NORWAY:ITS PEOPLE.ITS FJORDS AND ITS FJELDS ! ' IN VIKING LAND NORWAY: ITS PEOPLES, ITS FJORDS AND ITS FJELDS Works of W. S. MONROE Turkey and the Turks - - $3.00 In Viking Land - - - - 3.00 L. C. PAGE & COMPANY New England Building, Boston, Mass. HAAKON VII., KING OF NORWAY. IN VIKING LAND NORWAY: ITS PEOPLES, ITS FJOKDS AND ITS FJELDS BY/ W. S. MONROE AUTHOR OP " TURKEY AND THE TURKS," ETC. ILLUSTRATED BOSTON * AND COMPANY L. C. PAGE MDCCCCVIII Copyright, 1908 Br L. C. PAGE & COM PANT (INCORPORATED) All rights reserved First Impression, September, 1U08 Second Impression, June, 1910 Electrotyped and Printed at THE COLONIAL PRESS: C. H . Simonds (& Co., Boston, DEDICATED TO of ip ffiot&er PREFACE THE present work is the result of two vaca- tion trips to Norway and rather wide reading of the extensive literature of the country. The author's aim has been to give prospective tourists some notion of the benefits to be de- rived from a visit to Norway and to inform readers who prefer (or are forced by circum- stances) to travel within the covers of a book. He trusts, also, that his book may serve to re- fresh the memories of those who have already travelled in Norway. In a country so rich in mountains, ice-fields, waterfalls, and fjords, it is altogether easy to devote the chief part of the book to physio- graphic forms and forces. This is precisely what most writers on Norway have done. The present volume, on the other hand, gives prom- inence to matters of human interest the peo- ple, their habits, customs, and traditions, and vii viii Preface to the developed and developing civilization of the country. Important as the Sogne, the Har- danger, and the North Cape may be as geo- graphic types and marvels of scenery, Edvard Grieg, Bjornson, and the institutions of the country are likewise significant features of the land, and they should receive due consideration in a popular work of this sort. The geography of the country is given in the first chapter. The chief structural features of the land plateaus, coast-islands, fjords, glaciers, f jelds, and climate are briefly sketched. Most of these topics are given more detailed treatment elsewhere in the book, the opening chapter serving merely the purpose of orientation. The viking age appeals strikingly to the imagination of readers and travellers, and the author has endeavoured to draw from the chronicles of the old Norse sagas and the ex- isting historic objects that have a visible con- nection with the past such facts as may aid in the construction of a fairly vivid picture of this stirring period. The civilization of Norway can only be inter- preted through such significant historic facts as the long period of independence under na- Preface ix tive earls and kings and the unhappy alliances with Denmark and Sweden; hence, two his- torical chapters have been added. Readers who object to history in tabloid-form are re- quested to skip these chapters. Those, how- ever, who are not familiar with the trend of events in Norway are likely to find them help- ful. While the recent rupture with Sweden and the formation of an independent kingdom is fresh in the minds of most students of current history, a hasty review of these events is given, with a brief account of the young king whom the Norwegians have selected as their sovereign, together with the methods of operat- ing this very democratic monarchy. The people of Norway, their ethnic stock, physical and mental characteristics, moral traits, and personal qualities, are discussed in the sixth chapter; and the Lapps of the polar regions in the seventh. The ancient and mod- ern Norse religions are described in the eighth chapter; and the author has not assumed on the part of his readers very general acquaint- ance with that branch of Scandinavian mythol- ogy which formed the basis of the religion of Norway before the introduction of Christian- x Preface ity. In the tenth chapter an account is given of public education elementary and second- ary schools, the university, technical and spe- cial schools, libraries, and literary publications. Methods of travel in Norway differ in so many particulars from the other countries of Europe that a chapter has been devoted to the subject. The life on the lonely and solitary farms is treated in the eleventh chapter, and the fisheries, forests, and commerce in the twelfth. Norway is probably best known in foreign countries by the grand fjords which indent her western coast. The author has described the most magnificent fjords from the Har danger to the Trondhjem in the thirteenth chapter. The fjelds (mountains) and the deep and pic- turesque mountain valleys of the southern and central highlands are treated in the fourteenth chapter. The three cities of the country first in point of historic interest Trondhjem, Bergen, and Christiania are separately described ; and three chapters are devoted to the flowers of Norwegian civilization literature, music, painting, architecture, and sculpture. The large place which Norway occupies in the cur- Preface xi rent history of the fine arts will come as a surprise to most readers. A select annotated bibliography will be found in the appendix. For the use of these books the author is indebted to that excellent literary workshop the City Library at Springfield, Massachusetts. In the spelling of the names of places and persons preference has been given to accepted Norwegian forms of orthography. The author wishes to thank a host of friends in Norway who have aided him in the collection and the verification of the data in his book. The illustrations are from photographs taken by the author and personal friends or pur- chased from professional photographers in the country. Special thanks are due Mr. William Barton Hale of Kochester, New York, and Mr. George W. Stimson of Pasadena, California, for aid in this line. Mr. Hale generously placed his large collection of several hundred excellent Norwegian photographs at the dis- posal of the author; and several of the best illustrations in the book are from his collection. WILL S. MONROE. CONTENTS FAOB CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHY OF SCANDINAVIA Extent and structure of the Scandinavian peninsula The Kjolen upland The Dovrefjeld highland The Plateau of southern Norway Effects of the Ice Age Snow-fields and glaciers The Jostedal and the Supper- helle Origin and character of the Norwegian fjords Coast islands The Lofoten chain Midnight sun and winter darkness Climate of Norway Temperature and rainfall Wild animals, birds, and sea-fowls The flora of Norway 1 CHAPTER II THE VIKING AGE Earliest human habitation in Norway The stone age The civilization of the bronze age The iron age and the viking period The vikings characterized Dis- tinct historic periods of the viking age Conquests in Normandy, Great Britain, and the south Amalgama- tion of the vikings Ravages in France, England, and Germany Contact with Christianity Recovered ancient viking grave-ships The Gokstad ship Burial of viking chiefs The recently discovered Oseberg ship Industries and domestic life of the vikings . . 16 xiii xiv Contents PAGE CHAPTER III UNDER THE OLD NORSE KINGS Norway one of the oldest sovereign states Viking age the beginning of recorded history The first Olaf Harald the Fair-Haired Norse colonization Haakon the Good the first Christian king Harald Gray fell and his brothers Earl Haakon and paganism The ro- mantic career of Olaf Trygvesson Adoption of Chris- tianity Discovery and settlement of North America Picturesque career of Olaf the Saint Consequences of a vigorous policy Magnus the Good and Harald the Hard-Ruler Olaf the Quiet and the arts of peace Magnus the Bare-Leg and the Scotch islands The illegitimate sons of Magnus Eyestein and industrial development A century of strife The Birch-legs and the triumph of the peasants Sverre Sigurdsson, Norway's greatest king Haakon Haakonsson the Old A succession of weak rulers The Hanseatic league The " Black Death " Union with Denmark and Sweden ... 28 CHAPTER IV UNION WITH DENMARK AND SWEDEN Queen Margaret and the union of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark Provisions of the Kalmar union The weakness of King Eric Withdrawal of Sweden from the union Loss of the Scotch islands Oppressions of the Danish kings The Protestant reformation and the adoption of the Lutheran religion Seven years' war with Sweden Misery in Norway under Frederick IV German Puritanism Norway separated from Den- mark and united with Sweden The Eidsvold con- stitution Conflicts between king and parliament Oscar I and Oscar II Events which culminated in the rupture with Sweden 54 Contents xv CHAPTER V HAAKON VII AND THE NEW KINGDOM Rejection of the consular service bill leads to the separation from Sweden Result of the general plebiscite in Nor- way Terms of separation Haakon VII elected sovereign of the new kingdom Social and personal qualities of the young king Norway a constitutional monarchy The national parliament Executive department of the government Simplicity of Nor- wegian laws Crime and criminals Organization of the Norwegian courts Army and navy Government revenues and expenditures Nature of the direct and indirect taxes Free-trade and protectionist policies The national debt Financial obligations of the mu- nicipalities The monetary system of Norway Na- tional and savings banks and their supervision . . 70 CHAPTER VI THE PEOPLE OP NORWAY Norway the home of the purest Teutonic ethnic stock Physical characteristics of the people Stature Mental characteristics Independence and absence of hereditary aristocracy Talent recruited from the the ranks of the peasants Moral traits of the people Honesty and kindness to animals Aptitude for trade and travel Cleanliness, personal and otherwise Standards of sexual morality Charities and correc- tions Sanitation and health Area and population of the country Emigration to the United States Increase in the face of emigration Urban and sub- urban population Growth of the capital Improve- ment of the condition of the industrial classes Child- labour and the employment of women Insurance against accident Social and political legislation . . 87 xvi Contents PAGE CHAPTER VII LAPPS AND THE POLAR REGIONS Polar sections of Norway and the Lapps Climate of the polar regions Rainfall and fog The North Cape and the midnight sun The aurora borealis The nomadic Lapps Physical and mental characteristics Dress of the men and the women Mountain Lapps and Sea Lapps The reindeer in the economic life of the people Low state of civilization in Finmark The Finns and their habits 104 CHAPTER VIII NORSE RELIGIONS: OLD AND NEW Heathenism, Christianity, and the faith of Martin Luther Norway the most Protestant country in the world Early Scandinavian mythology Odin and Thor the supreme gods Resemblance to their Greek confreres Minor Norse gods The ancient heathen temple and its service Sacrifice the chief rite Introduction of Christianity into Norway The German reformation movement Creed of the Evangelical Lutheran church Dissent and the Haugianere Ecclesiastical divisions of Norway Confirmation in the life of the child Compensation and duties of the clergy . . . .115 CHAPTER IX EDUCATION IN NORWAY Common school education universal in Norway State control Domestic education Course of study and qualification of teachers Secondary education The national university at Christiania Technical and special education Art and industrial education Learned societies Public libraries Newspapers and reviews Press censorship during the union with Den- mark Effect of the Eidsvold constitution Some of the earliest journals Newpapers and the Landsmaal Contents xvii PAGE Efforts to make Norse dialects the official language of the country Literary defects of the Landsmaal The Dano-Norwegian and the New-Norwegian Un- scious approximation of the two languages . . . .131 CHAPTER X HIGHWAYS, RAILWAYS, AND WATEWAYS Excellent posting system in Norway Carrioles, stolk- jaerres, and sledges Norwegian horses Roads and road-building Some fine mountain highways How the roads are kept in repair State railways of Norway Enormous cost of construction Leading lines Fjord-boating facilities Lake steamers Canals of Norway Postal telegraph, and telephone systems 151 CHAPTER XI FARM -LIFE AND AGRICULTURE Small proportion of the land surface susceptible to culti- vation Farmers small proprietors Variety of agricul- tural products Haymaking Horses and cattle Buildings on a Norwegian farmstead The stabur The mountain saeter Dairying Simple food Varied industrial activities of the farmers Norwegian names How emigration has influenced agriculture Attempts to improve agricultural conditions Land and cultivation loans Agricultural societies and education Increase of price of landed property The cotter system Entails and community property . 163 CHAPTER XII FORESTS, FISHERIES, AND COMMERCE Vast forest lands of Norway Conifers the most impor- tant trees Extensive use of birch for wood-pulp The lumber industries Value of timber products Importance of the fisheries Cod, herring, and mackerel xviii Contents PAGE Crew of a fishing smack Handicraft industries in Norway Manufactures Mineral products Im- portance of commerce Exports and imports Foreign trade relations 178 CHAPTER XIII FJORDS OP THE WEST COAST Character of Norwegian fjords and their branches Their individuality An American traveller's description The Hardanger fjord and Odde Native costumes Waterfalls of the Hardanger The Sogne and the Nsero fjords The Nord fjord and its near-by glacial lakes The Geiranger fjor.d and the " Seven Sisters " Hellesylt and the Norangsdal Marok Molde and the Romsdal The fjords north of the Trondhjem basin 190 CHAPTER XIV FJELDS AND MOUNTAIN VALLEYS The southern plateau and its mountains and mountain valleys The Saetersdal Telemarken and its pic- turesque costumes Bergen to Vossevangen The Finneloft Over Stalheim The Naerodal Lserdals- oren The Valders route Husum and the old tim- ber church at Borgund The descent from Nystuen to Skogstad Fagernses and Lake Spirillen The moun- tain peaks and waterfalls of the Romsdal The Gud- bransdal 205 CHAPTER XV TRONDHJEM: ITS SAINT AND ITS CATHEDRAL Trondjem once the residence of the Norse kings Its loca- tion Mediaeval foundation Olaf the Saint and his early career His reign one of the mile-stones in Nor- wegian history His canonization and the St. Olaf cult The national cathedral Selection of Trondjem as the Contents xix PAOB archiepiscopal see Progress of the cathedral during the reign of Haakon Haakonsson Fearful conflagrations Fate of the cathedral after the reformation Recent restorations Other notable historic associations in Trondhjem 220 CHAPTER XVI BERGEN AND THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE Picturesque location of Bergen Foundation of the city by King Olaf the Quiet Early monastic institutions The royal palace and Haakon's Hall Bergen during the civil wars Nature of the Hanseatic league Its place in the history of European commerce First foothold in Bergen Character of the German mer- chants Articles of trade Oppressive power of the league finally broken Bergen during the eighteenth century Commerce injured by the war between Den- mark and England Growth of industrial arts The fishing industry Municipal institutions Art treas- ures Leper hospitals 234 CHAPTER XVII CHRISTIANIA THE MODERN CAPITAL The modern capital founded by King Christian IV Its rapid growth Three destructive fires Some notable buildings Fortress of Akershus and other historic monuments Control of the liquor traffic in Christiania Marked decrease in intemperance Im- provement in public morals and decrease in the death rate The Christiania fjord Bygdo and the people's museum Hanko and summer resorts Holmenkollen and winter sports Skiing, ski-jumping, and ski-sailing Tobogganing, hill-sliding, and ice-pegging . . . 247 xx Contents PAGE CHAPTER XVIII NORSE LETTERS AND HENHIK IBSEN Origin of the languages and literature of Scandinavia Revived interest in the old Norse The ancient runes Literary influences of the union with Denmark Peder Dass and the seventeenth century Union with Sweden and literary independence Wergeland and Welhaven Norwegian literature to-day Bjornson His romances, dramas, and personality Henrik Ibsen Socialist and psychologist " Peer Gynt " and Nor- wegian peasant life Ibsen's art " Brand " Ibsen's dramas characterized Current men of letters Jonas Lie and his romances The novelettes of Kielland Heilberg and dramatic literature The bow of promise of Norwegian literary art 260 CHAPTER XIX FOLK - MUSIC AND EDVARD GRIEG Origin of Norwegian folk-songs How they typify the country Significance of the epics Ancient musical instruments The Hardanger violin, the lur, and the langeleik Rhythms of the national dances Ole Bull and national music Labours of Kjerulf, Nordraak, Winter-Hjelm, and Christian Sinding Women com- posers Edvard Grieg the greatest of the Norwegian creative tone-artists His early training and studies in Germany Wide range of his compositions The national element of his music Pianoforte composi- tions Grieg's lyric art-songs Orchestral and cham- ber-music Place of Grieg in the history of music Concert virtuosi Norwegian pianists Choral socie- ties and music festivals The Norwegian Musical Union 278 CHAPTER XX PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE Recent development of national art-consciousness First generation of painters influenced by Denmark and Ger- Contents xxi PAGE many Dahl, Feamley, Baade, and Frich The second period in the history of Norwegian painting and the in- fluence of the Dtisseldorf school National themes Contemporary artists Otto Sinding, Heyerdahl, Thaulow, and Werenskiold The younger painters Sculpture allied with woodwork Stephen Sinding and Skeibrok Development of architecture Timber buildings The cathedrals Old churches at Borgund, Vik, and Reinlid Domestic architecture .... 29G APPENDIXES 309 BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 314 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS HAAKON VII., KING OP NORWAY .... THE JOSTEDALSBRS I THE LARGEST ICE - FIELD IN EUROPE. CROSSING THE FOLGEFONDE ICE - FIELD WITH SLEDGES IN SUMMER ....... 6 THE MIDNIGHT SUN ......... 10 BlRD - CLIFFS IN FlNMARK ....... 14 A MODERN NORDLAND BOAT. THE OSEBERG SHIP . 26 THE NCERO FJORD ......... 47 IN THE VALDERS ......... 52 A MOUNTAIN LAKE ..... .... 62 THE ROYAL FAMILY OF NORWAY ...... 74 NATIONAL COSTUME IN THE HARDANGER .... 90 NATIONAL COSTUME IN TELEMARKEN .... 94 IN THE HlTTERDAL. - IN THE S^ETERSDAL .... 98 A BRIDE IN THE NUMEDAL ....... 100 A GROUP OF SEA LAPPS. A GROUP OF MOUNTAIN LAPPS .......... 110 HERD OF REINDEER ......... 112 GOING TO CHURCH ........ . 130 UNIVERSITY OF CHRISTIANIA ...... .136 A NORWEGIAN CARRIOLE ....... 152 RAILWAY FROM BERGEN TO VOSSEVANGEN .... 156 STEAMER - YACHT, " HAAKON VII." LOCK IN THE SKEIN- NORDSJO - BANDAK CANAL ..;... 160 A FJORD FARM .......... 164 XXIII xxiv List of Illustrations PAGE HAYING IN THE FJORDS. DRYING HAY . . . .166 A NORWEGIAN MAUD MULLER 168 A MOUNTAIN S^TER 170 IN THE PINE FOREST ZONE 180 A FISHING VILLAGE. DRYING CODFISH .... 182 HAMMERFEST 184 A FJORD FLOUR MILL 188 NATIONAL COSTUME AND INDUSTRY 190 THE SEVEN SISTERS 199 THE NORANGSDAL 201 THE ESPELANDSFOS. THE STORSS.ETERFOS . . . 202 LOEN ON THE NORD FFORD. MOLDE .... 204 THE FlNNELOFT AT VOSSEVANGEN 204 STALHEIM 210 THE SIVLEFOS IN THE N^ERO'DAL 212 THE BORGUND CHURCH 214 LAKE SPIRILLEN. THE ROMSDAL 217 THE BROAD STREETS OF TRONDHJEM. THE UNION RAIL- WAY STATION AT TRONDHJEM 232 BERGEN FISH MARKET 243 ON THE CHRISTIANIA FJORD 254 SKI -DRIVING. SKI-JUMPING 257 HENRIK IBSEN 266 FRIDTJOF NANSEN 274 EDVARD GRIEG. CHRISTIAN SINDINO 284 MRS. BACKER - GRONDAHL 286 THE REINLID CHURCH 307 MEDIEVAL NORSE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE . 308 IN VIKING LAND GEOGRAPHY OF SCANDINAVIA Extent and structure of the Scandinavian peninsula The KjBlen upland The Dovref jeld highland The Plateau of southern Norway Effects of the Ice Age Snow-fields and glaciers The Jostedal and the Supperhelle Origin and character of the Norwegian fjords Coast islands The Lofoten chain Midnight sun and winter darkness Cli- mate of Norway Temperature and rainfall Wild ani- mals, birds, and sea- fowls The flora of Norway. THE Scandinavian peninsula is 1,160 miles long and it varies in width from 240 to 470 miles. It forms a reasonably elevated plateau and is traversed by a series of mountain ranges that form the water-shed and a natural bound- ary between Norway and Sweden. On the west side of the plateau there are narrow fjords deep gorges filled with water that penetrate into the peninsula for many miles and on the long eastern slopes there are many mountain valleys and numerous lakes. Geologically i In Viking Land Scandinavia is very old, archaean rocks being widely spread over the south and east; and where they do not appear on the surface, they are covered by glacial formations, sand, and clay. Structurally it is made up of detached plateaus and mountain ranges from two to three thousand feet above sea level. Mountain ranges, more or less broken in character, extend from the Naze to the Ve- ranger fjord. The plateau has three reason- ably well marked divisions the Kjolen in the north, the Dovref jeld in the center, and the Langf jeld in the south. The highest point in the Kjolen plateau is the Sulitelma (6,151 feet), not a separate peak but a group of crests resting on a common base. Being within the arctic circle it has immense snow-fields and glaciers. At Trondhjem there is a depression in the Kjolen upland, the highest point in the highway which crosses the plateau being only 1,670 feet above the sea. The Dovrefjeld is scarcely a plateau, but a series of highlands and glacial-worn mountain ranges. Here are found the highest peaks in Scandinavia the Glittertind (8,385 feet) and the Galdhopig (8,400 feet). Several of the other peaks of the Jotunheim exceed six thousand feet. The snow Geography of Scandinavia line here is only 5,580 feet and the portions of the plateau between the peaks are entirely cov- ered with snow. The Justedal, the largest ice- field in Europe, is here, and there are a num- ber of lakes at elevations of more than three thousand feet. To the south of the Dovrefjeld plateau is the highland of southern Norway formed by the Langfjeld, the Hardangerfjeld, and the Fille- f jeld. West of the plateau are deep fjords and rugged cliffs; to the south are vast troughs which form several of the most picturesque valleys in Scandinavia, and on the east are the rich woodlands, a succession of forest-clad hill- sides, with bits of cultivated ground in the in- tervening hollows. While topographically not distinct from the Dovrefjeld, it constitutes a separate plateau, with very few single peaks or groups of peaks rising above the general level. The relatively even summits suggest that it was originally a plain of denudation that was subsequently forced up into an arch. The summits that tower above the plateau are of harder kinds of rock and have better with- stood the destructive forces that have levelled the remainder of the plain. There was a period when the Scandinavian In Viking Land peninsula was overrun by glaciers and snow- fields as Greenland is to-day. This period is known as the ice age. It is difficult to say how long ago this was, but judging from the con- siderable geographic changes that have since taken place it is safe to conclude that it was several hundred thousand years ago. The an- cient ice sheet in Norway is estimated to have been from six to seven thousand feet thick, and the amount of work done by the glaciers, in the way of erosion, transportation and the deposi- tion of rock and earthy material, was very great. Since the deposition toward the mar- gin of a glacier must be commensurate with its erosion near the center of movement, the waste to the mountains of Norway by glacial erosion must have been something enormous. Much of this erosive material was carried be- yond the Baltic and forms the subglacial de- position of northern Germany. In spite of the fact that the Scandinavian peninsula has only a moderate elevation, its northern latitude and moist climate continue to favour the growth of glaciers and ice-fields at relatively low altitudes. The portions of the Norwegian plateau south of the sixty-seventh degree of north latitude, that have elevations Geography of Scandinavia of more than five thousand feet, are capital glacier breeders. Norway has in consequence more than five thousand square miles of snow- fields. The Jostedal snow-field, in latitude sixty-two degrees north, covers five hundred and eighty square miles and twenty-four gla- ciers push from it outward towards the Ger- man sea. The largest of the glaciers is five miles long and three-fourths of a mile wide. The Fondalen snow-field covers about the same area as the Jostedal; but on account of its northern location it is between latitude sixty-six and sixty-seven degrees its glaciers descend through the valleys quite to the ocean level. The Suppehelle glacier in the Sogne is a branch of the massive Jostedalsbrae. It forces its way through the narrow gap in the moun- tains and expands in the lower ravines into a vast sea of ice full of jagged ridges and pin- nacles. These glitter and scintillate in the noonday sun with a cruel brilliancy. The pale green streams which issue from it form mag- nificently vaulted deep blue caverns. As it leaves the ice-sheet to descend to the ravine, the glacier gives the appearance of reversed billows suddenly congealed in the act of break- In Viking Land ing. From the Folgefonde, the most south- ernly ice-field in Norway, glaciers descend in all directions, following the lines of the valleys, the two most beautiful being the Buarbrae at Odde and the Bondhusbrse at Mauranger. These great snow-fields and glaciers are the parents of ten thousand beautiful cascades; and, even in midsummer, snow loops every ledge and curtains every slope down as far as the woodlands. The fjords of Norway furnish additional evidence of the erosive power of the great ice- sheet with which the peninsula was once cov- ered. The western coast-line is broken up by deep incisions of the sea into the rocky cliffs. No other force is known that could have hol- lowed out such a continuous and uniform series of basins. Canons probably existed on the slopes of the plateau before the glacial period, and since then the rivers have undoubtedly continued the work of deepening the gorges; but the characteristic fjord-basins are found only in countries that have once been covered by great masses of inland ice. With the ex- ception of those in Finmark, where the high- land lowers, the fjords of Norway are very narrow and very deep. The Sogne at points THE JOSTEDALSBRAL: THE LARGEST ICE - FIELD IN EUROPE. CROSSING THE FOLGEFONDE ICE - FIELD WITH SLEDGES IN SUMMER. Geography of Scandinavia attains a depth of more than four thousand feet. The two longest of the fjords are the Sogne one hundred and thirty-six miles - and the Hardanger one hundred and four- teen miles. The fjords for the most part are partially obstructed at their entrance by the remains of old moraines; and many of them are so effectually cut off from the ocean by islands and reefs that fresh water from the rains and melting snows often covers their surface to a depth of four feet. Marine algae likewise give place to fresh-water plants. The east coast of the peninsula may have once been indented with gorges similar to the fjords, but they have been gradually filled up by the allu- vial deposits of the rivers. Detailed descrip- tions of the fjords from the Hardanger to the Trondhjem depression will be found in a sub- sequent chapter. After the fjords the next most prominent topographical feature of Norway is the chain of islands which borders the country on the ocean side. Varying in size just big enough for the nest of a sea-fowl to Hondo in the Lofoten group, which contains eight hundred and seventy square miles, islands are continu- ous from Stavanger to Magero. They number 8 In Viking Land one hundred and fifty thousand and contain one-fourteenth of the land surface of Norway and one-eighth of the population. They are of the same geological formation as the hilly peninsulas that project from the mainland, al- though somewhat less elevated; and, like the fjords, they are the work of the inland ice- glaciers. One can sail from the Bukn fjord to Lyngstuen through labyrinthine passages of grim rocks and islets in land-locked waters, the only considerable breaks being at the mouths of the Folden and Vest fjords and near the North Cape. Many of the largest islands are within the arctic circle, as Kvalo, on which Hammerfest is situated, the Seiland, Sorb, Varno, Hvalo and Tromso. Many of them are very mountainous, sheer sea-cliffs rising out of the ocean to heights of three thousand feet. The Lofoten chain flanks the mainland for more than a hundred miles, the islands being so close together that when seen from a dis- tance they give the appearance of a long moun- tain chain. They have bold, rugged, and deeply-indented coasts and elevated interiors, some of them being covered with perpetual snow. " Like needles," says a Norse rhapso- dist, " their snow-capped peaks pierce the sky. Geography of Scandinavia 9 During the greater part of the year snow fills the ravines far down the mountain sides, clasp- ing their frosty arms around the valleys, and sending down like streams of tears along the weather-beaten cheeks of these northern Alps, innumerable foaming waterfalls and roaring cascades, falling in an endless variety of grace- ful shapes into the profound fjords below. With their lofty jagged pinnacles, fantastic chasms, and rugged precipices they present a picture of unutterable grandeur." The coasts of the Lofoten islands are inhabited by fisher- men, these being the chief cod and herring fishing grounds of Norway. During the fishing season forty thousand men are thus employed and the annual yield exceeds two million dol- lars. The islands are exposed on the western side to severe storms, and near the south end of the group is the famous whirlpool known as the maelstrom. The summer days in Norway are long and bright, but in the winter they are short and dark. A third of the country is in the latitude of the midnight sun and winter darkness. Even in the southern sections of the country, twilight asserts itself during the entire night of the summer. At Stavanger the nights are 10 In Viking Land light from the last of April to the middle of August; at Bergen and Christiania they begin a week earlier and end a week later, and at Trondhjem there is broad daylight at midnight from the 23rd of May to the 20th of July. The midnight sun, however, is not visible south of the polar circle. It is above the horizon throughout the twenty-four hours at Bodo from the 3rd of June to the 7th of July ; at Tromso from the 19th of May to the 22d of July, and at the North Cape from the 12th of May to the 29th of July. There are corre- sponding periods during November, December, and January when the sun is not seen. But the darkness of winter is by no means so great as might be imagined. The whiteness of the snow gives a glimmer of light and the prolonged flashes of the aurora borealis set the heavens in a blaze, so that the darkness of the long winter nights is turned into a sort of twilight ; and the beauty and the brilliance of the north- ern lights compensate in some degree for the absence of the sun's rays. Extending as it does through thirteen de- grees of latitude, Norway has a wide range of climate. South of the Dovrefjeld, the mean annual temperature varies from 40 Fahren- Geography of Scandinavia 11 belt at Lindesnaes to 31 at Fjeldberg. July is the hottest month, when, in the south, the ther- mometer may register 80 to 90. The winter temperature of southern Norway is relatively mild, when one recalls the latitude. The mean winter register for Christiania is 25, at Ton- saasen in the Valders 17, but in the mountain valleys it falls much below zero. Rainfall is very unevenly distributed over southern Nor- way. At Grimstad on the coast the average annual rainfall is forty-eight inches, at Chris- tiania twenty-four inches, and in the Dovre- fjeld less than twelve inches. The western coast of Norway, coming di- rectly under the influence of the Gulf Stream, has a milder and more uniform climate. Sum- mer lasts four months and the mean annual temperature ranges from 41 at Vossevangen (altitude 184 feet) to 38 at Rodal (altitude 1,411 feet). July and August are the hottest of the summer months and February is the coldest month of the winter. Extremes of tem- perature are least on the coast and greatest inland. The rainfall of western Norway is heavy, diminishing from the coast inland. At Bergen it exceeds seventy-five inches, but the interior sections get scarcely half that amount. 12 In Viking Land The decrease of the rainfall from the coast inland is well illustrated in the Sogne fjord. At its entrance the annual rainfall is eighty inches, and at Laerdalsoren, eighty-seven miles inland, it is fifty inches; on the Nsero fjord, seventy miles from the coast, it is thirty-one inches, and at Laerdalsoren, eighty-seven miles from the entrance of the fjord, it is only six- teen inches. The wild animals of Norway are noticeably tamer than in other countries. This is prob- ably due to the long winters when they are forced to seek the habitations of men for food, thus overcoming to a degree their instinctive fears. The elk and the deer are the most inter- esting; of the large wild animals, although both are being rapidly exterminated. A few elk are still found among the mountain ash and willow on the highlands, and there are limited num- bers of the red deer on the coast islands south of Trondhjem. The wild reindeer, rather darker in colour than the domesticated animals of Lapland, are still reasonably abundant. The most important carniverous animals are the bear, the wolf, the glutton, the lynx, and the fox. The brown bear is found only among the pine forests of the woodlands and a few Geography of Scandinavia 13 polar bears still cross the ice from Spitzbergen to the northern islands during the winter months. The arctic fox, much prized for its skin, which turns white when exposed to the severe cold, is found in considerable numbers in Finmark. The most important rodents of Norway are the lemmings. In size and form they resemble the mole, although the colour is golden buff and they have large black spots on the neck. Their habitat is Lapland, but large swarms emigrate south each year in search of food; and the ease with which they climb the steep mountain cliffs and swim the streams is something astonishing. To except sea-fowls, the bird life of Nor- way is neither as varied nor as abundant as might be expected. Yellow-hammers, wagtails, blackbirds, and magpies are most often seen. In a country where the gun is the sole means of obtaining fresh meat for the table, the game laws are very loosely observed. In conse- quence such game birds as grouse, plover, black-cock, ptarmigan are scarce ; and a sports- man who hoped to get a good bag in a day's hunt would require seven league boots. Eagles, ospreys, and falcons are still reasonably abun- dant among the mountains. Enormous colonies 14 In Viking Land of sea-birds breed on the cliffs of the western fjords and northern islands, including the kittiwake, the puffin, the cormorant, the auk, and the eider-duck. They are much hunted for their eggs, feathers, and flesh. The eider- ducks are being better protected in recent times. The owner of the ground where the nest is built is permitted during the hatching season to gather a certain amount of the down which the female plucks from her body. The nest is built of marine plants but is lined with down of exquisite fineness. As the lining is removed she continues to reline it throughout the period of incubation. A nest will produce half a pound of good down after it has been picked and cleaned. The student of plant life will find the flora of Norway singularly luxuriant and varied. In the matter of flowering plants, more than fifteen hundred species grow wild in the coun- try; and many of the varieties are of the rare sort found only in polar regions. The lake basins and fjords of the south-eastern prov- inces furnish the greatest number and variety of flowering plants, the neighbourhood of Christiania alone having more than nine hun- dred wild phanerogams. Here the summers are BIRD - CLIFFS IN FINMARK. Geography of Scandinavia 15 relatively long, the climate moderate, and the rainfall abundant. Among perennial spring flowers may be named the blue hepatica which carpets the woods with blossoms during April and May, the reddish yellow saxifrage which appears as soon as the snow has gone, several varieties of rare wood orchids, the beautiful but poisonous foxglove with long spikes of pale blue bells, a number of species of gentian similar to those found in the high Alps, and the arctic and Scotch heath. The fragile and delicate Norwegian flora is in striking contrast with the rugged and gigantic landscape which it adorns. Battalions of tiny lily of the valley, dainty groups of purple larkspur, the quaint blossoms of the dwarf cornel, and the delicate trailing honeysuckle are found on the sides and at the bottoms of the great fjords. Blaeberry, black crowberry, and dogberry cover the moun- tain knolls; among the bogs are found quanti- ties of cloudberry, bilberry, and whortleberry, and wild strawberries and raspberries grow abundantly in the valleys that lead into the fjords. The edible berries have a delicious aroma that is peculiar to Norway. CHAPTER n THE VIKING AGE Earliest human habitation in Norway The stone age The civilization of the bronze age The iron age and the viking period The vikings characterized Distinct historic peri- ods of the viking age Conquests in Normandy, Great Britain, and the south Amalgamation of the vikings Ravages in France, England, and Germany Contact with Christianity Recovered ancient viking grave-ships The Gokstad ship Burial of viking chiefs The recently dis- covered Oseberg ship Industries and domestic life of the vikings. THE earliest evidences of human habitation in Norway from four to five thousand years ago indicate that* the people belonged to what is commonly called the stone age. They did not know the use of metals, but employed in their stead stone, bone, and wood for their rude tools and weapons. They had fixed dwelling places; domesticated animals; buried their dead in large stone chambers, and fol- lowed such occupations as hunting and fish- ing. The stone age persisted in Norway much longer than in .the other countries of Europe, in consequence of which, the implements found 16 The Viking Age 17 are more beautiful in design and more careful in workmanship. They are made of sand- stone, flint, and various kinds of eruptive rocks, while in the northern provinces slate was largely used. The most populous parts of Norway during the stone age were the basins of the Christiania and Trondhjem fjords. During the bronze age from one thousand to fifteen hundred years before the birth of Christ metals came into general use. Bronze was made from a mixture of copper and tin, although the use of gold was also known. But as the bronze had to be brought from central and southern Europe, and was therefore very costly, stone implements were widely used throughout the bronze age in Norway. Dur- ing this period agriculture was developed; animals were more generally domesticated, and the dead were cremated. Among the notable memorials of the bronze age are the rock en- gravings. These are rough drawings scratched upon the solid rocks of the smooth mountain sides; some represent objects in nature and others have a symbolic significance. The dis- tribution of the population during this period was essentially the same as during the stone age. 18 In Viking Land The iron age in Norway began from three to four hundred years before the Christian era and continued to the end of the viking period - about 1050 A. D. This was a period of marked development; population increased; the simpler industrial arts were acquired; and the culture of letters began. Both cremation and burial are found throughout the iron age. To this period belong the runic inscriptions of Norway. These were carved upon stone, weap- ons, and ornaments, and the characters were based upon the Latin alphabet. The older runic alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters, but in later times the characters were reduced in size and in number to sixteen. The viking expeditions, during the latter part of the iron age, tended to modify greatly the character of Norse civilization by the introduction of man- ners and customs from the more advanced countries of central and southern Europe. From the seventh to the tenth centuries there issued from the fjords of the west coast of Norway hardy adventurers and pirates who ravaged and subdued most of the coasts which they visited. They were valorous and plucky, greedy and bloodthirsty. Their religion had inculcated doctrines of conquest and war, and The Viking Age 19 the Golden Rule of Odin and Thor had taught them that might makes right. They swept whole districts with fire and sword, sparing nothing they could carry off in their ships. More than half of Great Britain and the fairest province of France became theirs. They gave kings to England; grand-dukes to Normandy; and in Sicily they carved out important prin- cipalities. These powerful and dreaded sea- warriors and pirates are known in history as the vikings. Sars, in his authoritative two-volume history of Norway, divides the viking age into three historic periods. During the first period cruises more or less tentative and irregular were made to Great Britain, Denmark, and Flanders, where coast towns and monasteries were at- tacked, after which the plunderers returned to Norway with their booty. During the second period the expeditions were characterized by more definite organization and greater skill in the art of war. Not only were foreign cities attacked and plundered, but they were fortified and held as objective points from which to make forays into the surrounding country. The Norse sagas not only give ethical sanction to viking expeditions, but regard them as legit- 20 In Viking Land imate aids in the education of young men of good birth. A Norse historian remarks: " Royal youths of twelve or fifteen years often went abroad as commanders of viking fleets, in order to test their manhood and accumulate experience and knowledge of men." During the third period they no longer re- turned to their native country but assumed the role of conquerors and took charge of the com- merce and the government of the cities and provinces which they vanquished. The de- scendants of Rollo and his vikings in Nor- mandy soon lost all trace of their connection with rude sea-kings; and the refinement and luxury which they developed were in striking contrast to the manners of even the conquered Gauls. In a comparatively short time the rude and piratical vikings were transformed into the chivalry of Norman barons; and after the Christian conversion of the fierce worshippers of Thor and Odin, they became the most de- vout sons and defenders of the Christian church, and their ecclesiastical and castellated architecture became the admiration of succeed- ing ages. The speedy amalgamation of the vikings, with customs and institutions of the lands The Viking Age 21 which they occupied, is one of the striking facts of the mediaeval period. Professor Boyesen remarks in this connection : ' ' The feudal sys- tem which, with all its defects, is yet the indis- pensable basis of a higher civilization, has its roots in the Germanic instinct of loyalty of mutual allegiance between master and vassal; and the noble spirit of independence which re- strains and limits the power of the ruler, and at a later stage leads to constitutional gov- ernment, is even a more distinctly Norse than Germanic characteristic. While Norway up under the pole has developed a democracy, Germany, at too early a period, has developed a military despotism under constitutional forms." The earliest recorded viking expedition was to Sleswick in 777, although piratical fleets from Norway had infested the North and the Baltic seas for a century or two before this date. In 841 a viking expedition sailed up the Loire in France, burning the city of Amboise and besieging Tours. About the same time an- other viking crew sailed up the Seine and burned Beauvois and Eouen, destroyed the Fontenelle monastery, and plundered Paris. The Ehine was likewise entered and Dorsten, 22 In Viking Land Nymegen, and other towns on its banks were ravished. At an even earlier date (839) a viking fleet of one hundred and twenty ships spread terror and desolation along the coast of Ireland and captured the city of Dublin, which was held by the Norsemen for three cen- turies. Scotland, the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Faroe Islands were similarly plun- dered and ravaged. England likewise suffered at the hands of the pirates from Norway. In 787 a band of vikings ravaged the coast of Dorchester and seven years later the coast of Northumberland was plundered. Simeon of Durham, a twelfth century chronicler, writes of this invasion: " The heathen came from the northern coun- tries to Britain like stinging wasps, roamed about like savage wolves, robbing, biting, kill- ing, not only horses, sheep, and cattle, but also priests, acolytes, monks, and nuns. They went to Lindesfarena church, destroying everything in the most miserable manner, and trod the sanctuary with their profane feet, threw down the altars, robbed the treasury of the church, killed some of the brothers, carried others away in captivity, mocked many and flung them away naked, and threw some into the ocean." The Viking Age 23 A flood of light has been thrown on the man- ners, customs, and activities of the vikings by the recent discovery of three ancient grave- ships at Thune in Smaalene in 1867, at Gok- stad in the Sandef jord in 1880, and at Oseberg near Tonsberg in 1903. During the viking period it was the custom to bury important personages with their ships and their belong- ings, much after the fashion of the burial of Germanic kings with their war-steeds. The ex- traordinary preservation of the recovered vik- ing ships is probably due to the fact that they were embedded in blue potter's clay. These ships are a feature of the historical museum of the University of Christiania. All three are trim-looking boats, with beautiful lines, and they seem admirably adapted both for speed and sea-worthiness. An exact replica of the Gokstad ship crossed the Atlantic in 1893 and was one of the objects of interest at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, thus proving that such hulls must have been thoroughly sea-worthy. The Gokstad viking ship, which is one of the lions of Christiania, belongs to the ninth cen- tury. Its length from stem to stern is 172 feet, the length of the keel 66 feet, the breadth 16 24 In Viking Land feet, and it could not have drawn more than three feet of water. Its considerable length in proportion to its width must have made it a fast sailer, and the flat bottom must have made it very steady at sea. It is built of clinch-oak sixteen strakes high, and the seventeen frames, which are about three feet apart on the keel, run only up to the eleventh strake, where the beams are joined to the side of the ship by knees. The frames are not fastened to the keel but are bound to the planking with the soft roots of trees. The garboard strake is fastened to the keel with iron bolts and the seams are caulked with yarn spun from cow's hair. The Gokstad ship was apparently made for both sailing and rowing, as were most of the viking boats. About midship there is a keelson for the mast to which a large square sail was attached by means of a pulley. There are six- teen openings on each side for the oars. The rudder was placed on the right side, whence " starboard," or steering side. It has been calculated that it had a crew of forty hands and that its carrying capacity was about thirty tons. The fact that the Gokstad ship gives such marked evidence of skilful workmanship The Viking Age 25 indicates that the vikings had attained a high degree of efficiency in the arts and crafts. By the side of the ship were found the bones of twelve horses and six dogs. These animals had been killed, apparently, that they might follow their master to the next world. The wives of the viking chiefs were sometimes killed and placed in the sepulchral chamber with their masters. Three smaller boats were found in the fore-hold of the Gokstad ship. They are from fifteen to twenty-five feet long and in most respects they resemble the boats used to-day in Nordland. Among the smaller articles found in this ship were some wooden plates, some copper cooking utensils, wooden spades, and sledges. As this ship had been opened and plundered it is safe to assume that the most valuable belongings of the dead viking had been removed. For some interesting facts on the manner of burial of the ancient vikings I am indebted to Dr. Ingvald Undset. When a viking died, a spot for his burial mound was chosen near the sea. His ship was drawn upon the beach by his horses; and, with the stern toward the ocean, it was partly imbedded in potter's clay. The sepulchral chamber was then built of tim- 26 In Viking Land ber and the dead man, dressed in his best clothes, with his weapons and other valuable possessions, was placed therein. The chamber was then covered with birch bark. His horses and his dogs were killed and placed by the side of the ship, only his peacock a memento of the dead viking's foreign travels had a place in the ship itself. Then the whole of the ship was covered with potter's clay, with a layer of moss or twigs on the top, upon which the mound was raised. Of even greater interest is the Oseberg ship which was discovered in 1903 and placed in the University grounds at Christiania the past year (1907). The ship is entirely of oak and the timbers have kept so well that in the dam- aged portions of the boat it was possible to steam them and bend them back into their original shape. The Oseberg ship is about 70 feet, 6 inches long and 16 feet, 6 inches broad. The sepulchral chamber is in the middle, as in the Gokstad ship, but much more solidly built. The ship is flat bottomed, has a fine sheer, but it was not built for long voyages. Its general structure indicates that it must have been a pleasure boat for use in the fjords and in the land-locked waters. The ship is highly orna- A MODERN NORDLAND BOAT. THE OSEBFRG SHIP. The Viking Age 27 merited and the abundance of ornamental ob- jects which it contained illustrate the art de- velopment of the viking period. The sepul- chral chamber contained the skeletons of two persons, both women. Professor Gustafson infers that one was a Norse woman of distinc- tion and the other a maid-servant who was forced to accompany her mistress in death. All sorts of feminine appliances were found in the Oseberg ship from weaving looms and spinning machines to balls of thread and wax. Buried with the ship were a four-wheeled vehicle, sledges, several beds, barge-boards, a millstone, kitchen utensils, and oak chests, which contained decayed textiles, quilts, pil- lows, etc. There was a round staff with runes carved on it, a well-preserved anchor, and other articles of the ship's furniture. The skeletons of