of the Lamas in Ladak and Ngari are of this sect. In the middle of the eighth century TJrgyan Rhipoche (the gem of Urgyan, or Padma Sambhava) was invited into Tibet by Khrisrong De-tsan. He is said to have been an incarnation of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha [Hod-pag-med). He was the founder of a new sect, who differ from the Nyimapas chiefly in their worship of this incarnation. In the eleventh century Tibet was visited by Chovo-Atisha, a Bengali Pundit, who infused new vigour amongst the votaries of Buddhism. His pupU Bromsioii founded the Rareng monastery, and originated the Kdhdampa* sect, or those who are content with the observance of the " precepts" {kah), without caring for the acquirement of the higher branches of transcendental wisdom. The followers of these three sects all wear red dresses. Another sect, the Sdkyapas, also wear red ; but I know nothing of their peculiar tenets. In the middle of the fourteenth century appeared the great Lama Tsong kliapa. Some say that he was an incarnation of Amitabha (llod-pag-med), and others of Manju Sri {Jdmyu). He was born in 1355, and died in 1419. He built the temple of Gdhlddn, and was the first great abbot {klidnpo), who occupied the Gahldan * hKah-rjDamK-pa, " followers of the precepts." — Csoma, Grammar, p. 197. 368 LADAK. chair, wliich has been filled by a succession of abbots down to the present day. The earlier abbots or patriarchs were the following :* — Tsong-klia-pa Darma Einclilieu Gelek Paldan Zhalu Lekpa Logros Chhos Baso Chhosgyan Logros Tanpa Mon Lampal born 1355 A.D. founded Gralildan 1407 born 1417 1429 1436 1448 1461 1471 1478 Previous to the establishment of the Gdhl-ddn chair by Tsongkhapa, there would appear to have been no great patriarchs, or head abbots, of the Lama'ic priest- hood; but the principle being once established, the attainment of this rank became an object of ambition, and the great abbots of Gdlildan were soon eclipsed by the supei'ior piety, greater leai'ning, and more active zeal of the abbots of TasM-Lhunioo.i But the fame of Tsong- khapa was confirmed. He had established the annual feast of " intense supplication," which is still observed, and had originated the great sect of Geliikpa (the vir- tuous), which are distinguished from the older sects by a yellow dress. This sect is now the most numerous in Tibet, and both the Dalai Lama of Lhasa and the Tashi Lama of Tashi-Lhunpo belong to it. Tsongkhapa's memory is still venerated throughout Tibet. Pictures of him are hung vip in all the temples, and the holy impressions of his hands and feet are said to be preserved * Csoma's Chronologj'. Grammar, p. 181. t hKrorshis-Lhun-po, the " mass of glory." It is pronounced Taslii, and is a very common man's name. Lhun-po is the English word " lump;" and the Greek O-Xvfi-Ko-i. DIFFERENT SECTS — LAMAS. 369 in butter* iu the western chamber of the Potala mo- nastery. Gedtoi Tuh-i)a (" the perfect Lama "), the founder of Tashi-Lhimpo, was born in A.D. 1339. He built the temple in 1445, and died in 1474. Before his death he had supplanted the abbots of Gdhlddii in the estimation of the people, and his successors have enjoyed the repu- tation which he established : for previous to his time the great abbots of Gahldan had been elected by the choice of the Lamas ; but the bold and original mind of Gedun Tub-pa devised the present system of a perpetual incarnation. He himself was said to be an incarnation of the celestial Bodhisatwa Padma Pani; and at his death he relinquished the attainment of Buddhahood, that he might be born again and again, for the benefit of mankind. He died in 1473, and in 1474 his successor Gedun Gya-tsho (the Ocean of Lamas) was discovered as an infant by the possession of certain divine marks. The fifth in succession, Navang Lozang Gyatsho, founded the hierarchy of Dalai Lamas at Lhasa, iu 1640, and made himself master of the whole of Tibet. la 1643 he rebuilt the Potala monastery, and in 1650, after repeated solicitations, he paid a \^sit to the Emperor of China. The inscription of the Emperor lOiang-hi, en- graved on stone, calls the grand Lama of Lhasa, who had been reigning in 1642 (that is, Navang-Lozang), the fifth Dalai Lama. But he was in fact the first Dalai Lama, although he was the fifth Tashi Lama who had * Nouv. Journ. As. 1S30, p. 169. Father Hyacinthe. The prints of the Grand Lama's hands -nere eagerly souglit for by the people. — Turner, 459. Several of my pictures have these prints on the back. I have also a sanad, or grant, by the Emperor Akbar, which bore on the back the print of his royal hand. 2b 370 ladak. occupied the cliair of Tashi Lhunpo. Since his time there have been two great Lamas, the one called the Dalai Lama, occupying the chair at Lhasa, and the other called the Tashi Lama, filling the chair at Tashi Lhunpo, Precedence is given to the Dalai Lama, both in writing and in conversation; but their influence is pretty equally divided. Both chairs are filled by a suc- cession of supposed incarnations, and generally the elder of the two is the most influential. The succession from Gedun Tiibpa down to the present day is the following : - Written Names. Spoken Names. Date. A.D. Remarks. 1 (IGe-hDun-G rub-pa . . Gedun-Tubba . . 1389 Born. Founded Tasi Lhunpo 1445. 2 dGe-hDun-rGya-mTsho Gedun-Gyatsho 1474 3 bSod-nams-rGyamTsho Sonam-Gyatsho 1541 Visited Altun Khan. 4 YoD-tan-rGya-mTsho Yontan-Gyatslio 15S7 5 Nag-dVang-bLo-bZang Navang Lozang 1615 Established himself a r>alai Lama ; 164 conqueredTibet ; an visited the Empero of China 1650. 6 Rin-chhen-Tsliangs-dByanga Einchhen Tshang Chang 1690 ? 7 bLo-bZang-skal-lDan Lozang-Kaldan . . 1725 ? 8 bLo-bZang-hJam-dPal Lozang- Jampal 1760 A minor in 1774. 9 Lung-rTogs-rGya-mTsho Luntok Gyatsho 1790 ? 10 Tshul-khrims-rGya-mTslio . . Tshul-thim Gyatsho . . 1817 ? 11 dGe-dMu-reGya-mTsho Gemure Gyatsho 1835 Nine years in 1844. But besides these two great Lamas of the yellow sect of Gelukpa, there is a third great Lama in Bhutan, called the Dhartna Raja, who is the head of the Dukjm sect, all of whom wear red dresses. Dharma Raja is his usual title amongst the people of Bhutan, but amongst the Tibetans he is generally called Jigten Gonpo* (Lord of the World). The Dalai Lama is called Crtjalba Bwpochhe, * See Plate XXII. na/e IXIl J ICTEN-GONPO , The Dharina-Raja of Bliutan na5riSaiiJ,ith??toThe Qui DIFFERENT SECTS — LAMAS. 371 the " Gem of Majesty," and the Tashi Lama is called Fanchcii Jxhipoclilie, the " Gem of Learning." All who have taken the vows of celibacy are called by the collective name of Gedun, the clergy. A monk is styled Lama, and a nun Ani. But the followers of the Gclukpa sect are di^dded into several classes. The lowest grade is the Getshul, or neophyte, and the Getslmlma,* or novice. The professed monk is called Gelong, and the professed nvm Gelongma. The principal sects in Tibet have already been men- tioned, but there are some others deserving of notice. Of these the principal is i\ieKarmapa,\ or "believers in the efficacy of Avorks." They are the same as the Kdrm- mikas of Nepal. The Kahgy^idpas are " believers in the succession of precepts." They are satisfied with the observance of the Do (sutras or aphorisms), and care not for the attainment of the esoteric doctrines of the Sher- chiii (Prajmiparamita), or " transcendental wisdom." The Briklmngpa sect derives its name from the district of Brikhung. I know nothing of their tenets. All the above sects were offshoots of the Gelukhpa, and accord- ingly they wear yellow dresses. The Dukpa sect wear a red dress. They are numerous in Bhutan, and are found all over Tibet. I know nothing of their peculiar tenets; but from the name of the sect, Dad-Diikpa, which means " faith in the thunderer," I should suppose that they pay especial reverence to the holy Dorje {Vcijra, or thunderbolt) which descended through the air, and fell at Sera in Tibet. A picture which I possess of the great Lama Skyobha Jigten Gonpo, of the red sect, represents him with the Dorje in his right hand. * See Plate XXIV. t Karma-pa, naturalized from Sanscrit. 2 B 2 372 LADAK. It seems probaljle, therefore, that the name of the sect was derived as I have supposed. IV.— DEESS— EITUALIC INSTEUMENTS. Most of the Lamas in Ladak wear a red coat with sleeves and long skirts secured by a red girdle. All wear red hoots. Most of them are bareheaded, but the higher Lamas wear semicircular red caps. One great Lama, the abbot of Lama Yurrvi, wears a peculiar hat, formed of bands that diminish in width by steps towards the top.* Most Lamas have their heads shaved, or the hair cropped short ; but the abbot's hair was uncut. The pictiu'es of the grand Lamas, both yellow and red, repre- sent them without hair. This agrees with the practice of the Indian Buddhists, who were obliged to shave their heads. The Dharma Eaja, or great Lama of the red sect, wears a semicircular red cap similar to those of the Ladaki Lamas. f His right arm is bare, but the rest of his person is clothed in ample red garments, suitable to a cold climate. The Sanghati, or kilt, and the uttara- sanghati, or cloak, of the Indian Buddhists, are formed into a coat with sleeves and skirt, and over this is worn a robe or blanket. In aU the pictm'es the antara-vasaka, or " inner vest," is represented beneath the other dress. This is no doubt shown pm'posely, to prove that the great Lamas, according to the command of Sakya, never lay aside theu- inner vests. The Dalai and Tashi Lamas wear the same description of dress, but of a yellow colour. But all of them have transgressed the holy precept not to wear any ornamented * See Plates XXIII. and XXIV. t See Plates XXII. and XXIII. ■■;SO-- *•=' silCiiSiSHJSiWSiKC''.. L ^^ylA YURRU nieDElL-BU, or Bdl. ^ h '^ '-j^ ^ ,MtfW) (/) r/) c i -i > -> 4 i J Mr ^ Myl'SoTLUMt^toAcl^ts,. DRESS — IIITUALIC INSTRUMENTS. 373 clothes, for they have yellow and red brocades, spangled with flowers of gold. The Dalai and Tashi Lamas wear peculiar conical caps with long lappets. The ritualic instruments are three : the bell, the scep- tre (or thunderbolt), and the prayer-cylinder. The bell, (Irllbit* is used during the performance of daily service, but for what purpose I could not ascertain. It is represented in the left hand of the great Lama Skyobba Jigten, of the red sect, and it is placed on the throne at the feet of the great Dalai Lama Navang Lozang. The bell represented in the accompanying plate is formed of a very white brittle-looking metal. On the upper part are the syllables tan, man, Ian, ban, man, tstin,2i(in, bDrin; which may, perhaps, be intended to represent eight notes of the bell. Inside, in three places, are the monosyllabic interjections aiwi ! ah ! Hun I The outside is chiefly ornamented with represen- tations of the dorje, or sceptre. The scc^itre, dorje, is the vajra of the Indians. This holy instrument is said to have flown away from India, and to have alighted at Sera, in Tibet. That it was looked upon in India, from a very early time, as an object of reverence, or as an emblem of power, is proved by its being placed in the right hand of a raja in the Sanchi bas-reliefs, t which date as high as the beginning of the Christian era. It is also sculptured on the rock at Udegui, where it is represented iu one of the hands of Durga, who is slaying the Bhainsasur. This sculptm-e is as old as the seventh or eighth century. In Tibetan it is called sera-jmn-dze, and the annual festival which has been established in its honour is one * Bril-hi, a " little bell." See Plate XXV. t Eastern gateway, right pillar. 