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A TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 DISEASES OF THE OX; 
 
 BEING A 
 
 MANUAL OF 130VINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF VETERINARY 
 PRACTITIONERS AND STUDENTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN HENRY STEEL, M.R.C.Y.S., F.Z.S., 
 
 DEMONSTRATOR OP ANATOMY AT THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE OF LONDON 
 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ITALIAN VETERINARY ACADEMY; 
 
 AUTHOR OF 'OUTLINES OF EQUINE ANATOMY.' 
 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 
 
 1881. 
 
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PRINCIPAL JAMBS BEART SIMONDS, 
 
 PEOFESSOE OF CATTLE PATHOLOGY AT THE EOYAL VETEEINAEY 
 
 COLLEGE, HONORAEY MEMBEE OF THE AGEICULTUEAL 
 
 SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, ETC. 
 
 WHO FOR 
 
 SO MANY YEARS PASSED HAS ENCOURAGED THE STUDY OF 
 
 CATTLE PATHOLOaT, 
 
 AT ONCE BY PRECEPT AND EXAMPLE, 
 
 AND HAS THEREBY MATERIALLY ASSISTED IN GIVING 
 
 TO BOVINE PATHOLOGY IN GREAT BRITAIN SUCH 
 
 SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES AS IT MANIFESTS 
 
 IN THE PRESENT DAY, 
 
 THIS WORK IS 
 
 DEDICATED BY HIS FORMER PUPIL, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 188 1. 
 
 > 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Bovine pathology has not been hitherto adequately re- 
 presented in British Veterinary Literature^ but the time 
 has now come when it ought to take up its proper position 
 as a distinct section of veterinary science. Under these 
 circumstances it is somewhat surprising that none of our 
 leading veterinary surgeons have produced a scientific 
 work of a comprehensive nature on diseases of cattle. 
 It seems that some^ owing to their professional engage- 
 ments, have had little time left for literature, while others 
 have been deterred by supposing that there must already 
 be many preparing to fulfil so urgent a task. An oppor- 
 tunity of preparing a work on this subject having pre- 
 sented itself, I have not hesitated to avail myself of it ; 
 and in doing so I have not advanced to my work heedless 
 of the amount of labour involved in it, or of the uncer- 
 tainty of the data on which it would have to be based. 
 My ideal of a work on special pathology necessitated, in 
 the first place, the somewhat dogmatic summary of the 
 general study of disease comprised in the Introduction, 
 Section 1. With the data thus afforded I was in a better 
 position to specially consider diseases of the ox. No 
 trouble has been spared in assigning to each, part of the 
 work its proper position, with a view to practical conveni- 
 ence and facility in study. The table of contents is, to a 
 certain extent, an expression of the careful arrangement 
 which. I have adopted. The intimate matter requires some 
 comment ; my aim has been to tersely indicate the bear- 
 ings of the subjects dealt with, to point out that which 
 has been based on science and confirmed by experience 
 in contrast with crude theory and superstitious empi- 
 ricism. In following out this plan I have been compelled 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 to omit the arguments wliicli have been advanced in 
 support of many theories. It may be fancied that in 
 these cases I am dogmatic, but a full statement of each 
 controversy would have trespassed too much on my space 
 and perchance on the patience of my readers, to many 
 of whom the work will, even in its present form, seem 
 quite large enough. I the less regret that I have 
 not been in a position to exhaustively treat my subject, 
 since simultaneously with the announcement of this manual 
 appears that of a larger and more pretentious work on the 
 same subject, by an author whose ability has been already 
 proved by an excellent volume on 'Canine Pathology,^ 
 Professor J. W. Hill, F.R.O.Y.S. My treatise on 'Bovine 
 Pathology ' is specially prepared for the veterinary practi- 
 tioner and student. I desire that for the former it may 
 be a useful means of recalling facts, which in the rush of 
 daily business are apt to slip the memory, and may also 
 afford a ready reference to past periodical literature, 
 through which he would neither have time nor inclination 
 to wade. At the expense of severe literary research I 
 have summarised and arranged the facts which have been 
 communicated to the profession through the medium 
 of our journals. But while I have thus endeavoured 
 to produce an exact statement of the present condition 
 of cattle practice, I have not aimed at a record of pro- 
 found investigation. Neither the state of the profession 
 nor of science demands this, so I have been content to 
 think at every point ''how does this concern the prac- 
 titioner ?'' The requirements of the student are similar, 
 also his knowledge must be comprehensive and exact for 
 the emergencies of examinations. Thus, I have specially 
 aimed at method, the application of general principles, 
 and precise statement of facts and conclusions. Also I 
 have inserted accounts of methods of administration and 
 other details which might to the practitioner seem trivial. 
 I have endeavoured to as much as possible indicate the 
 relations of diseases of the ox to those of other animals, 
 and have, wherever necessary, alluded to liability of com- 
 munication of disorders to man, as by contagion, meat, 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 milk, &c. The time has not yet arrived when in considera- 
 tion of special pathology we can afford to omit a hasty sum- 
 mary o£ the leading points of the anatomy and physiology 
 of the object of our investigations. My method has been 
 chosen in the hope that it will refresh but not burden the 
 memory of the reader. Having thus, to the best of my 
 ability, prepared this work for the veterinary profession, 
 it will be observed that I have made free use of technical 
 terms (all of which, I believe, are explained in the intro- 
 duction), and have not encouraged empiricism by the 
 insertion of numerous prescriptions; I have indicated the 
 line of treatment, but the exact means to be used must 
 be adapted to the emergencies of each case. The few 
 formulae given are such as from their general usefulness 
 or repute ought to be remembered by the reader. It will 
 be constantly found in practice that the difficulties arising 
 from complications of disease or from surroundings 
 necessitate special modifications of the methods here 
 suggested. Much of the success of a practitioner depends 
 on his skill in applying general principles to special cases, 
 and acting accordingly. I may by some be considered 
 to have too much curtailed the list of symptoms of special 
 disorders ; in this matter I have in each case acted 
 advisedly, wishing to economise the labours of the 
 reader. Thus, '^ general signs of febrile disorder " 
 frequently does duty for the somewhat prolonged list of 
 these in detail, and so on in similar cases. 
 
 There being much difference of opinion among our 
 leading authorities on cattle pathology, it has seemed 
 to me best to express my own opinions, while stating 
 and acknowledging those of others. Thus, I am 
 fully prepared to find that many of my views do not 
 meet with general acceptance. I await the verdict of 
 the professional public, however, since I have proceeded 
 throughout on scientific methods, and have supplemented 
 such practical experience as was at my disposal by 
 most careful literary research. I have endeavoured to 
 express my acknowledgment of the assistance which I 
 have derived from the few comprehensive works on bovine 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 pathology, and the numerous works on veterinary surgery 
 and medicine which allude to diseases of cattle, as 
 well as from some very excellent writings on special 
 sections of my subject. Accordingly a bibliographical 
 list of these has been inserted, which will, I hope, 
 prove a useful guide to any reader who may wish to 
 work up a special subject. Lastly, I have to acknow- 
 ledge the kind courtesy by which the publishers and 
 authors of the following works have afforded to Messrs. 
 Longmans & Co. the numerous engravings, which have 
 been inserted in the hope of rendering the work of greater 
 value : — 
 
 Armatage, ' Clater's Cattle Doctor ' (Messrs. F. Warne 
 & Co). 
 
 Harley ^ Brown, ' Practical Histology ^ (Longmans & 
 Co.). 
 
 Fleming J ' Veterinary Obstetrics ' (Balliere, Tindall & 
 Cox). 
 
 Colin, ' Traite de Physiologie Comparee ' (Balliere & 
 Co.). 
 
 Oohhold, ' Internal Parasites of our Domesticated 
 Animals' (The Field Office). 
 
 Dobson, ^ On the Diseases of the Ox ' (Messrs. Long- 
 mans & Co.). 
 
 Ericlisen, ' Surgery ' (Messrs. Longmans & Co.). 
 
 Cut 4 has been copied by permission from Ganfs 
 ' Science and Practice of Surgery.' 
 
 Messrs. Arnold and Son, the well-known veterinary 
 instrument makers, of West Smithfield, have supplied me 
 with some cuts of instruments, for which I hereby convey 
 my thanks. 
 
 Thus I submit my manual to the veterinary profession, 
 and in appearing for the second time as an author, I 
 venture to hope for such favour and consideration as 
 my first effort has received. 
 
 JOHN HENRY STEEL. 
 
 NOVEMBEB, 1880. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Section 1. General Consideration of Disease. — Etiology, 2; Diagnosis, 3; 
 Symptoms and signs, 4 ; History, 5 ; Pulse, 6 ; Respirations, 8 j Asphyxia, 
 9; Cough, 10 ; Internal temperature, 10; Other symptoms and the 
 means of observing them — Prognosis, 14; Death, 15; Morbid anatomy 
 or intimate pathology, 17 ; Degenerations, 18 ; Infiltrations, 20 ; Inflam- 
 mation, 23 ; Suppuration, 26 ; Caries and ulceration, 29 ; Gangrene, 32 ; 
 Necrosis, 33 ; Varieties of inflammation, 34 ; Congestion, 35 ; Haemor- 
 rhage, 36 ; Solutions of continuity, 37 ; Post-mortem examination, 38 ; 
 Varieties of disease, 40: Treatment, 41 ; Operations, 43; Nursing and 
 prevention, 46; Salutary inflammation, 47; Value of rest, 48; Anti- 
 phlogistics, 49 ; Counter-irritants, 50 ; Treatment of congestion* 
 haemorrhage, and dropsy, 53. 
 
 Section 2. The Ox in his relations to the General Consideration of Disease. 
 — Summary of general peculiarities of conformation and internal struc- 
 ture, 54 ; The influence of domestication on the constitution of the ox, 
 57; Other predisposing causes, breeding "in-and-in," 58; Diet, 59; 
 Pregnancy, 59 ; Influence of surrounding air and climate, 60 ; Age, sex, 
 and conformation, 61; Exciting causes, 61; Symptoms, general, 62; 
 Pulse, 62; Temperature, 64; Respirations, 64; Cough, 64; Other sym- 
 ptoms, objective, and subjective, 65 ; Prognosis, 68 ; Treatment, 69 ; 
 Methods of restraint, 70; Chloroform and chloroforming, 71; Nursing 
 and prevention, 72. 
 
 Section 3. Bovine Therapeutics and Materia Medica. — Methods of admin- 
 istration of agents to the ox, 72 ; drenches, 73 ; balls, 74 ; enemas, 74 ; 
 inhalations, 75 ; subcutaneous injection, 76; Doses, 77; Materia medica 
 tables, 78 to 82 ; Agents which are administered internally and those 
 which are applied externally, 83 and 84 ; Application of boiling water 
 and blistering, 85; Fomentations and poultices, 85 j Disinfection, 86; 
 Bloodletting, 86 ; The use of setons, &c., 88. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Section 1. Non-specific Scemal Affections. — Hasty summary of the anatomy 
 and physiology of the blood in general, that of the ox in particular, 89. 
 Nutritive Disorders : Hypertrophy (plethora), 91 ; Atrophy (anaemia), 92 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 Cachexia aquosa vei'minosa (liver-fluke disease), 93 ; Perverted nu- 
 trition (pyrexia or fever), 95 ; Necrsemia, 98. Variations in Constitu- 
 Hon : Increase or decrease of normal constituents (leucsemia or leuco- 
 cytha3mia), 99 ; Retention of matter which should be excreted, carbonic 
 anhydride poisoning, 100; Icterus, jaundice, 101; Urffimia, 103; Rheu- 
 matism, 104; Haemoalbuminuria, muir ill, red-water or black-water, 
 106 ; Scarlatina, 110 ; Purpura ha3morrhagica (doubtfully urticaria 
 tuberosa), 110; Introduction into the blood of matters foreign to it — 
 ordinary toxic agents, specific toxic agents. 
 
 Section 2. Specific Scemal Affections, — On the nature of these disorders in 
 general— inoculation, infection, and contagion, 113; Cancer, 119; 
 Scrofula or tuberculosis, 121 ; Phthisis pulmonalis, 121 ; Tabes mesen- 
 terica, 123; Tubercular meningitis, 124; Scrofulous arthritis, 124; Scro- 
 fulous tumours, " wens" and *' clyers," 124 ; Scrofulous inflammation of 
 the supra-phtiryngeal lymphatic glands, 125 ; The essential nature of 
 tubercle, 125 ; The changes which the miliary tubercle undergoes, 127 ; Re- 
 lations of tuberculosis of cattle to that of man, 129 ; Diagnosis of tubercu- 
 lous and typhoid ulcers, 130; Pleuro-pneumonia epizootica v. contagiosa v. 
 exudativa, 131 ; Post-mortem appearances, intimate pathology after Dr. 
 Yeo, 135; Treatment, the question of inoculation, 139; Eczema epi- 
 zootica V. contagiosa, 141 ; Its complications, 143 ; Its relations to disease 
 in man, 147; Rinderpest, cattle plague, or puschima, 147; Spread of the 
 contagium, 151 ; Means of eradication, 152; Its pathological equivalent 
 in man (different views), 155 ; Exanthemata, their general characters, 
 155; Vaccinia, cow-pox, variola vaccinia, 156; Jenner's conclusions, 
 smallpox in the cow, 157; Considerations on lymph for vaccination 
 use, 157; Relations to variola ovina, 158; Varicella and vaccinoides, 
 158; Stages of vaccinia, 159; Infectious aphtha, 160; Stomatitis pus- 
 tulosa equi, 160; Aphthous disease of the genital organs of cattle, 160; 
 Anthracoid affections, charbon, 161 ; Its relations with Bacillus anthracis, 
 161-163; Post-mortem appearances of these diseases in general, also 
 curative and prophylactic means, splenic fever, splenic apoplexy, essen- 
 tial charbon, 167 ; Texas fever, splenic fever (American), or Spanish 
 fever, 168 ; gloss anthrax, malignant sore throat, blain or " hawks," 169 ; 
 Charbonous gangrene of the lungs, 170 ; Emphysema infectuosum, known 
 also as black leg, black quarter, &c., 170 ; Its relations to true anthrax 
 171 ; Pyajmia and septicajmia, 173 ; Parturient septicaimia, 173 ; septic 
 mammitls, 174; Glanders, farcy, and strangles, doubtful cases in the 
 ox, 175; Erysipelas, 176; and Diphtheria, 176; Croup, the relations of 
 diphtheria of man to " garget" in cows, 178 ; general considerations of 
 non-contagious specific disorders, 178; Malignant catarrh, coryza, or 
 " glanders," 179 ; Rabies, " hydrophobia," 180; Recurrent fevers, 182; 
 Parasites in the blood, or which are distributed throughout the system 
 by the blood, 183 ; Echinococcus disease, 183. 
 
 Addendum \.—Poisonsy 185.— Classification, 186 ; Cumulation, 186; Causes of 
 poisoning, 187 ; Examination of a field, from grazing in which animals are 
 supposed to have been poisoned, 187 ; Treatment and post-mortem ap- 
 pearances, 189; Special stimulants — strychnia, 190; and ergot of rye. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 191 ; Narcotics — opium, 191 ; Chloroform, tobacco, 192 ; Hyoscyamus 
 and belladonna, 193 ; Sedative poisons — hj'drocyanic acid, aconitura, 193 j 
 Conium, 193 ; Colchicum, yew, digitalis, 194 ; Lead, labuniura, 195 ; 
 Irritant poisons, astringent poisons, corrosive poisons, 196; Corrosive 
 sublimate, 197 ; Eliminative poisons — arsenic, antimony, calomel, nitre, 
 197 ; Copper-smoke disease, 197. 
 Addendum 2. — Parasites and Parasitismus, 198 ; Animal parasitic organisms, 
 198; Tabular list of parasites infesting the ox and his allies, 204; 
 Vegetable parasitic organisms, 206. 
 
 CHAPTER III.— DISEASES OP THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 Section 1. Of the iZear^.— Summary of special points of anatomy and phy- 
 siology of this organ, 207 ; " FunctioTjal" disease — palpitation, 209 ; Or- 
 ganic diseases — inflammation, carditis, or myocarditis, 210 ; Hypertrophy, 
 210; atrophy with fatty and cretaceous degeneration, also the condition 
 known as " pouched heart,^' endocarditis, 211 ; Pericarditis, 213; Trau- 
 matic and idiopathic, 216 ; Hydrops pericardii, rupture of the pericar- 
 dium, cardiac polypi or haematomata, 217 ; Tumours and parasites on 
 and in the heart, rupture of the heart, 218 ; Malformations and mis- 
 placements (ectopise), 219. 
 
 Section 2. Of the Arterial System. — Degenerations (atheromatous and tu- 
 bercular), aneurism, 220; Thrombus, wounds of arteries, 221 ; Irregulari- 
 ties, 221. 
 
 Section 3. Of the Capillary System — Capillary haemorrhage, 222. 
 
 Section 4. Of the Venous System. — Phlebitis, 222; Thrombus, rupture 
 varicosity, 223 ; Varicocele and tumours of the veins, 224. 
 
 Addendttm 1. Diseases of the Lymphatic System. — Inflammation, mistakenly 
 called "farcy,^' 224; Lymphadenoma or lymphoma, 225. 
 
 Addendttm 2. Diseases of the Vascular or Ductless Olands, 225 ; Spleen — 
 hypertrophy, atrophy, inflammation, parasitic invasion, rupture, 225; 
 Of thyroid and thymus, 226. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 Section 1. Of the Alimentary Canal. — Irregularities and diseases of the lips, 
 teeth, 227; and palate, 229 ; Dropping the cud, 230 ; Anatomy and phy- 
 siology of the salivary glands of the ox, 230; Ptyalism, inflammation, 
 parotiditis, 231 ; Non-occurrence of salivary calculi ; the tongue, glossitis, 
 233; Induration, 234; Cancer or tubercle, 234; Cramp, 235; Cystic diseases 
 and injuries, 235 ; Paralysis, and ulcers, 236 ; Aphtha, 236 ; Congenital 
 malformation of the palate, 237 ; Pharyngeal polypus : the oesophagus, 
 237; Oesophagitis, fibrous degeneration, dilatation, stricture, 238 ; Para- 
 sites, 239 ; Rupture, 239 ; Warty growths or degeneration of the mucous 
 membrane, 240; Choking, 240; Passing the probang, 243; (Esophago- 
 tomy, 245 ; Vomition, true and false (after Youatt), 246 ; Anatomy of 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 the gastric apparatus, 248 ; Rumination, 251 j Tympany, " Hoven " or 
 "Blown," 254; Puncture of the rumen, 258; Impaction of the rumen, 260; 
 Alvitis, 260 ; Ruminotomy or " paunching," 261 ; Rupture of the rumen, 
 262 ; Foreign bodies in the rumen and reticulum, 263 ; Parasites, cal- 
 culi, hair-balls or legagropiles, 263 ; Hernia of the rumen and reticulum, 
 Impaction of the omasum, 264; Omasitis, 266; Abomasitis, 266; 
 Impaction of the abomasum, also atrophy of the lamina) of the omasum, 
 267 ; Rupture of the abomasum, parasites in it, also rupture of the blood- 
 vessels of the stomach, 268; Indigestion, stricture of the pylorus, 268; 
 Gastro-enteritis of calves, vulgarly known as " white scour " or " skit." 
 The intestines, 270; General anatomical and physiological considerations, 
 colic, simple, spasm of the bowels, 273 ; Colic flatulent, 274 ; Impac- 
 tion or distension with obstruction of the bowels, calculi, intussus- 
 ception or invagination, 274; Volvulus, ileus, or twist of the bowel, 275; 
 Laparotomy, 275; Hernia, 276 ; Umbilical, exomphalos, 277 ; Ventral, 279; 
 Phrenic, mesenteric, inguinal and scrotal, 280 ; Pelvic hernia, " gut-tie " 
 or " bound," 281 ; Prolapsus ani, 283 ; Constipation, 284 ; Use of cathar- 
 tics in cattle practice, 285; Haemorrhoids or piles, diarrhoea, 286; 
 Dysentery, " bloody flux," 288 ; Pantas, moor-ill, or wood evil, 290 ; 
 Enteritis, 291 ; Crupous form with fibrinous intestinal casts, 293 ; Intes- 
 tinal apoplexy, perforation or rupture of the intestines ; of the rectum, 
 293 ; Intestinal parasites and tumours, malformations of the intestines, 
 proctatresia or impervious anus, mechanical distension of the rectum, 294. 
 
 Section 2. Of the Liver. — Hepatitis, 295 ; Congestion of the liver, hepati- 
 rhcea, hemorrhage from and rupture of the liver, 297; RamoUissement or 
 softening, 298; Hepatic hernia, 299. 
 
 Addendum 1. — The gall bladder and its diseases, 299. 
 
 Addendum 2. — The pancreas and its diseases, 300. 
 
 Section 3. Of t?te peritoneum. — Peritonitis, 300; Ascites or dropsy, 301. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 Comparison of this apparatus of the ox with that of the horse, also anatomical 
 and physiological details, 303 ; Auscultation, 304 ; Nasal and laryngeal 
 sounds, 305 ; Cavernous rale, sibilus, rhonchus, &c., 305 ; Examination 
 of the chest of the ox by auscultation, 306 ; Percussion, 308 ; Mani- 
 pulation, succussion, and mensuration, 309 ; Nasal chamber, anatomical 
 facts, 309 ; Catarrh, 310 ; Epistaxis, nasal polypus, 311 ; Parasites, nasal 
 gleet, laryngitis, 312 ; Tracheotomy, 313 ; Laryngotomy, 314 ; Pharyn- 
 gotomy, 315 ; Tumours of the larynx and fractures of the cartilages, 
 815; The trachea, its anatomy, 315; Bronchitis, 317; Chronic form, 
 818; Asthma, 319; Parasitical form, "husk," "hoose," "boast," phthisis 
 pulmonalis verminalis, 319 ; Fumigation, 322 ; Pulmonary congestion, 
 acute, 322 ; subacute, 323 ; Pulmonary apoplexy, 323 ; Hajmoptysis, 323 ; 
 Pneumonitis, 324, Crupous and catarrhal forms, 325, Interstitial form, 
 327 ; Cysts in and wounds of the lungs, 327; " Tic," 328; The Pleura, 
 pleuritis, pleurisy, hydrothorax, 328; Empyema, 329; Paracentesis 
 
CONTENTS. Xm 
 
 thoracis v. thoracenteBis, 330; Pneumothorax, pleuro-pneumonia spora- 
 dica, 331 ; The diaphragm, rupture of, 332. 
 
 CHAPTER VL— DISEASES OF THE URINE AND URINARY 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 Anatomical features of urinary apparatus, 333 ; Composition and charac- 
 ters of the healthy urine of the ox, 334. 
 
 Section 1. Ahnormalities of the Urine. — Diabetes simplex v. insipidus, 
 334 j Non-secretion of urine, 335; Hsematuria, 335 ; Albuminuria, 336. 
 
 Section 2. Diseases of the Kidney. — Nephritis, 337; Abscess, 338; Renal 
 calculus, 338 ; Parasites, 339 ; Renal encephaloid, 339. 
 
 Section 3. Disorders of the Urinary Passages. — Calculi in and dilatation of 
 the ureter, 339 ; The bladder, retention of urine and ischury ; passing the 
 catheter, 340; Incontinence or diuresis, 341; Dysuria, strangury, cys- 
 titis, 342; Spasm of the neck of the bladder, rupture, inversion (prolapsus), 
 .343 ; pervious urachus, 344 ; Calculus, and sabulous matter or " gravel," 
 344 ; Rupture of the urethra, lithecstasy, lithotrity, 345 ; Lithotomy, 
 346 ; Tumours in the bladder, 346 ; urethral calculi, 347 ; Stricture of 
 urethra, praeputial calculus, 347. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL— DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 Section 1. Abnormalities of the Skin. — " Hidebound,*' " staring coat," 348 ; 
 Classification of skin disorders, 348. 
 
 Sub-section 1. Non-parasitic Diseases : Inf animation. — Dermatitis, erythema, 
 E. mamillarum ("sore teats"), 349; Eczema, psoriasis, herpes, 350; 
 Impetigo (pustular dermatitis), urticaria (nettle-rash or surfeit), urt. 
 tuberosa, stinge (blain or singe), 351 ; Ecthyma or acne, furunculus, car- 
 buncle, pemphigus, 352. Hypertrophic. — Keratoid, pityriasis, neevus, 353 ; 
 Dermopilous cysts, scleroderma (elephantiasis), warts (" angle berries," 
 verrucse), 354. Atrophic. — Alopecia (depilation or baldness), 355. Func- 
 tional — Oildema *or anasarca, emphysema, 355 ; bloody sweat, 356 ; 
 Pruritus (neurosis) ; effects of colour on diseases of the skin, 356. 
 
 Sub-section 2. Parasitic Disorders of the Skin. — Animal Parasitic Diseases 
 of the Skin of Cattle. — Mange, acariasis, 357 ; Phthiriasis (lousiness), 
 cestriasis (" warbles"), 360 ; tsetze fly, maggots, and ticks, 360. Vegetable 
 Parasitic Diseases of the Skin of Cattle. — Tinese, "ringworm," T. favosa 
 (honeycomb ringworm), 361 ; T. tonsurans, decalvans v. depilens, 362. 
 
 Section 2. Diseases of the Foot. — Anatomical considerations, 363 ; Foul (loo, 
 low), 364 ; Amputation of the foot, 366 ; Laminitis (founder), loss of a 
 hoof, sore feet, shoeing, 367 ; Overgrowth of horn, pricks and other pene- 
 trating wounds, monstrous conditions, interdigital fibromata, ulceration 
 of the heel, 368. 
 
 Section 3. Diseases of the Far. — General considerations, otitis, 369. 
 
 Section 4. Diseases of the Fye and its Appendages : 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 Sub-section 1. Abnormalities of the Ocular Appendages. — General considera- 
 tions, 369 ; Bony tumours on and fractures of the margin of the orbit, 
 fungus hffimatodes, lacerations, emphysema, oedema, warty growths of 
 the eyelids, 370; Ptosis, tumours on caruncula lachrymalis, 371. 
 
 Sub-section 2. Diseases of the Eyeball. — Anatomical features, conjunctivitis 
 (simple ophthalmia), keratitis or corneitis, 371 ; opacity of the cornea, 
 372 ; Nebula, albugo, staphyloma, 372 ; congenital hairy tumours, 373 ; 
 "Worm in the eye, lymphy deposits in aqueous chambers, specific or perio- 
 dic ophthalmia (retinitis), 373; Cataract, amaurosis, 374. 
 
 Section 5. Diseases of the Organ of Taste. — Perversion of gustation, 375. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 General consideration?, 376. 
 
 Section 1. The Cerebrospinal System. — The brain, phrenitis (encephalitis, 
 cerebritis, phrensy), 376 ; Epilepsy (megrims and staggers), 378 ; Apo- 
 plexy, 379 ; Dropsy (hydrocephalus). Hydr. congenitalis, operation for 
 delivery, 380; Parasites, 382; Bony tumours in cranium (" ossified brain),*' 
 "stomach staggers," coma, 383 ; Narcosis, delirium, 383 ; The spinal cord, 
 myelitis; tetanus, 384; Paralysis (palsy), 386; Progressive lipomatous 
 paralysis, 388; Adynamia nervosa generalis, 389; Chorea (stringhalt), 
 parturient apoplexy (milk fever, dropping after calving), 390 ; " Bed- 
 sores," 391; Parturient fever, mania puerperalis, 396; The nerves: 
 neurotomy, division of the pneumogastric nerve, 396. 
 
 Section 2. — The Sympathetic System. 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— DISEASES OF THE SKELETON, &c. 
 
 General anatomical considerations, 397. 
 
 Section 1. Abnormalities of the Osseous System. — Ostitis, 398; Periostitis 
 and inflammation of the outer lamina of a bone, 399 ; Periostitis and 
 exostosis, 399 ; Osteophytes, fragilitas ossium, cachexia ossifraga malacia, 
 400 ; Osteoporosis, rachitis (rickets), 401 ; Fractures, 402 ; Of the 
 horns, of the metatarsal or metacarpal bones, 403 ; Of the os innomina- 
 tum, ribs, and cranium, *' greenstick fracture " and separation of epi- 
 physes, 404. 
 
 Section 2. Injuries to and Diseases of Ligaments and Muscles. — Sprain, 
 complete rupture, sprain of the fetlock -joint, 405; Of ligamentum teres 
 of the hip, ruptured suspensory ligament, ruptured serratus magnus, 
 406 ; Displacement of abductor f emoris, parasites in muscles, open tendi- 
 nous sheaths, 407. 
 
 Section 3. Abnormalities of the Joints. — Arthritis, 407; Hydrops articu- 
 lorum (dropsy of joints), 408 ; Synovitis, relaxation of the pelvic sym- 
 physis ; Dislocations or luxations, 409 ; Of the patella, 410. 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER X.— WOUNDS AND OTHER SURGICAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 Section 1. Wounds. — Incised, punctured, lacerated, 412 ; Contused, poisoned, 
 gunshot, methods of repair, 413; Treatment, 414; Sutures, 416; Anti- 
 septic surgery or " Listerism," 417 ; Results of wounds, 418. 
 
 Section 2. Tumours. 
 
 Subsection 1. Malignant. — Cancers, carcinomata, scirrhus, 419 ; colloid, 
 medullary sarcoma (encephaloid), 420 ; Epithelioma, melanosis (" black 
 cancer "), treatment, 421 ; Sarcomata, 422 ; Osteosarcoma v. spina ventosa 
 V. fibro-plastic degeneration of bone, 423. 
 
 Sub-section 2. Non-malignant, Innocent, Simple. — Solid, epidermic, or epi- 
 thelial, fibromata, lipomata, enchondromata, 423 ; Exostosis and osseous 
 tumours, calcareous, lymphomata, cystic, haematomata, serous abscesses, 
 bursal enlargements, hydatids, dermopilous cysts, 424 ; Treatment and 
 surgical removal, 426. 
 
 CHAPTER XI.— THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 Section 1. Diseases of the Male Organs of Generation. — Anatomical con- 
 siderations, castration, 428 ; The various methods of procedure, orchitis, 
 sarcocele, 432 ; varicocele, sterility, hydrocele, injuries and cancer of 
 the penis, phymosis, 433 ; Urethral calculus, 434 ; Gonorrhoea, " bull- 
 burnt," 435 ; Urethritis, 436. 
 
 Section 2. Diseases of the Female Generative Organs. — Anatomical con- 
 siderations, 436 ; Dropsy and atrophy of the ovaries, 437 ; Ovariotomy, 
 "spaying," 438; Menstruation, oestrum, or "heat," 439; Profuseness, 
 suspension or retention of cestral products, ameuorrhoea, 440 ; Sterility, 
 440 ; " Free martins," 441 ; Utero-gestation, false labour-pains, signs of 
 pregnancy, 441 ; Abortion, ** slinking," 442 ; Premature birth, prolonged 
 utero-gestation, excess in number of the progeny, 443 ; Superfoetation, 
 extra-uterine conception, Csesarean operation, 444 ; Parturition, 
 *' cleansing," or "after-birth," retention of the foetal membranes, 445 ; 
 After-pains, placenta prsevia, haemorrhage per vulvam, 446; "Blood 
 flux," presentation, normal ; mechanical assistance sometimes required, 
 447 ; False or abnormal, 448-455 ; Diseases and irregularities of the calf — 
 hydrocephalus, ascites, emphysema, polysarca, oedema, 455; Monstrosi- 
 ties, 456 ; " Lusus naturae," 458 ; Embryotomy, 458 ; Twins, 460 ; Diseases 
 of the foetal membranes, dropsy of the amnion, hydramnios, 460 ; Hair- 
 balls in liquor amnii, 461 ; Obstructions of the genital passages, tumours, 
 imperforate vagina, stricture of os uteri, 462 ; Soft strictures, vaginal 
 hysterotomy, impervious os uteri, 462; Persistent hymen, torsion of 
 the uterine neck, 463; Dilatation of os uteri, imperfect post-partum 
 contraction of the uterus, uterine inertia, 464; Furor uterinus, 
 hydrops uteri, inflammation of the uterus, endometritis, 465 ; Ecthy- 
 matous disease of the arms of veterinary obstetrists, metroperi- 
 tonitis or puerperal peritonitis, 466 ; Lacerations of the uterine walls, 
 uterine fistula, rupture of the uterus, 466; Prolapsus vel inversio 
 uteri, 499; Amputation of the uterus, inversion of the vagina, 473; 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 Inversion of the bladder, hernia uteri or hysterocele, tumours in 
 the uterus, malformations of the uterus, rupture of the vagina or vulva, 
 474 ; Recto-vaginal fistula, vesico- vaginal fistula, leucorrhoea (" the 
 whites "), vaginitis, 475. 
 
 Addendum 1. The Lactiferous Apparatus. ^Ahsence or imperforated state 
 of the teats, 476; Mammitis, v. " garget," downfall of the udder, 477; 
 Scirrhous state of the mammary gland, 478; Congestion; tumours on the 
 teats, obstructions in the teats (as lacteal calculi), inflammation of the 
 lining membrane of the duct, stricture, 480 ; Relaxation, lactorrhoea, 481. 
 
 Addendum 2. Milk and its Diseases. — Agalactia, 481 ; Hypergalactia, changes 
 
 in the quality, 482. 
 Addendum 3. Diseases of very Young Animals, — Umbilical haemorrhage, 
 
 perviousness of the urachus, gastro- enteritis, accumulations of meconium, 
 
 inflammation of the umbilical cord v. omphalitis, 483 ; Gangrenous 
 
 stomatitis, oedema of the umbilicus, 484. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 1. Exploring trocar (Arnold) .... 
 
 2. Fatty degeneration of the heart (Harley and Brown) 
 
 3. Pus-corpuscles and mucus-corpuscles (Harley and Brown) 
 
 4. Process of healing of a wound by granulation (after Gant) 
 
 5. Spray diffuser for anaesthetics or disinfectants 
 
 6. The " bull dogs" applied (Armatage) 
 
 7. An ox prepared for casting (Armatage) 
 
 8. The stomach-pump in use (Armatage) 
 
 *9. Application of steam to the nostrils (Armatage) . 
 
 10. Method of covering the nostrils for steaming (Armatage) 
 
 11. Hypodermic syringe (Armatage) . 
 
 12. Clyster syringe (Arnold) .... 
 12a. Ox prepared for bleeding (Armatage) 
 
 13. Bleeding fleam (Arnold) .... 
 
 14. Seton needles (Arnold) .... 
 
 15. Red blood-globules (Dobson) 
 
 16. Fascicola hepatica (Cobbold) 
 
 17. Distoma lanceolatum (Cobbold) 
 
 18. Amphistoma conicum (Cobbold) . 
 
 20. Elements of an encephaloid tumour (Harley and Brown) 
 
 21. Tubercle (Harley and Brown) 
 
 22. Incipient pleuro-pneumonia epizootica (Simonds) 
 
 23. Advanced stage of pleuro-pneumonia (Simonds) . 
 
 24. Gloss anthrax, or blain, early stage (Armatage) . 
 
 25. Malignant catarrh, second stage (Armatage) 
 
 26. Taenia echinococcus (Cobbold) 
 
 27. Infusoria from alimentary canal (Colin) . 
 
 28. Cysticercus tenuicollis (Cobbold) 
 
 29. Beef measles in the heart of a calf (Cobbold) 
 
 30. A beef measle (Cobbold) .... 
 
 31. Pentastoma (Cobbold) .... 
 
 32. Thoracic contents, as seen from the left side (Simonds) 
 
 33. The heart with right cavities opened (Simonds) . 
 
 34. Ectopia cordis (Fleming) .... 
 
 35. Artery ligature knots (Erichsen) . 
 
 36. Tying an artery (Erichsen) 
 
 37. A piece of a thymus of a calf (Harley and Brown) 
 
 38. Incisors of the ox (Chauveau) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 44 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 , 78 
 
 87 
 
 , 87 
 
 88 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 119 
 
 126 
 
 , 133 
 
 , 134 
 
 , 169 
 
 , 180 
 
 . 184 
 
 199 
 
 . 235 
 
 . 205 
 
 , 205 
 
 . 205 
 
 , 207 
 
 , 208 
 
 , 219 
 
 222 
 
XVUl 
 
 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 39. Teeth of the ox (Chauveau) 
 
 40. Salivary glands with their ducts (Simonds) 
 
 41. Passing the prohang (Simonds) 
 
 42. Armatage's wooden gag . 
 
 43. Forceps or grasping probang (Armatage) 
 
 44. (Esophageal groove (Carpenter) 
 
 45. Rumen and reticulum opened, seen from the left (Simonds) 
 
 46. Ditto, muscular coat (Simonds) 
 
 47. Omasum and ahomasum (Simonds) 
 
 48. Gastric mass, from the left (Simonds) 
 
 49. Ditto, from the right (Simonds) . 
 
 50. Rumen in state of distension (Simonds) 
 
 51. Seat of puncture of rumen (Simonds) 
 
 52. Trocar and canula 
 
 53. Stomachs of the calf (Simonds) 
 
 54. Position of intestines of the ox (Colin) 
 
 55. Intestines, from the left (Simonds) 
 
 56. Ditto, from the right (Simonds) . 
 
 57. Truss for the umbilical hernia (Armatage 
 
 58. Clamps for umbilical hernia (Armatage) 
 
 59. Liver and pancreas of ox (Simonds) 
 
 60. Tracheotomy tube (Armatage) 
 
 61. Animal wearing tracheotomy tube (Armatage) . 
 
 62. Larynx and os hyoides of the ox (Simonds) 
 
 63. Bronchi and lungs of ox (Simonds) 
 
 64. Thoracentesis v. paracentesis thoracis (Armatage) 
 
 65. Ditto, primary incision (Armatage) 
 
 66. Kidney of the ox (Chauveau) 
 
 67. Passing the catheter in the ox (Armatage) 
 
 68. Mange insects (Dobson) .... 
 
 69. Hair with trichophyton spores (Harley and Brown) 
 
 70. Method of applying dressings between hoofs (Armatage) 
 
 71. Staphyloma (Armatage) .... 
 
 72. Congenital hydrocephalus (Simonds) 
 
 73. Ccenurus cerebralis (Cobbold) 
 
 74. Ditto, in sitH (Cobbold) .... 
 
 75. Natural position of rest, as in adynamia (Armatage) 
 
 76. Puerperal (parturient) apoplexy (Fleming) 
 
 77. The catheter ..... 
 
 78. Skeleton of the ox (Dobson) 
 
 79. Dislocation of the patella (Armatage) 
 
 80. Means of prevention of its recurrence (Armatage) 
 
 81. Pin or figure-of-eight suture (Dobson) 
 
 82. Interrupted suture (Dobson) ... 
 
 83. Scirrhous growth from the mammary gland (Harley and Brown) 
 
 84. Suction trocar (from Erichsen's 'Surgery') 
 
 85. Pneumatic aspirator 
 
 86. Miles ^craseur .... 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 87. Beach's ditto . . . . . . .427 
 
 88. External generative organs of a bull (Chauveau) . . . 429 
 
 89. Urethral canal of the ox (Armatage) .... 429 
 
 90. Castrating clamps . . . . . . .431 
 
 91. Female generative organs (Simoncls) .... 437 
 
 92. Maternal and foetal cotyledons of the cow (Fleming) . . 439 
 
 93. Normal presentation (Simonds) . . . . .448 
 94—99. Abnormal presentations (Simonds) . . . 449 — 454 
 
 100. Congenital ascites (Simonds) ..... 455 
 
 101. Hydrocephalus congenitalis — calf (Fleming) . . . 457 
 
 102. Harelip (Fleming) . . . . . . 457 
 
 103. Common embryotomy knife ..... 459 
 
 104. Gowan's knife ....... 459 
 
 105. Finger hook . . . . . . .459 
 
 106. Chain saw ........ 459 
 
 107. Portion of chorion with placentulse (from Fleming^s * Obstetrics') 470 
 
 108. Cotyledon of a cow's uterus (do.) ..... 470 
 
 109. Go wing's truss (Simonds) ...... 473 
 
 110. The loop of Delwart's truss (Fleming's • Obstetrics ') . . 473 
 
 111. Lobules of lacteal gland (after Langer) .... 477 
 
 112. Means of supporting the udder in mammitis (Armatage) . 480 
 
 113. Injection of fluids into the mammary gland (Armatage) . . 480 
 
 114. Section of a cow's teat (Colin) ..... 482 
 
 115. Lobule of a mamma filled with milk (Colin) . . . 482 
 
 116. Milk or teat syphon . . . . . .483 
 
 Plate I. — Section of a plenro-pnenmonic lung — Frontispiece. 
 Plate II. — Foetus in utero — To face page 437. 
 
LIST OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS AND 
 DIAGNOSTIC MEANS. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Taking the pulse — sphygmograph . . . . 
 
 6 
 
 2. Taking the temperature — thermometer 
 
 . 10 
 
 3. Ophthalmoscope and exploring needle 
 
 . 14 
 
 4. Method of conducting a post-mortem examination . ' 
 
 . 38 
 
 5. Methods of restraint ...... 
 
 . 70 
 
 6. Use of anaesthetics . . 
 
 . 72 
 
 7. Administering a draught . . . . . 
 
 . 74 
 
 8. Administering an enema . . . . . 
 
 . 75 
 
 9. Administering an inhalation . . . . . 
 
 . 75 
 
 10. Subcutaneous injection . . . . . 
 
 . 76 
 
 11. Application of boiling water . . . . . 
 
 85, 292 
 
 12. Bleeding ....... 
 
 . 86 
 
 13. Setoning . . . 
 
 . 88 
 
 14. Tests of urine in jaundice . . . . . 
 
 . 102 
 
 15. Inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia 
 
 . 140 
 
 16. Vaccination ....... 
 
 . 157 
 
 17. Operation for traumatic pericarditis . . . . 
 
 . 215 
 
 18. Ligature of arteries ..... 
 
 . 221 
 
 19. Passing the probang . . . . 
 
 . 243 
 
 20. CEsophagotomy ..... 
 
 . 245 
 
 21. Puncture of the rumen .... 
 
 . 258 
 
 22. Ruminotomy, " paunching " .... 
 
 . 261 
 
 23. Laparotomy or gastrotomy .... 
 
 . 275 
 
 24. Operation for umbilical hernia 
 
 . 278 
 
 25. Operation for ventral hernia .... 
 
 . 279 
 
 26. Taxis 
 
 . 281 
 
 27. Operation for inguinal and scrotal hernia 
 
 . 281 
 
 28. „ pelvic hernia . . . 
 
 . 282 
 
 29. Operation for impervious anus 
 
 . 294 
 
 30. Paracentesis abdominis .... 
 
 . 302 
 
 31. Auscultation ...... 
 
 .304 
 
 32. Percussion ...... 
 
 . 306 
 
 33. Operation for pharyngeal polypus . 
 
 . 312 
 
 34. Tracheotomy ...... 
 
 . 313 
 
 35. Laryngotomy. ..... 
 
 . 314 
 
 36. Pharyngotomy ..... 
 
 . 315 
 
LIST OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS AND DIAGNOSTIC MEANS. XXI 
 
 37. Fumigations in parasitical bronchitis 
 
 38. Paracentesis thoracis or thoracentesis 
 
 39. Testing for albumen in albuminuria 
 
 40. Operation for renal calculus 
 
 41. Passing the catheter 
 
 42. Lithotrity, lithecstasy, and lithotomy 
 
 43. Operation for urethral calculus 
 
 44. Amputation of the foot 
 
 45. Shoeing .... 
 
 46. Removal of worm from the eye 
 
 47. Delivery of hydrocephalic calf 
 
 48. Trephining for Ccenurus cerebralis . 
 
 49. Neurotomy 
 
 50. Periosteotomy 
 
 51. Setting a fractured bone 
 
 52. Operation for dislocation of abductor femoris 
 
 53. Reduction of a dislocated patella 
 
 54. Means of checking haemorrhage 
 
 55. Treatment by means of sutures 
 
 56. Antiseptic surgery, or " Listerism " 
 
 57. Surgical removal of a tumour 
 58—69. Castration 
 
 " Mulling," or orchithlasis, 428 ; 
 
 elastic band, 430 ; with hot iron 
 
 ligature, 430 j torsion, 430 ; " tearing out the testicles," 
 
 431 J with the ecraseur, 431 ; with the clamps, 431 ; 
 
 covered operation, 431. 
 
 70. Ovariotomy, " spaying " . 
 
 71 Signs of pregnancy ...... 
 
 72. Csesarean operation ...... 
 
 73. Signs of parturition ...... 
 
 74. Removal of the foetal membranes . . . . . 
 
 75. Management of a parturition case with normal presentation 
 
 76. Ditto, abnormal ....... 
 
 77. Operations for hydrocephalus congenitalis and ascites 
 
 78. Embryotomy ....... 
 
 79. Operation for stricture of os uteri . . *. . 
 
 80. Operations for torsio cervicis uteri . . . . 
 
 81. Restoration of uterus in prolapsus . . . . 
 
 82. Amputation of the uterus . . . . . 
 
 "lashing," 429; 
 
 430 ; scraping, 430 ; 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 322 
 
 . 330 
 
 . 336 
 
 . 339 
 
 . 340 
 
 . 345 
 
 . 346 
 
 . 366 
 
 . 367 
 
 . 373 
 
 . 379 
 
 . 382 
 
 . 395 
 
 . 398 
 
 . 402 
 
 . 407 
 
 . 410 
 
 . 414 
 
 . 416 
 
 . 417 
 
 . 426 
 428—432 
 with 
 
 438 
 441 
 444 
 445 
 445 
 447 
 448 
 456 
 459 
 463 
 464 
 470 
 474 
 
LIST OF TABLES. 
 
 1. System of record of cases 
 
 2. Agents which are administered internally 
 
 3. Ditto, externally 
 
 4. Classification of poisons 
 
 5. Parasites (after Cobbold) 
 
 9. Classification of skin diseases . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 6 
 79 
 83 
 
 186 
 204 
 348 
 
=^1 LlBfi4 
 
 QyO»'V »*' .^ 
 
 ^?^^!nrv> 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION. 
 Section 1. 
 
 Disease is a departure from a liealtliy condition, and is 
 consequently modified in its characters and effects in 
 animals of different species by special anatomical and 
 physiological peculiarities. In by far the larger number 
 of cases functional disorder is present, dependent on 
 structural changes, and it seems that, with the improve- 
 ments which will be made in our methods of minute 
 examination of tissues in health and in disease, we shall 
 in direct ratio find that diseases supposed to be purely 
 functional are due to alterations in structure. This has 
 already been done in many cases, and we may take it as a 
 law, sufficiently proved for working purposes, that disease 
 is a departure from healthy structure of constituents of 
 the body. These constituents of the body are elements, 
 such as cells, fibres, membranes, and granules, which are 
 combined together to form tissues, which produce by 
 union in various ways the organs which co-operate to 
 accomplish the various processes essential to life. In 
 the highest animals these organs are collected into 
 systems for the accomplishment of the various functions 
 which high complexity of vitality necessitates. Thus, 
 in pathology, we have to deal with_ elements, tissues, 
 organs, and systems, and all of these are bound together 
 so intimately in the animal mechanism, that alteration of 
 any one of them tends to throw the body into an abnor- 
 
 i 1 
 
Z BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 mal state. Alteration of structure as present in disease 
 is often brought about by changes from ordinary states of 
 parts in situation, relations (either among themselves or 
 with foreign bodies), and form. Such changes may result 
 occasionally from inherited and other intrinsic influences, 
 but are almost always due to agency from without. Every 
 living being is adapted to certain external conditions, and 
 is capable of undergoing modification in accordance with 
 any variations which these conditions may show within 
 certain limits , but the complexity of organisation in such 
 an animal as the ox requires gradual transitions, or dis- 
 order ensues. Thus, we generally seek the cause of any 
 attack of disease in changes of surrounding agencies, as 
 weather, food supply, &c. This branch of study is termed 
 Etiology. 
 
 Causes are predisposing or exciting. The greater the 
 amount of activity in a part or animal the greater the 
 liability to disease. Thus may be explained a number of 
 facts, such as that highly organised animals are most 
 often diseased, when we develop one system specially for 
 economic purposes it most frequently of all the body 
 systems is liable to disorder, and the most active body 
 tissues are similarly susceptible. But a part may be in such 
 a highly active condition and yet able to do its duties, until 
 some sudden change disturbs its relations with surrounding 
 parts and alters its structure. These states of verging on 
 disease are termed Predisposing Causes. Thus, the milch 
 cow is predisposed to mammitis, and the fattening ox to 
 diseases of the digestive apparatus. By an extension of 
 meaning, predisposition has come to imply also liability to 
 disorder from any external surrounding conditions ; thus, 
 we hear of predisposition to choking in the fact of animals 
 being fed on improperly prepared turnips, and to hair 
 accumulations in the rumen, as a result of the habit oxen 
 have of licking themselves and each other. Determination 
 of all predisposing causes present is highly necessary, for 
 counteraction of them is essential to success in treat- 
 ment. 
 
 By some authorities intrinsic causes are termed Predis- 
 
INTEODUCTION. 6 
 
 positions, in contrast witli simple predisposing causes 
 which act from without. Among these, hereditary pre- 
 disposition is of great importance. When we consider 
 that the parent transmits to the offspring similarity of 
 external structure, with the specialities of function result- 
 ing therefrom, we shall hardly deny that peculiarities of 
 internal structure are also transmissible. So intimate is 
 the connection between the various parts of the body that 
 each must be affected by the others. Thus, the germ-cell 
 and sperm- cell have special family characters manifested 
 only in the product of their development. The parent 
 and offspring being alike in most structural points, and 
 special structure giving special liability to disease, we can 
 understand how it is that hereditary predisposition to 
 disease of special form occurs in such disorders as tuber- 
 culosis and cancerous diseases. The reverse of predis- 
 position is termed immunity. 
 
 Exciting Causes are the direct producers of disorder; 
 sometimes they are enabled to act deleteriously in spite of 
 the absence of predisposition, but generally they find 
 certain favouring states, so, the cautery always arouses 
 diseased action, but a mild external stimulant may simply 
 arouse the activity of the part to which it is applied; the 
 latter, however, becomes an active promoter of mischief 
 when the part is already in a disordered state. Removal 
 of the cause, of all causes, is the grand principle in treat- 
 ment of disease. Our inability to draw a sharp line of 
 demarcation between health and disease is a direct result 
 of deficiency in our acquaintance with structure and 
 function. We cannot yet tell whether structure exists in 
 the protoplasmic contents of cells ; and when we see that 
 a white blood-corpuscle is capable of exhibiting all the 
 properties of life, we cannot doubt that profound secrets 
 of nature, as carried on in the laboratory of cell structure, 
 remain yet to be explored. 
 
 Diagnosis of Disease is determination of the seat and 
 nature of a malady. An animal is brought to us " ill,'' 
 as manifested by certain symptoms. These may be 
 general or special. All animals have certain ways of 
 
4 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 showing that they are unwell, and we shall have to notice 
 such among bovines. These depend upon special structural 
 or physiological peculiarities, so that one of our earliest 
 duties will be to indicate these as distinctive of the ox 
 and his allies. 
 
 These general symptoms are often the first which appear, 
 and then are premonixory; they do not always persist 
 throughout the attack, being obscured by special symptoms 
 in many cases. They especially come under the notice of 
 caretakers of animals, and the value of such depends 
 much upon their ability to mark at the earliest stage 
 departure from the usual habits of the animal. 
 
 Signs, Diagnostic or Special Symptoms, serve either to 
 enable us to determine the seat or nature of a malady. 
 They may be simply manifested in the diseased part or 
 parts, but we often find that local disorder becomes 
 systemic, as a result of the close relations existing between 
 all parts of the body, especially in their functions. 
 
 Systemic Symptoms are found in inflammations and 
 debilitating diseases, for example; they prove useful in 
 determination of the nature of the disease, but observation 
 of Local Symptoms is essential to complete diagnosis. The 
 latter indicate to us what parts must be especially affected 
 by treatment, the former show us what the nature of the 
 remedial means must be. Sometimes the systemic sym- 
 ptoms are present, but no local indications can be observed. 
 This occurs in '^ blood diseases '' in which the blood, a tissue 
 with liquid intercellular substance, being circulated in 
 every part of the body, gives a generally diffused mani- 
 festation of disease, which is the condition known as 
 fever. 
 
 Some practitioners err in treating only symptoms. In 
 each case these must be taken merely as indications of the 
 conditions of the diseased parts. Any clue they give as 
 to the causes which produced, or tend to continue the dis- 
 ease must be specially noted; for, our aim in each case 
 must be to " remove causes that effects may cease.'^ Such 
 is the accuracy of mechanism in the economy of a living 
 being that it returns to true working when disturbing 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 agencies no longer act. In the diagnosis of disease 
 COMPLICATION is an important element. As a rule, we have 
 to do with disease of more parts than one, and have to 
 come to a clear understanding in each case, for the dis- 
 ease which causes the others, the peimary disorder, must 
 be that against which our medicinal efforts are directed. 
 If we succeed in removing it, secondary diseases result- 
 ing from it will generally disappear. Thus, dropsy is a 
 secondary condition often dependent on heart disease. 
 Secondary pathological conditions may be due to co- 
 operation in function, or to continuity or contiguity of 
 structure. The instance just given illustrates the first 
 method, for the dropsy results from escape of watery con- 
 stituents through the walls of the overloaded vessels which 
 cannot perfectly pour their contents into the heart. Ex- 
 tension by continuity of structure is seen when the pleura 
 becomes involved by extension of disease which originated 
 in the lungs. Contiguity is less frequently a means of 
 spread ; sometimes we see a gangrenous patch on the 
 wall of a serous cavity opposite a gangrenous portion of 
 a contained viscus. This means is also exemplified in joint 
 diseases, and wherever living cells lie together without or- 
 ganic connection. Occasionally we find in a special disease 
 some symptoms by means of which its nature may be at 
 once determined; such a symptom is termed Pathognomonic. 
 Thus, the presence of the anthrax Bacillus in the blood is 
 pathognomonic of charbon, and the changed condition of 
 the urine similarly enables us at once to determine the 
 presence of hsBmo-albuminuria. 
 
 The History of every case of disease should be ascer- 
 tained with the utmost care, and when possible a written 
 record should be kept for future reference. It should 
 comprise all ascertained particulars of the case, from its 
 commencement to its termination. It will prove not only 
 a more sure guide to diagnosis and prognosis than the 
 memory, but will enable the practitioner to perform his 
 duty to the profession in recording the case if it prove 
 interesting. We can never be assured of the professional 
 value of a case until it has terminated. Much of the 
 
6 BOVINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 value of good cases is often lost from paucity or inaccu- 
 racy of records of the early stages. In each case a 
 regular system should be adopted; dates especially should 
 be insisted upon, and all records should be made at once. 
 We have found the following a satisfactory system of 
 record : 
 
 Date of admission Date of 
 Case. Colour. Sex. Age. to treatment. discharge. Disease. Progress. 
 
 Pulse, "j State of the blood, if any has 
 
 Respirations, > On special chart. been removed. 
 
 Internal temperature, J Conditions of mucous mem- 
 
 Excretions, branes. 
 
 Appetite, Temperature of surface of body 
 
 and condition of the skin. 
 Special features of case. 
 
 The Pulse is due to periodical enlargement of arteries 
 such as results from their distension with blood in con- 
 sequence of the hearths beat. It is one of the most useful 
 indications of the state of an animal's health, and can be 
 taken at any accessible artery ; but, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, we utilise for this purpose only such vessels as 
 are but slightly separated from the surface of the body, 
 and are so placed in relation to hard structures that they 
 can be compressed against the hard adjacent tissues by 
 the fingers, and thus their beats rendered perceptible to 
 the observer. These beats vary in number with the 
 heart's contractions, and are perceptible sooner after the 
 heart's beat in vessels near that organ than in those more 
 remote. They depend upon the conditions of the arteries 
 as well as of the heart, and the vessels passing from the 
 heart are so constructed that the pulse is less marked in 
 the smaller arteries than in the larger ones, even rela- 
 tively, and disappears in the smallest of these vessels. 
 The sphygmograph is an instrument used to obtain a 
 written record of the condition of the pulse ; it has not 
 yet been applied to veterinary surgery. The pulse assumes 
 various characters according to its rapidity of beat, frequency 
 of occurrence, resistance to pressure, regularity, and per- 
 ceptibility. Thus we have the quick and slow, frequent and 
 infrequent, hard and soft, full and imperceptible, large and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 small pulses, the characters of which may be determined 
 from their names, also that form known as the intermittent, 
 either regular or irregular. In the latter case the beats 
 and intervals are uncertain, in the former at regularly 
 recurring intervals the pause is prolonged. The dicro- 
 tonous or double pulse is found in blood diseases ; it 
 consists in a double rise of the arterial wall for each beat 
 of the heart ; physiologists debate its nature ; it is a 
 symptom of importance. The thready pulse is extremely 
 small, and scarcely perceptible. The '^ running down ■'■' 
 pulse occurs just before death, especially in cases of 
 haemorrhage, and consists in rapid loss of force of beat, 
 with increasing frequency, until the pulse becomes imper- 
 ceptible. It is a very grave symptom. The 'Wenous 
 pulse '^ is a sign of which we shall make use when 
 treating of heart diseases. The sharp beat of the 
 '^ quick '^ pulse must be distinguished from the increase 
 in number of beats per minute characteristic of the 
 '^ frequent ^^ pulse. Sometimes the enlargements of the 
 artery vary in successive beats, then the pulse is termed 
 unequal, while extreme irregularity, and difficulty in 
 perception and appreciation of its characters constitute 
 the confused beat. The oppressed beat is prolonged and 
 not very marked, while the vessels are much distended. 
 We are not desirous of drawing attention here to the 
 exact method by which these conditions of the pulse are 
 produced, but will merely state that variations in frequency 
 and rapidity of beat are connected directly with the action 
 of the heart, and, therefore, especially dependent on states 
 of the nervous system and fever, inducing rapidity, 
 and certain brain disorders, reducing the beats below the 
 normal number per minute ; while the quick pulse shows 
 an irritable state of the heart, slowness of beat often de- 
 pends on impediment to egress of the blood. Hardness 
 and softness depend upon the tone of the arteries, which 
 consists in slight persistent contraction of their white 
 muscular fibres adapting them to their contents ; while 
 largeness or smallness depends upon the amount of blood 
 in the arteries, resulting from the state of supply from 
 
8 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the heart and outfall into the capillaries. "With largeness 
 of the pulse may be associated hardness, constituting the 
 '' corded *' beat ; the '^ wiry '^ pulse is small and hard, 
 and a soft pulse may be large or small. The complicated 
 vaso-motor mechanism, by means of which these variations 
 in the states of the artery of the living subject, together 
 with the intrinsic and extrinsic nervous mechanisms of 
 the heart are brought about, are explained in all modern 
 works on physiology. We have given enough information 
 to enable us to complete our remarks on this point, by 
 observing what states of our patients may modify the pulse. 
 The beats vary with age, being generally frequent in very 
 young animals and declining until old age ; somewhat more 
 frequent in the female than the male, they are especially 
 increased by conditions of pregnancy (varying with the 
 stages) and lactation. Individual temperament may 
 afEect the number, but especially alters the character of 
 the pulse. The nature of the anima?s work and mode of 
 life, as also various processes of digestion (especially 
 rumination) and some minor influences also affect the 
 pulse. 
 
 The Respiratory System, by means of which much 
 impure matter is removed from the blood and much 
 oxygen is added to it, gives us indications of importance, 
 as serving for diagnosis and prognosis of disease. Varia- 
 tions occur in the manner of introduction of air into the 
 lungs, and of its expulsion after utilisation, also in the 
 frequency of these processes. The extent of this system 
 renders it liable to become affected by contiguity to many 
 parts. Also its nervous connections are of considerable 
 importance. Hence, in every case we should examine the 
 number and kind of breathing efforts, and we shall often 
 find it necessary to note the presence and character of 
 a cough or other sound produced by respiratory acts. It 
 has been observed that under healthy conditions the pulse 
 and respirations bear to each other a definite numerical 
 relation, one to four, but this is hardly exact. Fevers, 
 inflammations, and other diseased conditions affecting the 
 system, cause increased frequency of breathing. 
 
INTEODUCTION. 9 
 
 Respirations consist of two acts^ inspiration and 
 expiration. The former is brought about by elevation of 
 the ribsj and contraction of the diaphragm — both acts of 
 muscular exertion. The effect of contraction of the 
 diaphragm is to lessen its concavity towards the abdomen, 
 hence it presses on the abdominal viscera and causes 
 bulging of the walls of the belly. Expiration under 
 ordinary circumstances depends upon elastic recoil of the 
 elevated walls of the thorax_, resulting in expulsion of air 
 through the trachea and larynx. Respirations vary with 
 their depth, frequency, quickness, facility, and the nature 
 of the movements by which they are brought about. Thus, 
 they may be quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, deep 
 or imperfect, laboured, unequal, irregular, &c. 
 
 Dyspn(ea is a term used to imply difficulty of breathing 
 of any kind. 
 
 Apn(EA is the extreme of infrequent respiratory effort, 
 dependent upon the circulation of highly oxygenated 
 blood through the medulla oblongata, where the respira- 
 tory centre resides. Until its natural stimulus, venous 
 blood, is supplied to this centre, no respiratory effort will 
 occur. 
 
 Oethopncea is that condition in which difficulty of 
 respiration is marked except when the animal is in a 
 standing position. 
 
 Asphyxia (literally pulselessness) is a complicated con- 
 dition due to insufficient supply of air for respiratory 
 purposes. It commences as dyspnoea, convulsions with 
 violent expiratory efforts succeed, and, finally, exhaustion 
 sets in, leading to death. In the later stages of asphyxia 
 the animal is stretched out in a recumbent position, with 
 dilated pupils, loss of general sensibility, scarcely per- 
 ceptible pulse, visible mucous membranes dark purple in 
 colour, respirations deep and slow. Finally, he gasps 
 for breath, extends the limbs, shudders, and dies. And 
 on post-mortem examination the lungs, right side of 
 the heart, medulla oblongata, and various body tissues 
 are found in a state of venous engorgement. Lungs, 
 heart, and medulla are all concerned in the fatal result. 
 
10 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 neither of these organs being stimulated because o£ the 
 deficiency of oxygen. Inhalation of such heavy gases as 
 prevent access of oxygen to the lungs, suffocation, and 
 many other diseased conditions bring about death in this 
 way. Sometimes the expulsion of air from the lungs is 
 laboured, and accompanied by a harsh rattling sound ; the 
 breathing is then said to be Stertorous. It depends 
 upon the movement of velum pendulum palati by the 
 expiratory current, and may be observed in cases of 
 parturient apoplexy, for instance. 
 
 Cough is brought about by a deep inspiration, the 
 glottis is then closed until the outward current of air 
 suddenly forces the vocal cords apart, when the air 
 escapes with a sharp sound, and emerges either through 
 the nostrils or mouth with some force, carrying with it any 
 foreign body, such as a mass of mucus, &c., which may 
 have been about the glottal opening. Cough depends upon 
 reflex nervous action, and may be primary when the 
 irritation exists in the lungs or air passages, or secondary, 
 when due to irritation of the stomach, intestines, or 
 other parts having nervous communications with the 
 respiratory apparatus. We speak of harsh, difficult, 
 paroxysmal, suppressed, and other coughs which do not 
 require special description. Some coughs are considered 
 pathognomonic signs, such as that of pleuro-pneumonia 
 zymotica. 
 
 Oxygen introduced by the process of respiration into the 
 blood is the grand agent in the production of animal heat. It 
 combines with various matters, whether in the blood or in the 
 other tissues, and produces with them carbonic anhydride 
 and water (which are passed off by excretory organs, espe- 
 cially the lungs) and heat, which enables the several parts 
 of the body to perform their functions. Observation has 
 proved that for each species of animal we may determine a 
 standard internal temperature, which proves useful in 
 the diagnosis of disease, especially when of an epizootic 
 and contagious character; to a slight degree indi- 
 viduality modifies the readings. Though thermometry is 
 yet in its infancy many valuable results have been obtained 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 from it. The clinical thermometer (self registering) is 
 the instrument used, and proves a most valuable aid to 
 the veterinary inspector of contagious disorders. The 
 vagina, mouth, and preferably the rectum, are the seat of 
 insertion. The instrument requires to be '^ set " to near 
 the expected reading, as by warmth from the hand, to be 
 introduced a short way and then moved farther in, and to 
 be rested against the walls of the cavity for about three 
 minutes. These precautions are mentioned, as neglect of 
 them may lead to imperfect observation. Ordinary 
 physiological influences as exercise, digestion, &c., give 
 rise to slight variations of internal temperature, but a rise 
 of 2° or 3° is sufficient to lead us to suspect some febrile 
 disturbance, and it has been found that a rise of the 
 internal temperature is the earliest perceptible indication 
 of various eruptive fevers. It therefore is a valuable 
 indication of the advisability of separation when it occurs 
 in animals which have run risk of contagion. A marked 
 fall in temperature below the normal occurs in most cases 
 shortly before death, and a low temperature is observable 
 in typhoid fever and other diseases of a low or asthenic 
 type. When this instrument is not available we must 
 resort to the usual methods of investigation of the surface 
 temperature. Coldness or the reverse of the extremities, 
 of the mouth, of the expired air, must be estimated by our 
 sense of touch, while care is taken to note any variations of 
 these points, either at different times or at one and the same 
 time among similar members. Any tendency to coldness or 
 unequal temperature of these parts must be viewed with 
 suspicion, as indicating deficiency or perversion of the blood 
 supply whereby heat is diffused throughout the body. 
 Excessive warmth indicates febrile conditions. A fall in 
 temperature of the surface is generally a precursor of 
 death, so we often read of "deathly coldness of the 
 extremities.^' The conditions of the skin also require 
 attention, it is the principal regulator of internal tempera- 
 ture, and the effects of its disorder are well seen in the 
 rise of the mercury in fever cases. Its supply of blood 
 and its nervous organisation are very marked, so it is 
 
12 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 liable to disorder, and very early indicates systemic 
 disease. It varies under diseased conditions in its 
 moisture and smoothness as well as temperature. We 
 see it dry and harsh, with an erected condition of its 
 hairs, ^' staring,^' as it is termed, in most disorders. It 
 may be bedewed with moisture, locally or generally, as a 
 result of pain. While coldness with dampness — " cold 
 sweats '' — are a sign of approaching dissolution. The 
 mucous membranes exhibit variations in conditions visible 
 to the eye, and thus serve to supplement the conclusions 
 arrived at from the state of the skin ; they become 
 reddened in fever, purple in certain morbid conditions of 
 the blood, pale in low fever and other debilitating con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The various excreta should be most carefully examined 
 as to their quality, quantity, and mode of expulsion. 
 Each excretion has a definite normal composition as ex- 
 hibited by certain physical and chemical characters. 
 Odour, appearance (including colour, form, and arrange- 
 ment of components), consistence, and in some cases even 
 taste, exercise the special sense faculties of the observer. 
 Specific gravity is especially altered in the fluid matters 
 given off from the body, such as urine and milk ; it is 
 tested by modified forms of the hydrometer, or by sp. gr. 
 balls, which sink or float according to the density of the 
 liquid in which they are placed. The faeces and urine 
 should be subjected to physical and chemical tests. 
 Sweat, saliva, and especially milk should be likewise 
 examined. We shall hereafter note the special features 
 of various excreta and secretions as altered by disease. 
 Among other ejecta the expired air must not be forgotten ; 
 its odour often leads to diagnostic inferences. Micro- 
 scopical examination enables us to determine whether 
 those constituents of excreta which have a definite form 
 present their ordinary characters, and are in proper pro- 
 portion. The microscope is a most useful aid to diagnosis, 
 and as having a wide utility may be here mentioned. 
 Moderate powers, as the -J--inch and J -inch by good makers, 
 are sufficient for ordinary diagnostic purposes. The blood 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 may be obtained for examination in any case ; its charac- 
 ters in sucb disorders as leucaemia and anthrax are diag- 
 nostic. Morbid products of various kinds, as discharges 
 from membranes and new growths, may disclose their 
 nature to the microscopical observer, Parasites, as ova, 
 immature forms, or adults, may by this instrument be 
 proved to be present in active disease reasonably attri- 
 butable to them. The spectroscope is now used by 
 pathologists and physiologists; its application to veteri- 
 nary surgery affords an untrodden path to reputation for 
 some future observer. 
 