horses, oxen, and dogs were found beside the ship. The Oseberg viking boat belongs to about the year 800 and is thus eleven hundred years old. CHAPTER III UNDER THE OLD NORSE KINGS Norway one of the oldest sovereign states Viking age the beginning of recorded history The first Olaf Harald the Fair-Haired Norse colonization Haakon the Good the first Christian king Harald Grayfell and his brothers Earl Haakon and paganism The romantic career of Olaf Trygvesson Adoption of Christianity Discovery and settlement of North America Picturesque career of Olaf the Saint Consequences of a vigorous policy Magnus the Good and Harald the Hard-Ruler Olaf the Quiet and the arts of peace Magnus the Bare-Leg and the Scotch islands The illegitimate sons of Magnus Eyestein and industrial development A century of strife The Birch- legs and the triumph of the peasants Sverre Sigurdsson, Norway's greatest king Haakon Haakonsson the Old A succession of weak rulers The Hanseatic league The " Black Death " Union with Denmark and Sweden. Norway is one of the oldest sovereign states in Europe. When Harald the Fair-Haired (872) overcame the numerous earls and king- lets of the country and federated them into the Norse kingdom, Alfred the Great had occupied the throne of England less than a year ; Eussia was merely a principality; the recently organ- ized Holy Eoman Empire was already going to pieces; Denmark was, however, in existence 28 Under the Old Norse Kings 29 and shares with England the primacy among the nations of Europe that have had an un- broken history of more than a thousand years. Before the historic period Norse history is largely traditional. It was not until the North- men " broke like a destructive tempest over civilized lands, spreading destruction in their path," that the country came to have a recog- nized place in authentic history. According to the " Sagas of the Norse Kings " the earliest rulers of the land traced their ancestry to the god Frey. For many years Norway was divided among a number of earls or kinglets who governed mutually independent tribes, took command in local wars, and directed the worship of the gods. Each tribe made its own laws and settled its own disputes. Fjone, Aun, Anund, and Ingjald are the names of some of the early rulers. The first earldom originated in the Trondhjem fjord, where eight tribes were federated with a common worship and administration of justice. The first Olaf, son of Ingjald, ruled during the middle of the seventh century. He was succeeded by Halfdan, the White-Leg, who aug- mented his earldom by the conquest of the fertile Vestfold district in the Christiania 30 In Viking Land fjord. Godfrey the Hunter and Halfdan the Swarthy follow the line of viking rulers. Earl Halfdan was a man of great intelligence and gave the people a code of laws which did much to unify the southern districts of Norway. From the time of Harald the Fair-Haired (860) the records of Norwegian history are a trifle more authentic. He forced the earls in the northern provinces to acknowledge his over-lordship, but in their own provinces he permitted them to administer justice, collect taxes, and maintain petty armies subject to his command. The system of land-tenure was changed, the peasants being deprived of their farms, and all land was declared the property of the king. He likewise introduced a personal tax, which the peasants derisively nicknamed the " nose tax; " but during his long reign of sixty years he made for Norway a large place on the map of Europe. It was during the reign of Harald the Fair- Haired (860-930) that Norse colonization, re- lated in the previous chapter, attained such great activity. The Norsemen went in consid- erable numbers to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Hebrides, the Orkney and Shetland Isles, England, Ireland, France, Italy, and America. Under the Old Norse Kings 31 Sea-robbery was strictly forbidden by Harald in his own kingdom, but against foreign coun- tries the ravages of the vikings were regarded as thoroughly legitimate and as occupations becoming for warriors and gentlemen. The sons of Harald were contentious and they did not make it easy for him to hold his throne. He had a very large family, for he led a loose sort of life, but the best of his male heirs sailed away to France, England, and Italy to make their fortunes. Eric the Blood-Axe (930-935), while an accomplished sea-rover, ruled less wisely than his father. By an unfor- tunate marriage, says a chronicler, " he weak- ened all that was good in him and strengthened all that was bad." He was deposed by his youngest brother, Haakon the Good (935- 961), who had been carefully brought up by King Athelstan of England. The first of the Haakons well deserves his sir name, for he was not only a brilliant and successful ruler, but also a good king. He greatly improved the laws and the military affairs of his kingdom; and he published a decree in 950 abolishing the old faith and forbidding sacrifice to its gods. He had embraced Christianity in England and he imported a bishop and some priests from 32 In Viking Land that country to teach his people the new faith. The opposition to the Christian religion, how- ever, was very pronounced; and, at a confer- ence of the peasants held at Trondhjem, it be- came apparent to the king that it would be folly to attempt to give force to his decree. His subjects assured him of their loyalty and good will, but they made it clear that they did not intend to give up the gods of their fathers. Much against his wishes, but in order to ap- pease his heathen subjects, Haakon partici- pated in their sacrifices and presided at their sacrificial feast. Having been mortally wounded in a battle with the Danes, one of his faithful followers offered to take his body to England where it would receive a Christian burial ; but the dying king made reply : ' ' Hav- ing lived like a heathen, it is meet that I should be buried like a heathen." And in heathen fashion he was buried. Snorre Sturlasson, the Icelandic historian, tells us that the sorrow at his death was great and universal. " He was lamented by both friends and enemies, and they said that never again would Norway see such a king." Haakon the Good having died without male issue, Harald Grayfell and his brothers (961- Under the Old Norse Kings 33 970), sons of Eric the Blood-Axe and the wicked Gunhild, took charge of the kingdom. But as they had been reared in Denmark, they filled their court with Danish warriors, and took no pains to win the favour of their Nor- wegian subjects. Their mother, too, egged them on to cruel and treacherous deeds, and they soon forfeited the loyalty of their people and lost their crown. The fact that they had been baptized and brought up in the Christian faith and that they refrained from sacrifices to the heathen gods, augmented the unpopularity due to their misgovernment, and they were by common consent deposed. Earl Haakon (970-995), who followed with a long and relatively prosperous reign, was the last royal champion of paganism in Norway. He was a zealous pagan, but in an unequal struggle with Denmark and Germany, he was defeated and was forced to submit to Christian baptism and to consent to the introduction of the new faith in his kingdom. Departing from Copenhagen with a ship load of priests, he had not proceeded many miles when he put the priests ashore and made a grand sacrificial feast to overcome the effect of his recent bap- tism. He was a great church builder, remarks 34 In Viking Land the old chronicler, having repaired many hea- then temples, manufactured many splendid idols, with much gilding and artistic ornament, -in particular one huge image of Thor, not forgetting the hammer and appendages, as was never seen before in all Norway. A modern Norse historian pays the second Haakon this tribute : ' ; He was a man of great natural en- dowment, fearless yet prudent, formidable in battle, and in his earlier years justly popular for his kindliness and liberality. Morally, he was, barring the profligacy of his later days, a legitimate product of the old Germanic pagan- ism and the conditions of life which must of necessity prevail in a militant community. " The career of Olaf Trygvesson (995-1000) although brief, was in some respects the most romantic in Norse history. He was a scion of the race of Harald the Fair-Haired, who as an infant had been taken by his mother first to Sweden and later to Eussia to escape the mur- derous decrees first of the wicked Gunhild and then of Earl Haakon. The ship in which the young prince and his mother took passage for Eussia was captured by vikings and they were both sold into slavery. After six years of ser- vitude in Esthonia Olaf 's identity was discov- Under the Old Norse Kings 35 ered, and he was taken to the court of Russia, where he was educated. He was trained in the use of arms, athletic sports, and other matters proper in the education of the son of a king; and in early manhood he served for several years in a naval capacity in one of the Baltic provinces of Russia. At the age of twenty-one years he journeyed to Greece, where he was baptized according to the Christian rite, after which, in search of more adventure, he visited in succession France, Denmark, Scotland, and England. The Anglo-Saxon annals tell us that in 994, with a great viking fleet, he ravaged the south coast of England and that King Ethelred II. was forced to pay him ten thousand pounds as immunity from further depredations. With the downfall of Earl Haakon in 995, he was proclaimed the rightful sovereign of Norway and was crowned at Trondhjem. King Olaf was by nature admirably adapted for the great task which fell to him the es- tablishment of Christianity in Norway. He was zealous for the new faith and uncompro- mising in his opposition to the old religion. Like Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, he did not hesitate to use the sword and fire when more gentle means were of no avail. " He 36 In Viking Land wasted no time in weighing the probabilities of success or failure," says a Norse historian, " but, in the conviction of the sanctity of his cause, stormed resistlessly onward, and, by his impetuosity and ardour, bore down all oppo- sition." Nominally, at least, he made the Nor- wegians Christians. Many, however, while pub- licly renouncing the old religion and accepting baptism, continued privately to make sacrifices. The Christian priests themselves, we are told, professed belief in Odin and Thor, but repre- sented them as evil powers who had been con- quered by Christ. Paganism was more per- sistent in the northern than in the southern provinces, but when the first Olaf met his death in 1000, the new faith was on a tolerably sound footing in the Norse kingdom. Eric and Svein Haakonsson (1000-1015), sons of Earl. Haakon, succeeded King Olaf. Perhaps the most significant event of their reign was the discovery of the North American continent by Leif, son of Eric the Eed, an ad- venturous Norwegian viking. An Icelander in a voyage to Greenland had been blown from his course in a storm and had visited a coast that had no glaciers. Assuming that this coast must be some new land, Leif, with a crew of thirty- Under the Old Norse Kings 37 five men, sailed for the undiscovered west in the year 1000. That he discovered the conti- nent of North America nearly five hundred years before the time of Christopher Columbus is now an accepted historic fact. The coast of Massachusetts is supposed to be the part of the country where Leif and his men landed and spent the winter. The statement, that the sun rose in this region on the shortest day of the year at half-past seven and set at half-past four, indicating a latitude of 41, 24' and 10", has led geographers to conclude that the party must have landed in the region of Cape Cod or the site of the present city of Fall Eiver. Be- cause of the abundance of grapes they named the new country Vineland. A second expedition to Vineland, numbering one hundred and six persons, under an Ice- landic explorer, was organized in 1006 with the intention of establishing a permanent Norse colony in the new world; but the hostility of the strange natives, who came to them in " light boats made of skin," the massacre of a number of the colonists, and the perpetual state of insecurity disheartened the surviving Norsemen ; and, after a sojourn of a little less 38 In Viking Land than three years, they determined to return to their old homes. If Olaf Trygvesson is the most romantic fig- ure in Norse history, Olaf Haraldsson is the most picturesque. During his life-time he was called Olaf the Thick-Set, but after his death and canonization Olaf the Saint. He ruled Nor- way with an iron hand for fourteen years ( 1016- 1030). The country was in bad condition; the laws had been laxly administered; national taxes had been usurped by the lesser nobility; the earls were in a chronic state of insubordi- nation; and the Christian religion, which had been formally adopted, had not displaced paganism in the hearts of the people. On land they worshipped the god of the Christians, but at sea Thor, " whom they considered safer in that element." The strong arm and the clear brain of a really great king not only placed Christianity on a firm basis but gave the king- dom of Norway an international prominence which it had not hitherto enjoyed. The ad- ministration of justice was reformed, abuses in the misappropriation of taxes corrected, and the scattered and rebellious earls federated into a strong and unified kingdom. In spite of a mockish piety which the legends Under the Old Norse Kings 39 of later times have associated with the name of the second Olaf, he seems to have been su- premely human in character and conduct and eminently sane and practical in the adminis- tration of governmental affairs. Professor Boyesen adds in this connection : * ' He was, in spite of his later sainthood, a strong-willed, ambitious, and worldly-wise man; far-seeking in his plans, business-like in his methods, re- lentless in his hates, ruthless in his punish- ments. His severity, which the sagas comment upon, was never wanton, but was in proportion to the magnitude of the offence. Robbers, thieves, and vikings, who plundered within the land, he punished with death, no matter whether their birth was high or low; because the extirpation of the old predatory spirit, with its internecine feuds, was the first condition for the establishment of a united nationality." The brief reign of Svend Alfifasson (1030- 1035) was inconsequential. Magnus Olafsson, known in Norse history as Magnus the Good (1035-1047), was an illegitimate son of Olaf the Saint. According to one authority his mother was the queen's laundress; according to another she was an English woman of gentle birth; but illegitimacy was so common at the 40 In Viking Land time that it was no barrier to political prefer- ment. By inheritance Magnus also became king of Denmark during the last five years of his reign. He died at the early age of twenty- four and the only remaining descendant in the male line was Harald Sigurdsson, a half- brother of Olaf the Saint. He acquired the title of Harald the Hard-Ruler (1047-1066). Harald made it the business of his reign to break the power of the tribal aristocracy and to centralize all authority in the king. The ruthlessness with which he carried out his pro- gram won for him the surname of tyrant or hard-hearted. In the " Sagas of the Norse Kings " this tribute is paid him: " He was ex- tremely intelligent, so that all men are agreed that there has never been a more intelligent king in the North. Moreover, he was an ex- cellent swordsman, strong and skilled in the art of war, and altogether a man who knew how to accomplish his purpose." It may be added that he was keenly interested in poetry and letters and that he customarily abbreviated his sleep periods that he might have more time to listen to the recitals of his blind Icelandic scald. He tried to conquer England, but fell at Stan- ford Bridge shortly before the Norman con- Under the Old Norse Kings 41 quest in 1066. " In spite of the discontent of the chiefs," says a Norse historian, " Norway took great strides during his reign towards a settled internal condition. The tribes were welded into a people, and in every branch of administration the king's strong hand was felt. His wars, though in one sense disastrous, tended, on the whole, to give Norway a secure place among the nations. ' ' Olaf the Quiet (1066-1093) differed in all respects from his predecessors. The sagas tell us that he was " a slim-built, witty-talking, popular and pretty man, with uncommonly bright eyes and hair like floss silk " but that his rule was soft and gentle. He cultivated the arts of peace and devoted his energies to the intellectual improvement of his people. It is indicative of the spirit of the times that his- torians, whose highest ideals consisted in war and the slaughter of human beings, have only a few pages for the long reign of a king who 11 inclined rather to improvement in the arts and elegancies than to anything severe or dan- gerously laborious." Magnus the Bare-Leg (1093-1103), seeing that the conquest of England was altogether impossible, devoted his energies to the amal- 42 In Viking Land gamation of the Orkneys, the Hebrides and his other Scotch possessions. After one of his expeditions to Scotland he appeared upon the streets of Trondhjem in a Highland costume, " the authentic tartan plaid and philibeg of that epoch," and his subjects, not accustomed to the kilts of Scotland, nicknamed him the bare-leg. In an unsuccessful effort to conquer Ireland, he was defeated by King Murdog of that country and was killed in a battle fought near Connaught. Three illegitimate sons of Magnus were de- clared rulers of Norway; and, oddly enough, they reigned peacefully together. Eyestein (1103-1122) was fourteen years old when his father was killed, Sigurd the Crusader (1103- 1130) was thirteen, and Olaf Magnusson (1103- 1115) was four. As this was the period of the crusade movement, when Europe was waging a holy war for plunder and for fame against the unbelievers, Sigurd with a fleet of sixty ships and ten thousand men sailed away to the Holy Land and took the strongly fortified city of Sidon which had hitherto defied the efforts of the crusaders. In striking contrast to his brother, Eyestein remained quietly at home building churches, Under the Old Norse Kings 43 encouraging commerce, developing local indus- tries, and improving the laws of the land. He caused primitive light-houses to be erected along the dangerous western coast; reorgan- ized the fisheries and made them a source of national wealth; built taverns on the high Doverfjeld plateau to facilitate travel, and erected important churches at Bergen, Trond- hjem, and elsewhere. Olaf died in 1115 and at the death of Eyestein in 1122 Sigurd was left sole ruler of the kingdom; but he had under- mined his health in youthful dissipations, and his closing years were darkened by mental illness. A century of strife followed the death of Sigurd. This was caused by the claims of a long line of descendants of former kings some legitimate but many born out of wedlock. The parliament at Christiania then called Oslo placed Magnus the Blind (1130-1135), a son of Sigurd, on the throne; but a son of Magnus the Bare-Leg by an Irish woman came to Norway and laid claim to half the kingdom. This was Harald Gille (1130-1136). In the strife that followed he defeated Magnus, put his eyes out, cut off one of his legs, and sub- jected him to still more revolting mutilations. 44 In Viking Land Neither Magnus nor Harald had kingly quali- ties. The former was " a coarse, avaricious, and arrogant royster, addicted to drink and incapable of any noble impulse," and the lat- ter " a weak and vacillating man, jolly, lib- eral, and easy going, in whom the Irish char- acteristics predominated. ' ' The unworthy Harald, however, did not live long to enjoy his ill-gotten kingdom. Sigurd the Bad-Priest, another reputed illegitimate son of Magnus the Bare-Leg, arrived in Nor- way during the summer of 1136. He had led an adventurous life in the Orkneys ; had visited Rome and the Holy Land, and had taken orders for the priesthood. In an attempt which Harald made on the life of Sigurd the king was killed. Sigurd then called together the leading men and asked them to make him king ; but contrary to expectations, the deed caused keen indignation, he was forced to flee, and Harald 's sons ruled Norway for twenty-four years (1137-1161). Sigurd, the younger, was only five years old when his father was killed and Inge less than two. But the national assembly recognized them as the rightful rulers. Norway, however, continued disturbed by the frequent arrival of Under the Old Norse Kings 45 illegitimate claimants from Scotland, Ireland, and elsewhere, and later by the unbrotherly feuds of Sigurd and Inge. In 1155 Sigurd was surprised in his house and slain by a conspira- tor of Inge, but no one mourned his death. On the contrary, " men whose wives he had in- sulted, eager for vengeance, ran his body through with their swords." He was only twenty-one years old at the time of his death, but he left behind a long line of pretenders who claimed him as their father and who disturbed the peace of Norway for more than half a cen- tury. Inge lost his life in the civil wars, and Haakon Sigurdsson, called Haakon the Broad- Shoulders (1161-1162), ruled but eighteen months and was followed by Magnus Erlings- son (1162-1184). During this period the clergy appear as dominant factors in the political life of Norway. At a meeting held at Bergen a change was made in the fundamental law of the land. The crown of Norway was declared the property and heritage of Olaf the Saint, and at the death of the reigning king the bish- ops were empowered to name his successor from among the heirs born in wedlock. The next claimant to disturb the quiet of 46 In Viking Land King Magnus and the clergy was one Eyestein, a reputed grandson of Harald Gille. During the century of civil strife, a ragged and inco- herent army had been formed among the peas- ants, and these soldiers of fortune, always with an eye on possible plunder, had generally given their aid to the pretender that promised most. They wore birch-bark for shoes and were de- risively called the " Birchlegs." They were ill fed, ill trained, and ill equipped; but, adds a historian of the period, " the discipline of hardship and danger which their arduous lives had imposed upon them stood them in good stead; and, insignificant as they were in num- bers, they were not a foe to be despised." Eyestein and his Birchlegs were, however, overwhelmingly defeated in 1176 and the pre- tender was slain. Magnus did not long enjoy his triumph. A year later there came to Norway from the Faroe islands one Sverre Sigurdsson, a re- puted son of King Sigurd and a Scotch do- mestic,- and he laid claim to his alleged heritage. With the aid of the Birchlegs he waged for seven years a fierce guerilla war against the combined royal and clerical forces, with all the odds against him, but he won in the Under the Old Norse Kings 47 end. The contest was not merely the struggle of the rightful heir to the Norse throne to hold his seat against the doubtful claims of a pre- tender. It was, as Munk has pointed out, a struggle between the representatives of the old order of things a monarchy deriving its power and support from a privileged aristoc- racy and the lower orders of society an uncouth and hungry democracy demanding its share of the good things of life. The final struggle took place in the Naero fjord in 1184, when the king, the proud earls, and the flower of Norse aristocracy were sacrificed in the vain attempt to preserve the old order. It was the unconscious working of these forces combined with the dogged energy of William of Orange and the military genius of Napoleon that finally placed Sverre Sigurds- son (1184-1202) on the Norwegian throne. Be- ing a statesman and a man of honour, rather than a politician, he kept his promises with the Birchlegs. Men of low birth were given im- portant posts; fidelity and valour were re- warded, and Norse society was entirely reor- ganized on a democratic basis. The vanquished earls and dissatisfied clergy were not, however, silenced by defeat; they 48 In Viking Land continued the civil war during the eighteen years that Sverre reigned, but the great king died unconquered. He was undoubtedly, as Professor Boyesen has affirmed, " the greatest king who has ever ruled over Norway. A bright, clear, and resolute spirit dwelt within his small frame. His presence of mind and his wonderful fertility of resources saved him out of the most desperate situations. Firm- ness and gentleness were admirably united in his character. A clear-sighted policy, based upon expediency as well as upon conviction, governed his actions from the beginning of his reign to the end. He possessed the faculty of attaching men to him, even when he punished them and restrained their lawless passions. Though he did not possess the beauty nor the magnificent physical presence of the earlier kings of Norway, he knew how to inspire re- spect as well as love." Sverre 's son, Haakon Sverresson (1202- 1204), during his brief reign made peace with the church without loss of dignity; for the bishops, weary of their long years of exile and dependence upon foreign bounty, were glad to return to their benefices. Guthorm Sigurds- son (1204), who succeeded Haakon, lived less Under the Old Norse Kings 49 than a year, and he was followed by Inge Baardsson (1204-1217). Haakon Haakonsson the Old (1217-1263), a grandson of King Sverre, followed with a long and prosperous reign. He crushed the rebel- lious factions raised by the clergy and slew the last of the claimants they supported. Like his illustrious grandfather he was a great king, although his career was less brilliant. He was possessed of great good sense and was a thor- oughly safe ruler; firm and resolute when justice demanded severity, he was supremely strong in the art of forgiving. Iceland and Greenland were more closely federated with Norway during his reign. Pope Alexander IV urged his election as emperor of Germany and Louis IX of France, in view of his great ex- perience on the seas, offered him the command of one of his crusades to the Holy Land. Dis- turbances which had broken out between Alex- ander III, king of Scotland, and Haakon 's sub- jects in the Orkneys called him hither, where he died in 1263. With the reign of Magnus the Law-Mender (1263-1280) there began a gradual decline in Norway which culminated in the Kalmar union a, century later and the virtual loss of Norse 50 In Viking Land independence. The differences with Alexander III were terminated by ceding the Isle of Man and the Shetland islands to Scotland for four thousand marks sterling and an annual tribute of one hundred marks. Magnus devoted his energies to matters of legislation, improvement of the economic conditions of the rural dis- tricts, curtailment of the power of the clergy, and reconciliation with the aristocracy. Eric the Priest-Hater (1280-1299), a lad in his early teens, succeeded his father. The queen-dowager, who was the virtual ruler dur- ing her son's minority, made common cause with the earls and enabled them to regain priv- ileges and influence at the expense of the king. Eric married Margaret of Scotland, the daugh- ter of his grandfather's enemy; but she died a year later in giving birth to a daughter who was acknowledged as the rightful heir of Scot- land after the death of Alexander III. King Edward I of England disputed the child's claims and Eric was forced to withdraw the candidacy of his daughter. Eric married a second time to Isabella Bruce, a sister of Kob- ert Bruce, later king of Scotland. It was dur- ing the reign of Eric that the Hanseatic league obtained a monopoly of the foreign trade of Under the Old Norse Kings 51 Norway. An account of this transaction and its effect on Norse history will be given in a later chapter devoted to " Bergen and the Hanseatic league." Haakon the Long-Legs (1299-1319), the sec- ond son of Magnus the Law-Mender, succeeded his brother. In a bitter struggle with the haughty nobles Haakon wrested from them their recently acquired privileges ; but with his death the male line of the race of Harald the Fair-Haired became extinct. By his marriage with Isabella Bruce, King Eric had a daughter who became the wife of Duke Valdemar, a brother of the king of Swe- den. Magnus Ericsson (1319-1374), the next king of Norway, was the child of this union. But as he was only three years old when Haakon died, the government of Norway fell into the hands of a regency. Shortly after- wards the king of Sweden was deposed for his cruelties and the lad Magnus was also declared king of Sweden. Thus the two countries were for the first time united. The union was merely nominal, for the young king was at heart a Swede and he took little interest in his Norwegian kingdom. The Norse people in 1350 forced him to take his second son Haakon 52 In Viking Land (1350-1381) as co-regent and to agree to abdi- cate the crown of Norway as soon as the lad reached his majority. Haakon subsequently married the daughter of the king of Denmark and their son Olaf inherited the three Scandi- navian kingdoms. The long reign of Magnus brought only mis- fortune to the Norsemen; their country was neglected; some of the southern provinces were lost to Denmark; the Gula river suddenly changed its course, owing to the fall of an enormous rock in its bed, killing two hundred and fifty people and destroying forty farms; the great eruption of Hekla and the earthquake in Iceland spread terror throughout the king- dom ; and the ' ' Black Death, ' ' which had been ravaging central and southern Europe, was brought to Bergen by a merchant vessel, and in many districts it swept away the entire popu- lation. The Valders, one of the beautiful mountain valleys, was almost depopulated by the plague. Industries stagnated; commerce was in the hands of the Germans, and the pop- ulation of Norway was reduced by one-third. At the death of Haakon his son Olaf the Young (1381-1387) was proclaimed king of Norway; but as he had already been pr.o- IN THE VALDERS. Under the Old Norse Kings 53 claimed king of Denmark the kingdoms were united, or rather Norway was subordinated to the rank of a province; and for the next four hundred and thirty-four years the political history of Norway is simply the history of Denmark. The events of this union, so far at least as they relate to Norway, will be told in the next chapter. CHAPTER IV UNION WITH DENMARK AND SWEDEN Queen Margaret and the union of Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark Provisions of the Kalmar union The weakness of King Eric Withdrawal of Sweden from the union Loss of the Scotch islands Oppressions of the Danish kings The Protestant reformation and the adoption of the Lutheran religion Seven years' war with Sweden Misery in Norway under Frederick IV German Puritan- ism Norway separated from Denmark and united with Sweden The Eidsvold constitution Conflicts between king and parliament Oscar I and Oscar II Events which culminated in the rupture with Sweden. THE union of the three Scandinavian king- doms, referred to in the last chapter, was of brief duration, for Olaf died at the early age of seventeen. Margaret, his mother, was pro- claimed queen until a new king might be elected. She secured the election of her nephew, Eric of Pomerania, to the Norwegian crown, but on the condition that he should not be made king during her lifetime. Denmark confirmed the action of Norway, but the Swedes selected Albrecht. Margaret accordingly in- vaded Sweden, defeated Albrecht at Falkop- 64 With Denmark and Sweden 55 ing (1389), and forced him to pay a ransom of sixty thousand marks. The Semirainis of the North had now reached the goal of her desire and she might have worn the triple crown ; but she unexpectedly changed her mind and de- clared that she wished to see Eric crowned during her lifetime. She summoned a diet of the three kingdoms at Kalmar in 1397, and Eric was proclaimed king of united Scandi- navia. The Kalmar union provided (1) that the three kingdoms were to be eternally united under one king; (2) if the king died without issue, the representatives of the three nations were to come together and peacefully elect a successor; (3) each kingdom was to be gov- erned by its own laws and customs, but if one of the kingdoms was attacked the other two should, in good faith, assist in its defence; (4) the king and his councillors should have the right to enter into foreign alliances, and what- ever they agreed upon should be binding upon the three countries. When one recalls the enormous loss to the three kingdoms through incessant internecine wars, the Kalmar union would seem an unmis- takable blessing to all. The three nations were 56 In Viking Land of the same ethnic stock; they had a common religion; they understood without effort each other's language; social and economic condi- tions were not dissimilar in the three king- doms. " Under a wise and far-sighted pol- icy," remarks Professor Boyesen, " the society of the three kingdoms could have been grad- ually amalgamated; its similarities and com- mon interests emphasized; its differences slowly obliterated. If the kings of the union had had the slightest conception of the task that was presented to them, and had been capa- ble of viewing themselves apart from their Danish nationality, such results might have been achieved. But they were, with a single exception, utterly destitute of political ability and foresight. They were determined to raise the Danish to the position of a dominant na- tionality, and to reduce Norway and Sweden to a provincial relation." Eric was weak, incompetent, and cruel, and he soon alienated his Swedish and Norwegian subjects. Margaret had bequeathed to him a war with the dukes of Sleswick which dragged along for twenty-three years, to meet the ex- penses of which he levied heavy taxes which the people of Sweden promptly refused to pay. With Denmark and Sweden 57 His rule grew so burdensome that he was de- posed by the parliaments of Sweden and Den- mark and later by Norway and he es- caped from Copenhagen with what money was in the treasury and spent the balance of his life as a pirate. Christopher of Bavaria, " a jolly and good-natured man who had no apti- tude for state affairs," was given the triple crown. He made a vain attempt to curtail the monopoly of the Hanseatic league, and for this one effort he is remembered by the Norwegians with gratitude. With the death of Christopher in 1448 the Kalmar union was practically at an end. The Danes elected Christian I of Oldenburg (1448- 1483) and the Norwegians did likewise; but the Swedes selected Karl Knutsson, who soon made himself obnoxious to the Swedish clergy and he was forced to abdicate. Christian be- came sole ruler of Scandinavia in 1450. He inherited the dukedoms of Holstein and Sles- wick from his uncle, and thus became the king of a vast empire, for the good government of which he had neither the inclination nor the ability. Norway suffered most. The country was in- vaded and plundered by the Russians and the 58 In Viking Land Karelians; the greedy Hanseatic league grew increasingly oppressive; the king broke his promise and sent Danish noblemen to Norway to whom he granted unlimited privileges; the Norwegians were misgoverned and they suf- fered in a hundred ways ; and, to cap matters, the impoverished king pawned the Orkney and the Shetland islands and gave up the annual tribute from the Hebrides to James III as the dower which his daughter Margaret was re- quired to take to the Scotch king. The pawn was never redeemed and these ancient depen- dencies were lost to Norway. The Swedes did not submit so readily to Christian's shameless breaches of faith, and in 1464 they recalled Karl Knutsson to their throne. He was again banished but again re- called, and he died as king of Sweden in 1470. The Swedes, however, did not completely free themselves from the obnoxious Kalmar union until 1503. Christian was succeeded by his son Hans (1483-1513), who spent the first half of his reign in trying to force the Swedes back into the union. Christian II (1513-1523) was forced by the nobility Denmark being an elective kingdom to grant to them practically all of With Denmark and Sweden 59 his powers, and their rule was more oppressive than that of Christian I had been. " Their principle of government," says a historian of the period, " was that of a hawk in a poultry yard. Whatever the citizens undertook for their advancement was checked by the inter- ference of the privileged classes; commerce and industry were discouraged, lest the bour- geoisie should gain power enough to assert it- self. The peasantry were given absolutely into the barons' power, and their degradation was made complete by the so-called ' right of neck and hand ' which Christian II granted as the price of his crown. By this concession the nobles acquired the right to sentence and pun- ish the peasants at their own discretion, with- out the intercession of the courts." The king had, however, incurred the dis- pleasure of the powerful Hanseatic league and they forced him to abdicate and placed Fred- erick I of Holstein (1524-1533) on the throne. During his reign the reformatory religious doctrines of Martin Luther were adopted in Denmark. An interregnum of four years (1533-1537) followed the death of Frederick because of differences of opinion on the relig- ious question. Frederick's eldest son was a 60 In Viking Land Protestant, but Hans, the younger, clung to the Roman Catholic faith. Civil war ensued; cit- ies were destroyed; noblemen were murdered; but the Protestant faith triumphed, and Chris- tian III (1537-1539) was elected king. Protestantism had not made great headway in Norway, and the zeal with which the Danish king imposed the doctrines of Luther upon his Norwegian subjects was not altogether to his credit. Church property was confiscated by the crown or granted to his royal favourites; Roman Catholic bishops and priests were ex- iled, and " ex-soldiers, ex-sailors, bankrupt traders, and all sorts of vagabonds were thought to be good enough to preach the word of God in Norway." Many of these unworthy spiritual teachers were promptly killed or driven from the country, so that at last ' ' phys- ical strength became a prime requisite for hold- ing a pastorate in the Norse mountain valleys, and the surest road to popularity for a parson was to thrash the refractory members of his congregation. That inspired respect and in- clined the rest more favourably toward his preaching." With the arrival of Bishop Gje- ble Pedersson at Bergen the first Lutheran bishop to locate in the country the character With Denmark and Sweden 61 and learning of the clergy improved and the new faith made rapid progress. Frederick II (1559-1588) was forced to fight a calamitous seven years' war with Sweden which sowed seeds of national hatred that con- tinued to grow and bear fruit. Trondhjem was captured by the Swedes; the cathedral at Hamar was burned, and the fertile districts of the Aker were ravaged. His successor, Chris- tian IV (1588-1648), for the first time since the formation of the union, gave evidence of royal interest in the welfare of the Norsemen. He travelled extensively in Norway, going as far north as the arctic circle; he imprisoned Danish officials who exceeded their rights; he codified and improved the laws of the land; he developed the silver mines at Kongsberg and the copper mines at Eoros, and he founded the cities of Christiania and Christiansand. But the country suffered greatly by his par- ticipation in the Thirty Years' War, the inva- sion of the Norway by a band of Scotch mer- cenaries in the employment of the Swedish king, and a second war with Sweden which re- sulted in the loss of two Norwegian provinces Jemtland and Herjedalen. During the reign of Frederick III (1648- 62 In Viking Land 1670) new disasters befell Norway. The ill- advised war with Sweden, on the supposition that the Swedish king had suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Poles, resulted in the loss of two more Norwegian provinces Viken and Trondhjem. A subsequent revolt of the Tronders redeemed the latter province. The kingdom of Denmark up to this time had been elective, hence the dependence of succes- sive Danish rulers upon the caprice and selfish- ness of the nobles. Frederick, however, suc- ceeded in altering the constitution and in mak- ing Denmark hereditary, a change which im- proved not only the administrative service of that country, but of Norway also. The reign of Christian V (1670-1699) was not consequential. He imitated the costly and tawdry splendour of Louis XIV; sold indif- ferently his Danish and Norwegian subjects to foreign nations as mercenaries that he might get the money to ape the glittering vices of the French court, and he surrounded himself with German counts and made German the language of his court. Norway sank to the lowest depths of misery during the reign of Frederick IV (1699-1730). He sold the trade of Finmark, the northern- A MOUNTAIN LAKE. With Denmark and Sweden 63 most province of Norway, to three Danes who practised unlimited extortion on the helpless Lapps, and the churches of Norway he sold to private individuals, contending that if the parishioners owned them they must produce the deeds. German Puritanism greatly influenced the country in the reign of Christian VI (1730- 1746). He introduced a rigid ceremonial at his court ; enjoined the utmost rigour in church observances and abstention from worldly amusements ; organized an efficient militia, and made education compulsory. But the decrees forbidding the southern provinces of Norway from purchasing supplies of grain in any coun- try but Denmark were both oppressive and disastrous to his Norwegian subjects. Some of the obnoxious Puritanical decrees were abolished by Frederick V (1746-1766), but he came within an ace of plunging his country into a hopeless war with Russia. Frederick promoted the commerce of Norway; imported skilled miners from Germany, and organized the national military academy at Christiania and the academy of science at Trondhjem. The country was ruled by the king's minis- 64 In Viking Land ters during the reign of Christian VII (1766- 1808) ; for as a prince he had bankrupted his vital forces by a life of wild dissipation and he became an imbecile shortly after reaching the throne. His ministers were, as a rule, wise autocrats. They improved and simplified the judicial procedure; abolished torture; granted freedom to the press; curtailed the privileges of the nobles, and husbanded the finances of the kingdom. The university at Christiania, which was founded during the reign of Frederick VI (1808-1836), is the most significant event of the period. Norway suffered greatly by the friction between Denmark and England. Dur- ing the American war of revolution the min- isters of Christian VII concluded an armed neutrality with Sweden and Russia which bene- fited very directly the trade and navigation of Denmark and Norway. In the determina- tion of England, however, to break the power of Napoleon, she claimed the right of search- ing the ships of non-combatants for munitions of war. Many Danish and Norwegian vessels were captured by the British and trade was ruined by a blockade of the seaports. The government was too weak to defy England, With Denmark and Sweden 65 and Denmark was forced to retire from the armed neutrality. Frederick's subsequent cul- tivation of the friendship of Napoleon was a great state blunder, for it isolated Denmark from the great European alliance which brought about the final defeat of the French usurper. Norway was governed by a so-called govern- ment commission, with the Prince of Augusten- burg at its head, during the period of difficulty between Denmark and England; and the Nor- wegians would have been much pleased if this arrangement might have continued. But a clause in a treaty between Russia and Sweden, made in 1812, ordained an altogether different fate for the hardy Norsemen. Sweden had been forced to yield Finland to Eussia, and to make good this loss Russia suggested that she grab Norway. The treaty of Kiel in 1814 gave the sanction of the Great Powers of Eu- rope to this crime; and the union of Denmark and Norway, which had existed for more than four hundred years, was dissolved. The Norwegians protested, but there was no appeal from the decisions of the Great Powers, no matter how unjust, and they were finally forced into union with Sweden. After a bit of 66 In Viking Land sparring, Bernadotte, later Charles XIV John, on behalf of King Charles XIII of Sweden, consented to recognize the independence of Norway and to govern the country in accord- ance with a constitution that had been adopted at Eidsvold the 17th of May, 1814. The Eidsvold constitution provided (1) that Norway should be a limited, hereditary mon- archy, independent and indivisible, whose ruler shall be called a king; (2) the people shall ex- ercise the legislative power through their rep- resentatives ; (3) taxes can be levied only by the representatives of the people ; (4) the king shall have the right to declare war and make peace; (5) he shall also have the right of par- don; (6) the judicial power shall be separated from the executive and legislative power; (7) there shall be complete liberty of press; (8) the Evangelical Lutheran religion shall be the religion of the state and king; (9) no personal nor hereditary privileges shall in the future be granted to any one; and (10) every male citizen, irrespective of birth, station, or prop- erty, shall be required, for a certain length of time, to carry arms in defence of his country. When Charles XIV John became king of Norway and Sweden he was irritated by the With Denmark and Sweden 67 opposition of the Norwegian parliament to the payment of a part of the public debt of Den- mark which the king of Sweden had guaran- teed at the council of Kiel. A compromise was finally reached, by the terms of which the king and crown prince renounced their civil lists from Norway for a period of ten years, and the Norwegians agreed to pay Denmark about three million dollars. The Norwegian parlia- ment at Christiania abolished all noble titles and privileges, but the king refused to make the measure a law. The bill was passed by two successive parliaments and a rupture was averted by a compromise. The king agreed to sanction a law abolishing such privileges of the nobles as were in direct conflict with the Norwegian constitution and stipulating that the exemption from taxation and other per- sonal privileges should cease with the demise of the living nobles. In spite of the fact that King Charles XIV John was trained in the political school of the French Kevolution, he had no faith in democracy, and he was contin- ually at loss to understand the aspirations for freedom which his stubborn Norse subjects so constantly displayed. His son, King Oscar I (1844-1849), had more 68 In Viking Land patience and prudence; and friction with the Norwegian parliament was largely averted. He gave Norway her own flag and manifested a keen interest in the welfare of the country. Charles XV (1859-1872) was also a man of peace and Norway prospered during his reign. The commerce of the country developed rap- idly ; the overland telegraph line was extended from Lindesnaes to the North Cape ; laws were passed granting larger religious liberties, and it was provided that the national parliament should meet annually instead of triennially. Having died in the prime of life without male issue, the king was succeeded by his brother Oscar II (1872-1907), who acted as sovereign of the dual kingdom down to the time of dissolution (1905). In spite of splen- did personal qualities, generous endowment of forbearance, and keen sagacity in matters of statecraft, the reign of Oscar was one of inces- sant strife with the contentious Norwegian parliament. The liberal and democratic move- ment which had gained enormous strength since the union with Sweden, together with a strong national spirit among all classes of the Norse people, foredoomed separation; and it is well that the crisis came while the gentle With Denmark and Sweden 69 and peace-loving Oscar II was still on the throne; for a sovereign with less charity and forbearance might have plunged the two coun- tries into a period of needless bloodshed. In this connection it is only necessary to enumerate the leading events which culminated in the final rupture. Oscar II was scarcely well seated on his throne when his government and the Norwegian parliament clashed on a dozen questions the time for the sitting of parliament, the right of dissolution, allowance for its members, pensions for retired clergy- men, the king's veto rights, the management of government railways in Norway, organization of volunteer sharp-shooting corps, etc. The most serious conflict came in 1891 when it was proposed that Norway should have a consular service independent from that of Sweden; then followed the abolition of the symbols of union from the Norwegian national flag, the removal of the king's portrait from the money, and the final separation in 1905. CHAPTER V HAAKON VII AND THE NEW KINGDOM Rejection of the consular service bill leads to the separation from Sweden Result of the general plebiscite in Norway Terms of separation Haakon VII elected sovereign of the new kingdom Social and personal qualities of the young king Norway a constitutional monarchy The national parliament Executive department of the govern- ment Simplicity of Norwegian laws Crime and criminals Organization of the Norwegian courts Army and navy Government revenues and expenditures Nature of the direct and indirect taxes Free-trade and protectionist poli- cies The national debt Financial obligations of the municipalities The monetary system of Norway Na- tional and savings banks and their supervision. THE measure relating to the consular service was the rock upon which the dual ship of state finally sundered. On the 27th of May, 1905, King Oscar unreservedly rejected the inde- pendent consular service bill. The Norwegian ministers forthwith resigned. The king de- clared that it was impossible to form a new ministry, whereupon the Norwegian parlia- ment on the 7th of June, 1905, declared the union with Sweden dissolved. This action, 70 Haakon VII 71 says Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the explorer and statesman, " was received with great satisfac- tion and enthusiasm over the whole of Nor- way. In Sweden it did not at first cause as much sensation as might have been expected. The feeling seems rather to have been that of astonishment, as if they had not expected that the Norwegians really would take such decisive action. The public did not seem quite to un- derstand what had happened, and could not grasp the fact that Norway had dethroned the king and thus dissolved the union." There were Hotspurs in Sweden who cried for war and demanded that the union should be held together by force of arms, but wiser counsels prevailed in cabinet circles; and on the 19th of June the Swedish council of state advised the dissolution of the union. !When the matter came before the Swedish parlia- ment eight days later, a special committee was appointed to draft resolutions looking to the final separation of the two countries. The committee made its report the 25th of July. It recommended the dissolution of the bond after the settlement of certain questions touch- ing the frontier line, the pasture rights of the nomadic Lapps, and the use of water ways, 72 In Viking Land providing that the people of Norway in gen- eral election favored the dissolution. The Norwegian parliament at once proposed that a general plebiscite should be taken the 13th of August; by which the electors should declare whether or not they favoured dissolu- tions. Eight-five per cent, of the electors voted ; 368,211 were in favour of separation and 184 against it. The election returns produced something of a surprise in Sweden, for Swed- ish newspapers had quite generally repre- sented that the majority of the Norwegians disapproved of separation and that the crisis was the work of a handful of scheming Norse politicians. After the pronouncement of the Norwegian electors, the government of Sweden invited Norway to send four delegates to meet a like number of Swedish delegates at Karlstad on the 31st of August. The negotiations were of a very difficult nature, because of the unreason- able demands of Sweden; and it seemed for a time that the conference would have to break up and that the two countries would be plunged into war. Fortunately disputed matters were satisfactorily adjusted and the conference ter- minated its labours the 23rd of September. Haakon VII 73 The action of the delegates was ratified in both countries in October; and on the 4th of No- vember Karl XIII, second son of King Oscar, was offered the Norwegian crown. It was promptly declined; and after a plebiscite, Prince Karl of Denmark was on the 18th of November elected King of Norway. Two days later the crown was accepted, and on the 25th of November he arrived at Christiania. He was coronated at Trondhjem the 1st of Janu- ary, 1906, as Haakon VII. Haakon VII, the chief magistrate of the new kingdom of Norway, is the second son of Fred- erick VIII, king of Denmark. He was born the 3rd of August, 1872. His brothers are Prince Christian, heir-apparent to the Danish throne, and the Princes Harald and Gustav; his sisters, the Princesses Thyra and Dagmar; his uncles, King Edward VII of England, King George I of Greece, the Duke of Cumberland, and Prince Waldemar of Denmark; his aunts, the queens of England and Greece, the em- press-dowager of Russia, and the Princess Marie of Orleans; and his cousins, Czar Nich- olas II of Russia, the Prince of Wales, the crown prince of Greece, and Prince Aage of Denmark. He married Princess Maud, the 74 In Viking Land third daughter of King Edward VII of Eng- land, the 22nd of July, 1896; and one son, Prince Olaf, the crown prince of Norway, born the 2d of July, 1903, is the result of this union. The new Norwegian king enjoys the reputa- tion of being liberal-minded, easy-going, and fond of outdoor sports. At the age of thirteen he entered the royal navy of Denmark as a midshipman, where, for nine months, he had the lowest post in the service ; but he weathered the ordeal excellently and emerged from the navy with the sobriquet " the sailor prince." Haakon is often seen in the saddle with his hounds ; he is a patron of vigorous and manly athletics, and he is a leader in the winter sports which are fast becoming a leading feature of the social season at Christiania. The new queen is stately in appearance but cold and reserved in demeanour; but little Prince Olaf is the most popular individual in the new king- dom. Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy of a very democratic sort. The con- stitution of the 17th of May, 1814, which forms the basis of the fundamental law of the land, vests the legislative power in the representa- tives of the people, although the king is given I THE ROYAL FAMILY OF NORWAY. Haakon VII 75 limited veto rights. He may exercise the veto twice; but if the same measure should pass three parliaments, formed by separate and subsequent elections, it becomes a law without the sovereign's assent. The national parliament (storthing) meets annually, but new elections take place only every three years. The sessions cannot ex- ceed two months without the sanction of the king. The right of voting belongs to every Norwegian citizen the franchise was ex- tended to women in 1907 of the age of twenty-five years and domiciled in the country during the last five years. The country is di- vided into rural districts and towns, each elect- ing one member of parliament. There are forty-one representatives from the towns and eighty-two from the rural districts. Members of parliament must be at least thirty years old, residents of Norway for at least ten years, and voters in the districts which they represent. They receive an allowance of about $3.25 a day while parliament is in session, besides travelling expenses. There is in reality but one house of parlia- ment; but when the members assemble the second week of October each year, they elect 76 In Viking Land one-fourth of their number to form a select council Lagthing while the remaining three-fourths form a general council Odels- thing. All new laws must first come before the Odelsthing, after which they pass to the Lag- thing to be accepted or rejected. In cases of disagreement the two houses meet in joint ses- sion and decide the matter without discussion. Besides making the laws, parliament natural- izes foreigners; imposes taxes; provides for the administration of the property of the state ; superintends the coinage and the emission of notes; opens loans on the credit of the king- dom; votes the amounts required for public expenditures, and examines treaties concluded with foreign powers. The executive department of the government is represented by the king, a minister of state (president of the council), and eight councillors of state, who are cabinet officers. The minis- ter and councillors may participate in the dis- cussions of parliament but they have no vote. The eight cabinet officers are (1) foreign af- fairs, (2) education and religion, (3) justice, (4) commerce, navigation and industry, (5) agriculture, (6) public works, (7) finance and customs, and (8) defence. Haakon VII 77 For administrative purposes Norway is di- vided into twenty counties the cities of Christiania and Bergen being regarded as counties. These are again subdivided into towns and rural communes. The towns and rural districts are governed by councils com- posed of from twelve to forty-eight members. Presidents of the local councils also form county councils which meet yearly to decide upon matters concerning the general welfare of the county. The county councils make grants for the construction of highways and railways and they deal with matters relating to county boards of education, lunacy, and prisons. The laws of Norway are simple and brief. They are bound in a small pocket-volume, each law occupying a paragraph, and they are to be found in every Norse home. The court of assize hears the more important civil and all criminal cases. It is composed of a judge and ten jurymen, the latter being selected for each session from among the rate-payers where the court is held. Punishments entailing the loss of liberty are decreed by the penal code for terms ranging from six months to life. Capital punishment is permitted by the code, but it has 78 In Viking Land not been used since 1876. There are peniten- tiaries for men and women at Christiania and one for men at Trondhjem. The crime problem is less serious in Nor- way than in many European countries, and there has been marked diminution during the past thirty years with the decrease in the use of alcoholic beverages. The decrease has been most marked in the matter of theft and of- fences against public morals. Among the more serious offences committed in Norway, infan- ticide leads. Incest and rape occupy a rather prominent place. For the milder offences the punishment most often inflicted is imprison- ment on bread and water, the sentence being from four to thirty days. Nearly half the num- ber of persons condemned are sentenced to this punishment. About twenty per cent, of the offences are expiated by fines. The women of Norway play a relatively larger part in the criminal matters than in the United States. The court of mutual agreement is the lowest branch of the judicial organization of Norway. Voters of municipalities towns and rural districts meet triennially and select ten of their number to act as members of a concilia- tion commission. If members of the legal pro- Haakon VII 79 fession they are not allowed to practise law during their term of office, thus removing a strong temptation to litigation. The commis- sion endeavours to reconcile the parties who have differences; and if the litigants agree to the finding of the commission, the judgment is registered and rendered valid, at an expense to the suitors of about thirty cents. If, how- ever, the suitors disagree with the judgment of the conciliation commission, an appeal may be made to the higher court, which is composed of one judge, who must possess legal training, and four associates chosen from among the tax-payers of the district. The competence of this court is complete in civil matters; and no appeal may be taken if the amount in dis- pute is less than $8.65. When appeals are made, they are taken to the special courts at Christiania and Bergen. The final resort is the supreme court at Christiania. The Nor- wegians, however, are not a litigious people. The army of Norway is a national militia, something after the pattern of that of Swit- zerland. While liability to service is compul- sory between the ages of eighteen and fifty, very little time is devoted to military training. The men are usually called out at the age of 80 In Viking Land twenty-two and they remain on the army list for sixteen years. They serve first in the line for six years, then in the landvern for six years, and for four years in the landstorm. The line only can be employed outside the country. The military training of conscripts is not carried on in barracks, as in most Euro- pean countries, but by exercise in camps during a few weeks of the summer. During the first year the drill for the infantry lasts for forty- eight days and for special arms from sixty to ninety days. After the drill come the battal- ion exercises. These exercises are continued twenty-four days each summer for seven years for the men in line. The non-commissioned officers have regular appointments or serve as conscripts. Their theoretical and practical course of training covers three years for the infantry and cav- alry and four years for artillery and engineers. Most of them are non-commissioned officers and serve only during the summer exercises. Officers who receive regular appointments must complete the elementary course of the national military school. The nominal strength of the Norwegian army is about 80,000 men, but not more than 18,000 can be Haakon VII 81 under arms at any one time without the con- sent of parliament. The navy of Norway is not consequential. From seven to eight hundred conscripts are required yearly to go through a course of training that lasts about six months. The navy has four battle-ships, four old coast service monitors, three gunboats, and twenty-one mod- ern and ten old torpedo boats. Norway has, however, a comparatively large merchant ma- rine, including 5,770 sailing and 1,499 steam vessels. The most important fortresses are at Oscarsborg, Agdenes, Bergen, Tonsberg, and Christiansand. There is probably no country in the world where governmental affairs are conducted with greater economy than in Norway. The largest single source of revenue for the maintenance of the government is furnished by customs duties, $10,530,000; excise duties on alcoholic beverages furnish $2,106,000; the income tax, $1,377,000; state property, $984,980; stamps, $361,000; judicial fees, $324,000, and miscel- laneous revenues, $3,030,000. The important items of expenditure are: army, $3,432,910; interest on the public debt, $3,073,680; educa- tion and religion, $2,900,000; administration 82 In Viking Land of justice, $2,041,720; finance and customs de- partments, $1,273,000; navy, $1,246,000; roads, canals, and ports, $1,155,000; civil list of the king, $229,770 ; and national parliament, $191,- 430. During the year 1906-1907, the state rail- ways of Norway cost the country $1,430,460 more than they earned; but this large item is due to the enormous extension of state railway lines, and particularly to the construction of the costly mountain road that is to connect Christiania with Bergen. The combined postal and telegraph services both remarkably ef- ficient for so sparsely settled a country had a deficit of only $82,000. There are three direct taxes in Norway (1) the tax on foreign commercial travellers, (2) the legacy tax, and (3) the income tax. The government receives something like half a million dollars annually from foreign com- mercial travellers. All inheritances falling to others than the wife, children, and parents of the deceased are taxed from six to eight per cent. The income tax of Norway is progress- ive. Incomes of less than three hundred dol- lars are not taxed. From three hundred to one thousand dollars the tax is two per cent.; from one to two thousand dollars, three per Haakon VII 83 cent.; from two to three thousand dollars, four per cent. ; and above three thousand dol- lars, five per cent. The indirect taxes are in the nature of cus- toms duties, liquor and malt taxes, and taxes on public documents and playing cards. Nor- way has wavered between free-trade and pro- tection for more than half a century. After the union with Sweden the country was mod- erately protectionist in practice; in the six- ties and seventies free-trade policies prevailed, and during the past ten years the protectionist movement has again gained force. The tariff rates, however, are not high. The duty on half-completed manufactures is from five to ten per cent, of the value and on completed manu- factures from fifteen to thirty per cent. There is no duty on raw material imported for indus- trial purposes, and the same rule applies to some half -completed manufactures. Cereals to except malt are on the free list. The du- ties on tobacco, cigars, malt, liquors, and cof- fee are relatively high. There is a loading and lighthouse tax on vessels importing goods to the country and a small tax on vessels export- ing goods from the country. Liquors may be manufactured only at dis- 84 In Viking Land tilleries that are under government supervi- sion, but the production of malt for household purposes is free from any taxation. When liquor is exported out of the country or is made unserviceable for drinking purposes, the tax is refunded. Among other assets of the national treasury may be noted the stock capital of the Norwegian Mortgage Bank, shares in the Bank of Norway and the state railways, and the working capital of the silver mines at Kongs- berg. The national debt of Norway is something like sixty million dollars, and the interest on and reduction of this debt is an important item of expenditure. As before pointed out, a debt was inherited from Denmark. In addition loans have been found necessary for the con- struction of the state railways, the formation of a working capital for the Norwegian Mort- gage Bank, and the establishment of the tele- graph and telephone service. The terminable national debt has been incurred chiefly by means of foreign loans negotiated with indi- vidual banking-houses or syndicates of banks. As a rule the loans have been raised in Eng- land, Germany, and France. The rate of in- terest on loans has been from three to four Haakon VII 85 and one-half per cent., and the time of reim- bursement from ten to seventy-five years. Municipalities bear a large part of the finan- cial burden of the country. They defray the chief part of the expense for public education, religion, care of the poor, police supervision, local courts, sanitation, highways, harbours, and public works. More than a fourth of the municipal taxation goes for the maintenance of elementary schools. The care of the poor comes second and public highways third. Di- rect taxes on real estate, movable property, and incomes furnish the bulk of municipal rev- enues. Taxes are imposed upon buildings and real property of every kind in a certain ratio of their value. Among indirect municipal taxes are fees for the sale of liquors, licenses for the different trades, ecclesiastical dues, and taxes on dogs. The monetary unit of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark is the krone, which is worth a trifle more than twenty-seven cents in American money. The krone is divided into one hundred ore. The government delegates to the Bank of Norway the right to issue paper money. While in the main a private concern, the gov- ernment exercises certain control in the ap- 86 In Viking Land pointment of its managers. It accepts money on call but does not pay interest thereon. It also does business as a loan, circulation, and discount bank. It takes charge, without com- pensation, of the money transactions of the government and of the exchange of subsidiary coin incumbent on the national treasury. The Bank of Norway is located at Christiania and it has branch offices in a dozen towns in the country. The Mortgage Bank of Norway, a semi- state institution, grants loans on real estate. One-fourth of its capital is invested in Norwe- gian government bonds. There is also a system of savings banks in the country for the safe- keeping and productive investment of the small savings of the working people. Such banks must have the sanction of the king and submit to the regular inspection of the ministry of finance. They loan deposits on mortgage of real estate or on adequate personal security with two or more endorsements. The interest paid by savings banks during the past fifty years has varied from five to three per cent. Norway has more than four hundred such banks and they represent half a million de- positors. CHAPTER VI THE PEOPLE OF NORWAY Norway the home of the purest Teutonic ethnic stock Phys- ical characteristics of the people Stature Mental char- acteristics Independence and absence of 'hereditary aris- tocracy Talent recruited from the ranks of the peasants Moral traits of the people Honesty and kindness to animals Aptitude for trade and travel Cleanliness, per- sonal and otherwise Standards of sexual morality Charities and corrections Sanitation and health Area and population of the country Emigration to the United States Increase in the face of emigration Urban and suburban population Growth of the capital Improve- ment of the condition of the industrial classes Child- labour and the employment of women Insurance against accident Social and political legislation. BECAUSE of its geographic isolation, the Scandinavian peninsula is the home of the pur- est Teutonic ethnic stock. The Norwegians, Icelanders, Swedes, and Danes are racially closely related, and they belong to the same branch of the Aryan family as the Germans, Flemish, English, and Anglo-Americans. 'The most marked physical characteristic of the Norwegian is the long and narrow head, the degree of long headedness being most marked 87 88 -In Viking Land in the interior of the country, particularly in the Osterdal and the Gudbransdal. Sixty per cent, of the inhabitants of these valleys also have light hair. Here the stature is greatest and the maximum of Teutonic purity is found. The coast sections of the country, on the other hand, represent more race mixture. The head is noticeably broader, the complexion darker, and the stature shorter; and, as Arbo has pointed out, the coast people are more emo- tional, loquacious, and susceptible to leader- ship than the stolid, reserved, and independent Teutons of the interior regions. The Norwegians are not only the lightest people in Europe, in point of colour, but they enjoy the reputation of being the tallest peo- ple. During the civil war in the United States, it was found that among the enlisted troops the Norwegians, after the Americans, had the greatest stature, and that in breadth of chest they were excelled by none. It is probably true, however, that the Norwegians who emi- grate represent the finest physical types, and that they possess a higher average stature than one finds in Norway to-day, if the most north- erly provinces are excepted. Mr. Hansen, a Norse anthropologist, however, maintains that The People of Norway 89 emigration has not lowered the physical effi- ciency of the nation. He points out that re- cruiting statistics indicate that in years of great emigration there is a better quality in those left behind a greater percentage of able-bodied men, fewer incapable of military service, and fewer with narrow chests and weak frames. The Norwegians are a very plain people neither pretty nor handsome. The women are strong and square-built, and what beauty they have is of the solid and substantial sort. Of the two sexes, the men are the better propor- tioned, both in the matter of figures and fea- tures. They have light complexions barring the bronzing of the skin due to constant ex- posure, light hair, blue eyes, and reasonably well-formed noses. Both men and women have frank and open countenances. The most marked mental characteristics are clear insight, unconquerable pertinacity, dogged obstinacy, absolute honesty, and a sturdy sense of independence. Bjb'rnson has well remarked concerning his people: " Opin- ions are slowly formed and tenaciously held, and much independence is developed by the rigorous isolation of farm from farm, each on 90 In Viking Land its own freehold ground, unannoyed and un- contradicted by any one. The way the people work together in the fields, in the forests, and in their large rooms has given them a charac- teristic stamp of confidence in each other." This solitary and uneventful life inclines the people to be phlegmatic; yet when occasions arise, calling for quick resource and prompt action, they usually meet such situations ex- cellently well. Independence and frankness characterize all classes of society. Norway has no hereditary aristocracy. In 1821 it was provided that those holding titles might be allowed to retain them during their lives but they could not transmit them to their children. The Norse character has never been marred by the yoke of slavery. The feudal system, with its serfdom, never got a foothold in the north. The people have al- ways been small land-holders which has devel- oped among them an independence of charac- ter not found in countries where the mass of the inhabitants have no direct property inter- ests. There is no class in Norway correspond- ing to the country gentlemen of England or to the grand seigneurs and provincial noblemen NATIONAL COSTUME IN THE HARDANGER. The People of Norway 91 of the continent. The wealthiest landlord is only a peasant. The absence of class lines has played a lead- ing role in the wide-spread intelligence of the Norwegian people and the high place they oc- cupy in the culture-history of Europe. The clergy of the country are almost entirely re- cruited from the ranks of the peasantry. The great national university at Christiania is pat- ronized by the sons and daughters of the hum- blest farmers. Jorgen Moe, the well-known bishop and hymn-writer; Ivar Aasen, the greatest of Norse linguists ; Arne Garborg, the author; Vinje, the lyric poet; Svendsen, the music composer; Skrevsrud, the indefatigable missionary; the painters Dahl and Skredsvig and the sculptor Skeibrok; Thommessen, the gifted editor; Baard Haugland, the financier, and Sivert Nilsen, the statesman, were all the sons of humble peasants. Bjornson is probably correct when he asserts that " no other country possesses so many men in official positions doctors, clergymen, engi- neers, teachers, and merchants who are peasant-born, often from the tenant and work- ing classes ; and that in no other country have so many eminent poets, artists, men of science, 92 In Viking Land and statesmen risen directly from the peas- antry." Norway, like the United States, is distinctly a land of opportunity; but the eco- nomic conditions of the country and wise legis- lation have prevented the development of na- tional diseases due to excessive and vulgar wealth. Poverty and pietism alone have been left to influence the Norwegian character. Honesty is one of the valuable assets of the Norwegian people. Attempts at extortion are so rare that tourists, accustomed to the pro- verbial dishonesty of the Latin races, find travel in Norway a joy. An English traveller relates this typical incident: He had lost his purse shortly after leaving Vossevangen for Stalheim. Altogether unconscious of his loss, he walked on placidly. Suddenly, hearing hur- ried footsteps following him, he turned about and faced a lad who thrust the pocketbook into the owner's palm and disappeared before the Englishman got a coin from his pocket to re- ward the boy for his honesty. The Norwegian youth very properly did not expect a reward for doing the only thing open to his mind upon finding the purse. Kindness to horses is another virtue of the Norwegian people. In their gentle considera- The People of Norway 93 tion for and their affectionate treatment of beasts of burden they excel all other Christian races. Only among Mohammedans is the trav- eller likely to find such consideration for horses. An English writer remarks in this connection: " No blows, no sore backs, no harsh tones disturb the perfect composure be- tween man and beast. Chiefly this is owing to the good nature and sweet temper of the drivers and horse-owners; but it may be left to spec- ulation how far these qualities here, as in Mo- hammedan lands, are owing to the absence of public-houses and the universal sobriety of the people. ' ' The Norwegians, like the Swiss, have marked aptitude for trade and travel. The business interests of the country are not in the hands of the Hebrews, the Germans, and the English, as in so many other lands. And it is doubtful if other Europeans travel as much as the Nor- wegians. They represent a high development of the migratory instinct as seamen to the different ports of the world; as fishermen on great whaling expeditions; as merchants in search of new markets; as explorers seeking the poles of the earth; as men of letters, sci- ence, and art, at the great culture-centres, and 94 In Viking Land as emigrants seeking homes and fortunes in distant lands. And wherever they go, they carry with them their characteristic frankness, honesty, and good nature. Those who have known the Norwegians at home and abroad will agree with Frank Vin- cent that few peoples are as honourable and amiable and as free from destructive passions and pernicious prejudices. They are fond of a quiet simple life 'with kinsfolk and friends and home employments and enjoyments. Their amusements and diversions are of the quiet and healthy sort; and now that intemperance is rapidly decreasing, marked improvement in the social condition of the people may be ex- pected. Like the other Teutonic peoples, the Nor- wegians take high rank in the matter of cleanli- ness; but it is to be regretted that they give so much of it to their houses, their ships, and their cattle, and so little to their persons. Tooth brushes, nail cleaners, and other useful toilet articles are altogether too little known, and the bath is likely to be the exception rather than the rule. Tobacco-chewing is very gen- eral. Even during religious services the filthy habit is practised. The men chew studiously NATIONAL COSTUME IN TELEMARKEN. The People of Norway 95 throughout the service; and the audible and frequent expectorations on the floors of the pews is anything but agreeable to foreigners, whatever may be the sentiments of the natives. Norwegians who have not been in America do not take the name of God in vain. When angry they do not swear; they simply reprove the offender without cursing him. Norway does not have a high standard of sexual morality. An unusually large number of children are born out of wedlock, but prosti- tution is less in evidence than in most Euro- pean countries, and there are no vice-husband- ships; for, like Caesar's wife, the Norse women are above suspicion. Such offences as infanti- cide, incest, and rape figure rather prominently in the crime statistics of the country. Poverty, on the other hand, does not seem to exist, if one is to judge by the absence of beggars. I do not recall that I have ever seen a beggar in Norway. The government has long dealt in a wholesome way with beggars, tramps, and drunkards who shirk their financial responsi- bility to their dependents. Able-bodied men are required to support not only their immedi- ate families, but also their divorced wives and illegitimate children. If they cannot find work, 96 In Viking Land they are required to accept service on the im- mense tracts of government land that are being brought into cultivation. If a man refuses to do the work assigned to him, leaves it without reason, or is dismissed through bad conduct, and within a year either he or his dependents come on the poor law for relief, he is com- mitted to a work-house where his liberty is forfeited and begging is impossible, and where he must face either work, hunger, or punish- ment. The laws against tramps are so stringent that Norway is without the brotherhood of rov- ing hoboes. Persons found roaming about the country without definite homes and occupa- tions are committed to work-houses for terms varying from three to six years. Aid is ren- dered to the worthy poor by the municipalities. The national government makes an appropria- tion to municipalities to be lent to persons with- out means for the erection or acquisition of houses of their own and the purchase of plots of ground. But both the national and the local governments have wisely checked vagrancy and reduced pauperism to a minimum. Norway has an excellent system of district physicians. Large tracts of the country are The People of Norway 97 very sparsely settled; and, but for the inter- vention of the government, they would be with- out medical assistance. The country is divided into districts and provision is made for medical attendance of the sick poor and the lunatics maintained at public expense, and the super- vision of persons suffering from epidemic diseases. For purposes of obstetric aid, the country is likewise divided into midwife dis- tricts, each with its duly appointed midwife. Vaccination is compulsory in Norway, and the vaccination certificate must be produced before a child can be confirmed or a marriage cere- mony performed. In spite of the absence of wholesome house- hold sanitation, Norway is a healthy country. Its death-rate is low, being surpassed only by Sweden among the countries of Europe, in spite of a comparatively high death-rate from drowning due to the shipping, lumber indus- tries, and fisheries. This of course affects al- most entirely the male part of the population. The climate of the country is unfavourable to the spread of epidemic and endemic diseases. Asiatic cholera and the yellow fever are un- known and ague and dysentery seldom occur. Acute bronchial catarrhs are among the most 98 In Viking Land frequent epidemic diseases, and among chronic diseases tuberculosis occupies the most promi- nent place. Leprosy, formerly very prevalent, has decreased markedly during recent years. With an area of 124,495 square miles - rather more than three per cent, of Europe her population at the last census was only 2,240,032, or less than one-half of one per cent, of the continent. Thus, it will be seen, the country is very thinly settled. Tromso and the northern provinces are the most sparsely set- tled and the districts on the east and south sides of the Trondhjem fjord are the most thickly populated. Two-thirds of the people live upon the coast and fjords, a fourth in the interior lowlands, and the balance about ten per cent. in the mountain districts. Only one-fourth of the population of the country live in towns. Most of the large towns are on the coast and fjords, the only inland towns of consequence being Kongsberg and Hamar. There is but one city in the country with more than one hundred thousand inhabitants Christiania, with a population of 227,626 and only four above twenty thousand Bergen, Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Dranunen. Only The People of Norway 99 thirteen of the sixty odd towns of Norway have a population of over ten thousand. About twenty thousand Norwegians emi- grate annually to the United States and some- thing like fifteen hundred to Canada and other countries. The large excess of births over deaths, however, gives the country a healthy increase. Half the people of Norway are mar- ried, as against sixty-six per cent, in Hungary and thirty-nine per cent, in Ireland. The num- ber of divorced husbands and wives is less in Norway than in any country in Europe. Sixty per cent, of the people are wage-earners; twenty per cent, are young children; sixteen per cent, are attending schools or other educa- tional institutions; three per cent, are sup- ported in part or entirely by municipalities or are otherwise unproductive ; and only three per cent, are persons of independent means. In spite of the steady stream of emigration to the United States, the population of Norway has more than doubled during the past fifty years ; and growth has been most marked dur- ing the periods of greatest emigration. During the first part of the past century the annual growth was less than two-tenths of one per 100 In Viking Land cent.; whereas during the latter part of the century it had nearly trebled. As elsewhere the growth in population has been greatest in the towns. This, as Amneus has explained, is not due to the comparatively greater number of births in the towns, as this advantage is counterbalanced by the greater mortality, but to the influx of persons seeking employment. The Norwegian towns have grown more rap- idly during the past century than the towns in either Sweden or Denmark. Growth was greatest during the decade from 1855 to 1865; from 1865 to 1890 there was a falling off in the rate of increase, due to the emigration from the towns to America; but during the past twenty years the increase in the population of the towns has been more marked. Increase has been greatest in Christiania. At the beginning of the past century the cap- ital had only 12,423 inhabitants; at the close of the century 221,255; an annual increase of three per cent. The growth of Bergen has been less rapid; at the beginning of the cen- tury it had 18,128 inhabitants; at the close of the century 68,000. Eemarks Mr. Amneus * 1 See his interesting study on the population of Norway in "Norway: Official Publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900." A BRIDE IN THE NUMEDAL. The People of Norway 101 in this connection: " If the population be grouped according to the natural character of the inhabited districts, it will be found that during the course of the century, the coast population shows the most rapid increase, the inland fjord districts somewhat less, while the lowland, and still more the mountain popula- tion, has increased much more slowly. The emigration that has been going on of late years from the last two has even in some places caused a decrease in the actual number." The national parliament has aimed not only to improve the economic condition of the farm- ers, and thus diminish emigration, but it has also during late years tried to protect working- men from the dangers and over-exertion that factory labour so often entails. Children under fourteen are not permitted to work in factories at all. Women cannot be employed in underground work; they are not permitted to care for or take charge of machines, and they cannot be employed in factories for the first six weeks after confinement. Men are not allowed to work from six o'clock in the eve- ning before a Sunday or holy day to ten o 'clock of the evening of the holy day. These laws are enforced by government inspectors with 102 In Viking Land technical training, and their infringement is punishable by fines not exceeding three hun- dred dollars. Special insurance provision has also been made against accidents for work- men in mines and quarries, in timber-floating, in railway and tramway work, and in other industrial lines. Unfortunately agriculture, fishing, and shipping are not included. The administration of such insurance is in the hands of a commission appointed by the national government. The indemnification is intended to cover the expenses of medical treatment from the fourth week after the ac- cident, the sick-clubs bearing the expenses dur- ing the first month, and sixty per cent, of the wages of the disabled workman. In case of death, the insurance covers the funeral ex- penses and an annuity of fifty per cent, of the dead man's wages. There are also in Norway various sick-clubs for the workmen and burial- clubs and pension funds for the widows of employees. There has been some agitation of the question of insurance against want of em- ployment, and in some towns employment bu- reaus have been established by the municipal governments. There are also municipal arbi- The People of Norway 103 tration courts for the mediation of differences between employers and employed. These are some of the measures that this very democratic country has instituted for the welfare of the Norwegian people. The social and political legislation of recent years has been inspired by a sincere desire to elevate and improve the masses of the common people and to make it possible for them to remain in Norway and live with comparative comfort. With the unfavourable physiographic and eco- nomic conditions pointed out elsewhere in this work, the struggle for existence is at best hard ; but an evolution of environment as well as of organism is possible, and the statesmen of Gamle Norge are unquestionably doing much to minimize the hardships of the scattered pop- ulation of the country. CHAPTER VII LAPPS AND THE POLAR REGIONS Polar sections of Norway and the Lapps Climate of the polar regions Rainfall and fog The North Cape and the midnight sun The aurora borealis The nomadic Lapps Physical and mental characteristics Dress of the men and the women Mountain Lapps and Sea Lapps The reindeer in the economic life of the people Low state of civilization in Finmark The Finns and their habits. NEARLY half the coast line of Norway lies within the polar circle. But the climate is less severe than might be expected. In the same latitude in which Sir John Franklin perished in the arctic regions of North America and in which lie the frozen tundra plains of Russian Siberia, the fjords of the west coast of Norway never freeze over except in their upper ex- tremities. Through large portions of northern Norway the sun does not set in summer or rise in winter. The summers, however, are not hot; 1 for, while the sun does not set, it warms only at mid-day, simply shining the rest of the day as a golden orb without heat. The mean sum- 104 Lapps and the Polar Regions 105 mer temperature in Finmark is 53 Fahrenheit, and the mean winter temperature about 5, al- though the thermometer on the coldest days may drop as low as 60 below zero. The rainfall in Finmark is slight as com- pared with the rest of Norway twelve to six- teen inches but fogs are frequent along the coast and they are likely to occur during the tourist season to the North Cape. In conse- quence, not more than one out of every four excursion parties, making the trip to the north- ernmost part of Europe, see the chief object of the long trip the midnight sun at the North Cape. Mr. William Eleroy Curtis, an Ameri- can traveller, remarks in this connection: " Of course people who have travelled all that dis- tance cannot be expected to confess their fail- ure. In fact I have never met anybody who has gone to the North Cape without seeing the midnight sun. General absolution is granted to tourists to lie about it to other travellers and to the folks at home; but the captain admitted to me that they only saw it twice last year, and that when they saw it four times in a season it was considered a remarkable triumph." Bar- ring fogs, the midnight sun is visible at the North Cape from the last of May to the last of 106 In Viking Land July and at Hammerfest and Tromso a few days less. As far south as the arctic circle it does not set for a brief period during the sum- mer; and at Trondhjem it merely dips below the horizon at midnight for a few moments. The North Cape is the northern extremity of a rugged barren star-shaped island called Magero. The island is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel and is in lati- tude 71 10' 12". The animal life of the island consists of reindeer, ermine, and hare; and a few Norwegian and Lapp fishermen live on the eastern side of the island. The cape proper is a huge mass of dark mica slate so precipitous on its weather-beaten northern and western sides that it can only be scaled from the south or east. Its surface is a plateau 1,000 feet above sea-level and is strewn with small sand- stone, mica slate, and quartz. Here, facing the North Pole, is the red granite column which commemorates the visit of the late King Oscar II to the island in 1871 ; and a beacon records the fact that twenty years later the island was visited by Emperor William II. of Germany. Throughout the polar regions of Norway the aurora borealis produces beautiful luminous effects during the cold winter nights. The Lapps and the Polar Regions 107 aurora forms an arch of coloured light over the magnetic pole at a height in the atmosphere of from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles. Col- oured fringes and streamers shoot from the arch in all directions, spreading over the sky and again shrinking back with a pulsing motion. The aurora is caused presumably by electrical discharges in the rare air and it very closely resembles the glow seen when a current trav- erses a vacuum tube. Professor Lemstrom, a Finnish physicist, has in fact produced the aurora by covering the top of Mt. Oratunturi in the north of Finland with a network of wires and sending a current of electricity from the wires to the earth. Bayard Taylor, who made foreign countries so familiar to American audiences fifty years ago by his books and lectures, gives this vivid description of the aurora borealis which he wit- nessed in Norwegian Lapland : "I opened my eyes, looked upward, and saw a narrow belt or scarf of silver fire stretching directly across the zenith, with its loose frayed ends slowly swaying to and fro down the slopes of the sky. Presently it began to waver, bending back and forth, sometimes with a quick springing mo- tion, as if testing its elasticity. Now it took the 108 In Viking Land shape of a bow, now undulated into Hogarth's line of beauty, brightening and fading in its sinuous motion, and finally formed a shep- herd's crook, the end of which suddenly began to separate and fall off, as if driven by a strong wind, until the whole belt shot away in long, drifting lines of fiery snow. It then gathered again into a dozen dancing fragments, which alternately advanced and retreated, shot hither and thither, against and across each other, blazed out in yellow and rosy gleams, or paled again, playing a thousand fantastic tricks, as if guided by some wild whim. We lay silent with upturned faces watching this wonderful spec- tacle. Suddenly the scattered lights ran to- gether, as if by common impulse, joined their bright ends and fell in a broad, luminous cur- tain, straight downward through the air, until its fringed hem swung apparently only a few yards over our heads." The polar circle is occupied chiefly by the nomadic Lapps who belong to the Finnic group of the Tauranian family, being racially allied with the Samoyedes of Siberia and the Eskimos of North America. They are short in stature, measuring from four feet six inches to five feet; they have the yellowish brown complex- Lapps and the Polar Regions 109 ion of the Mongolian race; the head is large and broad, the nose short and flat, the cheek bones high, and the mouth broad. The black eyes are obliquely set, and the hair is long and stiff, the men having scanty beards. In spite of universal stoutness, the Lapps are extremely agile and they possess great muscular powers. Of the women it has been remarked that good looking Lapps are like meteors, of very short duration. Exposure and intemperance cause them to age prematurely. The best- looking Lapps are those representing an ad- mixture with Finns or Norwegians. The women wear long tunics of corduroy, ornamented with red and yellow borders and confined at the waist by a belt ; under the tunic pantaloons are worn, since open garments would expose them unduly to the cold; the headgear is a woollen cap projecting above the crown, and pointed shoes are worn which are tied about the ankles by strips of reindeer leather. The men wear coats and trousers of reindeer skin, the fur worn within ; boots made of the reindeer's head the toughest part of the animal and caps of skin and wool. In the winter they wear an extra suit with the hair outside. Neither men nor women wear 110 In Viking Land undergarments, and the clothing is rarely re- moved until it is worn out. Like all primitive people, the Lapps are very fond of gaudy colours and highly coloured embroideries. There are two reasonably distinct groups of Lapps in Finmark and the polar regions the Sea Lapps and the Fjeld or Mountain Lapps. The Sea Lapps are fishermen and inhabit the islands and the fjords of the northwestern coast. They are much more numerous than the Mountain Lapps ; and having more or less set- tled abodes, they represent the higher civiliza- tion. The government treats them as subjects of Norway and requires them to provide rein- deer and sledges for travel at a fixed tariff, much after the manner of the posting system in the central and southern provinces elsewhere described. The Mountain Lapps depend en- tirely upon their reindeer and hunting for their livelihood. Lapp villages look like small rounded hills. The houses are very simply con- structed. Saplings are stuck in the ground and drawn together at the top, leaving a small opening for the escape of the smoke, and the whole is covered with bark and turf. The reindeer supply practically all the needs of the Lapps. They are the sole beast of bur- A GROUP OF SEA LAPPS. A GROUP OF MOUNTAIN LAPPS. Lapps and the Polar Regions ill den of the natives ; Lapps drink the milk and make it into butter and cheese; the whey is fermented and distilled into an intoxicating liquor ; the fresh, smoked, and dried flesh forms the staple of food; the skins are made into tents, blankets, and clothing; household uten- sils are made from the antlers; the intestines are made into gloves, the bladders into bags, and the tendons into thread. Several hundred reindeer are necessary to maintain a family, and wealthy Lapps possess herds of from one to two thousand. The reindeer are delicately formed animals with huge branching antlers which are as much as four feet long and contrast strikingly with the small bodies of the animals. Most of the reindeer are of a dark slate colour, although a few are brown or white. The foot of the rein- deer resembles that of a camel and is excel- lently adapted for travel over the snow, being broad, cloven, and flexible, the separated divi- sions spreading out so as to present a resisting surface, when the foot is set down on the snow, and falling together when it is lifted. The wild reindeer is somewhat larger than the cultivated variety and lives about twice as long. The milk is very rich, although each doe gives a compar- 112 In Viking Land atively small quantity, and she is milked not more than twice or three times a week. A strong oily cheese is made from the milk. The does are never made to labour but are kept in the woods for milking and breeding. The cas- trated male deer are used as beasts of burden. A reindeer will carry a burden of about one hundred and twenty-five pounds, but hitched to a sledge he will draw twice that weight. The speed is not remarkable about ten miles an hour for the entire day. He is a stupid animal and it takes a long time to train him for domes- tic uses. The food of the reindeer is a species of moss which grows abundantly in the polar regions. In the winter the moss is obtained by scraping away the snow with the feet and nose, for the sense of smell is remarkably acute, and the moss will be unerringly located under snow many feet deep. In summer the reindeer are driven to the mountains, not merely to find more abundant patches of the white lichen, but to avoid the attacks of the gad fly and other insect pests. During the summer the gad fly deposits its eggs on the skin of the animal from which the larva is hatched. The insect causes intolerable suffering, and the only relief the animal can get Lapps and the Polar Regions 113 is by plunging into water. The greatest ene- mies of the reindeer are the wolves which destroy many thousand of wild and domesti- cated reindeer every winter. The reindeer are herded by the aid of the Lapp dogs, a small variety of curs covered with long thick hair. They are hardy, strong, and healthy, and are singularly brave and intelligent. In spite of the fact that the Lapps have occu- pied the polar regions of Scandinavia for thou- sands of years, they are centuries behind the Norwegians in matters of civilization. An English skipper, who visited Finmark four hundred years ago, described the Lapps as " a wild people, which neither knew God nor yet good order : and these people live in tents made of deer skins : and they have no certain habita- tions, but continue in herds of one hundred and two hundred. And they are a people of small stature, and are clothed in deers' skins, and drink nothing but water, and eat no bread, but flesh all raw." It is to be regretted that since they have been brought into more frequent commercial relations with the Christian races from the south, the Lapps no longer " drink nothing but water. " 114 In Viking Land There are also some Finns in the polar sec- tions of Norway. They are taller, more sym- metrically built, and possess more intelligence than the Lapps, although of the same general racial stock. They are industrious, thrifty, and honest; but during late years the emigration from Finland to Finmark has been slight, and during recent times they have become assimi- lated with the Norwegians, so that the pure Finno-Ugrian scarcely exists to-day in Nor- way; but anthropologically the Finnish ethnic element in the population can still be distinctly traced. CHAPTER VIII NORSE RELIGIONS : OLD AND NEW Heathenism, Christianity, and the faith of Martin Luther Norway the most Protestant country in the world Early Scandinavian mythology Odin and Thor the supreme gods Resemblance to their Greek confreres Minor Norse gods The ancient heathen temple and its service Sacrifice the chief rite Introduction of Christianity into Norway The German reformation movement Creed of the Evan- gelical Lutheran church Dissent and the Haugianere Ecclesiastical divisions of Norway Confirmation in the life of the child Compensation and duties of the clergy. THE religious life of the Norse people since the historic period has centred around hea- thenism, Christianity, and the reformed faith of Martin Luther. Heathenism, as was pointed out in a previous chapter, died hard in the north; and yet Norway is probably the most Christian country in the world. In a popula- tion of two and a quarter millions there are less than one hundred Hebrews. Protestantism likewise made slow progress at first among the Norse people; yet Norway is to-day probably the most Protestant country in the world, there 116 116 In Viking Land being less than two thousand Roman Catholics in the entire country. It is likewise dominantly Lutheran, the dissenters Methodists, Bap- tists, and Quakers numbering but a few thousand. The earliest records of the heathen religion of Norway are found in the literary collections known as the eddas. These are collections of legends illustrative of Scandinavian myth- ology. Originally, according to the eddas, there was no heaven above nor earth beneath, only a bottomless pit with a fountain from which issued twelve rivers. The rivers, as they flowed from the fountain, froze into solid ice, and the bottomless pit was likewise filled with ice. Far to the south there was a world of mist, from which issued a warm wind which melted the ice in the frozen rivers. Vapours arose into the air and formed clouds, out of which was formed Ymir, the frost giant, and the cow Audhumbla. The latter nourished the giant by licking the salt and the hoar frost from the ice. One day when the cow was licking the salt stone, the hair of a man appeared ; the next day she licked the stone a head appeared, and the third day an entire being. This was a god, Norse Religions: Old and New 117 who, in union with the daughter of a giant race, brought forth three sons Odin, Vili, and Ve. The sons slew the giant Ymir. From his body they formed the earth ; from his bones the mountains; from his blood the seas and lakes; from his hair the trees; from his skull the heavens, and from his brain the clouds, hail, and snow. From the eyebrows of Ymir they formed Midgard the mid-air which was to become the abode of man. Day and night, the seasons, and plant-life were likewise provided. But the universe still lacked human beings. From an ash tree they formed a man, and from an alder a woman. Odin endowed them with life and souls, Vili with reason and action, and Ve with senses and speech. Mid- gard was assigned them as their residence and they became the progenitors of the Norsemen and all other human beings. A mighty ash tree that sprung from the body of Ymir supports the earth. This tree has three immense roots Asgard, the dwell- ing place of the gods, Jotunheim, the abode of the giants, and Niffleheim, the region of dark- ness. Asgard contains many gold and silver palaces, the most beautiful of all being Val- halla, the abode of Odin. Here seated upon 118 In Viking Land his throne and guarded on either side by wolves, he overlooks both heaven and earth. Valhalla was splendidly decorated with bur- nished weapons, the ceiling made of spears, the roof covered with bright shields, and the walls decorated with the armour and coats of mail of the warriors. The days were spent in fighting and the nights in eating and carousing. The Valkyries, the maidens of Odin, not only se- lected the warriors who were to be slain, but they also waited upon them during the battle, filling their horns with mead and providing them with food in the form of swine flesh. When the maidens rode forth, their bright armour shed a strange flickering light which flashed up over the northern sky and caused the aurora borealis. Odin is thus represented as one of the su- preme gods of Scandinavian mythology. He is the god of war, who assigns victory or defeat to men, the slain warriors being taken to dwell with him in Valhalla; on the other hand, he is also god of wisdom and cunning, knowing all things. He invented the runic characters and gave his name to the fourth day of the week Wednesday. Belief in the power of Odin and the pleasures of Valhalla persisted even Norse Religions: Old and New 119 after the introduction of Christianity into the country. It will be recalled that King Haakon the Good had embraced the new faith, but that the opposition of his people was so great that he permitted them to worship the old gods. On his death-bed he was asked if he wished a Christian or a heathen burial. He had lived as a heathen, he said, and he wished to be buried as one. One of the scalds tells us they laid his body in the ground with all his weapons and best array, and that they " made speeches at his burying as was the custom of heathen men to make, and sent him off on the way to Valhalla." Thor, the oldest son of Odin, was likewise a powerful god, and with his enormous hammer he warred incessantly against the Wotans or mist-giants. He was drawn through the sky by two rams ; and the rattling of his cart and the noise of his hammer as he hurled it at the heads of the fleeing giants caused the sky to tremble and produced the noise that men call thunder. After the hammer had been thrown it returned to the hand of Thor of its own ac- cord. He also possessed a belt which enabled him to double his strength by girding it tightly about his body. . 