374 LADAK. of the principal religious ceremonies. The Lamas carry the sceptre in procession from Sera to Potdla, where they present it before the Dalai Lama, who makes a saluta- tion to it. They next take it to the Chinese officials, and then to the Kahlons, or ministers, aU of whom make suitable presents of money; after which it is carried back to Sera with the same solemnity. The accompanying plate * represents one of these instruments, in my own possession, of full size, together with sketches of the old Indian vajras, from the sculp- tm'es at Sanchi and TJdigiri. The prayer-cylinder, or maui-chhos-hhor (the precious religious wheel), is a very ingenious instrument, and does great credit to the genius of the Tibetans. The body of the instrument is a metal cylinder, about three inches in height, and from two to two and a half inches in diame- ter. The axis is prolonged below to form a handle. The cylinder is filled with roUs of printed prayers and charms, which revolve as the instrument is turned round. Every Lama carries a chhos-khor, which he keeps perpetually turning by a gentle motion of the hand, assisted by a cubical piece of iron fastened by a chain to the outside. As every revolution of a prayer is equivalent to its recita- tion, the chhos-khor is a very ingenious instrument for multiplying the number of a man's prayers. In the accompanying platef I have represented two of these instruments, of half-size. One of them has the sacred sentence, the holy sadakshara mantra, or " six- syUabled charm," Aum ! Mani-padme, him ! engraved once on the outside; the other has the same sentence twice repeated, in raised letters of silver. * Sec Plate XXVI. The name is written rJDo-rJe. t See Plate XXVII. I"ia.ti,JZ2r. TTieDOIlGiE, Scqptre car Thmderbolt. Ircir.. 5ANCH I. 3asRdief. ^a.y I ^m. Wi ?» tkcQates TlatiJXm. The MANI-CHHOlS-KOE. , or Prayer- Cylmder. -A.OiTmuiohaTru BeL, J)a:jlSm WA%^(^fi, DKESS — RITUALIC INSTRUMENTS. 375 The earliest mention of tlic prayer-cylinder is by the Chinese pilgrim Ta llian,* in A.D. 400, who saw it in the hands of the Srdmanas of Kie-chha (Ladak). Ivla- proth states that this instrument is not mentioned in any Indian books ; and I can vouch that I have never seen it represented on any piece of Indian sculpture. It was, however, in very early use in North-western India, where it was introduced by the Indo-Scytliian princes about the beginning of the Christian era. On the gold coins of noiirki, or Ilushka, the Indo-Scythian prince is generally represented holding the prayer-cylinder in his right hand.t The same object is no doubt represented on the large medallion in the accompanying plate ; but the figure holding it is most probably the chief patriarch of the Buddliist religion. These instruments are found of all sizes and in all positions. Cylinders, about one foot in height, are placed m rows around the temples, and arc tm-ued by the vota- I'ies before entering. Larger cylinders are found near villages, turned by water, which keeps them perpetually revolving day and night. The device is so ingenious as to induce a hope that it may be adopted in Roman Catholic countries, where the time now spent in telling beads and reciting pater-nosters and ave-marias might be more profitably employed in worldly matters, while the beads were told, and the prayers were repeated by machinery. An ingenious mechanist might form small prayer-boxes, which could be wound up to produce a certain number of revolutions of an inclosed pater-noster or ave-maria ; and thus any number might be got through diu^ing the night. Indeed, I am not sure that Roman. * Fo-kwe-ki, c. V. t Sec Plate XXYII. 376 LADAK. Catholic watches might not be invented for the perpetual revolution of pater-nosters. v.— EELIGIOUS BUILDINGS— IMAGES. The principal religious edifices are the following : — 1. Oonpa, or " monastery." This word signifies a solitary place ; because monasteries were originally built, according to the directions of Sakya Muni, far fcom the bustle and disturbing influences of cities. The monas- teries have already been described. Convents are only separate monasteries walled off from the rest of the buildings. Both are called chhos-ne ; but the common term is gonpa. 2. Lhdkhmig, " God's house or temple." AU the temples that I have seen consist of single rooms, square and unadorned outside, and filled with images and pictures inside. The images are generally about half life-size, made of unburnt clay and painted. In the larger temples the images are of metal and of colossal size. A temple is also called Tsang-khang, or " holy house." 3. Ldbrcmg, a "lama's house." Where no monasteries exist, the lamas live in separate houses. I mention this because Alexander Gerard supposed that the Lhd-khang (God's house) was the same as the hLa-brang (lama's residence). 4. Chhod-Ten,^ in Sanscrit Cludtya, an " offering- receptacle." This is properly a dedicatory building or pyramid erected in honour of Shakya Thubba, or of some one of the holy Buddhas or Bodhisatwas. It is * inClthod-rTen, sometimes pronounced CMorien. Ihe CHHODTEN, ot Mausoleum. Carved Stane^ LAHUL. ^^' y. r. 1 , V, s . FrotTh a lYoodeTL ModeL . A,ClvuU7uj'tjAm,. d(i JlaflSnn UAJtstlalSiiii EELIGIOUS BUILDINGS — IMAGES. 377 sometimes called Chhos-ten, or the " holy receptacle," but the proper name is Chhod-rtoi, the " offering- repository," because offerings are made to the shrine. The figure in the accompanying plate* is taken from a wooden model in my own possession. The basement, which is square, is surmounted by fom" steps, on which stands the dome or principal part of the edifice. Origi- nally this was a plain hemisphere, but the form was gra- dually altered until it assumed its present shape of an inverted and truncated cone. The dome is surmoimted by a lofty pinnacle, crowned by the holy emblem of Chlios-Konchok (or Dharma). This symbol is a mono- gram formed of the four radical letters (in old PaK) which represent the four elements ; and the whole is typical both of the material frame of man, and of the material universe.! The radical letters are ya, air ; ra, fire ; va, water ; la, earth ; to which is added the letter s for Mount Sumeru. The pair of eyes delineated on the basement show that this Chhod-Ten was dedicated to the supreme Buddha, Sangya-Koncholc, the " eye of the universe." 5. Dung-Ten, a "bone-holder," or relic-repository. This is the genuine Stupa, or tope of India, prepared for the reception of a relic. It is a fimeral buUding or pyramid, erected either over the corpse of a lama, or over the ashes of a king or person of consequence. It is similar in shape to the Chhod-Ten. The deposits usually placed in these mausolea have already been described. * See Plate XXYIII. t According to the Chinese, as quoted by Eemusat (Fo-kwe-ki, c. XIII. note 6), the whole pyramid represented the " five elements ;" tut they are wrong, for it is only the pinnacle which is an emblem of Bhurma, or the material elements. See my work on the Bhilsa Topes. 378 LADAK. Mani* a dyke or pile of stones. The Mani is a stone dyke from four to five feet in height, and from six to twelve feet in breadth. The length varies from ten and twenty feet to nearly half a mile. A mani which I measured near Bazgo was 823 paces, or nearly half a mile, in length. A second mani near L6 was somewhat longer, or 880 paces, or 2,200 feet. Moorcroft states its length at 1,000 paces, but these were most probably the paces of a native, of little more than two feet each. The surface of the mani is always covered with inscribed slabs. The most usual inscription is the holy six- syllabled mantra, Aum 1 mcmi-padme, Imn ! But other formula? also occur ; such as Auni ! Yajra Fdni, hun ! Aum ! Vagmcari, hi'ui ! &c. These are generally in- scribed in Tibetan characters, but sometimes also in mediaeval Devanagari letters, called Lantslia. These slabs are votive offerings from all classes of people for the attainment of some particular objects. Does a childless man wish for a son, or a merchant about to travel hope for a safe retm^n ; does a husbandman look for a good harvest, or a shepherd for the safety of his flocks during the severity of winter, each goes to a lama and purchases slate, which he deposits carcfuUy on the village mani, and returns to his home in full confi- dence that his prayer will be heard. Tshd-khang, an " image-room." Tshd is the little medallion figure of a lama, which is made of a portion of his ashes mixed with clay. In every LMkhang, or temple, there is a small room or cupboard set apart for the reception of these medallions. In a temple at Nako I saw about one hundred cubic feet of them. A very perfect specimen in my possession is one inch and three- * Ma-ni, a word naturalized from Sanscrit. IIELIGIOUS BUILDINGS — IMAGES. 379 eighths in diameter. The lama is represented seated on the ground, with his left hand in his lap and his right hand raised in the attitude of teaching. The figiu-e is gilt. On the back of the medallion is stamped the word Tshd, " medallion." The grand lamas are repre- sented by more precious images of life-size. Two statues of the Tashi Lama, which Tm-ner saw, were respectively of gold and of solid silver gilt. The following is a general description of the images and paintings of the principal Buddhas and Bodhisatwas who are worshipped by the Tibetan Buddhists. Shaki/a-Thubha, or Buddha, is always represented seated. His right hand usually rests on his right knee, and his left hand in his lap, holding his alms-dish. In one pictm-e, hoAvever, he is represented holding his alms- dish in both hands. His body is always colom-ed yellow, usually gilt, and his hair is short, curly, and blue. At the large village of She, near Le, there is a colossal copper-gilt statue of Shakya Thubba of the following dimensions. Height of image, seated Feet. 37 Inches 1 Breadth across tlie shoulders . . . 7 4 Breadth from knee to knee 12 Length of ear Diameter of alms-disli ... 4 2 3 3 Circumference of throne •. . . 81 This image was erected by the Gyalpo Deldan Nam- gyal, about A.D. 1G80. Chhos-Konchok, or Dharma, is represented seated. She has four arms, two raised in the attitude of prayer, the third holding a necklace or garland, and the fourth a lotus. Her colour is white. Gedun-Konchok, or Sangha, is represented seated; 380 LADAK. the right hand resting on the right knee, and the left hand hokling a lotus. Chamba, the future Buddha Maitreya, is represented seated with hoth hands raised, the fingers forming the Fad-kor, or lotus-shape. His body is yellow, and his hair short, curly, and blue. Jamya, or Manju-Sri, is also represented seated, with his right hand raised and holding a flaming sword, and his left hand carrying a lotus. His body is of a yellow colour. Chanrazek, or Avalokiteswara, is represented standing. His right hand rests by his side, and his left holds a lotus. His body is white. Lagua-JDorje, or Vajrapani, is represented standing ; his left hand empty, and his right hand carrying a lotus. His body is yellow. Thunshak, or Amogha Siddha, is represented seated, with his left hand in liis lap, and his right hand raised in the attitude of teaching. His body is green. Grolma, or Tara, the Sakti or female energy of Amogha Siddha, is also green. She is represented seated, her right hand resting on her knee, and her left hand holding a lotus. The Tantrika, Vargclmk, or Iswara, is a favourite subject with the Tibetan painters and sculptors. He is always represented as Chan-sum-pa (or Trelochana, the "three-eyed"). His body is usually blue, but some- times red. His loins are covered with a leopard's skin, and a snake is generally wound round his waist. He carries either a Dorje (vajra, or " thunderbolt "), or a sharp-cutting sword in his right hand, and is generally exhibited trampling human beings beneath his feet. He is also represented frantic with anger, his eyes staring, TlaUu Eastexn Pillar, called CHOMO, at Dras . A ChuvunoiiaTTtAil .