 In our examination of the patient we require next to 
 examine the special features of the case. The indications 
 derived from the observations above mentioned are usually 
 of a general rather than a special character, and at every 
 stage of the examination we must endeavour to determine 
 whether the conditions observed are due. to local or general 
 disorder ; the special features of the case have generally 
 somewhat of a diagnostic character, so much so that from 
 the messenger sent to request our services we may some- 
 times learn the sort of case which we are about to take in 
 hand. The popular names of disorders are not without 
 their use (thus farm labourers can understand the nature of 
 " dropping after calving '' to a certain extent), and though 
 not always correct, will enable the practitioner to select 
 such instruments and medicaments as are most likely to 
 be urgently required. 
 
 Some means of determination of symptoms with a view 
 to diagnosis are special in their application. Thus, men- 
 suration, auscultation, and percussion will be considered 
 when treating of diseases of the thoracic viscera. 
 
 These means, nevertheless, have somewhat a more ex- 
 tended application ; thus, auscultation has been recom- 
 mended for determination of the presence of a fcetus in 
 utero, and it is a most important means in diagnosis of deep- 
 seated fractures, while percussion assists in the distinction 
 of tympany from impaction. We must especially lay stress 
 upon the value of manual exploration, either by introduc- 
 tion of the lubricated hand into the rectum, vagina, or 
 
14 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 mouth, or by manipulation of the surface, whereby we are 
 enabled to ascertain by touch the form of superficial 
 structures, their relations, and size, determining whether 
 these are normal or abnormal. Their consistence is de- 
 tected by palpation, skilled touch. The ^' t actus eruditus" 
 reveals many obscure states, such as deep-seated ab- 
 scesses, aneurisms, &c. 
 
 The ophthalmoscope and other valuable instruments are 
 limited in their application. The exploring or grooved 
 needle must be mentioned here, for its value in deter- 
 
 FiQ. 1. — Exploring trochar (used for the same purpose as the grooved needle). 
 
 mining the contents of fluctuating swellings, cavities, and 
 the constituents of tumours. It is so small as not to 
 seriously injure the parts into which it is introduced. Its 
 groove or cup brings up sufficient material for micro- 
 scopical examination. It is to us what the dredge is to 
 the deep-sea explorer. It must not be supposed that the 
 methods of observing symptoms suggested by us require 
 to be all adopted in every case. Our aim is to ensure 
 systematic examination of those symptoms of disorders 
 which from their general prevalence may be deemed of 
 minor importance. The determination of the seat of dis- 
 order will suggest to us which of the less general aids 
 should be adopted in any particular case. 
 
 Prognosis must depend upon extended diagnosis. It 
 too frequently assumes the character of simple guesswork 
 or of empirical surmise. The practitioner should in fancy 
 ''see through ^^ his patient, should know what parts are 
 diseased, their pathological conditions, with the possibility 
 of renovation, the resisting power due to constitutional 
 energy of the patient ; also the probable influence of medi- 
 cinal means. He must note how the disease tends to inter- 
 fere with essential vital functions, and especially its influence 
 upon the '' vital trio,'' the brain, heart, and lungs. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 Death may be either systemic or local. This is a direct 
 result of the composition of the body of cells bound to- 
 gether to form a complicated mechanism. Local death is 
 of two kindsj molar and molecular. In the latter form 
 cells die by themselves and at different times, and thus a 
 gradual loss of tissue occurs ; the former results when a 
 number of cells and other tissue elements simultaneously 
 succumb to some injurious influence. Ulceration is 
 molecular, ^gangrene is molar death. Local death 
 results from systemic as soon as the amount of nutritive 
 material supplied to each tissue by the last blood which 
 entered it has been exhausted. So the most active tissues 
 die most readily, while less highly-organised parts retain 
 vitality for some time after systemic death. It must be 
 remembered also that the life of each part of the body 
 varies in its duration,and that in the course of life of such 
 an individual as an ox, every element of a tissue is not 
 always the same, but consists of a number of short-lived 
 minute bodies which succeed one another. The blood is the 
 most important bond of connection between all the body- 
 cells. Of the value of the nervous system in this respect we 
 are not so assured. The action of each cell depends upon 
 a due supply of fresh blood containing nutritive matter. 
 Cessation of the circulation of the blood is in every case 
 the immediate cause of death. " The failure of the heart 
 may arise in itself, on account of some failure in its nervous 
 or muscular elements, or by reason of some mischief affect- 
 ing its mechanical working. Or it may be due to some 
 fault in its internal medium, such for instance as a want 
 of oxygenation of the blood, which in turn may be caused 
 by either a change in the blood itself, as in carbonic oxide 
 poisoning, or by a failure in the mechanical conditions of 
 respiration, or by a cessation of the action of the respira- 
 tory centre. The failure of this centre, and, indeed, that 
 of the heart itself, may be caused by nervous influences 
 proceeding from the brain, or brought into operation by 
 means of the central nervous system ; it may, on the other 
 hand, be due to an imperfect state of the blood, and this 
 in turn may arise from the imperfect or perverse action of 
 
16 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 various secretory or other tissues. The modes of death 
 are in reality as numerous as the possible modifications of 
 the various factors of life ; but they all end in stoppage 
 of the circulation, and the withdrawal from the tissues of 
 their internal medium" (Foster). 
 
 The following methods of death may be remembered : 
 
 Death from ANiEMiA, due to cessation of blood-supply, 
 as after profuse haemorrhage. The symptoms observed in 
 such cases are running down pulse, respirations irregular, 
 pallor of visible mucous membranes, coldness of extre- 
 mities and of general body-surface, which may be bedewed 
 with cold sweats ; dilatation of the pupil, and loss of 
 sensibility of the retina ; loss of voluntary power, and, 
 finally, convulsions. The first vital organ which fails in 
 this case is the brain. The recumbent position, therefore, 
 tends to prolong life by mechanically keeping up the supply 
 of blood to that important organ. 
 
 Transfusion of Blood has been successfully resorted to 
 in such cases in man. It is a dangerous operation to the 
 healthy animal from which the blood is taken. It has 
 been accomplished experimentally in the lower animals by 
 connecting the carotids of two individuals by a tube, such 
 as an ureter (Percivall). Thus, it has been proved that 
 the blood must be from individuals of the same species. 
 
 Death from Necr^mia occurs in blood diseases where 
 the vital fluid has lost the stimulating power by which it 
 excites the heart to action, as a result of putrid decom- 
 position. 
 
 Death by Asthenia is sudden cessation of the hearths 
 action, and may be due to poison or shock, as in 
 lightning injury. After death the right side of the heart 
 is found to contain venous and the left arterial blood. 
 This form of death is also known as syncope, but this 
 term is generally also applied to anaemic death. Asthenia 
 sometimes occurs gradually, then the pulse becomes irre- 
 gular, and the blood supply to distant parts of the body 
 is defective. This culminates debilitating disorders. 
 
 Death by Asphyxia has been elsewhere described. 
 Ajpnoea does not cause death, it accelerates life. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 Death by COma commences at the brain. The sym- 
 ptoms present are, firstly, those due to deficiency of cere- 
 bral energy, loss of sensation and power of voluntary 
 motion, stupor, with slow stertorous breathing, and later 
 the medulla becomes involved, and the respiratory centre 
 ceases to perform its function, and the right side of the 
 heart becomes blocked up with dark blood. Apoplexy 
 causes death in this way. Prolonged artificial respiration 
 may enable the medulla to regain its energy, as when 
 coma results from certain poisons. 
 
 Our prognosis requires especially diagnosis of the patho- 
 logical conditions of the diseased parts, and makes a 
 knowledge of morbid anatomy, sometimes termed intimate 
 PATHOLOGY, a matter of the highest moment. The ana- 
 tomical changes which occur in organs during the progress 
 of disease vary according to the structure of the parts and 
 to the nature of the diseased action. The objects of 
 morbid anatomy are to determine exactly the changes 
 which structures undergo as a result of diseased processes, 
 how those changes are related to each other, how their 
 Causes have operated to produce them, and how they are 
 liable to affect the wellbeing of the animal. The methods 
 of morbid anatomy comprise examination of all organs, 
 tissues, and elements which have been altered by disease. 
 These parts may be procured in many cases from the living 
 animal, but in others only on post-mortem examination. 
 They require to be subjected to all available processes, 
 physical, chemical, microscopical, — indeed, the study of 
 morbid anatomy is but a branch of diagnosis — the exten- 
 sion of its methods as above enumerated. Our determi- 
 nations of the changes which have occurred in an organ 
 are only made in some cases after death, and the infor- 
 mation thus gained must be applied at an earlier stage of 
 future cases. The changes which structures undergo 
 during disease may be in situation, structure, form, and 
 size ; also it seems that in some cases their function may 
 be changed either by increase, decrease, or perversion 
 without appreciable alteration in structural characters. 
 Displacement of elements, tissues, and organs results in 
 
 2 
 
18 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 interference with function when sucli displacement also 
 causes change of structure. Thus, most of the non-malig- 
 nant tumours are said to consist of normal tissue-elements 
 out of place, and may exist without seriously disturbing vital 
 functions until their bulk causes them to interfere with 
 neighbouring parts in a purely mechanical manner; and as 
 soon as structural changes of these neighbouring parts 
 causes them to become secondarily involved, the disease as- 
 sumes a more urgent character. Again, a displaced bowel in 
 a case of hernia causes no inconvenience nor true patholo- 
 gical condition until it becomes strangulated, and thus 
 structurally disordered. Displacement simply of tissues 
 seldom occurs. Changes in size of a tissue-element may 
 be of increase or decrease, and these may be due to altera- 
 tion of constituents, or to simple variations in their quan- 
 tity. The various degenerations are changes in consti- 
 tuents generally either of a retrograde or a retrospective 
 character. To understand this, we must recall to our 
 minds the elementary structure of the body. It originates 
 as a simple cell, or even earlier, perhaps, a simple mass of 
 protoplasm. This cell is endowed with all the properties of 
 a living organism, dependent upon the high vitality of its 
 protoplasm ; hence it exhibits the phenomena of irritability, 
 contractility, spontaneous power of movement, and repro- 
 ductive energy. All the elements of the adult body are 
 lineal descendents of this primitive element, but each has 
 progressed in a special line; hence, in a muscle-cell con- 
 tractility is the prominent property ; in a nerve-cell spon- 
 taniety or irritability, and in white fibrous tissue-corpuscles 
 probably the control of local nutrition. Under certain 
 diseased conditions, each of these forms of cell is liable to 
 regain some of its lost or dormant powers; thus, the 
 tissue-corpuscle becomes a reproductive cell, and proli- 
 ferates freely in suppuration ; the muscle-cell exhibits 
 spontaneity. Such are retrospective degenerations. Re- 
 trograde metamorphoses are much more frequent, the 
 principal being mucoid, colloid, and fatty degenerations. 
 
 Mucoid Degeneration consists in such an alteration of 
 the tissues that they assume a mucus-like character. It 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 19 
 
 is considered to be generally a retrospective change, 
 whereby the primitive characters of the tissues are 
 resumed ; it occurs especially in connective tissues and 
 cartilages, affecting generally the intercellular substance. 
 
 Colloid Degeneration depends upon the conversion of 
 the protoplasmic contents of cells into a tenacious jelly- 
 like material. The cells are burst by accumulation of 
 this matter, and considerable lumps of gelatinous material 
 are produced. The thyroid body is the most frequent 
 seat of this change, but both mucoid and colloid changes 
 may occur in tumours, whether of a malignant or non- 
 malignant type. Neither of these has any bearing of 
 importance upon cattle pathology, though we shall find it 
 occasionally necessary to allude to them. 
 
 Fatty Degeneration is extremely liable to occur in 
 organs which have nerve or blood supply interfered with, 
 for it is a retrograde process resulting from deficient 
 supply or appropriation of nutritive matter. It is a 
 conversion of the contents of the cells of a tissue into fat, 
 which may accumulate so considerably as to burst the 
 cell-walls, whereby a secondary process of diseased action 
 
 Mil 
 
 Fig. 2. — Fatty degeneration of the Heart. 
 After Harley and Brown. 
 
 200 diameters. 
 
 occurs. It affects especially the muscles, as also the 
 lining membranes of arteries and the bowels (in which case 
 the epithelial cells are involved) . This process is of very 
 considerable importance, for it occurs often when a 
 morbid product is to be absorbed and passed into the 
 blood. Sometimes caseous change supervenes upon this 
 
20 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 form o£ degeneration, the part affected becoming a mass 
 of substance of a cheese-like character, yellow in colour, 
 inelastic, and rather soft. Tuberculous deposits are very 
 liable to undergo this change, as also certain malignant 
 growths. 
 
 Calcareous Change depends upon the deposition of 
 lime salts in the intercellular substance of a tissue, 
 whereby it assumes a gritty character and becomes opaque 
 and resistant. It occurs very frequently as a result of 
 excessive activity of the process which normally hardens 
 the costal and laryngeal cartilages of old animals, and is a 
 means by which deposits are rendered permanent and 
 prevented from absorption. 
 
 These processes of degeneration take place normally 
 in certain parts of the body, and when they occur in 
 disease are either in excess in normal situations, or in 
 abnormal sites. The mucoid and colloid degenerations 
 tend to softening of tissue. Fatty degeneration places 
 the matter in that condition under which it is most 
 fit for removal. Caseous change tends rather to per- 
 manency, while calcification exhibits this to a still more 
 marked degree. The calcareous change generally as- 
 sumes the character of an infiltration, involving 
 intercellular tissues rather than the cellular elements 
 of a part, and resulting from the deposition of matter 
 from the blood instead of its production as a result of 
 change in the protoplasm of the cells. Fatty infiltra- 
 tion is very common, involving such organs as the liver 
 and muscles (especially the heart) in animals fattened for 
 slaughter. This proves prejudicial when the accumula- 
 tions of fat pressing upon the tissue elements of the 
 affected part impair their nutrition. Accumulations of fat 
 of this nature occur physiologically in the processes of 
 fattening, then the connective-tissue corpuscles are 
 affected, and this very frequently occurs also in disease. 
 
 Pigmentary Infiltration especially affects the lungs 
 of old animals. 
 
 Amyloid Infiltration has been observed in the liver, 
 and consists in the deposition from the blood of a starchy 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2 1 
 
 material^ which gives to the organ in which it occurs a 
 waxy character. The process generally commences in the 
 small vessels of the part. It has not been found, as yet, 
 to have much clinical importance. Special chemical, 
 microscopical, and physical tests enable us to determine 
 the presence of these changes in parts. These will be 
 found recorded in more special works. Fatty, calcareous, 
 and pigmentary changes, when sufficiently advanced to 
 produce serious disorder, can readily be detected by the 
 unaided senses of the observer. Let it be clearly under- 
 stood that all these degenerations and infiltrations are 
 physiological processes in excess or out of place; they 
 may also be deficient, as occurs in rachitis where there is 
 deficient deposition of lime in the bones. They result 
 from perverted states of nutrition, dependent upon con- 
 ditions of the blood or of the cell-elements themselves. 
 Certain forms of degeneration lead to increase in the size 
 of organs, and very considerable modification of form. 
 The tissues are so arranged as to form solid or hollow 
 organs. When the former are the seat of changes their 
 increase in size and change of form causes them to press 
 upon neighbouring parts, and thereby interfere with 
 functional duties ; or softening with rapid enlargement 
 may lead to rupture, as is sometimes seen in the liver. 
 It must be remembered that very considerable degeneration 
 of an organ may occur without alteration in bulk, increase 
 in size of some parts atoning for diminution of others, 
 and vice versa. Here we have a case of degeneration 
 with atrophy. When a hollow organ is involved in these 
 degenerative processes they may lead to thickening of its 
 walls with or without diminution of its cavity, or to 
 thinning of the walls — atrophy — a condition which, with 
 concomitant softening, tends to produce rupture. When 
 an organ is subjected to free supply of nourishment, with 
 high functional activity, it becomes hypertrophied, this 
 condition consisting of an increase in the number (hyper- 
 plasia) or size of active tissue elements ; such a change 
 must be carefully distinguished from other forms of enlarge- 
 ment. It occurs often as a provision against disease ; 
 
22 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 thus the bladder may have its walls thickened when any 
 obstruction in the urethra interferes with the passage of 
 urine. The reverse of this is Atrophy or wasting, which 
 is described as of two kinds, simple and numerical. The 
 former depends upon decrease in size of the proper 
 elements of a tissue dependent upon deficient supply of 
 nutritive matter, the latter is a more advanced stage of 
 the same state in which actual removal of tissue elements 
 has occurred. Atrophy may result from an imperfect 
 supply of blood or from imperfect ability to appropriate 
 nutritive matter, such as often results from inflammation. It 
 may be difficult to ascertain this state from simple inspec- 
 tions of organs, for as the useful elements are removed the 
 connective elements may be increased in quantity, or dis- 
 placement of some material into the organ may serve to 
 maintain its size. The additions op material to an organ 
 in almost all cases take place from the blood, and hence 
 have the character of infiltrations. They may be solid, 
 liquid, or gaseous. Liquid matters most frequently over- 
 flow from the blood, or are removed in excess from that 
 fluid by over-excited tissue elements. They contain solid 
 matters in solution, and as their fluid portions are most 
 readily removed by absorption, solid deposits may remain 
 behind. These latter either become organised by exten- 
 sion of vessels into them, undergo calcareous change 
 and become permanent (but in the condition of foreign 
 matters), or undergo retrograde changes, especially the 
 fatty, and become absorbed. We shall have more to 
 say about these processes when treating on inflammation. 
 Accumulation of liquid added material constitutes Dropsy. 
 Gas sometimes occurs in a tissue either as a result of 
 gangrenous change of the tissues (the blood for instance) 
 as in black quarter, or as a result of ill-explained nutri- 
 tive changes in a part, or entry of air through an external 
 or pulmonary wound. The gases which occur are such as 
 normally exist in the blood or the atmosphere. Having 
 dealt with the general changes which structures undergo 
 as a result of diseased processes, we must next examine 
 the characters of those processes themselves. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 Phlegmon or Inflammation is defined to be *■' perverted 
 nutrition of a part resulting from the application of a 
 stimulus not sufficiently powerful to cause immediate 
 death. ■'^ It is a familiar but complicated series of pheno- 
 mena of the highest pathological importance, since it occurs 
 in all tissues, and varies considerably according to its seat. 
 We may consider it is nature's method of rising to the 
 emergencies of injury, whereby repair is brought about. 
 In all cases it seems to follow injury of the part affected ; 
 thus it ensues in the majority of cases of wounds, and 
 originates in internal organs either as a result of local 
 injury, or when impressions made upon the surface of 
 the body have proved injurious to more deeply seated 
 parts through the intimate nervous unions which occur 
 between the structures. Of these nervous unions we are 
 not yet assured by physiologists. It cannot be expected, 
 therefore, that the pathologist will be in every case able 
 to determine how any cause which he suspects of having 
 originated internal inflammation acts. We accept this 
 theory of the nature of inflammation since it sufficiently 
 explains all the phenomena of that condition to afford us 
 a good practical basis. Inflamed parts are found to be the 
 seat of stagnation of blood in the vessels, of transudation 
 of its fluids with migration of its formed elements, also 
 of an altered condition of the tissue elements. Probably 
 the latter change is the most essential, for it is marked in 
 cartilage and other tissues which have only indirect blood 
 supply. It consists of high reproductive activity of these 
 cells { proliferation) J the products not being so highly 
 developed as the parent cells. The stagnant condition 
 of the blood in the vessels is brought about gradually 
 through certain stages. It is found, by observations of 
 the circulation in the blood-vessels of an artificially in- 
 flamed transparent membrane, that dilatation of the 
 vessels first occurs with acceleration of the flow of blood, 
 which, however, very soon becomes retarded, then irre- 
 gular and oscillatory until stagnation — " stasis " — ensues. 
 Then a large number of colourless corpuscles are found 
 to have accumulated in the affected vessels near the walls, 
 
24 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 while red corpuscles, aggregated into bundles,, lie nearer 
 the centre of the vessels. Migration now occurs as a 
 result especially of the amoeboid activity of the white 
 corpuscles, whereby they are able to penetrate the proto- 
 plasmic, and, therefore, living walls of the capillaries. 
 Thus they, and sometimes a few red corpuscles, pass into 
 the tissue interspaces, and intermingle with the new 
 generation of cells produced by the proliferation of the 
 tissue elements. At the same time the serous portions of 
 the stagnated blood transude through the walls of the 
 vessels, and thus originates effusion as well as exudation, 
 for they are rich in solids. Effusion of serum and exuda- 
 tion of lymph are early accompaniments of inflammation ; 
 they occur, to a more or less degree, in almost every case, 
 and are the principal cause of swelling. This depends, 
 also, to a certain extent, upon the conditions of the 
 vessels in the parts bordering on that inflamed. They 
 are very full of blood coursing rapidly through them, are 
 in a state of hypersemia or congestion. The presence of 
 this large quantity of rapidly flowing blood, with, perhaps, 
 also the rapid tissue changes in the inflamed part, 
 generates the characteristic heat; to the congestion and 
 amount of blood, even in the seat of disease, the eedness, 
 characteristic of inflammation, must be attributed ; while 
 pressure from effused material and distended vessels is 
 the cause of the painful nature of the process. The pain 
 present must also be attributed to heightened sensibility 
 of the nervous structures. It is related to the hardness 
 of the part, hence inflammation of unyielding organs is 
 most painful. The reproductive activity of the tissue 
 elements replaces their normal function, and the rapidity 
 of new cell formation prevents the elaboration of inter- 
 cellular substance, hence the intercellular material accu- 
 mulates in a state of imperfect development as fluid, and 
 tends to increase the added liquid and plastic material 
 which has been thrown out. Effused liquid material can 
 be taken up again by the capillaries and lymphatics of a 
 part with facility if the vessels have not themselves 
 undergone change. When the latter complication is 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 present fluid accumulations occurs which constitute 
 CEdema when they are in areolar tissue, and Dropsy 
 (hydrops) when into cavities of various kinds. These may 
 take place apart from inflammation when an excess of 
 liquid material exists in the blood, or when the vessels 
 are over-distended. The former condition occurs in cases 
 of debility resulting from defective supply of nutritive 
 matter ; also certain poisonous materials aggravate their 
 effects by causing excessive fluidity of the vital fluid. An 
 illustration of the latter condition may be drawn from 
 general dropsy, whereby excessive distension of the veins 
 is relieved when any obstruction prevents return of the 
 blood to the right side of the heart. When the material 
 added to a part has a more solid character, it primarily 
 assumes the form of Coagulable Lymph. This is fibrinous 
 material which is deposited between tissue elements, ren- 
 dering the parts abnormally hard, or as bands extending 
 across cavities, also membranes lining them, and it will 
 be noticed in the straw-coloured liquid portion of the 
 serous effusion. When all active inflammatory change 
 has subsided, the lymph tends either to permanency or 
 to disappearance. It may be rendered permanent either 
 by organisation, when vessels shoot into it by ordinary 
 processes of development and it thus becomes vascular and 
 in process of time somewhat like areolar tissue, or by 
 calcareous deposition in its substance. The former change 
 occurs in the repairs of any large gap of living tissue which 
 has resulted from injury. It causes filling up of abscess 
 cavities, and of deep penetrating wounds, but is not 
 always so salutary ; for when it occurs in such a cavity as 
 the pleural sac, by uniting the lungs to the wall of the 
 chest, it may seriously impede respiration. Calcification is 
 the process which normally occurs in the hardening of lymph 
 between the fragments of a broken bone forming the mass 
 known as callus. Its appearance is not always desirable, 
 thus when it takes place in the walls of arteries it renders 
 them liable to rupture, and frequently its presence acts as an 
 impediment to movement, as when false anchylosis results 
 from the calcification of ligaments around joints. 
 
26 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Suppuration is tliat result of inflammation which is 
 manifested by the production of the fluid which is familiar 
 to us as pus. It results especially when inflammation 
 runs high in a very vascular organ, but may occur under 
 different circumstances. Pus consists of highly active 
 corpuscles, which closely resemble white blood-corpuscles, 
 and float in serous fluid — Liquor Puris. It has a sp. gr. 
 of 1030. This fluid is simply the effused material with a 
 large number of cells resulting from proliferation of 
 tissue elements, and migration of leucocytes. This result 
 
 
 /P 
 
 
 Fig 3. — A. Pus corpuscles from an abscess ; (a) the same after treatment 
 with acetic acid. B. Mucus corpuscles from the Schneiderian mem- 
 brane J (a) after a drop of acetic acid has been added. C. Mucus 
 corpuscles speckled with pigment granules from a case of chronic 
 irritation of lining membrane of the larynx. After Hurley and Brown. 
 
 of inflammation is most frequent when a natural moisture 
 of the part and capability of yielding to swelling are 
 properties of the diseased organ or tissue. While exuda- 
 tion most frequently occurs on serous membranes, the 
 mucous surfaces generally when inflamed produce pus ; but 
 pus may be produced by a serous membrane and plastic 
 deposits by a mucous membrane, such as that of the bowel 
 or trachea. When suppuration assumes a local character. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 and the pus which is formed accumulates in the areolar 
 tissue, it exerts a solvent action upon the white fibrous 
 elements, and thus produces an Abscess. Ordinarily we 
 may observe that the inflammatory process, where less 
 acute at a distance from the centre of pus production, 
 causes exudation of lymph which limits the infiltration 
 of pus into the neighbouring tissues, and constitutes the 
 boundary of the abscess cavity, though forming no 
 distinct membrane. This firm limiting tissue gives 
 way with extension of suppuration, and at the same 
 time, the parts external to it, which previously were only 
 the seat of effusion of serum, have lymph exuded, and thus 
 in turn prevent infiltration of pus into the undiseased 
 areolar tissue. So, in puncturing a large or a small 
 deep-seated abscess we pierce first tissue with serous 
 effusion, then tissue with lymph exudation, and so arrive 
 at the abscess cavity. In chronic abscesses the inflam- 
 mation has subsided, as also has the serous effusion. 
 The lymph deposit has become organised to form a wall 
 of the abscess cavity in which has accumulated pus, often 
 of a foetid character, but sometimes broken up into the 
 liquid serous portion and the solid materials, the latter 
 being converted into more or less regularly rounded and 
 hardened masses of a curdy or cheesy character, which 
 are bathed by the fluid. These abscesses are sometimes 
 termed cold; they are seen in deep-seated positions 
 where the inflammation has been only moderate in 
 intensity. 
 
 Purulent Infiltration occurs when collections of pus 
 are allowed to enter the areolar tissue of an organ, either 
 by non-deposition of lymph circumscribing the seat of pus 
 formation and leading to abscess, or by the giving way of 
 only a thin layer of this material. It is especially liable 
 to occur in the less active forms of inflammation, and in 
 organs with a considerable amount of areolar tissue ; thus, 
 it may be observed in scrofulous disease of the lungs, and 
 leads to rapid spread of diseased action. Sometimes pus 
 is found in serous cavities. When the pleura is the seat 
 of this the disease is termed eyajpyema. This state seldom. 
 
28 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 i£ ever, results from pus production by the serous mem- 
 brane, but from bursting of an abscess into tbe serous 
 sac. It has been observed that layers of fibrous tissue, 
 fascisB, aponeuroses, limit the extent of abscesses. A 
 knowledge of the position of these is, therefore, important 
 from a surgical aspect, for when externally placed to the 
 pus accumulation they oppose that extension of the abscess 
 towards the surface which leads to evacuation of the pus 
 by bursting through the skin. The local symptoms of for- 
 mation of an abscess are primarily hardness of the diseased 
 parts, with an oedematous condition of the tissues around, 
 with elevation of temperature, and throbbing of the arteries 
 of supply ; then the centre of the seat gradually becomes 
 softer, and at length fluctuates on pressure. The part is 
 swollen and most prominent centrally. After this the fluc- 
 tuation extends from the centre, where the hairs fall off, and 
 a slight amount of serous fluid exudes until the pressure of 
 pus in the abscess bursts the skin, which has been much 
 attenuated by absorption, and thus the pent-up fluid 
 escapes ; and any which forms after this also escapes, for 
 nature has produced an opening with a jagged edge, such 
 as does not readily close. As the pus, which is now pro- 
 duced, exerts no pressure on the abscess-walls, a rapid 
 closure of the cavity results from deposition of lymph 
 around its walls, each layer undergoing changes which 
 terminate in conversion of them, in order of seniority, into 
 an organised tissue somewhat resembling the white fibrous. 
 This process is termed granulation. By it, finally, the 
 cavity is filled ; then the external wound closes. Escape 
 of pus by bursting of an abscess on to the surface of the 
 body, or of a mucous membrane, is a very salutary process. 
 But it may take place into serous cavities and other in- 
 ternal spaces when the result is not so satisfactory. 
 Evacuation of pus from a mucous membrane is often to be 
 encouraged as being nature's method of relief of its in- 
 flamed state. When pus does not become removed by 
 natural or artificial evacuation, its permanence or the 
 reverse will depend upon the state of the vessels of the 
 parts, and also on whether its corpuscles undergo the 
 
INTEODUCTION. 29 
 
 retrograde process of fatty degeneration, pus-cells seem 
 to be never absorbed. When they have undergone fatty 
 change, and with the Liquor Puris form the so-called 
 Pathological Milk, this may be taken up, just as so much 
 chyle would be, by the lymph-vessels. The blood-capil- 
 laries probably assist, but when neither blood nor lymph- 
 vessels can take up the metamorphosed or unchanged pus, 
 a cold abscess results. Pus is of various kinds : 
 
 Laudable, when it has a creamy, whitish-yellow ap- 
 pearance ; is devoid of smell and rich in corpuscles. This 
 is the form which is familiar to us as occurring in well- 
 matured abscesses. 
 
 Foetid, when it has undergone decomposition, either 
 from a long pent-up condition, or from a depraved state 
 of the parts producing it. 
 
 Sanious, when it is thin and watery, and intermingled 
 with blood in small quantity. 
 
 Ichorous, when thin, watery, almost devoid of cor- 
 puscles, largely made up of cell debris, and often with a 
 marked odour, and an acrid, irritating character. This 
 is produced in parts which are of low organisation, or 
 have been reduced in vitality by long continued diseased 
 action. It occurs in diseases of the feet in long standing 
 fistulous ulcers, where the healing process is at a stand- 
 still. 
 
 Specific, when it contains the virus of some specific 
 disorder, as when it is produced by the mucous mem- 
 branes in cattle plague. Such pus when used for inocu- 
 lation transmits the specific disorder. 
 
 Strumous, when resulting from the breaking down of 
 tubercle. This is white, watery, and has specific cha- 
 racters. 
 
 Pus may be mixed with other fluids as in muco-purulent 
 discharges from mucous membranes. The characters of 
 Inspissated Pus which occurs in chronic abscesses have been 
 already alluded to. 
 
 Caries and Ulceration are processes of molecular dis- 
 integration, which sometimes occur when inflammation 
 cuts off the nutritive supply of a part in a gradual manner. 
 
30 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Caries especially affects articular surfaces of bones as well 
 as those portions invested by fibro- cartilage. In it no 
 tendency to repair is exhibited but the process of exten- 
 sion of the disorder progresses slowly, and removal of the 
 articular lamina of the bone by molecular disintegration 
 leads to death of the cartilage which it supports, and so 
 to roughness of a surface which for due performance of its 
 functions ought to be smooth. Hence results secondary 
 disease of the opposing surface, whether articular or ten- 
 dinous. The process of caries is remarkable for the small 
 amount of liquid product, and hence generally the absence 
 of marked distension of the joint capsule or wall of the 
 tendinous sheath. Ulceration is of much more general 
 occurrence, and as removal of tissue occurs at one part, 
 repair takes place at another. Pus is produced often in 
 very considerable quantity by ulcers, and may be of any 
 of the different kinds mentioned above. Ulcers are local 
 deficiencies of structure, which generally appear on mucous 
 membranes or the skin as breaches of the epithelial layer, 
 with the deeper layers of the membrane more or less in- 
 volved. In the cornea we sometimes see ulcers consisting 
 in local deficiency of the tissue of the cornea propria, in 
 which the conjunctiva is not involved ; this is due to the 
 fact that the latter membrane is supplied with nutriment 
 from a different source than the cornea. As a rule, the 
 epithelium is nourished by the deep-seated structures, and 
 is early involved in the diseased process. We must not in 
 all cases consider ulceration due to death of tissue-elements ; 
 it probably much more frequently results from cell pro- 
 liferation, which, replacing the parent by numerous cor- 
 puscles in a fluid medium, leads to breach of tissue, and 
 formation of a fluid with suspended cells, which either 
 escapes as pus, or is removed by the action of absorbent 
 vessels. The breaches of tissue resulting from ulceration 
 and suppuration are repaired by Granulation. This con- 
 sists in the production of small pointed projections over 
 the exposed surface, which are found to be composed of 
 cells, the deeper seated of which undergo organisation, 
 while the superficial degenerate into pus. By their 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 31 
 
 growtK these projections coalesce, and new blood-vessels 
 shoot into them from the neighbouring parts. Thus, by 
 formation of successive crops of granulations, their fusion 
 and organisation, the ulcer is constantly reduced in size 
 whenever the activity of repair exceeds that of disin- 
 tegration. Thus, also, we generally see pus produced in 
 considerable quantity from a granulating surface ; but it 
 seems possible by means of dressings to increase granula- 
 tion at the expense of suppuration, and thus promote 
 rapidity of healing of a wound. The granulation tissue 
 tends to the conversion of its cells (exudation corpuscles) 
 
 #©1 
 
 
 FiG. 4.— Granulation tissue. (After Gant.) To the left, granulation corpuscles 
 with rounded pus cells. To the right, the newly formed vascular loops. 
 
 into proper tissue-elements resembling those of ordinary 
 fibrous tissues. The process of cicatrisation, whereby the 
 breach is ''skinned over,'' will be dealt with when we 
 treat especially of wounds. Ulcers are of various kinds, 
 according to their shape, products, causes, and granula- 
 tions. 
 
 The Simple or Healthy Ulcer occurs in animals of 
 healthy constitution, presents small, vascular granulations, 
 uniform in size and in diffusion over the surface, which is 
 concave. Laudable pus is produced, and the edges are 
 not hard. 
 
 The Inflammatory Ulcer depends upon an irritable state 
 of the constitution, and presents few granulations, a raw 
 
32 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 appearance, and ichorous or sanious pus. When the irri- 
 tation is local, it gives rise to excess in size and extreme 
 painfulness of granulations, while the surrounding parts 
 are congested and oedematous — such is an Inflamed 
 Ulcer. 
 
 Weah Ulcers have large, oedematous, pale, flabby- 
 granulations ; they occur on oedematous organs. 
 
 Callous Ulcers are usually deep with pale base, pre- 
 senting small, imperfectly formed granulations, and having 
 an ichorous discharge of tissue debris. The borders of 
 the ulcer are thickened, hard, and project considerably. 
 
 A Fistula, or Sinus, often has this character. Fistula3 
 penetrate deeply into parts, and open at each extremity. 
 Sinuses have only one opening to each ; but we may have 
 fistulae and sinuses which present all the characters of 
 healthy ulcers except their shallowness. 
 
 Specific Ulcers are such as occur in specific diseases. 
 Sometimes these lesions are diagnostic, but often their 
 special character may be proved only by the nature of the 
 pus produced by them. 
 
 A Cold Ulcer is surrounded by a purple ring of con- 
 gested tissue, and is of a very painful character. It is 
 very often specific, and results from marked deficiency in 
 circulatory energy in the affected part. It occurs under 
 a special form in those parts of old animals which are far 
 from the centre of circulation. It is then termed ^' Senile 
 Ulcer/' and is characterised by a deficient tendency to 
 repair with a liability to rapid spread by sloughing of 
 tissue. Thus, several ulcers " run together,'^ producing 
 a widespread breach of tissue. They are then said to be 
 Confluent Ulcers, and this tendency to blending of ulcers 
 is marked in several specific disorders. 
 
 The Phagedcenic Ulcer rapidly spreads by sloughing of 
 masses of neighbouring tissue. A large foul surface with 
 an ichorous discharge is thus left. This serves to draw 
 our attention to molar death, which may result from in- 
 flammation, and is termed Gangrene, depending upon the 
 processes which constitute sphacelus or mortification. 
 When the supply of blood is cut off from an organ or any 
 
INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 part of the body it dies^ and chemical forces are enabled 
 to bring about its decomposition. Sometimes the blood is 
 not permitted entry into a part through obstruction of 
 the arteries of supply ; then dry gangrene may take 
 place, which consists in the drying up of the tissues, their 
 diminution in size, and complete loss of all vital pro- 
 perties. The dry, mummified mass remains as a foreign 
 body, perhaps becoming invested by a coating of lymph. 
 This has been observed in the case of pleuro-pneumonic 
 lung. When a part is the seat of moist gangrene, it be- 
 comes very dark in colour, pits on pressure, swells in con- 
 sequence of the liberation of gases by decomposition and 
 their accumulation beneath the epidermis/which they raise 
 in spots forming hlehs. A sanious discharge with foetid 
 odour takes place from the surface of the mass, which is 
 sodden with a similar material, and has lost all sensation 
 and other physiological processes, and is very cold. 
 Moist gangrene is more frequent than the dry form, 
 and depends on impeded return of blood. A part 
 which has thus undergone mortification is removed by 
 sloughing. Salutary inflammation sets in on the line of 
 junction of the dead with the living parts, and here con- 
 solidation by exudation takes place to prevent infiltration 
 of gangrenous material into healthy parts. Suppuration 
 of this consolidated layer occurs, and thus the dead mass 
 is thrown off. Molar death of bony tissue is termed 
 Necrosis, and the portion of removed material is a 
 Sequestrum. During this process of gangrene the con- 
 stitutional powers are much diminished, the pulse being 
 small and weak and frequent, and the strength rapidly 
 failing. The animal has a wild, apprehensive look, and is 
 very restless ; cold sweats bedew the skin, and there is a 
 gangrenous odour. Sudden cessation of pain often 
 announces this result of inflammation. The termination of 
 the case will be favorable or otherwise, according as the 
 strength of the body proves equal to removal of the slough 
 or the reverse. In old age senile gangrene may occur as a 
 result of deficiency of vital energy, affecting especially those 
 parts most remote from the central organ of circulation. 
 
 3 
 
34 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Resolution is a termination of inflammation most to be 
 desired ; it consists in the gradual resumption of healthy 
 conditions of the diseased part. In it the products of 
 cell proliferation are absorbed, lymphj deposits and serous 
 effusions undergo the same fate, and the blocking up of 
 the vessels which has resulted in stasis gives way, so that 
 healthy circulation is resumed. When this process occurs 
 very suddenly, as when only stasis and effusion of serum 
 have to be overcome, a few hours suffices for resolution, 
 which is then termed Delitescence. Occasionally this is 
 related to appearance of inflammation in some other organ, 
 when it is termed Metastasis, a phenomenon which occurs 
 very frequently in rheumatic affections. How this is 
 brought about we are not in a position to say. Cases of 
 false metastasis have been found to be due to direct con- 
 tinuity of structure, and true alteration of the seat of an 
 inflammation may be due to the ill-ascertained conditions 
 of nerve continuity. There are various terms used to 
 indicate the forms assumed by inflammation as dependent 
 on consitutional or local conditions : 
 
 Specific, when it depends upon the presence of special 
 materies morhi, 
 
 Teaumatic, when it is due to local injury from without 
 through mechanical, chemical, thermal, and other agen- 
 cies. 
 
 Idiopathic, when not attributable to any such cause. 
 
 Sthenic, when occurring in a constitution with high 
 vital energy, and tending to the throwing out of plastic 
 lymph, which rapidly undergoes organisation, or to sup- 
 puration. The pulse being full and strong, and the 
 internal temperature high, and the nervous system in a 
 state of high activity, these cases run their course in a 
 short time. 
 
 Asthenic, when tending to assume a low character with 
 imperfect lymph deposits which do not circumscribe the 
 accumulations of badly matured pus, which^ therefore, 
 tends to spread widely by infiltration into neighbouring 
 parts. This leads to extensive destruction of tissue, and 
 a depressed state of the constitution, the pulse being 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 weak, quick, and often irregular, and the temperature 
 being liable to marked variations. This depends upon a 
 depraved condition of the blood in the majority of cases. 
 
 Acute Inflammation is of the sthenic type, running its 
 course with well-marked symptoms, and passing rapidly 
 either to resolution or to suppuration, ulceration, or gan- 
 grene. 
 
 In the CHRONIC form both local and general sym- 
 ptoms are slight ; the tendency is to firmness and organi- 
 sation of deposits with permanency of effects, and the 
 conditions which are set on foot by it are slow. Inflam- 
 mation is considerably influenced in its course and effects 
 by the tissue in which it is located; thus, we shall notice 
 that mucous membranes thus affected tend to suppurate, 
 fibrous tissues to undergo calcification, serous and 
 synovial to exudation of lymph, cartilage to caries and 
 ulceration, &c. 
 
 Congestion is a form of diseased action, second, indeed, 
 to inflammation in importance and complexity, but never- 
 theless exercising an important influence upon pathology. 
 Dr. Williams distinguishes between congestion and 
 hypersemia, considering the former to differ from the 
 latter in that retardation of movement of blood through the 
 affected part has occurred. In both cases there is excess 
 of blood in the part, but in hyperaemia the flow is rapid 
 and the outfall as great as the income. Hypergemia is, 
 therefore, not disease ; it occurs in every organ or tissue 
 which is in a state of activity. Congestion may be active, 
 passive, or mechanical. 
 
 Active Congestion is that accumulation of blood in a 
 part which occurs when the income is great but the out- 
 fall is small. It occurs as a result of irritation, precedes 
 the inflammatory process, and often is confused with 
 hyperasmia. 
 
 Passive Congestion results from a relaxed condition of 
 the small arteries and the capillaries of a part depending 
 upon deficiency of tone, so the flow of blood becomes 
 slow, and the vessels distended. It may arise either from 
 local or general disorder of the vessels, from imperfect 
 
36 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 action of the hearty or from a depraved condition of the 
 blood. 
 
 Mechanical Congestion depends upon impediment to 
 return of blood from a part in consequence of pressure on 
 the veins ; it generally assumes the passive character. In 
 active congestion there is swelling, pain, redness, and 
 heat, with an exaltation rather than a perversion of func- 
 tion, but practically it is extremely diflficult to distinguish 
 from inflammation upon which it verges. Passive con- 
 gestion is indicated by swelling due to serous extra- 
 vasation, coldness and deficient vitality of the part, which 
 has a dark blue colour. The swelling is influenced by 
 position of the patient, for it is caused by a watery fluid 
 devoid of plastic elements. Such swellings may dis- 
 appear very rapidly and occur in pendulous positions. 
 Congestion terminates either in inflammation or resolu- 
 tion, and may persist for a long time, giving rise to 
 ExTEAVASATiONS, either serous or sanguineous, or mixed 
 (sero-sanguineous) . 
 
 Seeous Exteavasation may occur either on a serous or 
 mucous surface, or into intercellular spaces. It may be seen 
 in the early stages of catarrh of various mucous membranes, 
 and, mingling with mucus, constitutes the discharge of the 
 early stages of inflammations of those structures. When 
 serum is extravasated into a serous cavity as a result of 
 congestion, it is a salutary relief to the diseased parts, and 
 the liquid can be readily returned into the blood, for the 
 serous cavities are only large dilatations of lymph-vessels. 
 Intercellular collections of serum are similar in their 
 pathological importance. Sometimes, however, accumu- 
 lations of serous or sero-sanguineous fluid appear on the 
 surface of the body as a result of injury ; the surrounding 
 areolar tissue becomes condensed and retains the fluid. 
 Incision into these " serous abscesses " is sometimes 
 necessary. 
 
 Sanguineous extravasation is known as H^morehage. 
 It depends either upon a depraved state of the blood, or 
 on a giving way of the walls of vessels. Not only in the 
 latter case is unaltered blood displaced, but it is allowed 
 
INTRODUCTION. 37 
 
 that a migration of red corpuscles (diapedesis) as well 
 as of white may occur from the vessels under certain 
 circumstances. Ha3morrhage is traumatic when due to 
 injury from without, and idiopathic when dependent 
 on intrinsic causes. Traumatic hsBmorrhage may be 
 due to injury of arteries, veins, heart, or capillaries, 
 and will be treated more at length under the heading 
 " Wounds." Idiopathic blood-extravasation may be 
 active or passive. 
 
 Active Haemorrhage occurs in plethoric subjects, and is 
 preceded by active congestion. It results from a giving 
 way of the walls of capillary vessels, and the blood which 
 thus escapes is considerable in quantity, of a bright colour, 
 flows rapidly, and coagulates freely. Passive hemorrhage 
 generally depends upon debility and a disordered state of 
 the blood. It occurs in organs which have been weakened 
 by disease, and is often a symptom of some value. The 
 escape of blood tends to still further reduce the strength 
 of the patient. In certain blood disorders we find extra- 
 vasations of blood, either considerable infiltrations of 
 areolar tissue {hemorrhagic infarctions), or circumscribed 
 small patches of blood, petechia. Rupture of the wall 
 of a vessel, fracture of bone, and other lesions of a like 
 kind, are known in surgery as " Solutions of Continuity." 
 These give rise to disorder only when the continuity of 
 structure is essential to due performance of function ; 
 thus, a solution of continuity of horn may be present and 
 give rise to no inconvenience if the sensitive structures 
 beneath be not exposed to injury, as from compression. 
 Again, a simple incised wound, when the parts are brought 
 and maintained in contact, may become obliterated by 
 simple growth without the intervention of inflammation. 
 In bones continuity is essential to render them firm bases 
 of support. Fractures, therefore, interfere with function, 
 and must be carefully studied. The walls of blood-vessels 
 are constantly subjected to pressure by the contained 
 blood, when a solution of their continuity takes place, 
 therefore, HiEMORRHAGE results. 
 
 In the present state of pathology we must admit the 
 
38 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 existence of certain functional disoedees, on the under- 
 standing that they will probably, with improvement of 
 methods of research, be proved to be due to alteration of 
 structure. The term ^^ Functional disease '^ is of value 
 clinically, especially in relation to disorders of the nervous 
 system and other parts, with the physiology of which we 
 are not very well acquainted, but as our knowledge of 
 physiology and its relation to structure advances, we 
 trace such disorders to appreciable changes of struc- 
 ture. Functional disease of the rumen occurs in some 
 cases, and leads to accumulation of gas and food in that 
 viscus. Probably the derangement is due to nervous 
 disturbance, for such accumulation is found in many 
 brain diseases. We must be understood, therefore, to 
 imply a certain amount of ignorance when we speak of 
 disorder of function. 
 
 In conducting a post-mortem examination we must be 
 as systematic and thorough as circumstances will allow, 
 so that we shall be in a position to give evidence on each 
 case to either legal or medical authorities. The note- 
 book should be in constant use, and we must adopt an 
 established routine, to be varied as little as possible with 
 the exigencies of time, place, &c. Thus, the external 
 evidences of disorder must first be noted, position, expres- 
 sion and rigidity of the patient ; then the presence of dis- 
 order of the skin and visible mucous membranes, any indi- 
 cation of discharges or of injury, the age, sex, condition, and 
 breed of the animal, also special circumstances of history. 
 The carcase of the ox in the field must be supported by 
 means of pitchforks so placed as to sustain the limbs like 
 props. In the cow-house, or barn, or shed, the limbs of 
 one side may be supported by ropes thrown over a beam. 
 In opening the peritoneal sac by incisions through the 
 abdominal walls the conditions of the peritoneum and the 
 position and general appearance of the abdominal organs 
 must be observed, also any abnormality of the contents of 
 the peritoneal sac, which may be bloody, purulent, loaded 
 with flocculi of lymph, contain food material, &c. The 
 stomachs, with the intestines, should then be removed. 
 
IXTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 and thus the liver, kidneys, diaphragm, and genito-urinary 
 organs are more or less exposed. The situation of each 
 of these should be examined before removal, any abnormal 
 relations and adhesions being carefully noted. To 
 thoroughly examine the genito-urinary apparatus one of 
 the hind limbs should be removed from the hip, and the 
 symphysis of the os innominatum and the neck of one 
 ilium cut through with the saw, and the portion of bone 
 thus loosened removed. Next, the thoracic viscera should 
 be subjected to scrutiny, the articulations between the 
 sterno- costal cartilages and the true ribs having been 
 divided, some of the anterior sterno-costal cartilages 
 of false ribs may be cut through, and thus the sternum 
 drawn away from its position and forwards. To do this 
 the connections of the fore extremities with the trunk 
 must be divided, and the skin reflected from the median 
 inferior longitudinal line of the body. During this 
 process dropsical collections or diseased conditions of the 
 axillary lymphatic glands may be found. The pericardial 
 and pleural sacs must then be examined for they are 
 exposed, and their contents must be observed. The 
 heart and lungs may be then removed en masse. Next, 
 the diaphragm and liver may be separated together from 
 the surrounding parts. After this the structures in the 
 lower part of the neck must be separated from their 
 surroundings and examined, but left in position until we 
 have the structures of the fauces ready for removal with 
 them. This is accomplished either by dissection of the 
 skin from the central line of the sub-maxillary space, and 
 a deep incision on either side against the inner surface of 
 the lower jaw, whereby the tongue is freed from its 
 attachments, anteriorly and laterally, and can be drawn 
 between the branches of the lower jaw, or by removal of 
 the skin farther up the side of the face, and amputation 
 of half of the inferior maxilla at the symphysis, and just 
 below the condyle. The mouth, pharynx, posterior nares, 
 and isthmus faucium may thus be examined, and the 
 temporo-hyoid articulations being divided, the tongue, 
 larynx, and pharynx removed with the trachea, oesophagus. 
 
40 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 &c. The head having been skinned and disarticulated at 
 the occipital condyles, may be retained for examination of 
 the brain, eye, nasal chambers, &c., secundum artem. 
 The subsequent examination of solid organs, variations in 
 size, form, and structure must be noted and deter- 
 mined to be primary or secondary causes of death. The 
 contents of hollow viscera must be retained and examined, 
 and the capacity, form, and structure also placed on 
 record. Finally, a scientific summary of post-mortem 
 results, with conclusions deduced from them, should be 
 drawn up after each organ or tissue exhibiting disease 
 has been specially examined. 
 
 Disease may assume various forms dependent upon its 
 method of appearance and the manner in which it runs its 
 course. Thus, aciite disorders are characterised by short 
 periods of attack and rapid morbid changes leading to death 
 or to resolution in a few days, whereas chronic cases last 
 for some time, changes occur more slowly and lead to 
 greater permanent alteration of structure. Such attacks 
 as are active in their phases, but chronic in their effects, 
 are termed Subacute. Different diseases generally affect 
 one or other of these characters. Certain blood diseases 
 are very liable to assume the chronic form, rheumatism, 
 for instance, while inflammations of important viscera, as 
 the lungs, heart, &c., are generally acute. When 
 a number of animals of the same species become 
 simultaneously affected with a disease which does not 
 seem to be confined to any special locality the outbreak 
 is said to be Epizootic, but if animals of various species 
 suffer from the disorder it is termed Panzootic. Enzootics 
 are those diseases which affect a number of animals in a 
 circumscribed locality. Thus, eczema epizootica is a 
 panzootic, pleuro-pneumonia zymotica is an epizootic, and 
 anthrax generally manifests itself in enzootic outbreaks. 
 The term Sporadic is applied to those disorders which do 
 not affect a number of animals simultaneously, but now 
 and then an individual becomes attacked, while a number 
 of others subjected to like conditions escape unharmed. 
 Most non-specific disorders assume the sporadic character. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 41 
 
 Having determined the nature of the attack under which 
 an animal is labouring, and by the various methods of 
 inquiry above noted, in so far as they are applicable to 
 the special case, having arrived at a conclusion as to the 
 part disordered, and the extent to which it has undergone 
 pathological changes, and to which its altered conditions 
 affect surrounding parts, the practitioner must next 
 determine the method of treatment to be adopted and 
 rigidly enforced with a view to restoration of health, or 
 to a condition of fitness for special duties according to the 
 nature of the patient. It has been truly remarked that 
 in many cases a veterinary surgeon has not the oppor- 
 tunity to carry his medicinal skill to its full extent since 
 his patients are almost always viewed as representing so 
 much capital, and not as being in a position to claim 
 moral protection for life so long as it exists. Again, in 
 the majority of cases the veterinary surgeon must 
 thoroughly cure his patient, and may find a ^' patched up '' 
 case which would bring his medical confrere much credit, 
 is apt to prove even prejudicial to him. Such being the 
 case, it can hardly be a matter of wonder that the study 
 of the treatment of such animals as our bovine patients 
 has not been pursued with such energy as certain other 
 branches of therapeutics. The animal if slaughtered at 
 once will prove useful for food, if kept alive will probably 
 have its system impregnated with medicinal agents, and 
 at the same time will rapidly decline from " market con- 
 dition.^^ The veterinary surgeon's bill and the keep of the 
 animal until it is again fit for its special duties will 
 mount up very considerably, so the owner is too often 
 tempted to send the patient immediately to the butcher. 
 Promptness is most essential, then, in the treatment of 
 our patients, both in prognosis and in administration of 
 remedies. In all cases we must remember the grand rule 
 " reniove the cause and the effect will cease," and must 
 not only remove the immediate cause, but any other 
 influences which are tending to bring about increase of 
 the disorder. We must thoroughly trace out the value of 
 each pathological condition in relation to other morbid 
 
42 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 states, and the primary disease must in all cases determine 
 the course of our therapeutical efforts. 
 
 All secondary diseases, symptoms of which show that 
 they are liable to destroy the patient, must also receive 
 attention ; thus, in a case of indigestion we often require to 
 prevent death from suffocation when distension of the 
 rumen with gas impedes movements of the diaphragm, 
 evacuation of the gas is then urgent and must be adopted 
 as a palliative measure, together with the curative means 
 directed to reduction of the indigestion. Curative means 
 may be either medicinal or surgical. Medicinal agents of 
 various kinds have been found to have different effects 
 upon the animal system since they increase, retard, or 
 prevent natural processes. A judicious selection of these 
 agents may be made to assist nature in her attempts to 
 restore healthy conditions ; in all cases the educated prac- 
 titioner must apply his knowledge of the action of special 
 medicaments and of the methods which nature adopts as 
 reparative. Thus, with a wound of a sluggish character, 
 he will endeavour to promote salutary inflammation by 
 means of digestives, and in a case of haemorrhage, he will 
 endeavour to coagulate the fibrine of the blood and so 
 plug up the orifice of escape. Treatment must be of no 
 definite and fixed character, nostrums and recipes occupy 
 too prominent a position in works on cattle diseases ; the 
 educated practitioner alone should treat the case, and he 
 will be able to vary the doses and agents administered 
 according to the many and ever variable phases of diseased 
 action. 
 
 Human medicine has been facetiously termed ^^ the art 
 of amusing the patient while nature cures the disease.^' 
 All medicinal treatment consists in a state of constant 
 vigilance and free supply of air whenever the vis medicatrix 
 natures requires us to restore health equilibrium. 
 
 Surgical Treatment comprises all operations performed 
 upon the various parts of the body with a view to 
 restoring the natural condition of the constitution or a 
 satisfactory state of health. Many refinements which have 
 been adopted in human surgery and so materially allevi- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 43 
 
 ate suffering and prolong life, have not been able 
 hitherto to find a place in veterinary surgery. For want 
 of co-operation on the part of the patient and his slight 
 pecuniary value if imperfectly restored, and the expense of 
 keep, prove sad opponents of our advancement in this 
 respect. Thus the medical and surgical branches of 
 professional work have not been artificially delegated to 
 distinct sections of practitioners, and as they depend on 
 the same laws of disease, and are at every phase in 
 close interunion, we have not deemed it right to separate 
 surgery from medicine in the work before us. Surgical 
 treatment comprises operations, the use of appliances, and 
 dressings of various kinds. 
 
 Operations may be performed with special instruments or 
 by manipulatory methods ; they have for their aim either 
 removal of the cause of disorder as in oesophagotomy, or 
 palliation of its effects, as opening the trachea in a case 
 of laryngeal obstruction. Again, they may have a pre- 
 ventive effect, as in removal of a tumour which by its 
 spread tends to involve important organs, and ovariotomy 
 in an animal with some mechanical impediment, to expul- 
 sion of a foetus. Operative surgical skill may, to a certain 
 extent, be acquired in the dissecting-room by the study of 
 topographical or regional anatomy, but can only be per- 
 fected by operations on the living subject, preferably in 
 the course of general practice; though some educational 
 authorities consider that the pain inflicted on a few animals 
 during a course of operative vivisectional surgery, will be 
 amply atoned for by subsequent more skilful execution of 
 professional duties. In the performance of any operation 
 the practitioner must have determined beforehand the 
 most favorable methods for the particular case, the com- 
 plications liable to arise, and the measures of after treat- 
 ment which will be necessary if everything succeeds 
 according to his expectations. It is in the occurrence of 
 complications that the skill of the operator is best tested ; 
 coolness, promptness in emergency, and neglect of sur- 
 roundings, are valuable qualities under these circumstances. 
 With large patients special means of restraint during all 
 
44 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 major operations have to be resorted to by the veterinary 
 surgeon. The animal requires to be cast or otherwise to 
 be disarmed of defensive powers and ability to escape. 
 
 Anesthetics have not been hitherto used much in 
 veterinary surgery. They are not so frequently required 
 as in human surgery because major operations on animals 
 are less frequent, and also because the amount of nervous 
 wear and tear in the lower animals is not so great as in 
 man, with his extremely elaborate and delicate nervous 
 mechanism. The pain of anticipation, also, in animals, 
 is reduced to a minimum. Chloeoeoem requires to be 
 administered in very large quantity to large herbivores, 
 and seems to so thoroughly impregnate the blood as 
 to interfere with subsequent healing processes and to 
 give rise to serious complications. This agent proves 
 more expensive than the owner of the patient generally 
 likes, and the preliminary stage of excitement produced 
 by it induces severe struggling and reduction of the 
 strength of the patient. Local anaesthesia as induced by 
 Dr. Eichardson's spray diffuser, has been used for certain 
 veterinary operations ; cold water is sometimes continuously 
 applied to produce this effect. 
 
 Fio. 5. — Spray diffuser for anaesthetics or disinfectants. 
 
 The preliminary treatment of a patient must be such as 
 will induce as vigorous a state of the constitution as is 
 compatible with the circumstances. Food of good quality 
 and wholesome, a free supply of air, and exercise, should 
 be adopted when possible. Operations should not be per- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 45 
 
 formed when certain blood diseases are present, and 
 organic disease of various organs, together with the 
 special conditions of the patient, should be most carefully 
 considered. 
 
 Professor Williams is careful to caution us lest we 
 operate with dirty instruments or hands or near a dissect- 
 ing room. The operation should be performed in a place 
 where there is lots of room, light and quietude. The 
 subject should be placed in position by skilled assistants, 
 and the necessary instruments and appliances should be 
 clean, in order, and placed under the charge of a special 
 assistant. Thoroughness, cleanliness, and judgment should 
 be the features of all operations. Emergencies as they 
 arise must be met and counteracted. Ha3morrhage, pro- 
 trusion of viscera, and collapse of the patient, are some of 
 the most formidable. 
 
 Collapse consists in sudden interference with the heart's 
 action, the result of nervous shock. The patient ceases to 
 struggle, and loses all voluntary power, the limbs are 
 relaxed, the pulse scarcely perceptible and extremely 
 irregular, sighing, palor of visible mucous membranes, and 
 coldness of the body are present in most cases. 
 
 In this state of affairs a free supply of fresh air must 
 be secured, and sometimes artificial respiration resorted to. 
 Stimulants must be administered and frictions applied to 
 the extremities and general surface. Extreme quiet and 
 stimulant tonics must constitute the after-treatment. 
 When death occurs from this cause, the blood is found 
 diminished in consistency and occupying all the cavities 
 of the heart, the right especially being engorged. 
 
 In all cases after a serious operation the patient should 
 be kept in a well- ventilated house, and supplied with good 
 and not over nutritious diet, the necessity for stimulant 
 and tonic agents being estimated in accordance with the 
 case. 
 
 The various forms of appliances and dressings will re- 
 quire special notice. An important rule to be observed in 
 operative surgery is to preserve every portion of structure 
 which can become useful, while removing all diseased parts 
 
46 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 with an unsparing hand. This is the grand doctrine of 
 " Conservative Surgery/^ 
 
 Finally, we must impress upon our minds the extreme 
 value of Nursing and Prevention. 
 
 Nursing consists in attention to minor details which 
 are conducive to the comfort of the patient. Supply 
 of tempting and palatable food, and water or other drinks, 
 as suited to the state of the patient ; free supply of fresh air 
 of an agreeable temperature, prompt removal of ejecta, and 
 the supply of a good clean bed of straw, clothing properly and 
 with judgment, administration of medicines in the gentlest 
 and most effectual manner, and application of dressings of 
 various kinds, also constitute the duties of the nurse. 
 
 When it is remembered that very frequently these simple 
 matters prove more valuable than more active treatment, the 
 necessity for good nursing in all cases will be evident. 
 
 Prevention or Prophylaxis is a most important question. 
 We have seen that conditions are rather unfavorable to 
 curative treatment, but prevention is correspondingly 
 valuable. Veterinary surgeons are called in to prevent 
 disorders of any kind among a herd of cattle, or to adopt 
 special prophylactic means against such a disorder as 
 anthrax. In each case he must carefully adopt hygienic 
 measures with a view to avoidance of predisposing causes. 
 When exciting influences occur they will then be less able 
 to produce marked effects. The quality and quantity of 
 the food must be duly regulated ; the purity and tempera- 
 ture of the air and the sanitary conditions of stalls, houses, 
 &c., as well as the general treatment of the beast, must 
 be adapted to the object for which they have been kept. 
 Such individual predispositions as result from age, con- 
 formation, breed, and temperament, must as much as 
 possible be obviated ; and, lastly, all exciting causes, such 
 as standing in draughts and sudden transitions from heat 
 to cold must be guarded against. There can be no doubt 
 that by such means latent tendency to tubercle and other 
 similar affections can be restrained for a considerable 
 time. The effect of disease of parents may be manifest 
 at birth when it is termed Congenital, or it may remain 
 
INTRODUCTION. 47 
 
 ill a latent state until tlie young animal has attained a 
 definite age corresponding often with that in which it 
 first appeared in the parent. For the prevention of out- 
 breaks of special disorders various means are adopted. 
 
 Inoculation depends for its value upon the fact that 
 some diseases do not occur twice in the same subject^ and 
 when artificially induced have a mild character. 
 
 Vaccination consists in securing immunity from a 
 severe disorder by bringing on an attack of a closely 
 allied but very mild disease. 
 
 Special Breeding consists in the crossing of animals of 
 a breed predisposed to a disorder with animals of a breed 
 manifesting no such tendency, as in crossing shorthorns 
 with less carefully bred animals. 
 
 Special legislative measures, with which we shall after- 
 wards have to deal, are necessary to check contagious 
 disorders. 
 
 The treatment of inflammation is complicated in accord- 
 ance with the complex conditions of that pathological 
 state, and the effects of these processes. We ujust 
 remember that inflammation is in very many cases salutary 
 and that it must therefore be encouraged under the 
 following circumstances ; when reparative, constructive, or 
 usefully destructive. Reparative inflammation is the 
 means by which injuries are repaired, and when a con- 
 siderable amount of new tissue has to be produced, as in 
 filling up an abscess cavity, constructive inflammation 
 causes granulative repair. In the removal of foreign bodies, 
 whether introduced from without or resulting, from death 
 of a part, as in sloughing, inflammation is usefully des- 
 tructive. Inflammation under these circumstances must 
 be carefully watched, and either promoted or controlled 
 as occasion may require. If the process becomes sluggish, 
 as in indolent ulcers, on account of deficiency either of 
 local or constitutional energy, stimulants must be applied 
 or administered ; while if the local changes are intensely 
 acute and give rise to a high state of fever sedative 
 means must be adopted locally, and general sedatives 
 and antiphlogistics be used. At the same time the 
 
48 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 cause of excess or deficiency must be sought for and 
 removed. In salutary destructive changes where a 
 foreigQ body becomes the centre of an abscess, whenever 
 necessary the tendency of the abscess to pass in the 
 direction of least pressure must be directed by relaxing 
 superficial parts by moisture and warmth, also any impe- 
 diment to such progress towards the surface, as layers of 
 fascia, must be overcome by operation. Our anatomical 
 knowledge will guide us in this matter. Local energy 
 must be promoted in cases of removal of gangrenous 
 parts by sloughing, and when the general or local powers 
 begin to flag they must be assisted by surgical removal 
 of the altered mass. The circumstances of each case will 
 suggest to the practitioner the proper time for operation, 
 and when there is inability to produce a " line of demar- 
 cation,^^ removal must be made where the tissues retain 
 vital energy sufl&cient for repair. When it is necessary to 
 treat inflammation of a non-salutary character the original 
 cause of the disorder must be first removed. Thus, a 
 foreign body in the muscular structures of a part, resting 
 on the conjunctiva, or situated in a passage too small 
 to accommodate it under ordinary circumstances, if not 
 removed artificially will be thrown off if possible by 
 exacting processes of nature, or death will result from the 
 attempt. Occasionally a coating of lymph will be thrown 
 out over a foreign body, and thus its irritating characters 
 obviated. Next, all causes which tend to produce similar 
 inflammation must be removed, for they simply aggravate 
 the case in hand. Thus, in inflammation of the peritoneum 
 quiescence of the bowels is to be sought, for active peris- 
 talsis, such as results from cathartics, causes friction between 
 the inflamed surfaces. As activity predisposes to disorder, 
 both directly and by influencing blood supply, we must 
 secure Kest whenever possible ; thus we keep the animal 
 in a dark place in cases of ophthalmia, and endeavour to 
 promote the action of other excretory organs in cases of 
 inflammation of the kidneys, to relieve the diseased glands. 
 There is a natural tendency to this which we must 
 endeavour to promote. The substitution of the action 
 
INTRODUCTION. 49 
 
 of one excretory organ for that of another is vicarious 
 activity. Agents which, when administered internally, 
 counteract inflammation, are termed antiphlogistics. 
 Many of them act by promoting vicarious secretion, 
 whereby the blood is purified; also in doing so they act 
 as derivatives. There is a marked determination of blood 
 towards a part suffering from inflammation, and a corre- 
 spondingly diminished supply to other parts of the body. 
 Our efforts must be directed to the diffusion of nervous 
 energy which controls vaso- motor activity, so we resort 
 to general stimulants, clothing, hand rubbing of limbs, 
 and stimulating applications to the surface. It has been 
 long recognised that when blisters applied to the surface 
 of the body during internal acute inflammation act freely 
 it is a favorable sign. We must look upon it as a proof 
 of diffusion of nervous energy and blood which previously 
 had been accumulated in the affected part. Derivatives 
 assist in the process of diffusion. The excess of blood is 
 removed from the zone of congestion and simple hyperaemia 
 around the part where stasis has occurred, and thus the 
 disease limited in its extent. The same effect results 
 from certain modifications injposture, and from bloodletting. 
 Certain agents have been extolled as especially efficacious 
 in cases of severe inflammation, either by producing 
 changes in the blood or by their action upon the heart. 
 