120 In Viking Land It is not always easy to indicate the rank of the Norse gods. While Odin is most often mentioned as the supreme authority, there are many passages in the sagas which suggest that the people at large regarded Thor as their chief deity. All great assemblies in Norway began their sessions on Thor's day Thursday. In the final struggle between heathenism and Christianity, Thor is usually represented as the champion of the old faith. When King Olaf Haraldsson was making a strenuous ef- fort to introduce Christianity into Norway, the sagas report this speech: " There has come hither a man named Olaf to offer us another faith than the one we have and to break all our gods in pieces, and he claims he has a greater and a mightier god. It is a marvel that the earth does not open under him when he dares to say such things and that our gods let him go any further. I expect if we carry Thor out of our temple where he stands, and where he has always stood by us, that as soon as he looks on Olaf and his men, then his god, him- self and his men will melt away and come to nought." This and similar passages suggest the supremacy of Thor, but his cult may have Norse Religions: Old and New 121 enjoyed special favour at this particular pe- riod. Like their confreres in Greece, the gods of Norway were not a highly celestial set of crea- tures. They were not over-choice in the use of language ; they indulged to excess in intoxicat- ing liquors ; their code of sexual morality was highly indiscriminating, and they spent rather much of their time in swilling ale and gorging themselves with bacon. This illustration from the eddas : A respectable Norse ferryman pur- sues his calling; a stranger appears on the opposite bank of the river and calls him to come and fetch him; he at first refuses; in pungent Billingsgate they roundly abuse one another; the stranger turns out to be the god Thor, but the ferryman is unabashed. Another eddaic example: Heimdall gives a feast to the gods ; Loke, the tempter, is present as an unin- vited guest ; he retails gossip of the most scan- dalous sort concerning the gods and goddesses, until all the celestials present are left without characters, when they turn him out. Among the minor Norse gods may be men- tioned Frey, who presided over rain, sunshine, fields, and pastures; Njord, his father, who ruled the seas; Ty, the god of fortitude and 122 In Viking Land courage, and Bragi, the god of poetry and song. Hero worship seems also to have been practised in Norway. Mention is made of of- ferings being taken to the grave-mound of Olaf, and after the introduction of Christianity the worship of grave-mounds is specifically forbidden. It is believed that not only men but also animals were worshipped, and there are even traces of phallic worship in Norway as late as the time of Olaf the Saint. The Norsemen erected temples in which to keep the images and worship the gods. These for the most part were small buildings con- structed of timber. It is related of a Norse chief who moved to Iceland that he had the temple taken down to take with him to his new home. A few of the temples were imposing structures and were furnished with costly orna- ments. It is told of Olaf Trygvesson that when he gave orders to burn a temple at Hladir that " he made them take all the treasures and or- naments out of the temple and off the images of the gods." A pedestal in the nature of an altar stood in the inner part of the temple and attached to this was a ring on which all oaths had to Norse Religions: Old and New 123 be taken. The sacrificial bowl stood on the pedestal. In it were placed the twigs with which the blood of the sacrifice was sprinkled upon those present at the ceremony. The images of the gods were arranged round about the altar. All Norsemen residing in a given district had to pay toll to the local temple. A special law of the year 930 throws some light on the matter of pagan ecclesiastical adminis- tration: " The land was divided into quarters and there were to be three places of worship in each quarter. Men who were noted for in- telligence were selected to have charge of the temples; these also had to appoint the law- courts at the assemblies and to superintend the proceedings there." Sacrifice of living things seems to have been the chief rite of the ancient religion. Some- times the sacrifices were offered by the com- munity, sometimes by individuals. Men of wealth often acquired a reputation for piety by providing a munificent sacrifice at their own expense. Thus the saga says of Earl Sigurd : ' ' He made a great sacrificial feast at Hladir, and stood all the expense of it him- self." The animals chiefly used in the sacri- fice were oxen, horses, sheep, and swine; and 124 In Viking Land on extraordinary occasions, human beings. While there was no distinct class of priests, a form of priestcraft existed, which was hered- itarily transmitted, although the chief part of the public worship was in the hands of the leading men of the community. As early as the ninth century zealous mis- sionaries from central Europe attempted to supplant Thor and his hammer by Christ and the cross, and by the tenth century paganism had spent its force in Norway. Christianity, as first introduced, was a compromise with ex- isting pagan notions, and it required a good many years before the new faith exercised much influence over the lives of the people. But when generally adopted and practised, it accelerated tremendously the development of Norse civilization; for the old faith, which bestowed the chief favour of the gods upon men who followed the trade of arms, was hos- tile to national progress. Norway took great strides during the centuries which followed, in spite of the discontent among the people caused by the growing power and oppression of the nobility and the clergy. The reform movement of Martin Luther spread rapidly from Germany to the Scandi- Norse Eeligions: Old and New 125 navian countries. Denmark, with whom Nor- way was at the time united, had been prepared for the struggle by Christian II (1513-1524), who had abolished compulsory celibacy, pro- hibited the sale of serfs, and introduced other reforms at the expense of the clergy and the nobility. It was, however, during the reigns of Frederick I (1524-1533) and Christian III (1533-1563) that Protestantism became an ac- complished fact in Norway. The cause of re- ligion suffered unmistakably during the years that followed the abolition of the Roman Cath- olic rite and the suppression of the monas- teries; for Protestant ministers with compe- tency and piety were not at once forthcoming in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of the Norwegians. Eventually these faults were remedied and Norway has during the past four centuries become the most Protestant country in the world. The Evangelical Lutheran church became the state religion of Norway in 1537. It is based upon the apostolic, the Niocene-Constantino- ple, and the Athanasian creeds, together with the Augsburg confession and Luther's shorter catechism. The king and his council, the cler- ical office bearers, professors of theology in 126 In Viking Land the university, and school teachers and super- intendents must be members of the established church. The holy days of the Lutheran church are protected by law, and all government and municipal schools are required to give religious instruction. Jesuits are excluded from the kingdom, but all other religious sects are given freedom of worship " so long as they do not transgress the limits of law and decency." Before 1841 Jews were excluded from the coun- try, and Hebrew merchants residing in Ger- many and England had to transact their Nor- wegian business by proxy. In the constitu- tional assembly at Eidsvold in 1814 an effort was made to repeal this exclusion, but the Norse lawmakers took the view-point of one of the speakers that " Norway has enough Jews of her own persuasion." Dissent has not appreciably disturbed the even tenor of the Lutheran church in Norway. The most troublesome sect appeared at the beginning of the last century. It was headed by Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824). He trav- elled about the country and conducted services something after the pattern of the revival meetings of the Methodists. The meetings of the Haugianere were held at the homes of the Norse Religions: Old and New 127 people, and Tidemand has transferred to can- vas, in the national gallery at Christiania, a picture of one of these simple cottage services. The Norwegian government, however, was stirred up against them by the narrow-minded clergy, and notably by the intolerant bishop of Bergen ; and Hauge was thrown into prison, where he lingered for nine years awaiting trial. He was accused of trying to set aside the re- ligion of the state, and was at last sentenced to two years of hard labour. His property was also confiscated and the people were for- bidden to read his books. Hauge was merely a religious zealot; he preached no new doc- trine ; and, but for the persecution of the gov- ernment, the sect would probably have at- tracted very little notice. In 1845 the law pun- ishing dissenters was greatly modified, and the established church has gained thereby. Norway is divided ecclesiastically into six bishoprics, eighty-four archdeaconries, and four hundred and eighty-eight clerical dis- tricts. The king, in cooperation with the na- tional parliament, is the highest authority in the affairs of the established church. He ap- points the bishops and the clergy; ordains all the public functions of the established church, 128 In Viking Land and, through the department of education, sees that the public teachers of religion conform to the prescribed rules. The confirmation of children at the age of fourteen is the source of religious unity in Norway. Confirmation not only admits to the rites and privileges of religious life, but it is necessary for admission to the civil service. One who has not been confirmed would not only be denied employment in the public service, but he would find it difficult to obtain private employment. He could not contract marriage or assume the responsibilities of adulthood. Confirmation signifies the completion of the elementary school course and the possession of a definite amount of intellectual as well as of religious and moral training. On steamers one frequently finds two classes of prices, one for confirmed persons and one for the uncon- firmed, meaning, of course, adults and children. In the newspapers one may read this notice: " Wanted, a confirmed cook." The advertise- ment does not refer to the occult culinary qual- ifications of the kitchen queen, but to her age; it is assumed that if the individual has been confirmed she has reached a certain age. The clergy of Norway are entitled to the use Norse Religions: Old and New 129 of parsonages and a certain fixed salary which is paid largely from local tax funds. Pastors in town churches are paid from $1000 to $1600 a year, and country pastors from $600 to $1000 a year. Ecclesiastical fees, such as baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial, have been practically abolished in Norway, so that the incomes, plus allowance for house-rent, are pretty definitely established. The churches and church-yards, with a few exceptions, are the property of the congregations; but their superintendence falls to the king, and no church can be erected or altered without his consent. There is a diocesan board which has certain general duties, but the immediate di- rection of local churches falls to the pastor and two members of the parish who are ap- pointed by the municipal council. Aside from the sermon, which is an impor- tant feature of the Sunday worship, and is generally long, the service consists of the prayer of the clergyman, and the response by the choir and the people. The psalms are pre- sented by the village clerk, who is usually a local schoolmaster. The hymns are collected and arranged for seasons and special occasions in the little Bede Psalm Book, which every 130 In Viking Land worshipper brings to the service. The assem- bling of the congregation in the church-yard for a social hour before and after the religious service is an interesting sight to the traveller, and especially picturesque is the arrival of the peasants of the western fjords in their little boats, the women assisting the men in rowing. Seen from a distance in their many-coloured national costumes, they look for all the world like beds of variegated poppies floating on the waters of the fjords. In the sparsely settled counties, the people do not attend religious services oftener than fortnightly, and there are sometimes long arrears of christenings, marriages and funerals. As in other Lutheran countries, the people attend religious services in the morning, and the balance of the day they spend as any other holiday, in dancing and other forms of amusements. The Norwegians are a people of religious habits; they will travel long distances and face all sorts of weather to be present at divine service; they have reverence for their churches and respect for their pastors, and up to the time of con- firmation their children are given most careful religious training. CHAPTER IX EDUCATION IN NORWAY Common school education universal in Norway State con- trol Domestic education Course of study and qualifi- cation of teachers Secondary education The national university at Christiania Technical and special education Art and industrial education Learned societies Public libraries Newspapers and reviews Press censor- ship during the union with Denmark Effect of the Eids- vold constitution Some of the earliest journals News- papers and the Landsmaal Efforts to make Norse dialects the official language of the country Literary defects of the Landsmaal The Dano-Norwegian and the New-Norwegian Unconscious approximation of the two languages. NORWAY shares with Denmark, Sweden, and Finland priority in the matter of the literacy of her people. Universal education of a high degree of efficiency was one of the immediate results of the Protestant reformation. The Lutheran church in these countries made the completion of an elementary school course requisite for confirmation, and confirmation es- sential for marriage and participation in the social, political, and religious life. Thus the church has cooperated with the state in pre- 131 132 In Viking Land venting adult illiteracy. Norway has had a good system of public schools for more than two centuries, and for seventy-five years educa- tion has been compulsory. Education is under the control of the minis- try of public instruction and includes the ele- mentary and secondary schools, the university, and the technical and special schools. The ele- mentary school course covers seven years of the child's life from the ages of seven to fourteen in towns and from eight to fifteen in the rural districts. The management of the schools falls to a local school board composed of one clergyman, one teacher, the president of the local council, and as many more members chosen from the municipal council as the coun- cil itself shall determine. The school board elects the teachers, draws up the budget, pro- vides for school supervision, and works out details in the matter of courses of study. School districts with an enrolment of twenty or more children are required to pro- vide buildings for school purposes, while in districts of less than twenty children the school may be held in rotation in the houses of the patrons, but the ambulatory schools of Norway are rapidly disappearing. The parents take Education in Norway 133 an active part in the supervision of the home studies of the children. This is necessitated by the fact that children in the rural districts do not always attend school full time. At Loen, for example, I was told by a member of the local school board that the children at- tended school on alternate days, and in other places alternate weeks. This half-time policy is dictated by considerations of economy. The required studies in the elementary schools are religion, the mother tongue, penmanship, arith- metic, elementary geometry, nature study, geog- raphy, and singing. Manual training, gymnas- tics, and drawing are also compulsory in town schools but optional in the ungraded schools of the country. In the rural districts the number of pupils under one teacher at one time must not exceed thirty-five and in town schools forty. Co-edu- cation is the rule in the sparsely settled coun- try districts, but in the towns the sexes are taught separately. Teachers in the elementary schools must be at least twenty years old, mem- bers of the Lutheran church, and possess a teacher's certificate. Certificates are of two kinds: provisional and permanent. The for- mer indicate the possession of qualifications 134 In Viking Land necessary for admission to a state normal school and entitle the holders to teach in the low grades of the rural schools only, and the latter indicate graduation from a state normal school and entitle the holders to permanent ap- pointment in any elementary school. There are eleven normal schools in Norway for the training of teachers. They are essentially high schools with abbreviated courses in meth- ods of teaching, school management, and peda- gogical subjects. There are also optional continuation schools for children who have completed the compul- sory elementary course. These schools are or- dinarily taught by the elementary teachers, but the course of instruction is more advanced. There are also county schools which continue the work of the elementary and the continua- tion schools. In these students may pursue courses in modern languages, technical draw- ing, agriculture, and horticulture. People's high schools, not unlike the country academies in America during the last century, are found in many rural districts. These aim to give a more or less general cultural training to young people who have passed the ordinary school age. Education in Norway 135 Secondary education in Norway, as in the United States, is correlated with the elementary schools. Pupils from the lower schools pass directly to the middle schools, where, besides the advanced phases of the common school branches, they receive instruction in the mod- ern languages. The middle schools take chil- dren between the ages of twelve and fifteen years, and they aim to give a thorough general education, practically what is given in most American high schools, although in a much shorter time. Above the middle schools are the classical or literary high schools which fit for the university and other higher educational institutions. There are three elective courses in the classical schools the ancient languages, the modern languages, and the sciences. Latin and Greek are no longer compulsory studies for all students. The secondary schools of Norway, as in the United States, are co-edu- cational, since women are now admitted to the university. In addition to the public second- ary schools, there are many institutions of a private nature which are more or less under the control of the municipal and national edu- cational authorities. The university of Christiania crowns the 136 In Viking Land system of public education in Norway. It was founded in 1811 and has about two thousand students and eighty professors and instructors. It is co-educational and many Norwegian women avail themselves of university train- ing. Now that universal suffrage prevails, it is probable that, as in Finland, women will enter parliament and become active in the po- litical life of the nation. The university is organized into five faculties theology, law, medicine, philosophy, and science. Each fac- ulty selects from its number a dean who is the presiding officer for two years. The general management of the university is under the direction of the ministry of public instruction, although the professors are appointed by the king. Tuition is free and the university courses are open to both sexes. Connected with the university are the national library, the botanical gardens, the historical museums, the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the meteorological institute, and the marine biological station (at Drb'bak). The hospitals of Christiania are also affiliated with the uni- versity. The university has been the most po- tent factor in the development of the national consciousness and most of the contemporary Education in Norway 137 leaders in politics, letters, the arts, and science claim the university of Christiania as their alma mater. Norway has also a reasonably efficient sys- tem of technical education. The higher tech- nical schools are located at Trondhjem, Chris- tiania, and Bergen. Admission to these insti- tutions is from the middle schools. The muni- cipalities in which they are located provide the plants and one-third of the running ex- penses and the state pays the remaining two- thirds. They are controlled by the ministry of public instruction. The school at Trondhjem provides four-year courses in engineering, ma- chinery, chemistry, and architecture. The school at Christiania provides all but engineer- ing, and the Bergen school offers courses in machinery and chemistry only. There is also a school for wood and metal industries at Ber- gen; a technical school for mechanics at Hor- ten, and a school for the mechanic arts at Porsgrund. There are many technical night schools or- ganized and maintained by the municipalities. They generally have three^year courses and aim to give the information and skill necessary for the handicrafts. There are also so-called 138 In Viking Land workingmen's colleges in Norway where tech- nical instruction is given in the form of lec- tures by scientific men, physicians, school-mas- ters, and military men. The lectures are given in the evening and the expenses are shared by the state, the municipalities, and the labour organizations. The state has a well-developed agricultural college at Aas near Christiania, and there are government forestry, naval, and military schools. The royal art and industrial school at Chris- tiania, founded in 1818, aims to train artists, artistic craftsmen, and teachers of art. Its courses include free-hand and architectural drawing, ornament, modelling, construction, and decorative painting. A music and organ school is supported by the government at Christiania; and there are, besides, schools of industrial art for women where fine needle- work, weaving, and dressmaking are taught. Other indirect educational agencies are the lit- erary and philosophical society at Christiania, which has charge of the Fridtjof Nansen fund for the advancement of science; the royal lit- erary and philosophical society at Trondhjem, founded as early as 1760 ; the national society for the preservation of ancient Norwegian Education in Norway 139 monuments, and the industrial art museums at Christiania, Bergen, and Trondhjem. In the matter of public libraries Norway is less well provided than might be expected from the pronounced reading habits and the uni- versal literacy of her people. The so-called workingmen's colleges have done pioneer work in this field, but much more remains to be done, and the patriots responsible for the policies of the new kingdom should look to public libra- ries as a certain means of quickening the intel- lectual life of the nation. There are in all something like six hundred and fifty libraries in the country, containing from one hundred to ten thousand volumes. The best public li- braries are at Bergen and Christiania. The national library, in connection with the univer- sity, is also at Christiania. Norway fares excellently well in the matter of newspapers. When the Eidsvold constitu- tion in 1814 granted complete freedom to the press, there was immediate and healthy devel- opment in the field of newspaperdom ; and considering the limited wealth and the sparse population of the country, Norway is singu- larly favoured both in the quality and the quan- tity of her journals. Towns of eight or ten 140 In Viking Land thousand inhabitants often have as many as five newspapers; and Hammerfest, the most northern town in the world, has two newspa- pers. Many of the great dailies of Christiania compare very favourably with the best that is produced at the other capitals of Europe. Men of the stamp of Bjornson, Ibsen, and Nansen have been identified with the newspapers of the capital. Women, too, have played a leading role in Norse journalism, and Anna Boe and her Urd (Forward) have finally conquered in the struggle for women's suffrage. While much later than most other European countries in the development of a periodical literature, during the past century Norway has made extraordinary progress. As early as 1762 Bishop Nannestad began the publication of his " Short Weekly Treatises on Various Useful and Edifying Matters, ' ' and three years later the first newspaper proper appeared in Christiania. Bergen had its first weekly news- paper in 1765 and Trondhjem in 1767. For a century the early newspapers of Norway had a monopoly from the government of all the advertisements of the dioceses in which they were published. Press censorship down to the time of the Education in Norway 141 union with Sweden was singularly rigid, and the Danish government made it almost impos- sible for the Norwegian newspapers to discuss political matters. It was forbidden to publish anything that referred to " the state, the gov- ernment, and public institutions." The bish- ops acted as censors of all printed matter. Modification of the press censorship laws at the beginning of the last century enabled Wulfsberg, de Falsen, and Platou to establish the significant organ of the " Society for the Welfare of Norway, ' ' which not only concerned itself with Norwegian affairs but discussed so- cial and political matters of current interest. It was not until the separation from Den- mark that press restrictions were removed. The Eidsvold constitution of 1814 provided that " no person can be punished for any wri- ting, whatever its contents may be, which he has caused to be printed or published, unless he, wilfully and publicly, has either himself shown or incited others to disobedience to the laws, contempt to religion or morality or con- stitutional authorities, or resistance to their orders, or has advanced false or defamatory accusations against some one. Every one shall be at liberty to speak his mind frankly on the 142 In Viking Land administration of the state and on any other subject whatsoever." The Norwegian National Journal, founded in 1815, was the first newspaper to .stand for free criticism. " In this paper," remarks Karl Fischer, " the awakening consciousness of the peasant found expression, partly in im- petuous, often narrow-minded attacks on gov- ernment servants, partly in loud praise of the peasant and his importance to the community." The Morning Journal, the first Norwegian daily, appeared in 1818, and it is still in ex- istence. For a dozen years it had a distinctly literary flavour, but since 1831 it has been a force in the political life of the nation. The elections of 1832 brought a large number of peasants into the national parliament and there was an awakened interest in political issues among all classes of the people. Henrik Wergeland and other literary men of distinc- tion rendered important journalistic aid to the new democratic movement. The bureaucratic or intelligence party, as it was called, apprehending disaster from the growing political importance of the peasants, founded the Constitution in 1836. It was ed- ited by men of marked ability like the lawyer Education in Norway 143 and statesman Schweigaard and the poets Munch and Welhaven. A Norse historian says of it: " By its competent treatment of the questions of the hour, and its multifarious contents, it marked a great advance in the his- tory of the Norwegian press. In politics it was conservative, and in the face of the fre- quently immature and narrow-minded patriot- ism of opposition papers, maintained the im- portance of a free intellectual association with the old sister-country, Denmark." The Evening Journal, with which Bjorn- stjerne Bjornson, the eminent writer, was many years connected, was organized in 1855. " What especially distinguished this paper," remarks Mr. Fischer, " was its news of the day, local information, rapidity of communica- tion of intelligence from at home and abroad, and also the talented treatment of artistic and literary questions. During the first few years, it retained something of the freshness it had inherited from its satirical predecessor, while at the same time it enjoyed esteem for its ur- banity and thoroughness in discussion. Polit- ically, it was at first an advocate of the pro- gramme of the reform party; but by degrees its want of a firm political attitude became 144 In Viking Land more apparent, as the struggle between the governing powers became keener, until there became less room for its mediatory interposi- tion. " A half-dozen democratic journals originated during the sixties, the most significant being the Daily Journal (Dagbladet), which " suc- ceeded in overcoming the manifold difficulties that a liberal paper had to fight in those days." Among its distinguished contributors were Arne Garborg and the late Jonas Lie. There was less activity in Norse journalism during the seventies and eighties, but during the nine- ties the movement for cheap newspapers reached Norway. The 17th of May, established in 1894 and at first edited by Arne Garborg, is issued in Landsmaal, ' ' an artificial language which nobody speaks. ' ' The Landsmaal, according to Falk, is based on the most antique western dialects, with oc- casional reference to the forms of the old Nor- wegian. " Thus it is an idealized popular lan- guage, having a more antique character than the dialects themselves. In sound, vocabulary, and inflections, it is much nearer to the old language than is the Danish." The " Lands- maal movement," which was started by the Education in Norway 145 poet Aasen and which has been favoured by the political factional strife in Norway, is the slogan of The 17th of May. The language struggle, which the " Lands- maal movement '" has occasioned, is an im- portant factor in the general problem of edu- cation in Norway. The war of extermination against the common written language of the country the so-called Dano-Norwegian is on in earnest. Authors of more than local tal- ent are publishing books in the native dialect and by legal enactment it has been placed on a footing with the prevailing literary language, thus giving Norway two official languages. In the rural districts, where the local dialect is more generally spoken, the Landsmaal may be taught in the schools, if desired by the patrons. The national movement in Norway has fa- voured a return to the old Norse, but the new- made language, which is based upon the dia- lects of the western coast, has not made much headway in the southeastern part of the coun- try, the economic centre of gravity of Norway. Scholars have pointed out the literary defects of the Landsmaal. Attention has been called to the fact that while the aggregate vocabulary of the dialects is large, it is more an abundance 146 In Viking Land than a real richness and is more conducive to differentiation than to unity, the same thing having different names in different dialects. Falk notes that it lacks words for a number of conceptions belonging to modern civilization. 11 It cannot," he says, " out of its own inher- ited treasures, give us everything pertaining to modern life. The consequence is that when- ever the language has been employed for prac- tical use, the writer or speaker has been com- pelled either to form new words (generally by composition), or to adopt the words and phrases of the Dano-Norwegian. But as a matter of course, such wholesale adoption of linguistic material cannot but exert a destruc- tive and disintegrating effect. ' ' The Landsmaal, while adapted to verse and folk-stories, does not lend itself readily to sci- entific, religious, and philosophic writings. Literary men of the first rank have in conse- quence been slightly influenced by the new movement. They continue to write in the Dano-Norwegian. Many Norwegianisms have, however, crept into the literary language since the separation from Denmark. At first re- garded as provincialisms, with the gradual awakening of the national consciousness, local Education in Norway 147 expressions have gained the sanction of lit- erary men like Wergeland, Asbjb'rnsen, Moe, and Knudsen. If this Norwegianizing of the literary language of Denmark continues for a hundred or two years longer, it is clearly apparent that there will be a New-Norwegian language without the adoption of the artificial Landsmaal. Hjalmar Falk, 1 already quoted, says: "If we compare the new Norwegian language with the mother-tongue, we shall be able to make the observation, that although it has been under its influence the whole time, it has in many cases retained old peculiarities which the mother-tongue has afterwards given up. As far as our pronunciation is concerned, it agrees in all essential respects with the popular tongue in contra-distinction to the Danish. The hard consonants contribute greatly towards giving our speech a harder sound than the Danish with its modified sounds. Our accent is more like the Swedish than the Da- nish; one characteristic feature is the rising accent which often makes a foreigner believe our statements to be queries. Our speech is *See: Talk's Dansk-norskens syntax i historisk fremstilling. Christiania, 1000. See also his article on " Language " in "Norway: Official Publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900." 148 In Viking Land less melodious than the Swedish; the song element does not play so prominent a part. The inflection is being continually Norwegian- ized, especially the formation of the plural ; we have thousands of separate Norwegian words and phrases. One characteristic feature of our language is the numerous double forms, of which one, being Danish in its sound, espe- cially belongs to the literary style and the more select language, and regularly has a more ab- stract signification, while the other, being Nor- wegian in its form, belongs to the every-day speech. The word-formation is most closely related to Danish, although several derivatives have been adopted from the popular language. The Dano-Norwegian syntax shows many points of similarity with the genuine Norwe- gian one, and the same is the case with the order of the words in the sentence. The Nor- wegian form of the language as written very often lacks the grace and trimness of the Da- nish, the easy jest, the fine irony, the peri- phrastic designation. Conversationalists and artists in letter-writing are rare with us. Sim- plicity and strength are the qualities that we value the most. The simple architecture of the phrase is the one which comes most easy Education in Norway 149 to us. The influence of the scanty and concise saga style is noticeable from the days of Peder Clausson down to Bjornson. Even to the ten- derest emotions we prefer to give a virile ex- pression. There is in the voices of our best poets a strength and a ring which may some- times become declamatory." The difference between the two languages, to which Falk calls attention, is the price which Norway has been forced to pay for the loss of her independence during the four centuries that she was united with Denmark. The more sober modern Norse historians believe that an unconscious approximation is going on between the imported language and the native one. 11 While the dialects are being influenced through books and schools, and the Landsmaal is every day adopting Dano-Norwegian words and phrases, other channels are leading the treasures of the popular language into the Dano-Norwegian. The dialects have come to be the eternal and inexhaustible fountainhead from which Norwegian writing and speech draw rejuvenescence and power of growth. The final result of this mutual influence will be a uniform literary language with a genuine 150 In Viking Land Norwegian tone." An account of Ibsen and the other representatives of the New Norwe- gian literary style will be found in a later chap- ter on " Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen." HIGHWAYS, RAILWAYS, AND WATERWAYS Excellent posting system in Norway Carrioles, stolkjaerrea, and sledges Norwegian horses Roads and road-building Some fine mountain highways How the roads are kept in repair State railways of Norway Enormous cost of construction Leading lines Fjord-boating facilities Lake steamers Canals of Norway Postal, telegraph, and telephone systems. SINCE the sixteenth century Norway has had an excellent public posting system which en- ables the traveller to go to the most remote parts of the country at moderate and fixed rates. Fast and slow posting stations are es- tablished by the government along all the na- tional highways. At the former, horses must be kept in readiness; whereas, at the latter, the horses may be in distant fields at work, and a couple of hours may elapse before the traveller can proceed upon his journey. The rates, which are determined by the govern- ment, are, from fast stations, about seven cents a mile for a horse and two-wheeled con- 161 152 In Viking Land veyance or sledge; but from slow stations they are scarcely more than half that price. When the road is over very steep mountains an extra fare is charged, usually double; but this is a government regulation and is always understood. The posting stations are, for the most part, isolated and solitary farms. The farmers undertake to provide rooms and meals, as well as drivers, horses, and convey- ances. Stations are usually from seven to fif- teen miles apart, and farmers are required to convey the traveller only as far as the next station. Two kinds of wagons are used, the carriole and the stolkjaerre. The carriole resembles an American sulky, except that it is springless, and nearly the entire weight is forward of the axle. It is a two-wheeled gig with the body shaped like the bowl of a spoon. The seat, in front of the axletree, is fastened by cross- pieces to the long slender shafts that project behind and provide a place for light luggage and a seat for the driver. The carriole is for one passenger. It is falling into disuse, and its place is being taken by the stolkjaerre, a two-wheeled cart that will carry two pas- sengers. It also has long shafts which extend Highways, Railways, Waterways 153 under the axletree to make a support for the luggage and a seat for the driver. The pas- senger's seat is in front, perched on two wooden bars stretched obliquely upwards and backwards from the front of the vehicle. The drivers, usually males although sometimes girls, vary in age from six to sixty years. The Norwegian horses are stout, stubby, and spirited little beasts. They are cream- coloured, high crested, and have black manes and tails; the manes are cropped, except the forelocks, which are left to protect the eyes from the sun, and the tails are very full. Horses are valued in Norway by the size and fulness of the tails. They are remarkably hardy, abstemious, sure-footed, and docile. Their usual pace is from six to seven miles an hour, although they invariably gallop down hill at a break-neck speed. Nowhere outside of Mohammedan countries does one see horses so kindly treated as in Norway. The well-nigh invariable rule in Christian countries is great cruelty toward horses and all other dumb creatures; but the Norsemen have, in some way, imbibed the teachings of the Prophet of Mecca in their treatment of their horses. At posting stations and in stables one frequently 154 In Viking Land sees this motto: " Vser god mod hesten " 11 Be good to the horse." Norwegian horses are so trustworthy and intelligent that tour- ists, as well as peasants, soon get to look upon them in the light of companions. In spite of the enormous expense and diffi- culties in the way of road-building, Norway may be said to have an excellent system of state highways. The terraces of the mountain valleys along narrow river beds, where roads are generally obliged to wind, present great difficulties; and the steep slopes of the moun- tain plateaus, particularly those that go down the abrupt west slopes to the fjords, require engineering skill of the highest order. And yet I know of no other mountain roads quite equal in excellence to the three Norwegian roads from Stalheim to Gudvangen, from Lorn to Geiranger, and over the Fillefjeld to Laer- dalsoren. The Geiranger road makes a descent of 3,500 feet in less than ten miles. Many of the mountain roads in Norway lie so near the limit of perpetual snow that they are practi- cable for carriages not more than two months of the year; and at the highest point of the national highway from Rodal to Odde, over the Haukelf jeld, it was necessary to take the road Highways, Railways, Waterways 155 through a tunnel to avoid the eternal ice-field. The expense and energy necessary to keep the roads in repair and open during the long winter months are something enormous. For the most part, the roads are kept in repair by the property-owners along the route. Each farmer has a portion of road the length determined by the value of his farm which he is required to keep in repair; and the little wooden posts along the highway, surmounted by small gables to protect them from the weather, indicate the names of the farmers responsible for the care of the various sections. Similarly the farmers are required to keep the roads open during the winter months. This is done by means of huge triangular wooden ploughs. The fact that Norway, a poor and sparsely settled country, has spent more than seventeen million dollars on public highways during the past fifty years speaks volumes for the intelligence and progressive character of her people. Norway has only one mile of railway for every one hundred square miles of land; but the mountainous character of the country, the heavy snowfall during the long winters, and the thin, scattered population make railway 156 In Viking Land construction almost prohibitive. Nevertheless, the new kingdom has made a commendable be- ginning, and the state has plans for enormous extensions during the next twenty-five years. There are now nine railway lines in the coun- try, with a total mileage of one thousand five hundred and eighty-four, about half of which is broad gauge. The state railways have been constructed partly by subscriptions taken in the districts interested in the construction of new lines and partly at the expense of the na- tional government. The leading railway lines radiate from Christiania to Stockholm, Goteborg, Trond- hjem, Gudbransdal, Telemarken, and the Val- ders. The longest line three hundred and fifty miles is from Christiania to Trondhjem through Hamar. There is also a relatively long line one hundred and ninety miles from Christiania up the Gudbrandsdal by Lake Mjosen and through Lillehammer to Otta. Two years ago (1906) the Valders railway con- necting Christiania with Fagernses a dis- tance of one hundred and thirty-one miles - was opened. This line will connect with the railway that is being built from Bergen and the west coast. The western branch is already Highways, Railways, Waterways 157 completed from Bergen to Gulsvik, a distance of one hundred miles. One tenth of this line is through tunnels, and for sixty miles it is at an elevation of over 2,300 feet. There is a short line from Christiansand to Bygland forty-nine miles; from Stavanger to Flekke- fjord ninety-four miles; from Hell to Sun- nan eighty-five miles; and twenty-three miles of the Ofoten railway, connecting Nar- vik, near the North Cape, with Stockholm (the most northernly iron road in the world), passes through Norwegian territory. Norway spends about five million dollars a year on the exten- sion of railways. When it is recalled that two-thirds of the inhabitants of Norway live upon the coasts and fjords, the large part which water traffic plays in the economy of the country will be easily understood. The coast being well pro- tected by a chain of islands, the skjaergaard, both travel and commerce are carried on by means of small open boats. The fjord row- boats, as a rule, are light and pointed, with upright and high prow, and they carry a square sail. They are light to row and they go cap- itally before the wind. There is an extensive government posting system on the coasts, 158 In Viking Land fjords, and inland lakes, similar to that along the public highways already described. The tariff from, fast stations for a four-oared boat and sail with two rowers is about twelve cents a mile; eighteen cents for three rowers and a six-oared boat, and twenty-four cents a mile for a boat with eight oars and four rowers. The tariff is determined by the size of the boat and not by the number of passengers. The rowers are not infrequently girls and women. The large fjords and lakes have ample steamboat facilities, the coast service between Bergen and Trondhjem being especially good. The navigable channels of the fjords represent a coast line of twelve thousand miles, and they are so entirely separated from the sea by islands and reefs, and obstructed at their en- trances by old moraines, that the fresh water from the melting snows and rivers lies four or five feet deep on the surface. Small steam- ers ply on all the larger fjords on which the rates are moderate and the accommodations fair. On most of these boats a passenger pays full fare for himself and half fare for the other members of his family, including his wife. There is an excellent fjord service of steamer-yachts that makes the tour of the most Highways, Railways, Waterways 159 picturesque fjords during the short summer. It has two beautiful steamer yachts, " Haakon VII " and " Irma," which make the trip from Bergen to Trondhjem and back in about ten days, visiting the most interesting of the west- coast fjords. The service is excellent, and travellers, who do not object to being rounded up and shipped from place to place like so many western steers, will find the steamer- yacht service the most comfortable and expe- ditious. It was concerning this route that the English historian Froude wrote: " The scen- ery, though for ever changing, changes like the pattern of a kaleidoscope, the same materials readjusted in varying combinations; the same rivers of sea water, the same mountain walls, the same ice and snow on the summits, the same never-ending pines and birches, with an emerald carpet between the stems where the universal whortleberry hides the stones under the most brilliant green." There are also two canals in Norway that are used for passenger traffic the Fredrik- shald canal, connecting the Femsjoen and Skulleriid lakes, and the Skien-Nordsjo-Ban- dak canal, connecting the Nordsjo lake with the Hitterdal and the Bandak lakes. Between 160 In Viking Land the Hitterdal and the Nordsjo lake there is a rise of fifty feet which is overcome by two locks at Skien and four at Loveid ; and between the Nordsjo and the Bandak lakes there is a rise of one hundred and eighty-seven feet, which is overcome by fourteen locks, five of which are around a waterfall the Vrangfos where the average rise for each lock is about thirteen feet. The postal, telegraph, and telephone sys- tems, all under government control, are both cheaper and more efficient than in the United States, where the two latter are private monop- olies. With the exception of Switzerland, Nor- way is more abundantly supplied with post- offices, in proportion to her size, than any other country in the international postal union. The length of her telegraph lines, in relation to the population of the country, is greater than in any other country in the world. With such splendid highways, railways, wa- terways, postal, telegraph, and telephone serv- ice, the tourist may well agree with Professor Hjalmar H. Boyesen, that the Norsemen are a wonderful people and Gamle Norge a beau- tiful country. " The ocean roars along its rock-bound coast," he writes rhapsodically, STEAMER - YACHT, " HAAKON VII." LOCK IN THE SKEIN - NORDSJO - BANDAK CANAL. Highways, Railways, Waterways 161 " and during the long dark winter the storms howl and rage, and hurl the waves in white showers of spray against the sky. Great swarms of sea-birds drift like snow over the waters, and circle screaming round the lonely cliffs. The aurora borealis flashes like a huge shining fan over the northern heavens, and the stars glitter with a keen frosty splendour. But in the summer all this is changed, sud- denly as by a miracle. Then the sun shines warmly, even within the polar circle, innu- merable wild flowers sprout forth, the swelling rivers dance singing to the sea, and the birches mingle their light green foliage with the darker needles of the pines. In the southern districts it is light throughout the night, even during the few hours when the sun dips beneath the horizon; the ocean spreads like a great bur- nished mirror under the cloudless sky, the fishes leap, and the gulls and eider-ducks rock tranquilly upon the waters. All along the coast there are excellent harbours, which are free of ice both winter and summer. A mul- titude of islands, some rocky and barren, oth- ers covered with a scant growth of grass and trees, afford hiding-places for ships and pas- turage for cattle. Moreover, long arms of the 162 In Viking Land ocean, the so-called fjords, penetrate far into the country, and being filled with water from the gulf stream, which strikes the western coast of Norway, tend greatly to modify the cli- mate." CHAPTER XI FAEM - LITE AND AGRICULTURE Small proportion of the land surface susceptible to cultiva- tion Farmers small proprietors Variety of agricultural products Haymaking Horses and cattle Buildings on a Norwegian farmstead The stabur The mountain saeter Dairying Simple food Varied industrial activi- ties of the farmers Norwegian names How emigration has influenced agriculture Attempts to improve agricul- tural conditions Land and cultivation loans Agricultural societies and education Increase of price in landed prop- erty The cotter system Entails and community prop- erty. WHEN it is recalled that sixty per cent, of the surface of Norway is occupied by bare mountains, twenty-one per cent, by woodlands, eight per cent, by grazing lands, four per cent, by lakes, and two per cent, by ice-fields, it will be seen that very little remains for meadows and cultivated fields. As a matter of fact only seven-tenths of one per cent., or one one-hun- dred and fortieth of the land surface of the country, is under cultivation. Yet agriculture employs more men and yields larger monetary returns than any other occupation in Norway. 