%yj:r:aS7 - - Gru lia.1 had tiad, h.-ul bar hiirang harang Rus {oariov, OS) pital pital pital pital pital pital raghan 1th ith ith ith — - pag > bhaya dad bhai daji, bhula acho, bya acho, bya spun mafac mahe mahes bhains _ _ Mahi unth unth unth unth — _ — biUi bareri breiri billa pishi pishi Byila, pushi badr badal badaU badal 7.U, thing zd, ding tin tramba tamba tamba tambu tramang tramang zangs kopa paka kapa mi kapa kapa shing-bal goru gao gai gai lang balang Ba, Ba-lang ka kao kao, kawa kag k.ik ka Khata (leyu betl dhi, beti laoni chime Sri-Chang bumo, srasmo dyara dyara dyara din diar, lai diar, zangma Nyin-mo kuttr kukar kntta kuttn khui khui Khyi kan kan kan kan kanang rapang Sa, Amcho rXa-ba prithvi jimi, mata prithi mata matang, sho matang rNa bat peni andi anda, phul 11, Uch ttim sGonga hathi hathi hathi hathi, ganes gLangchen akr akh akh, hakh ankha mik mi Mig, spyan chacha bab bapu bhuva baba apa Phi, yab as Sg ag ag me me Me macbhi manchi machhli macha machas machas Nya U phOl pbul phul phiil u men to Metog par rahar pair, lat pair, kuta bang bangkhat rKang-pa zhabs d garhi garh garh kilah, garh Korang gorang mKhar rDsong phal phal phal phal sho usho hBrasbu dalbu wla bakra bakra bakra bakra ^j, bakar la Ra siaii zang lang mScr 400 COMPARISON OF T: DAEDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. INDX EKGLISH. Amiya. Shina. Khajunah. Pushtu. Kashmiri. Sanscrit. Grass _ kats shikah wakho purod ghaso ghas, khar Hair chhani balo gogeyang vekhto mast, wal kesar Hand S. hast, husht S. hath gureng ghar (Mog.) las atho, atha hasta, kai (X*'.») Head S. sur shis yetis sar kalah sir Honey — macchhe macche gabinoh manch madhu Horse as tor P. ashp haghor as ghor, ghur aswa House - got, gosh hah kor gharo, ghaoro nivas, has Husband - bareyo er (Turki) mero mahraz pati, swami Iron — chimr, kinir T. temir c'.iimr uspano ospana shistar ((Ti^ljpoe) loha King — Rashra Tham padshah padshah raja, despati (cifO-TTODjc) Lead nong nang, nong nang sika surp nag sisak, sisa Leaf - S. patta thapong pane pan patra Light - sang sang-manimi rokhaneh gash prabha, tej Lightning _ bechiis _ charak uzmal saudamini Man rag;S.moaslu S. musha hir er (Turki.) sare, meda manu, manyu manushya nara Milk S. chir ; B. shid dudh mama pai, shaodo sliide dod, dwod dughdam Monltey - - - bizo punz kapi, vanar Moon - y kalai gam grama Water augr, ugh wahi clul ubo, oba ab, pani apa, uda Wife — hilal sambal kliiza, gbaza mahrin stri Woman S. kamri, kumedi grin gus khiza, ghaza zananah stri, nari Wood jin katho gasliil largai, laigi z6n (Mov) kashtha, vana Wool postam pash (Tib.) bal warai, wadai (tO(OJ') yer ((ipog) uma ^ East ja/abahi jfVmanas narkhato _ purooa, para P West — burah&hi fiwrmanas kibleh — pakshina, apara* North — — — kulb dachin uttara, vama ^ South — — — shamal kawar dakshina a Right — dachin doluno khi dachin dakshina a Left — thaU yaham khin-gis kawar vama » 1 I ek hill yo ak eka k 2 ju do altas dwa zih dwa 3 trui che usko dre trah tri i" 4 chod chhar walto salor tsor chatur i*^ 5 punj push sundo pinzo panz panchan ^ 6 chui shah mishando ashpag shah shash h 7 sftt sat talo awo sat saptan ^ 8 ansht asht altambo ata ath ashtan * 9 neuhan no huncho nah noh navan '* 10 jash dahi tormo 10+1 las 1 + 10 dah das la 11 — akahi turmohan 10 + 2 yaolas kah ekadas S^ 12 — bahi turmaltas dolas bah dwadas '^ 20 jishi hi altar 20+10 shil wuh vinsati " 30 ~ chehi altartormo derish trah trinsat ^ \\.RIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 403 DIAIiECTS. TIBETAN. 1 Ciidi. KuUuhi. Handuri. GarhwMi. Milchang. Tibarskad. Tibetan. Ill nipa rupa rupa rupa mil, mul mul mUl j bahiii bahin bahin dhili, bhuU Apu, Byach Sliiiig, Butil- aciihe \ kalri kabri kalri chamra sha pakpa Pags.pa amr sarg sarg, ambar akas sargang nam gNam, Khah kira sap sap sarp sabas brul sBrul (dul) liyun (xtwr) hio hjnin hyun pam, pang ang gangs-khapa » imtr beta put, beta nonal chaug phasli Chang bu, sras t.ira tara tara t;ira skara karma skar-ma nar patthar patthar patthar, dhvmgar rag, rak ra rDo ik-ra suraj suraj, dyara suraj yune, yunek nyi Nyima i;urkta giilkho gxikona, ambar gririya aijaji gurguri gurguri thog, hBrug lin.gh baragh si, sihi sher tar tar sTag claiid dand dand daiit gar, bang soa So, Tshems 1 gri sahar piir, graon ghar - - grong-lthyer, Gror t nikh bhiit dar darkhat botang botang Uonshing, Shing 1 jat jat kul jit — — — ( gri graon graon ghar deshang deshang Yui-thso, grong pani pdiii pani, jal pani ti chh^ chhu zandnah lari lari dhulin nar, yas yolat chhimg-ma betari chyori jawanas janana, istri chismi shri cho-mo chili una cbiri lakri lakri shing Cham shmg Cham Shing Bal pnrab purab purab purah nes duru, shar shar pachin pachan pacham pachiin nlng duzur, n(ik nub dOr uttar uttar uttar thoad, ring zang Chang (byang) dakhin dakhin dakban dakhsin shilng zam puling Iho dabina dahina dahina zagang dOre gYas bawan bawa bayan derang bai gVon ak ek ek ek it ti gChig do do do do nish nishi gNyis tr^ tin thi tin sCim si^m gS bura khrab mar, kochang ko changta ngan [ 406 COMPARISON OF T. DARDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN KASA. IWDI ENGLISH Amiya. Shiiia, Khajunah. Pushtu. Kaslmiiri. Sanscrit. Hard 1 koro dang sakhta, kak dor kathar, kathin Soft _ hazal hasa narma narm masrin, komal Heavy — angard Chung darana.dar^c gob bhari Light — loko humalkum spuka lot lagha Hot — tatto garomo garma tut tapta, uslma Cold — chon chagarum yekhnai, sod tartin amishna Hungry — — — ghwajai — kshudita Thirsty — — _ tajai — pipasat Large lat baro shokum loyah bod vrihat Small tsyuk chuna jot warah lok kshutora New — nao tash nave (novus) no, nivi navya Old -" prono men zarah pron, pranu purana jirna(yfpm^) Quick — halt slirdni zir.jir jald satwar Slow — chot talamine ro-ro lot-lot manda Raw - omo audevanam kacha, uma, kham apakwa Ripe _ pakko degonami pakka pop pakwa Rough — chacharo chachanim — — asamau Smooth — pichilo sliirishum — — masrin Round ult duduro bidirim ~ dalom gola, chakrakai Square ■~ charkuta walte shutun gus salor kunjah chokunjah chaturkona Sweet — moro moro khwaza, khaj madhur mishta Sour — — _ tarwa tsuk amla Thick — tijlo daganus ghat mot sthula Thm bizwa taluno beyenus mahina tonu, nyik saru, kshin Within — — _ danana — — Without — _ _ dabandi — _ Here ir — _ dilta — atra There — — _ halta — tatra ' Where — — _ cherta — jatra 1 Now — anu-khen kutu-khen OS tmikhen tatkshan, idanis i Then — akhen atikhenu aga wakt tamiwakt, adi tadanis 1 When ~ koi-khen amid-khen kum wakt, kala kan wakt — ■ Who _ _ _ sok _ — 1 What _ _ _ sah, as _ _ 1 Which _ _ _ _ _ _ : This _ _ _ dah — _ That — _ _ agha _ } Why — — — — — — ' How - - - saranga — — Yes _ _ ho _ _ No _ _ _ na _ _ Not _ _ _ _ zal _ And _ _ _ wo ta _ If _ _ _ ka _ I 1 But - - - wale lekin, ania Or ~ ~ - ya ya ~ ' RIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 407 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. i Gidi. KuUuhi. Haiiduri. GarUwaii. Milchang. Tibarskad. Tibetan. kirlKi - katha, karha kathu talk gyongbo gyong, mKhrang kuT-hi _ narm narm kolas bulbo hJam-pa,sNyi l.h,.r,i, sirka — garka garko lihig liko li!>lk;i — halka haiku Ian grits lanko sLa tatt.i — tatti garm zing, zabang kosra dro-dron,tsha thamla, shera _ than da thandu Usk khatkeo grang _ _ bhuka bhuku _ _ sDrabs-pa — _ tihai piasu, tirka _ — skom bnni _ bada, bara bara tek, teg shangni chhen, chhe i-hlioti — nikka, matta chhotu gato, zaich tsigi, keta bu, chhung luni — no\ya itaya uyimg nymigni soma limuil - pur ana piiranu I'lshk, ruza nying.pa gNah,nying-pa tanr.i _ jaldi jaldi hal, hasil gyuk-pa — malt-i — suli aste mesang mesang gule kacli.i — kacha kacha mashos masho, kachang ~ ! pakkii _ pakka pakku shoyo, lungyo sho, shobang snimno miirha _ sowa khurkhura — — rTsing-pa lanii _ kasra saf — — hJam-pa ,-U - gol gala burbur burbur kyir-kyir cliarkoni - charkona chaokunta puzrak, puzir piziir gru-bzhi mitlia _ mitha mithu thik, — im nyamko mNgar-pa _ _ khatta khatta surk surko skynr-pa tula - mota motu ~ — rGyags pa, sTug-sKa jiattala _ pattala pattalu — — srab _ _ bihtar muda kumo nangdu nangna _ _ bahar bahar barang phitila phyi-rol-na iti _ iti.ure urhi zua, tua oya hDir, hDin B^uia _ pure, pare woka, piini noa, doa doa, ona der, den _ keti, kehi kaka, kahau ham gna, go gar, gan aln- _ ibhu abi hun hsungo reng tal.L- _ tab tab — — re-zhig jalK- - kab jab tcrang eno nam koii _ kun ko hatto, hai khainde, go su _ _ ka, kya kya the, ham gi chi — _ kun ko — gang _ _ yih yih yo, za oya, ai, yui hDi _ _ yih wuh no, nu oza, aru, ado de _ _ kyun kile chara, phu khairo — - - kisitarah kaisi, kannu tera, te eue, enekta chi-tsug, chi-ltar - - hah hah m'-^'mani u, ung, o - _ _ n^» nahjn mat ' _ — - — — aur aur — — — — — agar — — — jiste — _ lekin _ — — honte, galtc — _ ya ya ki la yang-na Li 408 COMPARISON OF THJ DAKDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. INDIAI ENGLISH. Arniya. Shini. Khajunah. Pushtu. Kashmiri. Sanscrit. As _ _ _ _ _ _ jai, So, thus — — — — — — wa Also — — — ham — — bhi Always — — — mudam — — ha) Although ~ — ~ — yadante, agarche — UutU — — — — — — jal Agaiu — — — — — — ph Unless — — — — nai — Except — — — — magar, yatu — Therefore — — — — — — Since — — — — — — Much — — — — — — I mo jeba — zo — aham asmad nu Of me anumyo jya — zamuga — mama mi Tome mote jya dila — mala — mahyam mi Byrne _ — — malura — maya mi From me _ - - malura — mat mi We _ _ — mimga — asmi- vayam ha Of us _ — — — — asmiikam ha To us _ — — — — asniabliyam ha By us _ — — zamungna — asniabhis ha From us _ — — zamungna — asniat ha|i Thou _ — — Tah — twam yushmad tu' Of thee _ — — istali, stall — tava t*,| To thee — — tall la — tubhyam tul By thee _ — — talra — twaya tu.p Prom thee _ — — talra — twat tUB Ye _ — — Tahse — yushmc tn. Of you _ _ — istahse — yushmakam tul To you _ — — istahla — yuslimabhyam tu* By you _ — — tasona — jTishmabis tuja From you - - - tasona — yustuuat tuJ! He _ _ _ agha — sa Wi Of him _ — — dagha — tasya a.4 To him — — — agha ta — tasmai Uft> By him _ — — — — tena yt'l From him _ — — — — tasm^t us: They _ — — aghi — te w Of them _ — — — — tesham ma To them _ _ _ — — tebhyas UJO By them _ — — — — tais uie From them _ — — — — tebhyas uie To ask - - - - - yachitun p,Ji To buy _ _ _ _ _ — mil To blow _ _ _ pukawal dolmut — pit To call _ _ _ jagh kawal — — be 01 Tn cook _ — — pakh;iwal ranun — pnd To count - - - - gonzuruu ~ gia To cut - - - parka.wal giuriiii - k;a AllIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 40a DIALECTS TIBETAN. ni • G.uli. Kulluhi. Handuri. Garhwali. Milchang. Tibarskad. Tibetan. _ _ _ jaisi _ . _ _ — waisi _ _ cheliam — — bhi bhi _ _ kyang, yang — — hamesh hamesh — — — - - - - - modkyang . _ _ tahaute _ _ _ _ - - phir phir - - - - - - bohat - - mang - — — Haon main gyit iiinga ang gi, gyo nga — — — main ka ang-o — ngahi, ngayi - — — — main ko ang olo — ng'a-la — — — main se — — ngas, ngayis " ~~ ~ main sO — ~ nga-nae, Dga- las — — asse ham — — nga-chag — — — — — — nga-chag-gi - — — — _ — — ngachag la — — — — — — nga-chag g:is — — — — — — nga-chag naa — — tu tu ki, kas huni, gnan khyod — — — — — — khyod kyi — — — — — — khyod la — — — — _ — khyod kyis — — — — — — khyod nas — — tun tum ki, kis Itina giianishi khyod-chag — — — _ _ — khyod- chaggi — — — _ — — khyod-chag la — — — — — — khyod- chaggia — ~ - - - - khyod-chag - - yih wiih no, nos, za wa, plia, arc kho — — — — — — kho hi — — _ _ — — kho la — — _ _ _ — kho yis, khos — — _ _ — — kho nas — — yUi wiih no, zohugo artislii kho-chag — — — — — — kho-chag gi _ — — — — — — kho-chag la — — — — — — kho-chag gia — — — — — — kho-chag uas ■' puchhna puchhnu xuiming thabang, shaopaug gSherpar > — — mol-lena mol-Ienu zongmig chongbang nyobar > — — phukna phunknVi phuyamig — hBudpar » — — hak-deiia bolanti kunig hotpang hBodpar 1 — — pakkana pakkami lanig lenmang gYospar t - ~ guraa, gaima ginnu narmig shumang rTsibar bGraiigbar f — ' katna kitnu malmig rabang gChodpar gZhogpar 410 1 COMPARISON OF THI DAKDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. htdiah-I ENGLISH. 