 Mercuky, as calomel, acts on numerous secretory organs, 
 and is correspondingly valuable as a means of purifica- 
 tion of blood which is over-loaded with inflammatory 
 debris ; also it is considered to check or prevent plastic 
 deposit. It is a debilitating agent of a very powerful 
 kind, and so is often contra-indicated. 
 
 PoTASsio- TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY is Considered valuable 
 in reducing the hearths action as does bleeding, but having 
 the advantage of it being permissible to administer it 
 several consecutive times. 
 
 Digitalis also controls the heart's action, but it is cumu- 
 lative, and thus requires very careful watching. It pro- 
 duces intermittency of the heart. 
 
 Opium is valuable " in various ways ; by quieting the 
 
 4 
 
50 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 nerves, by sustaining the falteri'ng action of the heart, by 
 keeping the inflamed parts at rest '' (Watson). 
 
 In nursing a patient suffering from severe inflammation 
 we must select such food as is very easy of digestion, and 
 therefore not likely to aggravate the disordered condition 
 which the stomach shares with other organs of the body 
 in such cases. The appetite of the patient must be 
 tempted, for it is generally difficult to make him take 
 anything which will assist in husbanding the strength 
 against the emergencies of the attack. Some practitioners 
 rely almost wholly on stimulants in the treatment of in- 
 flammation ; these, they urge, foster the strength, and 
 hasten the local changes to a favorable issue, while they 
 prevent all those unsatisfactory effects, such as ulceration 
 and gangrene, of deficient local power which are apt to 
 result from the depletory system of treatment ; they also 
 prevent the attack from lapsing into a chronic character. 
 There certainly is much feasibility in this line of argu- 
 ment, and the benefit of the system is proved by the un- 
 doubted fact that under it cases of true hydrothorax less 
 often result from pleurisy. But we must exercise judgment 
 and discriminate when we can afford to run the risk of 
 plastic results of an acute attack, and when haste is less 
 essential than thorough ultimate recovery. In all cases 
 where vital organs are inflamed stimulating treatment is 
 likely to be of value. With regard to local conditions, 
 too, sometimes stimulation is beneficial. This is well 
 shown in many cases of so-called counter-irritation, as in 
 application of vesicants to the sides in cases of pleuritis. 
 Undoubtedly many cases of supposed inflammation, are at 
 first simply congestion, and nowhere does this more often 
 occur than in the pleura ; the stimulus arouses the activity 
 of the congested blood-vessels, and enables them to expel 
 their contents, and thus immediate relief follows. Again, 
 undoubtedly deficient nervous energy in a part is a potent 
 cause of inflammation ; stimulation removes this cause. 
 It is even possible that when stasis has occurred a sti- 
 mulus may so strengthen the blood-current as to enable 
 it to break down the obstruction, and so alter the local 
 
INTEODUCTION. 51 
 
 states of nutrition as to give no tendency to renew it. 
 But while admitting this mode of action of external 
 stimulants, we cannot refuse to admit the derivative effect 
 
 of COUNTER-IEEITANTS. 
 
 Kecent researches on the vaso-motor system have 
 proved how powerful an effect a stimulus may have in 
 altering blood- distribution. These researches, though by 
 no means complete, are favorable to the view that a 
 deep-seated inflammation may be relieved by originating 
 a similar process in superficial tissues. Setons, blisters, 
 cauteries, and rubefacients are means to this end. 
 
 Cold, when applied locally in a continuous manner for 
 a long time, will, in such cases as open joints and similar 
 pathological states, enable repair to occur with a minimum 
 of inflammation, for such, if it set in to a marked degree, 
 would cause high fever on account of the unyielding nature 
 of surrounding parts. Also under this treatment the in- 
 flammation is not so liable to involve the joint surfaces. 
 This continuous application numbs the parts, and so lessens 
 pain ; but some say that ultimately the white muscular 
 fibre of the arteries relaxes, and passive congestion occurs. 
 However this may be, its practical value in joint diseases 
 has been proved. 
 
 Heat with Moistuee relaxes parts, and so eases pain, it 
 also tends to promote suppuration. It must be used, 
 therefore, to assist the maturation of abscesses, but should 
 be avoided whenever suppuration would be prejudicial. In 
 the earliest stages of inflammation resolution may be 
 brought about by warmth, mechanically relaxing the 
 vessels in which stasis has occurred, and thus readmitting 
 the current of blood, or the same effect may be the result 
 of extravasation. 
 
 Local Sedatives, as Goulard's solution of the subacetate 
 of lead, check the spread of inflammation by lessening the 
 passive congestion around the seat of stasis ; they are very 
 useful in cases of ophthalmia, contusions, &c. 
 
 Local Blood-letting must never be brought about by 
 incisions in the inflamed part, but rather in the proximity. 
 It seems to temporarily relieve congestion and hyperaemia^ 
 
52 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 but the effect is evanescent. Occasionally free scarifica- 
 tions allow the escape of excessive extravasated material, 
 which, by pressure, tends to interfere with favorable pro- 
 gress towards resolution. For the removal of effused 
 material pressure and stimulation have been found beneficial. 
 The effects of pressure are very gradual, and some mechani- 
 cal appliance is necessary; the more convenient planof stimu- 
 lation is, therefore, generally adopted, compounds of iodine, 
 especially the biniodide of mercury, being most useful. The 
 friction in application also tends to promote absorption. 
 
 When ulceration is present the treatment must be 
 regulated according to the condition of the sores. Often 
 tonics and stimulants must be administered internally. 
 Indolent ulcers require local stimulation ; callous, the 
 application of caustics, whereby a fresh granulative surface 
 will be exposed ; inflamed, local sedatives ; inflammatory 
 and specific, attention to constitutional conditions ; phage- 
 denic, powerful caustics, followed by poultices. 
 
 When SuppuEATiON has occurred, free exit must be given 
 to the pus by means of a depending orifice, but the abscess 
 must not be opened until fully matured. Purulent infil- 
 trations should be relieved by incision. The system must 
 be well supported by nourishing food and stimulant tonics 
 in the meanwhile, and the animal be clothed carefully, for 
 suppuration is an exhausting process, and causes febrile 
 symptoms, rigors, debility, and fulness and rapidity of the 
 pulse. Tonics will be favorable to the constructive pro- 
 cesses by which the abscess cavity will be filled up ; 
 locally, carbolic dressings are most useful. 
 
 MoETiPiCATiON necessitates support of the strength of 
 the patient, for not only is the system severely taxed in 
 throwing off the slough, but also gangrenous fluids tend 
 to enter the circulating current, and give rise to an asthenic 
 character of subsequent changes. Stimulants and tonics 
 require to be administered freely internally, while poul- 
 tices such as Cataplasma Calcis Chlor., or Catap. Fermenti, 
 promote the separation of the slough. We have already 
 indicated that surgical removal of the diseased part is 
 often necessary. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 53 
 
 It remains only for us here to state that febrile com- 
 plications of inflammation will be subsequently noticed, 
 and that inflammation is sometimes induced as a prophy- 
 lactic means^ as when a seton is inserted in the dewlap of 
 young cattle as a preventive against "black quarter." 
 
 Congestion requires treatment directed to the removal 
 of causes, such as relaxation of arteries or impediment 
 to return of blood through veins. Often a local stimulant 
 will remove any tendency to stagnation, while astringents, 
 such as cold water, will cause tonic contraction of the 
 previously passively-relaxed vessels. When the conges- 
 tion is due to weakness of constitution, tonics must be 
 prescribed. Often it is necessary to palliate the accumu- 
 lation of blood by scarifications, phlebotomy, or applica- 
 tion of equable pressure to the part. An elevated posture 
 will prove beneficial. Moisture with warmth may lead 
 to removal of congestion by causing the vessels to relieve 
 themselves by serous effusion. 
 
 H/^MOREHAGE, when traumatic, must be treated as here- 
 after described. When due to blood disease, and occur- 
 ring as petechias and haemorrhagic infarctions, they must 
 be deemed of minor importance as secondary to the 
 general disorder of the blood. The other form of passive 
 haemorrhage, that due to debility, must be treated by 
 strengthening the patient ; and in active haemorrhage we 
 must reduce plethora and tendency to congestions by less 
 food and more exercise, and also laxative and diuretic 
 agents. Local astringent applications, as cold water, act 
 as styptics, restraining haemorrhage. Certain medicinal 
 substances, when administered internally, are considered 
 haemostatic, as oleum terebinthinae. 
 
 Dropsy will disappear with the congestive or inflam- 
 matory state from which it originated. The process may 
 be promoted by stimulating the water excreting organs, 
 kidneys, and skin ; also such agents as lessen blood 
 pressure promote absorption; digitalis is one of the 
 best. If the supply of fluid for drinking purposes be 
 limited, effused fluids will be taken up to maintain the 
 due liquidity of the blood. Iodine and its compounds are 
 
54 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 supposed to assist the process of absorption in these cases. 
 When absorption is prevented by lympby deposits on the 
 walls of a sac, or when the fluid has collected in such 
 quantity as to cause extreme tension, paracentesis (or 
 tapping) must be resorted to. Injection of a stimulating 
 agent may close a serous abscess by lymph exudation. 
 This is, of course, inadmissible in dropsies of serous 
 cavities. Senile dropsy is generally incurable. 
 
 Section 2. 
 
 The ox. Bos Taurus, is a ruminating, hoofed mammal, 
 and presents certain leading anatomical and physiological 
 characteristics which leave their impress upon his patho- 
 logical conditions. Thus the alimentary system is remark- 
 ably well developed, constituting a considerable propor- 
 tion of the total weight of the body. It is largely composed 
 of stomachs, which fill the greater part of the abdomen and 
 consist mainly of three compartments, modified forms of 
 the inferior extremity of the oesophagus, adapted for pur- 
 poses of rumination. The fibres of the tubular portion of 
 the oesophagus are arranged in such a manner as to readily 
 permit either upward or downward passage of the food, 
 and the organs of mastication and salivation are specially 
 adapted for prolonged action. 
 
 As in other herbivorous mammals, the molar teeth are 
 large grinding organs, which, by the size of the fangs 
 firmly implanting them in the jaw, necessitate a large 
 condition of the face in comparison with the cranium ; 
 and by their weight so increase that of the head that the 
 neck is short and presents superiorly a highly developed 
 ligamentum nuchaQ. The weight of the skull is also in- 
 creased by offensive organs, the horns, developed from the 
 fontal bones at the superior prominence of the skull. 
 But the weight of these is lessened by the fact that into 
 them extend prolongations of those large facial sinuses 
 which contain rarefied air, and buoy up the unsupported 
 skulls of most mammals, as the air sinuses in the bones of 
 birds also buoy up their bodies in adapting them for rising 
 
INTRODUCTION. 55 
 
 in the air during flight. As in other ruminants incisors are 
 deficient in the upper jaw_, being there replaced by a dental 
 pad, and in the inferior maxilla the canines assume the 
 figure of incisors and form part of a continuous series of 
 eight. 
 
 The anterior extremities of the nasal and oral chambers 
 are connected together by a duct of Stenson, leading to 
 the organ of Jacobson, an accessory olfactory appa- 
 ratus, in all probability closely connected with the mouth 
 that the sense of smell may exercise more direct control 
 against ingestion of poisonous herbs. The upper lip and 
 the anterior nares are occupied by the muffle, a fibrous 
 organ covered with a delicate but firm membrane devoid 
 of hair, but constantly, in health, secreting a dewy moisture, 
 and kept clean by the tongue, an organ developed to a 
 remarkable extent for prehensile purposes. The eyes are 
 prominent and rather far back as in other herbivores, 
 whereby extensive range of vision enables the animal to 
 view an enemy afar and not be disturbed suddenly during 
 the prolonged period of rumination. This act is performed 
 by the animal in the recumbent position, the rumen is full 
 and presses against the diaphragm. 
 
 The thorax, under any circumstances, is not remarkable 
 for extent, but has special provisions whereby it may in- 
 crease in transverse diameter when the animal is lying 
 down. Besides the shortness of the thorax of the ox and 
 other ruminants as compared with that of the horse and 
 his allies, the lungs are more largely composed of areolar 
 tissue, the calibre of the trachea is less, and the anterior 
 nares are smaller and less mobile, and devoid of that 
 remarkable complexity of formation which assists in 
 adapting the horse for rapid movement over the earth. 
 Altogether the respiratory system is less developed than 
 in the horse. 
 
 In accordance with this the circulatory system is less 
 developed, the arteries being small and the heart generally 
 more frequent but less powerful in its action, so that the 
 pulse has a somewhat soft beat. The blood does not ex- 
 hibit that tendency to the formation of the buffy coat 
 
66 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 which that of the horse does under normal conditions, 
 though the corpuscles are about equal in size. 
 
 The nervous system has a rather small cerebrum, due 
 especially to deficiency in size of the anterior parts of the 
 hemispheres; these also are remarkably short in the ox. 
 The spinal cord is fairly developed, and the ganglionic 
 system large and energetic. The organs of the senses are 
 all well developed, the skin is thick and somewhat loosely 
 applied, and covered with a dense coating of hair ; the 
 thermogenic functions are active, hence the internal tem- 
 perature is high. This we may associate with smallness 
 and insensibility of the organs of exit of heat as compared 
 with those of production. The other excretory organs, 
 kidneys and liver, are large and active ; the ^urine of the 
 ox differing in some marked chemical and physical char- 
 acters from that of the horse. 
 
 The muscular system is less developed for functional 
 purposes than that of the horse, and is less compact. 
 The basement structures of the limbs are less adapted to 
 secure sharpness and precision in movements, and termi- 
 nate inferiorly in division, which produces the characteristic 
 cloven condition of the hoof in ruminants, while the limbs 
 of the ox are capable of more varied mobility than those 
 of the horse, of which the forward hick is a rather forcible 
 illustration. In each case these organs are used simply 
 for purposes of progression, the ox therefore is devoid of 
 ossific union of the fore extremity with the trunk, the 
 clavicle being absent and the scapula large. 
 
 The generative system is largely developed both in male 
 and female. Sexual desires are urgent in the male, and 
 he is specially endowed with strength and weapons suitable 
 to enable him to maintain supremely against intruders into 
 the herd of which he is lord and master. A struggle 
 for existence among the males determines at once the 
 numerical excess of females and the continued improvement 
 of the race. The female is prolific, frequently producing 
 twins, with a period of gestation shorter than that of the 
 mare. The mammary gland is largely developed and 
 placed in the hypogastrium. 
 
INTEODUCTION. 57 
 
 In a state of nature the ox is gregarious, tlie females 
 mucli predominating in numbers over tlie males. Inhabits 
 prairies and other wide expanses of pasture land, spends his 
 time partly in grazing and considerably in ruminating. 
 Migrates frequently to fresh pasture land or flies rapidly 
 with considerable energy from a foe. When attacked, 
 defends himself with his horns, and by trampling the foe 
 under foot, sometimes also by kicking. 
 
 Under domestication these conditions are much modi- 
 fied. The range becomes limited to meadows and straw 
 yards, or to the extreme of stall life, thus the fat produc- 
 ing powers are increased, leading to either general fatness 
 for feeding purposes or to increase in lacteal secretion to 
 a most extraordinary degree. Warmth, such as results 
 from shelter and diminished supply of oxygen due to con- 
 finement, operate in the same direction, and tend to 
 diminish vital energy while encouraging fat production. 
 Limited range also lessens the activity and compactness 
 of the muscular system, the " wiry '' organism of the 
 wild animal becomes altered into the " soft '' state of the 
 domesticated. There is no necessity for frequent migra- 
 tion nor flight when they are protected by man, and the 
 prevention of combats between males tends to interfere 
 with the inherent energy of the race, and probably to 
 generate a more docile offspring. Increased supply of 
 more nutritious food, obtained without the necessity of 
 traversing large tracts of country, and without the dis- 
 turbing influence of constant dread, causes actual increase 
 in the size of the race. 
 
 Artificial conditions to which the ox is subjected are 
 such as tend to diminish the circulatory, respiratory, and 
 cerebro-spinal sensory organs, to lessen acuteness of smell, 
 taste, sight, and probably hearing, and also the secretory 
 activity of the skin. On the contrary, the alimentary and 
 generative systems (with, as a result, the ganglionic 
 centres) are increased in activity in adaptation to our 
 requirements. 
 
 In the working ox the conditions of life are not so 
 profoundly altered; he spends his days in the open air 
 
58 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 utilising his locomotory system^ and not indulging in 
 either excess of alimentary or reproductive pleasures. He 
 is hardy, but gives us examples of diseases of the locomotor 
 system as also of the cloven hoof. 
 
 Such marked subjection to the uses of man has led to 
 two results ; increase in varieties of the ox and increased 
 liability to disease. As varieties differ from the original stock 
 so in direct proportion do they become liable to disease, and 
 when by culture we generate remarkable activity of an organ 
 we render it correspondingly predisposed to disorder. 
 
 In the production of a breed with special qualities there 
 is a transmission of hereditary tendency to special pecu- 
 liarities of structure and to activity of function, conditions 
 predisposing to disease, and these predispositions are very 
 marked as a result of " breeding in and in,^^ which pre- 
 vents the counteraction of family tendency to some special 
 degeneration by the introduction of new blood. Excessive 
 development of one part of the body tends to cause a want 
 of reciprocity of different parts of the body, to the preju- 
 dice of the whole ; only by very gradual development can 
 modifications of species occur; nature shows us this, for 
 variation under domestication tends to disease. The mere 
 fact of breeding from near relatives is not prejudicial, if 
 both be in a state of thorough health. 
 
 Gregariousness is not favorable to individual peculiari- 
 ties, nevertheless, when epizootic disorders occur certain 
 individuals will exhibit immunity under extreme conditions 
 of exposure ; this seriously complicates experiments on 
 the transmission of these disorders. A similar immunity 
 from the effects of altered conditions may be noted after 
 the ingestion of medicinal or toxic agents ; some 
 individuals require immense doses, while others become 
 seriously influenced by small quantities. The latter con- 
 dition is termed intolerance ; the former, tolerance^ may 
 be due to frequent administration of the same agent when 
 it is of a non-cumulative character. Immunity in certain 
 blood diseases is secured often by an attack either of the 
 same or of a closely allied disorder. 
 
 Diet acts as a predisposing cause of disease either by 
 
INTRODUCTION. 59 
 
 its quality, quantity, or mode of preparation. A very 
 rich diet predisposes to anthrax and inflammatory disorders, 
 a poor diet to anaemia and dropsies. Food materials may 
 be in themselves prejudicial either by medicinal or poison- 
 ous constituents. Mouldy fodder serves to illustrate 
 this, also the various cases of poisoning by oil cake. 
 Excess of food either causes excessive distension of the 
 stomach as in plenalvia, or, when in small quantities fre- 
 quently administered, gives rise to plethora. Deficiency 
 of food gives rise to debility and anaemia. When not 
 enough food at a time is given to an ox he is unable to 
 ruminate, thus indigestion is produced. The familiar 
 instance of choking from an uncut swede is an example of 
 ill effects from improperly prepared foodstuff. Diet 
 unadapted to the special uses for which an animal is kept 
 will frequently cause disappointment to the owner and 
 require correction by the veterinary surgeon consulted 
 about the case. An extreme instance of this may be 
 seen in pregnant animals, for the nature of the diet will 
 affect the well being of the foetus in iitero. Anaemic 
 conditions of the mother will give rise to dropsy of the 
 foetus and its membranes and perhaps to its death, 
 while not unfrequently an ergotised condition of pasture 
 grass is the cause of abortion. 
 
 Pregnancy in itself alters the nutritive equilibrium of 
 parts, and hence predisposes to disease, especially of the 
 generative organs ; it produces important though tem- 
 porary systemic changes. The pulse beats more rapidly, 
 the amount of carbonic anhydride excreted from the lungs 
 is altered, the constituents of certain excretions, especially 
 the urine, are modified, the appetite often becomes depraved, 
 and the state of the nervous system different from ordi- 
 nary. These changes culminate in the special phenomena 
 of parturition and lactation, and with decline of the latter 
 diminishes the predisposition to disease from pregnancy. 
 The conditions of surrounding air may predispose to 
 disease. Many specific disorders originate through vola- 
 tile contagions conveyed through the air and taken up 
 through the respiratory mucous membrane ; this is termed 
 
60 BOVINE PATHOLOGY 
 
 Infection. Again, the air has an important influence on 
 respiration and cutaneous exhalations. When loaded 
 with deleterious gases it may act as a poison, but if these 
 be present only in small quantities it may simply produce 
 local disorder. Variations in the surrounding air consist 
 principally in moisture, temperature, or purity. When 
 moisture is deficient, but the air warm, the skin acts 
 readily but the muscular system is relaxed, hence the 
 system is predisposed to hernise. Tetanus is prevalent 
 in countries with such a prevailing climate as this, and 
 diseases become acute. Warmth, with moisture, while 
 determining blood to the skin, lessens the escape of 
 moisture from the surface and from the lungs ; thus a 
 sluggish lymphatic condition is induced, and the animal is 
 predisposed to dropsical effusions and low fevers. These 
 conditions are specially favorable to the growth and 
 multiplication of vegetable organisms, fungi, such as give 
 rise to anthracoid disorders and intermittent fevers. Cold, 
 with dryness, produces just the reverse effects, and gives 
 a very low rate of mortality. It is remarked that the 
 first touch of frost checks the ravages of an epi- 
 zootic. These conditions tend to slowness and stunted 
 growth, but produce hardihood, and are favorable to 
 the healing of wounds without the occurrence of septic 
 accidents. Cold with moisture, tends to a lowering of 
 vital energy, and an accumulation of impurities in the 
 system due to defective excretion by the lungs and skin, 
 diseases tend to an asthenic type, internal congestions 
 frequently occur, and rheumatismal diseases are prevalent 
 and severe. But where currents of air give rise to draughts 
 they are active agents in production of disorder, they 
 disturb the nervous system and originate inflammation 
 in that organ which is most predisposed to disease. 
 While warmth promotes fattening and the production of 
 milk, it must not be procured at the expense of venti- 
 lation and drainage. Unless fresh air is admitted, and 
 foul air escapes, and ejecta are not allowed to accumulate, 
 the air in the cowhouse will become overloaded with 
 impurities which predispose to disease, will tend to make 
 
INTEODUCTION. 61 
 
 epizootics and other specific disorders of a highly destruc- 
 tive character, will induce any disease which occurs to 
 assume a low type. The drinking water supplied to an 
 animal may be so impure as to originate or communicate 
 disease. Besides the conditions already mentioned, age, 
 sex, and conformation determine individual liability to 
 disease. Young animals respire quickly, have a quick pulse, 
 and high internal temperature, they are particularly liable to 
 diseases of growth, to acute inflammations, and to catarrhal 
 affections of the alimentary and respiratory tracts, also 
 their constitutional energy is hardly able to check and 
 counteract the ravages of entozoa. In adult animals the 
 tendency is to certain disorders resulting from diet, also to 
 diseases of the generative system. In old animals we 
 find the effects of deficient energy of the heart and 
 degeneracy of blood-vessels ; hence metastatic congestions, 
 senile gangrene, and heart disorders occur especially in 
 them. Male animals are most liable to acute disorders, 
 as being endued with higher vital energy than females. 
 Castration materially modifies constitutional conditions, 
 and secures immunity from such acute disorders of the 
 generative organs as occur in the entire animal, facilitates 
 fattening, and lessens liability to injury. It causes the 
 disorder known as pelvic hernia or " gut-tie.^^ Females 
 run the risks of parturition and lactation, their respira- 
 tory, circulatory, and nervous functions are generally less 
 active than those of the male. Conformation and the 
 uses to which the animal has been put have marked 
 effects as predisposing causes ; thus, the shortness of 
 the neck of the ox accounts for his frequent attacks of 
 apoplexy, and too free exercise of generative powers 
 will bring about atrophy of the bulFs testes. Previous 
 disease of an organ predisposes it to renewal of an attack. 
 Sometimes only imperfect repair occurs, and the partially 
 formed tissue is liable to again become the seat of morbid 
 changes, even without the action of any appreciable 
 excitant. Recurrent abscesses are of this nature, as also 
 certain forms of dysentery. Exciting causes are varied, 
 such as exposure to currents of cold air, sudden transition 
 
62 BOVINE PATHOLOar. 
 
 from cold to heat, mechanical and chemical irritants. 
 They will be specified under the heading of each disease. 
 The general symptoms manifested by cattle suffering 
 from acute disorders are dulness and separation from the 
 rest of the herd, unwillingness to move, a ^^ hide bound " 
 or "staring^' condition of the coat (cutis anserina). 
 The animals do not lick themselves or one another, 
 nor stretch properly on rising ; dryness of muffle, 
 failure or deficiency of the appetite, and cessation of 
 rumination. In the milch cow the lacteal secretion is 
 diminished or suppressed. Frequently when these are 
 observed examination by the experienced will detect 
 fever and even local disorder, but generally we have only 
 the history of the case to determine any efforts against 
 special contingencies. Nursing must here be relied 
 upon. The patient must be housed in a moderately warm, 
 well- ventilated place, frictions applied to the surface, and 
 laxative, easily digestible matter given as food ; change of 
 diet being particularly beneficial, but the appetite must be 
 tempted, not forced. A diffusible stimulant will be 
 useful under these circumstances, it may divert an inflam- 
 matory attack, and is so evanescent that it will not influence 
 any disorder which may assert itself shortly after. The 
 experience of many observers has sanctioned also the 
 administration of a laxative saline dose at the same time. 
 The alimentary canal being so extensive in the ox is often 
 laden with matter of an indigestible character, which will 
 tend to aggravate local or general disorder. The Pulse 
 of the ox may be taken at the submaxillary artery, the 
 vessel of the right side being felt by the right hand 
 passed over the neck, while the left hand holds the left 
 horn ; at the brachial within and rather to the front of the 
 elbow- joint, the hand being passed round the front of the 
 limb to its junction with the trunk ; at the large 
 metacarpal above and behind the fetlock ; at the middle 
 coccygeal on the middle line of the root of the tail ; at the 
 carotids in the channel of the neck ; and at the anterior 
 auricular in front of the root of the conchial cartilage. 
 Different practitioners make a practice of selecting each one 
 
INTRODUCTION. 63 
 
 of ttese vessels. The submaxillary we find the generally- 
 most convenient ; it is smaller and less firmly bound down, 
 and therefore suffers more displacement than the correspond- 
 ing vessel in the horse ; also the arrangement of the lower 
 margin of the inferior maxilla and masseter externus are 
 less advantageous for accurate determination of its position, 
 and the pulse can not be estimated here when the animal 
 is feeding. The brachial or radial artery will afford useful 
 indications after a little practice; the large metacarpal 
 is a vessel of considerable size, and can be conveniently 
 felt without disturbing a patient who chances to be in a 
 recumbent position. The pulse in the ox is small, slow, 
 and frequent as compared with that of the horse, its beats 
 average 46 per minute. In the young animal it is 
 faster (55—65). 
 
 Pregnancy causes irregularity of the pulse, and con- 
 siderable increase in frequency. Digestion produces in- 
 creased fulness and sharpness ; and Dobson tells us : — 
 '^ Animals in warm cowsheds and in plethoric condition 
 will have the number of beats increased several strokes 
 per minute as compared with their brethren in the straw- 
 yard and the field.^' Williams says : — '' In the cow 
 during rumination it may be observed that the pulse is 70 
 or 80 a minute, and the respirations not more than ten. 
 Indeed, the pulse of the cow in a state of confinement, in 
 so far as regards the number of its beats, cannot be de- 
 pended upon in the diagnosis of disease; the states of 
 pregnancy and obesity, the effects of artificial food, and 
 of the activity of the lactiferous glands, as well as the ex- 
 citement caused by the act of rumination, generally pro- 
 duce such an impression upon the nervous system as to 
 cause the action of the heart to be much increased, such 
 increase being entirely consistent with a state of perfect 
 health in an animal so circumstanced.^^ 
 
 Useful information is gained by examining the heart's 
 action by auscultation, placing the head against the 
 side. The " venous pulse " is the periodical change in 
 calibre of a vein, which sometimes results from regurgi- 
 tation of blood into it. It is seen at the jugulars in heart 
 
64 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 disease, but in health generally the action of the carotid 
 artery causes changes in the jugular which lead to appa- 
 rently pulsating movements. 
 
 The normal temperature of the ox, as taken at the 
 rectum, is 38° 0.-38-5° C, according to Colin; 38*9° C. 
 (Siedamgrotsky) ; 39° C. (Zundel) ; oxen and cows 100*8° 
 F. during confinement, and 101*8° F. during work or at 
 liberty; calves and stirks, 100*9° F. to 101*9 F. (Armatage). 
 
 Variations resulting from ordinary conditions of the 
 system are but slight, seldom amounting to more than 
 1° F. Any rise above this must be considered suspicious 
 as indicating the presence of fever. The reading will be 
 higher in a young animal and lower than the normal mean 
 in a very old animal. Ingestion of food, exercise, and 
 change of external temperature cause slight variation. 
 The thermal regulators of the body are very efficient during 
 health. When fever sets in, escape of heat is prevented and 
 its generation increased; in typhoid disorders and shortly 
 before death heat generation is interfered with, and the 
 temperature markedly falls. The rectum should always be 
 the seat of thermometric observations in the ox, and the 
 routine already recommended should be always carried out. 
 The temperature of the vagina is somewhat lower. 
 
 Eespiration is performed in the adult ox about fifteen 
 times per minute. The acts are slightly more frequent in 
 the calf (18 — 20). They vary in number somewhat with 
 surrounding conditions, but any marked increase or 
 decrease in number must, if permanent, be attributed to 
 disease. The increase which results from exercise quickly 
 disappears when the animal is placed at rest. We have 
 already alluded to the remarkable difference in position 
 between the horse and ox suffering from pulmonary dis- 
 order ; while the former stands persistently, the latter 
 rests on the lower part of the chest and on the abdomen. 
 The position which an animal assumes during an acute 
 attack is often diagnostic or even pathognomonic. This 
 may be seen in tetanus, in hoven, and many other 
 diseases. 
 
 The CouGHof the ox is shorter and less powerful than that 
 
INTRODUCTION. 65 
 
 of the horse. It may become almost pathognomonic in 
 certain diseases, as especially pleuro-pneumonia contagiosa. 
 In our determination of disease of the ox, as in those 
 of most other dumb animals, we have to rely principally 
 on OBJECTIVE symptoms, which are independent of the 
 animal's sensations, rather than upon those subjective in- 
 dications conveyed by the animal himself. Nevertheless, 
 we have a few of the latter to guide us, such as shaking 
 of the feet in eczema epizootica, backing in pelvic hernia, 
 and flinching when pressure is applied to the intercostal 
 spaces in cases of pleuritis. The expression of the animal 
 is often the means of conveyance of useful information 
 to us j the retracted condition of the angles of the 
 mouth in trismus, the wild look in rabies, the staring 
 of the eyes under acute abdominal pain, and the altered 
 expression due to opacity of the eye are familiar to 
 most practitioners. General sensation is sometimes per- 
 verted or lost, and is tested by inserting a pin into a limb 
 presumed to be paralysed. The movements of the animal 
 may be stiff as in tetanus, rheumatism, &c., or the inter- 
 ference may amount to absolute lameness, due either to 
 disorder of the affected limb or to sympathy with other 
 parts, as may be observed in the lameness of the right 
 fore-limb in liver disorder. The nisihle mucous mem- 
 branes of the ox during health somewhat vary in colour. 
 The Schneiderian is moist and pink, but under disease 
 may become livid, yellow, scarlet, or very pale, ulcerated, 
 and covered with discharge of a nature varying according 
 to the case, mucous, purulent, sanguineous, &c. The 
 lining membrane of the mouth is very dense in the ox, 
 developed into horny papillae on the inner surface of the 
 cheek and the dorsum of the tongue, and modified to form 
 the dental pad at its antero-superior part. It sometimes 
 exhibits abrasions either from coarse material taken into the 
 mouth, or from the sharp prominences of the molar teeth. 
 In other cases it has vesicles of a specific or ordinary cha- 
 racter upon it ; in febrile cases it is dry. While observing 
 its condition we can note also the characters of the saliva, 
 which may be profuse, constituting Ptyalism, as seen in 
 
 5 
 
66 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 injuries of the mouth or mercury poisoning, or defi- 
 cient. Sometimes it is materially altered in quality, 
 thus it may be viscid (" ropy '') or foetid, as in some 
 cases of tetanus. In cases of enteritis and other abdo- 
 minal inflammatory disorders, the rectum will, on manual 
 exploration, be found markedly elevated in temperature, 
 and its mucous membrane may protrude somewhat 
 through the anus, being of a bright scarlet colour. In 
 prolapsus recti it forms a rounded purple mass, its walls 
 being thickened by gelatinous deposit. This mucous 
 membrane is the seat of tumours (haemorrhoids or piles) 
 which may protrude after expulsion of the faeces. Manual 
 exploration of the rectum of the ox presents no special 
 features. The fceces are soft, pultaceous, and form a 
 rounded cake of a dark greenish-brown colour. They may 
 be altered in quality or quantity, scanty or wanting as in 
 constipation and costiveness, profuse in diarrhoea and dy- 
 sentery, mixed with much mucus in the former and with 
 blood in the latter case. The nature of the diet and the 
 activity or inertness of the liver alter their qualities, while 
 their odour also is very variable. The mucous membrane 
 of the vulva may be altered in colour, ulcerated, or the 
 seat of profuse discharge of a purulent, mucous, or san- 
 guineous nature; it becomes congested during oestrum. 
 The conjunctiva during health is of a rosy colour where it 
 lines the eyelids, and transparent where it invests the 
 cornea. In the latter position it may become opaque and 
 clouded, in the former of a bright scarlet in cases of 
 fever, yellow in liver disease, pale in anaemia, &c. The 
 tears may be profuse, as in local irritation, blocking of the 
 ductus ad nasum, and in the early stages of catarrh ; acrid, 
 as in certain blood diseases; mucous or purulent under 
 inflammation. The eyes may be over sensitive to light, 
 in consequence of which the eyelids droop ; frequently the 
 Meibomian secretion is profuse and adhesive, and the eye- 
 lids are swollen. The conditions of the alimentary canal 
 afPord some useful indications. Examination of the mouth 
 may detect diseased teeth, presence of foreign bodies, &c. 
 Enlargement may be present along the cervical portion of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 67 
 
 the course of the oesophagus, due either to presence of 
 an impacted body, or to a dilated state of the tube. De- 
 glutition may be difficult (dysorexia) or the appetite 
 impaired or absent (anorexia). 
 
 Nausea may be present or vomition, the former being 
 an uncomfortable sensation, manifested by attempts to 
 return matters from the stomach for expulsion from the 
 body, the latter being a successful performance of the act. 
 These are due to irritability of the stomach, and evacua- 
 tion of the contents of the rumen somewhat readily occurs 
 in the ox, in consequence of the adaptation of the oesophagus 
 for regurgitation, as well as downward passage of food. 
 
 BoRBORYGMA is abnormal rumbling of the bowels, such as 
 may be observed after administration of drastic purgatives. 
 Often it depends on accumulation of gas in the stomach or 
 intestines, flatulence, or tympany. The conditions of the 
 ahdomeriy whether diminished in size, " tucked up ^^ as in 
 acute disorders, or distended by gas, tumours, or food 
 accumulations, should be noted. The size, movements, and 
 general conditions of the thoracic walls also vary. 
 
 The Urine of the ox normally has a specific gravity of 
 1030 — 1040, a yellowish- white colour, a special odour, and 
 an alkaline reaction. Its chemical, physical, and micro- 
 scopical characters vary much with different conditions of 
 life and in disease. The specific gravity may be tested by 
 the urinometer, or by specific-gravity globules. The urine 
 will be found modified, under various circumstances, in 
 quality and quantity, and especially in proportions of its 
 several constituents. 
 
 The Skin op the ox exhibits a fair amount of activity. 
 Animals in health keep it clean by licking, and thus often 
 introduce hairs into the stomach. Perspiration may occur 
 generally or locally under disease, and the perverted con- 
 ditions of the cutaneous secretions in weak patients, and 
 those with a scrofulous tendency, as also dirt accumulations, 
 predispose to local irritations, and invasion by vegetable 
 or animal parasites. 
 
 The expired Air has an odour characteristic of the 
 animal, due to effete matter which it carries from the 
 
68 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 system. Its temperature and odour vary. Thus^ it may 
 be cold in later stages of asthenic disorders, warm in acute 
 attacks, foetid in gangrenous disease of the lungs. 
 
 Our prognosis, when medically attending the lower 
 animals, does not hold in view simply the chances of a fatal 
 result ; we have to consider our cases from a pecuniary point 
 of view, and to determine promptly for the owner the length 
 of time which will elapse before return to health, and also 
 whether the value of the animal after recovery will be such 
 as to make treatment an advantage to the owner. Prompt 
 decision is especially called in a case of disease in the ox, 
 for the flesh of an animal slaughtered in the early stages of 
 some diseases, before the system has been interfered with 
 by medicinal agents, may be used for human food. This 
 seems to lessen our opportunities of tracing cases of dis- 
 ease in the ox from commencement to termination, and 
 proves a very sharp test as to the correctness of our dia- 
 gnoses. We often have an animal brought under our 
 notice in sufficiently good condition to fetch a good price 
 from the butcher. The owner propounds the following 
 questions in order : — What is the matter with this animal ? 
 Will it be likely to die ? How soon will it recover ? 
 Will it be reduced considerably ? and, if so, how long will 
 it take to regain its present state of flesh ? If it seems 
 likely to die, it is at once killed, and our diagnosis verified 
 or the reverse. If it is allowed to live, the prognosis is 
 subjected to similar smart scrutiny. With milch cows 
 the interference with milk supply is the source of the 
 owner's solicitude ; while animals kept for breeding pur- 
 poses necessitate considerations of the bearings of various 
 disorders on the reproductive functions. In no branch 
 of medical study does the practitioner require skill more 
 than in cattle practice. 
 
 The milk varies in quality and quantity, and its production 
 has been much increased by artificial selection. The first 
 milk, colostrum or beastlings, is rich in fatty matter and 
 worn-out, tough, epithelial cells filled with fat globules. 
 It acts as a natural cathartic, freeing the bowels of the 
 newly-born calf from the accumulation of biliary and other 
 
INTRODUCTION. 69 
 
 matters which constitute the meconium. The milk may 
 be bloody, may contain pus or specific virus. It requires 
 special examination in each case of disorder, for in some 
 instances it can convey disease to animals of other species, 
 even to man. Death of the ox may take place by either of 
 the above described methods, necraemia being observable 
 in such disease as anthrax, according to some pathologists, 
 while others attribute the fatal result to asphyxia. With 
 regard to morbid changes, the degenerations of various 
 kinds are frequent, especially the caseous and calcareous, 
 and the tendency of disease is to the production of deposits 
 of a lymphy or serous character rather than to gangrene 
 and ulceration. Abscesses are frequent, metastases seldom 
 occur, haBmorrhages are rather frequent. Inflammation 
 tends rather to the chronic type, and is less frequent than 
 in most other animals subjected to similarly complex 
 conditions as the ox. Epizootic and enzootic diseases will 
 occupy a great deal of our space as being of great 
 importance, numerous, and widespread, causing immense 
 annual loss to stock owners, and often directly related 
 to human disorders. 
 
 In the treatment of the diseases of the ox palliative 
 measures are often important as giving time for fattening 
 or as preserving an animal useful for breeding or dairy 
 purposes. Curative means of medicinal character are 
 often hampered by our deficiency in information as to the 
 specific influence of certain agents on the ox and the doses 
 in which they should be administered. Surgical opera- 
 tions of minor importance as oesophagotomy, tracheotomy, 
 and puncture of the rumen are frequent, while major 
 operations, amputations, lithotomy, laparotomy, &c., are- 
 occasionally resorted to and might be more frequent, but 
 we have already mentioned how our bovine patients are 
 frequently handed over to the butcher without our having 
 had a fair trial of curative means. In accordance with 
 paucity of major operations anaesthetics are seldom re- 
 sorted to, but various means of restraint are adopted. 
 Altogether cattle are not endowed with high nervous 
 organisation, and will therefore stand operations very well^ 
 
70 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and are correspondingly seldom the subjects of collapse. 
 Thus artificial respiration is not very frequently required, 
 fortunately so, for when brought about by pressure rhyth- 
 mically applied to the thoracic walls it is imperfect, and 
 seldom effectual in our larger patients. The ox is usually 
 held by one horn, the thumb and forefinger of the dis- 
 engaged hand being introduced into the nostrils and 
 pressed together against the septum narium, or the familiar 
 '^ bull-dog " is fixed to the nostrils in a somewhat similar 
 manner and held in the hand. (See Fig. 6.) 
 
 -^x-^ 
 
 Fig. 6. — The " Bulldogs " applied. (Armatage.) 
 
 The Sideline is sometimes fixed on the ox as on the 
 horse. 
 
 In minor operations on the posterior parts of the body, 
 the hind legs are fixed together by means of a double 
 hobble or tied by a rope, which commences at the right 
 hind limb, involves the left in a loop, and is tied in front 
 to the right fore limb above the fetlock. This is termed 
 " shackling.^^ 
 
 Hobbles are also used for throwing the ox. It is ad- 
 visable to fix them above the fetlocks. Calves may be 
 thrown by drawing one hind leg forwards with the side- 
 line and pushing at the opposite quarter. 
 
 Ropes. The ox is very frequently thrown just as is the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 71 
 
 horse when the long cart rope is used for securing the 
 animal for castration. (See Fig. 7.) 
 
 Dressing the feet of the ox, as in eczema epizootica, 
 may be effected either by means of a long stick with some 
 tow fixed on the end, or, when the hind feet are to be 
 treated, by raising the foot towards a beam by a hobble 
 
 Fig. 7. — An Ox prepared for casting, a. Seat of u 
 
 (Armatage.) 
 
 5^rj^^.^b^ 
 
 fixed above the hock, the rope passing from it over the beam 
 and its free end held by assistants. Another method is to 
 pass a pole between the hind legs and have the limb sup- 
 ported just above bend of the hock by a man at each end 
 of the pole in such a way as to raise the limb as much as 
 required. 
 
 Slinging of the ox is not often resorted to. It too 
 much interferes with digestive and respiratory processes. 
 
 Four drachms of chloroform administered to a two-year 
 old heifer caused slow and laboured respirations at the 
 end of a minute, at two and a half minutes the animal 
 staggered, and at three and a half minutes fell to the 
 ground. At six minutes the breathing had become more 
 laborious. At six and a half minutes the animal seemed 
 completely insensible, the pupils were fully dilated, the 
 conjunctivae congested. The sponge was now removed. 
 
72 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 At ten minutes respiration became quick and agitated; at 
 eleven minutes the animal got up but had much difficulty 
 in standing ; shortly afterwards it staggered into the straw- 
 yard. Morton gave four ounces of chloroform to a heifer, 
 and it produced no insensibility, the animal only seeming 
 to be intoxicated by it (^Veterinary Record,' vol. iv). 
 
 Method of administration of chloroform to large animals. 
 — It is essential that the animal be cast previous to 
 administration, otherwise he will be uncontrollable in the 
 preliminary stage of excitation. Then a due admixture 
 of air must be ensured by the use of an apparatus with 
 two tubes, one of which communicates with the outer air 
 the other passing from the chloroform vessel, each fitting 
 at the other extremity into a nostril j several inhalers 
 varying slightly in form have been suggested. Or a 
 sponge with chloroform poured on it may be held against 
 the muzzle, and the hand and muzzle loosely covered with 
 a cloth, the chloroform being renewed from time to time. 
 The amount of chloroform essential for the production of 
 insensibility to external impressions varies much in different 
 cases, and must be regulated by the judgment of the 
 chloroformist. If after the operation is completed the 
 animal does not regain sensibility sufficiently soon, cold 
 water may be thrown over the body and air freely 
 admitted. 
 
 Why nursing should not be utilised to the full in 
 treatment of cattle affections, when circumstances are 
 favorable, we cannot say, but in some quarters there 
 seems to be a prejudice against nursing an ox. It must 
 be our duty in every case to ensure such nursing means as 
 we have already indicated, they will very materially assist 
 our medicines ; even rough methods of preserving a com- 
 fortable warmth of the surface of the body and a duo 
 supply of fresh air, and a draught of cool water so refresh- 
 ing to the palate of a feverish patient, are valuable. 
 
 The jprevention of disease consists in the careful super- 
 vision of those details of management which experience 
 has suggested as best for various kinds of animals, but it 
 assumes a special character when we are requested to 
 
INTRODUCTION. 73 
 
 check the ravages of an epizootic in a herd or to prevent 
 access of a dreaded disorder. 
 
 In such cases isolation must be rigidly enforced, all 
 predisposing and exciting causes must be removed or 
 obviated. The slightest trace of disease, of any kind, in 
 one or more of the animals, must lead to segregation. 
 Measures of disinfection of houses, utensils, and atten- 
 dants, must be carried out with energy ; and to effect 
 this, the manager of the herd must be a thoroughly reli- 
 able man. Under these circumstances we shall probably 
 succeed in our efforts to prevent or limit an invasion. 
 
 Section 3. • 
 
 In the present section we will place before our readers 
 as succinctly as possible the therapeutical actions of 
 such medicinal agents as have been utilised in the 
 treatment of cattle, availing ourselves of modern thera- 
 peutical ideas, of the researches which have recently been 
 occupying observers of the actions of medicines, and of 
 the assistance of the several works on veterinary medicine 
 and pharmacy, which have been presented to the profes- 
 sion. We shall follow in the main the system adopted 
 by Headland in his most admirable ^Action of Medi- 
 cines,^ adapting this to our special requirements. We 
 shall use the tabular form as most economical of space, 
 and shall so arrange matters that we may utilise our 
 system afterwards in our notice of toxicology. 
 
 For ADMINISTRATION to the OX agents are generally prepared 
 in a draught (or '^ Drench''), soluble matters being dissolved 
 in the water, which is usually the principal vehicle, insoluble 
 matters being in a state of powder and suspended. Drenches 
 are preferred for the ox because they can be readily ad- 
 ministered, act sooner than solid masses, and probably al- 
 most always mainly pass into the third and fourth stomachs 
 directly without delay in the rumen, and the chance of 
 rejection during rumination. In practice a bottle with 
 a gradually tapering neck is found to be useful for ad- 
 
74 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ministering the dose. Generally the head of the patient 
 is straightened on the neck by drawing the muzzle 
 forwards and upwards_, the nostrils being grasped so as 
 not materially to interfere with respiration. Preferably, 
 however, the head is flexed to the right, and the admin- 
 istrator stands with his back against the right shoulder, 
 keeps the left hand partially in the left side of the mouth, 
 and gives the draughJ: with the right. The opening 
 of the bottle is then inserted into the mouth, and the 
 contents gradually allowed to pass down towards the 
 pharynx j sometimes the drenching horn is used, but the 
 bottle is preferable as giving continuous, steady, and 
 ready flow. This operation is much easier than adminis- 
 tration of a draught to a horse, the ox receives his drench 
 more quickly, and loses hardly any. It is necessary to 
 cease the operation when an}^ sign of coughing appears. 
 An ordinary cattle drench measures from a pint and a half 
 to two pints. Cases of suffocation from passage of fluid 
 into the larynx and trachea occur sometimes, as we shall 
 detail hereafter. This is liable to take place in attacks 
 of parturient apoplexy, and must be avoided by giving 
 any medicines the animal requires by means of the 
 stomach pump. Some practitioners consider halls useful 
 
 Fig. 8. — The Stomach-pump in use. (Armatage.) 
 
 for the ox, others as strongly object to them. Aloes 
 may be conveniently and beneficially administered in this 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 75 
 
 form ; its active principle is soluble in alkaline solu- 
 tions^ such as the secretion of the rumen, and hence 
 becomes more rapidly absorbed than it would have been 
 if it had passed at once into the true digestive stomach. 
 Few other agents are better given in solid form than in a 
 drench, powders do not harmonise well with the ordinary 
 food of the ox, and would probably pass directly into the 
 huge mass of masticated matter in the torpid rumen of the 
 diseased animal. 
 
 Enemas (injections, clysters, or glysters) may be either 
 gaseous or liquid. The former, as tobacco smoke, &c., 
 are well worthy of more frequent trial. They are easily 
 administrable, and prove local sedatives in enteritic dis- 
 orders. They are administered with an enema tube con- 
 nected by a long flexible pipe with a vessel in which 
 tobacco is burnt. Liquid enemas are administered to 
 produce either local or general effect. In the latter case 
 they form the vehicle of such agents as are most readily 
 absorbed from the large intestines such as strychnia. 
 Locally, they act as fomentations, demulcents, and laxa- 
 
 FiG. 9. — Application of steam to the nostrils. (Armatage.) 
 
 tive means. In the latter respect they are most useful. 
 
76 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 softening any faecal accumulations^ and arousing peristalsis 
 in a simple but effectual manner. They should be admin- 
 istered in such quantity that they will be retained for 
 some time, and may be injected by means of the enema 
 syringe, Reid^s pump, or the gravitation funnel. 
 
 Inhalations of chloroform, steam, chlorine, and carbolic 
 acid are used in cattle practice, the first has been noticed 
 as anaesthetic. Chlorine, under the form of Yapor Chlori, is 
 generated in a loose box or stable, into which are collected 
 calves suffering from bronchitis parasitica. It acts as a 
 
 Fig. 10. — Method of covering the nostrils for steaming. (Armatage.) 
 
 very powerful irritant, gives rise to distressing cough, 
 and expulsion of numbers of the strongyles which cause 
 the disorder. Yapor Acidi Carbolici is generated for 
 internal disinfection by pouring some of the Calvert^s 
 acid into a pan resting on a tripod, a box in the bottom 
 of the pan holding a red hot flat iron heater. The box 
 and the animals become thoroughly disinfected, but the 
 beneficial effects have not been proved as far as internal 
 disinfection is concerned. 
 
 The thickness of the skin of the ox prevents frequent 
 taking up of medicinal matters into the system after in- 
 unction. Intra-venous injection is sometimes practised, as 
 also is the absorption of medicines from an abraded sur- 
 face, but administration of agents by the skin may best 
 
INTEODUCTJON. 77 
 
 be by suhcutaneous injection. The syringe for this pur- 
 pose (see Fig. 11) is small, and can conveniently be 
 carried in the pocket ; has its barrel graduated^ and made 
 
 Fig. 11. — Hypodermic Syringe. (Armatage.) 
 
 of glass ; generally has a handle to its piston, every complete 
 turn of which expels a known quantity of the contents, and 
 a nozzle shaped like a trocar with a side opening of exit. 
 The puncture is scarcely noticed by the animal, and 
 should preferably be made where the subcutaneous areolar 
 tissue is plentiful and the skin thin. By this means ex- 
 tremely small doses of very potent agents may be given 
 with certainty. We must conclude, then, that methods of 
 administration to the ox are seldom other than by drench. 
 
 M. Tahorin estimates the dose for the ox to average |ths 
 that requisite for the horse, but specific differences be- 
 tween the animals, as far as the actions of different agents 
 go, render this useful conclusion not always reliable. He . 
 also reckons the ox^s dose three times as large as that for 
 the sheep. • 
 
 Hertwig suggests for an animal aged one to two years 
 half a dose, six months to one year one quarter, three to 
 six months one eighth, and one to three months one 
 sixteenth. Pregnancy and lactation and other conditions 
 also influence the dose, and we must remember that 
 many agents administered to the cow pass off by the 
 milk and affect the calf. 
 
 It is thought that all '^ agents which produce their 
 effects upon remote parts of the system must be absorbed 
 and added to the blood.'' The phenomena of certain 
 cases of poisoning hardly enable us to accept this dictum 
 unreservedly. When very large doses have been taken 
 
78 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 deatli completely and immediately occurs,, seemingly 
 similar in its characters to that which has been seen to 
 result from a blow on the epigastrium. These observa- 
 tions on poisoning in man apply to animal poisoning, but 
 this '' death by shock ^^ is quite the exception. When 
 agents enter the blood they circulate in its current and 
 act upon various organs. Accordingly they are divided 
 into haematics, neurotics, eliminatives, and astringents. 
 
 Fig. 12. — Clyster Syringe, with elastic tube and ebony pipe ; used also as a 
 stomach-pump. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
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 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
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 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 85 
 
 Besides the agents administered medicinally, certain 
 drugs gain a place in the Pharmacopoeia as constituting 
 useful and convenient means of giving bulk to remedies, 
 whether for internal or external use. Such are — 
 
 ExcipientSy as common mass, formed of equal parts of 
 linseed meal and treacle thoroughly intermingled. Gly- 
 cerine and linseed meal, or soft soap, vaseline or lard 
 are used for this purpose ; but agents of this kind are not 
 used much for the ox, as 
 
 Vehicles, fluid media, are more frequently considered 
 necessary. Water is the most common, the active sub- 
 stances being either dissolved or suspended in it. Gruel 
 is also very useful for this purpose, and in many cases the 
 medicines may be given in beer. 
 
 The application of boiling wafer, as mentioned above, to 
 the sides or other parts of an animal, must be effected by 
 dipping a blanket in the water and keeping it held up against 
 the part from each side. As soon as it begins to cool, more 
 boiling water is baled into it, and the process is thus con- 
 tinued for half-an-hour or upwards. Then to the surface a 
 little stimulating liniment may be applied to keep up the 
 excitation and prevent a relapse. Considerable serous 
 effusion into the subcutaneous areolar tissue will result. 
 This is a most valuable means of external stimulation. 
 
 Blistering should be performed by removal of the hair 
 from the part by means of scissors or the clipper, and well 
 rubbing in the ointment for about ten minutes. The action 
 of the agent seldom runs too high, but in such a case the 
 removal of any remains of the blister is called for, and 
 alkaline or anodyne lotions must subsequently be applied. 
 Occasionally too extensive application leads to absorption 
 of the vesicant and constitutional symptoms of its medi- 
 cinal or poisonous action. 
 
 Fomentations must be continuously applied, of uniform 
 temperature, as much as possible, and when necessary 
 may be medicated. 
 
 Poultices or cataplasmata must be of soft consistence, 
 moist, but not too watery — generally are made with lin- 
 seed meal and bran. Boiled turnips are sometimes used 
 
86 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 for this purpose. Several special cataplasms are used : 
 Cat. Fermenti and Cat. Carbonis. The substance known as 
 spongio'piline retains moisture well, and has all the bene- 
 ficial influence of a poultice when properly applied. 
 
 Disinfection after the outbreak of a contagious disorder 
 in a cowhouse should comprise removal of animals from 
 the house and their quarantine until after the termination 
 of the period of incubation of the disorder, strict super- 
 vision being resorted to, and sometimes internal disin- 
 fection. Special attendants should be told off to diseased 
 animals, and not be allowed to approach healthy ones 
 except after thorough disinfection ; destruction by burn- 
 ing of bedding and minor appliances such as are inex- 
 pensive and easily replaceable ; thorough scraping, scalding, 
 and disinfection of walls, partitions between stalls, and 
 major utensils. The drains should be sluiced out with 
 bucketfuls of water and carbolic acid (1 — 40). The walls 
 should be limewashed, each pail of the wash containing 
 half-a-pint of crude carbolic acid. If the flooring is of round 
 flints, these should be taken up, and the sub-soil removed. 
 This soil frequently harbours contagia. Then the doors 
 and windows should be thrown open, and the place 
 remain thus exposed for about a fortnight, and, if pos- 
 sible cattle not be readmitted under six weeks. When 
 animals must remain in the house, chlorinated lime may 
 be sprinkled about the floor after it has been thoroughly 
 cleansed, and also thrown down the drains, or cloths 
 dipped in solution of carbolic acid may be hung up in the 
 place, or the carbolic fumigation may be resorted to. 
 Thorough cleanliness and ventilation must also be secured. 
 
 It remains for us to describe two surgical means of 
 treatment of great value in cattle practice : 
 
 Bloodletting — venesection, or phlebotomy — is performed 
 at the superficial jugular. This vessel is very large, and 
 is compressed by means of a cord tied round the neck at 
 the posterior part. The knot must be of a special kind, 
 such as is shown in Fig. 12, that it maybe easily loosened 
 when it is considered advisable to check the flow of escaping 
 blood. The fleam, or lancet, must have a large blade, and be 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 87 
 
 sharp and in g'ood condition, that it may penetrate the 
 thick hide freely. The animal having been duly secured 
 
 Fig. 12. — Ox prepared for bleeding. The place at which the vein is opened 
 indicated by the mark (a) at the lower portion of the neck. (Armatage.) 
 
 by an attendant, and the cord fastened, the head is some- 
 what flexed to the side opposite the seat of operation. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Bleeding fleam. 
 
 The operator places the instrument longitudinally to the 
 course of the distended vein, and inserts by a single stroke. 
 When a sufficient amount has been removed, as indicated 
 by the state of the pulse, in accordance with the condition 
 of the animal, the cord should be removed, and the wound 
 closed by means of a pin suture retained by a strand of 
 tow wrapped round in a figure of eight manner. Bleeding 
 produces a sudden and powerful impression on the nervous 
 system of a sedative nature, seriously debilitates the 
 
88 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 animal, and its effects last for some time. The blood 
 pressure is not affected long after cessation of the opera- 
 tion, for fluid matters are rapidly absorbed from the 
 tissues to keep up the due bulk of the blood. It very 
 seriously diminishes the number of red corpuscles present, 
 but increases the amount of fibrin in the blood. This 
 means is seldom called for except in relief of acute con- 
 gestions which threaten to bring about speedy death. 
 Local bleedings by scarifications and opening of vessels is 
 seldom resorted to in treatment of cattle. The temporal 
 artery has sometimes been opened in attempt to relieve 
 congestion of the brain, but the vessel is difficult of access. 
 The cephalic, saphena, and superficial abdominal veins are 
 sometimes opened. 
 
 Setons produce long-continued and considerable inflam- 
 mation, resulting in suppuration. They may be inserted by 
 means of the ordinary seton needle, which can be removed 
 from the handle, or by a fixed needle which has the eye 
 near the point (see Fig. 14), it is threaded after insertion, 
 and then withdrawn. The dewlap is the general seat of this 
 operation, but setons may be introduced into other parts, as 
 through fistulas, &c. They are usually inserted transversely 
 through the dewlap, and may be simple or medicated with 
 blistering ointment or turpentine solution of croton. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Seton needle with fixed handle. 
 
DISEASES OFJCHfirrifeQOa^^ 89 
 
 CHAPTER II.— DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Section 1. — Non-specific Abnormal Conditions. 
 
 The blood of the ox forms only ^^^th of the weight of his 
 body, that of the horse being estimated at jgth. Its red 
 corpuscles are larger (ox_, j^ mm. ; horse, yjy mm.), and 
 form a greater portion of the bulk of the blood, but do 
 not exhibit such a marked tendency to aggregate into rou- 
 leaux as is observable in the horse. The blood does not, 
 under ordinary circumstances, give a buffy coat on coagula- 
 tion. Fibrin-forming materials and fat are present in larger 
 quantity, water, albumen, and salines being less plentiful. 
 (See CoLiN^s ^Traitede Physiologic Comparee desAnimaux.^) 
 The vital fluid must be considered as a tissue, the red 
 corpuscles constituting its essential elements. These, 
 
 ® 
 
 Fig. 15.— Red blood-globules, 
 from the nature of their duties as oxygen bearers, must 
 occur in a fluid medium, such as is the Liquor Sanguinis. 
 This Liquor Sanguinis consists of an albuminous solution 
 of salines of a most varied character, sufficing for the 
 supply of every requisite to any tissue in the body. Be- 
 sides the red corpuscles, colourless bodies or leucocytes are 
 found. They are independent cell-like bodies capable of 
 spontaneous motion, and of deriving their support from the 
 surrounding fluid. They become converted into the red 
 
90 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 corpuscles in all probability, and in addition have been 
 found to migrate through the walls of the capillaries into 
 the interspaces between the cells of which the tissues are 
 composed ; whether or not they thus nourish the tissues is 
 unknown. The blood of the ox has a specific gravity of 
 1060, and gives off a characteristic milky odour when 
 fresh, or when a little sulphuric acid is added to it. The 
 blood being circulated through the blood-vessels, mainly 
 by the action of the heart, requires for its proper functional 
 activity due bulk and viscidity and a proper chemical 
 composition. It must consist of the right constituents in 
 the right proportions. It may be excessively poor or rich 
 according to the conditions of its nutritive supply. It 
 may be irregularly distributed through the vessels as in 
 congestion with variations in rapidity of flow, and perhaps 
 of tissue interchanges. It is these latter which most 
 materially affect the composition of the blood. Every 
 tissue of the body bears during health the relation of an 
 excretory organ to. every other part ; by the combined 
 action of all the blood should be kept in a proper condi- 
 tion, its nutritive supplies being especially important. 
 The excretory organs proper have especially the duty of 
 removing impurities ; if one of them acts imperfectly the 
 rest may endeavour to atone for its deficiencies by vicarious 
 action, but they do not always do so successfully. Thus, 
 uraemic and jaundice cases occur. Sometimes poisons, 
 whether specific or ordinary, gain entry from without and 
 cause serious disorder. The blood being a generally 
 diffused tissue, we must look for general symptoms during 
 its disorders ; there v/ill be an indefiniteness and want of 
 localisation about them which to the unscientific man will 
 make them seem most obscure ; but we, armed with our 
 full list of haematics and eliminatives, view them with more 
 confidence. While the causes of blood disorders often lie 
 in defective nutrition or elimination, or in the addition of 
 poisonous matter from without, not unfrequently may 
 diseases of this generally diffused tissue be found due to 
 extension of disorder from some of the tissues through 
 which it rushes in its circulatory course. Thus may be 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 91 
 
 accounted for tlie frequency of symptomatic fever consti- 
 tuting general disorder as a result of local inflammation. 
 While the tendency to this and other fevers is not very 
 marked in the ox^ the liability to specific blood poisons is 
 considerable, and we shall have to treat of many special 
 disorders which devastate our herds and have proved the 
 scourge of the agriculturist from time immemorial. The 
 relatively small amount of blood of the ox and the larger 
 size of the red globules may be, perhaps, considered the 
 cause of the immunity from general fever and from inflam- 
 mation leading to ill effects after major operations, which is 
 observable in bovine practice as compared with equine. 
 At the same time we must remember, too, that some parts 
 of the body, as the alimentary canal, receive a great deal 
 of blood, and that the venous system is remarkable for its 
 largeness as compared with the arterial. 
 
 A. Nutritive Excess. — Hypeeteophy op the Blood (Wat- 
 son), Plethoea — vulgarly known as Fulness of Blood — 
 results from high activity of the blood-forming organs, 
 whereby the blood becomes loaded with red and white 
 corpuscles. This condition is denoted by redness of 
 visible mucous membranes with a tendency to active 
 haemorrhages, a full, bounding pulse, high constitu- 
 tional vigour, and tendency to thrive and lay on fat. 
 Such a state of the body as this can not be considered 
 disease, but predisposition to apoplectic and acute inflam- 
 matory affections. We are familiar with the frequency 
 of black quarter in yearling calves in a highly plethoric 
 condition. The causes of plethora are excess of food, 
 vigour to appropriate nutritive matters, and insufficient 
 exercise to bring about a demand for fresh material pro- 
 portioned to the supply. Treatment must therefore con- 
 sist in urgent cases in abstraction of blood, whereby 
 plethora is at once relieved ; in gradual reduction of 
 diet, exhibition of laxatives, and giving the animal a wide 
 and not too rich pasture to graze over. It is the custom 
 to insert a seton in the dewlap that the resulting suppura- 
 tion may drain away the precursors of the red corpuscles. 
 This certainly lessens the predispositions above mentioned. 
 
92 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 When growth ceases to draw largely upon nutritive 
 supplies plethora often occurs,, and a somewhat similar 
 throwing back of blood on the system takes place at 
 parturition, to be relieved by lactation. 
 
 B. Nutritive Deficiency. — Atrophy op the Blood, ANiE- 
 MiA, debility, poverty of the blood. The principal additions 
 to the blood occur from the alimentary canal, any impediment 
 to this source of supply gives rise to anaemia. Imperfect 
 performance of subsidiary or principal digestive functions, 
 defective absorption, imperfect assimilation, or insufficient 
 or improper alimentary matter and excessive removal 
 of material from the blood will cause debility, hence it 
 results from fluxes, persistent hasmorrhages, &c. 
 
 Symptoms, general deficiency in vital energy, excita- 
 bility and languor, often inappetence and tendency to 
 indigestion. Pulse feeble, frequent, and irregular ; heart's 
 action liable to extreme irregularity of beat. Mucous 
 membranes very pale. Coldness of the extremities and a 
 peculiar sound audible over the larger veins, "venous 
 murmurs.^' Rapid wasting, and frequently the patient is 
 found to be covered with lice. Often this disorder is due 
 to scrofulous tumours internally, or to some specific disorder 
 which has interfered with the nutritive properties of the 
 blood. The essential morbid lesion consists in deficiency of 
 blood-corpuscles. It has been supposed that this results from 
 an abnormally watery state of the serum whereby the red 
 globules absorb moisture in excess and disintegrate. This 
 may be so, but we are inclined in the generality of cases, to 
 consider the excess of water rather the result of the fact that 
 the few red corpuscles do not suffice to stimulate suffi- 
 ciently the water removing organs, kidneys, and skin, 
 consequently the urine is scanty, and the skin dry and 
 tight on the emaciated body. Sometimes the excess of 
 water in the blood causes dropsical effusions either into 
 serous and synovial cavities or into the subcutaneous areolar 
 tissue. Death may result either from lungs or other parts 
 becoming the seat of congestion, or in the manner which we 
 have already described, as death from anasmia. It is 
 generally preceded by diarrhoea of an exhausting character. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. " 93 
 
 This state predisposes to certain disorders^ especially those 
 of a low type and a specific character ; even small wounds 
 of anaemic patients may assume an ulcerative character and 
 be very obstinate. Operations are often followed by ill effects. 
 