163 164 In Viking Land The products of the farms equal the combined returns from shipping, lumber, and fisheries. Nine-tenths of the farms of Norway are owned by small proprietors; and, although the right to dispose of landed property is rel- atively free, the laws of the country favour the retention of the farms in the families pos- sessing them. An old allodial right makes it possible to redeem at an appraised value a farm that has been sold. This right is ac- quired after the property has belonged to the family for twenty years, but it is lost after the farm has been in possession of strangers for three years. The best farms are about the banks of lakes and in the narrow river valleys ; and although Norway has only seven hundred and forty square miles of land under cultiva- tion, there are numerous fertile meadows which are never plowed. In a country extending through thirteen de- grees of latitude one might naturally expect a wide range of agricultural products. In the southeastern part of Norway, most of the plants and orchard fruits of central Europe are found; whereas, in Finmark and the northern sections, it is impossible to grow even the most hardy plants. Oats, barley, and rye A FJORD FARM. Farm Life and Agriculture 165 are the chief cereals, but their production scarcely meets the needs of the country. Po- tatoes are the only root crops extensively culti- vated. While the summers are short, vege- tables and small fruit do excellently during the long sun-lit hours. Norwegians, however, do not seem habituated to a vegetable diet, and the cultivation of root plants seems very gen- erally neglected. Pears, cherries, apples, rasp- berries, gooseberries, and currants may be grown under favourable conditions; but they play a minor role in Norwegian horticulture. Haymaking is the serious business of the Norwegian farmer. Every blade of grass rep- resents money, and money is scarce in Nor- way; and where there is little to earn and many to keep, to borrow Charles Kingsley's expression, great skill and ingenuity are dis- played in the collection and the care of the hay. The women and girls take their place in the hay-fields with the men and boys in the mow- ing, raking, and drying of the hay. Hay-racks form a part of the agricultural equipment of the Norwegian farmer, and they are conspic- uous objects in the landscape. Stakes four or five feet high and two or three inches in diam- eter are stuck in the ground about four feet 166 In Viking Land apart. Horizontal poles a foot apart are fas- tened to the stakes with birch-withe bands, and upon these poles the hay is hung to be dried. The united powers of sun and wind dry the hay very rapidly ; and in a country where rain- fall is frequent, it is necessary not only to make hay but to dry it while the sun shines. This swift drying process gives the hay a fresh look and a delicious odour; and I was told that it was more nutritious and wholesome than the yellow withered stuff called hay in the United States. Some of the hay is collected along the narrow edges of the fjords, but much of it comes from the steep uplands, and is brought to the valley by means of a thick galvanized wire stretched from the cliff to the bottom of the valley, where it is fastened to the end of a windlass. A bale of hay is attached to the wire at the top of the mountain, the wire is tightened by the windlass, and the hay de- scends rapidly to the valley. The cow is a staple of wealth to the people of Scandinavia. The Norwegian cow is dimin- utive in size, dun-coloured, docile in habits, and an excellent milk producer. I was told that one of these delicate-looking cows, if well fed, would average from six hundred to nine HAYING IN THE FJORDS. DRYING HAY. Farm Life and Agriculture 167 hundred gallons of milk a year. The moun- tain saeters are the centres of the butter and cheese industry during the summer months. Norway is abundantly supplied with an ex- cellent breed of small but hardy horses. The cream-coloured fjord horses are only sixty inches high. They are active, hardy, and gen- tle ; and in the mountainous parts of the coun- try they are vastly more serviceable than mules would be. The Gudbransdalen breed, found chiefly in the mountain valleys, are larger than the fjord horses, and they are generally brown or black in colour. Good horses in Norway bring surprisingly high prices. Working horses cost from $200 to $350 and the best stallions bring as much as $2,500. A Norwegian farmstead as a rule includes a cluster of buildings (1) a dwelling-house, (2) an out-kitchen (ildhaus), (3) a storehouse (stabur), (4) a bath or smoke-house (badstue), (5) barns and sheds, and (6) a mountain dairy (saeter). The better farmhouses are wooden structures built on massive stone foundations, and those of the poorer farmers are log-framed structures roofed with birch bark and turf-sod. The interiors of most farmhouses are finished, not with plaster and wall-paper, but just with 168 In Viking Land good honest wood. There is generally one room of fair size that serves the manifold pur- pose of kitchen, dining-room, assembly hall, and sleeping chamber. Here also the indoor industries are carried on during the long win- ter months. The larger farmhouses have a small bed-chamber for the farmer and his wife, and sometimes there are sleeping apartments on the second floor for the children. An out-kitchen is usually built near the dwelling. Such domestic occupations as wash- ing, baking, and brewing are performed here; and here the fladbrod, the Norwegian staff of life, is manufactured. Fladbrod is made from the unfermented dough of barley and oatmeal ; it is rolled out on a large board to the thinness of a wafer and two or three feet in diameter; it is then baked on a large iron griddle which is kept hot by glowing embers beneath, after which it is stored away for use during the year. Near the dwelling is the stabur, or store- house, which is built on piles about four feet from the ground. It has special compartments for flour, dried and salted fish and meat, blan- kets, sheepskins, and such household appurte- nances as are not required during the summer A NORWEGIAN " MAUD MULLER." Farm Life and Agriculture 169 months. The year's supply of fladbrod is gen- erally ranged along the walls of the stabur in great piles. The bath-house, still found on some farms where it is more often used for smoking meat or storing grain, has fallen into disuse since the introduction of Christianity into Norway. During pagan days vapour baths were common in the country and freely used, but the Chris- tian priests and monks took up arms against the care of the body, which was flesh and rep- resented the devil; and they set themselves so strongly against the bathing habit that the badstue is no longer regarded as a necessary building of a Norwegian farmstead. There are also on the farms the necessary barns and sheds for the horses and the cattle with lofts for the hay. A saeter, or mountain dairy, is connected with most Norwegian farms. It is a small building on the mountains, where some mem- bers of the family, usually the girls, live dur- ing the summer months. Saeters are often from twenty to forty miles away, and they are reached only by tortuous and dangerous moun- tain paths. In the late spring the cattle are taken hither by young women and girls who 170 In Viking Land make butter and cheese, gather hay, knit stock- ings, and embroider linen during the two or three months they live here. The dwelling is usually a rude log hut with a single room, mud floor, an open fireplace without chimney, and a few pieces of rough extemporized furniture. Sheds and pens surround the hut, and there are patches of enclosed ground where hay is made and where the younger members of the flocks are protected. The cattle are called at night by a horn made of birch bark. When blown lustily it gives a clear note not unlike the cornet, and the cattle invariably respond to its sound. The saeter is of the utmost importance to the small farmer. The meagre pittance of ground which surrounds his homestead is insufficient to supply his simplest needs; but the saeter not only furnishes pasture for his cattle, but it often provides the winter's supply of hay. Tourists do not customarily envy Norse maid- ens their long summer's isolation; but Bjorn- son, one of the first Norwegian authors, writes of it : " The life up there in the vast solitude, with the snow-capped mountains in the dis- tance, often with a mountain lake close by, with the cow-bells, the baying of dogs, the sound of Farm Life and Agriculture 171 the mountain horns, and the hallooing of the girls life up there with its peaceful work and the solemn stillness of the evening after the work is done is the happiest a Norwe- gian peasant knows." The late King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden wrote concerning a visit which he paid to a saeter in the Sogne district : ' ' How strange the saeter life and dwellings appear. How poor at first sight and yet how hearty and unex- pectedly lavish is the hospitality which the sim- ple children of the mountains extend to the weary traveller. Milk, warm from the cows, fresh-churned butter, reindeer meat, and a cou- ple of delicious trout which we have just seen taken from the lake below, form a regal feast indeed; and spiced with the keen appetite which the air up here creates, the meal can only be equalled by the luxury of reposing on a soft couch of fresh fragrant hay." The food of the Norwegian farmers is sim- ple and monotonous. Fish salt, dried, and fresh plays a leading role in the diet; also the flesh of the reindeer. Vegetables, to except potatoes, there are none. There are ten kinds of cheese of all ages, colours, and apparent ingredients. One of the favourites is goat's 172 In Viking Land cheese made from whey which is boiled until all the water has been evaporated, when it be- comes dark brown in colour. A fermented cheese made from sour skim milk is also a favourite. Quantities of fladbrod are eaten, and in some sections porridge and milk. Demo- cratic notions everywhere prevail, and the help always eat with the family. Because of his isolation, the Norwegian farmer is usually jack-of -all-trades, black- smith, carpenter, tanner, and miller, in addition to being farmer. He grinds his grain between his own mill-stones at a little water-mill; and formerly he made most of the scant furniture and the household utensils. At an earlier period the Norwegian farmer possessed con- siderable skill in the use of wood, and his ac- complishments ranged from wooden spoons to timber houses. He was likewise singularly deft at carving, and both spoon and house were often highly ornamented. By means of the hand-loom which he built, his wife and daugh- ters wove homespun from flax and wool which clothed the family and furnished the bedding, table linen, etc. Places and people in Norway generally take the names of farms. Thus I found at Loen Farm Life and Agriculture 173 that all the people residing there were named Loen, although not necessarily related by blood ties. If a young man, say Hans Loen, ac- quires a farm at Aure by marriage, he is there- after known as Hans Aure. Father and son may have different family names if they hap- pened to be born in different places, as is some- times the case. The agricultural interests of Norway have suffered unmistakably by the enormous emi- gration to the United States. Two-thirds of the Norwegians of the world live in Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. Nearly every Norwegian farmstead has kinsmen in our country; and the strong and vigorous always emigrate, thus leaving the farms at home in charge of the old and the infirm. America has been greatly benefited by this almost incessant exodus; for the Norse peasants have without an exception made splendid citizens, the best, in fact, that have come to us from Europe. Commenting on the enormous emigration from the Norwegian farms, William Eleroy Curtis remarks: " Notwithstanding the large emigration of young people, for whom the Norwegian farms are too small, it is apparent that the development of Norway is continually 174 In Viking Land progressing along the highest lines, and that the tendency of the people is upward, socially and industrially, in culture and in wealth. The population of the kingdom not only holds its own, but shows a slight increase, which seems remarkable because of the continual drain of young, able-bodied men and women who have removed to our western states. In all public movements, in all social, commercial, and in- dustrial activities, in art, science, and litera- ture, in wealth and prosperity, Norway stands abreast of the most advanced nations of Eu- rope; but its progress is not won without greater effort than any other people put forth, and the application of thrift and industry else- where unknown, but which is required in a climate so bleak and inhospitable and by a soil so wild and rocky. None but a race like .the Norsemen could have kept a foothold here." Norwegian economists recognize the loss to the country through emigration, and in recent years the national parliament has attempted to improve the condition of the agricultural labourers. A fund of $135,000 has been set aside by the government for the purchase of land. Loans are granted to municipalities (1) for the purpose of buying large estates to be Farm Life and Agriculture 175 assigned to people without means at the pur- chase price, in plots of not more than twelve acres of tillable soil, and (2) for the purpose of being granted as loans on the security of parcels of the same size, which people without means may acquire as freehold property. The interest on these loans is from three to four per cent., and the time of payment is up to twenty-five years. There is also a cultivation fund of $270,000 from which loans are granted for the purpose of cultivating and draining the soil. The in- terest is two and one-half per cent, and the time of repayment is up to twenty years, in- cluding five years in which no instalments are required. Such loans are granted (1) on the security of mortgages and (2) on the guaran- tee of the municipality. Agriculture societies national and county receive government grants for the purpose of holding meetings and issuing documents that might be of service to the farmers. There is also a staff of surveyors paid by the state to assist in the public allotment of land and otherwise to render assistance to needy lot- owners. Considerable attention is also being given 176 In Viking Land to' the matter of agricultural education. Con- nected with the state agricultural college is an experimental farm, where not only farmers but also dairymen, gardeners, and foresters re- ceive practical instruction. While farm-lands in most of the countries of Europe are steadily decreasing in price, in Norway there has been marked increase even during times of agricultural depression. The return of many natives from the United States has doubtless been a factor in the increased valuation of farm-lands. Tandberg calls at- tention to the fact that the Norwegian farms being small, the fall in prices of landed prop- erty has chiefly affected the larger estates, and that in Norway more than in any other country in Europe farming is combined with other means of livelihood, such as forestry and fish- ing; and when times have been favourable for the latter, this has also benefited husbandry. Connected with the larger farms of Norway are cotters' places farm labourers who have leased a small part of the farm for a definite period (often during their natural lives). In some cases the cotter leases only a building- lot with a garden attached ; in other cases sev- eral acres of ground. The cotter is usually Farm Life and Agriculture 177 required to work on the farm of the owner at certain times of the year for a small wage reg- ulated by contract. There are something more than thirty thousand cotters in the country, but the number is steadily decreasing. The sys- tem, it is claimed, produces capable and reli- able workmen not only for the farms but also for the various trades. It is no longer permitted to establish entails which cannot be sold or mortgaged, and the national government in recent years has sought to further the partition and allotment of the common ownership of land. Pastures and other grazing lands are still often held by the community, and similarly mountain pastures. But the community farms, when the consent of all the part-owners and tenants has been secured, may now be partitioned by surveyors appointed by the public authorities. CHAPTER XH FORESTS, FISHERIES, AND COMMERCE Vast forest lands of Norway Conifers the most important trees Extensive use of birch for wood-pulp The lumber industries Value of timber products Importance of the fisheries Cod, herring, and mackerel Crew of a fishing smack Handicraft industries in Norway Manufactures Mineral products Importance of commerce Exports and imports Foreign trade relations. MORE than a fifth of the area of Norway is covered with forests. The chief woodlands are in the basins of the Trondhjem and the Chris- tiania fjords and on the eastern slopes of the Langfjeld. In Nordland, Tromso, and Fin- mark there are limited scattered forest areas, but the west coast south of Trondhjem is prac- tically devoid of forests, except on islands and promontories where protection is afforded ffom the sea-winds. Six per cent, of Finmark, the northernmost county, is covered by forests, and sixty-four per cent, of Akershus, an inland county north of Christiania. One-fourth of the districts of Norway have a surplus of forests, 178 Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 179 one-fourth have sufficient for their own use, and the balance are required to buy. Three-fourths of the forest area of the country are covered with conifers and one- fourth with foliage trees. The Scotch fir, the spruce, and the hardy birch, with a sprinkling of elm, ash, and oak, constitute the chief trees of the country. On the eastern slopes of the plateaus the fir and spruce forests are found up to an altitude of 2,500 feet above sea-level; from that elevation to 3,500 the birch, and above 3,500 shrubs and dwarf birch. North of the polar circle the birch is predominant and forms the great bulk of the forests. There are two kinds of birch the lowland, or white birch with its graceful, drooping branches, and the hardy mountain birch which is darker in colour and more stunted in form. The existence of the Norwegian forests is threatened by the fact that the spruce of that country contains a relatively small amount of resin and is in much demand in the manufac- ture of paper. But if the modern world de- mands newspapers as large as barn doors the forests of Norway will have to suffer. The bark of the spruce is used for tanning and that of the birch for roofing. The leaves of the lat- 180 In Viking Land ter also provide fodder for the cattle and the sheep. In the great timber district of the mountain ranges drained by the Glommen river, the trees are felled in winter and the logs are dragged to the tops of the steep mountain sides where they are slid down to the river or they are carted on sledges to the river's edge. During the early summer, after the ice has gone, and while the rivers are yet full of water, they are floated down the streams to the saw-mills. But, as the logs are constantly driven into corners by strong currents or are piled up against the piers of bridges, floaters are employed along the rivers to keep them free. Log-floating is both the most dangerous and the most un- healthful occupation in Norway. Men often fall into the streams; they are forced to sleep on the cold ground in uninhabited parts of the country; they frequently fall from the rolling logs into the whirling currents and are tossed against the sharp rocks ; and the marvel is not that the death rate among floaters is so high, but that any of them survive the perilous occu- pation. The value of the exports of forest products and timber industries reaches about eighteen Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 181 million dollars a year and the combined forest industries furnish employment to a large num- ber of labourers. The state forests occupy about 3,500 square miles, more than half being located in the northern provinces of Tromso and Finmark. The state also has nurseries at Vossevangen and Hamar and three forestry schools, by means of which widespread interest in tree-planting has been aroused. Destructive forest fires and the slaughter of the trees by the remarkable development of the wood-pulp industries have emphasized in recent times the need of larger forest reserves and closer gov- ernment supervision. Under the most favour- able conditions the pine requires from seventy- five to one hundred years to yield timber twenty-five feet in length and ten inches in diameter at the top. Spruce will reach the same size in seventy-five or eighty years. In the higher altitudes of the central part of the country the pine requires one hundred and fifty years and in the northern provinces two hundred years. The pine rarely exceeds one hundred feet in height and it decreases toward the coast and northwards. The fisheries of Norway are among the most important in the world, yielding the nation 182 In Viking Land more than seven million dollars a year and furnishing employment to eighty thousand men. The sea-fisheries play the chief part in this branch of industry. The long coast line and the great ocean depth near the coast com- bine to give the fisheries of Norway unusual advantages. Their abundance is also due to the presence of masses of glutinous matter, ap- parently living protoplasm, which furnishes nutriment for millions of animalcules which again become food for the herring and other fish. The fish are mainly of the round sort found in deep waters, the cod, herring, and mackerel being the most important. The cod yields the largest monetary returns. This fish migrates to the coast of Norway to spawn and in search of food. The best cod fish- eries are in Eomsdal, Nordland, and Tromso counties, the Lofoten islands in Tromso alone furnishing employment to more than four thou- sand men. The cod weighs from eight to twenty pounds and measures from five to six feet in length. Some are merely dried after having been cleaned. This is done by hanging them by the tail on wooden frames. The others are sent to the salting stations where they are salted and dried on the flat rocks. A fish weigh- A FISHING VILLAGE. DRYING CODFISH. Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 183 ing ten pounds will yield two pounds of salted cod, the loss being due to the removal of the head and entrails and the drying out of the water. There are numerous secondary products from the cod, the most valuable being the cod liver oil. The livers of the fish are exposed to a jet of superheated steam which destroys the liver cells and causes the small drops of oil to run together. The roe are salted and sent to France for bait in the sardine fisheries, and manure is made from the heads and entrails. The herring shoals are less certain than the cod. Unless it is an off year, however, they come to Norway in winter and again in the late summer. The first migration is for purposes of spawning, when they deposit their eggs among the islands of the western coast. They are cleaned as caught, placed in barrels between layers of salt, and sent to Trondhjem, Sta- vanger, and Bergen, from whence they are shipped to Germany, Russia, and Sweden. Considerable quantities of mackerel are found during the summer as far north as the Trondhjem fjord. The salmon fisheries, ex- tending from Bergen to Trondhjem, were for- merly important, but the best salmon streams 184 In Viking Land have been leased to Englishmen. Wherever the tourist finds a salmon stream he is rea- sonably certain to find one of John Bull's sub- jects. Norway has a large arctic fleet which operates from Greenland and Jan Mayen on the west to Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya on the east, engaged in the capture of whales, seals, and walrus sharks. The crew of a fishing boat consists of from four to six men, each with his share in the catch. The skipper, the most experienced sea- man of the party, steers the boat and superin- tends the fishing. The life is rough; the food is severely plain ; the discomforts are multitudi- nous, and the mortality, due to stormy weather and accidents, is something enormous; but the hope of great and immediate gain leads the Norsemen to forget hardships and take chances. The coasting smacks used for the transpor- tation of the fish are still built on the same lines as those used in the old viking days, and some of them bear striking resemblance to the recovered mediaeval boats now exhibited at Christiania and described elsewhere in this work. The Nordland boat, one of the best modern types, is from thirty to forty feet in length and from seven to ten feet in beam. It Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 185 is entirely open except for five or six feet of arched roof at one end which serves the pur- pose of a cabin. It draws little water, is ex- tremely graceful, and its great safety consists in its lightness. In the matter of the handicraft industries carried on in the homes, Norway has long taken high rank. As early as the ninth century her artisans were skilled in the manufacture of arms, farming implements, and boats, and her women in cloth-weaving and embroidery. Dur- ing recent times the ease and cheapness with which foreign products could be obtained caused a marked decline in home industries; but at the present moment a vigorous effort is being made to rehabilitate the domestic indus- tries of Gamle Norge. A national domestic in- dustry association, organized in 1891, has de- veloped considerable interest and skill in the manufacture of hand-carved articles, sheath- knives, skis, sledges, and woven and embroid- ered woollen and linen goods after the old Nor- wegian patterns. The manufacture of lumber and wooden ware is one of the leading industrial pursuits. With the exception of the two most northern coun- ties, practically every section of the country is 186 In Viking Land represented by saw-mills and planing-naills. Ship-building in recent times has attained con- siderable importance, and the manufacture of paper of the chemical wood-pulp variety has become one of the leading industries. There are a few cloth, rope, and jersey mills at Ber- gen and Christiania, but the textile industries of Norway are relatively unimportant. On the other hand, leather, India rubber, glass, metal and chemical industries have become important in late years. Norway is not rich in mineral products. The combined mining industries do not yield more than two million dollars a year and they fur- nish employment to less than four thousand men. The Kongsberg silver mines have been operated for more than three hundred years, but the recent fall in the price of silver has reduced the output. The copper mines at Korb's have been operated for two hundred and fifty years, and there are less important copper mines in Nordland, Telemarken, and the Har- danger. There are mines of iron ore at Aren- dal and elsewhere, but the rise in the cost of charcoal, due to the scarcity of wood, has greatly crippled the iron industry. There are important soapstone quarries in the Gudbrans- Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 187 dal and the Trondhjem basin; green coloured slate in the Valders and at Vossevangen; and granite, syenite, and porphyry in many parts of the country. Measured by population and national wealth, the commerce of Norway is relatively impor- tant, due in a large measure to her enormous merchant marine and the efficiency of her hardy seamen. Relatively to the population of the country, Norway has the largest merchant fleet in the world, and in the matter of steamships and sailing vessels she is surpassed by only three countries Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. Not only is her fleet large but her service is efficient. Norwegian seamen the world over are esteemed for ability and honesty, inspiring all commercial nations with confidence that goods carried in Norse bottoms will be carefully and conscientiously treated; and her seamen are everywhere sought to man foreign vessels. The imports of Norway are still much in ex- cess of the exports. Among imported articles of consumption, food and drink are of the greatest importance. Cereals represent about half the value of the food and drink articles imported. Of the cereal import, forty-nine per 188 In Viking Land cent, is for rye, twenty-three per cent, for bar- ley, two per cent, for wheat, eight per cent, for wheat flour, and seven per cent, for rye flour. Groceries come second in the food import ac- count, three-fourths of which are represented by coffee and sugar. There has been marked increase in the consumption of sugar since the reduction in the duty, and a commend- able decrease in the consumption of tobacco. Textile goods woollen and cotton goods and yarn occupy the third place in the import of articles of consumption, and household goods and furniture follow. Among imports for production may be mentioned coal, hides and skins, raw materials for textile industries, petroleum, steam-engines, locomotives, and metal goods. Timber and fishery products, as elsewhere noted, are the most important articles of ex- port, representing sixty-five per cent, of the export trade. In recent years much of the lumber exported has been as dressed deal and boards, and there has been enormous increase in the sale of wood-pulp products. Products from agriculture and cattle-raising have also advanced rapidly, due to the large export trade in butter, margarine, and condensed milk. A FJORD FLOUR MILL. Forests, Fisheries, and Commerce 189 Among other important items of export may be named packing-paper, ships, dressed stone, metals and ores, and textile manufactures. Great Britain and Germany get the lion's share of Norway's commerce. Sweden, Russia, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Belgium follow. The United States does not have important trade relations directly with Norway, although there has been marked increase in the importa- tion of wheat and flour during recent years. The three most important commercial cities Christiania, Bergen, and Trondhjem have sixty-two per cent, of the foreign commerce of the country. Stavanger, Christiansund, Fred- rikstad, Drammen, Aalesund, Porsgrund, and Skien get the balance. Bergen has the largest merchant fleet. A fourth of the trade of Nor- wegian ships is with Great Britain, and some- thing more than a fifth with the Americas. A trifle more than five per cent, of the population make their living by trade. CHAPTER XIII FJOKDS OF THE WEST COAST Character of Norwegian fjords and their branches Their individuality An American traveller's description The Hardanger f jord and Odde Native costumes Waterfalls of the Hardanger The Sogne and the Naero fjords The Nord fjord and its near-by glacial lakes The Geiranger fjord and the " Seven Sisters " Hellesylt and the Norangs- dal Marok Molde and the Romsdal The fjords north of the Trondhjem basin. TEN or a dozen great arms of the sea, from fifty to one hundred miles in length and from a few yards to several miles in width, penetrate into the heart of the Scandinavian peninsula. These deep drowned valleys, with sheer preci- pices often more than two thousand feet high, are the fjords of Norway, more numerous and picturesque in this country than in any other part of the world. Branch fjords strike out right and left from the main ones, much as the fingers radiate from the hand. The fjords are of extraordinary depth, and they are generally deepest when farthest from the sea. Steep mountain walls rise from either side of their 190 NATIONAL, COSTUME AND INDUSTRY. Fjords of the West Coast 191 banks; the lower edges are fringed with pine, birch, and alder; the summits are often covered with perpetual snow, and the towering moun- tains in the foreground are reflected sharp and clear in the fjord's depths. Waterfalls burst from the ice-fields above and beyond the cliffs ; and, seen from the fjords below, they look like bands of silver. When the clouds hang low, and the perpendicular cliffs are only partially disclosed, the waterfalls seem to drop from the sky. These deep water ravines have marked indi- viduality, in spite of their common causal ori- gin the lateral pressure of great masses of inland ice during the glacial periods. The bot- toms of the fjords are U-shaped, the walls be- low the water line converging, although they often have depths from 2,500 to 4,000 feet. There is usually a small fertile valley watered by a glacial stream at the head of the fjord; and, on its well-nigh perpendicular sides, are many diminutive farmsteads placed like eagle's nests on its cliffs and in its crevices. Since the discovery of the fjords of Norway by the tourist agencies, they have been an- nually visited by thousands of American and European travellers, but it is keenly to be re- 192 In Viking Land gretted that these vulgar tourists, as Mr. Bus- kin once characterized them, have been per- mitted to deface these splendid mountain walls with the paint-pot. The greedy advertiser has not yet invaded these haunts; but the silly tourists have left behind the names of their yachts and steamers and the dates of their visits in bold and ugly inscriptions, which are veritable eye-sores. It is clearly to be hoped that the Norwegian government, or some other properly constituted authority, will put a stop to this silly and vulgar practice. From Bayard Taylor down to the poetaster of the past season the rhapsodists have painted so often and so fully the beauty of the fjords that one who attempts to describe them anew finds his sketch necessarily repetitious. The pen-picture by Miss Hervey, an American trav- eller, does not seem to the present writer over- done: " Grand old hills rise on either side of the opaline fjord, their tops capped with fields of eternal snow, while at their feet nestle little hamlets where red-tiled roofs stand out sharply against a background of sombre firs. Mountain streams galore; some like beams of sunlight sparkle down toward the glittering fjord ; some like ravelled clouds, seem only an extension of Fjords of the West Coast 193 the mighty glaciers far up in the sky; and some, like mad rivers jumping and roaring, plunge down steep, serrated precipices, their devious paths being marked by lines of vivid verdure. ' ' The Hardanger fjord is the most southernly and the finest of the west coast fjords. It is approached by the steamer yachts from Ber- gen through the Bjorne fjord, thence in and out winding bays and round high promontories, and past numerous islands to the Mauranger fjord, with its wealth of peaks, snow-fields, glaciers and waterfalls. The steamer yacht seems to steer straight for the towering hills, when lo, without an apparent change of course, you enter the Sor fjord, the southern and most beautiful arm of the inner Hardanger. The 1 * wondrous beautiful Hardanger " " det underdejlige Hardanger " as Wergeland de- scribed it, while less large than the Sogne and some of the more northernly fjords, is un- doubtedly the most lovely of them all. Its foaming fosses, glistening glaciers, and ice- fields, verdant farmsteads, and picturesquely attired natives make a picture that is not soon forgotten. At the head of the fjord is the quaint village 194 In Viking Land of Odde, with its square log houses of primitive form with weather boards on the outside and roofs of birch bark and turf, upon which masses of wild flowers and shrubs find root and flourish. Some of the houses are painted red, white and yellow, in accordance with the taste of the owner, thus adding colour to an already highly coloured landscape. One sees more peasant costumes in the Hardanger than else- where in the country. The dress of the Har- danger women is likewise radiant with colour. The young women wear bright red or green bodices, very much cut away behind at the arms, leaving only a narrow strip of material between the shoulders; the breast-plate of the bodice is heavily beaded; the sleeves are of white linen or cotton ; the skirt is of plain blue or black, bordered with bright velvet; and a belt of beads, with a clasp of old silver filigree work, is worn at the waist. The hair of the girls is worn down the back in two long braids, but the matrons wear winged head-dresses of cambric rolled over a wooden frame and fas- tened closely about the head. It flares broadly at the sides and hangs down the back in a long point. Some of the finest waterfalls in Norway are Fjords of the West Coast 195 in the vicinity of Odde. Up the ravine which is traversed by the Telemarken road is the Lotefos and the Skarsfos which unite to form the Espelandsfos, probably the most beautiful mountain waterfall in the world; and in the valley of Skjaegge is the superb SkaejaBggedals- fos, a waterfall five hundred and fifty feet high. Near the Eid fjord, another finger of the Har- danger, is the roaring Voringsfos, which plunges in a single leap five hundred and twenty feet, into a narrow basin enclosed on three sides by perpendicular walls. Besides the single leap, there is a series of cascades, which makes the sum total fall 2,225 feet. But its beauty lies quite as much in the dense col- umn of its spray as in its height. The Folge- fond ice-field, with its numerous glacier-off- shoots, also borders the Hardanger. Besides the Sor and Eid fingers of the Hardanger, the two largest, there are three small fingers, and upon one of these the Graven fjord is situ- ated the unassuming but busy little town of Eide, which, like Odde, has a background of superb scenery. The Sogne fjord is the largest in the world. Its length is one hundred and thirty-six miles and its depth at places more than four thou- 196 In Viking Land sand feet. It has more than a dozen branches ; but, to except the Nsero, they do not compare in scenic interest with the fingers of some of the smaller fjords. At its entrance the Sogne is wide and without character, but the channel gradually narrows and the scenery grows wilder. The rugged mountains enclosing it are almost entirely destitute of vegetation, due in part to the fact that the cliffs are composed of crumbling rocks which are constantly loosen- ing. This prevents vegetation from getting a start. There are a few farmsteads on the nar- row strips of the barren shores, but they are protected by overhanging rocks. A few stunted and scraggy firs bury their gnarled roots deep into the fissures of the rent mountains, but for the most part the Sogne is one grand sterile wilderness. Even the scanty population of this somber fjord have worn faces and haggard looks. Yet it was from the Sogne that most of the Norsemen came during the viking age, and the Sogne during the period covered by the sagas 800 to 1200 A. D. was the seat of the most powerful Norse families. If the Sogne seems darkened by nature's frown, surely the Naero, one of her branches, has been blessed with her smile; for the Naero Fjords of the West Coast 197 is a veritable gem. It is wild and desolate and no farmsteads fringe its shores, for the very good reason that its walls, for thousands of feet above and below the water-line, are verti- cal. The bold outlines of the cliffs as they cast their shadows on the unruffled surface of the Naero, the foaming fosses that tumble down from the tiers of empurpled mountains, and the wonderful shadows that bathe the cliffs in pur- ple, gray, and brown combine to make this little fjord one of abiding interest. At Styve the channel of the Naero contracts to a defile two hundred yards broad. From this point to Gudvangen it is completely frozen over in win- ter and serves as a highway for sledge traffic. The Nsero is overlooked by the massive peaks of Steganasse which are snow-clad throughout the year; and at its head is the wildest moun- tain valley in Norway the Naerb'dal. The Nord fjord, to the north of the Sogne, is less than half its length, but it has as many branches; and to except the Naero, the scenery is grander and more picturesque. The entrance is guarded by a maze of islets; there are vast ranges of snow-capped mountains in the back- ground, and in the foreground are wooded hills dotted with cultivated fields. The farmsteads 198 In Viking Land in the Nord fjord have an air of prosperity that recalls the Hardanger ; and the waters of the fjord reflect the elusive tints of the farms and foliage glittering blues where the waters are deep and translucent, yellows and greens where they are shallow. Costumes, like the land- scapes, are varied in colour and individual in form. The women wear close-fitting red or green bodices ; and the men wear knee-breeches, white stockings, red coats with high collars, and tall stiff felt hats. There are numberless small glacial lakes in the hollow of the hills back of the fjord, three of the most beautiful being Stryns vand, Loen vand, and Olden vand. Loen vand is dominated by majestic mountains which rise all about its shores, and it is fed by the Kjendalsbrae, a gla- cier that connects with the Jostedalsbrae, the largest glacier in Europe, with an ice-field cov- ering three hundred and fifty square miles. The Stryndal and the Videdal radiate from Visnaes and the Loendal from Loen. The Loendal, with its wealth of shrubs, trees, and green meadows, is dominated by the lofty Skaala mountain, 6,356 feet above sea-level; and it contains numerous waterfalls, which, seen at a distance above a screen of firs, ap- THE SEVEN SISTERS. Fjords of the West Coast 199 pear like folds of linen on a bleaching ground. In the matter of picturesque cliffs and numerous waterfalls the Nord fjord is sur- passed by the Geiranger. A. Heaton Cooper, an English artist, says of it : ' ' We have here a blending of the Alpine splendour of Nordland with the wildness of Jotunheim, the beauty of Hardanger and the grandeur of the Sogne. Whether we approach this fjord from the land side and drive down the splendidly engineered road in zigzag windings to the village of Marok, or sail in from the main Stor fjord, we obtain an equally vivid impression of Geiranger 's beauty and grandeur." The Geiranger fjord is about eleven miles long and from two hundred to four hundred yards wide. Its perpendicular walls rise to heights ranging from three thousand to five thousand feet. Over these steep cliffs plunge many waterfalls, and when the tops are covered with clouds they seem to fall direct from the sky. The series of waterfalls known as the " Seven Sisters " is probably the most beauti- ful in the fjord. Seven silken streaks of white fall from the overhanging cliffs to the fjord below. Just beyond the " Seven Sisters " is the Gausdalsfos which, half way down its fall, 200 In Viking Land is broken in two, thus forming a double leap into the fjord; and opposite are some curious overhanging cliffs whose profiles suggest hu- man faces. Brude Slur, or bridal veil, near the " Seven Sisters," " descends as a veil from the sky line of the high cliff and spreads its streamers over the face of the mountain wall." Perched on a precipitous cliff on the opposite side of the fjord is the Skaggeflaa farmstead which is reached by a winding trail that is al- most vertical. One point in the trail is blocked by an overhanging rock and has to be scaled by a ladder. The story goes that some years ago the occupant of this eagle-nest farmstead, having imbibed the anti-taxation sentiments of Thoreau, refused to pay his share of the local levy. He made it convenient to appear at the fjord's edge at times when the tax-gatherer was not within easy distance. But one day when the old man was returning to his eyrie, he discovered that he was being pursued by the deputy sheriff; and, increasing his steps, he quickly scaled the rock and pulled the ladder after him, leaving the irate representative of the law to ponder over the pros and cons of taxation. Hellesylt is a beautiful village on the Gei- THE NORANGSDAL. Fjords of the West Coast 201 ranger fjord at the foot of a mountain, steep and rugged, and completely surrounded by water. There is no apparent outlet; and, but for knowledge to the contrary, one might well suppose the village to be located on a mountain lake. There are numerous tiny farms on the steep mountain sides, but the farmers have to go barefooted or wear soft soled-shoes to ac- commodate their feet to the inequalities of the soil; and children and animals have to be tethered to the trees and rocks to prevent them from falling over. When death comes during the winter months the bodies have to be kept until spring. The Norangsdal, which connects Hellesylt with Oie, on the Norangs fjord, is probably the wildest and grandest small moun- tain valley in Norway. It contains a half dozen small glacial lakes, is fringed with mountain saeters, and the bottom of the valley is covered with avalanche snow throughout the summer. Oie, at the western terminus of the Norangsdal, is dominated by the Slogen and a number of other robust mountain peaks. Marok is at the head of the Geiranger fjord and the western terminus of one of the cross- country mountain routes through the Gud- bransdal and Aalsad over the Grotlid road, 202 In Viking Land which is one of the finest bits of highway engi- neering in Europe. The road descends in zig- zag fashion over wild torrents and splendid waterfalls and cascades, and makes a drop of more than three thousand feet in ten miles. The environs of Marok, and the little valleys which lead into the Geiranger fjord, are highly cultivated, in spite of the paucity of land avail- able for agricultural purposes. Little patches of ground between the rocks are mown with small scythes used with one hand. Cattle breeding is also an important industry in the Geiranger. In the Vesteraasdal, a valley branching to the north from the Geiranger basin, is the magnificent waterfall, the Stors- saeterfos. The Molde fjord to the north is larger but less picturesque than the Geiranger or the Nord. At its entrance is the pleasantly situ- ated town of Molde with its superb background of forest-clad hills and its foreground of cherry, horse-chestnut, lime, and ash trees, and its wealth of roses, honeysuckles, and other cultivated plants. In spite of the fact that Molde is in the latitude of the northern limits of the frozen tundra plains of the continent of North America, its climate is mild and its vege- Fjords of the West Coast 203 tation surprisingly luxuriant. The church at Molde contains Axel Ender's well-known paint- ing representing the women at the sepulchre of Christ. The beautiful Romsdal terminates at Veblungsnaes on the Eomsdals fjord, one of the branches of the Molde. Beyond Molde are the Trondhjem, Vest, Trold, Porsanger, and Veranger fjords. Of the Vest fjord Bjornson writes : ' ' When you at last enter the Vest fjord, with the lofty mountains of Lofoten islands rising out of the sea on one side and the mighty mountain ranges of the mainland on the other, you feel as if you were sailing right into the grandest fairy tales of the people, or into the myths about the eternal fight between the Ases and the Jotuns, the Vanirs and the Gnomes, es- pecially when the glow of the midnight sun suffuses with infinite splendour those parts of the mountains upon which it rests, and leaves the other parts in an inexpressible chill.'