1 Araiya. Shina. Khajuuah. Pushtu. Easbmiri. Sanscrit. H To die _ mireono _ mudal _ — mam To do — — — — karun — kania TofaU — — — purewatal pyun — girna' TokUI — — — — — — mam To laugh — — — khandU _ — hasm To open — — — khalaswal — — kholi To raise — — — porta kawil _ — utan To read — — — lawastan parun — panu. To run — — — zaghastal dawun, doruii — dorm' ToseU — — — — _ — beciii: To sew - - - gandal suwim — sini To be silent _ - — _ _ - chnp I To sleep — — — — shimgmi — sona To strike - - - - layim - pitni] To take _ - — akhistan hy(in - lena To take away — — — — _ — lejan. To tear — — — sirekawal _ — toma To tell - — - - - - boluE To wake _ - _ _ - jagiii To weep — — — jadU wodun — rona To weigh — — — tolal _ — tolna To write — — — — likhun — likhn To under- — — — — zanun — saiDJll stand To be - bUo manimi khedil - - bona Be thou - be h(ir4t tahsa - as ho Being _ bii _ kheda _ — hoka' Been — boye ni sawai wu — — ho-g( 1 am — mo Hos jaBa zaYam — asmi maio^ Thou art — tu hao umba tahye — asi tuhi He is — ah hao aiba azba dai — asti wuh We are - be has hurtu bau mungay^ — — ham Ye are - tso hath mabau tase yast - - turn They are - &h ha menig biu aghi di - santi we hi I was _ mo Asfthis za Wum _ _ main Thou wast - tu asulu - tab we - — tutb| He was _ ah asulu aghawd _ _ w«t! We were - beasilis - munga wu - - hamll Ye were - tso asiUt — tase wast - - turn! They were - ze asili - aghiwu - - weti I wiU be - mo Ghyem ja tsujcm za Khei^am - - nuui AiaOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 411 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. Gacli. Kulluhi. Handuh. Garbwali. MUchanf. Tibarskad. Tibetan. _ _ mama marau shiraig sbicbbang gShegspar — — kania kamu langmif lenmang byedpar — — ffinia, dalna gimu goraiig kesbhangr iiyilbEir — — mama mama saiunig satpang gSod-par — — basna basnu wannig wotpaiig dCrtidpar — — kholna kholna tonginig pbebang dByC'bar — — chakna utanu thumig tekpang gTe^-bar — — pama pama parasmig silbang kLagT)ar — — doma dauniu dbyamlg galbang brGyagpar — — bhikhna — renig raiigniang bTsong-bar — ~ seona sinu poamig, cberaig pOnmaiig bTsempar — — chup-rabiia cbup rahnu tamtosbmig — kha-rog.par ~ "~ sona, suti- jana sUtnli yangmig gucbbang mNalbar ~ ~ pitna, tilkana pitnu ~ ~ gZhubar brDegTiar - — — leiia lenu yamig thabang bLangbar - — — lejana lejanu tomnig hamiiang — - — — cbima phamu cheraiig chirabang dagspar ' "~ ~ bolna bolnu rmgmig ringbang bSnyadpar zerbar - — — jagna utjanu toshimig tekpang _ - — — rona roau kramig tobang ngubar - — — tolna tolnu tolamig tolabang dPopgar - — — likhna likhnu chemig chebang hBribar ~ — ~ samjhna samjbnu - - shespar - - - bona bona - - hDiig par yiu-par " ~ ~ — — - — kyod-gyur- chig - — — — — — — yin-pa - — — — — — — yod-pa - — — — — — — nga-yin - — — — — — — khyod-yin - — — — — — — kho-yin — ~ - — - - nga-rNams yia — ~ — — — — khyod-rNams yin " — ~ — — — — kho-rNams yin - — — _ — _ _ nga-hDug-pa "■ — ~ — — — — khyod hDug. pa - — — _ — _ — kho hDug-pa " — — — — — — nga-chag- hDug-pa ", - — — — — — khyod chag- hDug-pa - ~ — ~ — — kho chag- h Dug- pa 1 nga-hGyur-ro 412 COMPARISON OP THI DAEDXr DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. INDIAN ENGLISH. Amiya. Shink. Khajunah. Pushtu. Kashiuiri. Sanscrit. H Thou wilt be - tu ghye - tah kheaja - - tuho He will be _ ju ghye _ agha kheaji _ _ wuh We will be — bu thi — munga kheajam — — bam Ye will be - tso gayah — tdse khiiijal - - turn! They will be _ able _ aghi kheaji _ _ weh To bring - areono tsuh ravdal, rodal ny(in - Una Bring thou _ arao — raraoda — - lao Bringing — areta — raoda — — lata Brought — aro — raod — — laya 1 bring — mosaram — za raodam — — maint I brought — mosaras — ma raodal — — main) I will bring — nios iphem — — — — maiifl To give — deono ~ ~" dawun ~ Una' Give thou _ de _ _ _ _ M Giving — — — — — — deka Given — — — — — — dega I give — mosu das — — — — maiiil Thou givest — — — — — — tudi He gives — — — — — — wulit We give — — — — — — hamt Ye give — — — — — — turn t They give — — — — — — we(! I gave — mosu dim — — — — maiii; Thoa gavest — — — — — — tud. He gave — — — — — — wiibij We gave — — — — — — ham)i Ye gave — — — — — — tumf They gave — — — — — — we I! I will give — mosu dksiis — — — — maiiei Thou wilt — — — — — — tudi give He win give — — — — — — will ;| We will give — — — — — — hair in Ye will give — — — — — — turn :II They will — — — — — — weiij give To come hai ono dohmau ratalal ~ ~ ana Come thou _ eta _ _ _ _ ao Coming — along — — — — aka Come — e — — — — iga I come — mo alas ji dayem — _ — dta 1 came _ mo em ai dayem — — — iya I will come — mo ghephtim ji ghadayah — — — iwi To see poshik chakyono - lidal dupluui - dcka See thou - chakye - - - - dek ARIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 413 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. Qidi. Kulluhi. Handuri. Garhwali. Milchang. Tibarskad. Tibetan. - - - - - khyod hGyur- - - - - - - klio hGyur-ro ~ " ~ " ~ nga-chag- liGyur-ro — — — — — — khyod hGyur- _ _ _ — — _ kho hGyur-ro — — lana lana lyamigkermig repang hBraugbar honpar — — — — kera, ker re— repai — — — — — kerya, kera rega — — — — — kerkyo reke _ — — — — ketuk reti _ — — — — kerok regri _ — _ _ — kertok reti _ tlena kemig^ dabang dBog-par, gTong-bar, bSter-bar — — de, do — kern dai _ — — — — keraa diga _ — — — — kemkyo ddke — — — — — ke-tuk Dani _ — — _ — kL'-tTon daniUa _ — — _ — kt-.ta dani, nila _ — — _ _ ki^-te daiu _ — — — — ke-ten dano, nu, mui _ — — — — ke-te daiil _ — — _ _ Kerauk Dagi _ — — _ — kemun datka _ — — — — kemo dat _ — — — — kerae dacho — — — _ _ kemen dacho _ — — _ _ kerne dacho — — — — — Kemtok _ — - — - - kemtou - - _ _ _ _ kemtu _ _ _ — _ _ kemte, tosh — _ _ — _ _ kemten, tish _ _ - - - - kerate, tosb - - - — ana - bun nig nutpang sByon-par pheb-par hong-bar — — ao — bCin niit — 1 — — akar — bimya natga — 1 — — — — bCmkyo natke — - — — — — biitiik nu-U — - — — — — bunuk, biik nutgi — - — — — — bimtok nupH — ~ — — — khyamig, tangroig kanmang, tangmang mThong-bar I " — — — taiig kan — I 414 COMPAEISON OF THE DAKDU DIALECTS, Shini. Khaju Seeing Seen I see Thou seest He sees We see Ye see They see I saw Thou sawest He saw We saw Ye saw They saw I wiU see Thou wilt mos chakyam tus chakye jus chakye > chakaltis tus chakalli s chak^u bis chakalis tso chakalit asigh chakali mos pusha: tus push He will see We will see Ye will see They will see To drink Drink thou Drinking Drunk I drink I drank I will drink jus pushe piye piy4s To speak Speak thou Speaking Spoken I speak Thou speak - est He speaks We speak Ye speak They speak I spoke Thou spokest He spoke We spoke Ye spoke They spoke I will speak Thou wilt speak He will speak We WiU speak i rasam ti'is ras jus rase bis rasilis liyil ta wawaya waiya za-waiyam tah waiye munga waiyii tase waiyast aghi wai i waiyal tah waiyal agha waiyal munga waiyal tase waiyal aghi waiyal . Bawo waiye agha bawo wai munga bawo waiy(i F tl TARIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 415 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. 1. G4di. KuUuhi. Handuri. Garhw&li. Milcban^. Tibarskad. Tibetan. _ _ _ _ tanga kaiii _ _ — — _ tarifjkyo kanga — _ — — — ta-tuk kadi — _ _ _ _ ta-tun kadula — _ _ _ _ ta.U kadi, kendela — _ _ _ _ ta-tc kadi — _ _ _ _ ta-ten ka-do, du, dun — _ _ _ _ ta-tC- ke-di — _ — — — Tanguk Kangi — _ — — — tangun kanga — — — — — tango kanga — _ — — — taiig6 kanzo, cbo — _ — — — tangcn kanzo, cho — — _ — — tange kanzo, cho — _ _ — — Tangtok Kandi — - - - - ' tangton kandula ~ _ _ _ _ tangtu kandi - — — _ — tangte, tosh kandi — — — — — taiigten, tish kando — — — — — tangte, tosh kandi — - — — — — timgmig tungmang hThmig-bar - — — — — tuiig tung — - — — — — tiiilga tunga — - — — — — tungkyo timgk^ — — _ — _ tu-tuk tu-ti _ - — — — _ tungCik tOngi — - - - - - tungtok tung-ti - _ _ _ _ _ loninig lopang gDon par - — — — — Ion lo — - _ _ — — lona loga _ - _ _ — — lonkyo loke _ - — _ — — latuk, londuk loni — - - - - - latun, londun lonula - _ _ _ _ _ lata, londu loni, nila _ - _ — — _ late, londe loni — - _ — — — laten, londen lono, nun — - _ _ _ _ late, londe lono — - _ _ _ — lorok, lok Logi — - - - - - loron, lora loga - _ _ _ loro, lok loga _ - _ _ _ _ lore, loresh locho — - _ _ _ — loren, loresh locho — - _ _ — lore, loresh locho — - - - - - lontok Loni - - - - - - lonton lonula - n - - - - lontu loni - -i _ lont^, tosh loni _ 11 416 COMPARISON OV THE DABDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. INDIAN ENGLISH. Aniiya. Shiua. Khajunah. Pushtu. Kashmiri. Sanscrit. Hi. Ye will speak - tso gasilis - tase bawo waiyiist - - tumbn They will — asigh rasil — aghi bawowa — — webof speak Togo barai bajono nih talal - — jina Go thou — bobo nih _ _ _ jao Going — srye niman — — — ]a-kai Gone — gyao niman — — — gaya I go — mo biyam ji nicham — — — main i I went — mo gas awiniyara — — — main ,; I wiUgo " mo kare biyam jekat hurushan "~ "~ "~ mam :( To sit — beono — kshenastan bihun — bMthj Sit thou — betha _ _ bih _ baithjv Sitting — bethus _ — — — baiflil Seated behos — — — — baitlii baig. I sit — me bethas — — — — mam it I sat *~ mu behos - — — — main it Sa) I win sit — mo behem — — biha — main.t To stand — — — — wathun — khanjl Stand thou — _ — — _ — khano Standing — — — _ _ — khanol Stood — — — — _ — kharioi I stand — _ — _ _ _ khar.o I stood — — — — _ — khara; I will stand — — — — _ — kharo To hear fraraparai - - - bazim - sunn Hear thou _ _ _ _ _ sum Hearing — — — — _ — son- Heard ~ — — — — — stum SUIJ I hear — — — — _ — mail IT 1 heard — _ — _ _ — mairui I wUl hear — — — — _ — mairu To eat juwak - - khudal khyun - "1j kha(' Eat thou — _ _ _ _ _ Eating — _ _ _ _ _ kh^.'r Eaten ~ — — - - — khaj kl!8 I eat — — _ _ _ _ mail la late — — — _ _ _ mwil I will eat — _ _ _ _ _ maiiu A king — — — - _ rajah riua By or with a — — — — — rajen rdja king Of a king — — _ — _ rajasya rija To a king — — — — — rajaya rija A king — — — — — rajam rija From a king ~ — — — - rijat r«a RIOUS ALPINE DIALECTS. 417 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. G.ldi. KulluhL Hantluri. GarhwUi. Milchanp:. Tibarskad. Tibetan. - - - - lonten, tish lono - - - - - lontd loni - - - - - himie (Ichang: hDahbar phyinpar _ _ _ _ bai tie — _ _ — _ baya tlega — — _ — — baikyo deke — _ _ — _ baituk deni — _ _ _ _ bairuk degl — ! - - - baitok deni — _ _ _ _ toshmie popans gZhes-par — _ — _ tosh po — _ _ — _ tosha poga — - - - - toshkyo poke — _ _ _ _ to-tuk poni - - - - toshak.toshek pogi ~ _ _ toshetuk poiii — _ _ _ _ — shotpang hGreng-ba _ _ _ _ — shot — _ _ _ _ — shotga — _ _ _ _ — shotke — _ _ _ _ — shoti — _ _ _ _ — shotgi — _ _ — _ — shot-tl — - - - - thasmie ningpaiig mNyanpar T.Shorbar _ _ _ _ thas nine — _ _ _ _ thasa runga — - - - - thaskyn n'lngke — _ _ _ tha-tok rtni - _ _ — _ thasuk rtingi — J _ _ — _ thasttik runga — - _ — _ zamig zabang gZanpar 1 zabar 1 I I I zaga zaga - j - - - zagkyo zagke — 1 - _ _ zatuk zani - _ _ _ zakflk zagi — _ _ _ _ zaknk zant — _ _ _ _ — rGyal-po 1 - - - - - - rGyal-pos _ _ rGyal-pohi _ _ _ _ _ — rGyal-po-la _ _ _ _ — — rGyal-po - - - - - — rGyal-po-nas 2 E 418 COMPARISON OF T DAHDU DIALECTS. AFGHAN. KASA. INDI ENGLISH. Amiya. ShinS. Khajimah. Pushtu. Kashmiri. Sanscrit. Kings - - - - - rSjah By, with _ _ _ _ rajaih kings Of kings - - - - - rajanan To kings - - - - - rajcbhya In kings - - - - - raj an From kings - - - - - rajebhya Gold _ _ - _ _ _ By.with.gold — — — _ — — Of gold _ — — — — — To gold — — — — — — Gold — — — _ — — From gold — — — — _ _ Gold (pi.) — — — _ _ — A hand — _ — _ _ _ By, with a _ _ — _ — _ hand Of a hand — _ — _ — _ To a hand — — — _ _ _ A hand — — — _ _ — From a hanc — — — _ _ — Hands ~ — "" — — — nous ALPINE DIALECTS. 