 Pasturage on heath lands where the herbage has an 
 astringent character and is unnutritious, also feeding upon 
 turnips which contain excess of watery material, may be 
 enumerated as special causes. Treatment must be directed 
 to removal of all causes which can possibly be in opera- 
 tion, by thorough change of diet and most careful nursing. 
 The transition to good food must not be too sudden, and 
 generally the administration of a laxative dose will rouse 
 the bowels into activity, and remove any accumulation of 
 unnutritious matter from them. Salt sprinkled over 
 the fodder will make it more palatable. Tonics should be 
 administered, generally a combination of iron and gentian 
 will be found useful. Heematinic compounds are especially 
 indicated, but care must be taken lest too large doses be 
 giveti at first. Under such treatment the animal will 
 generally be restored to health, but some cases, where the 
 ansemia is due to specific conditions, are incurable. 
 
 The state of the system produced by the ravages of the 
 liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, known technically as ^^ Ca- 
 chexia Aquosa Verminosa,^'' must be mentioned here as 
 consisting in a true ansemia. The early action of these 
 parasites, when they are but few and scattered in the bile 
 ducts throughout the extent of the liver, is one of stimula- 
 tion of that organ, whereby its glycogenic and bile pro- 
 ducing powers are increased, the effect on nutrition being 
 favorable. As these organisms increase in number they 
 cause thickening of the walls of the ducts and dilatation 
 of their passages ; this is at the expense of the true liver 
 substance, and bile production is thus impeded, the ducts 
 become filled with parasites and a viscid bile. Generally 
 at this stage the constitutional power of the animal 
 enables it to withstand this interference with the produc- 
 tion of bile and grape sugar. But this is not always so, 
 for in some years the parasites are so plentiful, and so 
 thoroughly invade the liver substance, as to give rise to 
 
94 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the above-mentioned symptoms of anaemia, and ultimately to 
 death. Such outbreaks occur after extraordinarily wet sea- 
 
 Fig. 16. — Fasciola he- 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 — Disto- 
 
 Fig 
 
 .18.- 
 
 -Amphistoma 
 
 coni- 
 
 patica, the common 
 
 ma lanceola- 
 
 
 cum. 
 
 
 
 liver fluke, a., h., and 
 
 tum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c, its alimentary ap- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 paratus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CertRin flukes. 
 
 rrematodes, 
 
 found in 
 
 the ox 
 
 (after Cohhold). 
 
 
 sons, when meadows have been flooded, and flocks are being 
 decimated by '^ rot.^' Usually they may be seen about at 
 Christmas time or in the early spring. The collateral 
 conditions of the case, together with a yellowness of the 
 visible mucous membranes, will enable us to diagnose such 
 cases from those of simple anaemia. 
 
 Our efforts must be directed to support of the strength 
 of the patients by the above-mentioned means. Iron and 
 salt are very useful as being anthelmintics. Good oil cake 
 is especially called for. Prophylaxis must be observed in 
 wet seasons, and consist of measures based on our know- 
 ledge of the life-history of the fasciola. The larval forms 
 abound in meadows (generally low-lying, and well known 
 to shepherds) during the later months of summer or the 
 earlier of autumn, according to the season. At these 
 times young or debilitated stock should not be turned out 
 to pasture in such meadows, or, if circumstances render 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 95 
 
 ttis a necessity, they should receive a fair allowance of 
 salt. The parasite which produces this disorder is that 
 which causes '^ rot '^ in sheep. 
 
 Science tells us that more careful destruction of faeces 
 containing myriads of ova of this parasite, whether of cattle 
 or sheep affected, would be beneficial. A more widely 
 diffused knowledge of the relations of diseases as they occur 
 among his live stock is essential for the agriculturist. 
 
 Post-mortem Examination of a case of anaemia, while 
 often disclosing the special cause, invariably shows a 
 bloodless condition of the tissues, absence of fat, which is 
 replaced by gelatinous areolar tissue, muscles small and 
 very pale, blood forms a white clot, often before removal 
 from the larger blood-vessels, frequently ante-mortem 
 clots, which have complicated the case during life, may be 
 observed in the heart; they are supposed to result from 
 the uneven internal surface of the heart, whipping up the 
 abnormally fluid blood. Is the flesh fit for human food ? 
 In a case of extreme anaemia, such as has resulted in 
 death, we cannot hesitate to reject it. It probably has 
 distributed through it deleterious matter accumulated 
 from defective excretion; these have not been proved 
 injurious to man but certainly are not beneficial, and the 
 flesh is devoid of nutritive matter, so cannot prove a 
 loss of valuable food material. 
 
 c. Nutrition Perverted. — Pyeexia, Fevee, inflammation 
 of the blood. We have adopted this pathology of 
 fever after due consideration, for it seems to us that 
 all the phenomena of fever may be traced to perverted 
 nutritive conditions of the blood. This state may 
 originate in itself as simple fever , or by extension of inflam- 
 tion from some of the tissues through which the blood cir- 
 culates, constituting sympathetic or symptomatic fever. It 
 has been debated whether simple fever occurs in the lower 
 animals, but we cannot doubt that it does, and under this 
 heading maybe classified those cases which exhibit an in- 
 definiteness of symptoms, an absence of diagnostic signs. 
 
 Symptoms, — The attack commences with a shivering 
 fit and general signs of disorder. Pulse quick, rather 
 
96 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 hard, and often exhibiting a tendency to dicrotism. Mucous 
 membranes injected. Warmth of extremities, mouth, and 
 general surface of the body, with a dryness of the skin. 
 Respirations slightly increased in frequency. Excretions 
 deficient, hence mouth dry, bowels torpid, and urine 
 scanty and high coloured. Secretion of milk lessened. 
 Irritability of the animal is generally present. Internal 
 temperature elevated. Thirst considerable. As the case 
 progresses there is a tendency for the different organs of 
 the body to become involved in the disorder. The lungs, 
 as being most concerned in alterations of the composition 
 of the blood, are liable to become the seat of congestion. 
 The bowels may also become affected or the liver, and, 
 in a less degree, other parts of the body. Thus, we often 
 find that cases which originate as fever pure culminate in 
 acute infiammation of some important vital organ. The 
 blood has its fibrin-formers increased, and also its amount 
 of fat, while the globules (generally) and the albumen 
 and salines are diminished. The urine owes its high 
 colour probably to the rapid disintegration of red 
 corpuscles, increased specific gravity to deficiency of 
 water and organic salines and increase of extractives, 
 hippurates, &c. Gant thus expresses his views of the 
 cause of one important change in the blood, "the flotilla 
 of oxygen-laden cells perishes seriatim from overpressed 
 service, and their wrecks are converted into fibrin.^' 
 Such is the peculiar character of the blood-tissue that 
 it can not exhibit the ordinary characters and changes of 
 inflammation. It is non-vascular, yet more highly nourished 
 than any other, hence the changes must be manifested 
 only in the tissue elements. These, the red globules, 
 have their functions perverted, they no longer convey 
 oxygen satisfactorily to the tissues to stimulate them to 
 action, the energy of oxidation expends itself in the 
 breaking up of the globules. Diminution of globules 
 takes place, proper nutritive interchanges between the 
 blood and the tissues not occurring, the fluid becomes 
 overloaded with impurities, and so causes disease of other 
 organs, the lungs being especially unwilling to allow the 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 97 
 
 passage of impure blood. Sometimes a crisis occurs, one 
 or more of tlie excretory organs (bowels, liver, and skin) 
 overcomes all difficulties by its inherent energies, removes 
 impurities, and so relieves the blood. Eesolution then 
 occurs unless a relapse checks the salutary process. In 
 declining fever a lateritious sediment frequently may be 
 found in urine. Fever may be caused by any conditions 
 which interfere with due removal of matter from the 
 blood. Thus, close and ill- ventilated houses, want of exer- 
 cise, and excessive feeding all predispose to the disorder, 
 while sudden changes of temperature, long journeys, 
 exposure to draughts or to severe weather prove exciting 
 agencies. Acute inflammation of internal organs, or of 
 any other part of the body, the presence of poisonous 
 material, whether ordinary or specific, in the blood, and 
 defective action of eliminatory organs are causes of 
 the symptomatic affection, which is more frequent than 
 the simple form. Thus, in our examination of many 
 disorders we shall have to allude to complicating febrile 
 conditions, such as those which have just received notice 
 from us. It is remarkable that frequently fevers abate some- 
 what towards mid-day. Again, they may re-appear periodi- 
 cally, when they are termed intermittent, and generally 
 are due to special organisms in the blood, the periodic 
 activity of which accounts for regularity of recurrence of 
 the disorder. Thus, ague in man is due to Spirochgete, 
 which is supposed to be a bacterian organism, and certain 
 intermittent disorders affecting the ox have been described 
 as occurring in low districts which probably are attribu- 
 table to a similar cause. 
 
 In the treatment of febrile affections nursing must 
 be resorted to with assiduity, the skin especially being 
 roused into activity by frictions. Stimulants, particularly 
 such as act upon the excretory organs, as nitrous ether, 
 may be used with benefit. The bowels may be acted 
 upon by a saline laxative. The stimulants check any 
 tendency to local disorder by equable diffusion of blood 
 and nervous energy. The beneficial effects of fresh air 
 must not be neglected in symptomatic cases. Though 
 
98 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the impurities accumulated in the blood as a result of 
 defective excretion in fever are not known to act delete- 
 riously on man when the flesh is injested after cooking, 
 we should when possible prevent such meat from passing 
 into the market. The general custom is to destroy the 
 animal when recovery seems hopeless, and to have it 
 dressed for the public ; any parts which exhibit signs 
 of disease being rejected. 
 
 NECRiEMiA is the term which has been applied to death 
 of the blood en masses such as occurs in black quarter and 
 certain other blood diseases. It may be observed in cases 
 of death resulting from a sudden and powerful alteratioii 
 in vital conditions, as is seen in animals struck by light- 
 ning. Probably the other tissue elements of the body, 
 especially the nervous, are also affected in this case, for 
 they, like the blood, exhibit imperfect tendency to congela- 
 tion, and rapidly commence to putrefy. The non-coagulation 
 of the blood is not present in every case, but this fluid is 
 always dark in colour, and any clot which forms is deficient 
 in firmness and permanence. Such cases never call for 
 treatment, but not unfrequently for determination of the 
 cause of death. Collateral circumstances must be care- 
 fully considered, and the surface of the body examined for 
 local discoloration or singeing ; but it is quite certain 
 that death may occur in this manner without any injury 
 to the surface. A lightning shock may cause injury short 
 of death, as paralysis of a part. After such injuries the 
 principal indication is to avoid collapse by means of 
 stimulant agents. 
 
 D. Variations in Constitution. (a) Increase or de- 
 crease of normal constituents. 
 
 Having already dealt with such diseased conditions as 
 arise from irregularity of distribution of blood in the circu- 
 latory organs constituting the phenomena of hyperaemia 
 and congestion, we may now examine those states which 
 result from variations in the constituents of the blood, 
 whether in quality or in quantity. Increase of water, 
 salines, &c., may occur without any appreciable influence 
 upon the health of the animal, simply causing predis- 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 99 
 
 position to disorder. Such is the case when excretory 
 organs act inefficiently, or when excessive material is 
 added. These states are, therefore, generally purely of a 
 secondary character. The cause being removed they will 
 cease. Decrease of these normal constituents may be 
 similarly of minor importance. We have seen that fibrin 
 is increased in fevers, especially those due to considerable 
 local inflammation. It seems this is associated with disin- 
 tegration of corpuscles ; hence we find products of a 
 highly plastic character generated under these circum- 
 stances. In ansemia the fibrin factors are deficient, the 
 blood and deposits wanting in plasticity. Though occur- 
 ring frequently in disease, variations of amount of fibrin 
 factors have not been proved to constitute distinct 
 disorder. 
 
 Leucaemia, oe Leucocyth^mia, results from excessive 
 production of white corpuscles in consequence of the 
 activity of the spleen, lymphatic glands, and medulla of 
 bone, these being the blood-making organs. The spleen 
 and lymphatic glands undergo enlargement and become 
 altered in appearance. The white globules of the blood, 
 instead of being in the proportion of one to three or four 
 hundred, are as one to thirty or forty. This disease has 
 been described by Siedamgrotzky ('Veterinarian,^ 1880, 
 p. 159). He mentions it as occurring in cattle, females 
 being most subject. The symptoms are those of 
 anaamia. 
 
 The red corpuscles we have seen are largely increased 
 in plethora, and they may be more numerous in fevers ; 
 evidence is rather uncertain on this point. This simply 
 gives rise to increased functional energy ; indeed, in 
 health the improvement of a breed and high feeding 
 increase the number of these elements. *' Free exposure 
 to fresh air and light seems also to powerfully promote 
 the formation of red blood as much as the deprivation of 
 them tends to destroy it " (Jones). From this we deduce 
 a practical indication for treatment of anasmia. When 
 the destruction of red corpuscles predominates over their 
 formation poverty of the blood results. Mercury seems 
 
100 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 to have a special power of disintegrating red globules. 
 Under certain circumstances the red colouring matter be- 
 comes dissolved in the surrounding serum, which stains 
 the walls of the blood-vessels. This occurs, more or less, 
 in all cases of stasis or extravasation of red corpuscles, 
 but especially from certain chemical changes in the 
 serum, as admixture of bile salts. As potash and phos- 
 phates occur particularly in the corpuscles, while sodium 
 and chlorides are mainly in the serum, we can see that 
 various foods are adapted especially for the formation of 
 special parts of the blood. 
 
 (j3) Eetention of matter in the blood which should be 
 excreted. 
 
 There are certain organs which remove effete matter 
 from the blood. Of these the principal are lungs, liver, 
 skin, and kidneys. If either of these organs act im- 
 perfectly, and the others are unable by vicarious action to 
 perform its duties with suflScient energy, accumulation 
 of effete matter leads to blood disease. 
 
 Carbonic Anhydride poisoning results from defective 
 action of the lungs. It may also take place from exposure 
 to an atmosphere containing excess of this gas, as the 
 '^ choke damp ^' generated by explosions in mines. The 
 fact that a chronic form, as it were, of this disorder 
 results from imperfect escape of foul air from cow-houses 
 must make us attend to due ventilation. This chronic 
 state predisposes to disease of a low type, lessening con- 
 stitutional vigour. Thus, 3 per cent, of this gas in the air 
 lessens the frequency of the pulse and increases the respira- 
 tions ; 1'5 — 2 per cent, suffices to produce headache in man, 
 and fatal results ensue on exposure to air containing 5 — 10 
 per cent. The severity of disorders of the lungs is consider- 
 ably increased by the accumulation of carbonic anhydride 
 in the blood which results from them. This substance 
 acts as a narcotic poison. Acute cases of carbonic acid 
 poisoning are manifested by laboured breathing and other 
 signs of narcosis, ultimately leading to death from 
 asthenia. 
 
 Treatment must consist in exposure to fresh air, ad- 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 101 
 
 ministration of stimulants as ammonia and artificial 
 respiration. On examination of the body after death, the 
 Innffs are found cons^ested and the blood dark. 
 
 Jaundice — Jcterus — is accumulation in the blood of 
 matters which should be removed by the liver. This 
 seldom causes acute diseases, and may be due either to 
 non-elimination in consequence of structural derangement 
 of the organ or to reabsorption of bile in consequence 
 of obstruction to its escape into the bowel. The bile 
 constitutes an outlet for much of the colouring matter 
 set free by breaking up of the red corpuscles, also for 
 cholesterine and for certain bile salts, glycocholates, and 
 taurocholates. When these salts enter the bowel they 
 undergo changes, and probably become reabsorbed and 
 utilised for respiratory purposes, as they contain a con- 
 siderable amount of carbon and hydrogen. But if intro- 
 duced into the blood before undergoing change they 
 cause solution of the red colouring matter in the serum. 
 They are probably formed in the liver. This is a useful 
 fact as far as diagnosis is concerned. If the bile be not 
 secreted only the colouring matter will be removed by the 
 kidneys, whereas if the bile be reabsorbed the character- 
 istic bile acids will be found in the urine. We will 
 summarise the testing processes from Dr. Legge^s useful 
 little work on the urine. The urine is deep in colour, and 
 stains white filtering paper yellow. 
 
 Gmelin's Test determines presence of bile pigments. 
 Allow a drop of nitric acid and of the urine to be 
 examined to run together on a porcelain dish, at their line 
 of contact a play of colours will occur, consisting of green, 
 violet, blue, and red. The red colour will appear with 
 any urine. The green colour is most distinctive. 
 
 Pettenhofer's Test is for the bile acids. " Pour the 
 fluid containing the bile acids into a test tube ; sulphuric 
 acid being then added, at first in small quantity, to preci- 
 pitate the bile acids, but afterwards in amount sufficient 
 to redissolve them, which renders the mixture perceptibly 
 hot to the hand. A drop of syrup may now be let fall 
 into the liquid, which then shows a play of colours, passing 
 
102 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 from pink to cherry-red, and from red to purple/^ This 
 test must not be applied directly to the urine, but the 
 latter must first be rendered faintly ammoniacal with 
 caustic ammonia, and then diacetate of lead added until 
 it produces a precipitate — this must be washed with dis- 
 tilled water, boiled with alcohol, and thrown into excess of 
 ether — the bile salts will crystallise out and being dissolved 
 in distilled water may be tested by Pettenkofer's test. 
 
 Besides the altered colour and chemical reactions of the 
 urine, other symptoms of a marked character may be 
 noted in this disorder, the visible mucous membranes and 
 the skin become yellow ; the change in colour of the eye 
 gives a very characteristic appearance ; besides the general 
 symptoms of disorder the animal is markedly dull and 
 debilitated. The pulse is slow, and there is considerable 
 disorder of the bowels as shown by torpidity and flatulence, 
 the faeces being scanty, dry, and dark coloured. The 
 bile acts as a natural stimulus to the coats of the intes- 
 tines, and its loss is felt. In milch cows the milk is deep 
 in colour. If these conditions be not relieved the debility 
 increases, the temperature of the body-surface falls consi- 
 derably, the patient wastes away rapidly, dropsical swellings 
 occur in various parts of the body, obstinate diarrhoea sets 
 in, and death from anaemia gradually results. The causes 
 which give rise to this affection are organic disorder of 
 the liver, or such functional derangement as occurs in 
 congestion, also any disorder of the excretory apparatus 
 leading to obstruction, such as tumours, either of the 
 walls of the ducts or gall bladder, or neighbouring parts, 
 parasites, calculi, stricture, or disease of the wall of the 
 duodenum around the opening of the bile duct. This 
 disease appears among cows especially in the spring and 
 autumn, altogether it is rather frequent in the ox. 
 
 Post-mortem appearances will enable us to conclusively 
 determine the cause of the disorder; there is a diffused 
 yellowness of the tissues and a high colour of the serum ; 
 effusions into the areolar tissue, and into serous sacs, as 
 well as other anaemic conditions are present. The flesh of 
 animals which have died from this disease is discoloured, it 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 103 
 
 contains a cathartic principle not, however, of a very active 
 character, also anaemic conditions are present, therefore 
 its use as food is to be condemned. 
 
 Our treatment must depend upon extended diagnosis 
 of the case. Derangements of the liver must be removed 
 according to their nature in each instance. Thus, in some 
 cases we need cholagogues, in others sedative agents. 
 In tuberculous and other structural derangements of the 
 organ, as well as when the escape of the bile is obstructed, 
 we must adopt palliative rather than curative means, which 
 latter can hardly prove effectual. Dieting with succulent 
 food of a nutritious and easily digestible character, gentle 
 and regular exercise, and the administration of eliminatives 
 which aid the action of skin and kidneys must be 
 adopted in all cases of jaundice. Stimulant tonics which 
 mildly promote the activity of the liver, such as beer, 
 prove useful, and the nitro-muriatic acid is recommended 
 in cases due to torpidity of the biliferous organ. Animals 
 highly fed, either for the production of milk or fat, are 
 very much predisposed to disorder of this nature, even 
 during health there is a yellowness of the skin and visible 
 mucous membranes in these animals. It is wonderful 
 what an amount of structural derangement and removal 
 of substance the liver may undergo without jaundice 
 appearing. Youatt remarks upon a special scaly eruption 
 which appears on the skin in these cases. 
 
 Uejemia is described by Armatage as occurring in the 
 ox. It certainly is not frequent. It is accumulation in 
 the blood of urea and other urine constituents, either as a 
 result of a blocking up of the urinary passages, or of con- 
 siderable disorganisation of the kidneys. The retained 
 materials act upon the nervous system, producing active 
 toxic effects. The most marked symptoms are the 
 presence of urinary constituents in the sweat, which is 
 profuse, and has a very marked odour, and the slowness 
 of the pulse and respirations, with a marked fall of in- 
 ternal temperature. This is the result, generally, of long- 
 standing organic disease of the kidneys, and rapidly 
 proves fatal, inducing death by coma. Such is the 
 
104 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 structure of tlie urinary passages that absorption of tlieir 
 contained fluid will not occur, but sometimes acute uraemia 
 takes place, when after lithotomy urine infiltrates the 
 areolar tissue around the wound. 
 
 Treatment comprises removal of the causes, nursing, 
 and administration of stimulants. The disease is generally 
 only a precursor of death. 
 
 Rheumatism seems to be mainly dependent upon de- 
 creased activity of the skin and accumulation in the blood 
 of the normal constituents of sweat ; whether or not this bo 
 the case, the blood is often found to be acid in its reaction, 
 which has been attributed to the presence of lactic acid 
 and lithic acid in excess. The matters which have accu- 
 mulated in the blood cause inflammation of the white 
 fibrous tissues of the body, especially those situated in 
 connection with joints and the deep fibrous structure of 
 the endocardium and pericardium. This disease is some- 
 what frequent in the ox, and is due to exposure to damp- 
 ness and cold. Thus it is most frequent in marshy 
 countries, and during the spring and autumn, affecting 
 old rather than young cattle. It has been observed to 
 follow exposure to draughts, especially when the animal is 
 in a perspiring condition, also it appears in cows exposed 
 during or immediately after calving. Undoubtedly it is 
 hereditary. Rheumatism may assume an acute or a chronic 
 
 orm, and becomes localised in the fasciae of the loins (lum- 
 bago, or '' chine felon ''), in the serous membranes of the 
 heart, or in the joints (rheumatic arthritis, "joint felon,^^ 
 
 'chrocles'^). The animal at first in an acute attack is dull and 
 hide-bound ; has a staring coat, and is unwilling to move, 
 and there is generally a peculiar rigidity of the spine, due 
 to affection of the lumbar fascia ; shrinks on pressure 
 being applied to the loins, and soon the extremities be- 
 come involved in the stiffening. There are then local 
 signs of inflammation, with special hardness of the swel- 
 lings around the affected joints ; also fever is present, 
 characterised by the hardness of the pulse and the sharp- 
 ness of its beats. The animal becomes very lame on one 
 or more limbs, when suddenly the disease seems to shift 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 105 
 
 into aiiofher, frequently the corresponding, part of the 
 body. This metastatic character of rheumatism is a very 
 marked feature of the disease. The tendency of the 
 disorder to recur in a part once affected is also very 
 evident. The swellings of a hardened character which 
 appear around the joints seldom lead to suppuration, 
 though the local inflammation runs high, and causes severe 
 fever, the blood containing very much fibrin. The changes 
 which result from this special arthritis are peculiar. Re- 
 moval of articular surfaces in parts occur, and the exposed 
 cancellated tissue becomes consolidated by deposition of 
 bony substance, and exhibits a high polish, which results 
 from friction. This is termed ehurnation, or porcellaneous 
 deposition. The urine in rheumatism contains much saline 
 matter, due to increase in amount of hippurates excreted. 
 When the disease assumes the chronic form it is most 
 liable to produce the above-mentioned change of articular 
 surfaces. Calcification, or even ossification, of the fasciae 
 and ligaments may result from the chronic form ; thus, 
 tumours, apparently of a bony character, may be found 
 embedded among muscles, or loosely or firmly connected 
 with bones. They are not truly ossific, being composed 
 largely of hippurates, or urates of alkalies, sometimes, 
 especially when they appear in joints, they are termed 
 gout-stones. The endocardium tends to become the seat 
 of fibrinous deposit, and the pericardium to opacity, cal- 
 cification, and even ossification in chronic rheumatism. 
 Disorder of this kind renders the heart irritable, inter- 
 mittent in its action, and the pulse quick, hard, and 
 small. " The soft structures above and below the affected 
 joints in horned cattle sometimes swell, suppurate, and 
 continue to discharge pus for a lengthened period, the 
 animal rapidly wasting, and finally becoming worthless " 
 (Williams) ; and when suffering from the arthritic form 
 cattle obstinately remain recumbent. 
 
 Treatment must comprise most careful nursing of the 
 animal, and avoidance of exposure to draughts ; ad- 
 ministration of eliminatives, such as will promote the 
 action of the skin, bowels, and kidneys. Colchicum is 
 
106 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 found to be especially useful in disorders of this cliaracter. 
 Iodide of potassium also has been found beneficial. Also 
 alkalies are valuable to counteract acidity. In arthritic 
 complications fomentations are considered but loss of time. 
 Stimulants are beneficial, especially vesicants, for it is 
 supposed that they draw off the poison from the blood, 
 and lessen its tendency to affect the heart. The general 
 fever must be combated by doses of tincture of aconite. 
 Williams recommends that the bedding be frequently 
 changed to prevent bed-sores, and the inflamed joints 
 wrapped in flannel to prevent bruising. He considers 
 also that if suppuration sets in the animal should be 
 destroyed, as chances of recovery are very slight. Kheu- 
 matism tends to assume the chronic form, and may cause 
 death by cardiac complication, or by continuous irritative 
 fever. The flesh, being full of impurities, is unfit for food. 
 The joints, besides the lesions already noticed, frequently 
 exhibit false anchylosis and ulceration of cartilages. 
 
 H^MO-ALBUMINUEIA MuiR-ILL, ReDWATEE, BlACKWATER 
 
 is a disease which is very prevalent in some parts of the 
 country and especially affects cows (just before or) after 
 calving, generally on about the fourteenth day. It com- 
 mences with general febrile symptoms and diarrhoea. Then 
 the animal stands with arched back, obstinate torpidity of the 
 bowels sets in, and about the same time urine of a high 
 colour in small quantities is expelled with some force 
 by straining; also tenderness over the loins is present. 
 The respirations are laboured, pulse very quick, small, and 
 dicrotous, and the animal very dull and giving no milk, 
 or only a little of a yellowish colour and unpleasant odour. 
 The visible mucous membranes are of a yellow colour. 
 The discoloration of the urine is very characteristic, and 
 undergoes increase in intensity as the disorder progresses. 
 Youatt mentions two forms of the disorder, acute and 
 chronic. The former, manifested by the symptoms above 
 indicated, runs its course in a few days ; the latter is 
 more prevalent, and may be slight, and terminated by a 
 spontaneous diarrhoea, or else may extend over a con- 
 siderable time. All the above-mentioned symptoms ex- 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 107 
 
 cept fever being present, generally sucli prolonged cases 
 terminate in death from gradually increasing anaemia. 
 Calves, bullocks, and even bulls may be affected with this 
 disorder, but less frequently than cows. 
 
 Causes. — It is very prevalent on certain pastures, and 
 not on others even in the immediate neighbourhood. It 
 has been associated with certain special soils, and par- 
 ticularly with movement of stock from land of one kind 
 to another. Overdriving is considered a cause, as also 
 certain special states of the air and great alternations of 
 temperature. It is on the latter account, probably, that 
 it occurs very much during the summer among animals 
 brought to highland pasture from richer lowland soil. 
 As a rule, the disease is most frequent in spring and 
 autumn, and high condition, as well as difl&culty in 
 cleansing after calving, is considered a predisposing cause. 
 Cases have been traced to the drinking of stagnant water, 
 while Harrison attributes its prevalence in some cases to a 
 hot and dry condition of pastures, and to excess of drain- 
 age. It has been found very prevalent in woody districts. 
 Also a poor diet of any kind, as turnips, about the time 
 of calving, will prove a cause. 
 
 The Urine has an average specific gravity, 1041, with 
 alkaline reaction, and a more or less powerful odour of 
 rotten turnips; contains 1'82 albumen, 1*26 urea, and 
 1'28 extractives in 100 parts of urine, while on micro- 
 scopical examination crystals of cholesterine, hippurates, 
 phosphates, and epithelial scales were found more or less 
 abundantly (Williams). 
 
 Post-mortem examination. — Youatt speaks of consider- 
 able inflammation, ulceration, and often the formation of 
 foetid pus, and occasionally gangrene of the uterus in acute 
 cases , but probably he was labouring under some error, for 
 he also speaks of inflammation of the kidneys, which cer- 
 tainly is not present. The uterus simply contains dark- 
 coloured mucus, while the kidneys, though occasionally they 
 are found congested, usually are paler than ordinary. The 
 bladder contains some of the characteristic red or black 
 urine, according to the stage of the case. The serum of 
 
108 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the blood is very high coloured, as are also the contents of 
 the areolar interspaces and serous cavities, and of the lym- 
 phatic vessels. Ecchymoses are perceptible under the 
 endocardium. The first three compartments of the 
 stomach are generally full, and the contents of the omasum 
 especially very dry. The abomasum exhibits congestion 
 of its internal surface. The liver seems to be invariably 
 diseased, being congested both with blood and bile, hence 
 enlarged, dark, and soft. The bile collected in the gall- 
 bladder is generally thick, viscid, and dark. 
 
 Pathology. — Numerous theories on the nature of this 
 disorder have been advanced : 
 
 (1) It has been attributed to the presence of certain 
 ranunculi in pastures, but it arises under circumstances 
 where animals could not obtain such poisons. 
 
 (2) Youatt considers the acute form is inflammation of 
 the kidneys, and '^ probably may be traced to the quality of 
 the general produce of the soil rather than to the presence 
 of certain plants of known acrimonious or poisonous pro- 
 perties.''^ The chronic form he attributes to an acri- 
 monious condition of the bile, which is absorbed into the 
 blood, and irritates the kidneys. 
 
 (3) It was thought that the colour of the urine de- 
 pended upon the presence of blood in it, but the absence 
 of blood as blood is proved by the absence of red 
 corpuscles. Gamgee considers the disease haema- 
 turia, and this opinion is held by many continental 
 authorities. In true ha3maturia, however, blood occurs, 
 in the urine in clots and is expelled in this state. 
 
 (4) Professor Williams says : — ^' I am induced to con- 
 clude that the disease originates in an impoverished con- 
 dition of the blood, arising from want of proper food ; 
 that the albumen of the blood is thus degraded in quality, 
 and as such is unfit to be appropriated for the nourish- 
 ment of the tissues, and is consequently excreted by the 
 kidneys, and expelled from the body ; that the blood- 
 globules are in a broken-down or disintegrated condition 
 arising from solution of their outer layers or cell-walls, 
 when their coloured interior — haematin — escapes, which. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 109 
 
 mixing with the serum of the blood, and being eliminated 
 by the kidneys, gives the characteristic tinge to the 
 urinary secretion/^ 
 
 (5) The disordered conditions may all be referred to 
 defective action of the liver, whereby it is rendered unable 
 to elaborate albuminose which is passing from the in- 
 testine, and therefore accumulates in the blood. At the 
 same time congestion of the organ seems to lead to 
 excessive bile production, the superfluous material being 
 removed by diarrhoea until reaction sets in, and then 
 entering the blood, and causing disintegration of blood- 
 corpuscles. Until we are more assured of the condition 
 of the liver in this disease, as also the spectroscopical 
 characters of the blood and urine, we shall not be able to 
 state its pathological nature with full confidence. 
 
 (6) Armatage attributes it in many cases to the icy 
 coldness of a large quantity of frozen turnips introduced 
 into the rumen, and undoubtedly this is one of the ways 
 in which it may originate. Our knowledge of the phy- 
 siology of the liver is hardly yet sufficiently advanced to 
 enable us to understand the complex perversions which 
 occur in such a disorder as this. 
 
 Treatment. — Professor Simonds, who first showed that 
 this is a disease due to alteration in the blood, and pointed 
 out the presence of blood colouring matters and albumen in 
 the urine, considered bleeding advantageous in the earliest 
 stages of the disorder. Certainly the administration of 
 a cathartic is beneficial, it removes from the alimen- 
 tary canal indigestible material which tends to cause 
 irritation. Again, it arouses the liver to activity when 
 this is necessary, and enables it to relieve itself of con- 
 gestion. It follows nature's indication, for a salutary 
 diarrhoea often ushers in a favorable turn of the case. 
 The animal should be nursed carefully, and subjected to a 
 thorough change of diet. The kidneys should be assisted 
 in their endeavours to purify the blood by stimulant 
 diuretic agents. At the same time formation of good 
 fresh blood should be promoted by restorative haematics. 
 Professor Williams, in accordance with his theory of the 
 
110 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 nature of tlie disease, suggests eggs and milk, and in 
 addition to this highly albuminous food, stimulants and 
 chlorate of potash. 
 
 Scarlatina has been described by Professor Barlow. 
 It is very similar to the disease next described, but differs 
 in the less marked swelling and in the spotted character 
 of the mucous membrane which is covered with red points, 
 and altogether has a scarlet colour differing from the 
 ecchymoses and blood infiltrations of purpura. There is 
 also, generally, sore throat. 
 
 PuEPURA HEMORRHAGICA. — Urticaria tuherosa (Simonds) ? 
 is described as affecting cattle, though certainly it is not 
 so frequent in them as in the horse. Calves are deemed 
 most liable to this disease which consists in a disordered 
 condition of the blood. That fluid is thin and so related 
 to the blood-vessels that extravasations occur especially 
 on the mucous and serous membranes. Swellings appear 
 on various parts of the body which are hot and painful 
 and somewhat sharply circumscribed. From them and 
 from the nostrils flows a reddish fluid. The animal is 
 extremely debilitated. The swellings of the mucous 
 membrane obstruct respiration and deglutition. The 
 depraved state of the blood causes a weak and fluttering 
 action of the heart, and a small dicrotous pulse. Petechiae 
 and blood extravasations on the mucous membranes are 
 pathognomonic. Undoubtedly these conditions may arise 
 from several pathological states, which interfere with the 
 relations of the blood with the vessels which contain it. 
 It is not essential that capillary ruptures should take 
 place in production of petechiae and extravasations of red 
 corpuscles. A slight migration of these bodies occurs in 
 health (diapedesis), but doubtless in most cases of purpura 
 there is a true giving way of the walls of the capillaries. 
 By some authorities purpura is considered anthracoid in 
 its nature. This is not the place to minutely discuss the 
 various pathological theories of purpura; the disease 
 follows debilitating influences, as previous disease, exposure, 
 and inhalation of foul air. 
 
 Autojysy shows petechiae of serous and of deeply-seated 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. Ill 
 
 mucous membranes, together with extensive haemorrhagic 
 infiltrations ; also sero-sanguineous accumulations in 
 areolar spaces. The disease generally assumes a sub- 
 acute character, and after about a week terminates in 
 gradual recovery of strength, or more frequently in 
 sinking of the patient, and death from asthenia. 
 
 Treatment consists in careful attention to hygiene, supply 
 of nutritious and easily digestible food, the use of elimi- 
 natives and stimulants. Oil of turpentine is recommended 
 since it acts on the kidneys, is a stimulant and also 
 a haemostatic. The tincture of perchloride of iron promotes 
 the formation of red corpuscles, and also acts as a styptic. 
 Sulphuric acid, as a styptic and tonic, is also used with 
 benefit. The disease is rather liable to recur, and the 
 stage of convalescence is prolonged. 
 
 Diabetes insipidus sometimes arises from excessive 
 introduction of water into the blood, but as it occurs more 
 frequently from other causes will be treated hereafter. 
 
 Diabetes mellitus has not been proved to affect the ox. 
 
 y. Introduction into the blood of matters foreign to it. 
 
 (1) Ordinary toxic agents. 
 
 Here ought to be considered those cases of ordinary 
 poisoning which result from the entry of matters into the 
 blood, which either act on the blood itself or upon 
 parts distant from the point of entry, and thus cause 
 serious inconvenience and even death. Such poisons, 
 however, must be considered in relation with others 
 which have a local action, and therefore will be examined 
 hereafter. 
 
 (2) Specific toxic agents. 
 
 Section 2. 
 
 These give rise to specific diseases, under which 
 heading may be comprised all disorders which manifest 
 characters of a highly special kind, whether in their 
 course, cause, or termination. This definition, like most 
 others, does not enable us to accurately limit the thing 
 
112 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 defined, but rather while strictly applicable to the central 
 figure of the group allows us to arbitrarily decide its out- 
 lying limits. Thus, some authors include rheumatism 
 and tetanus among specific disorders, while others refuse 
 tubercle, cancer, and influenza a place in the list. We 
 have included under this heading diseases which seem to 
 be due to minute living organisms, the nature of which 
 varies in different cases. On the one hand, we have 
 cancer consisting of body cells which have a high degree of 
 vital energy, as manifested by their reproductive power. 
 They resemble certain natural components of the tissues, 
 but are remarkable for retaining their vitality when 
 grafted on to a fresh organism, after removal from that in 
 which they originated. Tubercle is closely allied to 
 cancer in its general nature. On the other hand, we 
 have anthracoid affections which are undoubtedly due to 
 the presence of minute, independent, and entirely foreign 
 organisms in the system. Of the diseases lying between 
 these extremes some have been traced to certain relations 
 with foreign minute organisms, while the cause of others 
 remains a mystery. In no branch of medical inquiry is 
 more progress being made than in the study of specific 
 disorders. This is a direct result of the fact that they, 
 more than any other disorders of domesticated animals, 
 make themselves felt by the community, for they spread 
 rapidly among herds, are generally very fatal in their 
 effects, and not unusually can originate disease of like 
 kind in man. Though it has not been proved in every 
 case that these diseases are due to special organisms, we 
 shall find it advantageous to adopt the ^' germ theory '' as 
 a hypothesis for working purposes. "We may safely do 
 so, for it has already explained many previously obscure 
 facts, and no positive evidence has been brought to bear 
 against it. Given this supposition we must then conclude 
 that the organised generators of disease have certain 
 special characters of form, composition, and life conditions. 
 Among the latter we must consider their origination, 
 metamorphoses, habitat, products, &c. On some of these 
 points we are profoundly ignorant, there are many of the 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 113 
 
 organisms whose existence we can at present affirm only 
 from reasoning, they being probably too small to be seen 
 in the present state of optics. Many have only just been 
 discovered, and their nature and action are by no means de- 
 cidedly ascertained. Others, as the anthrax organism, we 
 are fairly well acquainted with. These diseases often assume 
 the epizootic or panzootic character, the atmosphere seems 
 to be the temporary habitat of the organisms, which occur 
 in groups, — disease clouds — much as shoal of fish in the sea. 
 Such a theory will account for many obscure facts of cause 
 and propagation of influenza and other diseases. It is well 
 known that blights occur in clouds ; why should not also 
 disease germs which are probably closely allied in nature ? 
 Certain conditions of climate are found favorable to distri- 
 bution of disease in this manner. Heat, with moisture, states 
 favorable to the growth of fungi, most readily promote 
 the spread of specific disease. Frosty weather, on the 
 other hand, is very healthy and checks prevailing epizootics. 
 Again, it has been found that currents of air, as prevailing 
 winds, may determine the direction of passage of specific 
 disorders of a certain kind, though not so as to impede 
 less rapid and energetic progress in other directions. 
 Diseases of this kind, then, seem to be communicated 
 without contact of a diseased animal, or of objects which 
 have been in contact with one, with a healthy animal of 
 the same or other species ; this is termed Infection. 
 But we can readily admit that certain disease- bearing 
 organisms cannot be taken up and diffused by the air, 
 though they may be communicated from one animal to 
 another when actual contact occurs, such is Immediate 
 Contagion ; when the contact is indirect as when the two 
 animals are fed out of the same bucket or taken care of by 
 the same man, either man or bucket may convey the morbid 
 producers from the diseased animal and thus act as the 
 vehicle, by means of which Mediate Contagion is brought. 
 Inoculation consists in the introduction of the active 
 disease producer directly into the blood-vessels or areolar 
 tissue of an animal, or causing its absorption through an 
 open wound or an exposed vascular surface. It will be 
 
 8 
 
114 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 observed that infection, contagion, and inoculation are 
 different only in degree, and directly related to the readi- 
 ness with which a disease is communicable from one 
 animal to another. Thus, most active and freely com- 
 municable disorders are propagated by infection, generally 
 also by contagion, and they may be generated by inocula- 
 tion. In infection the organic particles principally gain 
 entry through the delicate lining membrane of the air- 
 passages. We can easily understand that some of these 
 particles will be able to produce no effect when they come 
 in contact with the surface of the cuticle through which 
 they cannot readily pass, and thus a disease may be infec- 
 tious and not contagious. Again, certain of these organisms 
 may require to undergo development probably on a mucous 
 surface before they can cause disorder when they enter 
 the blood. We do not accordingly find that infectious 
 diseases are always communicable by inoculation, though 
 most of them can be thus propagated with facility. Con- 
 tagion, mediate and immediate, is well illustrated in 
 certain skin diseases, due to animal parasites. Specific 
 disorders affect some animals more readily than others in 
 consequence of predisposition or immunity. Generally, 
 debilitated animals are most prone to disorders of this 
 character, and debilitating influences even after expo- 
 sure to infection or contagion may act as determining 
 causes (causes which render the system susceptible after 
 exposure to the influence of the disease producer) . Shocks 
 to the nervous system are especially potent in this respect. 
 Immunity may be due to conditions of the species (specific), 
 or of the individual. The latter form is especially marked 
 in epizootic or enzootic outbreak when all of the herd will 
 be more or less victimised, except a few animals, which 
 remain quite free from disease. Immunity is some- 
 times secured by a previous attack of disorder as is well 
 seen in cases of smallpox in man, this results from pro- 
 found alterations in nutrition, but it seems that in time 
 this immunity becomes lessened. Again, immunity may 
 be secured by an attack of an allied disorder. When the 
 latter is much milder in its attack it may be artificially 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 115 
 
 produced to act as a prophylactic. When the morbific 
 organisms are hardy and capable of withstanding con- 
 siderable variations in life conditions so that animals of 
 very different kinds are invaded by them, the disease which 
 they produce is panzootic ; foot-and-mouth disease is a 
 good illustration of this. Our diagnosis of these specific 
 disorders generally must be prompt, to check any tendency 
 to spread. In all cases where any doubt exists the animal 
 must be isolated as suspicious, and other prophylactic 
 measures adopted. Diagnosis is often followed by the 
 stringent test of accuracy of opinion which immediate 
 slaughter affords. Fortunately, therefore, these disorders, 
 especially the most acute of them, are ushered in by con- 
 siderable rise in temperature. This occurs very shortly 
 after introduction of the poison into the system, and before 
 it has had much time to multiply therein and to become 
 expelled into the air around, or with the excreta. This rise 
 is the first indication of the fever which constitutes the 
 systemic disturbance in all these cases. Later the general 
 signs of fever are manifested, and they run their course 
 for some time before any local manifestations of disease 
 are shown. Indeed, the latter in some diseases (exanthe- 
 mata) seem to constitute a crisis generally of a favorable 
 character. In all cases, then, febrile symptoms, more or 
 less acute, usher in an attack, and constitute the pre- 
 monitory indications of disorder. Only when we are 
 aware of the prevalence of a specific disease are we, in 
 the first stage, able to surmise the nature of the coming 
 disease, for the fever does not differ from ordinary pyrexia. 
 Only when local lesions occur can we complete our diag- 
 nosis, and we shall generally be able to find some patho- 
 gnomonic symptoms. It will be observed that the virus in 
 these specific disorders almost always like an eliminative 
 medicinal agent enters the blood, causes certain changes 
 in that fluid, and then is removed by some tissue or other. 
 And as different medicines are severally removed by tissues 
 on which they exert their special action, so in specific 
 disorders we find that in epizootic eczema the feet and 
 the mouth are affected, in pleuro-pneumonia the lungs, and 
 
116 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 SO on. Often we have to deal with complications of these 
 disorders, non-specific conditions to which they give rise, 
 thus in eczema to sloughing of the hoofs and mammitis ; 
 but such especially occur in the less acute disorders which 
 we shall have to mention, cancer and tubercle. It is then 
 that we must be careful to distinguish between primary 
 and secondary disease, for this will considerably affect our 
 diagnosis and treatment. 
 
 It seems that an outbreak of a specific disorder, espe- 
 cially when the disease is epizootic, may be related to the 
 severity of all exciting causes. Thus, if the disease 
 first appears in a place where from neglect of sanitary 
 precautions and the general conditions of health, animals 
 are very predisposed, severe attacks and extensive spread- 
 ing power are the results; but if it be unable to gain a 
 firm hold on its first victims, it will never " gain head '' 
 enough to assume a marked degree of virulence. The 
 tendency of disorders of this kind fortunately is to lessen 
 in intensity with time, a happy condition, whereby they 
 are prevented from annihilating races of animals. Some 
 individuals escape by immunity, others by recovery after 
 comparatively slight attacks, and some by accidental or 
 intentional escape from disease-bearing influences. Thus, 
 an outbreak of a disease of this kind passes over a dis- 
 trict, and spreads from it into a new locality, diverging 
 from the centre in every direction, or in lines determined 
 by favorable conditions ; finally, its spread is checked by 
 dilution of the original stock of virus, or by influences 
 unfavorable to its progress as reaching the sea, or a range 
 of high mountains, or being subjected to a frost. The 
 question which next suggests itself to us is the source of 
 these disorders. This question is one of the most urgent 
 of the present day. Either they can originate de novo, or 
 can be propagated only from centres of disease already 
 existing. The latter method of origin of an epizootic 
 affection is well illustrated in those disorders of which 
 rinderpest is the type. It constantly exists under a com- 
 paratively mild form as an enzootic in certain localities as 
 the steppes of Russia and Central China. From these it 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 117 
 
 periodically extends in whatever direction climatic con- 
 ditions, war, and trade may determine, sweeping over 
 wide tracts of country, and leaving desolation and terror 
 behind it. Unless introduced into such a country as 
 Great Britain, it does not occur there, but this is no proof 
 that in places with a very different state of climate, pro- 
 duce, and soil it might not be generated spontaneously. 
 Tubercle and cancer, though communicable by inoculation, 
 undoubtedly appear without any communication, either 
 by contagion, infection, or inoculation. But they are 
 hereditary disorders, and the immature cancer or tubercle 
 elements may have been transmitted from the parent, and 
 have remained in a dormant state, resembling ordinary 
 non-specific tissue elements until surrounding conditions 
 became favorable to the display of their full vigour. 
 This view seems to derive support from the fact that just 
 as in due time each feature of development appears in the 
 progeny as in the parent, so tubercle appears at a fixed 
 age, which is the same in each. Tissue elements, 
 hitherto normal, perhaps undergo change when subjected 
 to certain conditions ; thus, the epithelium of the lungs 
 may sometimes become converted into tuberculous 
 matter, such as may propagate the disease by inoculation, 
 and disease which is transmissible to the offspring may 
 be artificially introduced by non-specific means, but this 
 has not by any means been proved, for until quite recently 
 the characters of tubercle were not sharply defined, and 
 accumulations of ova of parasites, of Gregarinidse, of 
 degenerated epithelial cells — in fact, any mass tending to 
 calcareous or caseous change, was termed tubercle. On 
 this account experiments on the spontaneous origin of 
 tubercle are to be accepted with reservation. Both 
 cancer and tubercle are associated with special constitu- 
 tional conditions, cachexias, termed respectively the can- 
 cerous and the scrofulous diathesis. The lesions which 
 are observed in these disorders are considered to be 
 local manifestations of a constitutional disorder. The 
 time which elapses between the entry of a specific poison 
 into the system and the manifestation of its presence 
 
118 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 is termed its latent period. It varies mucli in different 
 diseases, and while it lasts the poison is undergoing 
 elaboration and multiplication in the blood. We may find 
 this latent period very prolonged in hereditary scrofula 
 or cancer, and by attention to avoidance of all exciting 
 causes it may be extended through even a long life. 
 The lesions of specific disorders are special, and therefore 
 pathognomonic, but they are not always present. The virus 
 introduced into the blood multiplies more or less readily, 
 according to its nature. It has to oppose the efforts of 
 nature for its excretion as well as, in some cases, to 
 struggle for existence with certain constituents of the 
 blood. If the resistance be too powerful the poison may 
 be thrown off before the end of the incubatory stage, or it 
 may persist until the febrile stage ; but not until it has 
 produced local effects. Ordinarily it acts locally, but 
 sometimes, especially in young and debilitated stock it 
 may increase in the blood so rapidly as to cause the fever 
 to run very high and destroy the animal before lesions 
 appear. We shall enlarge upon and illustrate these 
 points hereafter. In such cases as I have last described 
 no lesions are detectable after death except such as result 
 from the febrile state of the blood and the conditions of 
 that tissue itself. It is very dark in colour as a rule, and 
 petechias and also more extensive blood extravasations in the 
 various tissues occur, especially on the serous and mucous 
 membranes. Specific organisms may be detectable in the 
 blood when examined under a high power of the micro- 
 scope. 
 
 Treatment of these disorders comprises prophylactic 
 measures, including sanitary port and county inspection — 
 measures of isolation, such as quarantine ; thorough dis- 
 infection of all infected places and things. Such imply 
 Government as well as private enterprise. This is ab- 
 solutely essential, as has been proved by many a national 
 loss incurred, and a few such disasters prevented. The 
 public must learn that remedies must be proportioned to 
 diseases. Sporadic cases are of individual interest, and 
 must be attended to by individuals ; enzootics require 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 119 
 
 local co-operation to combat them ; epizootics and pan- 
 zootics are of national importance. 
 
 Cancer is a general term applied to tumours of a 
 malignant character. The tendency in the present day is 
 to restrict its use to the carcinomata^ which are new 
 growths of cells similar to epithelial, grouped irregularly 
 in a stroma. We shall give a detailed account of cancers 
 of various kinds later on, when treating of tumours. 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 20. — Elements of an Enceplialoid Tumour. 
 
 Brown.) 
 
 200. (After Harley and 
 
 Certain forms of cancer have been successfully inoculated, 
 but great care is essential to success ; the morbid matter 
 must be directly transferred from one body to another, 
 and must be in a definite stage of activity. The process 
 reminds us of " grafting,^' and seems to indicate the 
 possibility, under certain circumstances, of cells differing 
 but little if at all in appearance from ordinary healthy 
 cells, acting as true contagia. In cases of cancer induced 
 by inoculation, the general constitutional disorder is an 
 effect of local conditions which seems to be the reverse of 
 the ordinary rule in specific affections. This exception is 
 rather apparent than real. In cancer the contagium must 
 attain local vigour and incorporation with the tissues 
 before it can involve the general mass of the blood. This 
 is not essential to any other known specific disorders 
 except, perhaps, scrofula and rabies. In examining a 
 
120 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 case of cancer daring its progress and post-mortem, we 
 shall ascertain that the parts diseased are involved in two 
 ways — by primary and secondary disease. The latter 
 changes only are similar to those of special tissues in 
 exanthemata. It seems, too, that as the local elabora- 
 tion and incubation of cancer are remarkably prolonged, 
 so, also, as a rule, its growth in parts secondarily diseased 
 is slow, but from the same cause very potent, and capable 
 of invading all tissues, though some in preference to 
 others, especially those which are actively concerned 
 in cell production. So lymphatic glands and adenoid 
 tissue are most frequently the seat of cancer ; the spleen, 
 liver, and mucous membranes also are liable to this dis- 
 ease. We have not only to deal with circumscribed ac- 
 cumulations of cancer-cells, but also with infiltrations, 
 which in this relation are of the highest importance, for 
 the growth and extension of cancer does not actively 
 irritate sufiiciently to lead to deposits of lymph circum- 
 scribing the diseased parts ; the morbidly active cells 
 have, therefore, free scope for migration, and in whatever 
 situation they become placed can originate changes, for in 
 no part of the body do they materially differ from tissue ele- 
 ments, so uniform has been the development of these gene- 
 ralised cells. Cancerous infiltrations or tumours cause death 
 in two ways, by exhaustion when they are numerous and 
 extensive, and by active interference with the function of 
 a part by disorganisation of its tissues. Prognosis must, 
 therefore, be based upon the position, size, rapidity of 
 spread, and length of existence of the cancer. Injuries 
 of various kinds act as exciting causes, probably by 
 lowering vital actions, and hence power of resisting dis- 
 ease in the part. Hereditary predisposition is very 
 marked, and the diagnosis may be much facilitated by 
 use of the grooved needle and the microscope. In can- 
 cers of hollow organs, as the bladder or the stomach, the 
 characteristic cells may be seen in the contents either 
 after death, or as expelled before. Complications are 
 brought about by the blood taking up morbid material 
 and diffusing it through the system ; by the lymphatics. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 121 
 
 whence probably the frequency of invasion of lymphatic 
 glands ; or by continuity and contiguity of structure. 
 The systemic symptoms are not acute enough to constitute 
 fever^ producing rather a cachexia, or unhealthy state of 
 the constitution. Determination of whether any local can- 
 cerous deposit is primary or secondary is of importance 
 from a surgical point of view. When primary, a growth 
 may be excised with some chance of success in permanent 
 removal of the disease. In secondary cases the system is 
 hopelessly invaded ; and it will be found that any injury, 
 however slight, is almost sure to take on unhealthy action. 
 Local treatment except by excision has not proved satis- 
 factory, probably in consequence of the difficulty of access 
 to all the diseased parts. Acetic acid has been recommended 
 as causing alterations in the cells, of which, the growth is 
 composed. Its value is doubtful. When the morbid matter 
 is removed by excision care must taken that not the smallest 
 diseased part remains as a centre for renewed growth. 
 
 Scrofula, Tuberculosis, is frequent in cattle, extremely 
 serious in its effects, and has interesting relations with 
 human disorders. It is a constitutional disease, specific, 
 and infective. It seems to increase in frequency pari 
 passu with improvement of the breed, and thus short- 
 horns, especially good milkers, are most predisposed to the 
 disorder. That it is a blood disease is proved by the fact that 
 it very frequently affects many organs of the body, that its 
 local manifestations are varied in position, and that its 
 presence is generally denoted by a cachexia, an ill-disposed 
 habit of the body, which is termed the scrofulous diathesis. 
 It is undoubtedly hereditary, and therefore manifests 
 its presence most forcibly after " breeding in and in.^' 
 
 Scrofula is the disease of the system of which Tubercle 
 is the local manifestation. That we may be in a position 
 to appreciate the interesting questions raised in the study 
 of this disorder, we must first note the forms which it 
 assumes in the ox. 
 
 Phthisis Pulmonalis is pulmonary scrofula. It is a 
 chronic disorder in which tubercles occur in the lungs, and 
 give rise to a slow local inflammation by the irritation 
 
122 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 whicli they excite. It affects especially narrow-cliested 
 animals with long legs. A young animal or a milch cow 
 (well-bred in most cases) is observed to cough slightly, 
 and the characters of this sign of disorder are rather re- 
 markable ; it is weak and hoarse. It is almost diagnostic. 
 The affected animals are generally " bullers/^ ever ready 
 to take the male, but sterile. Attention having thus been 
 drawn to the animal, it is found that the skin is dry, the 
 coat '' staring.^^ The constitutional conditions, in fact, 
 are those described by human practitioners as hectic. 
 The mucous membranes are pale, and the respiratory 
 murmur is inaudible on auscultation of some parts of the 
 chest. Pain is evinced on percussion of the sides, and 
 on pressure of the loins. The patient is debilitated with 
 a weak, quick pulse, and the bowels respond too easily to 
 the action of laxatives. The milk is bluish, with an 
 unpleasant flavour, and is said to quickly become sour, 
 and to form only bad butter and cheese. Generally, too, 
 the internal temperature is a little above the normal ; 
 appetite capricious. In pregnant animals abortion, in 
 other females irregular oestrum occurs. This state of 
 affairs continues for some time, increasing in severity; 
 the cough becomes hacking, the animal very thin and 
 hidebound, often covered with lice, and the respirations 
 very quick, and death takes place, the patient being 
 carried off by an attack of diarrhoea, leading to anasmia. 
 
 Autopsy reveals deposits in the lungs of a nodular 
 character, aggregated into masses by the lung-tissue and 
 inflammatory deposits, and varying in their characters. 
 The tissue in which they are imbedded is inflamed, and 
 they have pressed on the bronchial tubes, preventing 
 air from passing to and from the air-cells. Each of the 
 nodules is a tubercle, and the compound mass exhibits in 
 different parts caseation and softening, perhaps also cal- 
 cification (also known as cretification). On slitting open the 
 bronchial tubes, we find that many of these softening 
 tubercles have involved their lining membrane, which, 
 therefore, presents ulcers of the true scrofulous character, 
 often confluent, gritty, and irregular on the surface, and of 
 
- DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 123 
 
 a sulphur colour. The tubes are occupied by softened 
 scrofulous matter, intermingled with frothy mucus. Accu- 
 mulations of softened tubercle, surrounded by cretaceous 
 or caseous matter, are termed vomicas. The anterior 
 appendix of each lung is, perhaps, the earliest seat of 
 deposit. The pulmonary lymphatic glands at the roots 
 of the lungs are involved in the diseased action. The 
 serous membranes are very ^frequently the seat of scro- 
 fulous deposit. The pleura is especially liable to present 
 growths of this nature. Such may occur in phthisical 
 cases, or may exist independently of lung invasion. 
 Yery frequently they are found in fat cattle slaughtered 
 for food, animals in very fine condition which have not re- 
 cently exhibited the slightest appreciable sign of disorder. 
 In such cases we sometimes wonder how respiration can 
 have been sufficiently performed, to such an extent do these 
 " grapes " occupy the cavity of the thorax. The base of 
 the tumour formed by them may be attached to the dia- 
 phragm, or most frequently to the pleura costalis. Some- 
 times the mediastinum and the pericardium are the seat of 
 the deposit. Besides these large main masses, smaller tu- 
 mours occur in various parts of the membrane, consisting of 
 more recently formed material, the larger masses exhibiting 
 different stages of retrograde change in their various parts. 
 Tabes Mesenterica is that form of scrofula in which the 
 mesenteric glands are the seat of tubercle. Animals ema- 
 ciated as a result of tuberculosis, especially the form at 
 present under description, are vulgarly known as " piners.^' 
 The symptoms present are those of general ill health, and 
 rapidly increasing debility. There may be sympathetic 
 cough. Occasionally the animal manifests slight abdominal 
 pain ; diarrhoea is persistent. The appetite is good, and per- 
 haps inordinate. This state of affairs occurs most frequently 
 in young animals, and post-mortem examination, besides 
 the tumefied and tuberculosed condition of the mesenteric 
 glands, shows tumours on many parts of the peritoneum. 
 The mesentery and the omentum are extensively involved, 
 and the stomachs, liver, and intestines, are frequently 
 bound together by deposit. As a concomitant there may 
 
124 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 be scrofulous disease of the walls of the intestines^ or of 
 the uterus or vagina. In these cases characteristic lesions 
 are to be found on slitting open the organs, and during 
 life there is, in the one case, a discharge of purulent 
 material with the watery faeces, in the other a continuous 
 escape of muco-purulent matter from the vulva, constituting 
 scrofulous leucorrhoea. Cases of tabes, and scrofulous 
 ulcers of the intestinal canal and the generative organs, 
 are generally protracted, and death results from ansemia. 
 
 Tubercular Meningitis has also been observed in cattle. 
 The pia mater is the seat of tubercle. The disease may 
 make considerable progress before any signs of ill health 
 are manifested. Suddenly the symptoms of pressure of the 
 brain occur, due to products of the inflammation induced, 
 or to the increased size of the tumours. This leads to 
 apoplectic symptoms, so that our diagnosis must be based 
 on the pedigree and scrofulous diathesis of the patient. 
 
 Arthritis is a frequent manifestation of scrofula in young 
 stock. It must be distinguished from the rheumatic 
 disease of these organs by the fact that it appears less 
 suddenly, is less acute, does not lead to false anchylosis, 
 and more extensively involves the neighbouring bones. 
 Also the tendency is to softening rather than hardening of 
 the diseased parts, and when the tuberculous matter under- 
 goes the softening change abscesses form and lead deeply, 
 not only into the cavity of the joint, but into the enlarged 
 extremities of the bones which are the main seat of scrofu- 
 lous deposition; On post-mortem examination the disease 
 cannot be confounded with rheumatic arthritis, for there is 
 a total absence of porcellaneous deposit and of calcification 
 of surrounding ligaments, while the enlarged extremities of 
 the bones contain tubercular matter. The knee and stifle 
 seem to be most frequently affected, and when the joints 
 of the foot are involved we have scrofulous ^' foul.''^ 
 
 Scrofulous Tumours— (" Wens " seem to be scrofu- 
 lous tumours of the skin) — also known as '^ Clyers,^^ occur 
 frequently in various parts of the body, especially affecting 
 those parts which have lymphatic glands situated in them ; 
 thus, in the parotid and superior pharyngeal region they may 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 125 
 
 often be found. Though they may take place in other tissues 
 the lymphatic glands are their most frequent seat; thus^when 
 the tumours are in the parotid region these are primarily 
 affected^ the salivary gland being only secondarily involved. 
 They increase in size slowly as a rule_, but may manifest a 
 first acute stage, which change to a phase of less activity. 
 Softening often occurs, but the inflammatory action aroused 
 by the presence of the scrofulous matter is often not active 
 enough to cause bursting of the abscess, which, therefore, 
 assumes the " cold " character. When it has burst or been 
 opened surgically it gives exit to white, flaky, grumous 
 pus, and the abscess cavity manifests scarcely any tendency 
 to heal. The tumour may undergo calcification or caseation, 
 and thus remain in statu quo for a long time. The explor- 
 ing needle is here very useful for diagnosis, for when drawn 
 out of such a tumour it contains in its groove the peculiar 
 white scrofulous pus, and if this presents the ordinary 
 appearances of scrofulous matter when examined micro- 
 scopically there can be little doubt of the nature of the case. 
 
 Scrofulous Inflammation of the Supra-fharyngeal Glands 
 requires a special notice, since when these organs are 
 enlarged there is an impediment to swallowing, and fre- 
 quently even to respiration. They seem to suppurate or 
 soften readily, but do not come to a point externally. 
 Insertion of the hand through the mouth will enable us to 
 detect the abscess, and its wall may generally be broken 
 down with the fingers. '^ Abscesses of the guttural 
 pouches of the ox,^^ described by some practitioners whose 
 anatomy has rather gone to the wall in the rush of general 
 professional practice, are of this nature. 
 
 Scrofulous lesions are often congenital. Tabes and 
 phthisical tubercle are frequently present at birth. It 
 will be observed that in all cases of scrofulous lesion 
 we find tubercle present, this, then, is deemed the distinc- 
 tive product of scrofula. If taken in its earliest state a 
 tubercle is a rounded mass of cells of a peculiar kind, 
 united together by a stroma, which is often very scanty, 
 and penetrated to a certain distance from the periphery by 
 blood-vessels. Though the outer part of the tubercle is 
 
126 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 well defined, its stroma is continuous with the areolar 
 tissue of the part in which it is placed. Tubercle cells 
 are generally small, but some few are large, and in the 
 nodule are also present free nuclei in abundance and 
 
 ,^%%;i,'Sji 
 
 Fig. 21. — Tubercle. A. Deposit in the air-cells of the lungs, li. Miliary 
 Tubercle, x 200. (After Harley and Brown.) 
 
 granules. The small cells are most frequently seen ; they 
 are rounded, with irregular margins, and each with a large 
 nucleus. ^' They sometimes approach, both in size and 
 appearance, the white cells of blood and lymph. We 
 believe that sometimes a tubercle does develop into a 
 structure like a lymphatic gland (adenoid) '^ (Jones). A 
 tubercle, such as we have just described, is termed 
 '' miliary '' or ^' grey/^ it being semi-transparent and 
 about the size of a millet seed. It is remarkable that it 
 does not increase in size, but new cells which are pro- 
 duced are deposited in its outer vascular zone, and the 
 interior undergoes change. This alteration is degenera- 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 127 
 
 tive, being either calcareous, caseous, or softening. These 
 changes have nothing specific about them, with the excep- 
 tion, perhaps, of the softening, the product of which is a 
 special kind of purulent fluid. The frequency of casea- 
 tion and calcification account for the chronic tendency of 
 scrofula. We must now determine what the tubercle is. 
 Some says it results from changes of epithelial cells, 
 others from connective-tissue corpuscles, others consider 
 it a special materies morbi deposited from the blood or 
 formed anew in a formative extravasated fluid, and some 
 say it is a hyperplasia of lymphoid tissue. Gerlach says, 
 " the presence of a tubercle virus is evident.^'' There are 
 other theories of its nature. In the state of the question 
 we may be allowed to take the view which most readily 
 chimes in with clinical facts, and consider tubercle cells 
 specific organisms resembling those of cancer, to which 
 the large cells sometimes seen in tuberculous matter are 
 remarkably similar. The pathological analogies between 
 cancer and tubercle are very marked; Jones says ^' a 
 tubercle thus seems to be a structure intermediate between 
 the products of inflammation, and the new growths pro- 
 perly so-called being less transitory than the former, less 
 permanent than the latter, and less capable of develop- 
 men than the latter.-*^ Sanderson indicates three essentials 
 to the development of tubercle — a constitutional predis- 
 position, local irritation, and subsequent infection. A 
 freshly developed tubercle consists of animal matter, 
 albumen, fibrin and fat, and earthy matter, insoluble 
 phosphates and carbonates of lime, and the soluble salts of 
 soda (Glover). Calcification consists in increase of the 
 earthy and decrease of the animal matter. " Grey 
 tubercle '^ results from caseation ; the fat has considerably 
 increased. The fact that infiammatory products undergo 
 these retrograde metamorphoses has long complicated the 
 pathology of scrofula; many pathologists still hold that 
 tubercle owes its origin to the absorption of metamor- 
 phosed products of inflammation. Diagnosis of scrofula 
 post-mortem must be based on the presence of the 
 miliary tubercle. Hence, a doubt frequently exists as to 
 
128 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the tuberculous or non-tuberculous characters of deposits in 
 connection with serous membranes, as the pleura. Our 
 decision in each case must be carefully arrived at. Gene- 
 rally, the occurrence of isolated tumours of rounded lobu- 
 lated masses and of indications of other scrofulous lesions 
 will enable us to diagnose scrofula. There is but one 
 cause of scrofula, the specific element, but there are many 
 determining influences. Neglect of sanitary measures, 
 exposure, changed climatic conditions (notably cold, with 
 dampness). Debilitating influences, especially excessive 
 and prolonged lactations, all act in this direction, and must 
 be corrected as a prophylactic measure ; but they in 
 themselves are not able to originate the disorder in so 
 far as we know. The specific element comes from the 
 parent or from without. Fresh blood must be introduced 
 into a herd with a scrofulous tendency, breeding in-and- 
 in avoided ; also, perhaps, we shall shortly admit that 
 measures of disinfection are necessary in this disorder, for 
 it has been shown that animals standing side by side and 
 feeding out of the same manger and drinking from the same 
 trough or bucket have both succumbed, one only having 
 been at first affected. It has been stated that tubercle is 
 communicable by inoculation, but this is not yet absolutely 
 proved, for it has been found that local irritation of any 
 kind will determine development of tubercle. Chauveau 
 long ago caused tuberculosis in cattle by feeding them -on 
 scrofulous products (^ Gaz. Med. de Lyons,' 1860, p. 550). 
 The intestines were affected in this case. The experiment 
 has been frequently successfully performed on other 
 animals, as dogs, poultry, and guinea-pigs. Bollinger's 
 experiment with milk is remarkable. He took half of a 
 litter of pigs from a healthy sow, and fed them with milk 
 from a phthisical cow. The state of the cow was proved 
 by autopsy. The pigs were destroyed at regular intervals, 
 and those kept on the milk of the sow were found to be 
 healthy, while those fed with the scrofulous milk were all 
 more or less affected with tuberculosis. 
 