* The Trold fjord is enclosed by perpendicular rocks which again enclose snow-filled gorges ; and the snowy Troldtinder, a group of peaks covered with eternal snow, overlooks the fjord. On one side of the Troldtinder is the Troldvand, 204 In Viking Land a mountain lake eight hundred feet above sea- level and frozen over throughout the year. The mountains rise vertically from the lake's banks to the height of 3,200 feet. LOEN ON THE NORD FJORD. CHAPTER XIV FJELDS AND MOUNTAIN VALLEYS The southern plateau and its mountains and mountain val- leys The Saetersdal Telemarken and its picturesque costumes Bergen to Vossevangen The Finneloft Over Stalheim The Naerodal Laerdalsoren The Valders route Husum and the old timber church at Borgund The descent from Nystuen to Skogstad Fagernaes and Lake Spirillen The mountain peaks and waterfalls of the Romsdal The Gudbransdal. IN a preceding chapter on the geography of Scandinavia attention was called to the fact that Norway was a country of mountains and plateaus, with short abrupt slopes to the fjords on the west, and long gradual slopes to the woodlands and farmlands on the east. The Doverfjeld and the Langfjeld form the basis of the great plateaus of central and southern Nor- way. Many ranges, however, radiate from the Langfjeld. The summits of the plateaus and ridges are covered with snow throughout the year; but between the transverse ridges are narrow valleys that are both fertile and pic- turesque. Telemarken, Numedal, Hallingdal, 205 206 In Viking Land the Valders, and Gudbransdal are on the east- ern slope of the primary highland, the Eoms- dal on the west, and Saetersdal on the south. There are small strips of fertile land at the bottoms of the valleys, and occasional patches on the sides of the mountains where the soil has settled in the ledges. These mountain val- leys preserve the customs, dress, and habits of the Norse people of by-gone generations. The most southernly of the mountain valleys of Norway is the Saetersdal, drained by the Otteraa river. It extends from Bredvik to Christiansand, a distance of one hundred and forty-three miles. Its scenery is not only beau- tiful, but its inhabitants, tall and strongly built people, continue to wear the picturesque cos- tume of Gramle Norge. The curious dress of the Saetersdal women, which comes close up under the arm pits, had its origin in a monkish fanaticism of the middle ages, which did not permit the female to display her form. There is a narrow gauge railway up the valley as far as the Byglands fjord really a mountain lake rather than a fjord and from thence to Langeid the tourist is transported for a dis- tance of twenty-two miles by a lake steamer. The balance of the distance must be covered Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 207 with a carriole or a stolkjaerre. From Flate- land in the upper Ssetersdal the traveller can cross the mountain pass to Dalen and join the Telemarken route from Skien to Odde, or take the wild but fatiguing mountain road over the snow-fields from Bredvik to the Suldalsvand. The Telemarken route from Skien to the Hardanger fjord, over the Haukelif jeld, shares with the Valders the primacy in the matter of the scenic interest among the cross-country mountain routes of Norway. The Skien- Nordsjo-Bandak canal, in the valley, is one of many evidences of the ingenuity and skill of Norwegian engineers. By the aid of seventy locks there is a continuous waterway from the sea at Skien to the heart of the mountains at Dalen. Frequent waterfalls have made it nec- essary to hew the canal from solid rocks. At the Vrangfos, where the cascade is seventy- five feet high, six locks were required to over- come the grade. The road over the Haukeli- fjeld, at an elevation of 3,085 feet, to Kodal, and thence across the Seljestad ravine and down to Odde, is another evidence of the tri- umph of engineering science in Norway. In Telemarken, as in the Hardanger, the peo- ple continue to wear the picturesque national 208 In Viking Land dress. The men wear a short military-cut jacket ornamented with silver lace and buttons, dark-coloured breeches seamed with red, red caps, and woollen stockings, the tops of which are brilliantly embroidered. The broad shoul- ders and massive frames of the Telemarken women suggest their kinship with the Amazons of olden times. They wear dark skirts, the hems gaily trimmed with red or yellow worsted lace, and the skirts reach only to the knees, dis- playing to full advantage their ponderous pedal extremities ; their shoes have pointed and turned up toes, and the head-dress is a coloured handkerchief, the ends of which hang down the back. Both men and women wear large brooches and silver shoe-buckles. The route from Bergen to Christiania, through the Valders or the Hallingdal, com- bines rail, steamer, and carriage travel, and offers a larger combination of scenic and hu- man interest than any of the other trans-Scan- dinavian routes. The sixty-seven miles between Bergen and Vossevangen is covered by the new railway which is eventually to connect the cap- ital with the metropolis of the west coast. At many points the road is cut from the solid Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 209 rock, and one-tenth of the entire distance is occupied with tunnels. In any country but Norway Vossevangen would be considered a beautiful town ; but here, where nature has been so lavish in her favours, it takes an unusual combination of natural forms and forces to elicit the passing interest of the traveller. An indifferent mountain lake, an agreeable climate, some fertile farms, one of the best hostelries in Norway Fleischer's Hotel and an exceptionally well-preserved timber farmhouse dating from the thirteenth century constitute the chief assets of Voss. The timber house, the Finneloft, a two-storied building in the shape of a bloch-house, is one of the most interesting specimens of mediaeval domestic architecture in Norway. There is no inside staircase ; but as in all ancient Norse farmhouses, the approach to the upper part is from without. The highway from Vossevangen to Gudvan- gen is along the Voss river which rushes through deep clefts in the rocks and forms many thundering cascades. Beyond Tvinde the gorge is so narrow and its walls so vertical that the road is hewn from the solid rocks, while beneath the highway roars the savage 210 In Viking Land river. There is an ascent of more than a thou- sand feet in the drive from Voss to the summit at Stalheim, which is 1,120 feet above the level of the sea. The Stalheims-Klev is a huge rock eight hundred feet high which forms the head of the picturesque Naerodal. The view from Stalheim is probably the finest in Norway; and, if its hotel were as comfortable and as well managed as most of the other mountain inns, it would be an ideal spot for a summer's out- ing. To the right of Stalheim is the Kaldaf jeld (4,265 feet), a huge mass of light gray syenite with its summit snow-capped; to the left the Jordalsnut (3,620 feet), a conical peak barren of verdure with its steep sides deeply furrowed by the action of avalanches ; in the background three splendid waterfalls the Stalheimsfos, the Sivlefos, and the Kilefos; and in the deep canon below the sombre but superb Naerodal. In descending from Stalheim to Gudvangen the road winds down the precipitous rock in corkscrew fashion, backwards and forwards sixteen times, the last bend at the foot being almost directly under the first at the summit. Here begins the tiny valley that leads into the Naero fjord. The Naerodal is a truly wonderful gorge, with its sides more than five thousand Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 211 feet high, the summits covered with eternal snows, and the walls bleached and seared by time and overhung by a hundred delicate water- falls. The sublimity of the Nserodal is simply overpowering. Mrs. Olivia M. Stone, an Eng- lish woman, has well expressed the mental re- actions of the writer. ' ' One has a longing de- sire to get above those awful cliffs to go anywhere, do anything, only to escape from the oppression that seems to be crushing down one's mental and physical powers. It would be possible to be goaded to madness by these stern, silent, unscalable walls, whose only answer to a wild cry for freedom, wrung from despairing lips, would be the pitiless, mock- ing echo." The Naerodal is precisely like the fjords in structure, and it may have been filled with water at one time. It is seven miles long and a few hundred yards wide and is dotted with farmsteads of the pigmy sort. At its fjord-end is Gndvangen, so shut in by huge mountains that it gets the direct rays of the sun for only a third of the year. During the winter the sun lights up the tops of the mountains at midday, but its rays da not strike directly the bottom of the valley. The over- water journey between 212 In Viking Land Gudvangen and Laerdalsoren is made by means of small fjord steamers. Laerdalsoren, the western terminus of the route from Christiania through the Valders, lies at the extreme end of a branch of the Sogne fjord. It is so entirely enclosed by bare rocky mountains that the direct rays of the sun do not reach the village more than five out of the twelve months of the year. It has one long winding street of timber houses, with outside wooden staircases, and roofs of birch bark and turf which are luxuriant with vegetation. It is a drive of one hundred and fifty miles from Laerdalsoren to Sorum over the Fillef jeld. Leaving Laerdal the highway follows a broad flat valley, occupied by impoverished farm- steads, as far as Blaaflaten. Here it begins to narrow ; and at Husum, it enters a wild ravine, where the road is entirely hewn from the cliffs, at the base of which the Laera river rushes through a narrow cascaded channel. Beyond Husum is the Borgund church, dat- ing from the twelfth century and one of the choice national monuments of Norway. It is unexpectedly small, entirely built of wood, and the roof is constructed in six tiers, each finished off with a cross or a rudely carved dragon's THE SIVLEFOS IN THE N^ERODAL. Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 213 head. The building is surrounded on the out- side by a roofed veranda which extends three feet beyond the actual walls of the church, thus increasing its apparent size. The complete length of the church, from the west door to the eastern extremity of the chancel, is only thirty- nine feet. The nave is twenty-three feet long and nearly twenty feet wide. It is separated from the side aisles by twelve large pillars, each formed from a single pine tree. The body of the church inside the pillars measures about eleven by sixteen feet, thus furnishing space for not more than forty worshippers at any one time. As glass was unknown in Norway in the twelfth century, the light is admitted by small openings in the walls, but the church is very dark when the doors are closed. A little carving, of the Celtic tracery sort, is found about the doors; also some runic inscriptions, which give a clue to the date of its construc- tion. The belfry, a huge wedge-shaped struc- ture of more recent date, stands near the church. There is a relatively broad intervale at Bor- gund ; but beyond Efeg the valley narrows and the scenery becomes grander, and higher up in the mountains habitations, to except a few scat- 214 In Viking Land tered saeters, cease to exist. Maristuen, founded as an ecclesiastical hospice in the year 1300, is on a bare and bleak moorland, almost desti- tute of trees and other vegetation, at an eleva- tion of 2,635 feet ; and the highest elevation on the Valders route is reached at Nystuen, 3,295 feet above the level of the sea. Nystuen is on the banks of a glacial lake and surrounded by extensive snow-fields. This is a favourite pas- ture region for the Lapps; and, during the short summer, several thousand reindeer are pastured in this vicinity. The descent from Nystuen to Skogstad amounts to almost a plunge, although the pub- lic highway has been admirably adapted to the freaks of the crazy Baegna river which it fol- lows. The higher limit of cone-bearing trees is reached at Skogstad, and from this point x to Fagernaes the route leads through magnificent pine forests. Fagernaes is charmingly located in the heart of dense pine-covered mountains; it has lovely green meadows filled with wild flowers ; there are numerous lakelets whose sur- faces are covered with pond lilies; it has an admirably kept hotel; but the mosquitos of Fagernaes simply baffle description. The Val- ders railway is now completed as far as Fager- Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 215 naes, but most tourists will prefer to continue the overland highway as far as Sorum at the head of Lake Spirillen. Leaving Fagernses the highway for twelve miles follows the shores of the beautiful Strande fjord, really a lake formed by the widening and deepening of the Baegna river. From Freydenlund to Fjeldheim the road is again hewn from the rocky mountainside and it affords some magnificent views of the snow- fields of Jotunheim, but the valley widens again as Sorum is approached. From Sorum the tourist goes by steamer through the navi- gable channel of the Baegna river and Lake Spirillen, a beautiful little sheet of water fif- teen miles long and bordered with prosperous little farms and pine-clad mountains. From Heen, at the foot of the lake, to Christiania, the journey is made by railway. The cross-country trip by the Valders can be made with comfort in a week, and it gives the tourist an excellent idea of the mountain- ous parts of Norway and the isolated life of the people. Many quaint old customs and cos- tumes persist in the Valders. The dress of the men and boys is even more quaint than in other parts of the country. They wear short Eton 216 In Viking Land jackets made of black or dark cloth; trousers that come to the arm-pits but scarcely reach to the ankles ; high vests that button quite to the throat, and mufflers that include all the pri- mary and most of the secondary and tertiary colours. One who has crossed Norway by the Valders route may well agree with Mrs. Olivia M. Stone that it is one continuous gallery of pictures: " Sometimes one looks at it smiling, and again frowning; sometimes wild, weird and terrible, and again one sees a paradise of rest. But in none of its phases is there anything to jar everything seems in keeping no inharmoni- ous civilization suddenly transports one to every-day wear and tear. The illusion that the world is jogging that there is plenty of time for everything, that human nature is not so bad as people make out, and that everybody is not breathless is kept up from the time one sets foot on Norway until one reluctantly bids it farewell." North of the Valders is the Romsdal, a much shorter but a more beautiful mountain valley. It is drained by the Eauma river, which takes its rise in the Lesjeskogen lake high up in the mountains; and from Stufloten (2,050 feet LAKE SPIRILLEN. THE ROMSDAL. Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 217 above the sea) to Veblungsnaes, where it emp- ties into the fjord, a distance of thirty-seven miles, it makes an abrupt descent between pre- cipitous mountain walls. In its upper course are numerous deep cauldrons which have been formed by the erosive action of stones whirled round by eddies in the bed of the river. The Romsdal is abundantly punctuated with beautiful waterfalls. The Slettafos is in its upper course ; here the rocks form a deep and narrow gorge about fifty feet wide and eight hundred feet long. Down this channel, with compressed fury, rushes the Eauma with a roar that is deafening, suggesting the words of Edmund Burke that ' * the noise of vast cata- racts awake a great and awful sensation in the mind, though we can observe no nicety or arti- fice in those sorts of music." Further down the valley, near Ormeim, is the Vaermofos, an- other fine waterfall, formed by a tributary river that sweeps diagonally down cliffs more than a thousand feet high to join the Rauma. The most beautiful part of the Romsdal, however, is the ten miles from Horgheim to Veblungsnaes. The gorge narrows and the river is flanked on both sides by vertical moun- tain ridges and peaks. On the east side of the 218 In Viking Land valley rise the picturesque Vengetinder (5,960 feet) ; and, dominating the whole valley, the huge dome of the Bomsdalshorn (5,100 feet). These mountains are the steepest in Europe ; and, although their ascent is possible, it is dan- gerous. On the west side of the valley rise the Troldtinder or witch-pinnacles (6,010 feet) ; and further down the valley, the King, the Sisters, the Bishop, and other splendid peaks. As it nears the mouth of the fjord, the Roms- dal widens a bit to make room for snug little farms and forest parks of alder, ash, and birch. An experienced English traveller, Mr. Herbert Maxwell, says of this valley: " If the Boms- dal has any European rival in stupendous reck- less grandeur, such is not known to me. Prob- ably nowhere else, except in the Yosemite Val- ley or in the gorges of the Indus above Khalsi in Ladak, shall you find such opposing preci- pices of such height so near together. ' ' The route from the Eomsdal to Christiania is continued on the eastern side of the plateau through the fertile and prosperous Gudbrans- dal. The narrow strips of land along its som- bre defiles are studiously cultivated; and perched on the dizzy mountainsides like eagles' Fjelds and Mountain Valleys 219 nests are numerous sseters. In the Gudbrands- dal, as in Telemarken and the Valders, the peasants still cling to the picturesque costumes of their ancestors. CHAPTER XV TRONDHJEM: ITS SAINT AND ITS CATHEDRAL Trondhjem once the residence of the Norse kings Its loca- tion Mediaeval foundation Olaf the Saint and his early career His reign one of the mile-stones in Norwegian his- tory His canonization and the St. Olaf cult The national cathedral Selection of Trondhjem as the archiepiscopal see Progress of the cathedral during the reign of Haakon Haakonsson Fearful conflagrations Fate of the cathe- dral after the reformation Recent restorations Other notable historic associations in Trondhjem. TRONDHJEM, formerly Nidaros, in latitude north 63 25' 52", is the most northernly city in the world. It was the site of the first Christian church in Norway and the northern stronghold of the faith during the middle ages. Hither flocked annually, before the Protestant refor- mation, thousands of pilgrims from all parts of Europe to worship at the shrine of Olaf the Saint. Trondhjem was the seat of the great national cathedral and the residence of the arch- bishops; here the Norse kings were crowned, and for many years the city was the chief seat of the royal residence. Trondhjem 221 The city to-day ranks third in commercial importance and size and has a population of 40,326 inhabitants. It still has its cathedral and the kings of Norway continue to be crowned here. But it has ceased to be the cap- ital of the country, and in the historic changes of the last five centuries it has been forced to yield its claims of priority to Christiania and Bergen. The city is beautifully situated on a peninsula formed by the Trondhjem fjord and the Nid river. In spite of its northern loca- tion, its summer climate is like that of Eng- land and its winters similar to those in Ger- many. The river is rarely frozen over and the fjord never. King Olaf Trygvesson founded a city here in 996 and erected a royal residence and a church which he dedicated to St. Clement. During the reigns of Eric and Svend Haakons- son (1000-1015) the city was neglected, but it prospered greatly during the reign of Olaf the Saint (1016-1030), and after his death the St. Olaf cult made Trondhjem the largest and rich- est place in the kingdom and gave rise to the erection of the cathedral, fourteen other churches, and five monasteries. Olaf the Saint is one of the commanding fig- 222 In Viking Land ures in Norwegian history. The story of his life, while told with reasonable fulness by the sagas of the Norse kings, has been so clouded by the mythological mists which gathered about his name after his canonization by the church of Borne, that it is not easy to separate the realities of his career from the mythological and supernatural. If Snorre Sturalsson, the historian of the period, is to be relied upon, Olaf the Thickset, as he was know before can- onization, was a supremely human individual and he had numerous personal qualities not commonly associated with the character of saints. As described by Snorre, Olaf was of mod- erate stature, thick-set, but well built; he had a comely and prepossessing look ; his face was broad and honest; he had quantities of beau- tiful yellow hair, the brightest eye in the world, and a complexion as pure as snow and as beau- tiful as roses. He was the son of Harald Gronske, who had ventured to woo the haughty Sigrid and was burned to death for his pre- sumption. His widowed mother married a grandson of Harald the Fair : Haired, a man of great wealth, prudence, and influence, who loved his step-son and brought him up whole- Trondhjem 223 somely and skilfully. One Rane the Far-Trav- elled was engaged as the tutor of little Olaf, and he filled the lad's head with exploits and adventures in distant countries. At the early age of twelve the nascent migra- tory instinct had so strongly developed in Olaf that it was decided to fit him out with a ship and let him seek his fortunes on foreign shores as a viking. He cruised and fought in many seas, plundered the coasts that he visited, and amassed a great fortune, as was the custom of the vikings. We are told by the scalds that he was always victorious, sometimes getting out of embarrassing situations with miraculous dexterity. He visited the countries of western and southern Europe in the capacity of a rob- ber sea-king until his name became famous in the viking and strategic world. England seems to have suffered most by his unwelcome visits and his name inspired terror among the coast inhabitants of the British Isles. After he had acquired wealth as a pirate, become experi- enced as a fighter, and accumulated a vast fund of worldly wisdom, he returned to Norway and was proclaimed king at Trondhjem. He had been baptized as a Christian during his travels in foreign lands, but the new religion did not 224 In Viking Land alter materially his habits of life until he be- came the head of the nation. Then he took vigorous measures to suppress and abolish vikingism and heathenism, " both of which objects, and their respective worth and un- worth, he had known so long and so well." The reign of Olaf the Saint is one of the mile-stones in Norwegian history; for he not only abolished heathenism, but he gave the Norse kingdom a recognized place among the nations of Europe which it had not hitherto held. He rebuilt the ruined royal palace and St. Clement's church at Trondhjem; promoted commerce and afforded protection to trade; erected fortresses; reformed the system of taxation, and hanged dishonest tax-gatherers. He had apparently a clear conception of na- tional unity, and he set to work with deliberate purpose to unite the scattered Norwegian prov- inces under the cross of Christ. He marched from one part of the kingdom to another with armed men and " severely punished those who secretly or openly sacrificed to the old gods or indulged in any pagan practices. Some were outlawed and their property confiscated, others were maimed, and a few were hanged or be- headed." Thus remarks Carlyle, " King Trondhjem 225 Olaf's struggles in the matter of religion set- tled the question in Norway. By these rough methods of his, whatever we may think of them, heathenism had got itself smashed dead, and was no more heard of in that country. ' ' Olaf died as he had lived fighting and " doing deadliest execution on his busiest ene- mies to right and to left." His body was car- ried from the battle-field to the hut of a peas- ant, where it was touched by a blind man and he was at once miraculously restored to sight. With this legend as a starting-point, others were soon forthcoming, and the church of Rome was induced to include the dead king in its calendar of saints. After his remains had been placed in a reliquary on the high altar of St. Clement's church, monks and priests who were interested in the religious prosperity of Trondhjem contrived to make his shrine a place of pilgrimage. All sorts of legends were fabricated and it was gradually impressed upon an ignorant and superstitious people that great benefits were to be derived from a visit to the tomb of the saint. It was the resort of thousands of pilgrims each year who sought physical relief, mental consolation, or spiritual aid at the shrine of St. Olaf; but the pilgrim- 226 In Viking Land ages, so profitable to Trondhjem, were ended by the introduction of Protestantism into Nor- way. The cathedral, which was designed as the final resting-place of St. Olaf as well as the metropolitan church of Norway, was begun during the reign of Olaf the Quiet (1066-1093), and after its completion the shrine of Olaf was transferred hither. The cathedral was built in the Eomanesque style of architecture in vogue during the eleventh century. The material used was uncut hard stone, while soapstone was used for the base, the corner-stones, the but- tresses, and the mouldings of doors and win- dows. The ceiling was of wood with visible rafters, and the small windows were placed high up in the walls. During the early days of Christianity in Nor- way the church was administered by the bish- ops of Nidaros (Trondhjem), Selje (Bergen), and Oslo (Christiania), under the direction of the archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen. The growing national sentiment, however, made it important that Norway should have her own archbishop. Negotiations with this object in view were opened with Eome, and in 1151 Pope Eugene III consented to the appointment of Trondhjem 227 an archbishop for Norway. Aside from the fact that she possessed the shrine of Olaf the Saint, Trondhjem had in 1110 secured from a crusader a fragment of the true cross, thus adding to her ecclesiastical importance. A legate was sent from Kome in 1152 with full apostolical power to establish the new archi- episcopal see and to settle all matters touching the ecclesiastical province of Norway. This legate was Nicholas Brekespere, an English- man, who had worked his way from a humble station in life up to the dignity of a cardinal, and later he became Pope Adrian IV. Trondhjem was selected as the seat of the new archiepiscopal see, and the bishop of Sta- vanger was made archbishop of Norway. The country was divided into eleven bishoprics, viz., Trondhjem, Bergen, Stavanger, Chris- tiania (Oslo), Hamar, Skaalholt and Holen in Iceland, Greenland, the Shetland islands and the Orkneys, and the Hebrides with the Isle of Man. Colleges of priests were organized in connection with the cathedral school to act with and assist the bishops. The right of making gifts and offerings to the church was greatly extended, and new sources of revenue were provided for the cathedral, which, added to 228 In Viking Land the donations of the pilgrims, gave it a large and independent fortune. The archbishop made immediate provision for the enlargement of the cathedral. The western gables and the towers had to be pulled down to allow of the erection of a central tower ; but the main part of the old church was retained as the eastern arm of the new cathe- dral. The transept was constructed in the Anglo-Norman round-arch style, with uncov- ered rafters and slender quadrangular pillars. It was built in three stories, the upper two containing inside galleries with columns and pillars. To this period belongs the still-exist- ing vestry built on the north side of the chancel as a separate chapel. The first archbishop, having died in 1157 and his successor having clashed with the king on questions of revenues, was forced to live in exile in England for three years. During his sojourn abroad he became acquainted with the new style of architecture, the so-called Gothic, which had recently been brought from France and was employed in the rebuilding of the cathedral at Canterbury. When work on the cathedral was resumed at Trondhjem the plans were in consequence modified. To this period Trondhjem 229 belongs St. Olaf s well, the waters of which in the days of the pilgrimages were said to pos- sess healing properties. To-day they are slightly calcarious. The well is thirty-six feet deep; narrow at the top, but widening down- ward like a bottle, and tapering again at the bottom. Below the ground it is built of un- dressed stone. During the reign of Haakon Haakonsson great progress was made in the additions to the cathedral. The side aisles were distin- guished by sharply projecting buttresses sup- porting the vault by arches ; besides the spires and turreted pillars at the corners, five towers were added, one of which was a high central tower. The cathedral when finished had three hundred and sixteen windows, three thousand, three hundred and sixty pillars, and forty statues, exclusive of sculptured heads and faces. The twenty-five chapels were also beautifully carved and adorned. The first great ceremony in the completed cathedral was the coronation of King Haakon the Longlegs the 10th of August in the year 1299. Twenty-nine years later the cathedral was burned. The archbishop wrote : * ' Not only the woodwork inside and outside was burnt 230 In Viking Land down, but also the stone posts, bells and many precious articles, as well as pillars and arches above and below, so that we may expect even greater damage than has actually happened if we do not hasten to its repair." The work of restoration was begun, but the plague, known as the " Black Death," visited Norway; a great part of the population, including the clergy, was swept away, and a long time elapsed before the work of restoration was begun. In 1371 the archbishop obtained a papal brief of indulgence for the rebuilding of the cathedral; but it was struck by lightning in 1432 and burned a second time. During the century that followed the work of restoration was frequently resumed and interrupted. Trondhjem was visited by a fearful confla- gration in 1531 and the cathedral suffered with the town. Only the chancels were left and these were severely damaged. The arch- bishop made strenuous efforts to obtain money to rebuild the church, but the ominous signs of the approaching reformatory movement weak- ened the authority of the clergy. When the new faith was made the state religion of Nor- way the archbishop fled the country and the Trondhjem 231 properties belonging to the cathedral, as well as those devoted to the income of the arch- bishop, were immediately seized upon by the Danish king, while the monasteries were largely given to the noblemen of the Danish court. The cathedral was plundered of its treasures, including the shrine of Olaf the Saint, which yielded 3,250 ounces of silver. The cathedral having lost its landed estates and other sources of revenue, the Protestant bishops were without funds with which to re- build the church. Trondhjem, however, in 1552 decided to pull down several churches and chapels and to use the materials for the resto- ration of the cathedral. But the work was in- terrupted by the invasion of the Swedes in 1564. They carried St. Olaf 's shrine and his silver coffin. Very little was done for three- quarters of a century. In 1633 a private citi- zen of Trondhjem had a vault built over the high choir, and five years later a spire was erected over the central tower. This was damaged by lightning in 1687 and two years later it was blown down by a hurricane, injur- ing the northern transept and the vestry of the main structure. It was again struck by light- 232 In Viking Land ning in 1719 and everything was burned that could burn. Since 1869 the cathedral has undergone a thorough restoration. It has been entirely re- roofed; the chapter house and the choir, with its octagonal apse and elaborate south portal, have been rebuilt; and the great central tower has been completed. But the work of restora- tion will require many years before it is accom- plished. The annual grant for this purpose, amounting to about thirty thousand dollars a year, is provided by the national government, the savings bank of Trondhjem, and private individuals. It is being rebuilt of a grayish- blue soap-stone. Besides its saint and its cathedral, Trond- hjem has other interests for the traveller. It has very broad streets from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet wide that run north and south, commanding a fine view of the beautiful fjord and the island of Munkholm, once the seat of a flourishing Benedictine mon- astery. The city has an academy of science, a museum of industrial art, a technical high school, and other public institutions of interest. Trondhjem has direct steamer connection with Bergen and the North Cape and railway con- THE BROAD STREETS OF TRONDHJEM. THE UNION RAILWAY STATION AT TRONDHJEM. Trondhjem 233 nections with Christiania and Stockholm. It has a fine union railway station which, until recently, was the most northern building of its kind in the world. CHAPTER XVI BEBGEN AND THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE Picturesque location of Bergen Foundation of the city by King Olaf the Quiet Early monastic institutions The royal palace and Haakon's Hall Bergen during the civil wars Nature of the Hanseatic league Its place in the history of European commerce First foothold in Bergen Character of the German merchants Articles of trade Oppressive power of the league finally broken Bergen during the eighteenth century Commerce injured by the war between Denmark and England Growth of industrial arts The fishing industry Municipal institutions Art treasures Leper hospitals. BERGEN, one of the oldest and most pictur- esque cities of Norway, has a population of eighty-one thousand people. It is built on a promontory, and between it and the mainland on its northern side is the harbour of Han- seatic fame, the mainland to the south forming a large and natural haven. The business part of the town is on the northern side and the villas and country seats of the merchants on the south of the mainland. But for the four lofty mountains which rise in the background 284 Bergen and the Hanseatic League 235 Bergen would be encircled with fjords. The climate of Bergen is similar to that of the west coast of Scotland; the winters are brief and not cold, and the summers have a mean sea- sonal temperature of about 58 degrees Fahren- heit. The rainfall is something enormous, about six and a half feet a year, in consequence of which, coupled with the mildness of the tem- perature, the vegetation is both abundant and varied. The city was founded in 1070 by King Olaf the Quiet, after the pattern of English coast- towns, with quays along the side of the bay. The royal residence, built forty years later, was located on Holmen, the present Bergen- hus, and the cathedral which was begun at the same period was not completed for a hundred years. The numerous monasteries Benedic- tine, Cistercian, Augustine, and Franciscan lay just outside of the town. By 1420 Bergen had as many as twenty-five churches and chap- els and the trade guilds had three religious organizations. Christ church was the largest ecclesiastical structure in the city. It was built to house a piece of the crown of thorns worn by Christ that King Philip III of France sent as a present to King Magnus the Law-Mender 236 In Viking Land Of all the early churches but two remain, St. Mary's and the Holy Cross. The royal castle on Holmen was surrounded by strong walls, with immense towers over the gates, and two stone halls, both in the Gothic style. Only one of the tower gates and Haa- kon's hall survive. Before the period of the Hanseatic league Bergen had many fine pri- vate residences in the old Norse style of do- mestic architecture, but most of them disap- peared during the centuries that the city was in the hands of the foreigners. Bergen was a wealthy fishing city as early as the time of Haakon Haakonsson (1217- 1263). The exportation of cod and herring was something enormous, occasioned by the numerous fast days then observed in Europe. Handicrafts flourished, and after the promul- gation of the new law of Magnus the Law- Mender (1263-1280) each craft had its partic- ular location in the town. During the early period Bergen was the scene of many fierce bat- tles. It was here that King Magnus the Blind was taken prisoner and mutilated; here that Harald Gille and Sigurd Mund were killed, and here that the Birchlegs fought their bloody but indecisive battle in 1198. Several coronations Bergen and the Hanseatic League 237 and royal funerals took place in Christ church, for Bergen was the residence of the Norse kings for about a hundred years. But the chief interest of Bergen for the traveller is her con- nection with the Hanseatic league, a great Ger- man commercial trust that monopolized the foreign trade of Norway for more than four hundred years. The Hanseatic league was a combination of merchants of certain towns in northern Ger- many for the protection of commerce, the aboli- tion of competition, and the enrichment of themselves by monopolizing the trade in for- eign countries. Its aims and methods are ad- mirably illustrated by the enormous industrial combinations in the United States. The formal organization of the Hanseatic league dates from the year 1241. When its power was greatest it controlled the trade of sixty-four important towns in Europe, extending from Bergen in the north to Venice in the south, and from Novgorod and Smolensk in the east, to London and York in the west. Commercial towns that did not join the league met a fate not unlike that of the small American producer who does not join the trust. The league's ban was more potent than that of the popes, for 238 In Viking Land commercial towns that did not become members of the federation and conform to its exactions lost their commerce at one blow. Bremen once had the temerity to decline membership in the league, and for a period of thirty years she was " unhansed." No city was permitted to have dealings with her. She was impoverished, grass grew in her streets, and hunger and des- olation took up their abode in her midst. When the penitent merchants finally sought admission to the league they had to take up heavy responsibilities in atonement for their misdeed. No matter what the cost, the league was determined to have a monopoly of trade, and this it did by concentrating the produc- tions of a country at a single point. This gave the Hanseatic merchants not only the first re- fusal of goods, but likewise the power of dom- inating the markets. The control of the com- merce of Europe was one of the primary aims of the league and it acquired this control in utter disregard of moral laws or the rights of the people whom it exploited. The first treaty of Lubeck with Bergen was concluded by King Haakon Haakonsson in 1250, although a hundred years elapsed before the league was in complete control of the city. Bergen and the Hanseatic League 239 Hitherto the merchants of Bergen had enjoyed a brisk trade with England and the Baltic ports, but all this was changed when the league located in Norway. Merchants were no longer permitted to buy from or to sell to the Dutch or English ; and Bergen, that had been in exclu- sive possession of the trade with Greenland, had to renounce all maritime traffic. Traders sent to transact the business were Germans; and the local merchants " saw themselves forced to pawn their land to the Hanseatics, in return for the mere necessities of life, and as they could rarely redeem their pledges, the whole city of Bergen gradually fell into the hands of these opulent traders." The Norse kings at first unwittingly made concessions to the Hansa merchants, and when once in their power they were forced to con- tinue the extension of trade privileges. When Magnus Ericsson in 1367 refused to grant the additional concessions which were desired, the league sent its fleet to Norway and cruelly pil- laged and burned all the towns on the southern coast and the king was finally forced to yield. The Germans not only acquired complete con- trol of commerce, but also of the industries. German shoemakers, tanners, tailors, cloth- 240 In Viking Land dressers, and goldsmiths supplanted the native artisans; and at the time of its greatest power, the league maintained a force of more than three thousand men at Bergen. The men were all required to take vows of celibacy during the years that they were in the service of the league, the assumption being that marriage with Norse women might result in divulging some of the Hanseatic secrets. With scarcely an exception the men sent to Bergen belonged to the lowest classes of German society, and they generally led low and immoral lives. The rough and cruel initiation, which every new comer was forced to undergo, would have prevented peo- ple from the more refined classes from accept- ing service in the league. The Germans brought to Bergen, besides articles of food, salt, beer, wine, cloth, and metal goods, and they exported from Bergen to England, Holland and Friesland fish-prod- ucts, butter, leather, and timber. The fish of Norway constituted a gold-mine for the league, for at this time all Europe was Roman or Greek Catholic, and the fast days were numer- ous and rigidly observed. But the poor fisher- men of Nordland and the western fjords fared badly, for the league kept separate sets of Bergen and the Hanseatic League 241 scales for buying and selling fish, and it always fixed its own prices. Thus the returns to the natives were insignificant. The rule of the league grew so oppressive in the sixteenth century that King Christian III determined to restrict its power. His first re- form measure put a stop to certain immoral practices of the merchants ; later he allowed the natives of Bergen to share in the handicrafts, and finally the monopoly of the Nordland fish- eries was taken from the league. With the loss of exclusive privileges the prosperity and in- fluence waned, and its losses were so great dur- ing the Thirty Years' War that it was forced to dissolve. Some of the merchants, artisans, clerks, and apprentices returned to Germany, but many remained in Bergen and became naturalized Norwegian citizens. The oppressive power of the league once broken, Bergen prospered. With the opening of the eighteenth century her mercantile fleet was the largest in Scandinavia. The destruc- tive fire of 1702 was a severe blow as the accumulated wealth of the city went up in the flames. The war with Sweden followed the fire and Bergen lost half her fleet. Algerian pirates at this period were practising the arts of by-- 242 In Viking Land gone vikings, and Norwegian merchant vessels suffered greatly. The development of the Newfoundland cod fisheries by England and France created a serious rival for Bergen. Nevertheless the city regained her losses. A treaty was concluded with the Mediterranean pirates ; local industries were improved and de- veloped ; the Greenland trade company was or- ganized, and by the close of the century Ber- gen 's fleet had increased from sixty-six to one hundred and fourteen ships, all engaged in foreign trade. The commerce of Bergen was checked by the war between Denmark and England at the be- ginning of the nineteenth century and the pros- perity of the city arrested. Thirty-eight of her ships were captured in British waters, twelve in the Mediterranean, twenty-six in the Skag- erak and the North Sea and thirty were con- demned or wrecked in foreign harbours. But with the peace of 1814, the exportation of fish set Bergen on her feet again, and by degrees trade slipped back into the old tracks. Up to 1835 Bergen was the largest city in Norway, and she continued first in commercial impor- tance so late as 1876. Since these years Chris- tiania has stood first in population and trade. Bergen and the Hanseatic League 243 At the present time Bergen has two hundred and ninety-one steamships, with a tonnage of 260,500, and seventy-six sailing vessels. The industrial arts have made marked prog- ress in Bergen during the past fifty years. There are three hundred and thirty-five fac- tories in the city and its suburbs which employ seven thousand, six hundred and fifty persons. The chief industries are breweries, flour-mills, founderies, tanneries, margarine factories, paper mills, engineering work-shops, and spin- ning and weaving factories. Her trade rela- tions are largest with England and Germany, with whom she has direct and frequent steamer connections. The largest import item is flour and the largest export item fish. In Bergen everything in trade is umbrellas or fish. The city is the centre of the largest fish industry in the world; and in cod alone it sells more than seven million dollars' worth each year. The fish market at the foot of mar- ket-place is of surpassing interest to the travel- ler. Small fishing boats are drawn up along the quay, the bows inward, with the fish lying loose in bow and stern where they were thrown after being caught ; and just outside the craft of small boats are the larger decked smacks. 