419 DIALECTS. TIBETAN. GMi. Kulluhl. Handuri. Garhwali. Milchang. Tibarskad. Tibetan. - - - - - - rGyal-po- rNams - - - - - — rGyal-po- rNams-kyis - - - - - — rGyal-po- rNaras-kyi - - - - - - rGyal-po- rNams-la - - - - - - rOyal-po- rNams - - - - - — rGyal-po- rNams-nas _ — — — — — eSer _ — _ — _ — gSer-gyis _ _ _ — _ _ gSer-gyi - - - - - - gSer-la gSer gSer-nas I _ _ — _ _ — gSer-rNams _ _ — — — — lag - - - - - - lag-gis _ _ _ _ _ _ lag-gi _ — — — — — lag-la — — — — — — lag _ _ — _ — — lag-nas - - — — — ~ lag-rNams 2 E 2 XVI. MAGNETICAL OBSERVATIONS. 1.— DECLINOMETER. 2.— DIP CIECLE. 3.— INTENSITY. 422 DECLINOMETER. OBSERVATIONS at LE in Ladak, on Monday, 4th October, 1847. Heiglit, 11,712 feet. N. Lat. 34° 09' 07 -32." E. Long. 77° 59' 03" Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change per hour. A.M. Scale Reading. Kemarka. Scale. ArcValue 1 At 85 A.M. finally adjusted. 2 Zero of Collimator Magnet ... 7 -800 3 „ Weak Brass „ .. 4-900 4 Declination, 2" 46' 52 -02" East. O 6 7 8 9 7 850 + 050 l'l750 10 7 900 + -050 1 1750 11 7 825 - 075 1 -7625 1 Noon 1 2 7 7 7 650 600 600 - -175 - 050 ± -000 4 1125 1 1750 -0000 f U P.M. Extremes ... ■! l^ 10 A.M. Scale. ArcValue 7-600 7-900 3 7 750 + 150 3 -5350 Described Arc ... = •300 7'-0500 4 7 800 + -050 1 1750 5 7 800 ± 000 -0000 6 7 750 - 050 1 1750 7 7 700 - 050 1 -1750 8 7 650 - 050 1 1750 9 10 11 12 Sums 92 -875 Means 7 -739 DECLINOMETER. 423 OBSEEVATIONS at LE, in Laduk, ou Tuesday, 5tli October, 1847. Height, 11,712 feet. N. Lat. 3i° 00' 07-32". E. Long. 77° 59' 03". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Ch.ange per hour. A.M. Scale Reading. Remarks. Scale. ArcValue 1 Mean Scale Eeadiug on 4tli ... 7 739 2 3 4 5 6 + -050 + 012 + -038 1-1750 -2937 -8813 5th ... Sum of Means 7-752 7 7 7 7 650 700 712 750 15 -491 Mean of Means 7 -7455 7 7 775 + -025 -5875 8 7 800 + -005 1175 9 7 920 + -120 2 -8200 10 7 900 - -020 -4700 11 Noon 1 2 ^ 800 725 650 700 -100 --075 --075 - -050 2 -3500 1 -7625 1 -7625 1 -1750 7 7 7 f 3 A.M. 1 P.M. Extremes^ [ 9 A.M. Scale. ArcValue 7-650 7-920 3 7 700 ±-000 -0000 Described Arc = -270 6-3450 4 7-750 + -050 1 -1750 1 5 6 Scale. Change. 7 8 9 Reading at 4 P.M. Torsion Circle moved 90° 7-750 8-000 Scale. Arc. + -250 5 -8750 90° 8-200 + -200 4 -7000 10 90° 8-400 + -200 4-7000 11 90° 8-600 + -200 4-7000 12 90° 8-850 + -250 5-8750 1 Sums 108 -532 Means 7-752 424 DECLINOMETER. OBSEEVATIONS at MTJLBIL, iu Ladak, ou AVednesday, 20th October, 1847. Height, 10,480 feet. N. Lat. ° ' ". E. Long. ° ' ". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change jjer hour. A.M. Scale Reading. Remarks. Scale. ArcValue 1 At 5 P.M. on 19th finally adjusted. 2 Zero of Collimator Magnet ... 7-800 3 „ Weak Brass „ ... 4-900 4 7-780 Declination, 2° 44' 29 -10" East. 5 7-825 + 025 0'-5812 6 7-850 + 025 -5812 7 7-900 + 050 1 -1625 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 2 8 050 8-050 8-050 7-900 7-800 7 -775 7-750 + + 100 050 000 150 100 025 025 2 -3250 1 -1625 -0000 3 -4875 2 -3250 -5812 -5812 1 r 4 r-^- Extremes ... < L 9i A.M. Described Arc — Scale. ArcValue 7-675 8-050 •375 8-7187 3 7-700 — 055 1 -2787 4 5 7-675 - 025 -5812 6 7 At 4 P.M. the wind was too high to allow 8 of any readings being taken by movements 9 of the torsion circle, as the magnet could 10 not rest. 11 12 Sums 125 -525 Means 7-845 DECLINOMETER. 425 OBSEEVATIONS at KASHMTIi City, on Thursday, 4th November, 18-17. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28 -09". E. Long. 74^^ 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Scale Reading. Change per hour. Scale. Arc Value Keniarks. 1 At 5 P.M. on 3rd finally adjusted. 2 Zero of Collimator Magnet (C. 13) 7 -SOO 3 „ Weak Brass „ 4 900 4 Declination, 2° 43' 54 -90" East. 5 6 7-700 7 7-750 + 050 8 7 -775 9 7-800 10 11 Noon 1 2 3 4 7 -750 7-725 7 -700 7-750 7 -825 7-925 7-925 Scale. ArcValue r G A.M. Extremes ... ■' , L4p.m. Described Arc = 7-700 7-925 •225 5'-2500 O 6 7 7-900 S 9 10 11 12 Sums 93 -525 Means 7-794 1 426 DECLINOMETER. OBSEEVATIOXS at KASHIMLR City, on Friday, 5tb November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28 -09". E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change per honr. A.M. Scale Reading. Remarks. Scale. ArcValue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7-900 8 7-925 + -025 9 7 -925 ±-000 10 11 7 -925 7-900 ±-000 --025 Scale. ArcValue ^oon 7-875 — -025 1 2 7-860 7-840 --015 -■020 Extremes J 2 p.m. [4 P.M. 7-840 7-940 3 4 7-900 7-940 + -060 + -040 Described Arc = -100 2'-3333 5 7-900 -•040 6 7 8 9 10 11 7-900 12 Sums 94 -790 Means 7-899 DECLINOMETEll. 427 OBSEEVATIONS at KASHMIR City, on Saturday, GtU November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28 09". E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change per hour. A.M. Scale Reading. Remarks. Scale. ArcValue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-760 7 7 -780 + -020 0'-46GG 8 7-925 + -145 3 -3833 9 8 000 + -075 1 -7500 10 11 Noon 1 7 -975 7 -850 — -025 — -075 -5833 1 -7.500 Extremes [ 6 A.M. [ 9 A.M. Scale. ArcValne 7-760 8-000 3 4 7-875 + -025 -5833 Described Arc = -240 5'-5998 5 7 -SCO - -015 -3500 6 7-900 + -040 -9333 7 7-880 - -020 -4666 8 9 10 11 12 Slims 78 -805 ]\Ieans 7-880 428 DECLINOMETER. OBSEEVATIONS at KASHMIE City, on Sunday, 7tli Novumber, 18^7 Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28 -09". E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change aer hour. A.M. .Scale Reading. Scale. ArcValue Remarks. 1 Nov. 4 Mean Scale Heading 7 794 2 „ 5 „ „ 7-899 3 „ 6 „ „ 7-880 4 5 „ 7 Sum 7-895 31 -468 6 7 7-900 Mean 7-867 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 2 3 4 7-850 r 2 P.M. Extremes ... ■{ I 5 P.M. Described Arc = Scale. ArcValue 7-850 7-950 -100 2'-3333 5 7-950 6 7 8 9 7-880 10 11 12 Sums 31 -580 Means 7-895 DECLINOMETEU. 429 HBSEEVATIONS at KASHMIll City, oii Suturduy, 20tli November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. JST. Lat. 31." 05' 28 -00". E. Loug. 71° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Scale Reading. Change per hour. Remarks. Scale. Arc Value 1 At 11 A.M. finally adjusted. Scale. 2 Zero of Collimator Magnet (C.13) 7 -800 3 Weak Brass „ .. 4 900 4 5 G 7 S 9 10 11 7 -800 jVoon 7 -7.50 + 050 l'- 14.58 1 7 -850 - 010 -2291 3 7-820 - 030 -G873 4 5 7 -800 + -040 -91C7 6 8-000 + -140 8 -2083 7 7-825 -175 4 -0103 S 7-SOO -025 -5729 9 10 11 12 Sums 62 -705 Cleans 7 -838 430 DECLINOMETEE. OBSEEVATIONS at KASHMIE City, on Sunday, 21st November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28 -09". E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Scale Reading. Change per hour. Scale. ArcValue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 7-950 7^900 7^900 7-875 7-800 7-800 7-800 7^820 7-840 7-820 7-810 7-860 7-850 7-850 7-840 7-825 7-850 7-825 - -050 ±-000 - 025 - -075 ±-000 ±-000 + -020 + -020 - 020 - 010 + -0.30 - -010 ±000 - -010 - -015 + -025 - 025 1-1458 -0000 -5729 1 -7187 -0000 -0000 -4583 -4583 -4583 -2291 1 -1458 0-2291 -0000 -2291 -3437 -5729 -5729 Nov. 20 Mean Scale Eeadi „ 21 Sum .. Mean Former operations — Mean Differe + or easterly = 3 Former declination— 2° 43' + ng 7 -838 7-845 15 -683 7 -8415 7 -8670 nee -0255 5 06" of Aic 54 -90" East 35 -06 Declination =2 44 29-96 East Reading at 7 A.M. 22nd Torsion Circle moved !)0° 90° 90° „ SO" Scale. Change. 8-050 7-850 7-650 7-450 7-250 7-075 Scale. 1 Arc. ■200 •200 •200 •200 -175 4 -5832 4 -5832 4 •5832 4 -5832 4-0103 Sums 141 -215 Means 7-845 DECLINOMETEU. 431 EElNtARKS upon OBSERVATIONS taken in KASHMIR during November, 1847. 1847. Montli. Day. Described Arc. Nov. 4tli 5tli Gth 7th 20tli 21st 5 -2500 5 -5998 5 -7292 2 -3333 2 -3333 3 -4374 Sums IG -5790 8 -1040 IMoans 5 -5263 •7013 By an examination of these arcs of daily vibration, it will be seen that the increase and decrease takes place on alternate days ; and farther, that the mean smaller arc is, as nearly as possible, one-half of the larger arc, the difference being only '06', equal to 3 6". This coincidence may, however, be accidental. During these six days' observations, from 9 A.M. to 6 p.m., the magnet was in constant oscUlation, or in tremulous vibration, through an arc of from "4 to '8, equal to from 10' 25" to 20' 50", the air being perfectly still, excepting at sunrise, when there were occasional light puffs. At night the magnet was at rest. This phenomenon was remarked only in Kashmir. 432 DECLINOMETER. OBSEEVATIONS at SHAMSABAD, in Panjab, on "Wednesday, 22 Dee. 1847. Height, 1,000 feet. N. Lat. 33° 52' 00 -88". E. Long. 72° 30' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Change per hour. A.M. Scale Eeading. Remarks. Scale. ArcValue 1 At 11 A.M. on 22nd finally adjusted. 2 Zero of Collimator Magnet (C. 13) 7 ^800 3 „ Weak Brass „ 4 -900 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 2 7 -800 7-772 7-770 7-761 -•028 -•002 - -009 o'-6440 -0400 ^2070 [2 P.M. Extremes ... •< L 3 P.M. Scale. ArcValue 7-761 7-840 3 4 7-840 7-775 + -079 - 065 1 ^8170 1 4950 Described Arc = -079 l'-8170 .5 7-825 + -050 1 1500 6 7 8 7-830 + -005 1150 n 7-800 - -030 •G900 10 11 12 Sums 70 173 Means 7-797 DECLINOMETER. 433 OBSERVATIONS at SHAMsIbAD, iu Panjab, on Thursday, Dec. 23, 1847. Height, 1,000 feet. N. Lat. 3:i° 52' 00-88". E. Long. 72° 30' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Scale Reading. Change per hour. Scale. Arc Value 9 10 11 Noon 1 •> ;i i 8 9 10 11 12 7 010 7-840 7-775 7-780 7 -860 7-890 47 -055 7-842 Dec. 22 Mean Scale Readino >, 23 7-797 7 -842 Sum 15-639 Mean of Means ... 7-8195 -070 -065 ■005 ■080 ■030 1 -6100 -8950 -1150 1 -8400 0-690 Extremes Described Arc Reading at 10 A.M. Torsion Circle moved ! fS 7-910 7 -775 -135 3 -1050 7-690 7-480 7-370 7-175 Scale. •200 •210 •110 •195 Arc. 4^6000 4 •8300 2 •5300 4 -SSSS 2 F 434 DIP CIECLE. OBSEKVATIONS taken at LE, iu Ladak, ou Wednesday, Gth October, 1S47. Time, 3 p.m. Temperature, 60°. Needle A. — i.t.b. Needle B. — i.t.b. Poles. Poles. sc to . 6 ^ ^ ' E. Limb. W. f^ M E. Limb. W. „ o „ 45 50 4(5 20 f4 47 15 4S 05 q n^ a CL, S 46 35 45 25 ^ ^ 46 00 46 36 ^ ^ 46 00 46 15 /a u 47 35 47 55 ."S ts is Is ^ 46 40 45 20 46 00 46 40 46 80 46 57 30 48 30 46 00 g CI. 3 47 10 47 45 00 3 3" 44 25 47 40 L< 46 40 47 00 u 48 30 46 05 g lU o ■s O ts ^ 47 22 30 47 45 4i 44 40 47 30 Sums 372 47 30 372 47 30 Sums 372 55 00 376 31 00 Means 46 35 56 46 35 56 Means 46 36 52 47 03 52 Sum of Means A. 03 11 52 Sum of Means B. ... 93 40 44 Mean of Means A. ... 46 35 56 Mean of Means B. ... 46 50 22 A + B = 93 26 18 i (A + B) := Dip = 46 43 09 DIP CIRCLE. 435 OBSERVATIONS taken at MULBIL, in Ladak, on Wednesday, 20th October, 1847. Time, H p.jr. Temperature, 49°. Needle A. — i.t.b. Needle B — I.T.U. Poles. . Pole.s. (a o ■^ o t3 & M E. Limb. W. ^ M E. Limb. W. „ u 46 20 47 20 t, 46 25 48 (to ^ 3 47 00 47 10 & 47 50 46 25 ^ u 46 2.5 47 20 -a fc, 46 35 47 55 •g S 47 05 47 05 "S o 48 00 46 25 ^ u 46 50 47 05 ^ 0) 47 10 46 45 & -^ p 46 05 46 40 ^ 46 05 47 35 a E.