 It is most important to decide what relation tubercle in 
 man bears to tubercle in the lower animals. The milk 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 129 
 
 of scrofulous cowsj though mucli altered from healthy 
 conditions, finds its way into the market; numbers of 
 children and weak persons are fed on uncooked milk. 
 Cases of intestinal and mesenteric scrofula are frequent 
 in man. We cannot avoid the conclusion that many 
 human beings share the fate of BoUinger^s pigs ! Next we 
 must ask ourselves about the flesh of scrofulous animals. 
 This is almost invariably consumed as food, and is not 
 often thoroughly cooked. We are not yet in a position 
 to say that ill effects result from this, but since such flesh 
 is under grave suspicion, would reject it, for we consider the 
 chance of causing serious human disease must not be run, 
 even though meat which may be harmless must be sacrificed. 
 Certainly all scrofulous deposit must be removed before the 
 meat is sold, under protest, if it is found necessary to let it 
 go into the market. For we are sure that feeding animals 
 on scrofulous tumours has given rise to the disease. 
 
 Gerlach, the discoverer of the transmissibility of 
 tubercle through the digestive organs, as a result of most 
 careful investigations, decided that " the flesh of a tuber- 
 culous cow is infectious, and is unfit for food when there 
 is decided disease of the lymphatic glands, when the 
 tubercles are breaking up and becoming cheesy, and when 
 tubercles are found in different parts of the body^^ 
 (' Veterinary Journal,^ v, 203, &c.). 
 
 Quite recently Yirchow has decided that human tubercle 
 is not the same as the disease in the ox ; and in the 'Lancet ' 
 for 19th June, 1880, Dr. Crighton gives this matter a new 
 aspect by stating that in the human subject two tubercu- 
 lous diseases occur, one of these being the true pathological 
 equivalent of bovine tuberculosis, bearing to it the same 
 relations which human " glanders '' bears to equine.^ 
 
 Treatment. — In phthisis and tabes the prognosis must 
 be decidedly unfavorable. As a rule they end in death, 
 
 1 While this sheet is passing through the press, receipt of ' Tuberculosis 
 from a Sanitary and Pathological point of view ' reminds me that in justice 
 to the persistent eiforts of the author, Mr. Oeorge Fleming, P.R.C.V.S., 1 
 must mention him as the most forcible exponent in this country of the ill 
 effects which may result from feeding on milk, meat, and tuberculous 
 material from cattle affected with this serious disorder. 
 
 9 
 
130 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 but some cases of rallying have been recorded. How- 
 ever, animals suffering from these conditions are unsafe 
 to use either for breeding, milking, or for human food; 
 besides, they never become fat properly. The expense 
 and constant trouble of keeping them is not such as will 
 be atoned for by subsequent value of the animal. In 
 arthritic cases, which occur in young stock, treatment is 
 not satisfactory. Some of the patients recover, but 
 the scrofulous tendency hangs about them, and they 
 do not do well. Very frequently the suppuration against 
 the joints wears out the patient. Stimulating applications 
 locally applied are beneficial as promoting nature^s efforts 
 to throw off tbe tuberculous matter in abscess. Tonic 
 agents must be administered, and deobstruents, especially 
 the compounds of iodine and bromine. V/hen the ab- 
 scesses have formed we shall have to resort to stimulant 
 injections to promote granulation. Scrofulous tumours 
 must be treated much in the same way. Generally 
 external manifestations of the disorder are but accom- 
 paniments of internal changes. 
 
 In speaking of the lesions of phthisis, we have al- 
 luded to the scrofulous ulcer of mucous membranes. 
 It occurs not infrequently in the larynx (tubercular 
 laryngitis), and animals fed with, tuberculous matter 
 almost always exhibit lesions of this nature throughout 
 the length of the alimentary canal. Green tells us that 
 the development of tuberculous nodules in these ulcers is 
 secondary to a hyperplasia of the lymphoid tissue of the 
 mucous membranes, which leads to formation of an ulcer, 
 with thick and prominent margins, in the bottom of 
 which the nodules appear. In the intestine these changes 
 have their seat especially in the solitary Peyer's glands, 
 which also are affected in typhoid fever. The tubercular 
 differs from the typhoid ulcer in that ^^ its edges and base 
 are thickened and indurated. And the tuberculous 
 nodules, tending to become caseous, are seen scattered over 
 its floor.^^ The nodules develope around the blood-vessels. 
 It seems these changes of the mucous membrane are brought 
 about by actual contact with diseased matter (Gerlach). 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 131 
 
 Pleueo-pneumonia zymotica, vgI Contagiosa, vel Exu- 
 dativa — " Lung disease.'' Pleuro-j Perijpneumonia is a 
 specific disease affecting only horned cattle (some say 
 also the deer), spreading with rapidity in consequence of 
 its highly infectious characters, and causing remarkable 
 changes of the lungs and pleura. At first introduced into 
 this country by importation of diseased animals, it has 
 now become domiciled here, and destroys large numbers of 
 British cattle. Sometimes a case of apparently sporadic 
 pleuro-pneumonia occurs in a neighbourhood, and results 
 in an enzootic outbreak. The animal first affected has, 
 perhaps, recently arrived in this part of the country, her 
 history being unknown ; or, having been purchased from 
 a known farm, this on inquiry may turn out to have been 
 invaded by the disease. Unfortunately, the period of incu- 
 bation of pleuro-pneumonia is long, ranging even from two 
 weeks to two months, or even more than six months (Walley). 
 While this lasts, changes are going on in the lungs, and 
 certainly during the later periods of incubation the dis- 
 ease is communicable from one animal to another. The 
 general means of communication is by infection {i.e. through 
 the air). Many animals in a herd manifest immunity, but 
 beasts of all ages and sexes are liable to take the disor- 
 der. They may be rendered more susceptible by exposure 
 to severe weather, bad feeding, an insanitary condition 
 of cowsheds, &c., and by some authorities it has been 
 supposed that such conditions may result in spontaneous 
 origin of the disorder ; this, however, can hardly be, for 
 countries where sanitary measures for domesticated 
 animals were scarcely thought of and never carried out, 
 remained free from lung complaint. The contagium pro- 
 bably enters the system through the respiratory organs, 
 for, as we shall see, it has been determined that the 
 bronchial mucous membrane is the seat of primary lesion. 
 The blood is not seriously contaminated, for it has been 
 found that transfusion will not communicate the disease 
 (this, however, requires to be verified), and animals fed 
 on portions of diseased lungs did not take the disease, 
 showing that it is not readily communicable through the 
 
132 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 alimentary tract. Until quite recently tlie analogy of this 
 disorder with other specific diseases was a matter of 
 obscurity, but recent pathological researches, notably those 
 of Dr. Yeo, have thrown important light upon the subject. 
 An infected animal introduced into a pasture, or into a 
 cowshed, remains apparently well for a long enough time 
 to communicate the disease to others. If careful thermome- 
 tric examinations are made daily, the temperature of some 
 of these will be found to rise as high as 103° F.— 104^ F., 
 but 102° is suspicious (especially if accompanied by sudden 
 improvement in condition)-, and calls for prompt isolation 
 and disinfection. This rise in the temperature takes 
 place some days before the disease manifests itself. It 
 ushers itself in slowly and stealthily. There are visible the 
 ordinary signs of ill-health, separation from the herd, un- 
 thrif tiness, and staring condition of the coat, and an irregular 
 condition of the bowels, appetite, and rumination, together 
 with diminution of milk. Auscultation will enable us to 
 detect, often in only one lung, the mucous rale. The 
 respiratory efforts are slightly more frequent than in 
 health, and there is a cough which at first is only obser- 
 vable after drinking and in the morning and evening, or 
 when the patient is hustled, or pressure applied between 
 the ribs, disappearing during the middle of the day. The 
 second stage is marked by more decided fever, the cough 
 is more persistent, harsh, and frequent. The respirations 
 are quickened and laboured, and the expirations are 
 accompanied by a pathognomonic grunt; the animal 
 generally stands with muzzle protruded, dilated nostrils, 
 and heaving flanks. The breath also becomes foetid. 
 There is a watery discharge from the nose and eyes, which 
 later assumes a purulent character, and is of an unpleasant 
 odour. The skin, already dry, harsh, and tight, now 
 becomes yellow and dirty. The pulse at first beats firmly, 
 and is full though fast (70 or 80). Afterwards it becomes 
 very small and scarcely perceptible. The back is arched, 
 and pressure on the loins produces shrinking ; percussion 
 of the intercostal spaces is evidently very painful, for it 
 causes the patient to moan, and the sound yielded is dull 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 133 
 
 and devoid of healtty resonance. Auscultation determines 
 dulness, more or less marked in certain parts of the 
 tliorax, this being dependent either upon fluid in the 
 chest or lung consolidation. Sometimes only one lung is 
 affected, then there is increased resonance in the other ; 
 also a " friction sound," indicative of pleuritic changes, is 
 present. With the progress of the disorder the milk 
 becomes reduced to a very small quantity, and sometimes 
 entirely suppressed. There is expulsion of colourless, 
 or -white, pale, straw-coloured and blood-tinged casts, 
 by coughing or expectoration (Walley). The bowels remain 
 constipated, as before, until the mouth becomes clammy, 
 and signs of debility (cedematous swellings, diarrhoea, hoven, 
 and pallor of mucous membranes, &c.) usher in death. 
 
 Post-mortem examination. — No appreciable alteration in 
 the blood except such changes as are characteristic of dimi- 
 nished excretion and anaemia. Pathological conditions ob- 
 servable only in the thoracic viscera. The pleura presents 
 extensive false membranes, and its sac is full of serous fluid 
 of a somewhat milky colour, with numerous shreds of lymph 
 floating about in it. Adhesions unite the pleura pulmonalis 
 to pleura costalis, and the deposits have a markedly plastic 
 
 Fig. 22. — Incipient Pleuro pneumonia epiznotica. a. Diseased patches as 
 seen from the surface, b. A section into the healthy and diseased parts. 
 (Simonds.) 
 
 character 
 is pus 
 
 m 
 
 Occasionally, it is said, but very rarely, there 
 the pleural sac. The membrane itself is 
 
134 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 thickened, opaque, and varying in colour in different parts. 
 The pericardium is also involved ; the intercostal muscles 
 are darkened. The lungs are the main seat of disease ; 
 sometimes only one of them (generally the right) is affected, 
 and there is disease of only one pleura (see Fig. 23). 
 
 Fio. 23. — Pleuro-pneumonia zymotica. Elglifc lung affected, c. Interlobu- 
 lar bands, d. Lobules. (Simonds.) 
 
 A distinctive peculiarity of the lesions of the lungs 
 is their circumscribed character, whereby a diseased 
 portion exhibiting very marked changes may lie against 
 a piece which is either but little affected or even healthy. 
 Hence results the well-known mottled condition of the 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 135 
 
 section of a pleuro-pneumonic lung. The diseased organ 
 is consolidated^ and hence very remarkably increased in 
 weight. This depends upon extravasation of gelatinous 
 material into the interlobular areolar tissue^ whereby the 
 yellow bands of the section are produced. Lymphy 
 deposits plug up the bronchial tubes. The lobules are 
 congested, presenting a reddish-brown colour, or altered by 
 deposition of gelatinous matter in the lobular areolar 
 tissue. Sometimes the pulmonary cells have collapsed, 
 yielding to the surrounding pressure ; at other parts they 
 are filled with deposits, and are in the condition termed 
 hepatization. The bronchial lymphatic glands are en- 
 larged by gelatinous deposit. The lung in the early stage 
 presents only circumscribed hardened portions, owing their 
 solidity to gelatinous effusion (see Fig. 22). In the later 
 stages the part which is most extensively involved is gan- 
 grenous and friable, and of a greenish colour and putrid 
 odour. The diseased lungs in every case have a special 
 sickening odour. The excellency and thoroughness of 
 Professor Yeo^s work will render his summary interesting 
 to our readers, and must be an apology for its insertion : 
 
 " To recapitulate, then — 
 
 " The various items in the pathological sequence may 
 be thus enumerated : 
 
 ^'1. Irritation of the mucous membrane of the smaller 
 bronchi, probably by some infective material (specific 
 virus ?). 
 
 "2. Chronic ulcerative bronchitis, localised to a few 
 minute bronchi. 
 
 " 3. Occlusion of the affected air- tubes. 
 
 " 4. This produces such changes in the air-cells belong- 
 ing to the affected tubes that the lobular parenchyma 
 becomes solid. 
 
 "5. As the bronchial disease progresses the walls of the 
 air-tubes become thickened and infiltrated with the pro- 
 ducts of chronic inflammation. 
 
 *^ 6. The peri-bronchial lymphatics are implicated by the 
 extension of the infective process from the bronchus, and 
 are soon filled with dense exudation. 
 
136 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 " 7. The block in the lymphatics of the broncho- vascular 
 system impedes the flow of lymph from the corresponding 
 territory. 
 
 " 8. The tributary lymph channels are thus mechanically 
 engorged, and at the same time they are irritated by 
 infective materials. 
 
 ''9. The inflammation of all the coats of the air-tube 
 gradually spreads towards the root of the lung. 
 
 " Thus, we have a deep-seated cone of typical consolida- 
 tion, traversed by numerous wide whitish lines, corre- 
 sponding to the swollen interlobular connective tissue 
 (marbling). In fact, the essential features of the disease 
 are all established. 
 
 " The morbid process seldom stops here however. It 
 spreads in two ways. First, by the broncho-vascular 
 lymph passages : 
 
 " 1. The irritating and infective materials find their way 
 along the lymphatics towards the root of the lung, follow- 
 ing the normal course of the lymph stream. 
 
 '^ 2. The wall of the bronchus becomes affected after a 
 time by the irritative matter in its surrounding lym- 
 phatics. 
 
 " 3. The lymphatics of tributary bronchial tubes, met 
 with as the disease thus advances, are choked, and the 
 drainage of their territory impeded. 
 
 " 4. The interlobular lymph spaces of the newly affected 
 territory soon become filled with exudation. Thus, the 
 clear kind of consolidation is produced. 
 
 " Secondly, by the pleura : 
 
 " 1. The pleura becomes affected over the focus of con- 
 solidation by means of the subjacent lymphatics. 
 
 '' 2. The pleurisy soon extends far beyond this limited 
 region, or the serous membrane becomes generally in- 
 flamed. 
 
 " 3. The inflamed pleura infective materials reach the 
 lymphatics beneath it, and also those lying between the 
 neighbouring superficial lobules. 
 
 "4. Extending along the interlobular lympathics, the 
 irritation and exudation may pass towards the deeper 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 137 
 
 parts, so that an immense tract of lung is converted into 
 a semi-translucent mass, with swollen interlobular spaces. 
 The consolidation formed in any of these ways may become 
 intense induration if the animal live long enough. 
 
 '' With regard to the origin of the disease of the vessel- 
 wall, we must also start from the peri-bronchial disease. 
 
 " 1. The lymphatics of the bronchus readily allow the 
 morbid products to pass to those immediately around the 
 vessels. 
 
 '^ 2. The wall of the vessel becomes greatly thickened by 
 chronic inflammatory products. 
 
 '' 3. The inner coat, which resists the disease for some 
 time, ultimately becomes diseased in small patches. 
 
 '' 4. The blood coagulates over the diseased inner coat, 
 and may occlude a small branch at its origin, or even the 
 entire vessel. 
 
 *^ 5. Particles of the clot may break off, and, passing 
 into the minute arteries, form these embolic plugs. 
 
 '^ 6. Thus numerous arteries of varying size may be 
 stopped up. 
 
 " 7. The most varied forms of hsemorrhagic infarction 
 are thus produced. 
 
 " 8. The infarction may become gangrenous, cheesy, or 
 may dry up into a crumbling mass. 
 
 " 9. A capsule may form around the most diseased part, 
 and shut it off from the rest of the lung." 
 
 Thus we are advanced a stage in our knowledge of the 
 pathology of this disorder. We see that in it, as in other 
 specific affections, the poison localises itself in a special 
 tissue, and there originates specific lesions. Sometimes 
 the disorder rapidly runs its course, leading to death from 
 congestion of the lungs ; more frequently it progresses 
 as above described, lasts for six weeks or two months, 
 and causes death by anaemia. In other cases, making an 
 average which varies much (from 20 per cent, to 70 per 
 cent.)' in different outbreaks, recovery takes place. The 
 animal passes through a prolonged convalescence, during 
 which, it is said, he is capable of communicating the disease, 
 and ultimately may be fattened for the butcher. Animals 
 
138 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 wliicli have recovered from an attack are exempt from the 
 disorder in future. When an animal has been slaughtered 
 after recovery from pleuro-pneumonia, his lungs will be 
 found to exhibit traces of the diseased action. Old ad- 
 hesions to the walls of the thorax^ consolidation, atrophy 
 of certain parts ; while often, it will be found that the 
 portion of the lung which formed the main seat of 
 disease has been thrown off as a slough, and encapsuled 
 by lymph ; or it may have become calcified. An im- 
 portant question for the verification of our diagnosis here 
 presents itself. How are we to distinguish the lungs in 
 this disease from those presenting the conditions observed 
 in sporadic inflammation of the lungs and pleura ? Many 
 skilful veterinary pathologists state that in some cases of 
 sporadic disease the marbled state of the lung occurs, and 
 that hence we are not in a position, from simple inspection 
 of a portion of lung, to determine the nature of the case. 
 Generally the sporadic disorder affects both lungs, and the 
 stage of the disease is uniform throughout, we cannot 
 note the abrupt transitions found in the infectious disease ; 
 also the lymphatic glands are not so much involved. The 
 history of the case will assist us in our inquiry. During 
 life sporadic cases differ from specific in that they are 
 more acute, cannot be traced to contagion, and may 
 generally be put down to some other cause of a non- 
 specific nature. Also abortion takes place ; the grunt is 
 present (see Walley, " Four Bovine Scourges,^^ for a full 
 list of distinguishing features). 
 
 Cases of pleuro-pneumonia are liable to be confused in 
 diagnosis with those of pleural scrofulous deposits known 
 as " grapes.''^ Professor Williams considers that these 
 deposits are very frequently due to changes of pleuritic 
 adhesions, and says that cough during swallowing is 
 diagnostic of their presence, for they tend to compress 
 the oesophagus. His views are not generally accepted. In 
 some cases the differential diagnosis of these two conditions 
 is very unsatisfactory. The history of the case will help 
 us, and we must carefully look for any scrofulous lesions. 
 
 Treatment. — Sometimes, during an enzootic of this 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 139 
 
 affection, animals fall sick, are feverisli for a short time, 
 and then resume their originally healthy state. Probably 
 they have been subjected to the action of the virus, and 
 nature has enabled them to throw it off. Some autho- 
 rities, during the more acute periods of the attack, recom- 
 mend application of blisters to the side, a cathartic dose, 
 and even bleeding when performed early. It is question- 
 able whether these measures prove beneficial, except by 
 debilitating the patient, and so shortening the case. More 
 success seems to have attended the administration of mineral 
 tonics, especially the Cupri Ammonio- Sulphas, together with 
 stimulants, eliminatives, and hyposulphites ; also attention 
 must be paid to careful nursing. Isolation of diseased and 
 suspected animals, and disinfection, are most useful prophy- 
 lactic means, and the administration of iron tonics has been 
 suggested. It is often best in the long run to stamp out an 
 outbreak. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts require 
 special measures for eradication and prevention of spread. 
 
 An animal after recovery should not be reintroduced 
 into the herd before the lapse of three months, and the 
 virus is said to be potent for as much as six months after 
 the animaVs death. 
 
 Inoculation, — It had been noticed that one attack of 
 certain blood diseases ensures immunity more or less 
 permanent against a second of the same disorder. It was 
 therefore suggested that a first attack of a mild character 
 might be artificially induced by direct introduction of 
 morbific material into the system. This was first tried 
 with smallpox in man, and succeeded in so far as im- 
 munity was secured ; but the disease as artificially gene- 
 rated proved severe, communicable, and frequently even 
 fatal. The practice of inoculation was falling into dis- 
 repute when Jenner's observations of the diseases of 
 animals in relation to those of man enabled him to dis- 
 cover vaccination. Here an artificially induced attack of 
 a very mild disorder acts as a prophylactic against a more 
 severe one of not the same, but a closely allied disease. 
 Vaccination has been tried haphazard for certain diseases 
 of lower animals, in no case with markedly beneficial 
 
140 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 effect. Inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia is at present 
 much advocated by professionals and non-professionals. 
 It is performed by taking the lungs of an animal which 
 has died in the early stage of the disorder, cutting up the 
 diseased yellowish portions of lung, and allowing a serous 
 fluid to escape and accumulate in a vessel. This is the 
 lymph. Some of it is injected subcutaneously with a 
 syringe, or shreds of cotton steeped in it are inserted 
 into the tail near its tip; the shreds are removed after 
 twenty-four hours. Subsequently, in favorable cases, a 
 considerable amount of swelling occurs here, and may 
 extend up the tail to the quarters of the patient, giving 
 rise to violent inflammation of the caudal appendage, 
 which often results in the end of the tail sloughing and 
 gangrene involving even the upper parts of the hind ex- 
 tremities. Cases of this kind are common in dairies 
 where the animals have been inoculated. It is necessary 
 to amputate the tail when gangrene sets in. Causse 
 describes pustules of the size of a franc-piece as resulting 
 from inoculation. Intravenous injection of virus has not 
 been found effectual. The irritative fever depending on 
 these processes is sometimes fatal. To understand 
 whether this means is prophylactic, we must put it to the 
 crucial test by exposing animals which have been inocu- 
 lated to contagion ; some of them succumb. These, the 
 advocates of inoculation urge, did not thoroughly take, or 
 had the seeds of the disease in them before they were 
 operated upon. They say that where the process is syste- 
 matically carried out pleuro-pneumonia has almost disap- 
 peared ; though their opponents will not admit this. That 
 inoculation does not produce pleuro-pneumonia they allow, 
 but believe that it expends itself in producing changes at 
 the seat of inoculation, while the system is imperceptibly 
 affected and immunity secured. On the other hand, it is 
 urged that inoculation does not cause any general dis- 
 order except sympathetic fever, and cannot, therefore, be 
 useful ; that it causes a certain loss by the ill effects 
 which result from it ; that the practice is based neither on 
 a sound theoretical nor practical views. The ill effects 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 141 
 
 consequent upon the operation are reduced to a minimum 
 when it is properly performed^ the exuded matter from 
 the lungs being fresh, devoid of gangrenous material, and 
 introduced in a proper manner. The so-called sympa- 
 thetic fever may be somewhat specific, and it must be 
 remembered that in ordinary cases of the disease the blood 
 has been found remarkably free from virulent properties, 
 so it is quite possible that the disease may take place after 
 inoculation, and run its course at the seat of puncture, 
 without the lungs becoming involved specially. A slight 
 cough is said to frequently succeed the inoculation, and 
 cases are on record of origination of pleuro-pneumonia 
 from inoculated animals. Cattle owners, as a rule, have 
 strong faith in inoculation. The experiments which have 
 been most carefully conducted in this country have failed 
 to show that it is beneficial. These have been rather on 
 a small scale, and are, therefore, not conclusive. The 
 important question of inoculation as a prophylactic means 
 is not settled. It seems to have been proved that the 
 flesh in this disease is not prejudicial to man except in 
 the advanced stages; the milk, too, has been consumed 
 freely without any ill effects resulting. There seems, 
 then, no true reason why flesh and milk should not be 
 utilised. Of course, thorough cooking should be in- 
 sisted on. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia has been considered the pathological 
 equivalent of rubeola or measles of the human subject, and 
 of typhoid fever of the pig. No evidence of any weight 
 has been advanced in support of these theories. 
 
 Eczema epizootica, v. Contagiosa, Aphtha epizootica. 
 Vesicular epizootic, Muerain, Foot-and-mouth disease^ &c., 
 is a specific eruptive disorder, panzootic in its characters, 
 and has been prevalent in all parts of this country at dif- 
 ferent times, having been first imported from abroad about 
 1839. Its special lesions consist in vesicae, which may 
 occur on any mucous membrane, but especially affect that 
 of the mouth. The skin of the inter-digital space also is 
 the special seat of disorder. 
 
 Symptoms. — After an animal has been exposed to con- 
 
142 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 tagious influences, the incubation lasts from twenty-four 
 hours to four days ; and the first appreciable alteration of 
 the normal conditions of the animal is a gradual rise in 
 temperature. This may be so marked that the ther- 
 mometer at the maximum may reach 107° F. Shivering 
 and other febrile signs are present in the first stage of 
 the disorder, the mouth is sore and has hanging from it 
 a little viscid mucus, the animal does not feed, grinds its 
 teeth, and exhibits general signs of ill health, the bowels 
 are constipated, and the breath fostid. This lasts for 
 about two days, and then the characteristic eruptions 
 appear. In the mouth they occupy the dental pad, the 
 gums, lateral parts and dorsum of the tongue and the 
 palate; generally rounded or oval, they are of consider- 
 able size, averaging about that of a shilling, but often as 
 large as half-a-crown. They consist of elevations of the 
 somewhat dense epithelium, which is softened and macerated 
 by the saliva, and so rendered white. Soon they are 
 broken by the action of the tongue and other influences, 
 and a red raw surface is exposed. The discharge of 
 saliva is now profuse, and hangs in shreds from the mouth, 
 or collects like foam around that opening. There is a 
 peculiar smacking of the lips to get rid of this. Some- 
 times smaller vesicae appear on the transitional membrane 
 of the muffle, and in some cases the nostrils are similarly 
 diseased. There are vesicles developed on the udder in 
 milch cows, which especially affect the teats, and some- 
 times the diseased action is said to involve even the 
 lining membrane of the milk ducts. These mammary 
 vesicles are ruptured by the calf, or their contents 
 become absorbed and a dark brown scab remains, and 
 aggregation or confluence of these vesic99 may take place. 
 The lesions of the feet are preceded by pain, manifested 
 by restlessness, frequent lifting and shaking of fore and 
 hind feet, and the back is arched and thus all four feet 
 brought together. Swelling of the coronet appears, and 
 is quickly followed by the development of vesicae, gene- 
 rally between the digits, but often extending almost all 
 round the coronet. There is considerable lameness. 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 143 
 
 aud tlie animal lies somewhat persistently. Here, also, 
 the vesicles rupture. The serous fluid, when exposed to 
 the air, dries and forms a yellowish layer of material 
 which readily pulverises. The last stage is marked by 
 disappearance of acute febrile symptoms, increase in 
 quantity of milk, which has been much reduced, oblitera- 
 tion of the exposed surfaces by development of new epi- 
 thelium and cessation of lameness. Sometimes the disease 
 assumes a more virulent type, dependent upon defective 
 hygienic arrangements, or upon obscure climatic influences. 
 Then the nasal, laryngeal, conjunctival, bronchial, gastric, 
 and duodenal mucous membranes present vesicao ; the anus 
 and vulva are similarly affected ; there is a tendency to 
 sloughing of parts in connection with the vesicae, and 
 extensive removals of epithelium. In such cases young 
 animals will die before the eruptive stage^ the only lesions 
 manifested on post-mortem examination beinff>??5^^etion 
 of the lungs j while older animals suffer MWm severe /^^ 
 irritative fever, rapidly lose flesh, and are Maol^' fo.jgiin-^'^^^ '/^ , 
 cumb from exhaustion. In these cases, tolL^^ere ^^ii^j> 
 marked liability to the various comj)licatim^^-0^p^3 "* T ^ 
 disorder. In whatever part they occur the vesicseSi^ii/tfJ^J'Ii^. 
 associated with acute inflammatory action of deeper tissue^T" 
 such as glossitis leading to extensive sloughing or indura- 
 tion, mammitis, and inflammation of the structures of the 
 foot, with production of sinuous ulcers and a tendency to 
 sloughing of the claws, open joint, and casting of the hoofs. 
 
 Mammitis may result either from extension of inflam- 
 mation along the lining membrane of the ducts of the milk 
 glands, or from a blocking up of the openings of the ducts 
 leading to over-distension with milk. Abscesses, indura- 
 tion, and blind teats supervene upon these cases, also the 
 frequent irritation in milking a cow with sore teats may 
 render her permanently vicious. 
 
 When the alimentary mucous membrane is involved 
 in the disease diarrhoea replaces the constipation which 
 is generally present. CEdematous swellings, too, some- 
 times are manifested. In each of these latter com- 
 plications there is extreme debility. Under ordinary 
 
144 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 circumstances the prognosis must be favorable, as re- 
 covery will take place after from eight to twelve or 
 fifteen days from the premonitory rise of temperature. 
 The various complications which we have just noticed 
 necessarily protract the case, but our prognosis, too, must 
 include grave loss to the owner, especially when milch 
 cows are affected. From the first stage of the attack the 
 milk is yellow in colour and gradually diminishes in 
 quantity until it becomes about one fifth the natural yield. 
 Its specific gravity is low, 1024, and it generally has a fair 
 proportion of cream. White corpuscles, having the 
 characters of pus-globules, are always present, their 
 number varying with the severity of the symptoms. 
 Some of these were seen three weeks after recovery. 
 Monads and bacteria were observed in every specimen, 
 and remained unaffected by boiling (Professor Brown). 
 The produce of a dairy, then, is venj seriously diminished 
 by an attack of eczema. In the severer forms, too, 
 abortion occurs, and in all cases the animals are very much 
 reduced in condition ; 10 per cent, is given as the average 
 loss by death when the disease is most severe. One attack 
 of this disorder does not secure immunity from others ; it 
 is not rare to see animals which have been affected three 
 times. From cattle, who are especially affected by it, and 
 are the most important bearers of contagion, it will 
 spread to the sheep, pig, poultry, and also to the human 
 subject and the horse. The cases which have been 
 recorded can leave no doubt of this latter fact. The con- 
 tagion is both fixed and volatile, so that the disease is 
 contagious and infectious. The characters of the materies 
 morbi have not yet been determined. Professor Brown 
 mentions the occurrence in the blood and other fluids of 
 monads, bacteria, and vibriones^ but does not attribute a 
 specific influence to any of the observed forms. The 
 viruliferous principle resides in its most concentrated 
 form in the saliva. In 1839, Professor Simonds com- 
 municated the disease by feeding an animal on hay 
 saturated with saliva ; vesicles appeared in the mouth in 
 forty hours. He also found that warm milk from a 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 145 
 
 diseased cow given to pigs generated the disease. Thus, 
 it seems that the virus may gain entry into the system 
 through almost any mucous membrane. Nature endeavours 
 to throw off the contagium after it has entered into the 
 blood through the mucous membranes and such parts of 
 the skin as we have indicated as being involved. Inocu- 
 lations at first failed, but Contamine produced the disease 
 by inoculation of the mouth, and since then this process 
 has been resorted to, not with a view to prevent recurrence, 
 but in order to ensure all animals of a herd being simul- 
 taneously affected, whereby the period of isolation, as en- 
 forced by law, is shortened. This inoculation is a measure 
 of questionable value, since some animals might have 
 escaped by proper segregation and disinfection, and also 
 the same animal may be several times affected. The virus 
 may be conveyed by attendants or by appliances ; also it is 
 said to be carried for a distance of 120 yards, but this pro- 
 bably depends upon the direction of prevailing winds and 
 other atmospheric influences. The virus is said to retain 
 its vitality for at least three months. 
 
 Diagnosis. — Eczema epizootica may be confounded with 
 aphtha simplex, and undoubtedly has been by some 
 authors. The latter appears under an enzootic form, 
 dependent upon special characters of the food. The 
 lesions are confined to the mouth, and consist of very 
 numerous true vesicas, surrounded by an areola or ring 
 of redness, due to inflammation, and pointed. These 
 contrast markedly with the large blebs of eczema epi- 
 zootica, which are few in number, and occur in definite 
 positions. A difficulty is presented to inspectors in the 
 later stages of this disorder in determining whether foot 
 lesions are specific or simply due to the disease called foul. 
 Complicated foot lesions succeeding eczema are really one 
 form of foul. All chronic cases of this kind may be 
 passed as incapable of communicating the disease. The 
 same remark applies to glossitis and disease of the 
 mammary gland. 
 
 Treatment, as in other eruptive disorders, must be 
 directed to avoidance of complications and assistance of 
 
 10 
 
146 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 nature^s efforts to expel the contagium. To remove the 
 causes we must divide the herd into diseased, suspected, 
 and unsuspected lots. The latter should be examined 
 daily to detect any rise of internal temperature ; the 
 suspected should be isolated and drafted into the diseased 
 lot as they become affected. Disinfection should be 
 rigidly enforced, and the animals not removed from 
 quarantine until about a week after the last case of disease 
 has been removed from among them. The diseased should 
 have soft diet as much as possible, and those but slightly 
 affected require little more attention. Where the patients 
 are seriously debilitated they will require tonics. When 
 the eruptions on the teats tend to block up the milk 
 passages, the milk must be drawn off with the syphon. 
 When the udder is inflamed it must be duly supported 
 and treated as in ordinary mammitis. The diseased feet 
 must be kept as clean as possible and protected by 
 bandages, complications receiving the attention recom- 
 mended in '^ foul.'' Calves ought to be removed from cows 
 affected by this disorder and hand-fed with good milk, 
 for these young animals are liable to suffer severely from 
 the disease, the whole alimentary tract being involved. 
 Fairs, markets, and other centres of cattle traffic are the 
 sources of introduction of this disease into farms ; and 
 high roads are often traversed by diseased flocks and herds, 
 which thus leave virus behind them for those that follow. 
 The farmer must be advised, therefore, to keep newly 
 purchased animals away from the rest of his stock for a 
 few days after their arrival, to avoid pasturing animals 
 on fields bordering on high roads when the disease is 
 rife in the neighbourhood, and, as a public duty, not to 
 place diseased animals there ; also all measures of disin- 
 fection should be strictly enforced. Especially the same 
 attendants should not have charge of both sick and healthy 
 animals. Unless sanitary measures be strictly enforced 
 the disease may assume its severest forms. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows the mucous membranes 
 variously involved in different cases. Thus, the larynx, 
 nasal chamber, and alimentary canal, sometimes present 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 147 
 
 vesicse and other inflammatory conditions. Sometimes 
 the abrasions of the palate and the lesions in the stomachs 
 resemble <*.those observed in rinderpest. Frequently 
 hasmorrhagic spots are observable on the serous membranes. 
 In fatal cases the blood is anaemic. When extracted 
 during life the red corpuscles are found to be stellated, 
 and to exhibit changes of form. White corpuscles are 
 increased in number. Bacteria and masses of living 
 matter, together with minute spherical bodies, are con- 
 stantly present. In the saliva are small stellate crystals 
 and actively moving monads. In the fluid from the vesicles, 
 and in the discharge from the eyes, are monads, bacteria, 
 masses of germinal matter, and large nucleated cells. 
 We owe these conclusions to Professor Brown's obser- 
 vations. Abscess, induration, and even gangrene of the 
 mammary gland, may be present. Open joints, fistulous 
 ulcers burrowing beneath the hoof, and extensive sloughing, 
 also separation of the hoofs, may follow the foot disease. 
 
 This disease is certainly communicable to man through 
 the milk ; thus, children are liable to become affected. 
 Suspected milk should either be rejected or boiled before 
 consumption. We have no evidence to prove that the 
 flesh is injurious to man. Cases are on record where 
 attendants upon diseased animals have taken the disease. 
 Since it is intercommunicable between all the animals 
 which can become affected, our prophylactic measures 
 must embrace all animals on the farm. By law animals 
 affected with foot-and-mouth disease, or herded with 
 affected animals, are not to be removed, nor are animals 
 from contiguous buildings, except for immediate slaughter 
 under the regulations of the local authorities, or if not for 
 slaughter, under permit from the officer of the local autho- 
 rities. All sheds occupied are to be disinfected and 
 cleansed. 
 
 Rinderpest — Cattle Plague — Puschima (Hindustanee). 
 — This disorder is the most formidable specific disease of 
 cattle j it is enzootic in the steppes of Russia, China, and 
 it seems, also, in some parts of Burmah, occasionally visits 
 Great Britain, and requires most active measures of re- 
 
148 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 pression. It is of a most highly infectious and contagious 
 character, affects also deer and sheep, and generally gives 
 rise to a very great fatality, estimated at 90 per cent. 
 An attack here proves fatal about the seventh day after 
 the first manifestation of signs of the disorder. Its period 
 of incubation varies somewhat considerably, in some cases 
 being supposed to extend to the fourteenth day but gene- 
 rally it lasts from four to eight days. The first indication 
 of disorder is a rise in internal temperature, which occurs 
 twenty-four to twenty-eight hours before any other ap- 
 preciable symptoms; then the animal exhibits evident 
 signs of disorder, extreme dulness, rapid loss of strength, 
 irregular rumination and feeding, and diminished supply of 
 milk, also generally a certain amount of constipation is pre- 
 sent, the coat stares, and there is a persistent shivering. 
 Later the visible mucous membranes assume a pink and 
 then a dark purple colour, most perceptible at the vulva. 
 Twitchings of the voluntary muscles take place, and there 
 is a husky cough, which Professor Simonds describes as 
 " like that of a broken-winded horse with sore throat.^^ 
 The ;pulse at first is scarcely affected, later it becomes 
 frequent and full, and afterwards loses tone, becomes 
 feeble, thready, and double, and towards the last is im- 
 perceptible, and the beats of the heart are irregular and 
 feeble. The breathing, at first not materially altered, 
 afterwards is frequent, complicated by the muscular 
 twitchings, so that it presents a double expiratory move- 
 ment, and at each expulsion of the air the animal moans. 
 The breath is fetid. The temperature of the surface is 
 variable, but the diffusion of heat throughout the system 
 is very irregular, and as the debility of the patient and 
 the weakness of the heart's action increases, extreme cold- 
 ness of those parts distant from the centre of circulation 
 sets in. The nervous system is in a very disordered 
 state ; sometimes the animal is delirious in the early 
 stage, while in the later there is extreme debility, so 
 that the recumbent position is persistently maintained. 
 Abdominal pains are present, marked by the usual signs, 
 and diarrhoea early supervenes, the evacuations being 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 149 
 
 watery, oi a dirty yellow colour, highly offensive with a 
 peculiar odour, containing flocculi of lymph, and some- 
 times a little blood, and being expelled suddenly and with 
 great force at first, but later trickling away involuntarily. 
 The back is arched, the skin dry and tense, the loins are 
 tender, and emphysematous swellings occur, especially 
 about the back in the region of the loins. A similar dis- 
 engagement of gas takes place into the interlobular areolar 
 tissue of the lungs. Non-emphysematous tumours are 
 described as sometimes appearing about various parts 
 of the body. In some cases the secretion of milk is sud- 
 denly and completely arrested, but in others this fluid con- 
 tinues to be produced in small quantity, until an advanced 
 stage of the disorder, its " specific gravity being 
 diminished, its salines less plentiful, its fat increased, and 
 sometimes it is reddish and acrid." The urine is scanty, 
 often albuminous, and contains a diminished amount of 
 salines, but an increase of urea. The blood is dark and 
 coagulates imperfectly, has an excess of fibrin, and an 
 altered condition of its albumen. The conjunctiva, at first 
 reddened, produces acrid watery tears, which trickle down 
 the face and cause removal of the cuticle ; later the secre- 
 tion becomes gelatinous, accumulates at the inner canthus, 
 and the membrane becomes pale, saliva is produced in 
 considerable quantity, and the mucous membranes undergo 
 special and definite changes; the congestion above in- 
 dicated is succeeded by proliferation of the epithelium, 
 with an altered condition of the products. The buccal 
 mucous membrane about the lips, gums, and palate, pre- 
 sents elevations of some extent, which are considered to 
 be liable to be confounded with those lesions which occur 
 in foot-and-mouth disease. They are not due to separa- 
 tion of the epithelium from the corium, but to alterations 
 of the former. The yellowish masses of thickened epi- 
 thelium are but slightly adherent to the corium, and they 
 can be readily removed as branny scales, leaving patches 
 of highly vascular sensitive tissue, surrounded by the 
 white mucous membrane, as yet unaltered. These lesions 
 are first marked in the conical papillsB of the cheek and 
 
150 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 tlie tongue. The altered epithelium, when thrown off or 
 removed, passes out of the system with the profuse dis- 
 charge of saliva. After the mucous membrane of the 
 vulva becomes of a very dark purple colour, the epithelium 
 undergoes changes similar to that of the mouth, and there 
 is an albuminous discharge, which hangs from the lower 
 commissure. The Schneiderian membrane, after exhibiting 
 the early congested condition, becomes pale, petechiated, 
 and its blood-vessels are very evident ; then its epithelium 
 becomes altered. There is a discharge which hangs about 
 the nostrils and dries there. The skin is involved in 
 diseased action ; the parts covering the udder, teats, 
 inside of the thighs, and those neighbouring the mucous 
 membranes are especially affected, though we often see 
 the general surface implicated. In the male the praeputial 
 membrane and the scrotum are very liable to become 
 affected. The lesion may range from a scurfy condition, 
 through a papular stage to the pustular, exudations taking 
 place which mat the hairs together, or the pustules become 
 confluent, and form brown patches of a considerable size. 
 
 Prognosis. — Williams says : — '' Some cases of cattle 
 plague recover, and in these cases it is observed that 
 the skin over the neck, withers, &c., becomes covered 
 with a yellowish sebaceous secretion, but there are no 
 vesicles or pustules.'^ It is found that recovery from one 
 attack secures future immunity. It must be remembered, 
 however, that an animal himself exempt may convey the 
 contagium. The complications of this disorder, altera- 
 tions of the intestinal mucous membrane, persistent diar- 
 rhoea, and excessive debility, are such as prevent frequent 
 recovery ; but in its enzootic abode many mild cases are 
 seen. No known race of cattle is exempt, but it is said 
 that animals native to the districts whence it comes can 
 resist its influence much more frequently than others. 
 Some few animals enjoy immunity during an attack even 
 in Western Europe. 
 
 Causes. — The climatic and hygienic conditions of 
 animals in the enzootic abode of this disorder are pecu- 
 liarly trying to the constitution. Drought, starvation 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOd! 151 
 
 and plenty, extreme cold and almost tropical heat, being 
 peculiarly combined on the wide grassy expanses of the 
 steppes. Thus, the animals there become much predis- 
 posed to this as well as other disorders, but we must 
 coincide with the opinion at which Professor Unterberger 
 has arrived, that eveu here the disease does not originate 
 spontaneously. From this enzootic centre the disease is 
 carried along the great traffic roads towards Western 
 Europe, and follows the course of armies in the field. 
 Thus, as trade facilities increase the disorder will be 
 liable to spread to a greater distance in a shorter time ; also 
 .certain definite rinderpest routes from Central Russia might 
 be noted ; also times of war prove times of pestilence, a 
 fact which has long been observed. Meat food for troops 
 in Central, Eastern, and Western Europe must be drawn 
 from the large supplies of Eastern Russia, and in the 
 hurry of the transport and the commissariat duties vete- 
 rinary inspection is too often neglected. 
 
 Nothing is really known about cattle plague contagium. 
 It is said to diffuse through the air to the distance 
 of 500 yards (Gerlach, 40 metres; Hayne, 30 to 1000 
 metres), bringing about infection of other stock, but 
 most observers are inclined to consider the latter esti- 
 mate must be taken to apply to mediate contagion 
 rather than true infection. The discharges may retain 
 their power of communicating the disorder for eleven 
 months (Jessen), three months (Camper and Viedazyr), 
 six years (Weiss and Hering). In the latter cases it was 
 retained in capillary tubes, or between two pieces of glass, 
 and hence not exposed to the air. So we can bring to 
 bear weighty arguments against the theory of spontaneous 
 origin of this disorder ; any statement that it may occur 
 as a result of ordinary causes must not be admitted. 
 Practically, all efforts must be directed against the con- 
 tagium which already exists. This may be conveyed by 
 an unaffected animal, by hides of affected ones, by at- 
 tendants, &c; and the persistence of the virus renders 
 disinfection, and, where possible, destruction of things 
 which have been in contact with any diseased animal 
 
152 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 imperative. Burning tar in byres and sheds used to be 
 recommended as a means of disinfection, but now we 
 prefer the use of the numerous agents of tried value, 
 which are mentioned in our Pharmacopoeias — carbolic 
 acid, sulphurous acid, chloride of zinc, &c. Special 
 attendants must be told off to infected animals; these 
 must be strictly prevented from approaching any healthy 
 cattle, and ought to be disinfected daily. All carcases of 
 diseased animals should be burnt in their hides, together 
 with the straw upon which they have been lying. The 
 virus may remain in a latent condition after the animals 
 have been buried, and render the soil a medium of con- 
 tagion (except when they have been buried in quicklime). 
 The sheds should be sluiced down with strong disinfecting 
 solution, so that no excreta bearing virus in a harmful 
 condition may pass into the sewers. The patients should 
 for the most part, and, as a rule, be slaughtered at once, 
 and their hides slashed. If some of the milder cases are 
 kept for observation or treatment, an endeavour must be 
 made to support the strength of the patients by stimulants, 
 combined with vegetable tonics, as beer or gentian, with 
 nitrous ether. Numberless recipes have been submitted, 
 tested, and proved worthless. We can name no agent 
 capable of acting as an antidote to rinderpest poison. 
 The strength requires to be supported by every available 
 means, especially the administration of gruel and other 
 easily digestible but nutritive matters. Internal disin- 
 fection has been much recommended, and in this direction 
 future endeavours to treat specific diseases must be made. 
 But inspection, stoppage of cattle traffic from diseased 
 countries, stamping out any outbreaks which occur, and 
 quarantine of all suspected animals must be adopted. 
 
 Inoculation has been tried as a prophylactic, but it 
 reproduces the disease in all its fatality and communi- 
 cability. Vaccination, too, was unsuccessfully resorted to 
 during the 1865-66 outbreak, under the supposition that 
 rinderpest is a form of smallpox. Neither of these mea- 
 sures, therefore, is advantageous. 
 
 Fost-mortem examination. — Considerable variations of 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 153 
 
 internal temperature or a rapid fall of the mercury are signs 
 of approaching death. The local lesions observable in the 
 mucous membrane are principally due to plugging of even 
 large vessels by lymph deposits, whereby the nutrient supply 
 of the epithelium is cut off, and it undergoes fatty change. 
 This reminds us of the plugging of the minute vessels which 
 occurs from accumulation of bacteria in anthrax, septicaemia, 
 and other diseases of their class. The specific organisms 
 of rinderpest have not yet been recognised. During the 
 great outbreak in this country medical observers noted the 
 presence of ovoid bodies in the muscles between the 
 sarcous fibres, and termed them " cattle-plague bodies,'' 
 more careful examination showed that they are harmless 
 parasites of the division Gregarinae. The mouth, pharynx, 
 and first three compartments of the stomach are generally 
 congested, the oesophagus having undergone no change in 
 the majority of cases. The glandular structures of the velum 
 palati, tonsils, and of the base of the tongue are diseased, 
 their ducts being plugged up with strings of lymph. The 
 rumen sometimes shows somewhat extensive patches of con- 
 gestion of a "port- wine'' colour, or of epithelial proliferation. 
 The omasum almost invariably has its contents in a very 
 hard condition, its epithelium separates somewhat readily, 
 showing a congested surface, and sometimes the leaves are 
 the seat of more severe lesions, and may be ulcerated, 
 as a result of sloughing, to such an extent that they 
 are perforated. The abomasum is congested, and, espe- 
 cially near the pylorus, shows extensive blood extravasa- 
 tions and sloughing after the formation of the character- 
 istic false membranes. The contents are reddish-brown 
 viscid mucus, intermingled with blood. Sometimes it is 
 noted that both in the abomasum and the intestine a 
 certain amount of pigmentary degeneration occurs. The 
 small intestines are rendered dark in appearance by the 
 altered characters of the mucous membrane. This is 
 congested in a streaked or patchy manner, which is rather 
 distinctive of this disorder. Extravasations of blood are 
 present, and the contents are something like those of the 
 abomasum. Where the epithelium has separated from the 
 
154 BOVINE PATHOLOar. 
 
 corlum the latter is covered by a lymphy deposit, which 
 hides the bright red colour of the erosions. Peyer's 
 patches are generally diminished in size, and are covered 
 with a layer of lymph. Sometimes, however, they are 
 enlarged (as also are the solitary glands), and are 
 covered with false membranes of variable colour. The 
 large intestines may be more or less diseased than 
 the small. The ileo-caecal valve is very frequently the 
 seat of change ; in other parts the bowel exhibits conges- 
 tions, extravasations, and false membranes, the latter 
 often being in process of removal by sloughing. The 
 rectum especially is intensely diseased. The lining mem- 
 brane of the gall-bladder is similarly altered to that of the 
 intestines, and the gall-ducts contain lymph. Wherever 
 these congestions occur the capillary vessels become very 
 much distended with micrococci (according to Klebs). 
 Also some of these invade the submucous-tissue, of which 
 they cause thickening, and others pass off in the discharges. 
 The respiratory mucous membrane in the trachea, bronchi, 
 and larynx is congested, and the latter exhibits ulceration 
 and oedema against the arytenoid cartilage. In very bad 
 cases along the whole length of the air-passages the mucous 
 membrane will often show ecchymoses and false mem- 
 branes. There is an emphysematous condition of the lungs. 
 The kidneys are enlarged, and their lining membrane, as 
 well as those of the uterus, urethra, and bladder, are 
 characteristically altered. The urine is scanty and bloody. 
 The conditions of the blood, skin, &c., have been already 
 noticed. No marked lesions of the nervous system are 
 present. The mammary gland is congested. The flesh 
 varies but little from the healthy in physical properties. 
 Sometimes it has a bluish colour or is of a darker 
 red than usual. The heart is soft, and there are 
 often extensive extravasations beneath its lining mem- 
 brane. Petechias and ecchymoses are observable on most 
 of the serous membranes. The little milk produced by 
 affected animals should be thrown away, but, according to 
 the best authorities, we have no evidence that the flesh of 
 animals in the early stage of the disease willprove prejudicial 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 155 
 
 to man. Such flesh should be thoroughly cooked, and it may 
 convey the disease to other cattle. It was concluded at the 
 International Veterinary Congress at Vienna, after evidence 
 from Professors Kawitsch and Jessen, that hard dried hides 
 will not communicate the disease. It is interesting to 
 inquire into the question whether rinderpest has intimate 
 affinities with any disease of man. This matter is fully 
 discussed in Professor Gamgee's valuable and exhaustive 
 work on the Cattle Plague. It was thought to be 
 equivalent to typhoid fever of man, but the patches of 
 Peyer do not undergo the changes characteristic of that 
 disease. Again, smallpox has been considered the patho- 
 logical equivalent, especially by Dr. Murchison, who very 
 ably supports his view, but skin lesions of the true pustular 
 character are seldom present in rinderpest. Also it is 
 difficult to understand how, if the diseases are one and the 
 same, smallpox is always present in this country and 
 rinderpest only when introduced from without. The false 
 membranes formed in cattle plague are described fre- 
 quently as diphtheritic and croupous ; the disease is often 
 termed typhus, and some superficial resemblances to 
 certain other human disorders may be noted. Suffice it to 
 say, with regard to these, that it has not been found that 
 rinderpest is the equivalent of either of them. We can 
 only consider it as a disease of a peculiar character due to 
 a special pathogenic organism — which^ probably, Klebs is 
 right in considering a bacterium. 
 
 Cattle plague and eczema epizootica are exanthemata, 
 eruptive disorders. In addition we find that variola and 
 a special form of aphtha are mentioned under this heading 
 in bovine pathology. Recently stomatitis pustulosa has 
 been added to the list. These are specific disorders, 
 generally communicable with facility by contagion and 
 inoculation. They run their course with remarkable 
 regularity, exhibiting a number of consecutive changes of 
 a special character, culminating in the formation of vesicles 
 by accumulation of serous fluid between the corium 
 and epithelium of skin, or mucous membrane, or both. 
 The fluid of the vesicle contains the materies morbi in a 
 
156 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 concentrated state, and is therefore very useful for inocu- 
 lation purposes. The virus is thus thrown off from the 
 system, so that generally these diseases have a benign 
 character but under defective sanitary arrangements, and in 
 animals with vitiated constitutions, they may become 
 malignant, and highly destructive. In all of these dis- 
 orders we see a well-marked incubative stage, a period of 
 invasion, an eruptive stage, and, lastly, the stage of 
 repair. It is noticed that certain specific poisons are 
 eliminated by certain membranes, and in special ways. 
 We cannot explain this any more than why particular 
 medicinal agents act on special organs. The nature of 
 the contagium is still obscure; by some it is considered 
 to be corpuscular, by others bacterian. These diseases 
 are little influenced by medicinal treatment, but may be 
 altered very much for the worse by neglect of sanitary 
 precautions. Then we see considerable and permanent dis- 
 organisation of structure, complications tending to render 
 the animal useless, even if it recover. The eruption 
 must be encouraged in every possible way, and its various 
 changes promoted. The animaPs strength must be sup- 
 ported. Measures of isolation and disinfection are 
 essential. These diseases, especially vaccinia, derive great 
 interest and importance in their relations to diseases of 
 other animals. 
 
 Vaccinia, Cow-pox, Yariola Yaccinia [with which are 
 noticed Varicella^ vel Vaccinoides, and Smallpox in cattle], 
 Yariolas constitute a class of diseases, one form being 
 peculiar to each species of animal ; thus, the eruptions of 
 this nature which occur in our domesticated animals and 
 in man are not identical, but only allied. Equine and 
 bovine variolae are sometimes considered exceptions to this 
 rule. Jenner observed that milkmaids took this disorder 
 from milking cows affected with it, and were thereby 
 exempt from smallpox, so he originated the system of vacci- 
 nation to the great and lasting benefit of mankind. The 
 same observer also assented to an observation of a con- 
 temporary of his (Dr. Loy), that the disease vulgarly 
 known as " grease '^ in the horse, also termed eczema 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 157 
 
 impetiginodes, is really equine variola^ and its virus intro- 
 duced into tlie system of the ox originates variola vaccinia. 
 These diseases of the two species of animal were, therefore, 
 by him considered identical. This communication of virus 
 may be direct or indirectly through attendants. Human 
 variolous matter, when introduced into the system of the cow 
 is stated to cause a smalljpGx eruption, while vaccine intro- 
 duced into the human system does not produce smallpox, only 
 vaccinia. From the eruptions in the latter case may be col- 
 lected lymph, which, when preserved in capillary tubes or 
 on ivory points, is available for other vaccinations. It 
 always produces the milder disease, and always proves 
 effective against smallpox if the lymph be good and the 
 inoculation successful. Thus, much lymph derived by 
 linear descent from that which originally came from the 
 cow is in circulation. Two important questions arise in 
 connection with it : — 
 
 1. Has it degenerated by successive passages through 
 the systems of numerous human beings, so as to prove 
 less effectual in securing immunity now than formerly, 
 and, if so, will it not be better to renew the stock ? 
 Certainly, lymph just taken from the cow produces more 
 marked effects than humanised lymph, but this is not always 
 a benefit. The lymph of the present day ordinarily acts 
 with quite sufficient potency and seems to be very effectual. 
 
 2. Has it become admixed with human specific poisons — 
 scrofula, syphilis, and the like, which would not be 
 present in animal lymph. There is much feasability in 
 this argument in favour of animal vaccination. Un- 
 doubtedly there is much vitiated lymph in circulation. 
 Some lymph '^ stocks '' are very pure, in consequence of 
 great care in selection of lymph for preservation. The 
 production of fresh supplies of lymph from the cow is, 
 therefore, by all means to be encouraged, but good old 
 lymph is not to be rejected, as it is decidedly better for 
 weakly subjects. Vaccination and other inoculations are 
 performed by removal of the epidermis, and insertion of 
 the virulent fluid on the exposed surface of the cutis. 
 Blood should not be drawn, for this would tend to wash 
 
158 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 away the virus; also the seat of inoculation may be 
 advantageously protected by adhesive plaster. Chauveau 
 has made some most interesting researches on vaccine. 
 It is said that the disease may be communicated through 
 the digestive organs, or by intravenous injection. 
 
 Yariola ovina is not the same disease as variola vac- 
 cinia, Zundel relates how two beasts became affected 
 by living with sheep suffering from their pox. Professor 
 Simonds' conclusions with regard to vaccination for 
 sheep-pox are indefinite. He quotes Sacco : — " In the 
 event of an outbreak of sheep-pox, if we cannot procure 
 lymph to vaccinate the animals, we may ovinate the 
 human subject or the cow, and thus destroy the virulence of 
 the virus,^' and ^^ the vaccination of sheep gives immunity,'^ 
 also Mayer, whose researches {' Veterinarian,^ xx, p. 629) 
 showed him that the French experiments lead to the 
 conclusion that vaccination does not secure immunity from 
 sheep -pox. 
 
 An attack of vaccinia secures immunity from the disease 
 in future. Outbreaks, which are apparently spontaneous, 
 occur among cows, especially when confined to close sheds, 
 and shortly after calving. The disease does not seem to 
 originate spontaneously in the bull, but it occurs as a result 
 of inoculation. We must look with suspicion on the asserted 
 spontaneity of this disease, remembering that horses, as 
 well as other cattle, may be the source of an outbreak, and 
 also some attacks in the cow are very slight, and there 
 are several conditions with which they may be confounded 
 if due care be not exercised. Thus, eczema epizootica 
 and cattle plague often present an eruption on the teats 
 and udder, and there are several forms of disease which 
 run through a herd, and are communicable to many, 
 being known under the common name Yaeicella, or 
 Vaccinoides, of which Fleming mentions three — the 
 acuminated, the papular or warty, and the emphyse- 
 matous forms. All these may be distinguished from 
 the eruption of the true vaccinia, which never assumes 
 either the acuminated or emphysematous character, and 
 only passes through a papular stage, which lasts about 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 159 
 
 four days. Vaccinia is not a severe affection ; it renders 
 the milk unfit for food, and diminishes the supply jpro 
 tem.y though febrile conditions seldom run very high, and 
 present nothing very special in their characters. The 
 first manifestation of local lesion is redness, at first dif- 
 fused, subsequently circumscribed, in patches over the 
 mammary gland and teats, also pain and general swelling. 
 When the parts are reddened, small hard nodules appear 
 and increase in size until they attain about the size of a 
 sixpence. This is the papular stage ; next comes the vesi- 
 cular. A serous accumulation extends from the centre, ren- 
 dering the vesicae bluish, though they are still surrounded 
 by a congested ring (areola). The central point, however, 
 does not project, but remains somewhat slightly bound to 
 the corium. Consequently the vesica has an umbilicated 
 appearance. About the eighth or tenth day these vesicas 
 attain their maximum development. Then comes the 
 pustular stage, which lasts for two or three days, and then 
 the contents of the pustule, if not set free by rupture, 
 become absorbed, and a peculiar brown scab remains 
 (siccative stage) for a varying length of time. Vaccine 
 lymph should be collected only from the matured vesicw, 
 and should contain neither pus nor blood, neither should 
 it give the slightest evidence of putridity or milkiness. 
 An attack of cow-pox generally extends over several 
 weeks ; the disease prevails especially in the spring, and 
 in certain parts of the country. It seems to be less 
 frequent now than formerly. In warm countries it be- 
 comes malignant ; thus, in India it is manifested by high 
 fever, confluence of the vesicae, and the mucous mem- 
 branes in general becoming involved in the diseased action. 
 Thus, there is a discharge from the nostrils, profuse saliva- 
 tion, diarrhoea, and abdominal pains. Young animals and 
 weakly subjects even succumb to the disorder. 
 
 Treatment. — Prevent retention of milk, such as is apt 
 to occur by scabbing over of the extremity of the teat. 
 Draw off the milk regularly with the syphon. Occasionally 
 mammitis results from extension of inflammation along the 
 mucous membrane of the gland. This will require the 
 
160 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ordinary antiphlogistic means. Avoid communicating the 
 disease from sick to healthy animals when milking ; iso- 
 lation is seldom necessary. Eeject the milk. 
 
 Sometimes customers bring dogs to the veterinary 
 surgeon that they may be vaccinated as a preventive 
 against distemper. We have no proof that this is of the 
 slightest value ; on the contrary, evidence is not wanting 
 to prove the fallacy of this method. 
 
 Infectious Aphtha is described by some authors 
 as affecting cattle. Eczema epizootica is frequently 
 called aphthous fever, and a form of aphtha, of an 
 enzootic character, is sometimes seen as a result of special 
 characters of food supplied to a number of animals. 
 Probably the true '' infectious '^ form is the acuminated 
 varicella mentioned above, the mouth being involved. The 
 vesicae are numerous, conical in shape, and occur in all 
 parts of the mouth ; thus, the disease may be distinguished 
 from eczema epizootica. This aphtha is said to be most 
 frequently met with, in India and other warm countries ; 
 we are inclined to think that in the majority of cases it is 
 simply foot-and-mouth disease. Our knowledge of the 
 cattle diseases of India is scanty and indefinite. Doubt- 
 less, when scientific investigations of them have been 
 made, we shall find our list of exanthemata enlarged. 
 
 Stomatitis Pustulosa Equi, described by Professors 
 Eggeling and Ellenberger (see ' Veterinary Journal,^ vii, 
 306), is communicable to cattle by inoculation and from 
 one cow to another. Nodules first formed ; these became 
 pustules, which burst and produced superficial ulcers; 
 these increased in size, and then commenced healing, a 
 scab being formed. The contagion may occur from the 
 skin, but takes place most readily from the mucous mem- 
 brane. The virus, when passed through several animals, 
 seems to lose its potency. 
 
 Fleming, in his ' Veterinary Sanitary Science and 
 Police,^ mentions a bovine aphthous disease of the genital 
 organs as observed by Numan, of Utrecht, in 1831, since 
 when it has several times appeared in Holland. It is 
 anthracoid, gives rise to malignant carbuncle in man, and 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 161 
 
 is communicable by cohabitation and contagion. Inflam- 
 matory swelling affects the vulva and vagina in the 
 female, the anus and rectum in the male, and phlyctense 
 are produced. Fever not generally detectable is accom- 
 panied sometimes by general inflammation of mucous mem- 
 branes and bloody evacuations per anum and vulvam, the 
 conjunctiva being so injected as to look like a clot of blood. 
 Autopsy showed infiltrations into the subcutaneous con- 
 nective tissue, and the fourth compartment of the stomach 
 and small intestine filled with bloody fluid. Treatment 
 in Numan^s hands proved very successful. Isolation and 
 disinfection are important, 
 
 Anthracoid Affections, Charbon.— A number of 
 diseased conditions of cattle, apparently distinct from each 
 other, may be associated under this heading. They are of 
 the highest importance, for they are communicable ; we 
 know their contagium ; they are highly fatal, are to a 
 certain extent preventable, and are intimately related to 
 the health and wealth of mankind. Ordinarily enzootic 
 or even only sporadic, under favoring circumstances they 
 become epizootic and traverse whole continents, causing 
 fearful loss of animal wealth. The researches of Pasteur, 
 Toussaint, Feser, and other continental observers have 
 thrown great light on their nature, causes, and prevention. 
 Anthrax literally means a boil; the name was derived 
 from the manifestation of this disorder in man as 
 malignant carbuncle. Charbon is a term derived from 
 the black condition of the blood. This results from the 
 presence in that fluid of the Bacillus anthracis, a very 
 large bacterium, a full account of the life history of 
 which may be seen in our paper on Bacteria in the ' Veteri- 
 nary JournaP for 1879. This vegetable organism gains entry 
 into the blood, and there multiplies by rapid reproduction. 
 It is imagined that it wars with the red corpuscles for the 
 possession of oxygen. While the bacteria are few no 
 symptoms of disorder are detectible in very many cases, 
 in others only a rise of the internal temperature. Acute 
 disorder may suddenly set in and run its course in a few 
 hours, in other cases the attack may extend over days. 
 
 11 
 
162 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. * 
 
 It has been proved tliat these bacteria are the producers 
 of anthrax, and they generate also an irritating matter 
 which heightens their tendency to give rise to inflamma- 
 tory action. The beautiful researches of Toussaint seem to 
 prove that they accumulate in enormous numbers in the 
 small capillaries of the lungs, and, by blocking them up, 
 cause " mechanical asphyxia.'' Some authorities still deny 
 that they are the sole producers of charbon, and consider 
 this disease may originate spontaneously and the organisms 
 be accidentally present in the blood. They also state 
 that organisms of this kind may be present without 
 causing disease, but we note : 
 
 1. That these bacilli are invariably present in cases of 
 anthrax. 
 
 2. That when bacilli of this kind have been cultivated 
 in a solution of known chemical composition and are 
 injected into the blood they generate anthrax. 
 
 3. That these bacilli in the condition of spores have a 
 remarkable vitality, and will bear any extremes of tempera- 
 ture and dryness to which they may be subjected in nature. 
 
 4. That since all animals are liable to charbon, 
 undoubtedly wild ones diffuse the bacteria and bring them 
 into parts of the country where they have been hitherto 
 unknown. Flies may be vehicles of contagium. 
 
 5. That bacilli capable of producing disease have been 
 found in the soil of meadows well known for their power 
 of generating the disorder, and especially from those parts 
 where post-mortem examinations of victims of this malady 
 have been made, or where these victims have been buried. 
 
 6. That these bacilli in the spore condition can persist 
 for a very long time, and subsequently enter into the 
 animal system and generate anthrax. 
 
 7. That anthrax is most frequent in marshy places and 
 during warm weather, heat and moisture being very 
 favorable to growth of bacteria, as of all other fungi. 
 
 8. That when anthrax assumes an epizootic form, 
 climatic conditions are extraordinarily favorable to the 
 growth of other fungi. 
 
 9. That harmless bacteria closely resembling those forms 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 163 
 
 found in the blood in anthrax have been observed; it is these 
 which have been found in the system of healthy animals. 
 
 10. That the severity of the symptoms is proportional 
 to the ratio of the number of parasites present to the 
 strength of the animal. 
 
 11. Whereas cases of supposed spontaneous anthrax 
 used to be considered common, we can now prove that 
 they are rare. Their diminution has been exactly pro- 
 portioned to our advances in knowledge of the bacillus. 
 
 12. That the opinion that anthrax originates only from 
 the bacillus gaining entry into the animal system, is 
 more likely to lead to good practical results, as preventive 
 measures and curative means, than any other opinion 
 which has been advanced; the theory of spontaneous 
 origin of disorders of this kind being particularly liable 
 to discourage hygienic prophylactic measures. 
 
 The mode of entry of the Anthrax bacillus into the 
 organism has been the object of recent research. MM. 
 Pasteur and Toussaint simultaneously arrived at the result 
 that in almost every case the food is the vehicle, and 
 wounds are the points of entry. Toussaint proved this by 
 careful post-mortem examinations, in which he found the 
 lymphatic glands in connection witb the mouth and pharynx 
 in the large majority of cases earliest involved. Pasteur 
 found that only animals with injured mouths who fed on 
 forage watered with culture fluid containing the bacillus 
 became affected, and that when harsh irritating food was 
 given almost all the animals experimented upon succumbed. 
 A low percentage of cases which naturally occur in a pasture 
 may be traced to entry througb wounds on the limbs and 
 other parts of the body. 
 