244 In Viking Land Tihere are innumerable tubs and vats on the shore containing the live fish, for the people of Bergen prefer to buy their fish alive. The Ber- gen fisherman is an interesting ethnic type. He has a " muscular body, blue eyes, high cheek bones, a powerful jaw, shaggy beard, thickly matted hair, sou'wester, big boots, sleeves rolled up, knife and marline spike in his belt, rough trousers, and red shirt." Not only the fish market but the German quay is literally packed with fish, fishermen, and fishing smacks. Bergen is one of the best administered cities in Europe. It has an efficient system of public and private schools; flourishing commercial and technical schools, and a public library pat- terned after similar institutions in the United States. The museums of science and art and the Hanseatic and fisheries museums are ex- cellently kept up. The notable historic monu- ments include Haakon's hall, " the large stone hall," referred to by the sagas, the Eosen- kranz tower, and St. Mary's church. The city has commemorative monuments of some emi- nent natives of Bergen. There is a good statue of Ludvig Holberg, the social reformer, poet, and writer of comedies; an excellent allegori- cal monument of Ole Bull, the violinist, by Bergen and the Hanseatic League 245 Stephen Sinding, and a statue of Christie, the president of the first Norwegian parliament. Among other eminent natives of Bergen may be mentioned Johan Welhaven, the poet, Johan Christian Dahl, the painter, and Edvard Grieg, the music composer. In the matter of art treasures Bergen has not been able to compete with the national gal- lery at Christiania, but she has an altogether creditable collection of paintings and sculpture. Among the earlier Norwegian painters repre- sented are Dahl, Fearnley, Baade, Frich, and Gorbitz. Tidemand is represented by the " Sorrowful Tidings " and " The Girl Bead- ing ' ' ; Gude by five landscapes and sea pic- tures; Eckersberg by " The Bridal Party in Hardanger "; Miiller by four forest scenes, and Ludwig Munthe by three winter subjects. The modern painters of the first rank Thau- low, Werenskiold, Otto Sinding, Peterssen, and Krohg are also well represented at Bergen. The gallery also possesses a large collection of water colours and drawings by Norwegian painters, and it frequently exhibits the works of contemporary artists. Bergen has two institutions to which a pa- thetic interest attaches the leper hospitals, 246 In Viking Land one of which has been in existence since the middle ages. This dread disease was formerly very prevalent along the Norwegian coast. The damp climate, the absence of vegetables, the monotonous salt-fish diet, and the hardships and exposures incident to the life of the fisher- men favoured its development. Since the lepers have been isolated and denied the right of marriage (1856), there has been a decrease of nearly seventy per cent, in the number of cases. In the Bergen leper hospitals the pa- tients work at handicrafts ; and, as the articles that are made are carefully cleansed before leaving the hospital, the spread of the disease by infection is presumably averted. CHAPTER XVH The modern capital founded by King Christian IV Its rapid growth Three destructive fires Some notable buildings Fortress of Akershus and other historic monuments Control of the liquor traffic in Christiania Marked de- crease in intemperance Improvement in public morals and decrease in the death rate The Christiania fjord Bygdii and the people's museum Hanko and summer re- sorts Holmenkollen and winter sports Skiing, ski-jump- ing, and ski-sailing Tobogganing, hill-sliding, and ice- pegging. CHRISTIANIA, the modern capital, has a beau- tiful situation at the head of a fjord of the same name. As early as 1050 Harald the Hard- Ruler founded the town of Oslo, which later be- came one of the trading stations of the Han- seatic league, and erected a cathedral where several of the Norse kings were subsequently buried, and where James I of England married Anne of Denmark in 1589. But Oslo was burned by the inhabitants in 1624 to prevent its falling into the hands of the Swedes. The modern city, like St. Petersburg, was built by 247 248 In Viking Land royal mandate. Christian IV of Denmark, who, in an amateurish way, was something of an architect, visited the silver mines at Kongs- berg the year Oslo was burned. He decided to build a new city a bit to the west of the old town and to give it his name. The inhabitants of Oslo were not permitted to rebuild on their old grounds, but had lands allotted to them on the west bank of the Akers river. The peo- ple of Drammen and Moss were required to take up residence in the new city, and the tim- ber within a given district could be sold only to those engaged in building Christiania. While Christiania has suffered from three destructive fires 1686, 1708, and 1858- measured by Norwegian standards, its growth has been singularly rapid, and it has to-day a population of more than 230,000 people. It is the seat of the national government, the su- preme court of the country, the national uni- versity and museums, and the residence of the king. It is first in commerce, as well as in population, and has a merchant fleet of two hundred steamers and one hundred and fifty sailing vessels. There is a large export trade in timber, paper, stone, herring, beer, and ice. The industries include ship-building works, Christiania the Modern Capital 249 paper mills, and breweries. The city also ex- cels in the manufacture of jewelry, and par- ticularly in filigree work and enamel. Christiania is a clean and well-built city, with many handsome buildings of granite, red syen- ite, and Labrador stone. Among the important public buildings may be mentioned the king's palace, the house of parliament, the national theatre, the university, the art gallery, and the industrial and historical museums. The king's palace, an imposing structure at the head of the broad Carl-Johans Gaden in the west end of the city, does not improve upon close inspec- tion. The house of parliament, while not an imposing building, has an impressive fagade and the Storthings Hall contains one of Werge- land's best historical paintings. The national theatre is one of the most recent buildings of the capital, and the university buildings are probably the most effective architecturally. The national gallery, built in the Italian Ren- aissance style, has an excellent collection of paintings by Norwegian artists, reference to which is made in a subsequent chapter on the art of Norway. The fortress of Akershus, dating from the thirteenth century, is the most important his- 250 In Viking Land toric pile in the city. It has played a leading role in the history of Norway, having been re- peatedly unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes and Danes. It is now used as an arsenal and prison. Among other notable monuments in the city may be mentioned the statue of Chris- tian IV by Jacobsen, the equestrian statue of Bernadotte in front of the royal palace by Bergslien, the statue of Wergeland by the same sculptor, and the colossal statues of Ibsen and Bjornson in front of the national theatre by Stephen Sinding. There is also a seated figure of Asbjornsen, the writer of fairy tales, on St. John's Hill, by Bergslien. The oldest church in the city is the Gamle Akers church founded by Olaf the Quiet (1066-1093). It is a basilica in the English-Norman Romanesque style of architecture. The public control of the liquor traffic in Christiania is of keen interest to the student of municipal administration. The Goteborg system was introduced into Norway about forty years ago and it has resulted in a tremendous decrease in the use of alcoholic beverages. The Goteborg system gives each municipality the right to decide if liquors shall be sold within its jurisdiction; and since its adoption, the num- Christiania the Modern Capital 251 ber of places where liquor is sold has decreased from five hundred and one to one hundred and thirty, in spite of the marked increase of the population of the country during the same period. The purpose of the system is not to prevent but to regulate and control the use of spirits. Originally Norway did not enjoy an enviable reputation in the matter of the drink habits of her people. The long nights of winter, the cold weather, the damp climate, and the isolated habits of the people sent them to the pipe for warmth and company and to the spirit bottle as an accompaniment to the tobacco box. In- temperance became so widespread that the decade between 1830 and 1840 is usually char- acterized in Norwegian history as "the liquor plague." Its disastrous moral, economic, and hygienic results called the attention of the government to the seriousness of the problem, and reform measures, regulating the traffic, were forthwith introduced in the national par- liament. With the adoption of the Goteborg system in Christiania in 1871, the local liquor dealers were required to make over their retail rights to certain philanthropic companies authorized 252 In Viking Land by the municipal government. These compa- nies have no economic interests in the returns of the business, hence, instead of trying to in- crease their patronage, they have sought to re- duce it. Moreover, in Norway all profits from the sale of spirits go to objects of public utility, rather than to the municipal fund as in Sweden. In Christiania, for example, the profits from the sale of liquors go to the national theatre, the Salvation Army, the art and industrial mu- seums, temperance societies, children's hospi- tals, and vacation tours for poor children. This is distinctly beneficial to the health and morals of the communities since it does not tempt stingy municipalities to swell their reve- nues by a good trade in the sale of liquors. The traffic is in the hands of a corporation of select and benevolent citizens who are entitled to receive five per cent, on their investments. The shares of the corporation are held by men and women in whom the municipalities have en- tire confidence, and those engaged to dispense the spirits must be of temperate habits and possess high moral qualifications. The booze shops are generally open from eight o'clock in the morning until seven in winter and eight in Christiania the Modern Capital 253 summer. Evenings preceding Sundays and holidays they are required to close at six o'clock, and the shops are closed on Sundays and holidays. One drink to be consumed on the premises, or a bottle to be consumed elsewhere, may be sold to individuals over eighteen years old not oftener than once an hour, and the sale of second drinks or bottles is left entirely to the discretion of the salesmen in the booze shops. The rooms where the liquors are sold are severely plain, no one is allowed to sit down, and there are no newspapers, music, or other attractions. Norway originally consumed more alcohol per inhabitant than any country in Europe ; to- day her annual consumption per inhabitant is less than every European country, with the ex- ception of Finland, where, since the adoption of women's suffrage the booze business has been practically legislated out of the country. Only a fourth of the quantity of spirits is consumed in Norway per inhabitant as compared with the consumption before the adoption of the Gote- borg system. The saving to the people in dol- lars reaches the millions. Crime has decreased and the decrease in the death rate as the im- mediate result of alcoholism has dropped from 254 In Viking Land S3 per 10,000 of the population to 10.5. The Norwegian people are educating themselves to total abstinence, and the national total absti- nence society, which has the hearty co-operation of the government, has something like one hun- dred and thirty thousand members. It should be noted in this connection that beer, which in Norway contains about three and a half per cent, of alcohol, is not regarded as a liquor; but I have it upon good authority that " it would take a long time to become intoxi- cated upon the light Norwegian beer." The Goteborg system has operated so admirably in the Scandinavian countries that it is keenly to be regretted that no American community has had the temerity to give it a fair trial. The Christiania fjord is picturesque but not grand, as compared with the fjords of the western coast. It is so cut up with islands that it presents the appearance of innumerable small lakes. It is about fifty miles long and is surrounded by rocky banks wooded with pines and birches. Geologically it is a chasm in the primeval mountains with sunken layers of Silurian slate and limestone overlaid by masses of volcanic rock. The fjord is frozen over about two months of the year, although the Christiania the Modern Capital 255 winter climate of Christiania is not severe. The winter temperature averages about 23 and the summer 60 Fahrenheit. Few European cities have such attractive suburbs as Christiania. To the west is Bygdo, a wooded peninsula which contains the royal chateau of Oscarshall and the people's museum illustrative of the history of Norway. Oscar- shall is a tiny palace in the English Gothic style. It is adorned with paintings represent- ing Norwegian peasant life by Tidemand and landscapes from Frith jof's saga by Gude. The palace commands a superb view of the fjord. The national museum is broadly illustrative of the peasant life of Norway. It contains fabrics, furniture, and household utensils from the different sections of the kingdom, as well as completely furnished houses typical of dif- ferent provinces and historic periods. A tim- ber church from Gol in Hallingdal, belonging to the thirteenth century, has been transferred to the museum grounds, and there are several farmhouses from Telemarken and other prov- inces, with their original furniture and other appurtenances. To the south of Christiania is the island of Hanko, a fashionable and frequented summer 256 In Viking Land bathing place, with numerous fine villas and beautiful pine woods ; and still nearer the city, on the banks of the fjord, is Drobak, another fashionable watering place and summer pleas- ure-ground for the people of the capital. Here is also located the marine biological station of the university. To the north of the capital are the hills of Holmenkollen, the winter resort of Christiania. While Norway is best known as a summer ex- cursion ground for tourists, Christiania is fast becoming a popular winter resort for those in- terested in such out-door sports as skiing, sledging, skating, tobogganing, ice-pegging, and the like. Concerning the winter sports an en- thusiastic English artist writes: "After the first heavy fall of snow, the days become bright and clear and blue skies prevail, often for sev- eral weeks in succession. The air is here fresh and bracing, and the five hours of sunshine, during even the shortest days, make walking, sleighing, and ski-running attractive exercise. On the darkest nights of mid-winter the sky is palpitant with the luminous northern lights the aurora borealis which stream up from behind the dark mountains in prismatic hues of great brilliance; and when the full moon SKI - DRIVING. SKI - JUMPING. Christiania the Modern Capital 257 shines on the sparkling fjord and on the deep crisp snow, it is exhilarating to take a long sleigh drive over the frosty roads by the mar- gin of the fjord." The ski, or Norwegian snow-shoe, furnishes the widest range of sport for the votaries of snow and ice. Its use for purposes of loco- motion is very ancient, having been introduced into Norway in pre-Christian times by the Lapps. The ski is made from narrow strips of seasoned ash seven or eight feet long; and it is widely used by farmers, lumbermen, and soldiers, as well as by sportsmen. Ski-jumping is one of the favourite winter amusements at Holmenkollen. A platform is built on a steep hillside, from which the skier leaps into space, balancing himself as best he can with outstretched arms, so as to maintain an upright position in the air. After a flight of a few seconds he alights on the hinder part of the ski and is carried down the hill with tre- mendous rapidity. He must, however, alight and remain in an upright position. Practised skiers make leaps of more than one hundred feet. Ski-sailing on the mountain heaths is another unique branch of ski sports. A large square 258 In Viking Land sail is placed between the skier and the wind. Sometimes as many as three persons may be drawn by the same sail. If the wind is good and the ground in fair condition, a ski-sailor will easily cover from eighty to one hundred miles in a day. Tobogganing is one of the favourite winter sports on the Frogner ridge near Christiania. The Norwegian toboggan is from five to seven feet long and a foot wide and slides on broad steel-shod runners. It is steered by the person sitting farthest behind by means of a pine pole fifteen feet long. This pole has the thickness of the wrist at the end held and it gradually tapers towards the end that trails on the ground behind the toboggan. Hill-sliding on snow skates is a sport that is a cross between sledging and skating. The skates are miniature sledge runners about two feet long and an inch broad and they are strapped to the foot like a skate. They are used chiefly in sliding down steep hills, although with the aid of the sharp pointed ski-rods they may be used on the level like ordinary skates. Ice-pegging is an old Norwegian sport that originated among the fishermen of the western fjords. Besides the fishing-sledge, two short Christiania the Modern Capital 259 light rods, fitted with sharp ice-spikes, are used as propellers. Ice-pegging is practised not only on the frozen rivers, lakes, and fjords, but also on the firm crust of the snow. NORSE LETTERS AND HENRIK IBSEN Origin of the languages and literature of Scandinavia Re- vived interest in the old Norse The ancient runes Literary influences of the union with Denmark Peder Dass and the seventeenth century Union with Sweden and literary independence Wergeland and Welhaven Norwegian literature to-day Bjornson His romances, dramas, and personality Henrik Ibsen Socialist and psychologist " Peer Gynt " and Norwegian peasant life Ibsen's art " Brand " Ibsen's dramas characterized Current men of letters Jonas Lie and his romances The novelettes of Kielland Heilberg and dramatic literature The bow of promise of Norwegian literary art. THE old Norse language, still preserved in Iceland although changed in the matter of pro- nunciation, was the parent of the languages of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Before the year 800 the Norse was spoken thoughout Scan- dinavia, but after that date it was gradually modified in Sweden and Denmark. After the Kalmar union, the old language of Norway was relegated to the rural districts ; and the profes- sional and official classes adopted the Danish. This has given the two nations an identical 260 Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 261 literary language ; but the spoken languages of the two countries differ markedly. The pro- nunciation is slower than in Denmark and final letters are less frequently dropped. During the past century the rapid develop- ment of national feeling has aroused keen in- terest in the original language of the country. Ivar Aason was the father of the new move- ment. His Norse grammar and numerous es- says on the old Norse folk speech gave Norway a proud sense of linguistic individuality. After him, the sympathetic portrayal of the ideas and aspirations of the common people, in the writ- ings of Jens Tvedt, helped greatly the cause. Forty years ago a society was organized for the publication of useful books in the old language; and in 1885 the national parliament made provision for the publication of school books in the Norse. Philologists, clergymen, and students have added interest to the new linguistic movement; and the language, which for more than five hundred years was spoken only by peasants, is now dignified by scholars and promises to become the vehicle of a new literature. This at least is the hope of every patriotic Norwegian. As Bruun has remarked : ' ' To every Norseman this should be a burning 262 In Viking Land question that his mother-tongue, compelled so long to cede its place, now treasures the hope of reinstatement." When the Norsemen first attempted to give expression to their thoughts they did so by means of runes cut upon wood or stone, but the viking age, during the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, modified greatly both the method of writing and speaking the old language. It was during this period that a rich literature de- veloped, some of which has been preserved in collections of legends illustrative of the myth- ology of Scandinavia. Before the days of bridge-whist, the Norsemen cheered the gloom of the long winter nights by relating the ex- ploits of their gods and their ancestors. Sub- sequently the recital of heroic poems and eulo- gies was delegated to professional poets and historiographers, known as scalds. The poems of the eddas, preserved in Iceland, throw a flood of light not only on the early literature of Scandinavia, but also on the ideals and habits of the people. The result of the union with Denmark and the Hanseatic mercantile power, as Brinch- mann has pointed out, gave the literature and culture of Norway a Danish and north German Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 263 stamp. With the Lutheran reformation the church became a government institution and the more remunerative positions were filled by graduates of the university of Copenhagen. Danish became the language of the church as well as of the state, and the Bible which the Lutherans gave to the people was in Danish. It was only in law that the native language of Norway held out against the intrusion of the Danish. The first writer of consequence during the period of Danish rule was Peder Dass, who lived during the seventeenth century in the winter darkness of Nordland with the sombre Atlantic for his neighbour; but there was brightness in his nature and he glorified the scenery and the life of the cold northland. He turned the catechism and Bible into poetry and his writings had widespread popularity. Fol- lowing Dass came Ludwig Holberg, the Moliere of the north and the writer of more than a score of plays. He was also the author of a long series of popular books dealing with Nor- wegian and Danish history, which brought the author a fortune and created out of the hith- erto uncultivated Danish tongue " a rich and ingenious literary language." 264 In Viking Land The literary independence of Norway came with the separation from Denmark in 1814. Henceforth Norwegian authors, while continu- ing to write in the Dano-Norwegian, felt the impulse of the national movement. Henrik "Wergeland and Johan Sebastian Welhaven were the leaders of the literary revival that was awakened by the warmth of the new inde- pendence. Wergeland, remarks Chr. Brinch- mann, " rushed into life, intoxicated with ecstasy over its fulness, a youth more light of heart than the lightest hearted, and yet of a deep and manly intellect, to whom existence revealed its seriousness and its claim to the de- votion of the whole personality." He repre- sented the best aspirations of the common peo- ple and very properly became their hero. In the fulness of his heart he ' ' glorified the strug- gle for liberty in poetic cycles, lashed his ad- versaries with wild farces, blamed the authori- ties with tempestuous eloquence for their weak national feeling, and ardently incited his coun- trymen to free themselves entirely from the traditions that still maintained, through their civil servants, the old dependence on Danish .culture." Welhaven, on the contrary, " felt his severe Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 265 taste offended by the noisy national move- ment " led by Wergeland, and joined the bu- reaucrats, that being the only aristocracy that Norway possessed, the recent constitutional convention at Eidsvold having abolished the privileged nobility. In his " Dawn of Nor- way ' ' he laid bare the vulgarity and selfishness of democratic aspirations and strongly advo- cated a more gradual, even, and continuous national development, and the necessary de- pendence on Danish culture. He possessed larger literary ideals and a finer aesthetic sense than Wergeland, but he influenced less pro- foundly the subsequent development of Nor- wegian letters; for it was Wergeland, as Bjornson has somewhere remarked, who was " the bright tutelary spirit of the new Nor- wegian poetry. He dreamed all the dreams of our young liberty." It is, however, in the history of the literature of our own day that we find the most substan- tial Norse contributions. Bjornstjerne Bjorn- son, still living, and Henrik Ibsen, lately de- ceased, represent the high-water mark in Norse letters and enjoy international fame. Bjorn- son, the lesser of the two satellites, is best known to foreigners as the novelist of the 266 In Viking Land rough, strenuous life of the Norwegian peas- ants, although he has written many dramas which have had wide vogue in Germany and other European countries. His historical plays include " Trilogy on Sigurd Slembe," " Be- tween the Fights," " Maria Stuart," and " Lame Hulda," the latter a semi-historical piece interspersed with some beautiful lyrics. 11 Labour," one of his later dramas, is of the psychological and analytical sort, and on the technical side, at least, it shows striking coinci- dences with the dramatic formulas invented by Ibsen. It is in such romances as " Synnove Solbak- ken," " Arne," " The Happy Boy," and " The Fisher Maiden " that he has done some of his best work. These enchanting pictures of the life of the people, together with his numerous political addresses, have a distinct smack of the soil and they are saturated with wholesome optimism. Bjornson has been in the thick of the great national struggle which resulted three years ago in the rehabilitation of the Norse kingdom, and he has been prominently identi- fied with all the great reform movements in his country during the past half century. And, while he occupies a large place in the hearts of HENRIK IBSEN. Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 267 his countrymen for his fearless political leader- ship, in the field of letters he is clearly outdis- tanced by his great contemporary, Henrik Ib- sen. Concerning the personality of Bjornson Mr. "William E. Curtis writes : * ' At Aulestad, as he calls his country place, he receives many visitors and gives friends and strangers a uni- form welcome. They take him as he is without formality or ceremony, and whether his guest is a prince or a peasant there is no difference in the form of entertainment or the heartiness of his hospitality. Bjornson's great heart is so comprehensive that it admits everyone to its embrace. Although he has a large income from his books and lectures, he has never been able to accumulate money, while Ibsen, whose rev- enues have not been so great, is a rich man. "Whatever Bjornson has not wasted on his farm he has given to the poor or lost through his confidence in humanity." In spite of the fact that Bjornson's daughter married Ibsen's son, the two authors have never been friends. It has been asserted that they always quarrelled when they came together, Bjornson maintain- ing that Ibsen was an idiot and Ibsen holding 268 In Viking Land tenaciously to the conviction that Bjornson was an ass. Probably no modern author has been more genuinely abused in his own country and in foreign lands than Henrik Ibsen. He has been described as an egoist and a bungler, a crazy fanatic, consistently dirty, deplorably immoral, and eternally groping for horrors by night and blinking like a stupid owl. His dramas have given the critics the shivers and his admirers have been characterized as nasty-minded peo- ple, lovers of literary carrion, and muck ferret- ing dogs. Ibsen is distinctly a surgeon of souls and as such he is unquestionably the first psy- chological playwright of modern times. He warred in his art against manifold spirit- ual wrongs hypocrisy, stagnation in medi- ocrity and mere tradition, the arid passion for petty criticism, and the heaviness of a small society without motion. He spoke in no un- certain terms on the great social questions of the day the labour movement, the emancipa- tion of women, the peace question, and the need of awakened responsibility among all classes of society. It was his profound conviction that the wild strife for republican equality in Nor- way had produced a people who, in their pri- Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 269 vate lives, were sordid, selfish, and sexually im- moral, and in their public lives narrow, self- interested, conventional, and hypocritical. Certainly the picture that he paints of the moral forces operating in Norway is anything but lovely; but it would probably be as unfair to accept Ibsen's " Peer Gynt " as typical of Norse peasant life as to regard Zola's " La Terre " as representative of life in the French provinces. Ibsen is not merely a pessimist and satirist, but a social reformer who deals with living truths " as a surgeon deals with an ulcer with a knife and a hot iron. He cuts and cauterizes the vices and follies of society." In " A Doll's House " he has affirmed the human rights of women in marriage; in " Ghosts " the terrible consequences of heredity; and in " An Enemy of the People " the thankless task of attempting to repair the flaws of society. He often deals with delicate topics in an un- conventional manner, but his viewpoint is al- ways that of the moralist and the social re- former. Haldane MacFall, in an admirable little book on the significance of Ibsen's art, has well re- marked: "The year of the north is one long day and one long night. Out of the bright, 270 In Viking Land jocund day of Norway, amidst the scent of flowers and the blithe singing of birds was born the great-souled Bjornson, vikingesque, of mighty heart, a virile giant, vigorous, trumpet- tongued, believing in his fellow men. Out of the long black night of her winter came Henrik Ibsen, blinking owl-like; out of the solemn gloom he came, a brooding figure, tragic, un- afraid; within his stern will a rending energy lurked, that, when he gave it tongue, cracked and rent the ground of untruth on which the generations had trod. Probing into the dark places of the human soul, he plucked the cloak from ' respectability, ' and showed the drab and shabby make-believe that lurked within; and, in the doing, proved himself the supreme satir- ist and playwright of his age." In " Brand " and " Peer Gynt " he aban- doned the heroes of the sagas, with which he had hitherto occupied his dramatic muse, and flung himself into the unheroic present, assert- ing the claims of an unyielding idealism upon the individual to be himself and to be it throughout, not piecemeal and divided. The scene in " Brand " is laid in a bleak mountain valley " where the snow falls, storms grow and threaten and rage, glacier and snow hold Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 271 mighty dangers a valley into which the life- giving sun shines only for three short weeks of the long, dreary year, and that, too, only on the upper walls of the mountain's sides that hem it in a place where all that is frail and delicate and tender sickens and dies. Here neither corn nor the fruits of the earth ripen; and famine stalks through the place like an eternal curse." The village mayor is a man without manhood, a well-meaning person devoid of heroism and ideals ; the state-appointed par- son has no real care for the welfare of his flock, " pointing them to an ideal on Sunday that they cannot carry out in their work-a-day week "; the schoolmaster is likewise deadened by current officialism, not daring to be himself; and the miserable poor folk, who, with bitter labour, " filch a pittance from nature in her most grudging moods," are lulled to inaptitude and rank materialism. " Peer Gynt," a liar and a rogue, strutting as a hero through braggart self-deception, personifies the pushing, self-seeking, wealth- pursuing Norwegian of to-day. It angered his countrymen, for they regarded it as a satire on national peasant life. " They have discov- ered much more satire in it than was intended 272 In Viking Land by me," wrote Ibsen, " why can they not read the book as a poem? As such I wrote it." But the satire was probably deserved, even though not directly intended. The twenty-one dramas of Ibsen have re- cently been brought out in America by the Scribners in eleven volumes, and they show his large grasp of deep psychological problems and his mastery of the resources of the stage. In " The League of Youth " he deals with the force of public opinion and the consequent dread of scandals in the relations of the sexes ; in ' ' The Pillars of Society ' ' he castigates self- interested individuals who enjoy the confidence of the community and promote public schemes to feather their own pockets; in " The Wild Duck " he satirizes the unequal severity with which women are punished for sexual sins; " Eosmersholm " deals with the sordid nature of local politicians, and " Hedda Grabler ' : with the self-absorption of the typical girl of the period. These and a dozen similar " hypocrisies and the narrow ways of the sordid wayfaring that respectability has narrowed within the meagre hedge of lies and humbug which hem the silted and mean path of the convention-ridden Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 273 world " Ibsen has had the temerity to discuss with characteristic frankness. Best of all, his dramas are always dramas with ideas. One of his critics has truly said: " Like the old sea- dogs of whom he came and they left their mark upon his features and his soul he was a stubborn fighter. Peace he held as not the most desirable condition; the warfare of strenuous living was the more healthy for man. His eyes were the watchful eyes of the sailor folk, at constant guard for the threat of dan- ger that may leap forth on every hand out of the summer sky above, or the calm waters beneath, or from out the seething hell of the black, bewildering tempest ever ready for war with the elements without. So did he keep ward against the elements of weaknesses within. ' ' 1 Among the more recent authors may be men- tioned Jonas Lie, a prolific writer on the habits and customs of the Norwegian people; Mrs. Alvide Prydz, the foremost woman novelist, several of whose romances have been translated into English, German, and Eussian; Alexander Kielland, the author of a series of enchanting 1 Haldane MacFall: Ibsen: the Man, his Art, and his Sig- nificance. London, 1907. pp. 336. 274 In Viking Land novelettes; Arne Garborg, a writer of melodi- ous verses and firm sketches; Ivar Mortenson, a lyric poet and dreamer; Camilla Collet, the novelist who has championed energetically the emancipation of women; Amalie Skram, whose novels are of the unsavoury naturalist sort; and Fridtjof Nansen, the explorer, statesman, and author of scientific works. Concerning the writers of later date than Ibsen and Bjornson, and with special reference to the recently deceased Jonas Lie, Brinch- mann writes: " The awakening of realism in the sixties gradually brought forth a fresh series of talented authors. Bjornson 's peasant romances had already found successors in Magdelena Thoresen and Kristofer Janson. The latter, however, soon devoted himself to the preaching of Unitarianism, and was for ten years a preacher among his countrymen in North America. While this awakening ex- clusively, so far as Ibsen was concerned, and in Bjornson 's case, at any rate mainly, bene- fited the drama, it reached the field of romance through their contemporary in age and art, Jonas Lie, at about the same time. With his somewhat tardy debut as an author in 1870, he at once won the Norwegian literary world Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 275 by his delightful novel, ' The Visionary,' and followed up his victory by a series of fresh, every-day descriptions, some from Nordland l The Three-master Future ' some from sea-lif e ' The Pilot and his Wife,' 'Rut- land,' and ' Go Ahead.' The intuitive sense for the psychological which was apparent even here, attained its full development when he at length discovered the happy knack of convert- ing into an artistic form the manifold experi- ences he had acquired before his debut, by per- sonal participation in the speculations of the promoter period, right up to the crash. In a long series of impressionistically life-like pic- tures, he paints his careful observations of the vital processes of family and society ' One of Life's Slaves,' ' The Gilje Family,' ' A Whirlpool,' ' The Commodore's Daughters,' ' A Conjugal Union,' ' Evil Powers,' and ' When the Sun Goes Down.' Calmly and without delusion, he looks upon the ways of mankind; but in Jonas Lie we find, instead of the frigidity of contemporary naturalism, the intelligent sympathy of a warm nature, and the humour of a cheerful mind that speaks to the heart." Warmth and good nature likewise charac- 276 In Viking Land terized the sketches of Alexander Kielland. According to the historian of contemporary Norse literature already quoted, the great charm of Kielland 's descriptions " lies in the masterly way in which he handles his language, the well balanced verve of a man of the world. One after another, this author, whose maturity was evident from the very first, sent out a series of enchanting novelettes and excellent novels 'Work People,' 'Else,' 'Skipper Worse,' and ' Poison.' ' Both Lie and Kiel- land tried their hands at dramatic literature, but the field was so entirely occupied by Bjorn- son and Ibsen, that neither attained distinction in this department of letters. More than local success, however, has re- cently come to Gunnar Heilberg as a play- right. " King Midas," " Artists," " Gert's Garden," "The Balcony," and "The Great Lottery Prize " are characterized by compe- tent critics as masterpieces in dramatic art. More recently he has written comedies after the classic models of Aristophanes, in which he has caricatured the politicians and the press. A Norse writer says of his dramas: " A cuttingly keen intelligence sparkles out everywhere, and a merciless comprehension of Norse Letters and Henrik Ibsen 277 every detail that raises dissension among peo- ple with nerves." While most of the younger writers are not known in England and America, it seems more than likely that Gamle Norge has more than her share of the rainbow of literary promise, and that from among the sombre fjords and the bleak f jelds of Viking Land one may expect during the century that is before us more gi- ants of the Ibsen sort. FOLK-MUSIC AND EDVARD GRIEG Origin of Norwegian folk-songs How they typify the coun- try Significance of the epics Ancient musical instru- ments The Hardanger violin, the lur, and the langeleik Rhythms of the national dances Ole Bull and national music Labours of Kjerulf, Nordraak, Winter-Hjelm, and Christian Sinding Women composers Edvard Grieg the greatest of Norwegian creative tone-artists His early training and studies in Germany Wide range of his com- positions The national element of his music Pianoforte compositions Grieg's lyric art-songs Orchestral and chamber-music Place of Grieg in the history of music Concert virtuosi Norwegian pianists Choral socities and music festivals The Norwegian Musical Union. IF the dwellers of the deep fjords, the sombre fir-clad mountain valleys, and the bleak ice- fields do not " open their lips so readily for song " as the people of southern lands where the sun creates an eternal spring, it is not be- cause they are without lyric power as is clearly apparent from the rich and varied folk-songs and the splendid creative work of Edvard Grieg. The Norwegian folk-songs, spring dances, 278 Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 279 ballings, and wedding marches have been well characterized as the outpourings of the inner lives of the common people, the expression of their dauntless energy, their struggles and aspirations. The folk-song of Norway, more than in any other land, embodies the character and expresses the tendencies of viking life, ancient and modern. It bears the unmistakable marks of the weal and woe of Norse life, the strongly marked and regularly introduced rhythms of the developed and developing na- tional character. And while an undercurrent of melancholy runs through most of it, it is, after all, the faithful interpreter of the lives of isolated and solitary occupants of fjords, f jelds, and dalen. The folk-songs of Norway are singularly typical of the country and its inhabitants. Some " seem to take us into the dense forest among mocking echoes from the life outside; others show us the trolls tobogganing down the highest peaks of Norway; in some we feel human souls hovering above the reefs; in others, memories of the old sun-lit land flit be- fore us; but in none do we meet with senti- mentalism, despondency, or disconsolateness." But with their weird and minor strains, and 280 In Viking Land their odd jumps from low tones to high, on first acquaintance they strike the hearer as strange and elusive. Some of the epic songs, as in Telemarken, are of great antiquity. But it was not until the last century that Norse tone artists discov- ered the wealth that had long been cherished by the peasants of the fjords and mountain valleys. Lindeman (1812-1887) was the first to recognize the musical significance of Nor- wegian folk-songs. He collected many hundred national ballads, hymns, and dances and called attention to their richness and variety as thematic material for a school of national music. In Lindeman 's collection will be found songs which tell of the heroic exploits of old Norse vikings, kings, and earls of the heathen days of Thor and Odin, together with lyrics, deep and ardent, which sing of the loves, the joys and the sorrows of the humbler Chris- tian folks. The Hardanger violin, the lur and the lange- leik have played a leading role in the develop- ment of Norwegian folk-songs and dances. The Hardanger instrument is more arched than the ordinary violin ; there are four strings over the finger-board and four underneath, the lat- Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 281 ter of fine steel wire, acting as sympathetic strings. The men of the Hardanger fjord have long been distinguished for the workman- ship and tonal qualities of their violins, and with them the peasants have improvised the rich and varied impressions of nature which we find embodied in the folk-songs. The lur is a long wooden instrument of the trumpet order and is usually made of birch bark. It is much used in the mountains. The langeleik, or Norwegian harp, is a long, narrow, box-like stringed instrument, something of the char- acter of the ancient zither. It has seven strings and sound holes, but its tone is weak and monotonous. The national dances of Norway have bold rhythms which at once arrest the attention. Perhaps the most characteristic is the hailing, a solo dance in two-fourth time. It is usually danced by young men in country barns and its most striking feature is the kicking of the beam of the ceiling. In the story of Nils the fiddler in his novel Arne, Bjb'rnson has given this account of the hailing : * ' The music struck up, a deep silence followed, and he began. He dashed forward along the floor, his body in- clining to one side, half aslant, keeping time 282 In Viking Land to the fiddle. Crouching down he balanced himself, now on one foot, now on the other, flung his legs crosswise under him, sprang up again, and then moved on aslant as before. The fiddle was handled by skilful fingers and more and more fire was thrown into the tune. Nils threw his head back and suddenly his boot heel touched the beam." The spring dance is less vigorous but more graceful than the hailing. It is a round dance in three-quarter time in which two persons, or groups of two, participate. It is danced with a light springing step and has been compared with the mazurka by Liszt. Like the hailing, however, it is markedly individual in its pleas- ing combinations of tones. Forestier says of the spring dance of Norway: " There is a freshness, a sparkle, an energy, a graceful life about it that is invigorating." If Lindeman was the first to collect folk- songs and dances in Norway, Ole Bull (1810- 1880) was the first to popularize them. He was, as Grieg once declared, a pathbreaker for the young national music. At the early age of nineteen he sallied forth with his fiddle, and wherever he appeared in Europe and America he played the folk-music and national dances of Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 283 Norway. The favour which he found encour- aged his countrymen. His brilliant career glorified musical Norway ; gave it confidence to assert itself, and served as the inspiration of a long list of creative tone artists Kjerulf, Nordraak, Grieg, Svendsen, Winter-Hjelm, Binding, and Behrens to write out and ar- range for voice and modern instruments the music that had so long been preserved in the memories of the people. The best art-music of Norway has been built upon the folk-songs and dances of the common people. Half dan Kjerulf (1815-1868) was the first serious composer of the new art school. He lived during the trying period of Nor- wegian storm and stress, but he wrote some- thing like a hundred compositions, and in his songs is found " the bud of national feeling which has burst into full bloom in Grieg." Richard Nordraak (1842-1866), during his brief career, set music to several of Bjornson's plays and composed some strong pianoforte pieces and songs. " He was," says Siewers, " a man with a bold fresh way of looking at things, strong artistic interests, an untiring love of work, and deep national feeling. He had a decided influence upon his friend Grieg's 284 In Viking Land artistic views, and he is the connecting link be- tween Kjerulf and Grieg in the chain of Nor- wegian musical art." Otto Winter-Hjelm, who, with Grieg, at- tempted to establish a conservatory of music at Christiania after their return from Ger- many in the sixties, contributed much to the development of the national art of Norway by his excellent arrangements of hallings and spring dances for piano and violin. Thomas Thellefsen (1823-1874), a pupil and friend of Chopin, was distinguished as a national com- poser as well as a pianist, and Karl F. E. Neu- pert (1842-1888), who lived in America six years, did much by his concert tours and teach- ing to dignify Norse music. Johan Severin Svendsen, while a Norwegian by birth and training, has expatriated himself by his long residence in Denmark. So far as his compositions have national flavour they are German. Johan Selmer, while a prolific com- poser, will probably be best remembered as a conductor. Christian Sinding, after Grieg, is the best known Norwegian composer. His pro- ductions range from symphonies and sym- phonic poems through chamber music to romances. He is credited with a wide range Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 285 of musical ideas, deep artistic earnestness, and bold power of expression; but his composi- tions in the larger forms are thought unduly noisy and restless. Two women who have helped to make the music history of Norway are Agatha Backer- Grondahl and Catharinus Elling. Mrs. Backer- Grondahl was a pupil, first of Kjerulf and Winter-Hjelm, and later of Kullak, Hans von Biilow, and Liszt. Many of her songs and in- strumental pieces display fine artistic feeling and musical scholarship of no mean order. Catharinus Elling has ventured into the larger fields of music-forms and has produced operas, symphonies, and oratorios, as well as chamber music and songs. Her music drama " The Cossacks " is her most ambitious work. Says Henry T. Finck, an able American music critic: " When I had revelled in the music of Chopin and Wagner, Liszt and Franz, to the point of intoxication, I fancied that the last word had been said in harmony and melody; when lo! I came across the songs and piano pieces of Grieg, and once more found myself moved to tears of delight." 1 Edvard 1 For an excellent account of Grieg's art, see Mr. Finck's interesting little book: Edvard Grieg. London, 1906. pp. 130. 286 In Viking Land Grieg (1843-1907) undoubtedly occupies the foremost place among Norwegian composers. He is the highest representative of the Norse element in music, " the great beating heart of Norwegian musical art." On the paternal side Grieg is of Scotch an- cestry, his grandfather haying fled from the Highlands to Bergen after the unequal strug- gle between the English and Charles Edward Stuart, the Pretender. The lad 's musical gifts, however, seem directly attributable to his gifted Norwegian mother. She was a musician of some distinction and she gave Edvard his first piano lessons at the early age of six years. More important than these early lessons, re- marks Mr. Finck, " was the musical atmos- phere he was enabled to breathe at home. A boy who is destined to become a great genius can easily teach himself, but nothing can atone for the lack of that musical nutriment in child- hood and youth which builds the very tissues of that part of the brain which is set aside for musical impressions. Mrs. Grieg not only played a great deal en famille, but once a week she invited those of her friends who were fond of the art to a musical soiree. On such occa- sions the place of honour was usually given to MRS. BACKER - GRONDAHL. Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 287 Mozart and Weber, from whose operas selec- tions were performed, the hostess playing the orchestral parts on the pianoforte, and on occasions also assuming a vocal role to com- plete the cast. In a corner of the room sat a happy boy listening to this music." As a result of the solicitations of Ole Bull, who was the first to recognize the lad's excep- tional promise, Grieg's parents were induced to send him to Germany for further study. He entered the conservatory at Leipzig at the age of fifteen; studied the pianoforte under Mos- chels and Wenzel, and counterpoint, compo- sition, and instrumentation under Hauptmann, Eichter, and Beinecke. In 1863 he located at Copenhagen where he studied for a time with Gade; and four years later he began his musi- cal career in Norway, first as a teacher and concert artist, and from 1871 to 1877 with Svendsen as director of the musical union at Christiania. He was awarded a small life an- nuity by the Norwegian government in 1874, and in 1877 he retired to his home at Bergen where he devoted the last thirty years of his life to composition. 1 1 See an interesting article by Grieg, " My First Success," in the Westminster Review for July, 1905, Vof. 88, pp. 36-52. 288 In Viking Land As a creative tone artist Grieg was many sided; he wrote imperishable songs, splendid piano pieces, and strong and stirring orchestral numbers ; but the aspect of his work which has won largest appreciation for his art at home and abroad is the distinctly individual and national character of his music. Professor Wergeland remarks in this connection: " Of all the Norwegian composers of national music, none has touched as Grieg has, the spring of the idiomatically national. The mountain fairy, of whom Norwegian folk-lore tells; the mysterious spirit of the voices of the forest and the silence of the glen; the golden-haired and blue-eyed maiden, muse of the peasants and in- spirer of their lays, she who appears in the solitude and plays the lur and the langeleik, of whom the poets have sung eloquently but abstractly, she revealed herself at last in her eerie power, when Grieg took these ' boorish ' tunes and lent them a voice that could reach further than the first vibration and whispering of her fantastic zither. Thus Norwegian peas- ant music has reached a development which it could not otherwise get, has become what it is now bizarre, often morbid, sometimes bois- terously gay, full of wild grace, taunting and Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 289 jeering, yet plaintive and brooding, always singularly forceful and brilliant. Norwegians did not realize what possibilities were in them or their songs until Grieg put his hand to the elaboration of these tunes." Some German critics have pointed out that the element of nationalism is too pronounced in Grieg's music, meaning of course that the Norse rather than the German element has been made prominent. They assert that he has seized upon the narrow field of folk-song and dance as a convenient vehicle for personal peculiarities and that he speaks in a dialect rather than in the universal language of music. It must be admitted that Grieg's art represents a healthy reaction against foreign influence in Norway and that his music " smacks of the soil." In his elaboration of primitive harmo- nies, his artistic treatment of national melodies and dance rhythms, and their uses as motives in great and enduring musical structures, Grieg has dared offend the taste of a class of critics who maintain that real music must never strike the personal or national note but must be the vague and indefinite expression of generalities, what Carlyle once characterized as " atten- uated cosmopolitanism." 290 In Viking Land In reply to the German critics, Professor Wergeland 1 very properly says: "Music, as the fluctuating expression of man's moods, can hardly be restricted to any formula or domain of utterance. This would be to deprive it of its greatest virtue, that of being responsive and sympathetic to all phases of life, to all shades of sentiment. In the end, does not our choice depend upon our individual disposition, and does not all music begin, in its expression as well as in its appreciation, with the indi- vidual? If the artist pictures the elusive things we call life, with its thousand mirages, or the majestic mountain top, where the cool blue visions tell of immovable heights, even more sublime, who shall say which is the more perfect? " Henry T. Finck remarks in the same con- nection : ' ' When a German fancies that his country owns the world-language of music, one may pardon him, for national vanity is a uni- versal folly ; but when one who is not a German parrots this nonsense about ' dialects,' it is time to protest. Dialect signifies a provincial mode of speaking a language. What is Nor- 1 See his article " Grieg as a National Composer," in the North American Review, for September, 1902, Vol. 175, pp. 370-377. Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 291 way a province of, musically or otherwise? ' Certainly not of Germany. Grieg's genere pieces represent the pearls of his compositions. The arrangements of folk- songs and dances for the piano in " Pictures of Popular Life " (opus 19) are characterized by consummate lyric skill; and Ole Bull once declared that they were the finest representa- tions of Norse life that had been attempted. Grieg wrote one hundred and twenty-five songs, most of which take high rank. Finck is of the opinion that fewer fall below par than in the list of any other song writer. He adds: " I myself believe that Grieg in some of his songs equals Schubert at his best; indeed, I think he should and will be ranked ultimately as second to Schubert only; but it is in his later works that he rises to such heights, not in the earliest ones, in which he was still a little afraid to rely on his own wings." When it is recalled that Grieg was a pianist of exceptional merit, the large place occupied by pianoforte pieces twenty-eight of the seventy-three opus numbers is easily under- stood. Grieg's piano compositions, like those of Edward MacDowell, are brief, but they are veritable musical gems. The Jumbo idea in 292 In Viking Land music still lingers with minor professionals. They shrug their shoulders, remarks Finck, and exclaim: " Yes, that humming bird is very beautiful, but of course it cannot be ranked as high as an ostrich. Don't you see how small it is? ' Grieg composed nine works for the orches- tra; and here, as in lyric art-songs and piano- forte pieces, he reveals himself as a consum- mate master in painting delicate yet glowing colours. The music which he set to Ibsen's " Peer Gynt " brought him the largest meas- ure of fame as an orchestral composer. Indeed, it was more cordially received than the drama, as is indicated by this criticism by Hanslick: " Perhaps in a few years Ibsen's ' Peer Gynt ' will live only through Grieg's music, which, to my taste, has more poetry and artistic intelli- gence in every number than the whole five-act monstrosity of Ibsen." Among other notable orchestral and chamber music numbers may be mentioned a setting of Bjornson's " Sigurd the Crusader," " Bergliot," based upon the sagas of the Norse kings, a suite composed for the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Ludwig Holberg, and a number of choice cham- ber music pieces. Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 293 In closing, it may be remarked that Edvard Grieg has not only given Norway a conspicu- ous place on the map of musical Europe, but that he has influenced unmistakably composers of the rank of Tschaikowsky, the Russian Paderewski, the Pole, Eugene d 'Albert, the Scotch-English-German, Eichard Strauss, the German, and our own lamented Edward Mac- Dowell, the American, the sense of whose loss is still so fresh upon us. " From every point of view that interests the music lover," says Mr. Finck, " Grieg is one of the most original geniuses in the musical world of the present or past. His songs are a mine of melody, sur- passed in wealth only by Schubert's, and that only because there are more of Schubert's. In originality of harmony and modulation he has only six equals : Bach, Schubert, Chopin, Schu- mann, Wagner, and Liszt. In rhythmic inven- tion and combination he is inexhaustible, and as orchestrator he ranks among the most fas- cinating. To speak of such a man seven- eighths of whose works are still music of the future as a writer of ' dialect,' is surely the acme of unintelligence. If Grieg did stick to the fjord and never get out of it, even a Ger- man ought to thank heaven for it. Grieg in 294 In Viking Land a fjord is much more picturesque and more in- teresting to the world than he would have been in the Elbe or the Spree." While Norway has neither permanent opera nor permanent orchestras, she has produced concert virtuosi of a high order. Ole Bull, the so-called violin-king, already referred to, was unsurpassed in his day. Among piano artists may be named the talented composer Mrs. Ag- atha Backer-Grondahl, Thomas Thellefsen, Ed- mund Neupert, Martin Knutzen, and the great composer Edvard Grieg. The flutist Olaf Svenssen and the vocal artists Thorvald Lam- mers, Ingeborg Oselio-Bjornson, and Ellen Gulbranson have also brought distinction to their country. The male choirs of Norway have always played a leading role in the music life of the nation. The students', merchants', and art- ists' singing clubs at Christiania during the past seventy-five years have had artistic as well as patriotic aims. Music festivals, after the pattern of those held at Cincinnati, and Worcester and Springfield, Massachusetts, have also contributed toward the development of national music art. The most eminent cho- ral leaders in Norway have been Johan D. Folk-music and Edvard Grieg 295 Behrens, F. A. Reissiger, and O. A. Grondahl. The Norwegian Musical Union, already re- ferred to in connection with the discussion of the art of Edvard Grieg, has been active in the development of tonal ideals. Its aim has been to provide chamber concerts of a high order. Grieg and Svendsen were its first conductors. They were succeeded by Ole Olsen, who com- bined the talents of orchestral leader with those of composer, chorister, and band-leader. For many years he directed the Second Bri- gade Band at Christiania with the rank of cap- tain. Johan Selnler, also a composer, suc- ceeded Olsen in the direction of the Musical Union; and Tver Holter, a composer of sym- phonies, orchestral suites, chamber-music and vocal scores, followed Selmer. Other orches- tral leaders are Johan Hennum, Per Winge, and Johan Halvorsen. CHAPTER XX PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE Recent development of national art-consciousness First gen- eration of painters influenced by Denmark and Germany Dahl, Fearnley, Baade, and Frich The second period in the history of Norwegian painting and the influence of the Diisseldorf school National themes Contemporary ar- tists Otto Sinding, Heyerdahl, Thaulow, and Werenskiold The younger painters Sculpture allied with woodwork Stephen Sinding and Skeibrok Development of archi- tecture Timber buildings The cathedrals Old churches at Borgund, Vik, and Reinlid Domestic architecture. IN art as in so many other departments of thought, it was not until Norway was separated from Denmark that the national consciousness was aroused. And for many years following the union with Sweden her artists and art stu- dents got altogether too much of their inspira- tion in France and Germany to make possible the development of a distinctly national school. Indeed, Norwegian artists have yet to learn that Gamle Norge, with its endless physio- graphic and human types, is infinitely richer in inspiration and subjects than the older art countries of Europe. 296 Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 297 The first generation of Norwegian artists in- cludes Dahl, Fearnley, Baade, Frich, and Gor- bitz. Most of them received their art training at Copenhagen, and they were accordingly keenly influenced by the pronounced romantic landscape movement then in vogue in Denmark and Germany. Johan Christian Dahl (1788- 1857), the bell-wether of the flock, was an artist of lively and positive temperament, but his thoroughly cheerful and healthy nature spared him from the exaggerations of the decadent romantic traditions. He was a professor in the art academy at Dresden for many years, but he made frequent home visits, and he has left some splendid scenic descriptions of west- ern Norway, among which may be mentioned " The View from Stedje," " The Jostedal Glacier," and " The Birch in a Storm." Thomas Fearnley (1802-1842), a pupil of Dahl, consecrated his energies to decorative idealistic landscapes in Italy, Switzerland, and Norway. His most effective Norwegian sub- ject is " Labrofos," a fine waterfall in Tele- marken. Knud Baade (1808-1879), another pupil of Dahl, also lived abroad. His specialty was moonlight pictures. J. C. G. Frich (1810- 1858), another of Dahl's students, was the first 298 In Viking Land of the early painters to reside in Norway. The Norwegian scenes in the dining-room at Oscars- hall, Christiania, are among his best examples of decorative landscape. Johan Gorbitz (1782- 1852) won distinction as a portrait painter, but he spent most of his life abroad. The second period in the history of Nor- wegian painting is associated with the Diissel- dorf school and a marked tendency toward the choice of realistic subjects. But the Diissel- dorf school soon degenerated into sentimen- tality and superficial humour. In its healthier days," remarks Jens Thiis, " the school had dived into the world of reality to replenish its stock of subjects, but not nearly deep enough to result in historical paintings or representa- tions of country life in which the figures moved freely and naturally." Adolph Tidemand (1814-1876) represents the high-water mark of the Diisseldorf school. His genere pictures and representations of peas- ant life characteristic ethnic types, costumes and dwellings from different parts of the coun- try gave an altogether wholesome impetus to the native art of Norway. His painting of the dissenting Haugianere holding religious service in the cottage of a peasant, ' ' The Bridal Party Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 299 in Hardanger," " The Fanatics," " The Soli- tary Couple," and the ten decorative paintings at Oscarshall indicate his familiarity with the life of the common people. Tidemand had large interests and broad sympathies, and he influenced profoundly not only Norwegian painting, but also poetry, music, and the other culture currents of his day. The deep fjords and the bare mountains of western Norway had a sympathetic interpreter in Hans Gude, whose " Norwegian Land- scape," " Mountain View," and ' ' Christiania Fjord " in the national gallery at Christiania, represent him at his best. Herman August Cappelen (1827-1852) had more decided lyric qualities than his predecessors and contempo- raries. His " Dying-Out of the Primeval Forest ' ' is the most emphatically romantic pic- ture in Norwegian art ; and his two Telemarken paintings in the national gallery the forest scene and the waterfall indicate an intimate acquaintance with nature. The first thorough- going realist among Norwegian painters was Johan Frederik Eckerberg (1822-1870), whose " Saetersdal " and " Mountain Scenery " are treasured at Christiania. Other painters be- longing to the same period are Morten Miiller, 300 In Viking Land who painted Norwegian pine-woods and coast scenes; Erik Bodom (1829-1879), whose spe- cialty was deep, silent mountain tarns ; Sigvald Dahl, an animal and portrait painter, and Franz Boe (1820-1891), a painter of fruit, flowers, and still life. Scandinavian mythology found its first na- tive exponent in Peter Nicolai Arbo (1831- 1892), who came under the influence of French art. Ludwig Munthe (1841-1896) was also in- fluenced by the current French school. Two of his best paintings are in the national gallery at Christiania ' ' Winter off the Norwegian Coast ' ' and ' ' Autumn Evening. " Of a higher order of merit are the landscape paintings of Amaldus Nielsen, whose " Evening on the Hvaler islands " and " The Hardanger Fjord " are in the national gallery. Several of Nielsen's portraits are capitally done, that of Edvard Grieg, the composer, in the national gallery, possessing exceptional merit. The contemporary artists of Norway who have achieved more than national distinction Sinding, Heyerdahl, Peterssen, Werenskiold, Krohg, Thaulow, and Gerhard Munthe have come under the influence of the French open- air and the Munich schools. Otto Sinding, of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 301 the versatile family that has also produced a great composer and a great sculptor, has given evidence of widest range of pictorial talents. He has been eminently successful with genre and marine pieces, historical scenes, land- scapes, and scenes from the life of the peasants in Finmark and the arctic regions. His ' * Win- ter Scene in the Lofoten islands " in the na- tional gallery is one of his best landscape paint- ings. Peterssen and Heyerdahl belong to the re- form movement in art associated with impres- sionism. The work of Elif Peterssen has been distinguished by the perfection of its compo- sition, the excellence of its colour, and the sub- tlety of its psychological character. The scenery in his large " Nocturne," one of his best works, is taken from the neighbourhood of Christiania. He also has an excellent portrait of Edvard Grieg. The talent of Hans Heyer- dahl is of the more sensuous sort a voluptu- ous enjoyment of beauty, a love of delicate form, and an intoxication in the sweetness of colour. " The Two Sisters," in the gallery at Christiania, probably represents him at his best. In the contest for naturalism in art during 302 In Viking Land the early eighties, Werenskiold and Krohg formulated the programme of the new tendency and planned the strategic tactics for Norway. Erik Werenskiold, whose portraits of Ibsen, Nansen, and Bjb'rnson are so well known, has contributed two notable genre paintings to the national gallery at Christiania ' ' Funeral of a Peasant " and " Peasant Girls in Telemar- ken." Christian Krohg, to whom impression- ism has been " not merely a new view of art, but a new artistic form resting on new social, ethical, and religious theories," has attained highest artistic perfection in his representa- tions of scenes in Skagen. After his return from France Fritz Thaulow founded an open-air art school at Modum, where he succeeded in gathering about him a consid- erable number of promising young landscape painters. Jens Thiis says of him: " Enthusi- astic and amiable, rich and independent, active and handsome, full of good humour and bold confidence, he was the central figure in the young generation of artists. " Three of his best paintings " Haugfos," " The Road in Kra- gero," and " A Winter's Day " are in the national gallery at Christiania, and one excel- lent piece ' ' The Wet Day " is in a pri- Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 303 vate collection in America. The leading char- acteristics of Thaulow's paintings are frank- ness of individuality, freshness of outlook, healthy naturalism, and love of bright colours. His mastery of technique is something wonder- ful, but he is altogether too sincere an artist to let mere technical accomplishments allure him into ostentations. The highly imaginative Gerhard Munthe, whose youthful grotesque polychrome fairy scenes in the hotel at Holmenkollen proclaimed him as something of a freak, has done more solid work as he has matured. In the matter of representations of peasant life and the illus- tration of fairy tales he has been something of a missionary. Among other Norwegians who have rallied round the banner of naturalism are Christian Skredsvig, Nicolai Ulfsten, Jacob Gloersen, and Harriet Backer. Among the younger Norwegian artists of promise may be mentioned Gustav Wentzel, whose " Midday Meal," " Peasants Dancing," and snow scenes are masterpieces of colouring ; Eyolf Soot, also a great colourist, whose por- trait of Bjornson is well known; Svend Jor- gensen, the artist of the simple feelings of sim- ple people, Halfdan Storm, Edvard Munch, 304 In Viking Land Thorolf Holmboe, and a dozen other young painters who constitute the bow of promise of Norway's future art history. Sculpture in Norway is so closely allied with wood-work and the industrial arts that it is not easy to dissociate them from the higher forms of plastic art. Wood carving is probably the oldest of the fine arts in Norway and it was the starting point in the development of sculpture. As early as the eighth century as is apparent from the recently discovered viking ship at Oseberg the Norwegians had attained a rela- tively high degree of skill in wood carving and the ornamentation of boats and wooden house- hold utensils. While the ornamental treatment of wood forms a good starting point for fur- ther artistic training in the plastic arts, it has doubtless been a drawback in the highest fields of sculpture. Dietrichson has called attention to the fact that it takes a long time for artists trained in wood-carving to shake off tradition and turn from the ornamental, which is their strong point, to the free representation of the human figure, which is the chief domain of sculpture. Magnus Elisen Berg (1666-1739), while more of a carver in ivory than a sculptor, influenced Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 305 profoundly the early history of plastic art in Norway. Hans Michelsen (1789-1859), whose twelve apostles are in the cathedral at Trond- hjem, represents the highest development in sculpture during the first generation of the last century. Borch, Middlethun, Hausen, and Grlosimodt belong to the second generation, and Budal, Brynjulf, Bergslein, Fladager, and Jacobsen to the third generation, but few of the works of these sculptors are of exceptional merit. The two most conspicuous Norwegian sculp- tors are Stephen Sinding and Matthias Skei- brok. Two of Sinding 's best pieces are the statues of Ibsen and Bjornson in front of the national theatre at Christiania, and Skeibrok's best work is the group for the tympanum of the faade of the university at Christiania. His " Mother Waking " in the national gallery is much praised for its classical purity. Axel Ender, whose painting representing the women at the sepulchre in the church at Molde, is also a sculptor of note. His statue of Tordenskjold, the great Norwegian naval commander, adorns one of the public squares in Christiania. The development of architecture in Norway 306 In Viking Land is associated with the construction of timber buildings. The heathen temples were built of wood and were richly ornamented. Most of them were burned or altered to meet the needs of Christian worship during the tenth and eleventh centuries. Some of the earliest ex- isting Christian churches, dating from the eleventh century, are built of rough-hewn stone, with narrow sanctuaries but without side aisles. The Norman-Eomanesque architecture, which had developed in northern France and England, furnished the models for the earliest cathedrals built at Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Hamar. An account of the vicissitudes of the national cathedral at Trondhjem has been given in a previous chapter. The cathedral at Stavanger was built toward the close of the eleventh cen- tury, but was burned a hundred years later and was rebuilt in the Gothic style. It was sadly disfigured during the Lutheran reformation, but has recently been restored. The ruined cathedral at Hamar dates from the twelfth century. Besides the early stone churches of the larger towns, in the smaller places houses of worship were built of wood. These were in the Eoman- Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 307 esque style of architecture, both as regards the general form and the ornamental embellish- ments. An account of the old timber church at Borgund has already been given. There is also a fine thirteenth century timber church at Rein- lid near Fjeldheim in Valders. The old church at Vik on the Sogne fjord, which has been re- stored, is an example of an ancient temple. The church at Hitterdal is the largest of the existing twenty-four mediaeval timber churches. The early domestic architecture of Norway is extremely interesting. A number of timber houses, which date from the thirteenth century, are still in excellent state of preservation. Sev- eral fine old houses have been transferred from Numedal, Gudbransdal, and Telemarken to the grounds of the national museum at Bygdo near Christiania. The Finneloft at Vossvangen has already been referred to. Most of the early timber houses contain one large room and two smaller ones. Both inside and outside the mas- sive timbers of the walls are visible, with their cross-joints at the corners, the roofs jutting far out over the gables. " These one-story dwell- ing houses," remarks Johan Meyer, " with their low, verdant turf-roof above the nut- 308 In Viking Land brown walls, are often remarked for their good proportions; and the comparatively highly decorated verandas heighten the picturesque effect." THE END. APPENDIXES I. SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS THE appended list of books on Norway will suggest to the traveller some of the more gen- eral sources of information. There are in English three well-known guide-books on Nor- way the Baedeker, the Cook, and the Ben- nett. The first-named is unquestionably the best. Its information is more complete and more to the point than either of the others. Chapter X gives detailed information con- cerning methods of travel so that little more need be said. The conditions there pointed out, however, make it almost necessary for the hurried traveller to arrange with one of the tourist bureaus for his carriages and boats; and even the travellers who make the tour of the country with comparative leisure will lessen the chances of discomfort by securing the co- operation of such an agency. Thomas Ben- nett & Sons, with offices at Christiania, Bergen, 809 3 10 Appendixes Trondhjem, and Stavanger, have operated in the country for more than half a century. I have taken their tours and I have talked with many travellers who have planned and exe- cuted their trips with the aid of the Bennetts ; and I have heard only words of the highest commendation for the excellence and the reli- ability of their service. As noted in the first chapter, the summer season in Norway is very brief. It is limited to six weeks, or at best to two months if the North Cape is the objective point. But even during the summer the weather may be uncom- fortably cool (as it may sometimes be uncom- fortably warm), and the traveller should pro- vide himself with warm wraps. The fogs and rains sometimes seriously interfere with the comfort of travel north of Trondhjem; but, barring dust, mosquitoes, and occasional rains, overland travel in the central and southern parts of the country is usually attended with comfort during July and August. There are, of course, winter sports and amusements in Norway during the long and cold winter months, as pointed out in Chapter XVII; but these diversions are limited to re- stricted areas. Moreover, inland travel the Appendixes 311 sections covered by the interesting and pic- turesque mountain valleys is not feasible during the winter. Norway is not suitable for walking tours. The distances are too great and the points of interest too far apart. On the other hand, cyclists who do not object to pushing their machines a part of the time, will find that method of travel both pleasurable and inex- pensive. Cyclists who take their wheels with them may escape the annoying customs regula- tions by taking membership in the English Cyclists' Touring Club or the Touring Club de France. The public highways, as already noted, are excellent, and the wayside inns, while very primitive, are comfortable, and if one can adapt himself to a fish diet, the food will be found satisfactory. Couriers are not necessary; for, even in the less -travelled sections of the country, English- speaking Norwegians may be found. The peo- ple are quick in the acquisition of foreign lan- guages and many Norwegians who have lived for years in America, and thus acquired our speech, have returned to the fatherland. If, however, couriers are desired, they may be se- cured through the tourist agencies. 312 Appendixes The monetary system of Norway is the same as in Denmark and Sweden. The krone, worth from twenty-seven to twenty-eight cents of American money, is the unit, and this is divided into one hundred ore. The universal honesty of the people, however, minimizes this difficulty in travel. Telegraph and telephone offices are found everywhere, even in the remote and sparsely settled rural sections of the country. Eailway fares in Norway are about the same as in the other countries of Europe. The serv- ice is very fair, but the speed is slow. Express trains rarely exceed twenty-five miles an hour and ordinary trains seldom reach twenty miles. Passengers are customarily permitted about sixty pounds of free checked-baggage. In the overland travel with the stolkjserre, however, one cannot take more than thirty or forty pounds. Sportsmen are required to have a govern- ment shooting license, which costs about twenty- seven dollars ; and for hunting reindeer, stags, and elk the license costs twice this amount. The best reindeer shooting is to be found in the Hallingdal, the Hardanger, the Eomsdal, and Finmark. One must have the hunting li- cense not only for the forest lands and the gov- Appendixes 313 eminent reserves, but also to shoot on private property. There are excellent trout and sal- mon streams in Norway, but Englishmen have leased the best inland fishing waters. Some of the streams have been leased by the pro- prietors of hotels for the benefit of their guests. This is true of the Loen river, which has been leased by the proprietor of Hotel Alexandria at Loen on one of the branches of the Nord fjord. For information concerning close sea- sons, which vary in different parts of the coun- try, sportsmen should consult " Norwegian Anglings and Sportings," an annual publica- tion issued at 34 St. James Street, London, by J. A. Lumley & Co. II. BIBLIOGRAPHY BOYESEN, HJALMAR H. The Story of Norvmy. New York, 1887. pp. 556. A brief but excellent survey of Norwegian history. CATON, JOHN DEAN. A Summer in Norway. Chicago, 1875. pp. 401. Travel notes of a very general character. CHAPMAN, ABEL. Wild Norway. London, 1897. pp. 358. An excellent book from the viewpoint of the sportsman. COOPER, A. HEATON. The Norwegian Fjords. London, 1907. pp. 178. Paintings and descriptions by an English artist. Thoroughly interesting. CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Akron, Ohio, 1903. pp. 505. Very readable newspaper sketches. Pp. 56-259 devoted to Norway. DuCHAiLLU, PAUL B. The Land of the Midnight Sun. New York, 1882. 2 vols. Comprehensive descriptions of Norway and Lapland. GOODMAN, E. J. The Best Tour in Norway. London, 1892. pp. 336. The author undertakes to outline a tour of three or four weeks. HERVEY, HETTA M. Glimpses of Norseland. Boston (1889). pp. 242. A pleasant descriptive account of the west-coast fjords. JUNQMAN, Nico. Norway. London (1905). pp. 199. The coloured illustrations are interesting, but the text is inconsequential. KEARY, CHARLES FRANCIS. Norway and the Norwegians. New York, 1902. pp. 402. A rather informing book. Norway: Official Publication for the Paris Exposition of 1900. Christiania, 1900. pp. 626. 314 Appendixes 3 15 Encyclopaedic in scope and thoroughly reliable in its informa- tion. There are thirty-nine chapters, and each chapter has been prepared by a specialist. STONE, OLIVIA M. Norway in June. London, 1882. pp. 448. Diary of an observant English woman, especially valuable for the abundance of details of the manners and customs of the rural population. TAYLOR, BAYARD. Northern Travel: Summer and Winter Pic- tures. New York, 1863. pp. 436. Contrary to his customary travel habits, Taylor was severely critical of the Norwegians and he found a lot of fault with them. TYLER, KATHERINE M. The Story of a Scandinavian Summer. New York, 1881. pp. 394. Travel notes of passing interest. VINCENT, FRANK. Norsk, Lapp, and Finn; or, Travel Tracings from the Far North of Europe. New York, 1881. pp. 263. Rather agreeable travel sketches. WOOD, CHARLES M. Norwegian By-Ways. London, 1903. pp 384. Descriptions of the southern provinces of Norway. WYLLIE, M. A. Norway and Its Fjords. London (1907). pp. 315. An account of the fjords with sixteen illustrations in colours. INDEX Aalesund, 189. Aalsad, 201. Aas, 138. Aason, Ivar, 91, 145, 261. Accident insurance, 102. Agdenes, 81. Agricultural College, 138. Agriculture, 17, 163-177. Akershus, 178, 249. Akers river, 248. d'Albert, Eugene, 293. Albrecht, 54. Alfred the Great, 28. Algerian pirates, 241. Alexander III., King of Scot- land, 49, 50. Amboise, 21. Ambulatory schools, 132. America, 30, 36, 37, 64, 95, 303. See also United States. Americans, 88. Amne'us, G., quoted, 100. Anne of Denmark, 247. Anglo-Americans, 87. Anglo-Norman architecture, 228 Animals, 12-14, 106, Anund, 29. Apples, 165. Arbitration courts, 103. Arbo, Peter Nicolai, 88, 300. Architecture, 228-232, 255, 305-308. Arci of Norway, 98. ArLoOphanes, 276. Army, 79-80. Art. Sec Painting and Sculp- ture. Art schools, 138. Aryan race, 87. Asbjornsen, P. C., 147, 250. Asgard, 117. Asiatic cholera, 97. Athanasian creed, 125. Athelstan, King of England, 31. Audhumbla, 116. Auk. 14. Aun, 29. Aurora borealis, 10, 10fc-107, 118, 161, 256. B Baade, Knud, 297. Backer-Grondahl, Agatha, 285, 294. Backer, Harriet, 303. Badstue, 167. Ba?gna river, 214, 215. Baltic provinces, 35. Baltic sea, 4, 21. Bandak lake, 159. Banks, 85-86. Baptists, 116. Barley, 164, 188. Bathing, 169. Bears, 12. 317 318 Index Beauvois, 21. Bede psalm book, 129. Begging, 95. Behrens, Johan D., 294. Belgium, 189. Bennett, Thomas, and Sons, 309. Berg, Magnus Elisen, 304. Bergen, summer light, 10; rainfall, 11; parliament, 45; county, 77; courts, 79; fortress, 81; population, 100; technical schools, 137; libraries, 139; newspapers, 140; railways, 156; steam- boats, 158; fisheries, 183; industries, 186; commerce, 189; first bishop, 227; lo- cation, 234; foundation, 235; Haakon's Hall, 236; Han- seatic league, 237; treaty with Lubeck, 238; fires, 241; commerce, 242; industrial arts, 243; municipal admin- istration, 244; art gallery, 245; hospitals, 246; birth- place of Edvard Grieg, 286; tourist bureau, 309. Bergslien, Brynjulf, 250, 305. Bernadotte. See Charles XIV. John. Bible, 263. Bibliography, 314-315. Bilberry, 15. Birch trees, 179. Birchlegs, 46, 236. Birds, 13-14. Birth-rate, 99. Bishops, 127, 226. Bjorne fjord, 193. Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, con- nection with newspapers, 140, 143; literary influence, 149; account of a sseter, 170; sketch, 265; novels, 266; personality, 267; " Arne," 281; "Sigurd the Crusa- der," 292; portrait by We- renskiold, 302; by Soot, 303; statue by Sinding, 305; quoted, 89, 91, 203, 265. Blaaflaten, 212. Blackbirds, 13. " Black Death," 52, 230. Blaeberry, 15. Blue bells, 15. Boats, 157, 184. Bodo, 10. Bodom, Erik, 300. Boe, Anna, 140. Boe, Franz, 300. Bondhusbrse, 6. Borgund church, 212-213, 307. Boyesen, Hjalmar H., quoted, 21, 39, 48, 56, 160; bibliog- raphy, 314. Bragi, 122. " Brand " by Ibsen, 270. Bredvik, 207. Brekespere, Nicholas, 227. Bremen, 226. British Isles, 223. See also England and Great Bri- tain. Brinchmann, Chr., 262, 264, 274. Bronchial catarrh, 97. Bronze age, 17. Brude Slur, 200. Bruce, Isabella, 50, 51. Bruce, Robert, 50. Bruun, 261. Bukn fjord, 8. Bull, Ole, 244, 282, 294, von Billow, Hans, 285. Burbrse, 6. Bureaucratic party, 142 Burial customs, 23-24. Burke, Edmund, 217. Butter, 170, 188. Bygdo, 255, 307. Bygland, 157. Byglands fjord, 206. Index 319 Cabinet officers, 76. Canals, 159-160. Canons, 6. Canterbury, 228. Cape Cod, 37. Capital punishment, 77. Cappelen, Herman August, 299. Carl-Johans Gaden, 249. Carlyle, Thomas, 224, 289. Carriole, 152, 207. Cathedrals, 228-232, 306. Caton, John Dean, bibliog- raphy, 314. Celibacy, 125. Cereals, 83, 165, 187. Chamber music, 284. Chapman, Abel, bibliography, 314. Charlemagne, 35. Charles XIV John, 66-67, 250. Charles XV, 68. Cherries, 165. Cheese, 112, 170, 172. Chicago, 23. Child labour, 101. Choirs, 294. Chopin, Frederic, 284, 293. Christian I, 57. Christian II, 58, 125. Christian III, 125. Christian IV, 61, 63, 248, 250. Christian V, 62. Christian VII, 64. Christiania, summer day, 10; climate, 11; plant life, 14; viking ships, 23; university, 23, 64, 135-137, 305; founda- tion, 61; social season, 74; county, 77; prisons, 78; courts, 79; banks, 85; pop- ulation, 100; art schools, 138; libraries, 139; news- papers, 140;' railways, 156; industries, 186; commerce, 189; first bishop, 227; loca- tion, 247; fires, 248; public buildings, 249; control of the sale of liquor, 250; win- ter sports, 256; musical union 287; singing clubs, 294; art gallery, 300; tourist bureau, 309. Christiania fjord, 17, 254, 299. Christian religion, 20, 31, 33, 35-36, 38, 119, 124, 226. Christiansand, 61, 81. Christopher of Bavaria, 57. Churches, 212-213, See also Cathedrals and Temples. Cincinnati, 294. Clausspn, Peder, 149. Cleanliness, 94. Clergy, 127-128. Climate, 10-12, 104. Cloudberry, 15. Cod-fish, 182. Co-education, 133, 136. Collet, Camilla, 274. Columbus, Christopher, 36. Commerce, 187-189. Community farms, 177. Complexion, 89. Confirmation, 128. Conifers, 179. Consular service, 69-70. Continuation schools, 134. Cooper, A. Heaton, quoted, 199; bibliography, 314. Copenhagen, 33, 57, 263, 297. Copper, 61, 187. Cormorant, 14. Cornel, 15. Costumes. See Dress. Cotter's places, 176. County government, 77. Couriers, 311. Courts of law, 78-79. Cows, 166. Cremation, 18. Crime, 78, 253. Crowberry, 15. 320 Index Crusades, 42, 49. Cultivation funds, 175. Curtis, William Eleroy, quoted, 105, 165, 173, 267; bibliography, 314. Cyclists, 311. D Dahl, Johan Christian, 91, 245, 297. Dahl, Sigvald, 300. Dairying, 169. Dakotas, 173. Dalen, 207. Dances, 278, 281-282. Danes, 87. Dano-Norwegian language, 145, 264. Dass, Peder, 263. Death-rate, 97, Debt. See National debt. Deer, 12. Denmark, 19, 28, 33, 35, 40, 52, 53, 65, 67, 100, 125, 131, 140, 242. Dialects, 145. Dissenters, 126-127. Dogberry, 15. Dogs, 113. " Doll's House " by Ibsen, 269. Domestic architecture, 307. Dorchester, 22. Dorsten, 21. Dovrefjeld, 2, 3, 10, 11, 43, 205 Drammen, 98, 189, 248. Dress, 109, 194, 198, 206, 207, 215. Dresden, 297. Drobak, 136, 256. Drowned valleys, 190. Dublin, 22. Du Chaillu, Paul B., bibliog- raphy, 314. Dusseldorf, 298. E Eagles, 13. Eckersberg, Johan Frederick, 245, 299. Eddas, 116. Edible berries, 15. Education, 131-150, 176. Edward I, King of England, 50. Edward VII, King of England, 73. Eid fjord, 195. Eide, 195. Eider ducks, 14, 161. Eidsvold constitution, 66, 126, 139, 140, 265. Elbe river, 294. Elementary schools, 132-134. Elk, 12. Elling, Catherinus, 285. Emigration, 99, 173. Endemic diseases, 97. Ender, Axel, 203, 305. England, 19, 22, 28, 30, 3*, 35, 40, 65, 84, 90, 223, 228, 240, 242. See also Great Brit- am. English language, 87, 93. English Cyclists' Touring Club, 311. Entails, 177. Epidemic diseases, 97. Eric Haakonsson, 4 36-38, 221. Eric of Pomerania, 54. Eric the Blood- Axe, 31. Eric the Priest-Hater, 50. Eskimos, 108. Espelandsfos, 195. Esthonia, 34. Ethelred. King of England, 35 Ethnic stock, 87-88. Expenditures, 81. Exports, 188. Eyestein, 42. Index 321 Factory laws, 101. Fagernses, 156, 214. Falcons, 13. Falk, Hjalmar, 144, 147. Falkoping, 54. Fall River, Mass., 37. Farm life, 163-177. Farmsteads, 167-170, 172, 197. Faroe islands, 22, 30, 46. Fearnley, Thomas, 246, 297. Femsj Sen lake, 159. Feudal system, 21, 90. Fillefjeld, 3, 154, 212. Finck, Henry T., quoted, 285, 290. Fines, 78. Finland, 65, 107, 114, 131, 136. 253. Finmark, 6, 13, 62, 105, 113, 164, 178, 181, 301, 312. Finneloft, 209, 307. Finns, 109, 114. Fir trees, 179. Fischer, Karl, quoted, 142, 143. Fish, 171, 240. Fisheries, 181-185. Fishing-boats, 184. Fish-market at Bergen, 243- 244. Fjeldberg, 11. Fjeldheim, 215, 307. Fjelds, 205-219. See also Mountains. Fjone, 29. Fjords, nature, 1; described by Froude, 159; of the west- coast, 190-204; depth, 191; Hardanger, 193; Eid, 195; Sor, 195; Sogne, 19-5-197; Nsero, 196-197; Nord, 197; Geiranger, 199; Stor, 199; Norangs, 201; Molde, 202; Trondhjem, 203; Byglands, 206; Strande, 215; Chris- tiania, 254. Fjord boats, 157. Fjord steamer yachts, 158. Fladbrod, 172. Flanders, 19. Flateland, 207. Fleischer's Hotel, 209. Flekkefjord, 157. Flemish, 157. Flowers, 14-15. Folden fjord, 8. Folgefonde, 6. Folk-music, 278-295. Folk-songs, 279. Fondalen, 5. Fontenelle, 21. Food, 171, 187, 311. Foreign loans, 84. Forests, 178-181. Fortresses, 249. Foxes, 12, 13. Foxglove, 15. France, 19, 21, 30, 31, 35, 84, 183, 302, 306. Franklin, Sir John, 104. Frederick I, 59, 125. Frederick II, 61. Frederick III, 61-62. Frederick IV, 62-63. Frederick V, 63. Frederick VIII, King of Den- mark, 73. Fredrikshald, 159. Fredrikstad, 189. Free-trade policies, 83. Frey, 29, 120. Freydunlund, 215. Frich, J. C. G., 245, 287. Friesland, 240. Frithjof's saga, 255. Frouae, James Anthony, 159- Fruits, J64. Funerals, 130. G Gadfly, 112. Galdhopig, 2. Game laws, 13. 322 Index Garborg, Arne, 91, 144, 274. Gauls, 20. Gausdalsfos, 199. Geiranger fjord, 154, 199-202. Genre pictures, 298. Gentians, 15. Geography of Scandinavia, 1- 15. George I, King of Greece, 73. Germany, 4, 21, 33, 49, 63, 84, 87, 124, 183. Glacial lakes, 198. Glaciers, 3-6, 198. Glittertind, 2. Gloersen, Jacob, 303. Glutton, 12. Gnomes, 203. Godfrey the Hunter, 30. Gokstad ship, 23-25. Gol, 255. Goodman, E. J., bibliography, 314. Gooseberries, 165. Gorbitz, Johan, 245, 298. Goteborg system, 250. Gothic architecture, 228. Government of Norway, 74-78. Grammar, 261. Granite, 187. Grass, 165. Graven fjord, 195. Grave-ships, 23-27. Grazing lands, 163. Great Britain, 19, 189. See also England. Greece, 35, 121. Greenland, 4, 36, 184, 227, 239. Grieg, Edvard, Ole Bull's es- timate, 282; place in the history of music, 285; pa- rentage, 286; musical edu- cation, 287; national music, 288; Finck's estimate, 290; genre pieces, 291; orches- tral compositions, 292; mu- sical union, 295; portrait by Nielsen, 300; by Peterssen, 301. Groceries, 188. Grondahl, Agatha. See Backer-Grondahl. Grondahl, O. A., 295. Grotlid, 201. Grouse, 13. Grimstad, 11. Gudbransdal, 88, 156, 187, 201, 206, 218-219, 307. Gude, Hans, 245, 255, 299. Gudvangen, 154, 209. Guide-books, 309. Gula river, 52. Gulbranson, Ellen, 294. Gulf Stream, 11, 162. Gulsvik, 157. Gunhild, 33. Gustav, Prince of Denmark, 73. Guthorm Sigurdsson, 48. H Haakon, Earl, 33-34. Haakon Haakonsson, 49, 228, 236, 238. Haakon Sigurdsson, 45. Haakon Sverresson, 48. Haakon the Broad-Shoulders. See Haakon Sigurdsson. Haakon the Good, 31-33, 119. Haakon the Long-Legs, 51, 229. Haakon VII 73-74. " Haakon VII." steamer, 159. Haakon's Hall, 236, 244. Hseg, 213. Hale, William Barton, xi. Halfdan the Swarthy, 30. Halfdan the White-Leg, 29. Hallingdal, 205, 208, 255, 312. Hallings, 279. Halvorsen, Johan, 295. Hamar, 61, 98, 156, 181, 227, 306. Index 323 Hamburg, 226. Hammerfest, 8, 106, 140. Handicrafts, 137, 185, 236. Hanko, 255. Hanseatic league, 50, 58, 59, 237-241, 247, 262. Hanslick, Eduard, 292. Harald Gille, 43, 236. Harald Greyfell, 32-33. Harald Gronske, 222. Harald, Prince of Denmark, 73. Harald the Fair-Haired, 28, 30, 31, 222. Harald the Hard-Ruler, 40, 247. Hardanger fjeld, 3. Hardanger fjord, 7, 186, 193- 195, 299, 300, 312. Hauge, Hans Nielsen, 126-127. Haugefos, 302. Haugianere, 126-127, 298. Haugland, Baard, 91. Haukelfjeld, 154, 207. Haymaking, 165-166. Head-dresses, 194. Heathenism, 115. Hebrews, 93, 115, 126. Hebrides islands, 22, 30, 42, 58, 227 "Hed'da Gabler " by Ibsen, 272 Keen,' 215. Heilberg, Gunnar, 276. Heimdall, 120. Hekla, eruption of, 52. Hell, 157. Hellesyet, 200. Hennum, Johan, 295. Hepaticas, 15. Hereditary aristocracy, 90. Herjedalen, 61. Hero-worship, 122. Herring, 183. Hervey, Hetta M., bibliog- raphy, 314. Heyerdahl, Hans, 301. Highways, 151-154, 201, 209- 211, 311. Hill-sliding, 258. History of Norway, 16-86. Hitterdal, 307. Hitterdal lake, 159. Hielm. See Winter-Hjelm. Hladir, 122. Holberg, Ludvig, 244, 263, 292 Holen, 227. Holidays, 101, 126. Holland, 240. Holmboe, Thorolf, 304. Holmenkollen, 256, 303. Holter, Ivar, 295. Holstein, 57, 59. Holy Land, 44, 49. Holy Roman Empire, 28. Honesty, 92. Honeysuckle, 15. Horgheim, 217. Horses, 153-154, 167. Horten, 137. Horticulture, 165. Hotels, 311. Houses, 167, 209. Hungary, 99. Husum, 212. Hvalo, 8. Ibsen, Henrik, journalistic la- bours, 140; as a reformer, 268; his art, 269; "Brand," 270; "Peer Gynt," 271; psychological problems, 272 ; critical estimate, 273 ; Grieg's music and Ibsen, 293; por- trait by Werenskiold, 302; statue by Sinding, 305. Ice-field, 155, 198. See also Glaciers. Iceland, 30, 122, 227. Icelanders, 87. Ice-pegging, 258. Ildhaus, 167. 324 Index Illegitimacy, 95. Imports, 187. Incest, 78, 95. Income tax, 82. Indus river, 218. Industrial arts, 18, 243. Industries, 185-187. Infanticide, 95. Inge Baardsson, 49. Ingjold, 29. Insurance, 102. Intelligence party, 142. Iowa, 173. " Irma " steamer, 159. Ireland, 22, 30, 42, 99. Iron, 186. Iron age, 18. Islands, 7-9, 157. Italy, 30, 31, 297. Jacobsen, Carl Ludwig, 250. Janson, Kristofer, 274. James I, King of England, 247. James III, King of Scotland, 58. Jan Mayen, 184. Jemtland, 61. Jesuits, 126. Jews. See Hebrews. Jordalsnut, 210. Jorgensen, Svend, 303. Jostedal, 5. Jostedalsbrae, 5, 198. 297. Jotunheim, 2, 117, 199, 215. Jotuns, 203. Journals. See Newspapers. Judiciary, 78. Jungman, Nico, bibliography, 314. K Kaldafjeld, 210. Kalmar union, 49, 55-56, 58, 260. Karelians, 58. Karlstad, 72. Keary, Charles Francis, bibli- ography, 314. Khalsi, 218. Kiel, treaty of, 65. Kielland, Alexander, 273, 276. Kilefos, 210. Kindness to animals, 153. Kingsley, Charles, 165. Kittiwake, 14. Kjendalsbrce, 198. Kjerulf, Halfdan, 283. Kjolen mountains, 2. Knudsen, K., 147. Knutzen, Martin, 294. Kongsberg, 61, 98, 186, 248. Kragero, 302. Krohg, Christian, 302. Krone, 85, 312. Kullak, Theodore, 285. Kvalo, 8. Labour laws, 101. Labrofos, 297. Ladak, 218. Lsera river, 212. Lserdalsoren, 12, 154, 212. Lagthing, 76. Lakes, 198, 204, 215, 216. Landed property, 164. Landsmaal, 144. Landstorm, 80. Landvern, 80. Land-tenure, 30. Langeleik, 280. Langfjeld, 2, 3, 178, 205, Language, 144, 260. Lapland, 12, 107. Lapps, Danish extortion of, 63 ; pasture rights, 71 ; eth- nic stock, 108; manner of dress, 109; groups, 110; occupations, 111; summer pastures, 214; use of the ski, 25?. Index 325 Larkspur, 15. Latin races, 92. Laws of Norway, 77. Leather, 186. Leif, son of Eric the Red, 36 Leipzig, 287. Lemmings, 13. Lemstrom, 107. Leprosy, 98, 246. Lesjkogen lake, 216. Libraries, 139. Lie, Jonas, 144, 273-275. Lillehammer, 156. Lindesnses, 11, 68. Lindmann, L. M., 280. " Liquor plague," 251. Liquor traffic, 83, 250. Liszt, Franz, 282, 285, 293. Literacy, 131. Literature, 260-277. Loan funds, 174. Locks, 160. Loen, 133, 172, 198, 313. Loendal, 198. Loenvand, 198. Lofoten islands, 7, 8-9, 182, 203, 301. Log-floating, 180. Loire river, 21. Loke, 120. London, 237. Lorn, 154. Lotefos, 195. Louis IX, King of France, 49. Loveid, 160. Lubeck, 238. Lur, 280. Luther, Martin, 59, 115, 124. Lutheran religion, 124-130, 131, 263. Lungstuen, 8. Lynx, 12. M MacDowell, Edward, 291, 293. Mackerel, 183. MacFall, Haldane, 269. Magero, 7, 106. Magnus Ericsson, 51, 239. Magnus Erlingsson, 45. Magnus Olafsson, 39. Magnus the Bare-Leg, 41. Magnus the Blind, 43. Magnus the Good, 39. Magnus the Law-Mender, 49- 50, 235. Magpies, 13. Malt, 83. Man, Isle of, 50, 237. Margaret of Denmark, 54, 56. Margaret of Scotland, 50. Margerine, 188. Marine algae, 7. Maristuen, 214. Marok, 199, 201. Massachusetts, 37. Maud, Queen of Norway, 74. Mauranger, 6. Maxwell, Herbert, quoted, 218. Meadows, 163. Mediterranean sea, 242. Methodists, 116, 126. Meyer, Johan, 307. Michelsen, Hans, 305. Midgard, 117. Midnight sun, 9, 105. Midwives, 97. Military training, 79. Milk, 167, 188. Mineral products, 186-187. Minnesota, 173, Mjosen lake, 156. Modum, 302. Moe, Jorgen, 91, 147. Mohammedans, 93. Molde, 202, 305. Molde fjord, 202-203. Moliere, 263. Monasteries, 232, 235. Monetary system, 85, 312, Mongolian race, 109. Moraines, 7. Mortenson, Ivar, 274 326 Index Mortgages, 175. Mosquitos, 214. Moss, 248. Mountain dairy. See Sseter. Mountain Lapps, 110. Mountain ranges, 2. Mountain valleys, 205-219. Mozart, Wolfgang, 287. Miiller, Morten, 299. Municipal taxes, 85. Munk, Edvard, 47, 143, 302. Munkholm, 232. Munthe, Gerhard, 303. Munthe, Ludwig, 300. Murdog, King of Ireland, 42. Music, 278-295. Musical festivals, 294. Musical instruments, 280. Musical unions, 295. Mythology, 116, 300. N NserSdal, 197, 210-212. Nsero fjord, 12, 47, 196-197, 210. Names of people, 172. Nannestad, 140. Nansen, Fridtjof, 71, 138, 140, 274, 302. Napoleon Bonaparte, 64, 65. Narvik, 157. National debt, 84. National gallery, 249. National museum, 255. National parliament, 75-76. Naturalism in art, 201. Navy, 81. Naze, 2. Netherlands, 189. See also Holland. Neupert, Edvard, 294. Neupert, Karl F. E., 284. Newfoundland, 242. New-Norwegian, 147. Newspapers, 139-145. Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, 73. Nielsen, Amaldus, 300. Niffleheim, 117. Nilsen, Sivert, 91. Njord, 120. Norangsdal, 201. Norangs fjord, 197-199, 201. Nord fjord, 3, 13. Nordland, 178, 181, 186, 240, 263. Nordland boat, 184. Nordraak, Richard, 283. Nordsjo lake, 160. Normandy, 19, 20. Norse gods, 118-122. Norse letters, 260-277. North America, 274. See also United States. North Cape, 8, 10, 68, 105-106, 157, 232. Northern lights, See Aurora borealis. North Pole, 106. North sea, 21, 242. Northumberland, 22. Norway, geography, 1-15; his- tory, 16-86; people, 87-114; religions, 115-130; educa- tion, 131-150; -highways, 151-155; railways, 155-158; waterways, 158-162; agri- culture, 163-177; forests, 178-181; fisheries, 181-185; commerce, 185-189; fjords, 190-204 ; mountains, 205- 219; chief cities, 220-259; literature, 260-277 ; music, 278-295; art, 296-308. Norwegians, origin, 87; phys- ical type, 88; mental traits, 89; habits, 90; humble life, 91; humane instinct, 92; travel interests, 93; do- mestic habits, 94 ; sexual mo- rality, 95; industry, 96; sanitation, 97: emigration, 99. Index 327 " Nose tax," 30. Novaya Zembla, 184. Novgorod, 237. Numedal, 205, 307. Nymegan, 22. Nystuen, 214. O Oats, 164. Occupations, 172. Odde, 6, 154, 194, 207. Odelsthing, 76. Odin, 19, 20, 36, 117, 118-119, 280. Bfoten, 157. ie, 201. Olaf Haraldsson. See Olaf the Saint. Olaf Magnusson, 42. Olaf, Prince of Norway, 74. Olaf the Quiet, 41, 235, 250. Olaf the Saint, 38-39, 45, 120, 122, 221-226, 231. Olaf the Thick-Set. See Olaf the Saint. Olaf Trygvesson, 34-35, 122, 221. Olaf the Young, 52. Olden vand, 198. Olsen, Ole, 295. Oratorios, 285. Oratunturi, Mount, 107. ^rchids, 15. Ore, 85, 312. Orkney islands, 22, 30, 42, 44, 49, 58, 227. Ormeim, 217. Oscar I, 67-68. Oscar II, 68-69, 70, 106, 171. Oscarsborg, 81. Oscarshall, 255, 298. Oseberg ship, 23, 26-27, 304. Oselio - Bjornson, Ingeborg, 294. Oslo. See Christiania. Ospreys, 13. Osterdal, 88. Otta, 156. Otteraa river, 206. Out-kitchens, 168. Paderewski, Ignace, 293. Painting, 296-304. Paganism, 36. Paper manufacture, 179. Paris, 21. Pauperism, 95-96. Pears, Io5. Peasants, 91, 142, 173. Pedersson, Gjeble, 60. " Peer Gynt " by Ibsen, 269- 272. Pension funds, 102. People. See Lapps and Nor- wegians. People's high schools, 134. Peterssen, Elif, 301. Phallic worship, 122. Philip III, King of France, 235. Physicians, 96. Pine trees, 181. Plant life, 14-15. Plastic arts. See Sculpture. Plover, 13. Polar regions, 104-114. Pope Adrian IV, 227. Pope Alexander IV, 49. Pope Eugene III, 226. Population of Norway, 98. Porphyry, 187. Porsanger fjord, 203. Porsgrund, 137, 189. Posting system, 152, 157. Postal service, 160. Poverty, 95. Press. See Newspapers. Press censorship, 140. Prisons, 78. Profanity, 95. Prostitution, 95. 328 Index Protectionist movement, 83. Protestant reformation, 59, 124-125, 131, 231, 263, 306. Protestant religion, 60. Prydz, Alvide, 273. Ptarmigan, 13. Public libraries. See Libra- ries. Puffin, 14. Punishments, 77. Puritanism, 63. Q Quakers, 116. Quarries, 186. R Railroads. See Railways. Railways, 82, 155-157, 208- 209. 214, 312. Rainfall, 11-12, 105, 235. Rape, 78, 95. Raspberries, 15, 165. Rauma river, 216. Reformation. See Protestant reformation. Reindeer, 12, 110-114, 214, 312. Reinlid, 307. Reissiger, F. A., 295. Religions in Norway, 115-130. Revenues, 81. Reviews. See Newspapers. Rhine river, 20. Road-building, 154. Roads. See Highways. Rock drawings, 17. Rodal, 11, 154, 207. Rodents, 13. Rollo, 20. Roman Catholic religion, 60, 116, 125. Rome, 44, 222. Romsdal, 182, 203, 206, 216- 218, 312. Romsdalshorn, 218. Root plants, 165. Roros, 61, 186. Rosenkranz tower, 244. " Rosmersholm " by Ibsen, 272. Rouen, 21. Runic inscriptions, 18, 27, 118, 213. Rural schools, 133. Russia, 28, 34, 35, 63, 65, 183, 189. Russians, 57. Ruskin, John, 192. Rye, 164, 188. S Sacrifices, 123. Sa;ter, 167, 169-171. S^tersdal, 206-207, 299. Sagas, 29, 40, 244. St. Petersburg, 247. Salmon, 183. Samoyedes, 108. Sandefjord, 23. Sanitation, 97. Sars, Ernst, 19. Savings banks, 85. Saw-mills, 180, 186. Saxifrage, 15. Scalds, 40, 119, 223, 262. School boards, 132. School districts, 132. School studies, 133. Schools. See Education. Schubert, Franz, 291. 293. Schumann, Robert, 293. Schwergaard, A. ML, 143. Scotland, 22, 35, 50. Sculpture, 304-308. Sea-birds, 13-14, 161. Seals, 184. Sea-Lapps, 110. Secondary schools, 135. Seiland, 8. Seine river, 21. Seljestad, 207. Index 329 Selmer, Johan, 284, 295. " Seven Sisters " waterfall, 199. 'Sexual morality, 95. Sharks, 184. Shetland islands, 30, 50, 227. Ship-building, 186. Siberia, 104. Sicily, 19. Sick-clubs, 102. Sidon, 42. Sigurd Mund, 236. Sigurd the Bad-Priest, 44. Sigurd the Crusader, 42. Silver, 61, 186, 248. Simeon of Durham, quoted, 22. Binding, Christian, 284. Binding, Otto, 245, 300. Sinding, Stephen, 245, 250, 305 Sivlefos, 210. Skaala mountain, 198. Skaalholt, 227. Skaggeflaa, 200. Skagen, 302. Skalds. See Scalds. Skarsfos, 195. Skeibrok, Matthias, 91, 305. Ski, 185, 257. Ski-jumping, 256. Ski-sailing, 257. Skien, 160, 189, 207. Skien-Nordsjo-Bandak canal, 159, 207. Skjsergaard, 157. Skogstad, 214. Skram, Amalie, 274. Skredsvig, Christian, 91, 203. Skellerud lake, 159. Sledges, 152. Sleswick, 21, 56, 57. Slettafos, 217. Slogen, 201. Smaalenen, 23. Smolensk, 257. Snorre Sturlasson, 32, 222. Snow-plough, 155. Snow-shoe. See Ski. Soapstone, 186. Sogne fjord, 6, 7, 12, 195-197, 212, 307. Soot, Eyolf, 303. Sor fjord, 195. Soro, 8. Sorum, 212, 215. Spirillen lake, 215. Spitzbergen, 13, 184. Sports, 256, 312. Spree river, 294. Springfield, Mass., xi, 294. Spruce trees, 179, 181. Stature of the Norwegians, 88. Stav-churches, See Timber churches. Stavanger, 7, 9, 98, 157, 183, 189, 227, 306, 310. Stalheim, 92, 154, 210. Stalheimsfos, 210. Stanford Bridge, 40. Steamboats, 158. Steamer yacht " Haakon VII," 159. Steganasse, 197. Stimson, George W., xi. Stabur, 167. Stockholm, 156, 233. Stolkjaerre, 152, 207. Stone, 186. Stone age, 16-17. Stone, Olivia M., quoted, 210, 216; bibliography, 315. Store-house, 168. Stor fjord, 199. Storm, Halfdan, 303. Storthing. See National Par- liament. Strande fiord, 215. Strauss, Richard, 293. Strawberries, 15. Stryndal, 198. Stryns vand, 198. Stufloten, 216. Styve, 197. Sugar, 188. 330 Index Suldals vand, 207. Sulitelma, 2. Sunday worship, 129. Sunnan, 157. Suppehelle glacier, 5. Summer light, 9. Sve.nd Alfifasson, 39. Svend Haakonsson, 36,'38, 221. Svendsen, Johan S., 91, 284, 287, 295. Svenssen, Olaf, 294. Sverre Sigurdsson, 46. Sweden, 1, 34, 51, 56, 62, 67, 70, 131, 141, 183, 189. Swedes, 87, 247. Swedish language, 147. Swiss, 93. Switzerland, 79, 160, 297. Syenite, 187. Symphonies, 284, 295. Tandberg, G., quoted, 176. Tariff rates, 83. Tauranian race, 108. Taxes, 82. Taylor, Bayard, quoted, 107, 192; bibliography, 315. Technical education, 137-139. Teachers, 133-134. Telegraph service, 68, 84, 160, 312 Telemarken, 156, 186, 195, 205, 207-208, 255, 280, 297, 299, 302, 307. Telephone service, 160, 312. Temples, 122, 306. See also Cathedrals. Teutonic race, 87, 94. Thaulow, Fritz, 245, 302. Thellefsen, Thomas, 284, 294. Thiis, Jens, 298, 302. Thirty Years' War, 61, 241. Thommessen, O., 91. Thor, 19, 20, 36, 38, 119-120, 280. Thoreau, Henry D., 200. Thoresen, Magdelena, 274. Thrift, 174. Thune, 23. Tidemand, 245, 255, 298. Timber, 180-181. Timber churches, 255, 306. Tobacco, 188. Tobacco-chewing, 94. Tobogganing, 258. Tordenskjold, P., 305. Tonsassen, 11. Tonsberg, 81. Touring Club de France, 31* Tourist bureaus, 309. Tours (France), 21. Trade. See Commerce. Trade guilds, 235. Tramps, 96. Trees. See Forestry. Trold fjord, 203. Troldtinder, 203, 218. Trold vand, 203. Tromso, 8, 10, 98, 178, 181, 182. Trondhjem, captured by the Swedes, 61 ; foundation of Academy of Science, 63; prisons, 78; midnight sun 106; technical schools, 137; Philosophical Society, 138; newspapers, 140; railways, 156; forests, 178; fisheries, 183; commerce, 189; loca- tion, 220; residence of Olaf the Saint, 222; cathedral, 226; headquarters of the archbishop, 227; fires, 230; Protestant reformation, 231; streets, 232; tourist bu- reaus, 310. Trondhjem fjord, 2, 17, 29, 98, 203. Tuberculosis, 98. Tunnels, 155. Tvedt, Jens, 261. Tvinde, 209. Index 331 Ty, the Norse god, 120. Tyler, Katherine M., bibliog- graphy, 315. U Ulfsten, Nicolai, 303. Undset, Ingvald, 25. Unitarianism, 294. United States, 78, 88, 92, 97, 135, 160, 166, 173, 176, 189, 237. See also America and North America. Universal suffrage, 136, 253. University of Christiania, 64, 135-137, 305. Vsermofos, 217. Vagrancy, 96. Valdemar, Duke, 57. Valders, 11, 52, 157, 187, 206, 208, 212-217, 307. Valhalla, 117, 118. Valkyries, 118. Valleys. See Mountain val- leys. Vand. See Lakes. Vanirs, 202. Varno, 8. Ve, 117. Veblungsnses, 202, 217. Vegetables, 165, 171. Vengetinder, 218. Venice, 237. Veranger fjord, 2, 203. Vesteraadal, 202. Vest fjord, 8, 203. Vestfold, 29. Videdal, 198. Vik, 307. Viken, 62. Viking age, viii, 16-27, 196. Viking-ships, 23-27, 304. Vikings, 223. Vili, 117. Vincent, Frank, quoted, 94; bibliography, 315. Vineland, 37-38. Vinje, Aasmund, 91. Violin, 280, 284. Visnaes, 198. Voringsfos, 195. Vossevangen, 11, 92, 181, 187, 208, 209, 307. Vrangfos, 160, 207. W Wagner, Richard, 293. Wagons, 152. See also Car- rioles and Stolkjserre. Wagtails, 13. Walking tours, 311. Waterfalls, 160, 191, 194, 199- 200, 210, 217. Water traffic, 157. Welhaven, Johan, 143, 245, 264. Wentzel, Gustav, 303. Weber, Karl, 287. Werenskiold, Erik, 302. Wergeland, Henrik, 142, 147, 193, 249, 365. Whales, 184. Whortelberry, 15. William II, Emperor of Ger- many, 106. William of Orange, 47. Winge, Per, 245. Winter darkness, 10. Winter-Hjelm, Otto, 284. Winter sports, 256-259, 310. Wisconsin, 173. Women, 101, 109, 136, 165, 198, 206. Women's suffrage. See Uni- versal suffrage. Wood-carving, 172, 304. Woodlands, 178. Wood-pulp, 188. 332 Index Wood, Charles M., bibliog- raphy, 315. Worcester, Mass., 294. Work-houses, 96. Wotans, 119. Wyllie, M. A., bibliography, 315. Yellow-hammers, 13. Ymir, 116, 117. Yosemite Valley, 218. York, 237. f ., A A A 000116223 9