< 47 00 47 00 0) 47 10 46 45 o &' o is O 46 10 46 40 46 15 47 30 Srnns 372 55 00 37G 20 00 Sums 375 30 00 377 20 00 ]\Ieans 46 36 52 47 02 30 Means 46 56 15 47 10 00 Sum of Means A. 93 39 22 Sum of Means B. ... 94 06 15 Mean of Means A. . . . 46 49 41 Mean of Means B. ... 47 03 07 A + B = 93 52 4S i (A + B) = Dip i::! 46 50 24 1 2 F 2 436 DIP CIRCLE. OBSEEA^ATIONS taken iu KASHIMIE City, on Saturday, 6tli November, 1847. Time, 4 p.m. Temperature, 50°. Needle A — I.T.B. Needle B I.T.B. Poles. Poles. a c « E. Limb. vv. fe Ph E. Limb. w. o , „ ^< 40 10 4(? 4.'-. ^ 46 00 45 05 _a 40 OS 46 50 .a CI. 1=1 48 02 40 20 u 40 10 40 50 u 40 12 45 00 .-s '^ .-s is fS 40 10 40 45 [; _o 47 55 40 20 b 47 10 40 30 ^ 47 30 40 40 S & 40 22 40 35 _S ■3 40 42 47 50 ^ 47 OS 40 35 u 47 38 40 45 o \> o b iS 40 30 40 32 ■v. " 40 45 47 15 Sums 371 48 00 373 22 00 Sums 370 44 00 371 15 00 Means 40 28 30 40 40 15 Means 47 05 30 40 24 22 Sura of Means A. ... 93 OS 45 Sum of Means B. ... 93 29 52 Mean of Means A. ... 46 34 22 Mean of Means B. ... 40 44 50 A + B : = 93 19 18 i (A + B) = Dip = 40 39 39 DIP CIRCLE. 437 0BSE1{\'ATI0NS taken in KASHMIE City, on Sunday, 21st November, 1847. Time, li p.m. Tuuiperature, 53°. Needle A. — i.t.b. Needle B. — i.t.b. Ph (2 Poles. (5 1 Poles. E. Limb. W. E. Limb. VV. ^ u o is 43° 30' 45 50 4G 40 46 05 46 50' 47 05 46 48 47 02 j3 g is s a P o 45° 20' 46 30 45 30 46 30 48° 40' 45 10 48 35 45 10 -5 5 o &. o 47 20 45 55 47 25 46 05 45 40 46 20 45 45 46 15 o o 47 20 44 45 47 20 44 55 45 30 47 05 45 30 46 55 Sums .373 50 00 371 45 00 Sums 370 10 00 372 35 00 Means 46 43 45 46 28 07 Means 46 16 15 46 34 22 Sum oi" Means A. 93 11 52 Sum of Means B. ... 92 50 37 Mean of Means A. ... 46 35 56 Mean of Means B. ... 46 25 18 A + B = 93 01 14 ^3 (A + B) = Dip = 46 30 37 438 DIP CIRCLE. OBSEEVATIONS takeu at SHAMSABAD, in Chach, ou Wednesday, 22nd December, 1847. Time, 3 p.m. Temperature, 64^°. Needle A. — i.t.b. Needle B. — i.t.b. Poles. Poles. -5 fe M E. Limb. vv. & « E. Limb. W. ■^ 46 30 46 05 t- 42 05 45 (15 .a Ci< W 44 45 44 05 ^ 45 15 47 20 .^ 46 25 46 05 u 42 00 45 05 .4J fc ."S & 44 20 44 10 ^ o^ 45 30 47 10 .a s 46 20 47 15 .rj % 44 15 42 50 y & 46 50 46 15 S 3 46 50 46 15 h 46 30 47 12 C u 44 25 42 40 p is: o ^ * 46 45 46 15 ''^ 47 00 46 15 Sums 368 25 GO 367 22 00 Sums 357 20 00 362 40 00 Means 46 03 07 45 55 15 Means 44 40 00 45 20 00 Siun of Means A. ... 91 58 22 Sum of Means B. 90 00 00 Mean of Means A. ... 45 59 11 Mean of Means B. ... 45 00 00 A + B = 90 59 11 * (A + B) = Dip = 45 29 35 DIP CIRCLE. 439 GENERAL SUMMARY of OBSERVATIONS. Date. Time. Temp. riaces. N. Latitude. Dip. Sept. 3 11a.m. G5° Lara, in Spiti 32° 09' 45" 43° 36 52" „ 15 lOi A.M. 03 IL'inle, in Rukelui . . . 32 44 20 44 23 22 „ 20 3 p.m. 6U Raldang, in Rukcliu 33 13 50 44 52 00 Sept. 21 3 P.M. GO Puga, in Rukcbu 33 12 30 45 03 30 „ — 6 p.m. 45 Ditto ditto - 45 05 30 oo 7i A.M. 21 Ditto ditto 45 21 30 „ — lOJ A.M. 49 Ditto ditto - 45 21 15 " 3 P.M. 59f Ditto ditto Puga IMean . . . - 45 00 15 33 12 30 45 10 24 Oct. 6 „ 20 3 P.M. 4i P.M. GO 49 34 09 07 34 21 09 4G 46 43 09 5G 24 Mulbil, in Ladak Nov. 6 4 P.M. 56 Kaslimir City 34 05 28 46 39 39 „ 21 li P.M. 53 Ditto ditto Kashmir Mean 34 05 28 46 30 37 34 05 28 46 35 08 Dee. 22 3 P.M. G4i Sbamsabad, in Cbaeb 33 62 00 45 29 35 440 INTENSITY. OBSERVATIONS of MAGNETIC INTENSITY taken at LE, On Wednesday, 6th October, 1847, by Major A. Cunningham. No. 1 Magnet. Mean Time by Watch. Diffe- rences. No. of Vibra- tions. Time of One Vibration Temp. of Magnet. Arc de- scribed. Remarks. H. M. s. 1 17 1 1 19 24i 1 21 42 1 23 56J 1 26 9 1 28 2U 1 30 82 143"-5 138-5 134-5 133-5 132-5 131-5 30 30 30 30 30 30 4 -783 4-617 4-483 4-450 4 -417 4-383 92° 146° 106 82 58 42 28 20 814-0 180 4-522 OBSERVATIONS of MAGNETIC INTENSITY taken at KASHMIR, On Wednesday, 22nd November, 1847, by Major A. Cunningham. No. 1 Magnet. Mean Time by Watch. Diffe- rences. No. of Vibra- tions. Time of One Vibration Temp, of Magnet. Arc de- scribed. Remarks. H. M. S. 2 17 2 2 30 2 4 40 2 6 47 2 9 4 2 11 19 2 13 34 133" 130 127 127 125 125 30 30 30 30 30 30 4-433 4 -333 4-233 4 -233 4-166 4-166 52° 131 117 91 79 69 59 49 Compared with the observations taken at other places, the magnetic intensity is much less iu the vol- canic country of Kashmie. 770 ISO 4-261 INTENSITY. 441 OBSEEVATIONS of MAGNETIC INTENSITY at SHAMSABAD, On Thursday, 23rd December, 1847, taken by Major A. Ounuiugha ui No. 1 Magnet. Mean Time by Watch. Diffe- rences. No. of Vibra- tions. Time of One Vibration Temp. of Magnet. Arc de- scribed. Remarks. 11. M. S. 2 12 25 2 15 2 17 20 2 19 35 2 21 49 2 24 1 2 26 13 155 140 135 134 132 132 30 30 30 30 30 30 5"-160 4-666 4-500 4-466 4-400 4-400 80° 167° 121 87 69 57 43 31 828 180 4-600 OBSEEVATIONS of MAGNETIC INTENSITY at SIMLA, On Saturday, 9tb June, 1849, taken by Major A. Cunningham. No. 1 Magnet. Mean Time by Watch. Diffe- rences. No. of Vibra- tions. Time of Temp. One of Vibration Magnet. Arc de- scribed. Remarks. H. M. s. 8 58 22 9 45 9 3 9 5 15 9 7 28 9 9 40 9 11 50 143 135 135 133 132 130 30 30 30 30 30 30 4"-766 4-500 4-500 4-433 4-400 4-333 76° 149° 117 97 81 67i 57^ 47i 80S 180 4-489 442 XVII.-METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEIIVATIONS. ACTINOMETER. OBSERVATIONS at LAEA, in Spiti, on Friday, 3rd September, 1847. Height, 13,118 feet. N. Lat. 32° 09' 45". E. Long. 78° 03' 35". Mean Time, civU reckoning at station. Time. Sun or Shade. Readings. Change per Minute. Radia- tion in parts of Scale. Remarks. Initial. Terminal. Initial. Tei-mi. .-;0 - a c-j H. M. s. 2 48 00 49 00 50 00 51 00 52 00 H. M. S. 2 49 00 50 00 51 00 52 00 53 00 O X O X O A 3 34 22 54 39 B 34 22 54 39 71 + 31 -12 + 32 -15 + 32 ACTINOMETER. 4.13 OBSEEVATIONS at EAJSTGRIG, in Spiti, on Saturday, 4th September, 1847. Height, 12,954 feet. N. Lat. 32° 15' 00". E. Long. 77° 57' 25". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Time. Sun or Sliade Readings. Change per Minute. Radia- tion in parts of Scale. Remarks. Initial. Terminal. Initial. Ternii. H. M. S. H. M. S. ' 12 55 00 12 56 00 O G 47 + 41 Yeiy light wiud 56 30 57 30 X 50 43 — 7 H. M. 12 58 - 58 00 59 00 O 40 85 + 45 - 59 30 1 00 30 X 82 78 - 4 Sky, clear 1 01 00 1 02 00 O 7 54 + 47 ^ - 1 50 00 1 51 00 o 9 49-5 + 40-5 ^ 51 30 52 30 X 52 46 - 6 1 53 - 53 00 54 00 o 7 51 + 44 -Do. do. 54 30 55 30 X 47 42 - 5 s 56 00 57 00 O 3 52 + 49 , c 2 50 00 2 51 00 O 14 56-5 + 42-5 ^ 51 30 52 30 X 57 45 -12 2 53 - 53 00 54 00 O 6 40 + 34 1 Wiud, gusty Sky, clear ■ 54 30 55 30 X 36-5 22 -14-5 I 56 00 57 00 O 4 40 + 36 1 1 r 3 50 3 51 00 o 9 59 + 50 1 51 30 52 30 X 65 70 + 5 3 53 - 53 00 54 00 O 3 51 + 48 1 Wind, steady 54 30 55 30 X 55 58i + H Sky, clear ^ 50 00 57 00 O 3* 49i + 16 ' Mi ACTINOMETER. OBSEEVATIONS at GTIHBAIt, inSpiti, on Sunday, 5th September, 1817 Height, 14,513 feet. N. Lat. 32° 19' 05". E. Long. 77° 58' 00". Mean Time, civil reckoning at station. Time. Sun or Shade. Readings. Change per Minute. Radia- tion in ]iart.s of Scale. Remarka. Initial. Tenninal. Initial. Tenui. H. M. s. H. M. s. - 12 55 00 12 56 00 o 11 42 + 31 A 56 30 57 30 X 40-5 32-5 - 8 . 58 00 59 00 o 26-5 56-5 + 30 Wind, lig] 59 30 1 00 30 X 56 47 - 9 Sky, clear - 1 01 00 02 00 O 43 72-5 + 29-5 ^ 1 ' 1 52 00 1 53 00 o 25-5 57 5 + 32 ^ 53 30 54 30 X 59-5 53 - 6 - 55 00 56 00 O 49 81-5 + 32-5 >Do. do. 56 30 57 30 X 80-5 64-5 -16 58 00 59 00 O 5 '5 38-5 + 33 ( " 2 55 00 2 56 00 o 29 66 + 37 56 30 57 30 X 631 49-5 -14 , 58 00 59 00 O 10-5 47-5 + 37 >Do. do. 59 30 3 00 30 X 45-5 36-5 - 9 3 01 00 3 02 00 O 31 62-5 + 31-5 ' 3 55 00 3 56 00 O 10 55-5 + 45-5 56 30 57 30 X 57 '5 56-5 - 1 - 58 00 59 00 O 10 55-5 + 45-5 I Do. do. 1 59 30 4 00 30 X 57-5 54 -3-5 I 4 01 00 4 02 00 O 14-5 61 + 46-5 ) 445 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS in KASHMIR. May and Juno by Colonel Bates. November by Major Cunningbam. Time. Place. Height. Radiation. Moisture. Temperature. Sol. Terr. Dry. Wet. Dep. Min. Max. Mean. (i 7 8 9 10 11 Basant Biigh . . Kashmir City . . 6,300 64 54 56 57 48 53 50 70 64 63 60 61 62 70 1 53-14 64-3 57-4 June 3 4 5 6 7 8 _ 9 10 12 13 14 15 Gulmarg Pathan Baraliraula ... Mudig:lm Handivv&n .... Nichihlima .... Jagapur Lolar " 8,225 5,300 52 54 54 68 64 58 59 64 64 63 60 63 78 82 80 74 74 79 72 77 60 75-44 65-9 Nuv. 4 19 20 21 Dilawar Biigh Kashmir City M4rttand 5,300 6.000 78-5 83-0 82-0 82-0 84 -0 86 -0 28 33 38 28 52 53 49 55 56-5 60-75 45-75 46 43-25 47-5 46 48-25 6-26 7 5-76 7-5 10-5 12-6 39 36-5 36 35 36-26 31 52-6 53 49 55 56-5 60-75 Means .... 82-6 31-75 54-37 46-12 8-2 35-46 54-46 42-69 The observations of terrestrial radiation are to be compared with the minima temperatures. Note. — If we compare the climate of Kashmir with that of Kandwar, we may obtain the mean annual temperature, approximately, in the following manner ; — Me.an temperature of May Mean temperature of June Mean temperature of November Mean annual temperature 57-4 _ i = 50-225 65-9 - i = 52-720 42-69 + ^ = 51-230 446 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEYATIONS in ASTOR and RONGDO, Taken by Colonel Bates. Time. ASTOR. Height. Radiation. Moisture. Temperature. Sol. Terr. Dry. Wet. Dep. Mill. Max. Mean Aug. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 IS 19 20 21 23 24 Near Gures .... Gurea Zian 11,437 6,950 6,950 7,468 7,468 7,468 8,667 12,068 12,068 9,715 9,715 9,220 9,811 58 49 66 56 50 41 40 38 61 56 39 68 57 72 55 71 76 60 76 76 77 64 72 65 Mapanon SuUSyu Kurim Pukhora Tink Near Tink ^ . . Means .... 9,154 50-8 68-4 50-6 Aug. 26 27 28 29 30 EONGDO. Torche Harpo Eongdo Zingphu Bashu 11,386 9,879 5,978 8,703 6,468 37 56 70 68 64 74 88 82 69 81 Means . . . . 8,483 59 78-8 68-9 Note. — The mean annual temperature of Astor may be found by comparing the mean temp rature of August with tliat of Kan;lwar — from which :^ths are to be deducted, thus — 59 -6 — ^o = 46-19° mean annual temperature. Tlie mean annual temperature of Eongdo may be found in the same manner, thus — 68 '9 — ^\j = 53 'lO' mean annual temper.ature. 447 IMETEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS in BALTI, KHAPOLOR, and CIIHOEBAD, taken by Colonel Bates. Sept. 1 Katsora Skardo . . Kunes . . . Dugni . . . Khapolor . Lanka . . . Kubas . . . Chhorbad . Dora. . . . Hanu . . . Me.ans 7,000 7,157 7,157 7,157 7,400 7,400 7,700 7,700 7,654 8,143 8,143 8,143 8,143 8,200 8,300 8,400 12,587 9,860 ,124 Dry. Wet. Dep, Min. Ma.x. Mean. * These two days' observations are taken from Vigne's Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, &c., Vol. II. p. 266— probably in A.D. 1838. Note. — If we compare the climate of Balti with that of Kan.^war, we may obtain the mean annual temperature by deducting one-fifth from the mean temperature of September, thus — 69 '9 — A = 55 '92° mean annual temperature. 448 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS in LAHTJL and SPITI, Taken by Major A. Cunningham. 1846. LAHUL. Height. Radiation. Moisture. Temperature. Sol. Terr. Dry. Wet. Dep. Min. Max. Mean Aug. 24 30 31 Sept. 2 4 29 Koksar Gundla Kirdang Daroha Kitpobrang .... Patseo 10,675 10,387 10,813 11,400 13,397 12,451 74 79 SO 84 63 66 54 55-5 57 56 50 44 20 23-5 23 28 13 43 46 48 50 40 32 74 79 80 84 63 66 Means ... 11,520 74-28 52 -93 21-35 43-16 74-33 58-47 1847. Aug. 31 Sept. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SPITI. Lari Pog Dangkhar .... Lara . . , Rangrig Gyihbar Jukta Bongrochan ... 