 Death is brought about either, as above indicated, by 
 mechanical asphyxia, or by deoxidation of the red cor- 
 puscles, or by decomposition of the blood before death 
 (necrsemia). The presence of the organisms in the blood 
 gives rise to high febrile disturbance and direct stimu- 
 lation of various tissues as denoted by erratic nervous 
 energy and muscular twitchings, thus death may result from 
 exhaustion. In some cases (especially of young and weak 
 
164 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 patients) death occurs very early, No marked lesions 
 are present, except that the lymphatic glands are high 
 coloured and the lungs are congested. It seems almost 
 as if the animal had collapsed under the shock of invasion. 
 
 Certain definite fost-mortem appearances may be observed 
 in all cases of charbon. Decomposition sets in even before 
 death, so the body is disfigured by gaseous accumulations in 
 the subcutaneous areolar tissue ; also the abdomen becomes 
 enormously distended. Signs of mucous or watery dis- 
 charges mixed with blood are apparent at the natural 
 orifices, and red spots or blotches frequently occur on the 
 mucous and cutaneous surfaces. The areolar tissue is the 
 seat of a sero- sanguineous fluid, and similar material is 
 collected in somewhat large quantities in the serous sacs. 
 The endocardium and other serous membranes present 
 petechise, ecchymoses, and blood infiltrations. The blood 
 is black, fluid, and iridescent * on the surface; it contains 
 the bacilli (perceptible with y-inch power), and stains the 
 walls of the vessels. The heart is soft and relaxed. The 
 other muscles are the seat of serous and lymphy deposit, 
 more or less marked, and frequently present red blotches, 
 probably due to rupture of vessels : the blocking of 
 minute blood passages leads to over distension, then 
 rupture, whereby ecchymoses are produced : the hasmo- 
 poietic organs are considerably altered. The spleen is 
 enlarged and gorged with the dark blood ; the liver en- 
 larged, and with its blood-vessels distended. The kidneys 
 are also increased in size and congested. 
 
 We must next see what indications for treatment pre- 
 sent themselves. These diseases occur especially on low- 
 lying lands periodically flooded, by the sides of rivers and 
 pools ; on clay-lands, which retain moisture ; also on chalk, 
 but seldom on granite. In spring these diseases are most 
 frequent, but they often occur in the summer and autumn. 
 Special winds also have been associated with their pre- 
 valence; the south-west is most remarkable in this 
 respect. Fogs are sometimes concomitants of outbreaks 
 of anthrax, but whether related to them as cause it is 
 difficult to say ; for doubtless the spores are diifused 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 165 
 
 through the air and carried about, probably aggregated 
 into spore clouds. Of this nature may be some " blights," 
 for often the presence of fungus mycelium has been re- 
 corded as a feature of anthracogenic pastures. Com- 
 munication of anthrax by true infection is not generally 
 admitted ; certainly mediate and immediate contagion best 
 explain the phenomena of almost every outbreak. It is 
 certain that once the bacilli gain entry into the system 
 they will be little, if at all, influenced in their progress of 
 invasion by medicinal agents. Chlorate of potash, hypo- 
 sulphite of soda, and carbolic acid maybe tried in various 
 cases in the endeavour to accomplish internal disinfection ; 
 as yet we cannot hold out prospects of success. 
 
 Prophylactic means are most important. M. Chauveau 
 has shown that certain breeds of sheep have immunity 
 from anthrax, and this question of pathological immunity 
 of special races promises to give good results in the future. 
 All pastures known to be favorable to the development of 
 anthrax ought to be kept free from cattle for a number 
 of years. All animals dying from anthrax should be re- 
 moved from the pasture before post-mortem examination. 
 The carcases should be burned in the hides, or, the skins 
 having been thoroughly slashed with cross-cuts, should be 
 buried in quicklime. Ordinary burial is not sufficient, for 
 Feser's researches show that the spores of the bacilli pass 
 to the surface of the superincumbent ground (some say 
 they are carried thither by earth-worms) ; thus, each 
 grave becomes a fruitful centre of contagion. All ejecta, 
 blood, &c., from diseased animals should be collected and 
 mixed with quick lime. All stables, sheds, &c., occupied 
 by cattle affected with anthrax should be thoroughly dis- 
 infected. Pigs, dogs, and poultry should not be allowed 
 to feed on blood, flesh, and ejecta of anthrax victims. 
 Attendants should be warned that the disease is com- 
 municable to man by inoculation, and every care should be 
 taken in making post-mortem examinations of these cases. 
 The time-honoured method of prevention is a full bleed- 
 ing and insertion of a seton in the dewlap. The former 
 means we are not inclined to consider of the slightest 
 
166 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 value ; tlie latter is supported by very many accurate ob- 
 servers as producing alterations of the blood the reverse 
 of tbose observable in charbon. It relieves plethora, 
 which lessens the resisting power of the constitution, and 
 so also proves beneficial. The most useful preventive means 
 are those which tend to promote constitutional vigour, 
 administration of laxatives, good but not too high feeding, 
 supply of jpure water, also internal administration of 
 common salt. Fresh air and a certain amount of physical 
 exertion should also be secured for the patients. The 
 dark colour of the flesh, blood extravasations, and lymph 
 exudations, and the tendency to putrid decomposition will 
 enable us to detect the flesh of animals which have died 
 from or been destroyed for anthrax. Also, sometimes, 
 here and there may be seen a congested small lymphatic 
 gland. This flesh ought never to be used for the food of 
 any animal ; it has been known to give rise to malignant 
 carbuncle in man, and even after cooking retains a trace 
 of the unpleasant odour, which depends on a principle so 
 noxious as to give rise to severe headache, nausea, and 
 giddiness when any one spends much time in an elaborate 
 investigation of an anthrax carcase. The milk of animals 
 suffering from anthracoid diseases is a vehicle of contagion ; 
 its properties are altered, and its odour and colour changed. 
 Under no circumstances should it be used as food for 
 man or other animals. The list of human disorders of an 
 anthracoid nature obtained from animals is increasing, a 
 happy indication that they will in future be prevented by 
 removing their causes. Some day, doubtless, we shall see 
 human and veterinary practitioners co-operating in this 
 matter for the benefit of mankind. Malignant carbuncle 
 and woolsorters^ disease are the most fatal of these dis- 
 orders known as yet. 
 
 On the prospects of inoculation for anthrax. — Some 
 animals can withstand anthrax. The high temperature of 
 birds, or their highly oxygenated blood, defends them in 
 the majority of cases. On the other hand, we have a 
 well- authenticated case of anthracoid disease of fish. When 
 bacilli are introduced into the subcutaneous areola tissue 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 167 
 
 of an animal which will not become affected, an abscess 
 forms, and so the organisms are confined and then thrown 
 off. M. Pasteur has announced that by a special method 
 of culture he has so modified the bacterium of fowl 
 cholera that inoculation with the altered fungus secures 
 immunity from future attacks of this invariably fatal dis- 
 order. When confirmed, the learned Frenchman may be 
 able to apply his method to the similar disease, anthrax.^ 
 
 Splenic Fevee, Splenic Apoplexy, Essential Charbon, 
 is one of the most frequent forms of anthrax in cattle. 
 It is remarkable for its sudden invasion, its extreme 
 fatality (99 per cent., Simonds), and its rapid course. It 
 occurs among cattle of all sorts, especially those at pasture, 
 and supplied with water contaminated with excreta and 
 sewerage. It is also attributed to bad or too nutritive 
 food, to sudden changes of diet, and other ordinary 
 influences ; but almost every outbreak may be traced to 
 contagion, either direct or indirect. This used to be and 
 still is cited as an example of a disease of a specific charac- 
 ter, originating spontaneously ; but now we know the 
 apparent commencement of the attack is simply when the 
 bacilli begin to manifest their effects. For some time 
 they must have been multiplying in the system. Until 
 lately, then, investigators have not been accustomed to 
 look for causes in the past, except the most recent, and 
 until actual experiment proved conservation of the spores 
 in all their power of development, we were right not to 
 attribute cases of this kind to others which preceded them 
 some time. Also we have only just learned the various 
 forms which anthrax may assume. 
 
 Symptoms. — The appearance of the disorder among a 
 number of cattle is denoted frequently by death of some 
 of them in even so short a time as two hours. Thus, 
 several may be found dead when the shed is entered in the 
 morning. Others are affected, but withstand the disease 
 longer, though death generally occurs before twenty-four 
 
 ' Since the above was written, Professor Toussaint, the distinguished 
 teacher of physiology at the Toulouse Veterinary School, has announced that 
 anthrax blood from which the bacilli have been removed by filtration is 
 effectual for what he terms " Anthrax Vaccination.'* 
 
168 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 hours have elapsed. Febrile and general symptoms are 
 present, and in the early stages the patient is excited. 
 The internal temperature is considerably elevated. Next 
 signs of abdominal pain appear, the animal is very uneasy, 
 the pulse becomes rapid, small, and fluttering ; respirations 
 accelerated, and somewhat laboured. There is pain on 
 pressure of the loins, stiffness, and staggering gait ; also a 
 discharge of mucus and saliva from the mouth, and mus- 
 cular twitchings over the body. Rapid debility sets in ; 
 there is a discharge of bloody faeces, and the urine also 
 contains blood. The pulse is lost, and paralysis supervenes, 
 so that the animal is recumbent. Williams speaks about 
 cases of this disorder assuming the characters of remittent 
 fever, and lasting for several days. Convulsions occur in 
 the later stage, and the animal dies generally by necreemia 
 and coma. In all cases death is ushered in by rapid and 
 extreme fall of the internal temperature. 
 
 Treatment. — Curative means have not been found use- 
 ful. We could hardly expect them to be so since the 
 animal is all but dying when we are sent for. Prophy- 
 lactic measures comprise those recommended for anthracoid 
 cases in general. Dogs and pigs have been known to die 
 from consumption of the evacuations. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows the spleen enormously 
 distended, even to five times its natural size and weight, 
 by the dark blood, which gravitates freely, since the tissue 
 of the organ is broken down. The blood, tissues in general, 
 serous mucous, &c., present the characteristic anthrax 
 lesions, which are especially marked in the bowels. The 
 contents of the intestines and bladder are mixed with blood. 
 
 Texas Fever, Spanish Fever, American Splenic Fever 
 is a form of anthrax endemic in the region of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, whence it is spread through the cattle 
 districts of the United States by contagious influences. It 
 presents several peculiarities, though it closely resembles 
 splenic apoplexy. It differs in the following points, which 
 I venture to collect from a paper by Mr. Myers in the 
 ' American Veterinary Review/ Urine reddish-black, 
 sometimes coffee coloured, turbid, sometimes with a foul 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 169 
 
 odour. After standing for twenty-four hours gives a brick- 
 coloured precipitate. Sometimes this urine is streaked 
 with blood. Colicky pains seldom present. Mucous mem- 
 branes greyish. Faecal matter soft and streaked with blood. 
 Blood more arterial than venous gives a reddish yellow- 
 tinged serum. 
 
 Autopsy. — Subcutaneous blood-vessels very seldom 
 engorged. Muscles pale, epithelial lining of intestines 
 often partially detached, and of a greyish-green hue 
 and gangrenous odour, the denuded muscular coat being 
 congested. Peyer^s patches large and livid. 
 
 The disease generally lasts from two and a half to four 
 days, and is prevalent during the hot summer months. 
 Texan cattle convey the disease without necessarily suffer- 
 ing from it. Whether animals which receive the disease 
 can transmit it to others has been questioned. This disease 
 shows that sloughing of patches of the intestinal mucous 
 membrane (such as occur in swine plague) may be seen in 
 undoubted anthrax of cattle. 
 
 Gloss Antheax — Malignant Soee Theoat; Blain — 
 *^ HaivTcs.'' Sometimes the fauces become the special 
 seat of anthrax lesions, the tongue being enlarged espe- 
 cially at the base, livid in colour, and the seat of putrid 
 decomposition. The mucous membrane covering it and 
 
 Fig. 24.— Gloss anthrax or blaln. Early stage. (Armatage.) 
 
 inside the lips being raised in the form of blebs or phlyc- 
 tenae, which may be especially observed at the lateral 
 
170 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 parts, and give exit to a foul smelling, yellowish, or dark 
 red fluid. Large sloughing ulcers remain behind. The 
 surrounding parts are congested and swollen by extension 
 of inflammation. Saliva mixed with, the putrid serous 
 discharges pours profusely from the mouth. Respiration 
 is considerably interfered with, fever runs high, and 
 debility early sets in and increases rapidly. The pulse 
 very soon becomes small, double, and scarcely perceptible. 
 Sometimes recovery occurs, vv^hen there is considerable 
 sloughing of the tissues of the tongue, and the animal 
 has to be nursed through, a long period of convalescence. 
 Generally death takes place early, and post-mortem 
 examination shows general anthrax lesions besides the local 
 morbid conditions. 
 
 Treatment — Care must be taken lest the discharges 
 from tbemouthfall on an abraded surface. Cases of this kind 
 ought to be isolated. Free incisions should be made into 
 the gangrenous organ, and antiseptic applications be used 
 locally. The strength must be husbanded in every possible 
 manner, especially the patient must receive soft nutrient 
 food. Where the swelling of the throat threatens suffo- 
 cation tracheotomy must be performed. 
 
 Oharbonous gangrene of the lungs is described by Pro- 
 fessor Williams as a secondary anthracic condition. He 
 mentions it as appearing like a relapse on about the tenth 
 day, the breath becoming very foetid, the respiratory 
 movements muck accelerated, and the animals sinking 
 rapidly, the lungs after death being gangrenous, emphy- 
 sematous, and loaded with black, tarry, and decomposing 
 blood. 
 
 Emphysema Infectuosum, Black Quarter j Blade Leg, 
 Garhuncular Erysipelas (Armatage), Quarter Euilj Speed, 
 Inflammatory Fever, 8fc. — This is an anthracoid disease, 
 but is probably not anthrax, not due to Bacillus anthracis. 
 
 It used to be considered ^' external or symptomatic 
 charbon,'^ an endeavour of nature to throw off anthrax 
 poison from the system, and was by some thought rather 
 a favorable condition ; but quite recently the identity of 
 splenic fever and black quarter has been successfully called 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 171 
 
 into question (see ^' Synopses of Continental Veterinary 
 Journals/^ ^ Veterinarian^' February and Aprils 1880; also 
 Dr. Greenfield's Lecture IV, February number of ' Vete- 
 rinarian/ 1880) by MM. Arloing, Cornevin, and Vernaut. 
 These diseases are not reproducible one from the other, do 
 not occur together in a herd subjected to deleterious influ- 
 ences, and no bacteria have been generally recognised as 
 occurring in the blood in black quarter, nor did inoculations 
 with that fluid give rise to any attack of anthrax or of 
 the emphysematous disease (except in Dr. Greenfield's 
 case). Cattle of all ages aro liable to become affected, 
 but this disorder generally appears in young stock aged 
 from six months to two years, which have been changed 
 from poor to rich pasture, especially low-lying land. Such 
 animals thrive with rapidity until they attain a high state 
 of plethora, when some of them, perhaps, become lame. 
 A swelling commences in some part of the body, especially 
 the hock. This is very hot and painful ; it is apt to be 
 mistaken for an injury. It rapidly extends up the limb, 
 causing very considerable tumefaction, at first highly 
 painful. Later insensibility may be observed in the parts, 
 they become gangrenous, cold, and crepitate on pressure, 
 in consequence of accumulation of gases in the subcutaneous 
 areolar tissue as a result of decomposition. When cut into 
 it is found to be produced also by accumulation of putrid, 
 sanious, and yellow gelatinous material underneath the skin 
 and between the muscles of the part ; also patches of black 
 pulpy substances may be observed in various parts of the 
 tumour. Similar swellings in other cases occur in the 
 fore limb, breast, back, or sides, manifesting the charac- 
 teristic changes mentioned. Constitutional symptoms run 
 high at this stage. The earliest signs may be observed 
 before any local disorder when a herd is under close super- 
 vision. They are those of general disorder and acute fever. 
 The occurrence of tumefaction is said to be accompanied by 
 diminution in the constitutional symptoms, but we can 
 hardly regard this as correct; the change consists rather 
 in inability of the constitution any longer to maintain the 
 acute fever. The animal rapidly loses strength, maintains 
 
172 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the recumbent position, becomes tympanitic and comatose, 
 and death may occur even within twelve hours after the 
 first manifestation of lameness. In the early stages the 
 bowels are torpid, and during the acute attack the fjeces 
 may be bloody, and the urine is highly coloured from ad- 
 mixture with blood. This is an acutely painful disease ; 
 the animal at first stands with straightened neck and 
 muzzle protruded, breathing rapidly, and sometimes moan- 
 ing. Some few cases recover, the constitutional energy 
 being sufficiently powerful to throw off those parts which 
 have undergone mortification. The tumours burst spon- 
 taneously, and by ordinary processes large masses of dead 
 tissue are removed, whereby deep and extensive ulcers are 
 left which heal by granulation, or, in some cases, it is 
 said, by cicatrisation with a considerable breach of 
 surface. The skin sometimes sloughs in patches, and 
 phlyctenae may be observed in the mouth. Delitescence 
 or metastasis of the tumefactions is recorded. On post- 
 mortem- examination, besides the local conditions, the 
 general signs which we have mentioned as occurring in 
 anthrax are present. The lungs are congested, and the 
 bronchi filled with sanious and frothy mucus. 
 
 Causes. — Dr. Greenfield has observed in a case of this 
 disease which he reproduced by inoculation of a guinea 
 pig, not Bacillus anthracisj but Bacterium termo, or an 
 organism like it, in the blood. Arloing speaks of certain 
 refractive corpuscles which do not by culture develop into 
 the anthrax bacillus as being visible in the blood. The 
 disease is prevalent at certain times and in certain places. 
 It is seen most often in summer, and on low-lying or 
 undrained pastures ; never occurs in winter, and seldom 
 in animals which are housed, or in poor beasts. It 
 seems to have some predilection for well-bred stock, and 
 generally has somewhat a sporadic character. Its com- 
 municability by contagion is questionable. 
 
 Treatment. — Free incisions should be made into the 
 tumours, and the living parts around stimulated. Stimu- 
 lant tonics and internal disinfectants should be freely 
 administered, and the strength should be supported in 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 173 
 
 every possible manner. When sloughing has taken place, 
 antiseptic dressings must be applied to the exposed sur- 
 faces. For prevention of outbreaks among the rest of the 
 herd, bleeding is often resorted to, but its value is doubt- 
 ful. Administration of a cathartic dose and insertion of 
 a seton in the dewlap are recommended by experience. 
 Antiseptics should be freely administered, and the animals 
 should be removed from the pasture to which the attack 
 is attributed. When the disease is seen in its earliest 
 stages bleeding may be practised with benefit. 
 
 Pyamia and Septicemia (except the " parturient fever '' 
 forms) are not often noticed in works on cattle pathology, 
 but we must devote a few lines to them here, because of 
 their importance in any system of classification of diseases, 
 and because, though they have not often been observed, 
 they probably do affect bovines. The latest views con- 
 cerning their nature may be seen in the ' Veterinarian '' 
 for January, 1880, where Dr. Greenfield draws a dis- 
 tinction between these two diseases, which are too often 
 confounded. 
 
 Pyemia is an invasion of the system by micrococci, 
 very simple bacteria, which are developed when atmo- 
 spheric germs fall on pus. -They enter the system, cause 
 fever, and the formation of '' secondary " abscess is in 
 various parts of the body. They are enabled to produce 
 the abscesses by accumulation in branches of small blood- 
 vessels and migration into the surrounding intercellular 
 interspaces, there giving rise to irritation. The patient 
 frequently succumbs to the weakening efPects of con- 
 siderable suppuration and fever. Cruzel treats of this 
 disease at some length. 
 
 Septicemia results from the entry into the blood of one 
 of the organisms which abound in putrid solutions. It is 
 probably not the ordinary bacterium of putrefaction 
 {B, termo). The blood undergoes putrefactive changes, 
 and the whole system collapses, yielding to gangrenous 
 results in various parts of the body. It supervenes on 
 poisoned wounds, &c. 
 
 Paetueient Septicemia, " Parturient Fever,^^ has been 
 
174 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 confused with parturient apoplexy. It is apparently only 
 ordinary septicaemia, originating through lesions of the 
 genital organs, and, frequently, putrefactive decomposition 
 of genital products. Thus, it has been observed after abor- 
 tion, when laceration of the cotyledons of the uterus 
 occurs. Also it is associated with cases of retention of 
 foetal membranes, decomposition of the foetus, or the 
 introduction of instruments, hands of an operator, &c., 
 contaminated with septic matter. It generally appears 
 within a week after calving, and is almost always accom- 
 panied by metritis. The ordinary symptoms of this latter 
 affection are modified by the septicaemic condition. Ecchy- 
 moses take place on serous and mucous membranes. 
 Characteristic gangrenous ulcers and diphtheritic deposits 
 are to be seen in the vulva, vagina, and uterus. The 
 labia are swollen, tender, and from between them is dis- 
 charged a foetid brownish matter. Tympany, ascites, 
 and other complications appear. The temperature falls 
 very low, the pulse becomes imperceptible, and the respi- 
 rations very quick, and there is loss of power in the hind 
 limbs before death. 
 
 Treatment. — Kemove from among other cows, for they 
 are liable to infection. Disinfect the discharges and hands 
 of the operator, remove the decomposing foetus or en- 
 velopes, and inject a solution of carbolic acid into the 
 uterus. Apply glycerin and carbolic acid directly to 
 any ulcers within reach. Stimulants must be administered 
 freely. Quinine has been highly recommended in such 
 cases. 
 
 By some authors all forma of '' parturient apoplexy *' 
 are attributed to specific organisms. We are not assured 
 of this, however, and shall see that our best authorities 
 are not of this opinion. 
 
 Here we ought to notice that a Septic Mammitis of 
 contagious character is recorded by continental observers. 
 Professor Diekerhoff investigated an outbreak in Olden- 
 burg ('Veterinary Journal/ viii, 335). It commenced in 
 1873 and '' still continues/^ It commences in the teats, and 
 the inflammatory action extends thence into the milk 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 175 
 
 ducts and intimate structure of the mammary gland. It 
 produces changes similar to those which result from or- 
 dinary mammitis ; there is slight fever present. It affects 
 all female bovines, even before the functional activity of 
 the gland commences,, and persists until the next calving. 
 It often destroys one or more quarters of the gland. 
 Occasionally suppuration takes place, and sometimes the 
 gland loses secreting power by complete induration of its 
 lining membrane. It is attributed to local contagion, the 
 virus being either conveyed by the milker^s hand, or ob- 
 tained when the animal lies down where diseased milk has 
 been spilt. Franck (see Fleming's ' Veterinary Obstetrics/ 
 p. 695) injected pus from the udder of an affected animal 
 into that of a healthy cow, and thus communicated the 
 disorder. He considers most cases of mammitis septic, and 
 has found bacteria (micrococci) in the milk in this disease. 
 But we must remember that milk is one of the best culture 
 fluids for all forms of bacteria, and so the forms he ob- 
 served may have been harmless. The disease is attri- 
 buted to a septic ferment, causing decomposition, which 
 leads to inflammation -producing substances, when under- 
 going development in stagnant milk in the udder. 
 Milking every two hours and destruction or disinfection of 
 the milk are suggested as the best measures in these cases. 
 
 Glanders and Farcy have been described as affecting 
 the ox. This results from mistaken diagnosis, malig- 
 nant catarrh and certain eruptive disorders having been, 
 thus confounded with the disorder, which is with difficulty, 
 if at all, communicable from the horse to ruminants. The 
 farcinous form of equinia may be confused with ordinary 
 inflammation of lymphatics such as results from a poisoned 
 wound of any kind, 
 
 Strangles J too, has erroneously been stated to affect the 
 ox, scrofulous enlargement of the parotid and submaxillary 
 glands, as well as sporadic inflammation of the salivary 
 glands, having been recorded under this heading. We 
 are not aware whether any attempts have been made to 
 communicate this disease from the horse to the ox by 
 inoculation. 
 
176 LOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Erysipelas is probably somewbat similar in its nature. 
 There are on record some cases of its occurrence in cattle, 
 but this point is contested. It is a specific inflammation of 
 the skin and subcutaneous areolar tissue, which sometimes 
 also affects the mucous membranes, and is considered to 
 be infectious. There is a highly congested condition of 
 the cutaneous vessels, so that the skin has a scarlet colour 
 temporarily removable by pressure. Is remarkably tense, 
 and the seat of a peculiarly intense burning sensation. 
 This spreads rapidly and terminates in resolution, effusion 
 of a considerable amount of serum (forming blebs), and 
 gangrene of patches of skin. The latter is seldom fol- 
 lowed by recovery. In phlegmonous erysipelas the 
 areolar subcutaneous tissue is involved, and deep-seated 
 suppuration is liable to occur. Treatment comprises dis- 
 infection and fomentations of affected parts, and such 
 constitutional measures as may seem necessary to support 
 the strength of the animal. This disease may attack one 
 animal several times. When there is a constitutional 
 tendency to this disorder an erysipelatous patch appears 
 around any wound and rapidly spreads. In this disease 
 the fever generally runs high. 
 
 Diphtheria of man is attributed to micrococci, which 
 invade the system and bring about changes in the mucous 
 membranes, especially that of the air passages, resulting 
 in a characteristic highly consistent false membrane, 
 which forms casts of the larynx, trachea, and bronchi. 
 When a firm cast of a passage results from deposition of 
 lymph on the surface of a mucous membrane it is a 
 crujpous layer, but when the deeper structures are involved 
 so that the membrane adheres more firmly to the surface 
 from which it is not removable without leaving an ulcer 
 it is diphtheritic. Probably crupous formations are non- 
 specific, while diphtheritic are due to special organisms 
 destroying the texture of the corium. Armatage speaks 
 of croup as having " been observed in the cow with greater 
 frequency than other lower animals,'^ and Williams men- 
 tions the same disorder as affecting " young cattle, varying 
 from a few weeks to a few months old, when kept on low. 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 177 
 
 damp pastures^ more especially in meadows near rivers^ 
 and during the fall of the year/^ And he says, " I have 
 seen this disease in one district only/^ Still he views it 
 as non-specific. Mr. W. Beach worked up this subject in 
 the commencement of the present year, and came to the 
 conclusions, which he expressed in an essay read before 
 the Veterinary Medical Association, that diphtheria affects 
 cattle, and is probably originated by outbreaks of the 
 same disease in man, also that the disease termed croup does 
 not exist in lower animals, cases which have been described 
 under this heading being diphtheritic. He has sufficiently 
 supported his views to sanction our insertion of an account 
 of the disease known as diphtheria or croup here, but we 
 would have it clearly understood that we believe our data 
 on the subject are not sufficiently numerous to warrant 
 any permanent conclusions. Some day, perhaps, the ques- 
 tion will be elucidated by experimentation. 
 
 Symptoms, — Fever, giving rise to a quick, hard pulse ; 
 sore throat with swelling, difficulty in swallowing, 
 paroxysmal cough, discharge of mucus from the nostrils 
 and of saliva from the mouth ; breathing quickened ; a 
 crowing sound during inspiration, also laryngeal spasm, 
 which is very liable to come on suddenly when the animal 
 is excited; debility, denoted by the usual signs, brought 
 about by the inability to introduce a due amount of air 
 into the lungs, also by imperfect feeding. Later, the pulse 
 becomes weak, and the coughing more violent, until on 
 about the third day either casts of the bronchi or flakes of 
 lymph are coughed up, and the animal may recover. 
 Sometimes suffocation occurs before this has had time to 
 take place. 
 
 Autojpsy discloses the larynx, trachea, and bronchi, and 
 also the tonsils, lined more or less perfectly by a greyish 
 consistent membrane, which in a fresh case is firmly 
 attached, but in one of some standing is loosened by 
 effusion or suppuration beneath it. Micrococci have been 
 observed in these deposits taken from man. 
 
 Treatment. — Nurse with great care, especially giving 
 liquid diet. Steam the air passages. Give a free supply 
 
 12 
 
178 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 of water with nitre and clilorate of potash in it. Secure 
 as much fresh air for the patient as possible ; if suffoca- 
 tion threatens perform tracheotomy. The seat of the 
 operation must be determined by auscultation of the 
 trachea. Where false membranes are present a peculiar 
 vibration results from the rush of air. As a precau- 
 tionary measure we should disinfect. In each case we 
 should endeavour to prove or disprove relation with a 
 similar outbreak in man. Pigs and other domesticated 
 animals are said to be affected by this disorder. Diph- 
 theria of man has been attributed to ^' garget^' in cattle 
 (at a meeting of the Pathological Society). The idea was 
 originated by Dr. Power, who totally ignored the intimate 
 acquaintance which veterinary surgeons have with mam- 
 mitis. His ideas were soon refuted, but, as Mr. Beach 
 suggested, may there not be a diphtheritic form of mam- 
 mitis of the cow ? We are not in a position to disprove 
 this. It must be considered a question for the future. 
 
 Hitherto among specific disorders we have remarked 
 communicability from one animal to another. There are 
 specific diseases, however, which cannot be transmitted in 
 this way ; they occur as epizootics or enzootics, and seem 
 to be associated with special conditions of the air. These 
 atmospheric states may be electrical, chemical, or, as is 
 most probable, due to the prevalence of minute organisms. 
 This view is strongly advocated by the celebrated ob- 
 server Leydig, who goes so far as to compare ordinary 
 contagious disorders to trichiniasis, which disease one 
 warm-blooded animal directly communicates to another, 
 and these non-contagious diseases to trematode invasion, 
 where externally to the warm-blooded body is an inter- 
 mediary bearer in which the parasite develops until 
 fit to enter the body of the high vertebrate. In the 
 latter case it will be observed that no direct communica- 
 tion of disorder can occur. So it is with influenza and 
 its allies. Higher animals can only become affected 
 as a result of the maturation of the (probably organic) 
 poison in the air. We mention this as the most plausible 
 explanation of influenzoid affections with which we are 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 179 
 
 acquainted. The epizootic attack of influenza seems to 
 extend in a definite direction witli varying rapidity ; from 
 the subtle nature of the poison it is difficult to guard 
 against. It affects the majority of animals in a neighbour- 
 hood, and often its progress in the system is marked by 
 extreme and rapid debility. It has been observed in 
 islands, whither it must have been conveyed by the air, 
 since they have not been visited from the mainland during 
 an outbreak. Many of the phenomena of these affections may 
 be explained on the theory of clouds of disease-producing 
 bodies in the air. One of the most remarkable of the diseases 
 of this nature is enteric fever of man. It can generally 
 be associated with ingestion of impure water polluted with 
 the filterings of drains and cesspools, the intermediary 
 phase of the disease-generating organism being passed in 
 human ejecta. Some have attributed outbreaks of this 
 disease among men to consumption of diseased milk, and 
 also of diseased flesh, but the diagnosis of enteric fever 
 in man is not accurate. Trichinosis, for instance, is 
 mistaken for it, and is liable to be confounded with any 
 gastro- enteric disturbance. Where there could have been 
 no doubt about the diagnosis, the typhoid or enteric fever 
 has been traced to polluted water admixed with the milk. 
 When influenza is prevalent as a panzootic it is said to 
 sometimes affect the ox, but the most remarkable influen- 
 zoid disease of cattle is known as malignant cataeeh, 
 COEYZA, or " glanders '' (but with the disease of the same 
 name affecting the horse it has not the slightest relation). 
 It is a specific febrile disorder, the lesions of which are 
 most marked on the mucous membrane, especially that of 
 the facial sinuses. It is non-contagious, and generally 
 affects only two or three animals in a herd. Old animals 
 seldom, if ever, suffer from it. Fever is marked at the 
 commencement, but later there is extreme prostration and 
 the animal dies asphyxiated. The visible mucous mem- 
 branes are purple and dry, and later tend to undergo 
 ulceration. There is an abundant flow of saliva from the 
 mouth in the early stages, and the bowels are torpid, but 
 soon diarrhoea sets in, the urine becomes offensive, and 
 
180 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the breath fetid. The eyelids are swollen, admission 
 of light into the eye proves painful, and there is profuse 
 lachryraation. There is also a painful cough. 
 
 Sloughing ulceration then sets in, the discharges from 
 mouth, eyes, and nostrils become purulent, and the latter 
 often sanguineous. Ulceration of the cornea may occur, 
 ulcers are visible in the Schneiderian membrane, and 
 
 Fia. 25. — Malignant catarrh. Second stage. A horn lost, and nostrils, lips, 
 &c., ulcerated. (Armatage.) 
 
 since these extend into the sinuses the pus becomes pent 
 up in these cavities. The vascular investment of the horn- 
 cores is involved in the diseased action, so that the horns 
 drop off. Red patches form in the mouth, and then 
 slough away. It is said the hoofs also sometimes fall oif, 
 BO that severe lameness is present. Pregnant animals abort. 
 
 On post-mortem examination the sinuses are found full 
 of fetid pus, and their lining membrane very considerably 
 ulcerated. Superficial lesions and ecchymoses are evident 
 on the mucous membrane of the air and alimentary 
 passages. Ecchymoses also occur on the serous mem- 
 branes, and there is general venous distension with dark 
 blood. 
 
 Treatment — Change of air as much as possible, nursing, 
 liberal steaming of the head. Administration of stimu- 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 181 
 
 lants combined with vegetable tonics. During tlie stage 
 of convalescence mineral tonics, liberal diet, and fresh air. 
 Nutritive and laxatives enemas are rendered particularly 
 useful by the swollen and irritable state of the fauces. 
 The ulcerations may be treated with solution of carbolic 
 acid or chloride of zinc, and the same application may be 
 made to any exposed keratogenous structures. Death 
 gradually occurs in less than a week after the attack. 
 
 Eabies (erroneously called Hydeophobia). — The poison 
 which exists in its greatest virulency in the saliva of the 
 mad dog induces disease when introduced by inoculation 
 into the system of the ox. It has been proved that from 
 the latter animal the disease may be conveyed to man by 
 the saliva falling on an abraded surface. The virus of 
 rabies is remarkable in many respects. Thus, its incuba- 
 tory period is long, usually in the ox about a fortnight, 
 but in man it has been found to extend over years. In 
 this respect rabies reminds us of scrofula and cancer. It 
 is held by most authorities that the virus remains during 
 this time undergoing changes at the seat of introduction, 
 and this view, is confirmed by the local irritation almost 
 invariably present when acute symptoms set in, which 
 again reminds us of the above-mentioned diseases. Many 
 animals are able to resist the virus, so that often true 
 inoculations do not result in acute symptoms, and it seems 
 that the virulence very soon passes from the carcase. 
 
 Symptoms. — Some three weeks or so after the animal 
 has been bitten it manifests general signs of disorder 
 and is very excitable, and probably the sexual func- 
 tions are perverted, as indicated by increased sexual 
 appetite, especially in the male. The appetite is depraved, 
 the faeces scanty, and the patient is either in a dull state or 
 vicious, charging at and '^ riding '' other cattle, and occa- 
 sionally attempting to bite them. The excitement becomes 
 more marked, the patient bellows, but the voice is said to be 
 altered in tone. A profuse discharge of frothy saliva 
 flows from the mouth, there is a constant champing of the 
 jaws, the eyes are projecting, and the conjunctivae injected. 
 Painful tenesmus is present. This lasts for some time. 
 
182 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and fhe animal loses flesh rapidly, paralysis of tlie hind 
 limbs occurs, and death soon ensues. The recurrence of 
 irritation at the seat of injury takes place in the ox as in 
 other animals, and the patient may endeavour to tear his 
 inoculated limb to pieces. The ox thus affected plunges his 
 nose into water when it is presented to him, but is prevented 
 from drinking by spasms' of the throat. The period of 
 incubation is shorter when the head is the seat of inocula- 
 tion than when other parts of the body are injured. 
 
 Fost-mortem appearances. — Congestion of the brain and 
 its meninges and accumulation of serous fluid in the 
 arachnoid sac. Accumulation in and around the cerebral 
 vessels of corpuscles of a special character. Small circum- 
 scribed spots of blood extravasation in various parts of the 
 body. Congestion of the mucous surface at the base of 
 the tongue and of the lining membrane of the abomasum 
 and bowels. Foreign bodies in the rumen. Blood dark 
 red, viscid, and imperfectly coagulable. 
 
 Treatment. — Curative, ineffectual and dangerous ; there- 
 fore, except for experimental purposes, not to be attempted. 
 Prophylactic : when an animal has been bitten by a rabid 
 dog shave off the hair around every injury, and deeply 
 cauterise with the red-hot iron, or excise with a consider- 
 able part of the surrounding tissues. Nitrate of silver 
 and other caustics have been recommended in these cases, 
 but it is difficult to ensure application to all the wounds, 
 and especially to their depths. 
 
 Diagnosis. — Rabies has been mistaken for phrenitis. 
 In the latter disease the wildness of the animal is perfectly 
 uncontrolled, but in the former there is a '* method in his 
 madness.'^ It also resembles mania puerperalis (which see). 
 The flesh of animals which have died from rabies has been 
 eaten with impunity, but ought preferably to be destroyed. 
 
 It has been observed for a long time that even ordinary 
 febrile attacks become less severe towards midday, but 
 aggravated in the morning and at night. This we have 
 been accustomed to vaguely associate with the phases of 
 rotation of the earth, &c. Certain researches upon remit- 
 tent fever, which have been lately made by Dr. Manson and 
 
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD. 183 
 
 others, promise to elucidate our pathology of these disorders, 
 and to explain occasional or regular access of intensity of 
 febrile diseases. Spirilla are corkscrew-shaped organisms, 
 which occur in the blood in intermittent fevers ; they were 
 considered special life phases of bacteria; by observers of 
 high standing they are thought to be nematodes. Manson 
 notes that they are absent from the blood of the patient 
 during midday, but are generally diffused through that fluid 
 at night, when their intermediary bearers, the mosquitoes, 
 are actively blood-sucking. We have already observed 
 that disorders of this intermittent character affect the ox, 
 especially in low lying, marshy places. Quinine is the 
 most useful of the antiperiodic agents suited for these 
 cases. 
 
 Parasites in the blood, or which are distributed through- 
 out the system by the blood, and thus are found in many 
 parts of the body. — Haematozoa, parasites whose habitat is 
 the blood, though frequent in some animals, have not yet 
 been observed in the ox. Many entozoa are supposed 
 when immature to enter into the blood, and by that fluid 
 to be carried to their special habitats, and when they 
 arrive there instinctively to migrate through the walls of the 
 blood-vessels, just as we may imagine the contagia of specific 
 eruptive disorders do in selecting special membranes as their 
 seat of lesion. Of these we need only instance Strongylus 
 micruruSy the producer of parasitic bronchitis. Other 
 entozoa are carried in an immature condition indifferently 
 to various tissues. Of these the most important clinically 
 is Echinococcus veterinorum, the cystic phase of Taenia 
 echinococcus of the dog. 
 
 Echinococcus Disease is especially prevalent in certain 
 localities, as, for instance, the Yale of Aylesbury, and con- 
 sists in the growth in certain organs, notably the lungs 
 and liver, of cysts, frequently multilocular, and always 
 enclosed in a dense capsule and filled with a watery fluid. 
 The true cysts is thin- walled, of a pure white colour, and 
 soft. As these grow very gradually they cause little, if 
 any, functional disturbance, so that often their presence is 
 not even suspected, the bearer being slaughtered, and the 
 
184 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 liver, for instance, found filled with enormous cysts, being 
 thereby much enlarged and deformed, and with compara- 
 tively little secreting substance remaining. These parasites 
 
 Fig. 26. — Tcsnia eckinoccoccus. A. Mattire form, 
 or scolex of cyst (Cobbold). 
 
 B. Tajnia head 
 
 have been observed in many parts of the body, even in bones; 
 they seem to prefer protected situations, as parenchymatous 
 or soft viscera. Dogs, foxes, and other canine bearers of 
 Tania echinococcus pass the segments of that parasite 
 with their fsBces, and thus act as diffusers of this disorder. 
 Parts containing the cysts should never be given to dogs, 
 but destroyed. Intimate association of dogs with cattle is 
 related to prevalence of this disorder. The eradication of 
 this disease is of great importance, as it causes a certain 
 mortality among human beings, especially in Iceland. 
 
 In concluding our notice on specific blood d'iseases, we 
 must observe one remarkable argument in favour of the 
 hypothesis of their parasiticnature. As methods of research 
 have improved diseases previously classed among the exan- 
 themata have been traced to animal or vegetable parasites ; 
 favus and scabies prove this. Hurtrel d^Arboval was only in 
 accordance with his times when he gravely discussed the 
 value of vaccination as a preventive of the latter disorder. 
 
P0IS0K3j^^^.-__;^ 185 
 
 > OF THE 
 
 NIVERSITY 
 
 CHAPTER II {Continued), 
 
 Addendum 1. — Poisons. 
 
 In tbe consideration of matters which act deleteriously 
 upon the animal system some difficulty is experienced in 
 defining the term poison. For if we accept the common 
 interpretation of the term, anything taken by an animal 
 which causes sickness or death, we are at once faced by 
 the difficulty that certain parasites and mechanical impedi- 
 ments to passages, as calculi or a turnip in the oesophagus 
 may be thus considered, and any alimentary matter would 
 thus be a poison if taken in sufficient quantity or in an un- 
 prepared state. Dr. Taylor's definition is about the best 
 with which we are acquainted : " A poison is a substance 
 which, when absorbed into the blood, is capable of seriously 
 affecting health or of destroying life.^^ But it seems to 
 exclude certain corrosive agents which we must consider 
 as poisons. A poison is any substance which, when intro- 
 duced into the body in moderate doses, is capable of 
 producing serious disorder or death, without acting me- 
 chanically or by vital growth and propagation. We thus 
 exclude, on the one hand, impactions of foreign bodies, on the 
 other, parasites, and especially bacterial organisms, which 
 are the active principles of the majority of animal poisons 
 (so-called) or preferably "virulent^^ matters. A considerable 
 analogy exists between poisons and medical agents, and 
 no small difficulty will be found in distinguishing one from 
 the other. This arises from the fact that there is no true 
 distinction but that of degree in action ; every therapeu- 
 tical agent has a maximum dose, which varies according to 
 the special circumstances of each case, and if this be 
 exceeded will act as a poison. Thus, our most powerful 
 poisons, when given in moderate doses are our most useful 
 
186 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 medicines. Thus, we may revert to our table of medi- 
 cinal agents as classified, and shall be able to examine 
 poisons under the various headings there indicated. Of 
 Hsematics, acids, alkalies, tonics, and chaljbeates do not 
 exert a toxic action by passing into the blood, but by 
 their irritant and astringent effects upon the surfaces 
 with which they come into contact. Hence they must be 
 considered somewhat as astringents and arranged with 
 astringents in the Irritant division. Again, general 
 stimulants cannot be considered poisonous in the same 
 sense of the term, for they simply accelerate vital process. 
 It is only the most powerful of them which exert any direct 
 toxic effects, as oxygen gas when inhaled in an undiluted 
 condition. Thus we classify poisons as — 
 
 ["Special stimulants, as strychnia. 
 Neueotics J Narcotics, as belladonna. 
 
 I Sedatives I ^^"^.^f' ^s prussic acid. 
 
 {_ I Special, as digitalis. 
 
 r Simple irritants, as mustard. 
 J J Corrosives, as bichloride of mercury. 
 
 1EEITANTS< Astringents, as oak shoots. 
 
 [_Eliminatives, as nitrate of potash. 
 
 With regard to the particular conditions of the animal to 
 which poisonous agents are administered, we must remem- 
 ber the phenomena of idiosyncrasy and toleration. Large 
 quantities of most vegetable agents are necessary to exert 
 a poisonous action on herbivora, and a small amount of 
 animal poison is effectual, but there are marked exceptions 
 to this as to all other rules. The phenomenon of tolerance 
 is the condition of becoming accustomed to the remedy, so 
 that larger doses are required than at first to produce medi- 
 cinal effects. Sometimes, however, agents are cumulative, 
 so that successive doses at length simultaneously exert their 
 action and may thus destroy the patient. This results in 
 the case of those agents which are not readily thrown off 
 from the system by the excretory organs. We see this 
 in the action of digitalis, which only after several doses is 
 removed by the kidneys. Certain diseases may be con- 
 founded with poisoning, and it is a matter of extreme 
 difficulty in some cases to make a correct diagnosis. We 
 shall not be surprised at this if we consider that poisons 
 
POISONS. 187 
 
 are but special causes of certain and varied disorders, 
 such as gastero-enteritis, tetanus, and inflammation of 
 the kidneys. Taking this view of our subject, we shall 
 not here enter into unnecessary details, but shall confine 
 our attention to special points in the etiology, sympto- 
 matology, and pathology of cases of poisoning. 
 
 Causes. — Poisons are obtained by cattle in various ways. 
 Of these, the principal are overdose of medicinal agents j 
 either as a result of mistake or ignorance or its accumu- 
 lation in the foodj presence of deleterious matters in the 
 food, as poisonous plants or lead refuse on pastures, or 
 poisonous seeds incorporated with the proper ingredients 
 of cakes. In these cases we see that the matters have 
 been passed into the alimentary canal, and this is generally 
 the method of entry in cases of malicious poisoning. 
 Thus, it behoves us in cases where the slightest suspicion 
 of foul play or poisoning is indicated to inquire closely 
 into the surroundings of the patient, whether it has 
 recently been subjected to medicinal treatment, either 
 openly or secretly, by the attendants. This must be 
 judged more by the evidence of surroundings than by 
 verbal statements. The accidental observation of a medi- 
 cine bottle or of a piece of waste paper may sometimes 
 give us more information than an hour^s conversation with 
 individuals who are apt to endeavour to conceal the truth 
 either from shame or guilt. Again, the nature of the diet 
 and its composition should be noted, and in this respect 
 the practical investigation of pastures is of the highest 
 importance. 
 
 When called in to a case of supposed poisoning of 
 animals out at pasture, the practitioner must set about the 
 inquiry with an entirely unprejudiced mind. He will often 
 find that the outbreak is one of anthracoid or other 
 enzootic disease not due to poison properly so-called. 
 
 It is in a case of this nature that the scientific prac- 
 titioner finds the value of a knowledge of botany. When 
 called in to put a stop to some unusual fatality in a flock 
 or herd, after duly recording the history of the out- 
 break, the symptoms, post-mortem appearances, and 
 
188 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 general treatment of the animals, lie directs his investi- 
 gations to the nature of the pasturage. Careful inspec- 
 tion of all parts of the field or fields is necessary, for the 
 growth of some plants is confined sometimes to very 
 small spots, and one individual plant may destroy a herd. 
 The general and special nature of the flora must be ex- 
 amined, all known plants being duly noted, all unknown 
 plants suspected and investigated. The hedges, trees, and 
 substances around the field, which are accessible to the 
 occupant, must be observed, and the general character of 
 the ground, as nature of soil, elevation, irregularities ; also 
 the kinds of manure which have been used to it must not 
 escape notice. 
 
 Poisons, however, gain entry into the system also 
 through the respiratory mucous memhranej as in carbonic 
 acid poisoning and overdose of chloroform, or through the 
 sMiiy as where poisonous dressings have been applied 
 for skin disease, especially when surface abrasions are 
 present. Cases are sometimes seen in which agents are 
 absorbed from wounds, as arsenic in cases of fistula ; and 
 the subcutaneous areolar tissue may be the seat of intro- 
 duction of the poison, as in overdose of agents by the 
 subcutaneous-injection method of administration. How- 
 ever they gain entry into the system these agents either 
 give rise to great local disorder or undergo absorption, 
 and thus produce their poisonous effect as medicinal agents 
 act. They are in the latter case sooner or later removed 
 by the excretory organs, which is a fact of great clinical 
 value, for thus, by an examination of the faeces or the 
 urine, a diagnosis may be confirmed or otherwise, and 
 sometimes guilt be brought home to a culprit who would 
 otherwise escape unless his victim died. Death is pro- 
 duced in the usual ways ; by the action of poisons, either 
 directly or indirectly, cessation of the heart's action is 
 brought about. It must be remarked that in cases of 
 proved or suspected poisoning the greatest care should be 
 exercised in making a plain record of the facts, as, 
 perhaps more frequently than any others, these prove the 
 cause of litigation. 
 
POISONS. 189 
 
 Treatment comprises certain general principles of great 
 importance. The poisonous action may be arrested, if 
 we be called in and make our diagnosis in good time, 
 either by preventing the taking up of the poison or its 
 irritant action on the tissues by intermingling it with 
 mucilaginous matter. In the case of irritants this measure 
 might be supplanted by dilution, but this only tends to 
 promote absorption, and therefore is inadmissible in the 
 case of those poisons which act from the blood. Adminis- 
 tration of such bland and mucilaginous agents as white of 
 eggj wheat flour, and meal, or even of blood, should be 
 one of the first measures resorted to in cases of poisoning 
 through the alimentary canal. It has this advantage, 
 that the albuminous matters in some instances chemically 
 unite with the poisons, and so convert them into insoluble 
 and harmless albuminates. This is the simplest means 
 of antidotal treatment. Antidotes are of two kinds, 
 chemical or physiological. The former when they meet 
 poisons exert chemical action upon them, giving rise to 
 harmless products. The latter are available in the case 
 of those agents which act from the blood ; they produce 
 the reverse physiological action, and thus tend to neutra- 
 lise the excessive effects of the agent. These effects also 
 must be counteracted as much as possible by such measures 
 as the case, viewed purely from a clinical point of view, 
 seems to require. Sometimes we are enabled by direct 
 methods to remove the poison from the system, as by 
 washing it off from the skin or by causing its expulsion 
 from the alimentary canal with greater rapidity than is 
 compatible with absorption. Thus, emetics, the stomach- 
 pump, and cathartic agents are valuable in the hands of 
 the toxicologist. 
 
 In observing the post-mortem appearances we must 
 carefully examine the position of the animal, the state 
 of rigor mortis, also the tendency to putrefactive changes 
 in relation to the length of time which has existed 
 since death. The conditions of the surface of the body, 
 as indicating an easy death, or the reverse, should be 
 noted, and the markings of the animal, for 'purposes of 
 
190 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 identification. Examination of the various organs must 
 then be made in the usual way, and specially the eye and 
 nose must be exercised to detect any unusual lesion or 
 noteworthy contents of the alimentary canal or any special 
 odour, for some agents are at once detectable by their 
 special odour which they impart to the blood (chloroform). 
 The contents of the alimentary canal are of the greatest 
 importance, for small particles of mineral poison may be 
 found, or leaves of special plants, or some vehicle of a 
 poisonous dose surreptitiously administered, such as food 
 material not recently administered by the owner, generally 
 of a tempting nature. Some of the contents of the 
 stomach, intestines, and bladder, should be put aside in 
 a closed and sealed vessel for chemical analysis, and it is 
 advisable to similarly preserve portions of the walls of the 
 stomach, and of the bowels and liver, as in these will often 
 be found traces of the poison. Here the practitioner's duty 
 comes to an end, unless he be willing to adopt the methods 
 of testing suggested in works of toxicology. We may 
 remark that the complexity of these processes generally 
 renders the opinion of an expert desirable, if any import- 
 ance is to be attached to the case. It is advisable to be 
 careful as to the manner in which parts and liquids im- 
 pregnated with the poison are disposed of, for pigs and 
 dogs may involuntarily afford a verification of our surmises 
 by the physiological test. 
 
 In special consideration of the various kinds of poisons 
 we must observe certain characters general to the groups, 
 and then those points of importance with regard to parti- 
 cular noxious agents. General stimulants pass into the 
 blood and are rapidly removed ; they never act as poisons 
 after absorption, but the Special Stimulants are less readily 
 eliminated, and, therefore, produce toxic effects varying 
 with the agent. Thus, strychnia, under its various forms, 
 nux vomica, strychnine, and Ignatius bean, stimulates the 
 spinal cord and the nerves passing off from it, and thus 
 increases sensibility to a slight degree (Headland), and 
 causes tetanic spasm. It is seldom used for malicious 
 poisoning, but may be given in overdose. It can be 
 
POISONS. 191 
 
 detected in the contents of the stomach by Stas' test. 
 The prolonged and exaggerated post-mortem rigor is 
 also distinctive. The contents of the alimentary canal are 
 generally poisonous. The body decomposes slowly. Ergot 
 of rye and other ergots may be obtained from the pasture, 
 as this fungus grows not only upon the rye, but on many 
 other grasses. It is apt to prove the cause of epizootic 
 abortion through its special action on the muscular fibres 
 of the pregnant uterus. Professor Robertson attributes the 
 nervous disorder, '^ louping ill '' of sheep, to its action. It 
 is seldom given in overdose, but then has a dangerous action 
 on the brain, producing at times narcotism, at other times 
 syncope. It is considered to have a special action also on 
 the white muscular fibres of the small arteries, and hence 
 has been used as a haemostatic, but it has been known to 
 cause gangrene of parts distant from the centre of circu- 
 lation. The symptoms and a careful examination of the 
 food must prove our guide in diagnosis of these cases. 
 Cathartics, sedatives (local and general), and an imme- 
 diate change of pasture, are indicated in an enzootic of 
 abortion due to this poison. 
 
 Naecotics are distinguishable from sedatives by their 
 preliminary stimulating effects, and by the fact that they 
 cause perversion of the mental faculties. Thus, they cause 
 inebriation and delirium, and bring about death by coma, 
 whereas sedatives produce syncope. 
 
 O^pium is essentially soporific. It is obtained by feeding 
 on white poppies, overdose, and by malicious adminis- 
 tration. The principal symptom is an uncontrollable 
 tendency to sleep, the animal stands or lies with eyes 
 closed, breathing slow and deep, pulse full and rather 
 slow, opens the eyes sleepily when roused by any sound, 
 and then rapidly dozes off again. There is a contraction 
 of the pupil of the eye and a cessation of any pain from 
 which the animal may have been suffering. These signs 
 become exaggerated, the pulse imperceptible, breathing 
 infrequent, and, finally, apncea causes the death of the 
 animal as a culmination of coma. After death the blood, 
 contents of the alimentary canal, and tissues are found to 
 
192 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 smell of opium, and meconic acid and morphia may 
 be detected. The blood is dark, there are ecchy- 
 moses of serous membranes, and the contents of the 
 alimentary canal are hard and dry. With regard to 
 poisoning by the red poppy {Pap aver rhceas), Weiss (as 
 quoted by Gamgee) says : — ^^ Grimm observed that cattle 
 having eaten much of the red poppy had a weak, awkward 
 gait, uttered a groan at every step, were affected with 
 diarrhoea, and remained in a stupid sleepy condition. 
 Schmager and Lichte witnessed trembling, foaming at the 
 mouth, loss of consciousness and sensibility, rolling of 
 the eyes, loud bellowing, restlessness, amounting even to 
 raving, tympanitis, shivering and twitching movements of 
 the eyes, fixed and widely dilated pupil, agitated pulse ; the 
 secretion of milk is stopped. According to Gaullet, the 
 secretion of milk was watery, without fat or caseous 
 matter, and diminished in quantity, the pulse small 
 and quick, skin dry, staring coat, grinding of teeth ; 
 the animals flew as if rabid on the people that 
 approached them, and bit themselves in the legs. There 
 was constipation, the faeces dry and tinged with blood. 
 As the symptoms of raving and roaring subsided, the 
 animals became dull, stupid, and sleepy; sometimes they 
 lay down, at others they stood, but every now and then 
 the signs of furor supervened. In one, case the cattle got 
 loose, ran madly up the village, and struck their heads 
 against the walls and posts. The mad stage lasted for 
 about two hours ; the animals fell like dead, but awoke 
 again after several hours. The food taken by these animals 
 was examined by an apothecary, who found it to consist 
 of about three fourths of the corn poppy, ripe and unripe 
 seed capsules ; Adonis autumnalis (pheasant's eye) ; del- 
 phinium (larkspur), and the remaining fourth was clover.^' 
 
 Camphor, alcohol, and ether are also narcotic poisons. 
 
 Chloroform also may be detected by its odour. Its 
 preliminary stimulating effect is more powerful than that 
 of opium. 
 
 Tobacco is also a narcotic, but inebriant rather than 
 soporific. It is not a frequent poison of cattle. 
 
POISONS. 1 93 
 
 Hyoscyamus and Belladonna are obtained by accidental 
 ingestion or overdose, but the fresh hyoscyamus herb is 
 said to be eaten with impunity by Herbivora. The sym- 
 ptoms induced are dilatation of the pupil ; falling to the 
 ground, due to loss of power over the hind extremities ; 
 convulsions and delirium ; relaxations of the various sphinc- 
 ter muscles, with diarrhoea ; coma sets in, and then death. 
 
 Treatment comprises ruminotomy, with complete removal 
 of contents ; stimulants ; bleeding and cold applications 
 to the head. Poisoning by Solanum dulcamara is also on 
 record. The conditions are similar to those just described. 
 
 Sedative Poisons comprise hydrocyanic acid, aconite, 
 conium, colchicum, and yew. They produce death by 
 asthenia and syncope. In large doses they cause gid- 
 diness and convulsions, which supervene rapidly, and 
 death takes place in a very short time. On post-mortem 
 examination no very marked lesions can be noted ; the 
 vessels are full of dark blood, and there may be the 
 peculiar smell of the agent. Testing for the active prin- 
 ciple is not always satisfactory, but a careful examination 
 of the contents of the rumen will generally show the 
 presence of portions of the poisonous plant. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid. — Poisoning results from overdose. 
 The patient, some little time after the administration, falls, 
 breathes quickly, and is convulsed ; the pupils are dilated. 
 After death there may be observed a slight reddening of 
 the lining membrane of the stomach, and the blood smells 
 strongly of the poison. 
 
 Treatment : stimulants and iron salts. Detection in 
 recent cases results from its characteristic odour and 
 chemical reaction s^ 
 
 Aconite {Aconitum napeUus), the monkshood or wolfs- 
 bane, is a plant grown in gardens, and wild in some parts 
 of this country. It is easily recognisable by its peculiarly 
 dark-green pedatipartite leaves and its blue irregular calyx. 
 This agent produces numbness of the surface of the body, 
 excites vomition and tympany ; the pupil is contracted ; 
 over-dose causes hiccough ; ammonia is the best antidote. 
 
 Conium {Conium maculatum), the hemlock, is a white- 
 
 13 
 
194 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 flowered umbellif er, rather common, and readily detectable 
 from similar plants by its spotted stem. It causes 
 rapidly spreading paralysis of the voluntary muscles, then 
 of those of respiration, leading to death by apncea. The 
 pulse is small, feeble, and slow, the pupil dilated ; these 
 cases must be treated by evacuation of the rumen and 
 stimulants. 
 
 Colchicum autumnale, the meadow saffron, is a bulbous, 
 lily-like plant, with purple flowers, frequent in this 
 country. When consumed by cattle it causes violent 
 catharsis, the faeces being nearly liquid and fetid, tym- 
 pany and other signs of abdominal disorder, pupils 
 dilated, perspiration, loss of power, coldness of extremi- 
 ties, syncope, and death. After death there are found 
 blood extravasations in the alimentary canal and ecchy- 
 moses of serous membranes. 
 
 Treatment : careful nursing, emollients, also enemas ; 
 opium, to counteract the tendency to anaemia of the brain. 
 
 Yew {Taxus haccata). — When fodder is scarce cattle 
 will feed on this plant. Dr. John^s, in the ' Treasury 
 of Botany,^ says : " It appears, from all accounts, that the 
 poison is more virulent in the young shoots than in any 
 other part of the tree, but that it exists in greater or less 
 quantities, both in the leaves and in the green bark. The 
 leaves are more dangerous in a half- dry state than 
 when fresh.'' Yew shoots are too often carelessly left 
 about after cutting. They produce a powerful sedative 
 effect. Sometimes the animal is found dead with yew 
 in his mouth. When seen before death the patient is found 
 to have a rapidly sinking pulse and the ordinary sedative 
 signs. On post-mortem examination, blood extravasations 
 in the alimentary canal may be noted, but sometimes they 
 are entirely absent. The stomach is full, and generally 
 contains the yew shoots. Little can be done in such cases, 
 except the administration of stimulants and cathartics, and 
 clearing out the stomach by means of the stomach-pump, 
 or ruminotomy. Why cattle should be able to eat much 
 green yew with impunity is uncertain. 
 
 Digitalis (D.]pnr2)nrea), foxglove, a well-known British 
 
POISONS. 195 
 
 plant, grows on banks exposed to the sun. When an 
 excessive dose of this special cardiac sedative has been 
 administered it causes irritation of the alimentary canal. 
 The symptoms are those characteristic of a sedative 
 poison, together with a peculiarly violent action of 
 the heart, and subsequently diuresis. Signs of irrita- 
 tion of the alimentary canal are visible post mortem, and 
 the heart is soft and ecchymosed. Agents containing 
 tannin are suggested as antidotes. 
 
 Lead, when taken into the system, acts as a local 
 and general sedative. This metal and its salts are highly 
 important to us from a toxicological point of view. It 
 may gain entry in the water, since several of the com- 
 pounds of lead are soluble, from the lead diffused in a 
 state of minute division over the pastures near smelting 
 works or near rifle butts, or from refuse paint brought 
 with manure and spread over fields. These lead salts are 
 sweet, so that cattle readily consume them. In some 
 cases of lead poisoning there is indigestion with colic, due 
 to paralysis of the stomach in which food accumulates, 
 and tympany sets in ; this is accompanied by general signs 
 of disease, depression, and a small pulse. Later, deposits of 
 lead may be seen, of a greyish colour, in the gums. There 
 is paralysis throughout the alimentary canal, paralysis of 
 the hind limbs sets in, and the animal dies after a some- 
 what prolonged illness. On post-mortem examination the 
 hardened condition of the intestinal and gastric contents 
 may be noted, and the blackness or reddened state of 
 the mucous membrane. The presence of lead may be 
 shown in many of the tissues. Sulphuric acid and the 
 sulphates of soda or magnesia and alum are the best che- 
 mical antidotes, forming the insoluble lead sulphate. 
 Cathartics must be given to remove the poison. In other 
 instances lead produces the symptoms of '^stomach 
 staggers,^^ with a slow pulse, delirium, and death. 
 
 Laburnum, as described by Dobson, seems to act as a 
 sedative poison, producing paralysis of the hind limbs, and 
 an accumulation of food as a dense mass in the rumen. 
 Besides the special characters of their contents there may 
 
196 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 be noted inflaimnation of the small intestines. Purgatives 
 sufficed to save some of the calves attacked (Dobson). 
 
 Ieritant Poisons. — Stimulating agents, when taken 
 internally, exert a local irritant action, and thus give rise 
 to enteritis or gastro-enteritis, which do not in any essen- 
 tial respect differ from these diseases when they arise from 
 other causes — sometimes the systemic action of the agent 
 is apparent after its absorption. We have seen that some 
 neurotics exert a local irritant action, but all of them cause 
 death by their effects while acting from the blood. 
 
 Oxalic acid, lime, and ammonia, act as irritant poisons. 
 Among vegetable substances which thus act are Anemone 
 Pulsatilla, Mercurialis annua (which causes haBmaturia), 
 Mercurialis perenniSj certain Ranunculi, Bryony, Rhododen- 
 dron, and Veratrum album. Helleborus niger and H. foetidus 
 also act similarly ; the root of the former is sometimes used 
 for increasing the irritant action of setons. It is inserted 
 as a peg into the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and when the 
 fresh root is used may give rise to most acute inflamma- 
 tion. The most active general and local antiphlogistic 
 measures are necessary to save the animal. Charlock 
 (wild mustard) sometimes acts as a simple irritant when 
 taken in with the food. Sometimes the various kinds of 
 cake contain mustard-seeds, and act as irritants. The 
 taste and odour is sufficient to enable us to determine 
 whether or no this is the case with any particular specimen 
 of cake. 
 
 Cicuta virosa (the water hemlock), Mthusa cynapium 
 (the fool^s parsley), and CEiianthe crocata (the water drop- 
 wort), are poisonous umbellifers, which exert a narcotico- 
 irritant action. 
 
 Astringent Poisons are generally irritant in their effects. 
 They cause symptoms such as we shall enumerate under 
 the heading " Grastro - enteritis,^' Pantas or Moor -ill. 
 Acorns, fern, and oak shoots are the principal of these 
 agents. 
 
 Corrosive Poisons, by their chemical action, cause dis- 
 organisation of the parts with which they come in contact, 
 and thus, in treating of them, we have to deal with their 
 
POISONS. 197 
 
 irritant effects^ and also with ill consequences result- 
 ing from sloughing of the corroded tissues, the prin- 
 cipal being actual loss of useful substance, perforations, 
 and strictures. Thus, corrosives are much more formid- 
 able than simple irritants. This obtains with the sym- 
 ptoms as well as with the effects. Enormous doses 
 generally cause immediate collapse. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate is the best representative of this 
 class. It is administered maliciously or by mistake for 
 calomel. It causes acute gastro- enteritis and death when 
 given in doses of two drachms. It causes an exhausting 
 cough in ruminants (Gamgee). Albuminous materials are 
 the best antidotes. Copper, zinc, silver, and iron salts 
 are corrosive poisons. When given in large enough doses 
 concentrated alkaline solutions especially disorganise the 
 epithelial layers of the membrane with which they come in 
 contact. Mineral acids act as corrosives, nitric turns the 
 parts with which it comes in contact yellow, sulphuric, 
 renders them black, and hydrochloric white. Dilute alkaline 
 solutions and demulcents should be given in these cases. 
 
 Eliminative Poisons enter the blood and are removed 
 thence by the excretory organs, which they over-irritate in 
 the act of passage, and so inflame. Thus, the symptoms 
 vary much with each agent, and we have more time for 
 treatment. The poison, once it enters the blood, is singu- 
 larly inaccessible. 
 
 Aloes, castor-oil beans, euphorbium, and gamboge act 
 in this way on the intestines. 
 
 Ai^senic is obtained by malicious administration, over- 
 dose, or accidental presence in cakes and other articles of 
 food. It is eliminated by the stomachic and intestinal 
 glands, of which it causes very extensive inflammation. 
 The hydrated peroxide of iron is recommended as an 
 antidote. The tests are numerous and very definite. 
 
 Antimony, besides its influence on numerous glands of 
 the body, is a sedative. ^ 
 
 Calomel affects especially the salivary glands and liver. 
 It must be opposed by albumen and astringents. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash may be detected in the urine by the 
 
198 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 fact that blotting-paper dipped into that fluid and dried 
 becomes '^*' touch paper/' 
 
 A peculiar form of arsenical poisoning is known as the 
 CorPER-SMOKE Disease. It is supposed to be due to finely 
 divided arsenic spread by the copper- smelter's furnace. 
 *' Young animals are most susceptible of this influence ; 
 and among the most marked effects are a disposition to 
 ophthalmia, which in general quickly terminates in cata- 
 ract, enlargement of the knee- and hock-joints, and 
 periosteal exostosis of the bones of the extremities. The 
 first indications of animals being thus affected are dul- 
 ness and refusal of food. On examination the teeth will 
 be found incrusted with a bluish concretion, the gums 
 humid and red, and the saliva secreted in increased 
 quantities, symptoms analogous to ptyalism '' (Morton). 
 
 Post-mortem. — It is observed that the bones are friable, 
 and have a peculiar reddish-brown colour. Such are the 
 most frequent poisons of the ox. 
 
 Addendum 2. — Parasites and Parasitismus. 
 
 Among the special causes of the various diseases of 
 the higher animals those which are themselves distinct 
 organisms, whether of an animal or vegetable nature, 
 demand special notice, whether it be on account of their 
 clinical importance or of the peculiar features of their 
 life-histories. 
 
 That one animal should live inside another was at first 
 thought to be such a very strange matter that it was 
 attributed to evil agencies generating such beings de novo, 
 and it was then, and is sometimes even now, thought that 
 the presence of parasitic organisms in the body consti- 
 tutes disease. But so far from this being so, we now 
 know that large groups of animals have their typical 
 habitat within other beings, and some observers have even 
 gone so far as to attribute to the gastric infusoria of her- 
 bivora (see Fig. 27), a decidedly beneficial effect in the 
 elaboration of chyme. Far-fetched as this idea is, we can 
 well believe, that under certain circumstances animals and 
 
PAEASITES AND PAEASITISMUS. 199 
 
 plants may be beneficial to the organisms in whicb they 
 live. On the other hand, in parasites we often note that 
 nature finds a means of removing a surplus animal popula- 
 tion. Thus, in some years, sheep, cattle, and horses, fall 
 victims to the " worms '^ in large numbers, as seen in the 
 diseases rot, husk, &c. The obtaining of parasites also 
 depends on the nature of the diet; vegetable food cannot 
 prove the direct bearer of the majority of parasites, but 
 many can be taken in with meat. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood that it is quite the 
 exception for a few parasites to cause serious mischief, 
 since they generally give rise to disorders only when they 
 are present. in large numbers. The manner in which these 
 few act is either by producing functional nervous disease or 
 destroying the walls of the organ in which they are situated. 
 These actions are rarely, if ever, seen in the ox. Some 
 parasites do not live upon the structures of the host, but 
 simply inside or upon other animals not being dependent 
 directly upon them for nutriment. Such are fellow- 
 hoarders J a barnacle on a whale is an example of this 
 relationship. From this the interests of the two indi- 
 viduals tend more and more to clash. The fluke resides 
 in the liver, and consumes the bile which would be useful 
 to its host ; other forms prey on mucus, some on the 
 contents of the alimentary canal, and some, finally, are 
 blood-suckers, and thus prove to the highest degree 
 exhausting. 
 
 Though these parasites are intimately associated with 
 the pathological conditions to which they give rise, and 
 often dependent on them at certain phases of their life, 
 the processes prove more or less troublesome to the host ; 
 and if the invaders- have been numerous the conditions to 
 which, by their combined efforts, they give rise may lead 
 to severe disorder and even death. Thus, the ill effects 
 of parasitic organisms are, in many cases, directly related 
 to the number of them present. 
 
 Yet it must be remarked that except where essential to 
 tlie well-being of the parasite, the disorder which it 
 causes is not nearly so severe as that which would result 
 
200 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 a 5 * 
 
 ^^oU dd. 
 
 V^VERUCRUKCUta, 
 
 Fig. 27. — Infusoria from the alimentary canal of the horse, similar to those 
 which have been found in the contents of the rumen of the ox. (From 
 Culin, * Physiologic des animaux domestiques.') 
 
 from a portion of dead material of similar size and form. The 
 living state seems to produce an absence or imperfection 
 of the tendency which is observable in the system of the 
 ox to throw off anything which does not belong to it, as 
 foreign matter. Since the ill effects of parasites are so 
 often proportional to the number of worms present, we 
 find that when the climatic conditions of any season have 
 been especially favorable to their growth and develop- 
 ment epizootic outbreaks of parasitic disorders are noted. 
 
PARASITES AND PARASITISMUS. ' 201 
 
 and this is most marked after a warm wet season with 
 frequent floods ; and those animals pastured on lowland 
 soil are most liable to become affected. These parasitic 
 living beings^ endowed with a power of motion, and to a 
 certain extent of selection of their special abodes, in their 
 migrations through the system cause irritation, and this 
 occurs as well with the movements of the larval as of the 
 mature forms. The former sometimes bore through the 
 tissues until they come to a desirable place to stay at, the 
 latter generally limit their movements to those which 
 suffice to enable them to traverse the canal or organ in 
 which they are found. The irritation causes slow local 
 changes, condensations, sometimes abscesses, and so on. 
 And it often gives rise to a debilitated state of the con- 
 stitution which kills animals, either being induced by 
 some impediment to function, by drain on the constitu- 
 tion, or by excess of nervous irritation. 
 
 Thus it is that debility (and constitutional deficiency of 
 energy, as seen in young or old animals) is a marked 
 phenomenon in disease of a parasitic nature; it supple- 
 ments that caused by the parasites, and the two together 
 suffice for the production of death, which would not have 
 resulted from either of them operating by itself. In this 
 sense we must take the statement that debility is a cause 
 of parasitismus, and not infer that a weak state of the 
 patient will tend to the generation of parasites de novo. 
 According as parasites live in or upon their hearers or 
 hosts, as the affected animals are termed, they are 
 classified as Entozoa and Ectozoa. Whereas the former 
 are Anumloida, such as tapeworms, fluke-worms, and 
 round worms, the latter are generally allied to spiders, 
 being truly Annulose ; insecta, or arachnida. There are, 
 of course, exceptions to this rule ; thus, the larval form of 
 the insect oestrus, and the spider-like pentastoma, are 
 found internally in the horse and dog respectively, but in 
 the ox the oestrus is an external parasite, and the penta- 
 stoma in its larval form only is harboured by this animal. 
 
 The phases of development of the various parasites are 
 of the highest interest and practical importance. Thus, 
 
202 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the Cystic, or larval taenise, are found in animals other 
 than the bearer of the adult tapeworm, and some con- 
 nection between the hosts of larval and adult forms must 
 occur or the race will die out. 
 
 Under these circumstances it may seem astonishing 
 that this event has not happened long ago, but we must 
 recollect that each of the usually numerous segments of 
 a tapeworm contains an enormous number of eggs ; that 
 these eggs can remain exposed to weather and to other 
 such influences for a long time without injury ; that the 
 hydatids produced are sometimes many-headed, each head 
 being capable of becoming a distinct individual; that, in 
 other cases, the hydatids are capable of producing a 
 number of secondary cysts within themselves. 
 
 To prevent excessive action of these favorable influences 
 many of the ova are lost ; the embryo does not always suc- 
 ceed in obtaining a bearer. Many of the bearers of hy- 
 datids are not sufficiently infested to die, and are not killed 
 and eaten sufficiently soon for the parasite, which, there- 
 fore, undergoes calcification after dying. The hydatids 
 are not always sufficiently fortunate to obtain a nidus for 
 development into the adult. Thus, under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, the chances of invasion by TaBuise are about 
 even. When intermediary bearers are prevalent, when 
 conditions are favorable to development of the embryos, 
 and under other special circumstances, a severe outbreak 
 of parasitismus occurs. If we can break through the chain 
 of development at any one link we shall arrest parasitic 
 invasion, and the enemy, being thus cut off from rein- 
 forcements, will be defeated in its attempts to produce 
 disease. Thus, in the case of Taenias, communication of 
 dogs with cattle, and the former running over pastures 
 is to be avoided as much as possible. All parasites 
 passed, and all livers and lungs containing hydatids 
 should be destroyed, and not given to dogs or used as 
 manure. Thus, we may hope to succeed in eradicating 
 tapeworm. Flukes have a free stage of existence when, 
 as cercarians, they frequent the drinking-water, and thus 
 gain entry into the alimentary passages of the higher ani- 
 
PARASITES AND PARASITISMUS. 203 
 
 mals. At one stage they inhabit the tissues of mollus- 
 cous animals. Their ova are numerous^ the developmental 
 forms multiply by budding, and numbers simultaneously 
 gain entry to the system. The contingencies of the lives 
 of these parasites are less numerous than those of Taeniae. 
 Flukes, therefore, are often most prejudicial. The best 
 means to counteract them are to endeavour to remove ani- 
 mals fitted to act as bearers from the grounds in which 
 fluke larvae abound, and to ensure a pure water supply. 
 Another means is to check the passage of mollusca across 
 pastures, either by a well-limed border against every por- 
 tion of marshy land and every stagnant ditch, or by salt- 
 ing the pastures. Our evidences as to the action of anti- 
 parasitics is not very good. We know of some Taeniafuges 
 and some Tseniacides, but flukes and certain round worms 
 are very inaccessible, and we can only back up the system 
 against their attacks by tonics. Parasitism degrades ; 
 animals not entirely dependent on their own resources 
 lose many organs essential to independent life, therefore 
 much difficulty has been found in placing parasites in their 
 proper position in the animal kingdom. The Nematodes 
 and Acanthocephala puzzle even Huxley. Thus, some of 
 these comparatively high organisms respire simply by 
 means of the general surface of the body, like the Amoeba 
 and other Protozoa. In some also, the general surface takes 
 in nutritive matter. There is evidence to show that in 
 the present day some forms are becoming parasitic which 
 have hitherto been living in independence, and perhaps the 
 reverse also holds. The phenomenon of partial parasitism 
 is shown when an animal only lives as a parasite through 
 one or more of its developmental phases, in the others being 
 free and independent. This is a lazy method of life adopted 
 by gad-flies and the like, which feed remarkably when in 
 the larval stage, at the expense of their animal hosts, remain 
 for a time in the chrysalis stage, and then spend a brief but 
 exciting existence in the acts of reproduction and provision 
 for the preservation of their own race, to the discomfort of 
 that of far higher beings. We may now draw up a short 
 classificatory notice in a tabular form of bovine parasites. 
 
204 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 00 
 
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 g.Suoj'o^-coa S;sa«'^ 
 
 
 
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 ^ a o 
 
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 es a aJ 
 
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 ^ O W D 
 
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 ^ I— i oj u ^ 
 
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PARASITES AND PARASITISMUS. 
 
 205 
 
206 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Yegetable Parasitic Organisms are either fungi or closely 
 allied to them, consequently they are not, as are our ordi- 
 nary plants, dependent on the surrounding air for much nu- 
 triment, but they are adapted for the appropriation of all 
 their nutritive material from the soil in which they are grow- 
 ing. When this is rich they grow with the greatest rapidity 
 and luxuriance, thus the ringworm plant attains a high de- 
 velopment on the ox. They consist of tubes and spores pro- 
 duced by them. The former appropriate the nutritive 
 material, the latter become free, and, being very minute, 
 can be conveyed by contagion, immediate or mediate, or 
 wafted through the air. They are also endowed with high 
 resisting power. The larger and more conspicuous of these 
 fungi grow on the surface of the body of the host, causing 
 disorders due to irritation, varying in intensity with the 
 activity of growth of the cause. Those more minute and 
 infinitely more important fungi, which develop internally, 
 acting as Entophyta, are known under the name Bacteria. 
 We have already dealt with them at length in our descrip- 
 tion of " Blood diseases.^^ We are aware of some agents 
 which eradicate those organisms which flourish on the 
 surface ; such have been suggested for the treatment of 
 ringworm. Anti-bacterian agents are by no means so 
 well known. Our main efforts in the management of 
 vegetable, as of animal parasites, must be directed to 
 prevention of contagion and development, and to rendering 
 the system an unsuitable soil, or sufficiently strong to 
 resist their attack and throw them off. 
 
 It will be remarked how gradual the transition is from 
 parasitic disorders to those specific blood affections which 
 have not been proved to be parasitic. Eheumatism and 
 some other diseases serve to connect these latter with 
 ordinary diseases, which, in themselves, are simply modi- 
 fications of physiological conditions. Physiological action 
 of parts depends upon the vitality of cells, and these are 
 in their most generalised forms exactly similar to low 
 non-parasitic organisms, which in their turn do not differ 
 essentially from parasites. Thus, pathology, physiology, 
 and biology form a grand cycle. 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 207 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 -DISEASES OF THE CIECULATOEY 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Section 1. — Or the Heart. 
 
 It will be remembered that tbe heart of the ox is 
 small as compared with that of the horse_, and averages 
 about 34 to 4i lbs. in weight. It is estimated by Colin 
 ^^ ih ^^ 2B3 parts of the weight of the body, that of the 
 
 Fig. 32. — Thoracic contents, as seen from the left side. (Simonds.) 
 
 horse being ~ to y'y. The apex is very pointed, and 
 there are three ventricular furrows. There is a very stout 
 muscular moderator band in the right ventricle, below 
 which is a large tendinous band. In consequence of the 
 comparative shortness of the chest in the ox, the peri- 
 cardium extends nearly to the antero-inferior part of the 
 
208 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 diaphragm. The heart, therefore, at its base corresponds 
 to the second and sixth ribs and those which intervene 
 
 Fig. 33. — The heart, with its right cavities opened, part of the pericardium 
 in position, and the large vessels at its base. (Siinonds.) 
 
 between them. The thorax of the ox being wide and the 
 pulmonary mass large, the heart is more separated from 
 the thoracic walls, and less exposed than in the horse. 
 Its beat may be best felt at the fifth intercostal space at 
 about the level of the point of the elbow, at the meeting 
 of the ribs with the sterno- costal cartilage, but it is not 
 so clear and distinct as is that of the horse. For satis- 
 factory auscultation of this organ the left fore limb 
 requires to be drawn forwards and the ear applied as 
 closely as possible behind the muscular mass of the 
 shoulder. The heart of the ox very frequently has a 
 large amount of fat deposited in its furrows. Such 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 209 
 
 deposits have been erroneously described as fatty degenera- 
 tion. They are generally seen, to a more or less marked 
 degree, in prize beasts, and must be considered normal, for 
 in no case has it been proved that they interfere with the 
 heart's action. 
 
 Os cordis is the name applied to a bony nodule, generally 
 somewhat triangular in form and flattened on each side, 
 which constitutes a basis for attachment of the muscular 
 fibres of the heart, and is situated at the base of the 
 ventricles in connection with the aortic opening. It is an 
 ossification of the fibrous ring of the heart, such as is 
 seen in the horse in exceptional cases. Sometimes this 
 bone consists of two parts, and frequently it involves the 
 whole aortic ring. 
 
 Diseases of the Heart are primarily divided into 
 functional and organic. In the former we have not yet 
 been able to trace the lesions upon which the disorder 
 depends. Such probably exist in the complex cardiac 
 nervous mechanism. Dr. Pettigrew has especially investi- 
 gated this mechanism in the ox (see his ' Physiology of the 
 Circulation in Plants, in the Lower Animals, and in Man '). 
 When we consider that the pneumogastric nerve, pulmonary 
 plexus, and the medulla oblongata, certainly are sources of 
 nervous supply to the heart, we shall be inclined to 
 attribute '^ functional " disease of the heart to our present 
 want of knowledge of structural changes in the case 
 rather than to absence of disorder of so complex a me- 
 chanism. 
 
 Palpitation is the form which this nervous disorder 
 generally assumes, but it is rare in the ox, this animal not 
 as a rule being subjected to extremes of exertion, nor to 
 high strains upon the nervous system. Dyspepsia causes 
 this disorder probably by reflex inhibition through the 
 vagus, while in blood poisoning the impurities in the blood 
 probably do so by acting directly upon the cardiac ganglia 
 and the muscular fibres of the heart ; perhaps, too, there is 
 perverted stimulation of the inner surface of the heart, as 
 in anaemic palpitation, when venous murmurs are marked 
 and the impoverished blood tends to clot around the 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 prominences and cords inside the cavities. The prin- 
 cipal symptoms are powerful and jerky action of the 
 heart, frequent and small pulse, anxiety, and loss of ap- 
 petite. 
 
 Organic Diseases : — Inflammation op the Heart — Car- 
 ditis — Myocarditis. — Is not of frequent occurrence, and it 
 is doubtful whether it is ever present as a distinct disease, 
 being generally a complication of pericarditis. Traumatic 
 carditis has been recorded, and sometimes it is found that 
 penetration of the heart by a foreign body leads to 
 instant death. Circumscribed inflammations occasionally 
 affect this organ, leading to the formation of small abscesses 
 in its walls. The principal symptoms are extreme quick- 
 ness of the pulse, considerable elevation of internal tem- 
 perature, increased respirations, coldness of the extremities, 
 and rapid death. An instance of this disease is men- 
 tioned by Armatage. If a case of this nature is diagnosed 
 it may be treated in the same way as pericarditis in the 
 early stage. Formation of abscesses in the walls of the 
 heart may result from certain forms of blood poisoning. 
 
 Hypertrophy oe the Heart may be simple when the 
 walls are thickened, but the cavities normal in size; 
 excentric when the heart and its cavities are proportion- 
 ately dilated; concentric when the walls of the organ are 
 thickened at the expense of the cavities, which are, there- 
 fore, small. Simple hypertrophy may be seen in some 
 working oxen, and is not to be considered disease when it 
 clearly is an attempt of nature to perform the duties 
 necessitated by the special labour of the animal. It must 
 be remembered, however, that there should be a due uni- 
 formity between this increase and that of other parts of 
 the body. The other forms ensue generally from impedi- 
 ment to escape of blood from the heart, either as a result 
 of disease affecting the arterial valves, or of pressure upon 
 or disease of the large arteries, while hypertrophy of the 
 right side may accompany chronic lung disease. Ex- 
 cessive force of the hearths contraction, with sometimes a 
 laboured effort and irregularities of the pulse, indicate 
 these conditions, which, however, are very rare. The 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 211 
 
 animal must be kept as quiet as possible^ and fed for the 
 butcber. 
 
 Atrophy op the Heart, usually termed fatty degenera- 
 tion, must be carefully distinguished from the above- 
 mentioned deposition of fat normally in the furrows. Here 
 the muscular fibres waste, and their protoplasm is trans- 
 formed into fat. It is a disease of old age, and as such 
 is seldom, if ever, seen in the ox. To the naked eye the 
 organ is pale, with yellowish patches ; it feels soft and 
 flabby, and breaks with a granular fracture ; often the 
 visceral pericardium is depressed, here and there, through 
 diminution in size of the structure internal to it. Car- 
 ditis, pericarditis, or senile degeneration of protoplasm, 
 are causes of this condition, which predisposes to rupture 
 of the heart. 
 
 A case of Cretaceous Degeneration is recorded in the 
 'Veterinarian,' vol. xxxv, p. 800 (1862). The pericar- 
 dium and brain were also affected in this instance. 
 Yellow calcareous spots were diffused through the heart- 
 substance. 
 
 Under the heading '^Atrophy'' must be included those 
 cases in which the walls of the heart are thin, while the 
 cavities are dilated. This condition known as 'pouched 
 heart is frequent in the ox as in many other animals. 
 A paper on this subject is given in the ' Veterinarian,' 
 vol. XXV, pp. 60 and 105 (1852).^ On examination of 
 the organ after death the flabby clay- coloured condition 
 of its walls, which retain the impression of the finger, is 
 evident. 
 
 Endocarditis, like inflammation of other serous mem- 
 branes, leads to thickening and roughness of the surface ; 
 these conditions are unfavorable to the passage of the 
 blood, which deposits coagula on the diseased parts. The 
 roughness of the membrane is due to cell proliferation of 
 its substance, whereby granulations are produced, which 
 
 ^ The author mentions this as a dangerous and incurable disease, incidental 
 to cows and oxen in fattening ; present in seven out of every ten animals 
 unduly fattened ; generally affecting the right side of the heart, commencing 
 at the conus arteriosus j associated with congestion of the lungs ; sometimes 
 due to over-driving. 
 
212 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 sometimes undergo calcareous and fatty degeneration. 
 The arterial valves, but much more frequently the auriculo- 
 ventricular, are the most important seat of deposit. Some- 
 times ulceration of the valves occurs, and they are per- 
 forated. These changes almost always result from 
 rheumatic disorder. Sometimes post mortem no deposi- 
 tions are found, simply reddening of the lining membrane 
 of the heart, and sometimes ecchymosis. 
 
 Symptoms. — With the general symptoms of disorder 
 and acute febrile disturbance are associated the pecu- 
 liar rushing sound known as the ^^ bellows murmur,^^ 
 which varies according to the parts affected. "A bel- 
 lows murmur with the first sound indicates mitral in- 
 sufficiency, stricture of the aortic orifice, disease of the 
 aortic valves, or deposits on the ventricular surface of 
 the mitral valves; or it may depend upon an altered 
 condition of the blood itself, as in anaemia, in which 
 case it resembles a churning sound, heard also in the 
 large arteries and veins. A bellows murmur with the 
 second sound indicates aortic insufficiency, roughened 
 auricular surface of the mitral valves, or mitral obstruc- 
 tion'^ (Williams) . The pulse is intermittent and irregular, 
 " a rapid but violent tremor,'^ and does not correspond to 
 the cardiac impulse. The venous pulse is present. Some- 
 times endocardial growths develop gradually, and do not 
 materially affect the patient, until sudden death occurs, 
 and the slaughter-house furnishes us with specimens from 
 animals to all appearance in a good state of general health. 
 
 Treatment. — In a chronic case the animal should be 
 fattened for the butcher, but in an acute inflammatory 
 attack such measures may be adopted as are suggested for 
 pericarditis. External stimulation, say some authorities, 
 should never amount to vesication, for the inflammation 
 thus excited would tend to increase the already excessive 
 amount of fibrin in the blood ; but it must be remembered 
 that inflammatory blood coagulates more slowly than 
 healthy. Salines, especially such as are useful in rheu- 
 matism, should be administered. Aconite may be used to 
 counteract the excessive sympathetic fever. 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 213 
 
 Sequelm. — Portions of the valvular clots separating from 
 tlieir attachments may pass into the general blood stream, 
 and, becoming fixed in the smaller vessels, give rise to 
 embolic disease. Pneumonia may thus result. 
 
 Prognosis of this serious disorder can seldom prove 
 favorable. In acute cases death may occur at any moment. 
 In chronic cases recovery cannot be expected. Often, 
 however, where the inflammation is circumscribed, endo- 
 cardial growths and fibrinous deposits result in large 
 '' cardiac polypi, '' which seem sometimes to completely 
 block up the cavity. 
 
 Pericarditis. — Inflammation of the pericardium seldom 
 exists as a disease per se, being a complication of rheu- 
 matism and other blood diseases, or the result of penetra- 
 tion of the membrane by a foreign body which has been 
 swallowed, and found its way from the reticulum. Again, 
 in pleuritis and pleuro-pneumonia, this membrane seldom 
 escapes invasion by the disease. The traumatic form is 
 rather frequent. The foreign body which gives rise to it 
 is generally a knitting-needle, hair-pin, or nail, which has 
 accidentally gained entry into the stomach with the food, 
 or been ingested by the animal under the influence of 
 depraved appetite. Why such bodies pass into the reti- 
 culum in particular it is difficult to say, but in almost 
 every case the foreign body has started from this viscus. 
 Probably it is only those which start from here which give 
 rise to appreciable mischief, or these foreign bodies may 
 be brought by the rumen to the oesophageal groove for 
 regurgitation, and on being rejected they fall into the 
 reticulum. Pressure of the diaphragm leads the sharp 
 body to puncture its structure after penetrating the wall 
 of the stomach, and thus to enter the pericardial sac 
 (we have a case on record in which it penetrated the 
 pleura, and escaped by abscess in an intercostal space), 
 which is just anteriorly placed to the reticulum, separated 
 from it only by the diaphragm. Perhaps the contractions 
 of the heart exert a suction influence. This organ becomes 
 penetrated, and thus the body enters generally, it seems, 
 the left auricle. Gamgee mentions an interesting case by 
 
214 BOVINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 M. Camoin, in which a large thorn thus entered the heart, 
 and became jBxed by the chordae tendinae. 
 
 Symptoms. — Sometimes after ingestion of the body, the 
 animal remains apparently in full health. Then signs of 
 indigestion may be present as indications of abdominal pain, 
 tympany, and loss of appetite. Later, and especially, as 
 Williams has shown, after efforts in parturition, the animal 
 manifests signs of general disorder and acute febrile dis- 
 turbance. Also the pulse is found to be small, frequent, 
 irregular, and intermittent, with a quick and irritable 
 beat. Respirations short, sometimes slow, in other cases 
 frequent, abdominal, and with a double expiratory effort ; 
 cough may be present. 
 
 The internal temperature is low, and the blood being 
 imperfectly diffused through the system, the muzzle is 
 dry and cold, the limbs are cold, the mucous membranes 
 are pale, and rigors as well as superficial muscular twitch - 
 ings (clonic spasms about the neck and pectoral region) 
 may be observed ; there is general stiffness and oede- 
 matous swellings occur in various parts of the body, as 
 under the belly and in the dewlap. The action of the 
 heart is irregular, sometimes sharp, at others extremely 
 quick and scarcely perceptible. The larger veins are dis- 
 tended with blood and the venous pulse is generally 
 present. The patient usually suffers a considerable amount 
 of pain, and sometimes lies preferably on the right side, 
 grinding the teeth, moaning, and looking back anxiously 
 every now and then towards the seat of the heart ; pressure 
 over the cardiac region causes a groan. Tympany is some- 
 times present, and there are gaseous eructations. Auscul- 
 tation detects a friction sound, which differs from that of 
 pleurisy in coinciding with the hearths movements ; also 
 a rushing or gurgling sound, which M. Boizy, as quoted by 
 Gamgee, attributes to the consistency of the fluid and 
 gaseous admixture. Williams, however, insists that cases 
 of traumatic pericarditis occur without gaseous eructa- 
 tions, splashings, and gurglings. Percussion gives dul- 
 ness of sound over the inflamed membrane. 
 
 Fort-mortem examination. — Stomach and intestines con 
 
THE CIECULATORY SYSTEM. 215 
 
 tain gas. Eeticulum^ containing sometimes clotted blood or 
 food intermingled witli blood, presents a fistula extending 
 to the pericardial sac ; sometimes several are present. The 
 walls of tbe passage are formed of lymph, which firmly 
 bmds the rumen, diaphragm, and pericardium together. 
 Generally the passage is blocked up with lymph. Fluid 
 may be present in the subcutaneous areolar tissue and in 
 the abdominal and thoracic cavities, attributable in the 
 two former to the impediment to the circulation, in the 
 latter case also to congestion or inflammation of the pleura, 
 such as is generally present. The mediastinal layer of 
 the pericardium is involved in this inflammation. The 
 fibrous layer is thickened by interfibrillar deposit, and 
 the two layers of the serous pericardium are the seat of 
 thick deposits of organised lymph, which is firmer as it 
 is more distant from the serous cavity. Hence it projects 
 into the latter as a flocculent layer, and in some places 
 the parietal and visceral layers are bound together either 
 over an extent of surface or by bands of lymph. An 
 amount of serous fluid, rendered milky by admixture of 
 lymph, or sanguineous, occupies the sac. Sometimes the 
 lymphy deposits have undergone cretaceous degenera- 
 tion and fatty change. Often a lesion of the heart 
 can be detected, and generally the foreign body is found 
 in the passage somewhere between the reticulum and 
 the heart- cavity ; it being more or less altered by 
 its strange journey. The muscular structure of the 
 heart is the seat of interfibrillar lymphy deposit, 
 and sometimes the fibrous bands of the cavities are 
 lacerated. 
 
 Projphylaxis consists in the rigid exclusion of needles, 
 large pins, &c., from the dresses of dairymaids and other 
 female attendants on cows, also careful examination of the 
 food of the horned beasts. 
 
 Curative measures are deemed useless in such cases, and 
 on diagnosis, immediate slaughter is to be suggested. A 
 French practitioner was recently successful in curing a 
 case by operation. 
 
 In ' Yeterinarian,' vol. vi, p. 128, is recorded a case in 
 
216 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 which the needle seems to have passed back from the 
 pericardium and re-entered the rumen, in the walls of which 
 it became fixed. 
 
 Prognosis unfavorable. The animal lives under the 
 acute attack several days. 
 
 The idiopathic form of Pericarditis depends upon ex- 
 posure, change from a hot to a cold atmosphere, and other 
 influences of a like nature which determine visceral in- 
 flammation. Mr. Litt describes a case due to a wound 
 through the thoracic walls.^ This disease assumes an 
 acute character, and is very painful. Its symptoms in 
 the main resemble those of the traumatic form, but differ 
 in the less marked audibility of the diagnostic sounds, and 
 in the absence of signs of indigestion and the gaseous 
 eructations. But, as we have seen, these differences are 
 not always reliable (' Yeterinary Eecord,^ vol. i, p. 119). In 
 one case the patient had every appearance of a horse suf- 
 fering from laminitis ; also the pulse was full and bounding, 
 100, with irregular intervals of vibrating jerks ; the hearths 
 action conveyed a singular tinkling noise. In early stages 
 of this disorder the pericardium is congested, and later 
 it is rendered opaque and then obscured by false mem- 
 branes. It may become gangrenous, serous effusion 
 and lymph exudation into the serous sac may take place, 
 as in the traumatic form. A heart covered by floccu- 
 lent false membranes is a very pretty specimen. Some- 
 times a heart which has been affected with this disorder 
 is found here and there covered with opaque spots of 
 thickened pericardium. This has been attributed to 
 rheumatism. 
 
 Treatment. — Comprises careful nursing, stimulant 
 applications to the sides of the chest, aconite to con- 
 trol the. action of the heart and to lessen the amount of 
 fever present. Digitalis, too, proves very useful through 
 its sedative influence and its tendency to promote absorp- 
 tion. In the advanced stages of the disease stimulants 
 are required, and tonic agents promote resolution. The 
 iodide of iron seems to be especially indicated if all febrile 
 * See ' Veterinary Record,' 1845. 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 217 
 
 disorder has subsided. After-treatment must be directed 
 to fattening the animal as the deposits around the heart 
 constantly tend to impede its action. 
 
 Complications have been already indicated^ the most fre- 
 quent are carditis and pleuro-pneumonia sporadica. 
 
 Hydrops Pericardii — Dropsy op the Pericardial Sac — 
 is generally that stage of pericarditis in which effusion 
 has taken place. The accumulation of liquor pericardii 
 may occur in connection with other dropsical disorders, 
 especially hydrothorax. And in cases of anaemia the 
 normal amount is increased, but in such instances the 
 accumulation does not interfere with the action of the 
 heart or with respiration. '^ Tapping '^ the pericardial sac 
 has been tried in this disease of the horse. The sym- 
 ptoms and treatment are those of the advanced stage of 
 pericarditis. 
 
 Bupture of the Pericardium. — A case of this nature is 
 recorded in the ' Yeterinarian,' vol. viii, p. 319 ; com- 
 plicated thoracic and abdominal disorder existed, and on 
 post-mortem examination, the pericardium was found 
 ruptured on the right side, forming a foramen of about 
 Igth inch in diameter, and it appeared as if the edges of 
 the opening on one side had receded from the surrounding 
 parts. Adhesive inflammation had formed a complete 
 duplicature of the pericardium, which '' presented the 
 appearance of tanned leather.^' 
 
 Cardiac Polypi, or Hcematomata, are tumours inside the 
 heart, generally resulting from endocarditis, with granu- 
 lation or subendocardiac blood extravasations and deposi- 
 tion of coagula upon the roughened surface. They 
 generally grow on the valves, but may appear on any part 
 of the lining membrane of the heart. Frequently they 
 assume the shape of casts of the cavity in which they are 
 placed. ^They seem often to cause no appreciable sym- 
 ptoms, not being suspected before the animal's slaughter. 
 A tumour of this kind may extend from the wall 
 of the auricle through the auriculo-ventricular opening 
 into the cavity of the ventricle, impeding the action of 
 the valves. These masses of fibrin are often attached by 
 
218 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 a peduncle o£ fibrous or fibro-cellular tissue. Sometimes 
 the tumour is gritty in parts. These polypi may cause 
 sudden death, in other cases the action of the heart 
 is irregular and intermittent, and there is gradually 
 increasing debility leading to paraplegia before the animal 
 dies.^ 
 
 Gamgee alludes to melanosis and cancerous infiltration 
 of the heart in domesticated animals, and mentions a 
 specimen which he saw in the Bologna Museum, consisting 
 of a large mass of echinococcus cysts hanging from the 
 apex of the heart. Cysticercus tenuicollis has been met 
 with in the pericardial cavity, Cysticercus hovis and 
 Trichina invade this as well as other muscles. The same 
 author makes the following valuable remarks on this 
 subject. ^'The temperament, habits, and manner of 
 keeping cows tied up in a stall, lead to the observation of 
 cases in these animals which would give rise to symptoms 
 at a comparatively early period in the hard-worked horse. 
 With regard to external tumours, their weight is some- 
 times very great, and, when connected with the apex, 
 they may attain a size far exceeding that of the heart itself, 
 without inducing very serious symptoms. This is not the 
 case when the deposits invade the base of the heart, where 
 they obstruct the vessels and arrest the circulation." 
 
 Professor Walleyes valuable paper on '^ Hasmatomata 
 and Thrombi, or ante-mortem Clots,'' in the ' Veterinary 
 Journal ' for July, 1877, may be consulted with benefit in 
 this relation. He attributes the ante-mortem clots, among 
 other things, to elevation or injury of the endocardium by 
 foreign bodies penetrating from the stomach, or by the 
 lodgment of entozoa beneath it. 
 
 Rupture op the Heaet sometimes causes sudden death. 
 Atrophy of the organ and pulmonary disease predispose 
 to this, and it is most liable to occur in working oxen, as 
 it results from violent efforts or from blows. It is, how- 
 ever, very rare in the cattle. The right auricle most 
 readily gives way. 
 
 See case recorded by Messrs. Houlden and Varnell (' Veterinarian/ 
 vol. xxxix, p. 975). Emboli were found in the heart, spleen, and kidneys. 
 
THE CIECULATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 219 
 
 Malfokmations. — In tlie second volume of tlie ^Abstract 
 of Proceedings of the Veterinary Medical Association ' 
 (p. 355), will be found an account of a heart consisting of 
 three cavities only. Other imperfections of development 
 have been recorded. The most frequent is Cyanosis, 
 which consists in a pervious condition of foramen ovale, 
 whereby the venous and arterial currents of the blood 
 are constantly intermingled. Thus, every part of the 
 body is supplied only with partially purified blood. 
 The animal is practically in the condition of a reptile as 
 far as blood supply goes. Its functions are performed 
 slowly, its constitution is weak, its internal temperature 
 low, and its visible mucous membranes are constantly of a 
 purple or blue colour. Such animals generally die young. 
 This condition is seldom seen in the lower animals. 
 
 Misplacements of the Heaet — Ectopia Coedis. — The 
 heart may be situated in front of the chest, in the neck. 
 
 Fig. 34.— Ectopia cordis. (From Fleming's 'Veterinary Obstetrics.*) 
 
 or be pressed backwards through an opening in the 
 imperfectly developed diaphragm into the abdomen, or, as 
 is more frequent, may be situated below the chest suspended 
 by the large blood-vessels of its base below the sternum, 
 the lateral elements of which have not united along the 
 
220 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 central line. Animals with the heart exposed in any of 
 these abnormal positions soon die from injury to the 
 organ. 
 
 Section 2. — Op the Arterial System. 
 
 In injected specimens we are struck with the smallness 
 of the arteries of the ox as compared with those of the 
 horse. They are, in fact, proportional rather to the size 
 of the heart than to that of the veins or the general 
 bulk of the body. The posterior aorta is an exception 
 to this, for the coeliac axis is remarkably large. The 
 principal diseases of arteries are degenerations of various 
 kinds, which generally occur in old animals. These are 
 atheromatous, where chronic inflammation has brought 
 about fatty degeneration of the endothelial cells of the 
 inner coat with thickening and cholesterin deposit in its 
 deepest layer. This condition results from over energetic 
 action of the heart long continued. We have no record 
 of acute arteritis. A case of tuberculous degeneration of 
 the ovarian arteries is given in the ' Edinburgh Veterinary 
 Review,' vol. i, p. 379. 
 
 Aneurism is abnormal saccular dilatation of an artery 
 whereby is produced a pulsating tumour. A ^^ false aneu- 
 rism '' is a sac formed by condensed areolar tissue with a 
 free communication with the channel of an artery. True 
 aneurism generally constitutes one of the elements in a 
 case of atheroma, for the walls of the vessel, weakened 
 by degeneration, gradually yield to the blood pressure. 
 Cases of this condition have been recorded as affecting 
 the ox, but the absence of the usual causes, severe labour, 
 powerful action of the heart, and old age, prove material 
 preventives. '^ Spurious varicose aneurism ^' of the 
 remnant of the spermatic cord sometimes affects oxen, 
 as denoted by swelling of the scrotum, pulsation of the 
 part, and a peculiar bruit. Cases of this nature require 
 removal of the end of the cord with the clamps (See 
 ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review,' vol. i, p. 387). In the same 
 volume is mentioned a case of aneurism of the vertebral 
 
THE CIECULATOET SYSTEM. 221 
 
 artery. In ' Yeterinarian/ vol. xii, p. 125, is recorded 
 a case of false aneurism outside the elbow, whicli appeared 
 suddenly. 
 
 Thrombus. — Partial or complete plugging of a blood- 
 vessel with fibrin somewhat resembles aneurism in its 
 effects, for in each case successive layers of clot 
 line the wall of the vessel, the outer being the oldest 
 and having undergone most extensive organisation. The 
 cause of this clotting of the blood in the vessels of living 
 animals is generally some degenerative change of the 
 inner coat of the artery rendering it rough. The patho- 
 logical condition resembles that which we noticed in 
 endocarditis. The tendeucy of plugging of an artery is 
 to cut off more or less the supply of blood to the part 
 to which the branches are distributed. Generally anas- 
 tomoses of vessels atones indirectly and gradually for this. 
 Plugging of a vein is still less important. Sometimes a 
 portion of fibrin broken off from the thrombus is carried 
 in the round of the circulation and becomes forced into a 
 vessel through which it cannot pass. It becomes fixed, 
 therefore, and proves more or less detrimental according 
 to the part affected. It is termed an emholism. The 
 capillaries of the lungs, spleen, and kidneys are small and 
 so sometimes become involved in this manner. Emboli 
 and thrombi are formed in some blood diseases, especially 
 in the lungs in pleuro-pneumonia epizootica. 
 
 Wounds op Aeteeies present no special features in the 
 ox. They are comparatively unimportant since the arteries 
 are small and are denoted by a jerky flow of bright blood. 
 Transverse cuts when the vessel is not completely severed 
 and oblique wounds are the most persistent in bleeding. 
 Such are best treated by completing the incision. The 
 ligaturing of arteries is an important part of all surgical 
 operations with the knife (see Figs 35 and 36). 
 
 Ieeegulaeities op Aeteeies occur in the ox as in all 
 other animals, and are due to imperfection of develop- 
 ment, or to recurrence to previous type, or to higher 
 specialisation. They are seldom so important as to 
 interfere with surgical operations. 
 
221 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Section 3. — Of the Capillaet System. 
 
 Capillary Hemorrhage, due to rupture of minute 
 vessels, occurs in acute congestion, and sometimes in in- 
 
 FiG. 35.— The Artery Ligature 
 Knot. 
 
 Fig. 36. — Showing the proper methorl of tying 
 an artery. The Artery Forceps in use. 
 (From ' Erichsen's Surgery.') 
 
 flammation. It is a very frequent condition in blood dis- 
 eases, when it is due to a depraved state of the blood, 
 wbicb exudes through the unbroken walls of the vessels, 
 giving rise to hsBmorrhagic discharges, petechise, and 
 ecchymoses. It is seldom so important as to necessitate 
 those measures suggested for internal haemorrhage. 
 
 Section 4. — Op the Venous System. 
 
 This set of blood-vessels in the ox is remarkable for 
 large calibre, and, therefore, for very considerable total 
 capacity. 
 
 Phlebitis. — Inflammation of a vein sometimes takes 
 place as a result of injury (as bleeding with dirty and 
 rough instruments), or from extension of inflammation of 
 neighbouring parts. It most frequently affects the ex- 
 ternal jugular vein, which differs from that of the horse 
 in being larger, and in having an accessory vessel — the 
 internal jugular, which runs with the carotid artery. This 
 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 223 
 
 latter anatomical point shows why obliteration of the vessel, 
 which may result from phlebitis, is less likely to interfere 
 with the grazing capabilities of an ox than of a horse. 
 The changes which take place in the inflamed vessel are, 
 roughening of the coats with exudation from them, stag- 
 nation of the blood, coagulation, and organisation of the 
 clot ; abscesses also form along the course of the vessel. 
 
 Treatment consists in general and local antiphlogistic 
 measures, and subsequently blisters along the course of 
 the affected vessel. Embolic pneumonia may result from 
 this (see 'Veterinarian,^ vol. xii, p. 717). 
 
 Thrombus of veins has been observed. Sucking of 
 air into the heart through the jugular, and the occurrence 
 of concretions, have not been recorded in bovine practice 
 in this country. 
 
 Rupture of Veins, as a result of lacerated and incised 
 wounds, is not unfrequent, and sometimes this lesion 
 follows injury of other kinds. Thus, Gamgee observed, 
 in Italy, cases of rupture of vena azygos to be very fre- 
 quent in animals destroyed by "pithing^^ between the 
 atlas and axis. On this point Professor Maffei told him 
 that he noted the ruptures in 57 out of over 3000 oxen 
 and cows killed in the way indicated. The ruptures took 
 place at various parts of the vessel, and the extravasated 
 blood trickled between the laminae of the mediastinum or 
 beneath the parietal pleura (' Domestic Animals,^ p. 360, 
 second division). Wounds of veins, denoted by free and 
 even flow of dark blood, are not serious, since it is impure 
 blood which is lost ; the escape is less rapid, and its 
 " welling character facilitates coagulation, whereby nature 
 temporarily repairs the lesion.^^ 
 
 A remarkable case of rupture of the jugular has been 
 recorded by Mr. Hill, of Wolverhampton ('Veterinary 
 JournaV 1880, vol. i, p. 291). 
 
 Varicosity is undue distension of a vein, giving it a 
 saccular character. It depends upon any debilitating 
 influence temporarily affecting the wall of a vein. 
 It is most frequent in those which pass from important 
 organs. Thus, it affects the veins of the udder of the 
 
224 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 COW, and has been seen in the spermatic veins of the bull 
 constituting varicocele. It seldom is seen except in old 
 animals, and appears gradually. Sometimes the dilata- 
 tion is the seat of active inflammation ; then antiphlo- 
 gistic treatment is required. Less urgent cases are 
 preferably left alone, but a bandage or plaster may be 
 required to protect the enlarged vessel and to support its 
 walls by gentle pressure.^ 
 
 Tumours of Veins. — Messrs. Hill and Duguid give a 
 case of tumour of the anterior vena cava, materially 
 reducing its calibre, due to circumscribed hypertrophy of 
 its muscular coat (^Yeterinary Journal,^ 1876, vol. ii, 
 p. 14). 
 
 Addendum 1. — Diseases of the Lymphatic System. 
 
 The lymphatic system of the ox is distributed much as 
 in the horse. The thoracic duct is remarkable for its 
 frequent variations (Colin). The mesenteric glands are 
 situated close against the small intestines, instead of at 
 the root of the mesentery, where they are in the horse. 
 Large glands occur in certain positions, notably the 
 posterior mediastinum and the space between the cranium 
 and the pharynx. These become inflamed when any 
 irritating absorbed material passes through them. Of 
 this nature are the so-called cases of strangles of the 
 ox as has been described, the intermaxillary or parotid 
 glands being the seat. These glands are also the seat of 
 scrofulous, cancerous, and other forms of deposit, while in 
 many blood diseases, especially anthracoid affections, they 
 are enlarged, reddened, and disintegrated. Cases of 
 " farcy " in the ox, which have been described by some 
 writers, were probably inflammation of the lymphatics, 
 resulting in the formation of series of abscesses along their 
 course, accompanied by infiltration of serum into the 
 
 * Mr. J. H. Cox, of Ashbourne, gives a most interesting case of varicosity 
 of the posterior vena cava, in which obscure abdominal pain was present, 
 and the vein was enormously distended (' Veterinarian,' vol. xxxix, p. 891). 
 Cruzel tells us that asphyxia from the introduction of air into the veins is 
 frequent in places where venesection is often performed. 
 
THE CIECULATORY SYSTEM. 225 
 
 surrounding parts. In sucli cases the cause must primarily 
 be removed, and poulticing and other emoj 
 taken in regard to the poisoned wound./' S( 
 system will require stimulation and supporfc. The ab; 
 must be treated in the usual manner. \(^r ^ il ^ T ' ^ 
 
 Lymphadenoma or Lymphoma is hyperi^^hy of lym- * P* 
 phatic glandular structure, resulting in tuW)ur3, wlifj"^^. 
 often are said to be malignant. This disease ^J! thU"^ 
 glands causes and accompanies leukeemia. 
 
 Addendum 2. — Diseases of the Vascular Glands. 
 
 The vascular or ductless glands are occasionally dis- 
 eased in the ox. The Spleen in this animal is situated 
 on the upper part of the rumen to the left ; it is oval and 
 flattened, and is smaller than in the horse. Its normal 
 weight is about two pounds. It undergoes enlargement 
 periodically during active gastric digestion, but it some- 
 times is considerably increased in bulk, having become 
 hypeiirophied ; in anaemic animals it is often found in an 
 atrophied state. 
 
 Inflammation of this organ is described by several 
 British authors, but a careful examination of their ac- 
 counts makes it evident that they were dealing with 
 splenic fever. This error occurs especially in older works. 
 Cruzel describes it as frequent among working oxen. 
 Lymphomatous and scrofulous deposits may have their seat 
 in this organ. In cases of tuberculosis sometimes it is 
 firmly fixed to the stomach, liver, and intestines, by 
 tuberculous masses invested by peritoneum. 
 
 Hydatid Cysts [Echinococcus veterinorum) sometimes 
 grow in the spleen, causing considerable diminution of its 
 proper structure. 
 
 Lastly, Rupture sometimes takes place. The walls of its 
 venous sinuses give way, and the extravasated blood either 
 accumulates beneath the peritoneal capsule, or, that having 
 ruptured, escapes into the peritoneal sac. The former 
 condition may be seen in splenic fever, the latter results 
 from blows, falls, or other injuries. The symptoms of the 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 latter are those of internal haemorrhage, together with 
 subacute abdominal irritation. Such cases are not amen- 
 able to treatment, but the usual means adopted for 
 internal hasmorrhage must be tried ; administration of 
 haBmostatics, as sulphuric acid, and 
 tannic and gallic acids, &c. Death, 
 however, generally comes on rapidly. 
 The Thyroid Body is large in the 
 ox. It is sometimes the seat of indu- 
 ratioUj but more frequently becomes 
 large, either as a result of colloid 
 change, to which this organ is very 
 liable, or in consequence of the de- 
 velopment of cysts within its sub- 
 stance. Two cases of disease of this 
 body are given in the ' Vetorinarian,' 
 vol. xvi, pp. 194 and 498. It may be 
 removed by operation, if 'so large as to 
 cause inconvenience. Generally its ex- 
 cessive size is only an eyesore, but it 
 may interfere with respiration. 
 
 The Thymus Body of the calf is 
 large, extending far up the neck und 
 into the anterior mediastinum. Some- 
 times it is enlarged. In the 'Vete- 
 rinarian,^ 1852, p. 691, is an account 
 of a case of this nature, in which the 
 organ had undergone tubercular soft- 
 ening, weighed forty- nine ounces, and 
 measured twenty-three inches in its 
 greater circumference. Mr. William 
 Lyon, of Forfar, removed it success- 
 fully by operation. 
 
 We have no record of disease of 
 the Adrenals of the ox. 
 
 <^ 
 
 Fig. 37.— a piece of 
 thymusof a calf spread 
 out. Natural size. a. 
 Central canal, b. Lo- 
 bules, c. Isolated gland 
 granules seated upon 
 the principal canal. 
 (After Harley aud 
 Brown.) 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 227 
 
 CHAPTEH lY.— DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Section I. — Oe the Alimentary Canal. 
 
 Being a ruminant, the ox has certain characteristic 
 differences of structure and form of the digestive organs 
 as compared with those of the horse ; also there are special 
 features in which this animal differs from other ruminants. 
 The large size of the abdomen and the considerable 
 bulk of the mass of the alimentary canal, together with its 
 extent of surface and its large supply of blood, lead us to 
 anticipate numerous and complex disorders of the diges- 
 tive system. In this we are not mistaken. The weight 
 of the stomach and intestines is considered 143 per cent, 
 of that of the whole body (Lawes). The lijps are liable to 
 become involved in malignant disease of the face, but 
 most frequently come under the notice of the surgeon as 
 the seat of laceration or other wound. In the treatment of 
 such lesions no part which can possibly be saved must 
 be removed. These organs, with the dental pad, hard 
 palate, and gums, also are the seat of vesicular eruptions 
 in foot-and-mouth disease, and of some of the characteristic 
 lesions in cattle plague. Cruzel describes inflamination of 
 the lips at some length. 
 
 The Incisor Teeth of the ox (fig. 38) are eight in number, 
 all in the lower jaw, placed with their crowns arranged 
 '^ like the keyboard of a piano,^^ their upper surfaces 
 meeting the dental pad. They have very small fangs, and 
 are loosely fixed in the jaw, the yielding of this part being 
 increased by the non-union of the symphysis. They may 
 be fractured or forced out ; if only one or two are injured 
 this will not materially interfere with the obtaining of 
 
228 
 
 BOVmE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 food, otherwise the animal may require to be house-fed. 
 Professor Simonds, in his work upon the ^ Age of the Ox, 
 Sheep, and Pig/ notices certain irregularities of the in- 
 
 FlG. 38 — Incisors of the ox. 
 margin, g. Inner edge. 
 (Chauveau.) 
 
 a. Crown, h. Fang. 
 A. Superior surface. 
 
 c. Neck. /. Nipping 
 B. Inferior surface. 
 
 cisors of the ox, due to persistence or non-appearance of 
 temporary teeth. Such have not much practical 
 importance. 
 
 The Molars of the ox (fig. 39) differ from those of the 
 horse mainly in the fact that the three anterior ones are 
 small, as compared with the three posterior in each series. 
 The fangs are smaller and more subdivided. The tables 
 are less complex and more rough and irregular, with 
 jagged points, which often injure the insides of the cheeks 
 (and such lacerations acquire importance, since it has been 
 proved that they are the breach through which the bacteria 
 enter in many cases of anthrax). These teeth are loosened 
 by epitheliomatous or osteo-sarcomatous growths. They 
 may be affected by caries, and those other pathological 
 conditions which have been seen in the horse, but such 
 cases seem to be extremely rare. "We also seldom find 
 records of their displacements abnormally. Cattle also 
 do not seem to suffer from teething. Our researches have 
 disclosed a case where the sole of a boot became fixed 
 on the molar series of one side of the lower jaw, giving 
 rise to dysphagia (difficulty in feeding). And in ' Veteri- 
 
THE DIGESTIVJE SYSTEM. 
 
 229 
 
 narian/ vol. xii, p. 143, is recorded a most remarkable case 
 of a normally formed incisor being developed in tbe centre 
 of the palate of a young bull. 
 
 Fig. 39.— Teeth of the ox. 1. Upper: a, from below; h, from side. 
 2. Lower : a, from above ; b, from side. (Chauveau.) 
 
 The hard palate of the ox is wide and roomy poste- 
 riorly at its intermolar portion, but in front of this is 
 narrowed by the ridges, convex inwards, which afford 
 attachment to Canini. These muscles contract during 
 mastication, and thus diminish the anterior opening of the 
 mouth, at the same time leaving the lips free to act. The 
 muscles of mastication in ruminants are well developed. 
 Pterygoideus and masseter internus are large, and masseter 
 
230 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 externus may be divided into several superposed layers, 
 and anteriorly receives a tendon of Panniculus, represent- 
 ing Sterno-maxillaris. Digastricus has but one belly, and 
 runs directly from the occipital styloid process to the in- 
 ferior maxilla. Stylo-maxillaris is absent. The temporo- 
 maxillary joint is arranged to allow of very free lateral 
 movement, the glenoid surface being convex. In mastica- 
 tion and remastication the jaw is moved for a number of 
 times to one side, and then the action is reversed. Thus, 
 the right and left molar series are periodically, but not 
 alternately, brought into use. 
 
 '' Deopping the Cud" takes place in certain diseases of 
 the mouth where mastication is painful, but is also one of 
 the symptoms of certain subacute forms of indigestion 
 dependent upon bad, bulky, and innutritions food. In 
 such cases the animal is unthrifty, with irregular bowels, 
 stciring coat, and depraved appetite. A cathartic dose, 
 with change of diet, will generally effectually remove 
 this irregularity. 
 
 Salivary Olands. — The parotids are smaller propor- 
 
 FiG. 40. — Salivary glands with their ducts. d. Parotid; a, its duct. 
 0. Prohes in submaxillary ducts, e. Sublinguals, b. Termination of 
 parotid duct. (Simonds.) 
 
 tionally than in the horse, but this is compensated for by 
 the large size of the inferior buccal glands. They secrete 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 231 
 
 constantly, but most markedly when alimentary matters 
 are in the mouth being masticated ; then the alternate 
 action of each gland, in accordance with unilateral masti- 
 cation, is marked. During abstinence the flow is about 
 a quarter as great as during mastication, and the fluid 
 passes generally into the reticulum. Though about equal 
 in size to the submaxillary, this gland produces four or 
 five times as much fluid [Sp. gr. 1*0108 (Lassaigne)]. 
 The flow of submaxillary saliva is unaffected during 
 rumination. The total quantity of mixed saliva produced 
 by an ox, taking three hours to feed and five to rumi- 
 nate, was estimated at 40,000 grammes during the eight 
 hours' mastication and 16,000 grammes during abstinence, 
 making a total of 56,000 grammes in twenty-four hours ; 
 this is probably under-estimated (Colin). Submaxillary 
 saliva is constantly produced during abstinence in small 
 quantities ; it is abundant during feeding, and its quantity 
 is related to the quality and taste of the food and to the 
 rapidity of mastication. Sublingual saliva may be obtained 
 from the accessory duct which runs from the posterior 
 lobe of the gland and opens near the submaxillary duct ; 
 it is constantly produced and is very viscid ; probably it 
 serves to coat the pellet of food. The well-developed 
 condition of the salivary apparatus accounts for the fact 
 that it is readily acted upon by even small doses of 
 mercury, whereby excessive secretion, Ptyalism, is pro- 
 duced. It also explains how sufiicient fluid is passed into 
 the rumen to thoroughly macerate the large quantity of 
 material it can contain. Mr. Cox, of Ashbourne, in the 
 'Veterinarian,' vol. xxv, p. 695, gives three cases of 
 ptyalism, due to paralysis for they were accompanied by 
 inability to raise the eyelid and a pendulous condition of 
 the ear and of the upper lip. A blister around the base 
 of the ear and a laxative dose cured these cases in a 
 month. In two other cases no paralysis was present. 
 
 Inflammation of the Salivary Glands seldom takes 
 place as a disease in itself, though these organs are 
 generally involved in cases of sore throat. Cases of 
 Parotiditis sometimes are seen, but it is the lymphatic. 
 
232 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and not tlie salivary parotid gland which is affected in almost 
 every instance. Youatt tells us that " this condition is an 
 almost invariable accompaniment of catarrhal affection of 
 the upper air passages, and there is scarcely any epi- 
 demic [sic) among cattle, one of the earliest symptoms of 
 which is not swelling of the head and neck/^ There are 
 swellings, with heat and pain on pressure, on the seat of 
 the parotid, abscesses form and burst, and thus produce 
 obstinate sores. Youatt says, ^' In inflammation, apparently 
 of only an inconsiderable portion of the parotid gland, we 
 have known ulcers of the most offensive character extend 
 from ear to ear, and expose the most important vessels of 
 the upper part of the neck/^ He apparently here alluded 
 either to scrofulous tumours or to the condition known as 
 osteo-sarcoma or spina ventosa {vide infra). Ordinary 
 parotiditis needs no special measures of treatment. 
 Fomentations will be found most valuable, and steaming 
 the air passages is useful. In the ' Yeterinarian,^ vol. 
 xxxii, p. 433, is given a case of cuticular cyst in the 
 parotid. Congestion of the buccal mucous membrane 
 sometimes interferes with the flow of saliva into the 
 mouth, since the openings of the submaxillary ducts below 
 the tongue, and sometimes those of the sublingual in the 
 channel between it and the molars, become tumid and 
 congested, a condition vulgarly known as harhs or paps. 
 This will disappear with its cause. Cruzel, however, says 
 decidedly, that operative removal is necessary. 
 
 Salivary Calculi do not seem to occur often in cattle. 
 
 The tongue of the ox is pointed, more conical, and 
 thicker than that of the horse, and has stouter muscles. 
 It is used as the main organ of prehension, for, curling 
 round a tuft of grass it draws this into the mouth, while 
 the incisors meet the dental pad and bite off the morsel 
 at a short distance above the ground. The tongue is 
 furnished with conical papillae, and, since it is much ex- 
 posed during the performance of its prehensile functions, 
 is protected by a stout horny epidermis. Conical papillae, 
 resembling those of the tongue, are found inside the cheeks 
 These probably serve to retain the food in the mouth. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 233 
 
 The protrusibility of the tongue results from the well- 
 developed condition of those lingual muscles attached to 
 the symphysis, and from the presence of a well-developed 
 middle cornu of the os hyoides. This highly important 
 organ is liable to disease of different kinds — inflamma- 
 tion, degeneration, and malignant glossitis. 
 
 Glossitis [inflammation of the tongue) is a disease of 
 by no means rare occurrence, attributable to ingestion of 
 rough course food, frosty grass, and injuries (mechanical 
 or chemical). It also is a complication occasionally 
 seen in eczema epizootica when badly treated or neg- 
 lected. The whole organ may be diseased or only part 
 of it. The resulting changes are induration, suppuration, 
 or gangrene. 
 
 Symptoms. — General signs of fever ; profuse flow of 
 saliva from the mouth, which is very hot, the tongue 
 then becomes enlarged and reddened, and hangs from the 
 mouth. Sometimes the epithelial layer is raised from the 
 deeper portion of the mucous membrane by serous 
 effusion, so that separation of it may take place to a 
 limited extent. The enlargement of the tongue and the 
 surrounding swelling causes some interference with res- 
 piration, of course the animal is not in a position to take 
 in food ; deglutition also is interfered with. In very acute 
 cases either abscesses form in the organ or mortification 
 sets in. In the former case pointing takes place, and as 
 soon as possible, but not prematurely, the abscess should 
 be opened. In the latter the protruded organ becomes 
 livid, cold, and loses all feeling and power of retraction; 
 it has a peculiar odour with phlyctenae on the surface, and 
 the general symptoms assume a typhoid character. In less 
 acute cases exudation of lympb into the substance of the 
 tongue takes place ; this undergoes organisation, and com- 
 pressing the muscular structure of the organ, produces 
 atrophy. Thus occurs the so-called scirrhus of the tongue. 
 
 Treatment. — Active measures are essential. In the 
 earlier stages, besides nursing, the animal must receive 
 an aperient dose, and some suggest the necessity for 
 bleeding; preferably sedative and febrifuge agents may 
 
234 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 be administered, tlie doses being so arranged tliat they 
 may prove refrigerants to the diseased organ. Steaming 
 the mouth is valuable. The animal should always be 
 allowed a bucketful of nitrated water. One of the most 
 serious effects of this disease is that it cuts off the 
 animals food supply. Nutritive enemas must therefore 
 be given with assiduity, and all drinks administered in 
 gruel and with vegetable tonics. When gangrene of the 
 affected organ sets in, but little hope of a favorable result 
 must be entertained. Free incisions must be made into 
 the tongue. Extensive sloughing may remove the dead 
 parts, and the animal retain a portion of the organ 
 sufficient for house-feeding, but generally death takes 
 place. At best these cases are prolonged, the chances 
 of recovery are poor, and the animal will fall away much 
 during the treatment. Under these circumstances, our 
 duty is to suggest immediate slaughter if the animal be 
 in anything like condition in the early stages of a case of 
 glossitis. Gloss anthrax may be confounded with this 
 disorder, but it is more acute. 
 
 Indueation of the Tongue (Scirrlms). — Generally this 
 is the above-described atrophy of the tongue, due to substi- 
 tution of lowly organised fibrous tissue for muscular 
 fibre. Thus, there is no loss of bulk, indeed, the organ is 
 increased in size and very hard, but markedly of contrac- 
 tility. This atrophy may involve part or whole of the 
 organ ; sometimes it affects only the tip, arising without 
 appreciable cause, unpreceded by inflammation. In any 
 case it interferes with prehension ' and mastication, and 
 the animal becomes emaciated, and should, therefore, be 
 slaughtered early. Interference with rumination and ex- 
 cessive salivation are the most marked symptoms. 
 
 Cancer op the Tongue. — In this disease the organ is 
 the seat of small nodules of carcinomatous deposit, which 
 more or less replace the proper substance of the organs, 
 and some of them bulge beneath the mucous membrane 
 of the dorsum. Some undergo softening, and the sub- 
 maxillary and parotid lymphatic glands are generally 
 involved through absorption of cancerous matter. This 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 235 
 
 disease progresses slowly and materially interferes with the 
 development of the animal. It is incurable, and the flesh of 
 cattle thus affected is not good meat, though always con- 
 sumed. The condition of the dorsum linguas is diagnostic. 
 The earliest account of this with which I am acquainted 
 is in the ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review/ 1864, p. 153. 
 Some authorities consider this disease scrofulous rather 
 than a form of carcinoma. 
 
 Ceamp op the Tongue. — This disease has been described 
 by Eberhardt (see ^ Veterinarian,' xvii, 153). It seems 
 to be enzootic in certain parts of Germany; is liable to 
 recur, and proves rapidly fatal unless relievedo *' The 
 tongue is curled like a corkscrew and drawn backwards 
 towards the upper part of the throat, on which it presses 
 so violently as to make it evident that this is the cause of 
 the convulsions, and that it is only necessary to bring the 
 tongue into its natural position to relieve the animal. 
 The attacks usually come on suddenly when the animal is 
 feeding. It starts suddenly back from the manger, begins 
 to breathe heavily and sonorously, stretches out the head, 
 and sways to and fro. It appears to be uneasy, it moves 
 restlessly from side to side, becomes swollen or half 
 suffocated, and voids much dung. There is an expres- 
 sion of suffering in the countenance ; the eyes are pro- 
 truded, they roll in their sockets, and have a fiery glittering 
 appearance. The veins of the head are enlarged, and 
 project in bold relief like cords. If one of them is pressed 
 with the finger the flow of blood can be distinctly felt. 
 The ears stands erect, the nostrils work convulsively, the 
 mouth is held open, and the whole face plainly speaks 
 the agony which the animal is suffering.'-' Tracheotomy 
 may be performed if considered necessary. 
 
 Cystic Diseases op the Tongue. — An account of fibro- 
 cystic disease is given in the ' Edinburgh Veterinary Re- 
 view,' iii, 216, and a most interesting case of pilous cysts 
 in the tongue, possibly an inversion of the skin, is recorded 
 by Professor Varnell ('Veterinarian,' xxxix, p. 712). 
 
 The tongue of the ox is comparatively seldom injured. 
 This is due to the absence of the bit and the twisting 
 
236 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 of a halter-rope into tlie mouth, which are fruitful sources 
 in the horse. Sometimes the organ is lacerated, and 
 sometimes bitten. This organ must be preserved as 
 much as possibly in its entirety. 
 
 Paralysis op the Tongue has been seen as a result of 
 disease of the cranium or of the brain. It is of rare occur- 
 rence, and generally necessitates slaughter. 
 
 Ulcees of the Tongue persist after foot-and-mouth 
 disease, sloughing of gangrenous portions, and injuries. 
 They interfere very materially with condition, and occa- 
 sionally require stimulation by caustic dressings. The 
 mucous membrane of the mouth of the ox being thicker 
 than that of the horse, is not so frequently affected by 
 careless administration of caustic alkalies imperfectly 
 diluted. Such accidents do occur. As a result the 
 epithelial layer may peel off the organ in a continuous 
 sheet, leaving the red surface of the corium exposed. This 
 is highly painful. Demulcents acidulated are especially 
 indicated in such <;ases. 
 
 Aphtha, or " thrush in the mouth/' is a mild inflamma- 
 tion of the buccal membrane, leading to the formation of 
 a crop of minute conical or acuminate vesicles or pustules. 
 The number and smallness of these suffices to distinguish 
 them from the blebs of foot-and-mouth disease ; they 
 appear especially on the tongue, burst, and leave ulcers, 
 which may run together. It results from direct local irri- 
 tation, and more frequently from ingestion of indigestible 
 matter. There are present the ordinary signs of inflam- 
 mation in the mouth, salivation, heat, and redness, also im- 
 perfect mastication. Febrile symptoms may be present. 
 
 Treatment. — An aperient saline dose is admissible to 
 expel the irritant substances from the alimentary canal. 
 Locally, astringent dressings may prove useful. 
 
 The Tonsils of the ox are depressions extending from 
 the lateral parts of the isthmus faucium. These are deep, 
 and in their walls are embedded ductless glandular bodies. 
 These are the parts which undergo most marked change 
 in diphtheria. They are enlarged in sore throat of various 
 kinds, and are involved in cases of anthrax. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 237 
 
 The velum pendulum palati of the ox is short as com- 
 pared with that of the horse ; thus^ vomited matter can 
 be expelled and the animal can breathe through the 
 mouth. 
 
 Congenital Malfoemation of the Palate is sometimes 
 seen in calves. We have on record a case of complete diver- 
 gence of the lateral halves of the facial portion of the upper 
 jaw. A case of cleft palate is recorded in ' Veterinarian/ 
 vol. xlii, p. 612 ; in this^ alimentary matters and saliva 
 passed from the right nostril during rumination or feeding. 
 
 The Pharynx of the ox has a single opening into the 
 nasal chambers, which run together posteriorly, where a 
 space exists between the lower margin of the vomer and 
 the palatine suture. The openings of the Eustachian 
 tubes are rounded, and the organ is not separated from 
 basis cranii by guttural pouches — simply by large post- 
 pharyngeal glands. The muscles of the pharynx present 
 nothing peculiar, and do not seem to undergo paralysis. 
 
 Phaeyngeal Polypus is an outgrowth, of generally an 
 ovoid figure, from the pharyngeal mucous membrane. It 
 acts as an impediment to deglutition, and sometimes, by 
 falling over the glottal opening, causes intermittent severe 
 dyspnoea and coughing. These require to be removed by 
 means of the ecraseur or ligature. The operation must be 
 performed through the mouth when possible, but some- 
 times the growth hangs from the posterior nares and causes 
 stertorous breathing. In a case recorded by Mr. Young- 
 husband, of Greystoke, '^the head was kept protruded 
 nearly straight out.^' 
 
 The CEsojphagus is of a red colour throughout, is large 
 in calibre, terminates posteriorly in the cesophagean groove 
 above the reticulum at the supero- anterior part of the 
 the rumen. Its internal layer of muscular fibres presents 
 a spiral arrangement, resulting in double obliquity. Thus, 
 it is adapted for deglutition and regurgitation of the food 
 in pellets, which seem to be formed in the groove at its 
 posterior extremity. Strictly, the first three compart- 
 ments of the stomach of the ox should be considered 
 modified portions of the oesophagus. Transitional stages 
 
238 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 from the simple stomach of man or the dog to the com- 
 plex gastric arrangement of ruminants may be seen in the 
 horse and the pig. 
 