11,894 12,095 13,598 13,118 12,954 14,513 15,058 17,435 98 102 101 89 100-5 87 84 69 78 76 64-5 65-5 62-0 49-5 49 38-5 78-25 84-5 73 71-5 72 61-5 64-5 55 53-25 54-5 48 45-5 46 38-5 39-5 35-75 25 30 25 26 26 23 25 19-25 43 42 41-5 44 36-5 22 26 18-5 79-5 84-5 72-5 72 72 65-5 64-5 55 Means .... 13,833 91-31 60-37 70 45 25 34 -25 70 -25 51-86 The observations of terrestrial radiation are to be compared with the maxima temperatures. Note. — The mean annual temperature of Lahul may be found by a comparison with that o Kan&war, which gives 47-30° for the mean annual temperature. The mean annual temperature of Spiti has been determined by a whole year's observations, t.ikeii chiefly by my brother. It is 3S -89". 419 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS in RUKCllU, Taken by Major A. Cunningham. 1S46, Height. Radiation. Moisture. Temperature. Sol. Terr. Dry. Wet. Dep. Min. Max. Mean. Sept. 7 Cherpa River . . 14,268 75 44 31 18 75 12 More Tiho . . . 15,864 69 39 30 19 73 14 Rukchin 16,058 60 39 21 20 61 15 Tsho-kar 15,762 — — — 9 62-5 16 Polokonka .... 16,200 66 40 26 11 66 17 Nakpo Gonding 16,800 23 54 19 Tsbomo Riri . . 15,000 32 62 Means .... 15,707 67-5 40-5 I 27 18-86 64-8 40-98 18-17. Sept. 8 Trdtang . . _ . . 16,916 74-5 56-5 36 20-5 20-5 56-5 9 Plialang 16,333 87 62-75 40 22-75 29 62-75 10 Norbu 15,946 80 69 45-75 23-25 32 69 11 Dunyar 15,617 94 64-25 43 21-25 32 67-5 12 Dongan 16,016 93-5 70 46-5 23-5 36 70 15 Hdnle 15,117 9i 72 47 25 35-5 71-6 17 Mangkang .... 15,020 93 69-75 45-75 24 42 70 19 Ranak 14,586 — 31 67 22 Puga 15,264 78 9 61-75 39-25 22-5 13 61-75 23 Angkhang .... 16,100 20 56 24 Tsho-kar 15.762 26 53 25 Larsa 16,349 20 50 Means .... 15,756 65-75 42-90 22-85 28-08 62-75 45-18 Mean of 1S46 and 1847 .^ 15,731 06-62 41-7 24-92 23-47 63-77 43-08 By comparing the climate of Rukchu witli that of Spiti we obtain 28-72° for the mean annual temperature. 2 G 450 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS in LADAK Proper, Taken by Colouel Bates and Major A. Cunninglnam. Sept. 11 12 13 14 15 le 17 18 19 20 21 Skerpechan . Nurla Saspol Bazgo Nyimo 1,6 Chachot . . Marchalang Ukshi .... Gya 1.5-5 19-5 11,594 11,712 86-5 11,712 11,712 11,712 11,712 11,712 11,712 92-5 10,145 85-5 10,024 92 65-75 39-5 40-5 43-5 13-5 25-5 22-25 59 53 66 -5 65-75 11,350 60-87 Note. — By comparing the climate of Ladak with that of Spiti, both for September October, we obtain 37 -00° as the mean annual temperature. 461 ABSTEACT of the HrETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS in KASHMIR, BALTI, and LADAK. Jlontbg. Temperature. Extremes. Proba- bleMean Min. Max. Mean. Min. Max. Annual T«mp. INIay IvASlIMIE ... 53 14 64-3 57-4 48 70 June... Ditto 60 75-4 65-9 52 82 51 -39 November . . . Ditto 35 -46 54-46 42-69 31 60-75 August AsTOE 50-8 68-4 59-6 38 77 46 19 Ditto EONGDO 59 78-8 68-9 37 88 53-40 September . . . Balti 59-2 81-4 69-9 42 91 55-92 August, Sept. LAntiL 43-16 74-33 58-47 32 84 47 -30 September . . . Spiti 34 -25 70-25 51-86 18-5 81 -5 38-89 Ditto RUKCUU 23 -47 63-77 43 -08 9 75 28-72 Ditto Ladak 44 -93 70-0 57-01 24 82 37 00 October Ditto 22 '20 60 -87 38-95 17 66-5 2 G 2 452 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at LAEI, in SpitI, On Tuesday, 31st August, 1847. Height, 11,894 feet. N. Lat. 32° 04' 00". E. Long. 78° 22' 40". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. S Registers. Radiation. WiiKl. Weather Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 43 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 77? 534 24i 98 784 } 2 20-083 79 7H 794 55 244 79-5 98 78 ! cloudy 3 20-068 851 78i 78i 53i 25 96 79 ) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals 2S5i 1613 73| 2484 237 292 2354 Means 7S.i 53| 244 82 79 97h 784 453 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at POG, in Spiti, On Wednesday, 1st September, 1847. Height, 12,095 feet. N. Lat. 32^ 02' 00". E. Long. 78° 16' 05". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. fl Registers. Radiation. Wind. Barom. 1 Weather. A.M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. Q + Max. Miu. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 i 5 42 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 19-857 80 814 81 .i 554 26 102 76 2 19 •832 86 84i 844 544 30 84-5 994 814 cloudy. 3 19-822 87 84 84 55 29 95 784 do. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals ileans 454 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at DANGKHAH, On Thursday, 2ud September, 1847. Height, 13,598 feet. N. Lat. 32° 04' 40". E. Long. 78" 09' 00" Mean time, civil reckonins; at station. Noon 1 2 3 4 5 101 95 S74 64i 67 455 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at LAEA, in Spiti, On Friday, 3rd September, 1817. Height, 13,118 feet. N. Lat. 32° 09' 45". E. Long. 78° 03' 35". Mean time, civil reckouiug at station. Therm. Bulb. g Registers. Radiation. Wind. Barom. 1 2 Weatlier. A.M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Ma.\. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 44 6 t fi 10 11 Noon 1 19 -392 81i 714 714 454 26 88 654 2 19-380 Sli 72 72 47 25 72 89 67 3 19-301 SOi 71 71 4S4 224 85 U64 i 5 fi 8 9 10 11 ; 12 1, Totals Means 456 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at EANGEIG, in Spiti, On Saturday, 4th September, 1847. Height, 12,954 feet. N. Lat. 32° 15' 00". E. Long. 77° 57' 25". Mean time, civil reclioninff at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bull). 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. s + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 36i 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 19-292 771- 72 72 46,1 25-1 1001 634 2 19-277 75 72 72 46 26 72 994 67 3 19-264 73i 70 70 454 24i 92 66 4 19-264 6SJ 69.* 69.^ 46.1 23 84| 62 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means d.57 arETEOEOLOGICAL OBSEKVATIOXS at GTIHBAE, in Spiti, Ou Suuday, 5th September, 18J:7. Height, 14,513 feet. jN". Lat. 32° 19' 05". E. Long. 77" 5G' 35". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. A.M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. & Q + Max. Mill. Solar. Terr. Direction. Prcs.s 1 2 3 4 5 22 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 18-190 70 643 643 434 21 1 87 544 2 18-166 67 654 65J 423 22f 654 87 57 3 18-160 6-24 614 6U 384 23 7 '2 55 4 18-158 60 59i 59i 38i 21 694 504 5 574 374 20 67 49i 6 7 8 9 10 11 1-2 Totals Means 458 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at JUKTA, in Spiti, On Moncla}-, 6tb September, 1847. Height, 15,058 feet. N. Lat. 32° 22' 00". E. Long. 77° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Tlicrm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. O Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. Q + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 26° 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 17-674 66 04i 64 J 42i 22 78 55i 2 17-652 65 64J 64i 39J 25 64-5 84 67i 3 17-636 55 56J- 56} 36 20i * 1 49 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means * Sun-set behind hill. 159 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS at BONGROCIIAN, iu Spiti, On Tuesday, 7th September, 18i7. Height, 17,435 feet. N. Lat. 32° 23' 00". E. Long. 77° 58' 00'. Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Bamm. Therm. Bulb. 1 Re^sters. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 18i 6 7 S 10 11 16-240 50 4-3 47J 34i 13i 69 36J- Noon 1 16-238 57 52i 52i 35i 17 6Si 38. i 16-230 56 55 55 35| 19^ 55 67 44 3 16 •2-22 55 54 54 35 19 64 i 46 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals 1 Means 460 IVEETEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIOlSrS at TEATANG, in Eukclni, On Wednesday, 8tli September, 1847. Height, 1G,916 feet. N. Lat. 32° 31' 40". E. Long. 78° 04' 10". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. TeiT, Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 204 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 3 16-548 16 -.532 60 57 56^ 531 56J 534 36 354 204 18 664 744 69 m 47 .OccasionaUy 1 in strong ' gu.st3 down the Pi'irang Fine and clear. 4 I river. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 461 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at PHALANG, in liukcbii, Ou Thursday, 9th September, 1847. Height, 1G,3S3 feet. N. Lat. 32° 34.' 15". E. Long. 78° 11' 20". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. WilKl. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. o + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 29 6 7 S 9 10 11 Noon Occasionally in strong gusts down the Parang L river. 1 3 4 17-054 17-046 17-028 65 70 68A 62f 62| 602 623 622 602 40 40i 40 222 224 20f 674 62:; 64i 62J 63 601 S4 S7 73 56 58 6 s 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 462 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at NOEBU, iu Eukchu, On Friday, 10th September, 1847. Height, 15,946 feet. N Lat. 32° 39' 50". E. Long. 78° 19' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. g Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. a Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 32 6 7 S 9 10 11 Noon 1 17-334 71 69 69 46 ■23 73 66i 80 57 3 17-306 69J- 69 69 i''i •231- 69 m SI 58 Down the Parang river. 4 17-274 6S-\ 6r,x 65^ 43 •22; 69i- 64 75 55 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 463 IMETEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at DUNYAE, iu Eukchu, On Saturday, llth September, 1847. Height, 15,G17 feet. N. Lat. 32° 39' 20". E. Long. 7S° 24' 30". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Therm. Bulb. j Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. \.M. Att. Det. Drj-. Wet. Q + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 3 4 5 .32 6 7 S 9 10 U OOIJ 1 17-502 Sll 67i 67i 47 20i 675 68 94 55 2 17-477 65 64i 64i 43 21 1 68 64.1 O.iJ 60 3 17-446 66 6ii 641 45 101 68i 644 71' 60 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 I otals 1 1 leans 1 4G4. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at DONGAN, iu Rukclui, Ou Sunday, 12th September, 1847. ■ Height, 1G,016 feet. N. Lat. 32° 43' 45". E. Long. 78° 30' 30". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Tlierm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Dct. Dry. Wet P + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 36 Cloudy. 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 70 46i 23.i 70 68 93J 60 Blowing up Howards the J Lanak pass. Cloudy. 2 68J 45i 23 73i 70 73 634 do. 3 4 69 46i --'■ 74 70 SI 63 do. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 465 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at IIANLE, in Kukclm, On "Wednesday, 15th September, 1847. Height, 15,117 feet. K". Lat. 32° 44' 20". E. Long. 78° 53' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Therm. Bulb. o Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. .M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 37 8 9 63 45| 17i 75 524 10 67 654 11 63 45| 17J 67 62| 694 54 OOD 1 68 72 46| 47 25 734 72 70 73 94 89 624 68 ■ Cloudy. 2 68i 45i 23 73 694 89 624 1 3 664 44i 21S 71 67 76 61 |.South. 4 66 444 214 70 66 72 60 J 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 otals eans 2 H 166 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at MANGKANG, in Eukclm, On Friday, 17th September, 1847. Height, 15,020 feet. N. Lat. 32° 53' 30". E. Long. 78° 47' 40". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Tlierm. BiUb. b" 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. S Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 42 very cloud 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 70 48 22 70 70 92 64.1 -j 2 69| 45J 24 68i 64| 93 59 ^ South. cloudy. 3 4 65 45i 19| 68 64 93,i 60.^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 467 METEOEOLOGICiVL OBSEEVATIONS at PUGA, in Ilukchu, On Wednesday, 22nd September, 1847. Height, 15,264 feet. N. Lat. 30° 12' 30". E. Long. 78° 18' 20". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. M. Barom. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Ma.\. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 13 13 6 151 m 154 7 18 20J- 18 9 S ir, 27^ 25 48 18 still 9 38i 45 36 59 274 cle.-xr. m 33 12| 491 44J 65 35 LI 54 zn 16i 59 544 68 43 faint, oon 56 371 IS.! 594 554 704 45 1 58 3S-J m 62 58 74 49 2 615 39| 22. V 66J 62 78 55 1 3 4 59? 56 37J 35 22 21 63i 60 59 56 73 664 524 48 steady. 1 - cloudy. 5 50i 33 175 65 504 56 44 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 otala eanf 2 H 2 468 METEOEOLOGICxlL OBSEEVATIONS at GITA, in Ladiik, On Monday, 27tli September, 1847. Heiglit, 13,587 feet. N. Lat. 33° 38' 55". E. Long. 77° 43' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. a + Max. Miu. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 G 24 7 S 9 39 29 10 43i- 39 71 — 10 11 40 401 29 28 11 12| 44^ 454 75 75 31 32 blowing down the Giya rivulet. clear. Noon 45J 34 114 m 454 76 36 do. 1 453 31 14f 45J 46 76 364 gusty. 2 45 323 12* 49i iSi 76 361 do. 3 47 311 15i 51 47 64; 38 cloudy. ■ 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Meaus 469 JIETEOEOLOGICAL OBSERYATIOXS at UGSHI, in Ladak, On Wednesday, 29th September, 1847. Height, 11,654 feet. N. Lat. 33' 48' 25". E. Long. ' ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Therm. Bulb. d 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. .M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. a + Max. Mill. Solar. Terr. Direction. i^ess 1 3 4 5 30 6 7 S 9 10 11 oon 56 40 16 59 544 82 49 1 584 404 IS 624 584 7!).( 504 2 59 404 19.J 62i .584 78 54 3 58 40 18 624 58 69 51 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ■"otaU dean 470 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at LE, in Ladak, On Sunday, 3rd October, 18i7. Height, 11,712 feet. N. Lat. 34° 09' 07" -32. E. Long. ° ' Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Diy. Wet. a + Max. Mill. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 28 — 2S 6 7 32 37 — 31 41 37 8 38 — 43 38 60 33 9 46 33J 12 i 51 46 70 37 10 48,^ 35 13i 54 50 75 42 11 55 36 19 604 564 S2 48 Noon 56i 38 184 60i 56i 84 49 1 2 58.1 38 2(H 63 69 84 49 3 601 38i 22 604 61i 864 55 4 57 37i 193 61 57 85 51 5 6 63 35 18 57 63 66 47 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 471 JMETEOKOLOGICAL OBSEEYATIONS at LE, in Ladak, Ou Saturday, 9th October, 1S47. Height, 11,712 feet. N. Lat. 34° 09' 07" -32. E. Long. ° ' Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Tlierm. Bulb. ■i 1 Kegisters. Radiation. Wind. Weather. .M. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 3 4 5 17 17 6 2-2 7 27 S 36 404 35i 40J 31 9 39 43 83 484 32 10 m Sil 7 46 36 60 36 11 45J 35^ 10]- 49i 40 79i 40 oon 53 39i 134 574 48 924 47 1 52i 384 13i 55i 45i 71 474 2 m 344 13 5H 42 514 404 \ 3 484 34i 14] 53 434 693 44 1 Solar ( eclipse. 4 47 34 i 124 51 41 534 40 ' 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 "otals [eans 472 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at HEMIS, in Ladak, On Wednesday, 13th October, 1847. Height, 10,145 feet. N. Lat. 34° 16' 14" -02. E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation, Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. a + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 2S 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 63| 40i 23 1 82i 58 68 59 1 644 40i 241 68i 59J 84 594 2 66 404 25i 694 61 85 60 3 4 66i 40i 251 70 61 854 61 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 473 HIETEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at KHALLACH, in Ladak, On Friday, 15tb October, 1817. Height, 10,024 feet. N. Lat. 34° 20' 15" -97. E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoniag at station. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. I Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. a + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 26^ 6 7 8 9 10 11 ^oon 1 65 43 22 88 54 2 65' 434 22i 65f 92 55J 3 621 m 22J 70 58 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ■■otala [eans 474 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at HESKU, iu Purig, On Sunday, 17tli October, 1847. Height, 12,270 feet. N. Lat. 34° 18' 13" -22. E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. d Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 20 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 57i 40 17^ 611 51i 71 40 1 584 39J 19 62 52i 73 m 2 59| 39i 191 591 54 73 48 3 4 5Si 39 194 m 53 69 471 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 475 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at MULBIL, in Purlg, On Wednesday, 20th October, 1847. Height, 10,480 feet. N, Lat. 34° 21' 09" -53. E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civU reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. ■s Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 Q + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press Weather. 1 2 3 4 5 29 29 6 30 7 32 363 47 30 8 41 37 9 40' 44-4 41 44 36 10 441 48 44 474 40 11 45i 36 Sh 50 46 50J 42 Naon m 36 114 52 m 65 44 • hazy. 1 494 364 13 53i 60 554 46 2 52 33| 181 52 52 56^ 48 3 61i 374 13? 55 62 544 464 4 50 364 134 54 51 52 46 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 476 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at DBAS, On Monday, 25tli October, 1847. Height, 10,253 feet. N. Lat. 34° 23' 49"-31. E. Long. 34° 23' 49"-31. Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. g Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. 1 Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 25 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 524 40 m 56 81.1 40 f Sun com- pletely Lclouded. 54 1 2 46| 56 344 in m 14| 51 56 48 56| 53 83 37 3 56 38 18 60 57 75,1 49 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 477 METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at KASHMIE, City, On Thursday, 4th November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. ]\'. Lat. 34° 05' 28" -69. E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. 1 £ Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 39 39 7 39 8 42 39J 2.i 46 424 594 28 9 m 40. J 3 48i 44 m 31 10 47i 43| 4 52 48 72 334 n 50 45 5 53J 50 73 40 Noon 50i 45i 5j 54i 51 734 44 1 50J 45V 5] 55 51i 784 464 2 52 45a 6^- 56 52 79 m 3 52i 46i 6 52i 53 76 49 4 521 46 6i 554 53 724 48 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 478 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at KASHMIR, City, On Friday, 5th November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28" -69. E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. S + Ma.x. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 38 34 4 41 38 6 39J 341 3 42 39 7 36 i 341 40J 36^ S 40 371 21 44 40 9 451 421 31 50 46 67 33 10 4S.I 44 44 53 49 69 36 11 49| 45 43 534 50 70i 37 Noon 60.^ 45 5a- 544 51 78 39 1 5ia 45i 6i S5i 62 83 48 2 52.i 45f 6i 53 77i 514 3 53 46 7 53 63 m 514 4 53 46i 65 57 53 69 51 5 6 63 46i 6J 56-1 53 53 50 J- 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Meaus 479 IiIETEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at MAHTTAND, in Kashmir, On Friday, 13th November, 1847. Height, 6,000? feet. N. Lat. 33° 4i' 28" -76. E.Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Therm. Balb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Baxom. 1 Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. Q + Ma.\. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 31 31 6 31 7 32 36 40 28 8 40 36 9 48i 43 53 49 57 36 10 51 44 7 56i 52J 62J 38 11 54 45i 8| 60 56i 79 41 Noon 59i iSi 11 65 6H S4i 465 1 60J 4Si 12 66 62 86 48 2 60| m 12i 60| 61 764 60 3 60 m 12^ 62i 59i 58i m 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 480 METBOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at KASHMIE, City, On Friday, 19th November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28" -69. E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. BlUb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. 1 Att. Det. Dry. Wet. a + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 6 35 7 8 9 10 45 49 45 11 46 60 46 Noon 48 m ii 52 m 80 45 1 49 43i 5f m 82 47 2 3 4 5 6 7 s 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 481 METBOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at KASIIMIE, City, On Saturday, 20th Xovember, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34° 05' 28" -69. E. Loug. 74° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckouins at station. Therm. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. A.M. Barom. £t Weather. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. & Q + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 37^ 35 i 2 42 37i 8 40 37| 2i m 40J 9 43i 40f '2h m 4Si 10 m 43J H 51i m 70J 38 11 49 44J 4} 53 49| 67 43 Noon 50i 45J 5 541 51* 75 m 1 511 46i 5i 56 52^ 82 52 2 3 53i 47i 5h 574 54i 7Si 56 4 5 55 47i 7i 59 55J 51 52 6 53 47 6 58J 54J 7 8 S 10 11 12 Totals Means 2 I 482 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIO]N'S at KASHMIR, City, Ou Sunday, 21st November, 1847. Height, 5,350 feet. N. Lat. 34" 05' 28" -69. E. Long. 74° 58' 00". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M Baroni. Therm. Bulb. 1 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Att. Det. Dry. Wet. + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press Vveatner. 1 2 3 S8i m i very faint air. fleecy clouds 4 37 34 J 2} do. 5 37J 344 3 light puffs. 6 36} 34 oi 36} 7 371 35 2J 8 37i 34} 3 9 46 m H 10 49 43} 51 71 40 11 51 44 7 73 45 • still. Noon 1 62} 52} 45 46 7} 7} 80 84 48 514 2 53J 45} 8} 77i 53 3 54i 45J 9 82 54 i 4 56i 46 m 565- 75 514 5 66 45i lOi 45 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 483 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS -A MOZAFARABAD, On Thursday, 9th December, 1847. Height, 2,1GG feet. X. Lat. 34° 21' 45" 51. E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. Barom. Therm. Bulb. ■i Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. A.M. 1 Att. Det. Dry. Wet. 1 + Majt. ~ Solar. Min. 1 1 Terr. Direction. Press 1 3 i 5 6 7 8 53 i5k 7} 9 57J 54 10 541 46i 84 59 56 65 49 n 563 48 8| 61 571 76J 53 Noon 57i 47$ 9i 57i 58 64^ 54J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals ~ Means 484 METEOKOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS at SHAMSABAD, On Tuesday, 21st December, 1847. Height, 1,000 feet. N. Lat. ° ' ". E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Therm. Bulb. i Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. 1 Att. Det. Dry. Wet, a + 1 — Ma-x. Min Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 57 54 3 75 40 58 58 11 56 i 52i i\ 62 62 76i 47 Noon 00 J- 52 7h 60.1 65 72 53 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means 485 JIETEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS at SIIAMSiBAD, Ou Wednesday, 22nd December, 1847. Height, 1,000 feet. K". Lat. ° ' ". E. Long. ° ' ". Mean time, civil reckoning at station. A.M. Barom. Thenn. Bulb. 1 Registers. Radiation. Wind. Weather. Art. Det. Diy. Wet. a + Max. Min. Solar. Terr. Direction. Press 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 56J 483 n 594 594 79 51 Noon 60i 48 124 64 64 78 57 1 62| 49} 134 664 664 75 60 2 633 49| 14 674 674 74 60 3 641 50 14i m 684 70 61 4 634 51 124 67i 674 67 58 5 574 484 9 62 62 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals Means LONDON: PRINTED BY COX (BROS.) 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