 CEsopHAGiTis, Inflammation of the (Esophagus, has 
 been described, but it is not of frequent occurrence, 
 its symptoms are heat and swelling along the channel of 
 the neck, profuse flow of saliva, difiiculty in deglutition, 
 and fever more or less marked. 
 
 Probably from a condition of this kind results Fibeous 
 Degeneration op the CEsophagus, as sometimes seen 
 (' Edinburgh Veterinary Review,^ vii, 27). There is nothing 
 special in this, for the ordinary result of inflammation of 
 muscular structures is the substitution of organised lymph 
 for contractile fibre. Its effects are important; they are 
 stricture and dilatation. 
 
 Dilatation op the (Esophagus is less frequent than in 
 the horse, partly because the oesophagus is naturally larger, 
 partly because it performs a double function in the ox, 
 and, therefore, when deranged leads, to more rapid emacia- 
 tion, so that any relaxation of the walls is not so liable to 
 go to extremes. In a case of this kind but little can 
 result from surgery. The muscular coat is weakened or 
 degenerated, a state which can seldom be repaired. It is 
 best to endeavour to feed the animal for the butcher. 
 This must be done with great care, and manipulation over 
 the course of the oesophagus from above downwards, 
 after a meal, will tend to remove any accumulation which 
 may take place in the weakened part when it is in the 
 cervical region, where the tube is most exposed to injury. 
 The diet must be soft and nourishing, so that there may be 
 little need for regurgitation. In mild cases a blister over 
 the affected part has been found beneficial. Vomition, 
 periodical choking, and excessive appetite are signs of 
 those cases in which the oesophagus has a saccular dilata- 
 tion at its inferior extremity, which is the most frequent 
 seat of the disorder. 
 
 Stricture of the CEsopKagus is due either to hypertrophy 
 of the muscular coat, to its fibrous degeneration with 
 shrinking, or to injury to the mucous membrane, with 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 239 
 
 tliickeniDg and obliteration of its folds. The most fre- 
 quent cause is injury from too large a pellet or mass of 
 food being swallowed^ or from excessive force applied to 
 the impacted body by the probang in cases of choking. A 
 lesion of this nature follows corrosive poisonings and may 
 necessitate destruction of the patient after recovery from 
 the toxic effects of the agent. Dilatation of the tube 
 above the stricture occurs as a complication. The thick- 
 ening may extend along a considerable portion of the 
 lengtb of the oesophagus as a result of inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. — Swelling along tbe channel of the neck, 
 frequent choking, and attempts to vomit. More or less 
 impediment to swallowing and accumulation of food above 
 the stricture, giving rise to a swelling, which, largest at 
 first after feeding, gradually disappears until after the 
 next meal. 
 
 Treatment has been successfully adopted in sucb cases 
 in the horse, but the method suggested for dilatation 
 should be adopted in the ox. The passage of probangs, 
 of gradually increasing size, periodically, may be tried in 
 cases of circumscribed stricture; stimulation, by means 
 of a blister, will tend to remove lymphy deposit. When 
 the stricture involves the thoracic portion of the oeso- 
 phagus (or its terminal extremity), it is even less amenable 
 to treatment. When due to pressure of a tumour it 
 may be cured by surgical removal of the cause. Certain 
 parasites — Spiroptera scutata oesophagea hovis — take up 
 their abode in the mucous membrane of the oesophagus. 
 They have not been observed in this country, but Miiller 
 gives an account of them (see ^Veterinarian,^ vol. xliii, 
 p. 632). They may cause stricture. 
 
 RuPTUEE OP THE CEsoPHAGUs rcsults from force applied 
 from within, as when the probang slips round the impacted 
 body, or forces it through the wall of the tube. Lacerated 
 or punctured wounds from without, or extension of ulcera- 
 tion, too, cause perforation. An abscess has been known 
 to burst into the thoracic portion of the oesophagus, and 
 thus evacuate its pus. In these cases there are two un- 
 satisfactory points : first, the food constantly tends to 
 
240 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 escape througli the wound, and keep it open ; secondly, 
 when healing occurs, stricture is very liable to ensue. 
 The indications for treatment are : feed the animal only on 
 soft food — liquids are preferable ; after feeding remove all 
 foreign matter escaping through the wound ; dress with oil 
 or glycerine of carbolic acid. It is a good plan to support 
 mainly on gruel administered through the hollow probang. 
 The use of the latter acts as a preventive against stricture. 
 When rupture has followed choking, and the wound is sub- 
 cutaneous, the alimentary material which escapes tends to 
 accumulate in the areolar tissue. It must be cut down 
 upon and removed, then the edges of the oesophageal 
 wound brought together with wire sutures or carbolised 
 catgut, and the case treated as above mentioned. Some- 
 times only partial rupture occurs when the force applied 
 to the probang is in the proper direction, but too great. 
 Complete transverse rupture of the mucous membrane then 
 takes place, and the probang passes onward with a jerk, 
 which to the experienced practitioner is diagnostic. The 
 symptoms of choking, in such a case, generally persist 
 after the canal has been cleared, and it ultimately becomes 
 necessary to destroy the patient. 
 
 Under the heading ^'Degeneration of the Mucous mem- 
 brane of the (Esophagus '^ in the ' Edinburgh Veterinary 
 Review,^ vol. iv, p. 235, is given a case of those warty 
 growths, benign epithelial tumours which are not unfre- 
 quently found growing from the oesophageal mucous mem- 
 brane. These are sometimes enormous, and give rise to 
 choking since they materially diminish the calibre of the 
 tube. Their presence can only be surmised in cases of 
 intermittent choking. They constitute one of many 
 causes. The frequent passage of the probang and other 
 treatment of ordinary stricture may suffice to secure fitness 
 for the butcher. 
 
 Choking is a condition which commonly depends upon 
 impaction or blocking up of the oesophagus by some foreign 
 body. Symptoms of choking, however, arise from other 
 causes, as injuries of the oesophagus from sharp bodies 
 swallowed, also disease of the pneumogastric nerve. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 241 
 
 Impaction of foreign bodies in the oesophagus occurs very 
 frequently in the ox. The symptoms resulting from it 
 are not so urgent as in the horse. The animal stands 
 with the muzzle projected^ coughs, champs the jaws, and 
 there is a profuse flow of saliva from the mouth. Appetite 
 and rumination are suspended, but there are gulping 
 efforts. The eyes are projecting and bloodshot, and the 
 patient is very uneasy ; there is frequent passage of urine 
 and faeces. When any matter is ingested it is returned by 
 vomition through the mouth and nose. The impaction may 
 be up against the pharynx, in the cervical, or in the thoracic 
 regions of the tube. In the former case the coughing is 
 most marked and respiration is interfered with, in the 
 latter, fluid seems to pass, but simply fills the passage up 
 from the obstruction, and is then returned by vomition; 
 also auscultation detects frequently rushes of gas past the 
 obstruction (Nelson), while altogether the symptoms are 
 less urgent. When the body is lodged in the cervical 
 region, swelling may be perceived on the left side in the 
 channel of the neck. This may be large or small, hard or 
 soft, movable or immovable, according to the nature 
 of the body and the conditions of the oesophagus. Tym- 
 pany early sets in, except in those cases, which are not 
 numerous, in which liquids and gaseous matters can pass 
 the obstruction. The swelling of the rumen threatens 
 suffocation, and requires relief either by puncture or by 
 passage of the hollow probang. On performing the latter 
 operation we determine the presence of a solid body 
 preventing its entry into the stomach. This body may 
 be a turnip, mangold, or potato. All such roots should 
 be sliced or bruised, especially when animals receive them 
 as a change of diet, for then they are greedily stowed 
 away in the rumen, and a too large one causes choking. 
 Whole eggs given to improve the animal's condition are 
 much less frequently the cause of choking in the ox than 
 in the horse. The bulimia (or depraved appetite) from 
 which cows especially suffer causes them to consume 
 strange bodies, which may become impacted in the oeso- 
 phagus. Imperfect salivation of coarse food seldom causes 
 
 16 
 
242 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 obstruction in tlie ox, indeed this is natural, for food is 
 taken in hastily and thoroughly mixed with the saliva only 
 when it gains the rumen. Accumulation of food material 
 in a dilated oesophagus and spasm of the muscular coat 
 are occasional causes. Stricture is very liable to cause 
 impediment even when pellets are passing up from the 
 rumen for remastication. Sometimes " hair-balls '' thus 
 cause choking.^ 
 
 Treatment. — When we have reason to suspect pharyn- 
 geal impaction we must have the animal's mouth kept 
 open by means of an ordinary balling iron, and pass the 
 hand through the mouth to explore the pharynx. Some- 
 times it will assist us if an assistant presses the throat on 
 each side behind the maxillary angle inwards and upwards. 
 In the cervical region the tumour may be manipulated, 
 and attempts made to move it upwards or downwards. 
 These may be aided by passing a small quantity of oil 
 into the oesophagus. Sometimes manipulation will disin- 
 tegrate a mass, which will then slowly disappear. Any 
 movement of the body is a favorable sign. If this method 
 fail, the probang, well oiled, may be passed, and gentle 
 but continuous pressure exerted upon the impediment, 
 which may often be felt gradually yielding and passing 
 onward into the stomach. In less favorable cases it will 
 not yield. This frequently depends upon spasm of the 
 oesophagus behind it, and consequently persistence in 
 passing the probang at intervals and applying gentle 
 pressure may be crowned with success. Some practitioners 
 recommend morphia and aconite doses to allay the spasm. 
 Carters' whips, ropes, and other rough instruments are some- 
 times used instead of the probang ; this is reprehensible. 
 Probangs are of various kinds. They almost all consist of 
 an elastic tube, kept open by a spiral wire, and perforated 
 by a central free stilette. One extremity is arranged like a 
 mouth-piece, the other has a bulb, which is sometimes Qgg- 
 
 * Cases of chronic choking are sometimes seen in which a portion of turnip 
 or other substance, of a triangular or irregular shape, becomes fixed in the 
 oesophagus, and allows passage of food downwards. This generally takes 
 place near the stomach. A case has been known to last for six weeks. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 243 
 
 shaped and perforated ; this is apt to slip off a rounded 
 body, as a turnip, and rupture the oesophagus. Others, 
 
 preferably, have a concave 
 extremity, which allows firm 
 and even pressure on the 
 body. Mr. Reed reminds us 
 that the metal ends should 
 not be of lead, which is in- 
 dented by the teeth, and thus 
 becomes liable to tear the 
 oesophagus. 
 
 In passing the jprohang, a 
 wooden gag, perforated cen- 
 trally and with a projecting 
 handle at each extremity, is 
 placed in the mouth and fixed 
 by straps which pass behind 
 the horns. Two men ought to 
 hold the head, each having a 
 
 Fig. 41. — Ordinary method of pas- 
 sing the probang. (Simonds.) 
 
 Fig. 42. — Armatage's wooden Gag. 
 
 handle in one hand and the horn of the opposite side in 
 the other. Thus, tiie head is straightened upon the neck 
 
244 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 by the elevation of the muzzle. The probang, then, with 
 its cup-shaped end foremost, is passed through the opening 
 in the gag under the pendulous palate, carefully over 
 the epiglottis, which it forces downwards somewhat, and so 
 into the oesophagus. Sometimes slight taps with the heavy 
 end of the probang serve to start the body forwards. A 
 little oil may be introduced through the tube by removal 
 of the stilette. Thus, also, the gas can be drawn off when 
 the bulb enters the rumen. 
 
 The Forceps Prohang of Professor Simonds serves to 
 grasp the root, and so to accomplish its withdrawal. It is 
 
 Fia. 43. — The Grasping or Forceps Probaug of Piofessor Simonds. 
 (Armatage.) 
 
 furnished at the top end with a screw-handle, at the 
 other with a pair of spring forceps, the latter being drawn 
 into the bulb when the instrument is passed and secured 
 by a check and screw to the other end. The forceps 
 are serrated on their inner surface, and their edges are 
 made somewhat tapering, for the purpose of passing readily 
 between the root and the side of the oesophagus. The bulb 
 being brought in contact with the root the screw check 
 is removed and the forceps expanded and turned in 
 different directions to grasp the root. That the obstruc- 
 tive is grasped is indicated by the stilette not being 
 entirely withdrawable. 
 
 The Corkscrew Prohang of Lord is so arranged that, 
 when a foreign body is reached, a corkscrew can be in- 
 troduced into it, with the result either of bringing about 
 its withdrawal or lessening its cohesion. In the latter 
 case, after being punctured in several places, the root may 
 break up and pass readily into the rumen. The screw 
 terminates the stilette ; it can be retracted into the tube 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, 245 
 
 of the probang while it is being passed, and when the 
 obstruction is reached can be introduced into it by 
 turning the handle; another probang is a stout rope un- 
 perforated, with a cap at each extremity. Sometimes the 
 obstruction becomes perforated, and allows the probang to 
 pass it, and a large body fixed in the cervical portion of 
 the oesophagus, when moved from here, may become fixed 
 in the lower extremity of the tube. These measures failing, 
 we must resort to oesophagotomy. The muzzle of the 
 patient is elevated, and thus the lower part of the neck 
 rendered tense. An assistant is placed on the right side 
 of the animal and required to press on the oesophagus at 
 the seat of obstruction, causing it to bulge towards the 
 left. The impaction serves to separate the neighbouring 
 vessels upwards and downwards, and the oesophagus 
 bulges beneath the skin and a thin layer of muscle. The 
 operator, standing on the left side, makes a clean in- 
 cision on to the body of sufficient length to at once 
 and freely allow its escape. The margins of the oeso- 
 phageal wound are then brought together by catgut 
 sutures, and the external wound similarly closed. The 
 carbolic acid spray may be made to play during the opera- 
 tion, and will materially increase the chance of union by 
 first intention, so desirable in wounds of the oesophagus. 
 The animal must be fed on soft food, which may be 
 injected directly into the rumen through a canula (Dycer) ; 
 or sometimes another method of performing the operation, 
 preferable in many respects, is to simply cut down upon 
 but not into the oesophagus, to endeavour then by gentle 
 manipulation to break down the obstructing body, but if 
 this fails, to insert an extremely fine probe-pointed bistoury 
 through a very small opening and cut in various directions 
 through the body, thus breaking it up, its parts being 
 removed by manipulation as they separate. The advan- 
 tages of this are obvious; it was suggested by French 
 veterinary surgeons. 
 
 In cases of choking, after-treatment is very necessary, 
 for recurrence is frequent. Soft diet must be continued for 
 some time, and the animal kept under strict supervision. 
 
246 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Such complications as occur are sometimes troublesome ; 
 tympany often requires to be relieved by puncture with 
 the trocar, even before any measures are adopted against 
 the choking. Eupture and stricture, as results of injury 
 with the probang, have been already noticed. Often a 
 very considerable formation of false membranes occurs at 
 the seat of impaction. When the free end of the probang 
 is brought up covered with blood, laceration of the lining 
 mucous membrane or rupture of both the walls has taken 
 place, and the case is probably hopeless ; there is a free 
 flow of any fluid which is administered, and when the 
 obstruction is in the thorax, this may pass into the pleural 
 sac and give rise to pleuritis. The animal continues in 
 pain and the breath becomes foetid. 
 
 Prophylaxis consists in having all roots cut or bruised, in 
 giving cattle only a little at a time of any fresh food, and 
 in fattening for slaughter animals which have been thus 
 affected. 
 
 VoMiTiON is an expulsion of material from the alimen- 
 tary canal as a result of reversed peristaltic action. Thus, 
 it is clear that it may vary much in its nature and severity 
 in the ox. We have noticed that it is one of the sym- 
 ptoms of choking where the obstruction is near the 
 rumen. In other cases it is simply expulsion of matter 
 from an over-loaded rumen, and is one of nature's methods 
 of relief in cases of hoven. This form is rather frequent ; 
 the ejected matter mainly passes by the mouth, and 
 sometimes amounts to an enormous quantity. It differs 
 from '' dropping the cud '^ mainly in the rapidity with 
 which the aliment is ejected, and in the fact that it 
 accompanies indigestion. Rarely, the contents of the true 
 stomach are thrown off ; this, which Youatt terms " true 
 vomition,'' he illustrates by a case from M. Cruzel, in 
 the 'Journal Pratique,' 1830, p. 322. The patient, an ox, 
 was unthrifty, ruminated seldom and slow, and had slight 
 tension of the left flank. " Rumination commenced, 
 preceded by deep and sonorous eructations having a 
 penetrating odour. This lasted about ten minutes, after 
 which the animal got up, backed himself in his stall. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 247 
 
 hung on the chain, his fore limbs trembled, he brought 
 his hind extremities as much as possible under him, and 
 bent his neck and depressed his head, and, after a deep 
 and powerful inspiration, he vomited fifteen pounds of 
 semi-fluid matter, perfectly triturated. The vomiting 
 ceased, the ox remained for a moment motionless^ and 
 then lay down again and ruminated afresh. He continued 
 thus about thirty-five minutes, when he had a renewed 
 fit of vomiting perfectly similar to the preceding." The 
 
 Fig. 44. — (Esophageal groove, a. CEsophagus, with (h) its opening into the 
 groove, d. Mucous membrane dissected back. e. Rumino-reticular 
 sphincter. (Carpenter.) 
 
 act of vomiting is regulated by a special centre in the 
 medulla oblongata, is reflex, and is brought about by a 
 deep inspiration fixing the diaphragm, contraction of all the 
 abdominal sphincters, and then of the abdominal muscles, 
 and of the walls of the stomach, together with reversed peri- 
 stalsis of the oesophagus. Impaction of the rumen has been 
 treated by injection of fluid until vomition took place. 
 Vomiting, too, is a symptom of foreign bodies in the reti- 
 culum, and of impaction of the oesophagus near the rumen, 
 where the knot of a straw or hay band is apt to become fixed. 
 
248 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 The oesophagus terminates in gaining relations with the 
 first three compartments of the stomach by the oesophageal 
 groove. This is a half canal open below, the margins of 
 which are mainly composed of longitudinal white muscular 
 fibres, which form a loop at its termination around the 
 opening into the omasum. These fibres are connected 
 together by others, which run transversely beneath the 
 mucous membrane, which resembles that of the oesophagus. 
 The opening of the groove below is into the reticulum 
 
 Fig. 45. — Rumen and reticulum seen from left. Their left walls removed. 
 i. Opening into omasum. (Simouds.) 
 
 anteriorly and the rumen posteriorly. The rumen or first 
 stomach occupies three fourths of the abdomen, being 
 situated on the left side, all of which it occupies except 
 the extreme posterior part. It has a capacity of many 
 gallons. The spleen lies upon its supero-anterior part. 
 It is mostly covered by peritoneum, its muscular coat 
 presents fibres often transversely striated, and is arranged 
 to form bands in certain situations ; some of these 
 are arranged transversely, others longitudinally, con- 
 sequently the cavity of the rumen is divided into four 
 compartments, of which the left are the largest. The 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 249 
 
 mucous lining membrane presents few glands, has tesse- 
 lated stratified epithelium, and is elevated to form leaf-like 
 papillae, which are largest in the depths of the pouches, 
 and disappear towards the muscular bands. The reticulum, 
 
 Fig. 46. — Rumen and reticulum. Muaculur coat, c, d, e,f. Pouches of the 
 rumen. (Simonds.) 
 
 or second stomach, hangs below the termination of the 
 oesophagus between the rumen and the diaphragm. Its 
 lining membrane presents a "honeycomb'-' arrangement, 
 having hexagonal depressions separated from each other 
 by narrow ridges, and in them are secondary hexagonal 
 depressions. The spaces are largest at the deeper part. 
 The whole surface presents conical papillae. The cavity 
 is separated from that of the rumen no more than one 
 poucb of that organ from another. This is the smallest 
 of the stomachs, and functions as a pouch of the rumen. 
 In passing above this stomach the groove inclines from 
 left to right, it terminates in the omasum, manyplies, or 
 third stomach. This is situated on the right of the anterior 
 part of the rumen, and is curved and oval in shape ; 
 its lining membrane, with fibres from the muscular coat, 
 projects inwards, forming folds or laminae, which are largest 
 at the greater curvature^ at the. centre of the organ. 
 
250 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 They decrease in length towards each orifice ; only the 
 four or five largest extend the full length of the organ ; 
 
 Pig. 47. — Omasum and abomasum, opened lonoritudinally. 5. Rumino-retl- 
 cular opening. (Simonds.) 
 
 between them lie the smallei' ones. The lesser curvature 
 bears no folds ; papillge occur over the surface of the mem- 
 brane, some conical, others clavate. 
 
 The Abomasum or True Digestive Stomach lies to the 
 right of the antero-inferior and central parts of the 
 rumen, extending from below and to the left of the 
 omasum, obliquely upwards and backwards. Thus, it 
 has a lesser curvature superiorly placed, and a greater 
 postero-inferiorly. It commences at a rather wide open- 
 ing from the omasum, and terminates at the pylorus. 
 The mucous membrane presents folds, which vary in their 
 direction in different parts. It is villous and bears gastric 
 follicles, whereby the succus gastricus is secreted. The 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 251 
 
 pylorus has a well- developed spliincter. There are various 
 theories as to the act of rumination, and the manner in 
 which the different cavities are related to this and other 
 digestive processes. A full account of the various views 
 is given in Colin's ' Physiologie Comparee/ Rumination 
 comprises the production of a pellet of the slightly masti- 
 cated food which for some time has been macerating in 
 the rumen, its regurgitation through the oesophagus and 
 pharynx into the mouth, its mastication, and redeglutition. 
 The matter is complicated by the fact that one portion of 
 food is regurgitated a variable number of times, depending 
 on the amount of preparation it requires. Liquids and 
 pultaceous material pass at once into the omasum as well 
 as into the rumen and reticulum. Coarse food may be 
 remasticated as many as four or five times. Until 
 thoroughly softened it passes from the oesophagus indif- 
 ferently into the rumen or reticulum. When the rumen 
 is occupied by a sufficient amount of food it exerts a 
 churning and to-and-fro movement, whereby the alimen- 
 tary matters undergo a certain amount of division, and are 
 thoroughly intermingled with the large quantity of saliva 
 which is poured down from the mouth; so the contents 
 are softened and undergo those changes which are due to 
 thorough insalivation. There is a considerable depth of 
 rumen cavity below the edge of the septum which separates 
 it from the reticulum ; the most fluid portions of the 
 contents of the rumen most readily pass over this *^ high- 
 water mark," so the contents of the reticulum are very 
 fluid. The muscular bands of the rumen are so arranged 
 that when they contract they concentrate the organ, as 
 it were, towards the terminal extremity of the oesophagus. 
 At the same time contraction of the reticulum also occurs, 
 and thus the alimentary material is pressed into the 
 lower end of oesophagus, and passed upwards in pellets 
 into the mouth. Such is the arrangement of this 
 oesophageal groove that, when its longitudinal bands 
 contract, they tend to place the terminal opening of 
 the oesophagus and the opening into the omasum 
 opposite each other, connected practically by a canal 
 
252 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 cut off from tlio cavity of the rumen by the contraction of 
 a sphincter. When food has been pressed into the canal 
 
 Fig. 48. — Gastric mass viewed from the left. a. (Esophagus. 5. Ramen. 
 c. Reticulum, e. Abomasum. f. Duodenum. 
 
 Fio. 49. — Gastric mass viewed from the right, a. (Esophagu^s. i. Rumen. 
 c. Reticulum, d. Omasum, e. Abomasum. f. Duodenum. 
 
 by contraction of the first and second stomachs a sufB- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 253 
 
 ciently large portion is cut off from the rest by contrac- 
 tion of the sphincter^ and thus the pellet to be returned 
 to the mouth is formed. Reversed peristalsis commences 
 against the omasum at that part of the canal which is 
 occupied by fluid material from the reticulum. Some of 
 this is forced into the omasum during the contraction of 
 the canal. The action of the rumino-reticular sphincter 
 is similar in nature, but reverse in its action to that of 
 the pylorus ; the latter guards against passage of solid 
 masses, the former sometimes contracts to guard against 
 liquids, as probably during drinking. Sufficiently elabo- 
 rated food passes directly into the omasum, and here is 
 subjected to compression. The laminae are so arranged 
 that matter can pass in between them and lie there, being 
 gradually moved outwards towards the abomasum ; but 
 the arrangement of their muscular structure is such that 
 when the stomach contracts they also diminish in length, 
 and thus do not block up the channel at the lesser curva- 
 ture of the viscus, along which, as through part of the 
 oesophagus, a passage generally is open for liquids or very 
 pultaceous material. The anatomical arrangement of the 
 oesophageal canal shows no reason why, if peristalsis is 
 regular (not reversed), the soft material from the reti- 
 culum should not pass into the omasum. Probably a 
 handing on of prepared matter thus takes place. The 
 omasum seems rather a means of sustaining the groove 
 during rumination, and a protector of the abomasum from 
 the influx of coarse food particles, than a reservoir in 
 which any important quantity of the food is stored up for 
 a time. These deductions from anatomical facts are con- 
 firmed by several experiments by Flour ens on living 
 animals. Other theories of rumination are : 
 
 I. That food handed from the rumen into the reticulum 
 is by it moulded into a pellet and handed into the oeso- 
 phagus, and that when it again descends it is soft, and, 
 therefore, enters the omasum, for it passes over the 
 floor of the groove without separating the pillars 
 (Dauberton) . 
 
 II. That the food for remastication is driven into the 
 
254 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 oesopliagus by t"he rumen, and returns into that compart- 
 ment after its second descent (Duverney, Simonds, 
 Bourgelat, &c.). 
 
 III. The groove acts as a hand, grasping matter which 
 it takes from the rumen (Perrault). 
 
 IV. In formation of the pellets a special apparatus is 
 employed, which consists of the groove, and the openings 
 into the oesophagus and omasum closed (Flourens). 
 
 Y. Energetic contraction of rumen and reticulum forces 
 food into the enlarged extremity of the oesophagus, which 
 "nips off" sufficient for a pellet (Colin). 
 
 Contraction of the diaphragm and of the abdominal walls 
 are adjuncts to regurgitation. The pillars of the diaphragm 
 of the ox are specially arranged ; this peculiarity seems to 
 favour rumination by preventing compression of the oeso- 
 phagus when the diaphragm contracts. True gastric diges- 
 tion in the ox presents no special features. Chymification 
 is rapidly performed. According to Tiedemann and Gmelin 
 the omasum secretes an acid juice, which materially assists 
 in the conversion of the albuminoids into peptones. We 
 can well understand that, to enable the gastric juice to 
 act efficiently, a large amount of the profuse alkaline sali- 
 vary secretion must be drained off, and the mass may thus 
 be strongly impregnated with acid throughout by the 
 action of the omasum. 
 
 The rumen is subject to various disorders and lesions, 
 some of which are very important from a practical point 
 of view. They sometimes necessitate operative inter- 
 ference, and are very liable to recur. 
 
 Tympany — '^ Hoven" oe " Blown" — Distension op the 
 Rumen with Gas, known also as fog sickness, dew hloivn, 
 and under numerous provincial terms. It is designated 
 by the French meteorization, and is one of the most 
 frequent affections of cattle. 
 
 Symptoms. — The patient commences to exhibit signs 
 of uneasiness, rising and lying down frequently, and 
 kicking at the belly, for this disease is very pain- 
 ful. The rumination is suspended and food is refused. 
 There is depression, protrusion of the muzzle, projection 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 255 
 
 and congestion of the eyes^ increased flow of saliva, and 
 moaning at expiration^ differing from tlie grunt of pleuro= 
 
 Fig, 50. The rumen exposed in position. The organ is in a state of disten- 
 sion, and its divisions are indicated by the letters a, h, c, and d. 
 
 pneumonia in being more prolonged. The back is arched. 
 
256 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and there is marked swelling of the left side, which, if 
 percussed, is resonant like a drum, whence the name tym- 
 pany. Distension of the rumen impedes the action of 
 the diaphragm, and increases unduly its bulging into the 
 thorax. In some cases there is ejection of the contents of 
 the viscus. Almost always there are eructations of gases 
 with a special odour. The bowels do not act, and the in- 
 terference with the breathing increases in severity ; also 
 the brain becomes involved to a certain extent, the animal 
 loses sight, staggers, becomes insensible, and falls. Death 
 occurs either from rupture of the rumen, or from suffoca- 
 tion, or from absorption of noxious gases. The most 
 recent analysis of the gases generated in these cases is 
 given in the ^American Veterinary Review,' vol. i, p. 100 : 
 74*3 carbonic acid, 23'46 carburetted hydrogen, 2*2 
 nitrogen. Neither oxygen nor sulphuretted hydrogen 
 could be traced (Reiset). Guerin, however, found 80 per 
 cent, of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 The most fruitful cause of this disorder is green food of 
 various kinds ; it generally occurs from the voracity with 
 which cattle that have been kept on dry food all the 
 winter consume fresh provender. Hence it is most pre- 
 valent in the spring. It results from feeding on any kind 
 of green food, especially that collected when the dew is 
 on the grass ; sometimes from turnips, but generally only 
 when these are frosted or rotten. In cases of choking, 
 the mechanical impediment proves the cause. Hoven is 
 present in many cases of disorder of other organs. In 
 some cases of prostration gases are evacuated sponta- 
 taneously from the lining mucous membrane, but this is 
 very rare. Again, sudden change of diet, of any kind, 
 may cause this disorder, or deficient secretion of saliva 
 may produce the same effect. The latter cause acts as a 
 preventive to redeglutition, since the proper formation 
 of the returning pellet requires liquid admixture. 
 '^ Hoven'^ is of two kinds — acute and chronic. The latter 
 depends upon disorders of the digestive apparatus, such 
 as a want of tone of the rumen in particular, due to a 
 similar state of the system in general, and also the pre- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 257 
 
 sence of disease of the reticulum. Elimination of gas in 
 the rumen always occurs to a certain extent. The causes 
 of excess in this matter are either dependent primarily on 
 the state of the stomach or on the nature of the ingesta. 
 Fresh green food^ introduced in too large quantity, un- 
 dergoes fermentation, for it is placed under conditions 
 favorable to that process — a temperature of about 100° and 
 moisture. Thus, in the earliest stages, carbonic anhy- 
 dride is the gas given off ; but if these matters remain too 
 long in the stomach they decompose, and then sulphuretted 
 hydrogen is eliminated. Probably this gas is given off 
 in extreme quantities at once, after ingestion of rotten 
 turnips. Considering the conditions of the full rumen, 
 fermentation must occur in it if its contents are not ex- 
 pelled in due course so that only a small quantity remains, 
 since it seems the organ must never be thoroughly emp- 
 tied. This residuum, however, is subject to almost 
 perfect renewal with each digestion in consequence of 
 the churning action, which ensures thorough intermingling 
 of the gastric contents. 
 
 Torpidity of the rumen occurs in debilitating diseases — 
 in fact, in most disorders of the ox ; also from introduc- 
 tion of excessively cold material, as turnips which are 
 frosted, and grass covered with hoar frost. The gas can 
 escape in two ways — through the oesophagus or through 
 the omasum — but this may be prevented by oesophageal 
 spasm — or by contraction of the rumino-reticular sphincter. 
 The latter probably occurs as a result of ingestion of cold 
 food, but when green food has been passed into a torpid 
 rumen this probably accumulates unduly about the opening 
 of the first and second stomachs, and thus prevents both 
 the ingress of medicaments and the egress of gas from 
 the deeper parts of the cavity of the rumen. In some cases 
 of difficult parturition considerable hoven is present, and 
 delivery does not take place until this state is relieved. 
 
 Treatment. — The practitioner called in to a case of 
 hoven probably finds the animal in danger of suffocation 
 from extreme abdominal distension. When a fatal result 
 threatens every minute it is generally advisable to 
 
 17 
 
258 
 
 BOYINB PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Puncture the Rumen as a preliminary and palliative 
 measure. It must be clearly understood that this depar- 
 ture from the rule, " Remove the cause and the effect will 
 
 Fig. 51. — The seat of puncture of the rumen (a). 
 
 cease," is only an expedient for gaining time for further 
 measures. 
 
 PiQ. 52.— Trocar and Canula. 
 
 The instrument used is the trocar and canula, which 
 is large, about eight inches long and nearly half an 
 inch in diameter. The puncture should be made on the 
 left side, at a point equally distant from the point of the 
 hip, the last rib, and the lumbar transverse processes (see 
 Fig. 51) . The tube is then opened by removal of the trocar ; 
 the canula may be left in as long as required, and retained 
 by string. Sometimes the rush of gas suddenly ceases 
 before much has escaped; this is due to solid matter having 
 accumulated round the end of the canula. This must be 
 removed by insertion of a probe or movement of the 
 canula. The length of the tube allows for a certain 
 amount of collapse of the rumen after puncture. " Suck- 
 ing calves are occasionally subject to hoove. Little more 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 259 
 
 will be necessary in this case than the introduction of the 
 probang. This distension c^ the rumen arises from some 
 accidental and temporary cause,, and there is rarely any 
 continued manufacture of gas within the stomach ; some 
 calves become blown from the trick they frequently have 
 of sucking each others pizzle or ear'' (Youatt) . 
 
 In cases of choking, the probang must next be passed, 
 and every obstacle removed. The tube should be made 
 to penetrate into the rumen, and thus tend to remove 
 mechanically any food accumulated round the cardia. 
 Through it, or directly through the cannla, may be in- 
 troduced some agent which will stimulate the torpid 
 rumen and chemically condense the gases pent up in it ; 
 sometimes these will rush out with force through the 
 probang and the relieved organ regain its tone; more 
 often medicinal agents are required. Compounds of am- 
 monia are most valuable in these cases. Liquor Ammoniaa 
 or the Spiritus Aromaticus (of course largely diluted) form 
 with the carbonic anhydride the ammonium carbonate, 
 which is a useful stimulant. ^' Chloride of lime '' is 
 usually to hand, and acts on the carburetted and sul- 
 phuretted hydrogens which are present, forming hydro- 
 chloric acid. Any excess of the bleaching powder acts 
 as an arrester of putrefaction and fermentation. This 
 agent is available, therefore, either in the early or late 
 stages. The sulphites and hyposulphite of soda also serve 
 to condense the gases which are causing over-distension. 
 Some farmers practise throwing cold water over the ab- 
 domen of an animal which is " blown -" this, of course, 
 acts by causing reflex contraction of the rumen, which 
 might lead to rupture if the openings were occluded and 
 thus the escape of gas prevented. Cases have been 
 relieved by means of the stomach-pump, cold water being 
 thrown in through the probang; nature herself adopts 
 the method of relief by vomition in some cases. Almost 
 always eructations take place, but the amount of gas thus 
 removed does not equal in amount that which is con- 
 stantly being set free. The administration of stimu- 
 lants and removal of accumulated gas generally requires 
 
260 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 to be accomplished several times, and early administra- 
 tions of a cathartic dose will facilitate perfect recovery. 
 In chronic cases, small doses of nux vomica have been 
 recommended, as especially valuable where the disorder 
 depends on defective nervous energy. In other instances, 
 iron or vegetable general tonics are required, but the most 
 important indication is to regulate the diet as a preven- 
 tive means both for animals which have suffered from this 
 disorder and those which have not. It is very liable to recur. 
 
 Impaction op the Eumen — distension of the rumen with 
 solid matters — jplenalvia — " grain-sick " — " maw-hound '* 
 — a pathological condition similar to that last noticed, but 
 differing in the urgency of its symptoms, and in its method 
 of treatment, depends upon the introduction of solid 
 matters in such amount as to paralyse the organ by over- 
 distension. Some foods seem more liable to produce this 
 disorder than others, as grain food, chaff, potatoes ; but 
 anything particularly palatable to the animals may be 
 thus taken in excess if placed too freely before a beast. 
 
 Symptoms. — As in tympany, there is swelling on the 
 left side of the abdomen. The animal is dull and suffers 
 pain, the bowels are confined, and the pulse small and 
 quick; but these symptoms are less urgent, appear more 
 gradually, and the abdominal swelling is not resonant 
 on percussion, and it pits on pressure, and when the 
 animal lies down it does so on the right side. Also eruc- 
 tations do not occur. The symptoms, later on, resemble 
 those of hoven, which sets in as a complication ; then the 
 respiration becomes affected; there is a moan on expira- 
 tion, grinding of the teeth, persistent standing, with muzzle 
 protruded and arched back ; or Alvitis, inflammation of the 
 rumen, may set in when the general febrile symptoms for 
 the first time manifest themselves, in addition to those 
 already present ; also the animal will manifest pain when 
 pressure is made on the left side. 
 
 Treatment must be directed to the removal of some of 
 the impacted food-mass, and also to restoration of tone to 
 the over-distended walls of the viscus. To increase our 
 knowledge of the conditions in the case we must pass the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 261 
 
 probang, by whicli means any gas present may be drawn 
 off, and to a certain extent the degree of distension 
 may be determined. Cases have been cured by throwing 
 in water, whereby vomition is brought about, but this 
 is not always successful. When the distension is not 
 excessive a stimulant with a cathartic must next be ad- 
 ministered. Oil is particularly useful to lubricate the pas- 
 sages and soften the masses of food. Manipulation applied 
 externally over the food-mass is sometimes beneficial, and 
 exercise increases tone, but its influence on the rumen is 
 doubtful. These measures failing, before the animal begins 
 to sink exhausted, or the brain become congested, or 
 alvitis supervene, Ruminotomy {^' paunching'^) must be 
 performed. The animal is placed with the right side 
 against a wall, just at the end, so that the tail may be 
 held to the right. The nose is held, and pressure on the 
 left shoulder and hip prevents the patient from moving 
 too much to the left. An incision is then to be made 
 about the seat of puncture of the rumen, and carried 
 directly downwards for about six inches. This first in- 
 cision is made through the skin and outer layer of muscle ; 
 the inner layer and peritoneum must then be divided, and 
 so the rumen exposed. A slight incision having been 
 made in this above, and the edges grasped with hooks, 
 they may be either retained in firm grasp by means of the 
 hooks, being drawn through the wound in the abdominal 
 wall as the incision in the rumen is prolonged downwards, 
 or the two wounds may be stitched together temporarily. 
 In the latter case a handkerchief may be introduced 
 through the wound and spread out over the lower part, 
 on which any droppings of ingesta may fall. With 
 his hand the operator then removes the accumulated 
 mass until only a small quantity of soft material re- 
 mains in the organ. It is also advisable to ascertain 
 the state of the reticulum and omasum as much as pos- 
 sible. Some then inject a stimulant cathartic dose into 
 the organ, but this, when necessary, can be given through 
 the mouth. The wound in the rumen must then be closed 
 by carbolised catgut sutures, care being taken that the 
 
262 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 edges are inverted. The muscular wound may be retained 
 also by catgut, or, preferably, metallic sutures, the ends of 
 which protrude through the external wound, which is then 
 similarly closed. Where feasible the operation should be 
 performed under the carbolic spray. The wound generally 
 heals readily, the rumen becomes attached to the abdominal 
 walls in most cases, therefore it is advisable, after the 
 operation, to fatten the patient for the butcher as soon as 
 possible. Sometimes it is found necessary to reopen the 
 wound, as in a good case recorded by that able and re- 
 spected cattle pathologist, Mr. John Steele, of Biggar, in 
 the ' Veterinarian,' 1834, p. 98. After-treatment consists 
 in administration of stimulant aromatics and feeding the 
 animal on soft diet until the rumen has thoroughly re- 
 gained its tone. When alvitis has set in the chances of 
 recovery are materially reduced, and after the operation of 
 ruminotomy, which must be resorted to, even though the 
 conditions present render it an affair of desperation, 
 external stimulation and administration of febrifuges in- 
 ternally must be persevered in, while the cathartic dose 
 is assisted by enemas, and the general measures of nursing 
 are to be carefully attended to. Fortunately, alvitis is 
 rare. It is interesting to note that peritonitis of a 
 diffused character seems never to result from this opera- 
 tion, unless the matter from the rumen has been allowed 
 to escape into the peritoneal sac. It is wonderful to see 
 the extent to which the peritoneal membrane of ruminants 
 may be operated on with impunity. 
 
 Rupture op the Rumen sometimes takes place as a 
 result of primary hoven or gaseous accumulation in cases 
 of plenalvia. Sometimes wounds penetrate the walls of 
 this organ, and it is possible for rupture to occur as a 
 result of injury from the animal falling in an advanced 
 case of plenalvia. Puncture of its walls may be due to 
 ulceration resulting from the presence of irritant foreign 
 bodies, which act either chemically or mechanically. In these 
 cases escape of partially elaborated food takes place, either 
 into the main peritoneal sac or into omentum major. The 
 result is peritonitis, but before this sets in the animal 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 263 
 
 may die, the symptoms being those of abdominal pain 
 and collapse. 
 
 FoEEiGN Bodies in the Rumen and Reticulum are of 
 various kinds. The most extraordinary are those which 
 the animal has ingested in consequence of depravity of 
 appetite. Sometimes these are large and of peculiar form, 
 since they become variously encrusted. These give rise to 
 indigestion, such as is frequently seen in cattle, irregular 
 rumination, increased depravity of appetite, and an un- 
 thrifty condition; sometimes also vomition is present. They 
 are also said to act deleteriously by becoming entangled 
 in the oesophageal groove and the stomachic openings. 
 Sharp bodies penetrate the walls of the viscus, and their 
 course is indicated by inflammatory changes. This is 
 found to be the case most frequently in the reticulum. 
 Passage of needles, &c., from that stomach into the heart 
 has been already noticed. Yomition, tympany, and sym- 
 ptoms of abdominal pain, as well as intermittent hoven 
 and general signs of anaemia, are present in these cases. 
 
 Parasites and calculi (especially those consisting essen- 
 tially of hair concretions) are sometimes found in the 
 rumen. Of parasites Amphistoma conicum is remarkable 
 as being somewhat similar to the papillae in the deep 
 saccules of the rumen. Certain Taenise have been found 
 in this cavity. Also Gysticercus tenuicolUs is sometimes 
 found attached to its outer surface. 
 
 *' Hair Balls '* are of considerable interest. Cattle 
 when in health delight in licking themselves or one 
 another, and the roughened condition of their tongues 
 causes a considerable removal of hairs which are swal- 
 lowed, and in the rumen are intermingled with food 
 particles and fibres, with which they are bound to- 
 gether by mucus. The movement of the stomach give 
 these a rounded form, and a definite spiral direction to 
 the hairs. When several are present they assume the 
 form of polygons with rounded edges. These concre- 
 tions are light and vary much in size. Some have 
 been observed which weighed between six and seven 
 pounds. Generally they weigh only a few ounces. Their 
 
264 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 structure is laminated, and almost invariably tliey are 
 arranged around a small piece of metal or a stone which 
 has been swallowed as a nucleus. These bodies have little 
 pathological importance ; they have been known to choke 
 an animal during regurgitation. They are passed up into 
 the mouth, and thus rejected when of moderate size. It 
 is doubtful if they ever pass from the rumen into the 
 omasum. Probably they do not, though '^ hair balls " are 
 found in the abomasum, as we shall see. Sometimes they 
 are coated with a thin layer of lime salts, with which they 
 are more or less impregnated throughout. Finally, they 
 are sometimes present in very young animals. They are 
 termed ^gagropiles. 
 
 Hernia op the Rumen and Reticulum sometimes occurs, 
 sjid fistula of the rumen have enabled Continental observers, 
 more especially Flourens and Colin, to accurately deter- 
 mine the conditions of this viscus and its contents during 
 rumination. 
 
 Impaction op the Omasum, known as " Staggers/' 
 " Vertigo/' " Fog sickness/' ^^ Olue hound/' &c. — This is 
 by most practitioners considered a very frequent and 
 serious disorder, but Professor Williams has thus expressed 
 himself in his ' Principles and Practice of Veterinary 
 Medicine i' — " This is a very popular disease, some writers 
 ascribing every case of constipation to impaction of the 
 omasum, basing their conclusions upon the fact that the 
 contents of this viscus are in a dry and hard condition 
 when examined after death; but seeing that this is its 
 natural state, and that, when animals have died from what 
 appeared to be obstinate constipation, its contents have 
 been found moister than natural, I have arrived at the 
 conclusion that what is supposed to be impaction of the 
 third stomach is in reality an inflammation of the mucous 
 membrane of the true stomach — abomasitis, or true 
 gastric inflammation.^' Undoubtedly the professor is 
 right in denying that all cases of constipation depend 
 upon this condition, and he has done the profession good 
 service, by drawing attention forcibly to the fact that the 
 hard condition of food between the laminae of the omasum 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 265 
 
 and a separation of its epithelium on the surface of the 
 cakes are neither of them solely due to inflammation or 
 impaction. The condition of the contents of the omasum 
 post mortem depends very much on previous conditions of 
 the viscus and the nature of the diet. If the organ has been 
 inactive food material will accumulate in it^ as in any other 
 inert saccular dilatation of the oesophagus, and that to a 
 very great extent, and the matter accumulated will not 
 be subjected to such firm muscular contraction as is 
 always supposed to occur and make the contents hard. 
 Rigor mortis, on the contrary, tends to bring about this 
 contraction, and, no doubt, solely on this, a dry condition 
 of the contents of the omasum often depends. Never- 
 theless, we must allow that impaction of this organ occurs 
 as a result of the consumption of indigestible materials, 
 such as autumn grass which has been allowed to remain 
 in the pasture until spring, straw, and washed hay, also 
 the coarse and indigestible herbage sometimes found in 
 old pasture with many trees about. Astringent herbage, 
 as heath, has a somewhat similar effect. 
 
 The Symptoms found in these cases are : — ^At first the 
 frequent passage of small quantities of hard glazed faeces, 
 succeeded by obstinate constipation. The patient stands 
 persistently, and can scarcely be moved. Its pulse is 
 hard and frequent. It is dull, and evidently suffering from 
 acute abdominal pain. There is the grunt indicative of this, 
 which has caused the disease to be mistaken for pleuro- 
 pneumonia. General signs of disorder are also present. 
 Later, the brain generally becomes affected, and the sym- 
 ptoms are considerably modified, there being muscular 
 tremors over the surface of the body, staring condition of 
 the eyes, which are insensible to light, staggering gait, 
 terminating in paralysis, or wild rushing about, pro- 
 trusion of the tongue, which becomes much swollen. 
 Tympany often occurs as a complication. The urine, 
 too, is sometimes mingled with blood. Youatt has a 
 theory that the hard distended omasum pressed on vena 
 portae against the liver, and thus prevented return of 
 blood from the intestines, which brings about a determina- 
 
266 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 tion of blood to the brain, but by most observers tbe 
 nervous complications are considered analogous to those 
 seen in " Stomach Staggers '' of the horse. Sometimes 
 the disease of the omasum assumes an inflammatory 
 character, and the general signs of fever are marked. 
 Omasitis does not seem to take place under any other 
 circumstances. 
 
 On post-mortem examination a congested condition of 
 the lining membrane of the abomasum and duodenum is 
 generally found, which may seem to support Professor 
 Williams^ view, but, on the other hand, it is urged that 
 this depends on the large cathartic doses generally resorted 
 to in the treatment of these cases. Ecchymoses some- 
 times may be noted in these congested parts as well as 
 in the omasum, where the vascular structure of the laminae 
 is exposed by separation of the epithelium in layers on the 
 impacted cakes of food, which may be either hard and dry, 
 or moist and soft. There is sometimes congestion of the 
 brain and its membranes, and of some parts of the spinal 
 cord. Cases of this disorder may last a few days, or for 
 two or three weeks. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleeding has been recommended, and seems 
 advisable when the brain is markedly involved. The 
 majority of practitioners rely upon strong cathartic doses, 
 especially hydragogue agents. Thus, gamboge is suggested 
 as a valuable remedy in this disorder. Croton oil is pre- 
 ferred by some. Generally, however, a mixture of sul- 
 phate of magnesia with aloes solution is used, the latter 
 being supposed to involve the stomachs in the catharsis, 
 whereas Epsom salts act almost solely in the bowels. We 
 are recommended to repeat the dose in twelve hours, 
 if no appreciable effect has resulted, and to give oil as an 
 adjunct in the interval. We must consider that we have 
 either a relaxed organ to restore to tone, or, less frequently, 
 an organ in a state of spasm, to deal with. Thus, we can 
 easily understand how Professor Strangeway^s treatment 
 of oil with sedatives, followed by sulphate of magnesia, 
 quinine, and sulphuric acid, proved beneficial in restoring 
 the tone of the omasum, after lubricating it and the other 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 267 
 
 parts of the oesopliageal passage with oil, and stimulating 
 them with a mild cathartic. Such treatment seems most 
 satisfactory in simple impaction, and where actual inflam- 
 mation is present should be supplemented by external 
 stimulation. Enemas ought to be regularly administered 
 and the animal carefully nursed. The thirst which is 
 present in the inflammatory stage may be relieved by 
 nitrated water ad libitum, 
 
 A remarkable case of atrophy, with almost total dis- 
 appearance of the lamina of the omasum, was recorded in 
 the ' Yeterinarian/ 1833, p. 454. 
 
 Abomasitis, Inflammation of the True Stomach, — If the 
 views of Professor Williams are accepted, the account of 
 the impaction of the omasum as given above is to be 
 transferred to this heading. In this view he seems to 
 follow and coincide with Professor Dick's opinions. It is 
 certain, however, that we get abomasitis in some cases 
 of poisoning, and according to some authors, an idio- 
 pathic form, in which no such symptoms of cerebral 
 disorder are present, only those of acute fever, severe 
 abdominal pain, and " a curious stretching out of the fore 
 limbs, with the brisket almost to the ground '' (Youatt) . 
 The causes of this, apart from poison, are not well 
 ascertained, for certainly the idiopathic form is very 
 infrequent. 
 
 Post-mortem lesions comprise congestive redness, with 
 considerable production of flaky mucus, and sometimes 
 blood, intermingled with the contents of the organ, the 
 duodenum being generally almost equally involved. 
 
 In this mucus are often found ^' hair balls,^^ which con- 
 sist almost wholly of hair matted together by mucus. 
 These may have passed directly from the reticulum through 
 the omasum, or during redeglutition have made their way 
 at once into the fourth stomach ; or, as is perhaps more 
 probable, have been formed by the churning action of the 
 stomach in which they are found. 
 
 We find one case of Impaction of the Ahomasum on record. 
 We can easily understand that the complex and thorough 
 preparative apparatus at the lower extremity of the oeso- 
 
268 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 phagus, will prevent sucli a disorder from being of 
 frequent occurrence. Occasionally the omasum and abo- 
 masum become displaced. Thus^ in the ' Edinburgh Veteri- 
 nary Review,' vol. iv, p. 139, a case is recorded in which 
 both these organs became dislocated into the chest. 
 Bvjpture of the Abomasum also occasionally takes place, 
 due to external injury, or, as in the case recorded in the 
 ^ Veterinarian,' vol. xvi, p. 269, to extensive ulceration. 
 
 Parasites are sometimes seen in this organ, and Bujpture 
 of the Blood-vessels of the Stomach sometimes occurs in 
 the ox. 
 
 Various forms of Indigestion, of ill-ascertained cause, 
 which may be included under the headings bulimia, pica, 
 and obscure chronic disorders of the digestive apparatus, 
 are not unfrequent in cattle. Certain nervous conditions, 
 as those which accompany the pregnant state, sometimes 
 seem the sole cause of these, whereas, in other cases, 
 when it is deemed advisable to hand the animal over to 
 the butcher, or gradually increasing anaemia leads to 
 death, on post-mortem examination are found organic 
 changes of long standing and unusual characters, such 
 as cancerous disease of the organ and Stricture of the 
 Pylorus. In the latter disorder there is gradual emaci- 
 ation and a foetid condition of the breath ; it is not 
 infrequent in cattle. Cruzel attributes one form of 
 indigestion to too frequent ingestion of too large draughts 
 of water. 
 
 Perhaps some of these cases of indigestion are due to 
 dyspepsia (pica), induced by irregular and bad feeding, 
 want of exercise, exposure, or deficient sanitary arrange- 
 ments. Sometimes also by the presence of parasites or 
 other foreign bodies. The animal becomes unthrifty, as 
 denoted by the dry, harsh, staring coat, depraved or irregu- 
 lar appetite, irregular and imperfect rumination, a tendency 
 to tympany, flatulence, and torpidity of the bowels, a tucked- 
 up appearance, and rapid loss of flesh. In such cases treat- 
 ment must comprise change of diet and of general sur- 
 rounding conditions, and the administration of stimulant 
 tonics after the bowels have been cleared out by a brisk 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, 
 
 269 
 
 cathartic dose. Small doses of liquor arsenicalis are 
 admissible. 
 
 In dealing with the effects of irritant poisons^ we shall 
 have to touch upon Oastro- enteritis as it especially occurs 
 in adults, but there is a disease known under this name 
 to which calves are subject. In the young animal the 
 abomasum is the largest of the stomachs, and it is only 
 after weaning that the rumen comes to so greatly ex- 
 ceed the remainder of the gastric mass. The milk 
 accumulates in the fourth stomach and undergoes coagu- 
 lation, after which it is digested. For the proper per- 
 formance of these processes it is necessary that the milk 
 be taken in moderate quantity, and be of good quality. 
 
 Fig. 53. — Stomachs of the calf. a. Rumen, c. Abomasum (considerably 
 the larger). (Simonds.) 
 
 Pail-fed calves are apt to obtain too much milk, also 
 animals brought up by a foster-mother are apt to indulge 
 in excess in this respect, and disorder is promoted by 
 want of the healthy stimulus which exercise is to diges- 
 tive processes. Thus, the stomach becomes laden with a 
 hard mass of curd, which proves a source of irritation, 
 and causes death from the effects of impaction. Inflam- 
 mation sets in, extends to the intestines, and thus gives 
 rise to an acrid irritating discharge, whence the disorder 
 is termed *' wJiite scour '^ or " shit.'' Another form of 
 accumulation of material in excess in the abomasum is 
 seen in partially weaned calves, when the first and third 
 compartments have not been able to properly prepare hay 
 
270 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and such ofher food material for digestion in the true 
 stomach. Here, as often in the former case, obstinate 
 constipation sets in. Usually in such cases as are charac- 
 terised by diarrhoea, resort is had at once to the sheep 
 and calves' cordial (see page 81). This is not always good 
 treatment. It is preferable to first administer oil, whether 
 constipation or laxity is present, and it has been found 
 that alkaline drinks in considerable quantity are most 
 useful in breaking up the mass of curd and also in check- 
 ing the excess of acid and acrid secretion which gives 
 rise to disorder of the bowels. At the same time carmi- 
 native agents may be given to promote the digestive 
 processes. When the constipation gives way, and as is 
 sometimes the case, is succeeded by profuse diarrhoea, it 
 will still be advisable to give cordials to assist these 
 natural processes, and at the same time stimulant tonic 
 doses will prove beneficial. As a change of diet, Dobson's 
 recommendation of substituting linseed gruel for half of 
 the allowance of milk may be adopted. 
 
 The Intestines of the Ox are from twenty to twenty-two 
 times the length of the body, and entend for an average 
 distance of 150 feet, of which 120 feet are small. Though 
 thus half as long again as those of the horse, they are much 
 smaller in calibre. The duodenum is short ; the floating 
 portion of the small intestine is arranged along the free 
 margin of the mesentery, being here thrown into complex 
 convolutions by the sudden considerable increase in extent 
 of the mesentery close against its free margin. Besides 
 the usual structures (the mesenteric glands being remark- 
 ably near the free margin rather than the root), the 
 mesentery contains the major portion of the large 
 intestines. 
 
 The GcBcum is club-shaped, largest at its free extremity, 
 and gradually tapering until it gains the size of the com- 
 mencement portion of the colon. It is not puckered, for 
 it is devoid of muscular bands. Also it hangs freely 
 downwards and somewhat backwards. 
 
 The Colon is double throughout the greater part of its 
 course, and arranged in a spiral manner between the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 271 
 
 layers of the mesentery. It is very small, devoid of 
 puckerings, and has no special peritoneal investment. It 
 
 Fig. 54. — The position of the intestines of ihe ox, with the method adopted 
 for the collection of chyle for physiological purposes. (From Colin, 
 * Physiologic des animaux domestiques.') 
 
 Fig. 55. — Intestines, large and small, viewed from the left side. 
 
272 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 enlarges somewliat to terminate in a fairly long and straight 
 rectum. 
 
 The glands of Peyer of the ox are elongated and 
 very large, ranging from four inches to twelve inches in 
 length, and from about half an inch to one inch in width. 
 Thus we see that food which has been thoroughly elabo- 
 rated in the stomach passes into a long but narrow 
 passage, not very capacious, but arranged so as to 
 secure contact of the contents with a very considerable 
 extent of surface, so that thorough absorption of useful 
 matters takes place. However, at the end of its passage 
 through the intestine useless excreted matter is expelled 
 as faeces, having about 75 per cent, of water, therefore 
 markedly pultaceous, varying in this respect according to 
 the nature of the diet and method of feeding. As com- 
 
 FiG. 56. — Intestines, large and small, viewed from the right side. 
 
 pared with the intestines of the horse, those of the ox 
 are less important digestive organs, and are, therefore, 
 not so frequently involved in disease ; their disorders are 
 not so urgent. We have already seen how numerous 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 273 
 
 and fatal are tlie diseases of the stomaclis of the ox. The 
 ordinary seat of indigestion in the horse is the bowels ; 
 in them gases are liberated and tympany occurs^ in them 
 impactions take place and ruptures, they also are gene- 
 rally the parts dislocated in abdominal herniaQ. "We find 
 that these lesions and disorders affect the stomachs of the 
 ox. Lastly, improperly prepared food, or alimentary 
 matter in excess or of bad quality, acts on the stomachs 
 of the ox, on the intestines of the horse. 
 
 Colic, defined as '"'any abdominal pain not due to 
 inflammation," is capable of more exact limitation. It 
 is distinguished by certain symptoms, which are more or 
 less marked in other abdominal disorders, and are known 
 as '^ colicky pains." The animal ceases to feed and rumi- 
 nate for a time, and the pulse during the paroxysm be- 
 comes full and bounding ; moaning, grinding of the teeth, 
 striking the belly with the hind feet, extreme restlessness, 
 indicated by movement and constant rising and lying 
 down, are present, and the animal may turn his head 
 round, and bring the muzzle against the seat of pain ; 
 there is sweating and frequent passage of urine in small 
 quantities, or of small dry portions of feeces. Hernias of 
 various kinds, strangulations, and impactions of the 
 bowels, as well as certain disorders of liver, stomach, or 
 urinary apparatus, may be the cause of this. In such 
 cases other signs may be present, and enable us to complete 
 our diagnosis. But, failing these, we may attribute the 
 signs- of disorder to Simple Colic, spasm of the howels. 
 Then the pains are paroxysmal, and during the intervals 
 the patient seems in thorough health ; but the pain is very 
 acute while it lasts. This is sometimes brought on by 
 changes of diet, the passage of imperfectly prepared 
 food from the stomach, and, it is said, ingestion of very 
 cold or hard water. Reflex colic may occur, but we are 
 not assured of this; indeed, spasmodic colic is not fre- 
 quent in the ox, for obvious reasons. In cases of this 
 nature a saline cathartic; with stimulant cordial agents, 
 should be at once administered. This will generally 
 prove effectual, and no further resort to antispasmodics 
 
 18 
 
274 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 required ; if necessary, these may be given, but an obsti- 
 nate case is probably more complicated than was at first 
 supposed. Flatulent colic also is not frequent ; it may be 
 diagnosed from the spasmodic form by less urgency, but 
 more persistent character of the symptoms, by gaseous 
 eructations and emissions of flatus per anum, and some- 
 times by tympanic distension of the right side of the 
 abdomen. In such cases ammonia stimulants must pre- 
 ferably be administered with the carthartic dose. The 
 patient should be walked about, and friction applied to 
 the right side. These seldom prove very obstinate cases. 
 We insist on the cathartic because it tends to remove the 
 cause, and its administration is not open to the objections 
 urged against prompt adoption of such a course of treat- 
 ment of colic in the horse. In all cases of abdominal dis- 
 order manual exploration of the rectum should be made, 
 and enemas utilised to facilitate supervention of catharsis. 
 We must now proceed to some other causes of colic. 
 
 Impaction, or Distension with Obstruction, op the 
 Bowels may be due to calculous concretions, bodies 
 which have gained entry through relaxed vigilance of the 
 gastric protective apparatus, also tumours of various kinds, 
 among which may be enumerated the enormous swellings 
 of the mesenteric glands of a case, of which Mr. Brown of 
 Melton gives an account in the ' Veterinarian' for February, 
 1830. The tumour weighed 160 lbs., and had a scirrhous 
 character. In one case a potato became impacted in the 
 colon (' Edinburgh Veterinary Eeview,' vol. iv, p. 212) ; 
 in another, a tumour of a non-malignant character was 
 found in the duodenum ('Veterinarian,' vol. xxii, p. 617). 
 
 Calculi in the intestines are neither large, solid, nor 
 frequent. They consist of concentric layers, and are found 
 in the large intestine ; they are neither so large nor so 
 prejudicial as those of the horse. 
 
 Intussusception, or Invagination, is the folding of one 
 portion of intestine within the canal of a preceding or suc- 
 ceeding portion, the result of simultaneous distension of 
 the investing, and spasm of the enclosed portion with irre- 
 gular or suddenly reversed peristaltic action. It is rare 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 275 
 
 in the ox, both on account of the special structural pecu- 
 liarities of the intestines, and because of the comparative 
 rarity of colic^ of which it is a sequela. The caecum is the 
 most frequent seat of intussusception in the ox ; it may 
 become completely fixed in the colon. The mesentery is in 
 some cases torn away from the involved part, in others 
 remains intact. 
 
 Symptoms are those of colic which lose their intermit- 
 tency without access of fever. The patient retains the 
 recumbent position, looks at and strikes the flank, and 
 either there is obstinate constipation or a discharge of 
 blood per anum. The rectum seems very liable to become 
 involved in this manner. The portion of bowel being 
 strangulated and gangrenous when death ensues, but cases 
 have been known in which the enclosed part sloughed 
 away and recovery occurred. 
 
 Treatment — If the presence of a lesion of this nature is 
 suspected a tobacco-smoke enema may be resorted to. In 
 other animals artificial tympany thus induced has been 
 found useful against intussusception. Stimulant and 
 anti-spasmodic doses also may prove effectual against the 
 early and rapid prostration and the spasm which is present. 
 
 Prognosis, however, is unfavorable. 
 
 Volvulus, Ileus, or Twist of the Bowel, is another 
 sequela of colic. In it the bowel is twisted upon itself 
 or one portion of the intestine has passed round another, 
 resulting in obstruction and strangulation. There is 
 nothing about the symptoms which is diagnostic of 
 this condition from that last mentioned. It very 
 seldom occurs in the ox, but when it does so a small 
 knuckle of bowel only may be involved, and thus no 
 obstruction to the intestinal canal take, place. Explora- 
 tion per rectum may prove useful from a diagnostic point 
 of view in these obscure abdominal affections, and Pro- 
 fessor Walleyes paper on the " Differential Diagnosis of 
 Abdominal Affections '^ should be carefully perused by 
 all members of the veterinary profession (' Veterinary 
 Journal^). Laparotomy might be resorted to in extreme 
 cases of this kind. It is recommended by continental 
 
276 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 writers^ and the ox, of all animals, is least liable to be 
 seriously affected by it. The operation should be per- 
 formed on the right side opposite the seat of incision in 
 ruminotomy ; and similar measures taken for closure 
 of the wound, and after treatment. Pedunculated fatty 
 tumours hanging from the outer surface of the intestine 
 may be twisted round the bowel. These are enlarged 
 apendices epiploicae. Most often the volvulus is the 
 result of violent struggles during abdominal pain. 
 
 Hernia is protrusion of an organ from its natural cavity 
 either into another cavity of the body or into an accidental 
 pouch. Abdominal herniae are the most frequent in the ox, 
 as in other animals. They may be congenital, present at 
 birth, or acquired, when they appear suddenly later in life. 
 Are reducihle or irreducihle as the organ can or cannot be 
 returned to its proper place ; strangulated when it is sub- 
 jected to pressure, and so becomes disordered ; and recur- 
 rent when, having been returned, the part again becomes 
 displaced. According to the nature of the contents the 
 hernia is a gastrocele, enter ocele, epiplocele, cystocele ; the 
 stomach, bowels, omentum, bladder, respectively being dis- 
 placed. The opening through which the herniated viscus 
 passes varies in position, and thus we have the ventral, in- 
 guinal and scrotal, umbilical, mesenteric, and phrenic forms. 
 Sometinies this is anatural opening, sometimes the result of 
 giving way of the tissues in consequence of injury. The 
 parietal layer of the peritoneum is forced out before the 
 viscus, forms the serous sac of the hernia, and becomes 
 vascular, thickened, and subsequently indurated. It fre- 
 quently contracts adhesions with the peritoneal coat of the 
 viscus. In the ventral and umbilical forms the skin yields to 
 gradual pressure, and thus seems too large after reduction 
 of the hernia. In chronic cases the passage through which 
 the organ passes becomes thickened and rounded at the 
 margins, and assumes a circular figure. Peristalsis of the 
 viscus may force more of it into the hernia sac, or the impri- 
 soned part may become overladen with contents, or there 
 may be swelling of the neck of the tumour. Either of these 
 conditions leads to strangulation, whereby the imprisoned 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 277 
 
 portion becomes extremely congested, because of prevention 
 of the return of blood from it ; gangrene results, and may- 
 involve the peritoneum, in general extending from the 
 hernia as a centre. Internal herniae may exist for some time 
 without causing any appreciable inconvenience, except when 
 they become strangulated. When superficial, as in the 
 umbilical and ventral forms, they produce a swelling which 
 is soft, elastic, and often disappears as a result of properly 
 applied pressure. The tumour communicates a diagnostic 
 impulse to the hand when the animal coughs. Sometimes 
 the characters of the tumour differ from those above de- 
 scribed, as when the omentum is the part imprisoned ; then 
 the swelling is plastic, lobulated, and gradually disappears 
 on pressure. These lesions are mainly attributable to ex- 
 ertion and injuries. Thus they occur as a result of straining 
 during parturition, constipation, or coughing. The sym- 
 ptoms of strangulation are those of acute abdominal disorder, 
 stamping, kicking the belly, rolling, and violent straining, 
 whereby a contracted state of the rectum, which prevents 
 the entry of the hand, is produced (this has been thought 
 to be diagnostic), also general or local perspirations, rapid 
 breathing, and a quick, hard pulse. When gangrene 
 supervenes we have sudden cessation of the pain, anxiety, 
 running down pulse, marked fall of internal temperature, 
 and extreme coldness of the extremities, and, finally, a 
 delirous condition terminating shortly in death. Treat- 
 ment comprises return of the viscus, and prevention of 
 the recurrence of the hernia. 
 
 Umbilical Hernia, Exomphalos, mostly is found in young 
 animals, and is not unfrequently congenital. In older 
 beasts it may result from injury and straining. Some- 
 times, through want of tone in the system, due to scro- 
 fulous and other debilitating tendencies, the umbilicus 
 remains iii a relaxed condition after birth, so that the 
 straining of the young animal to expel the hardened 
 meconium per anum is apt to cause hernia. We may 
 expect to find this condition also more frequently in 
 animals born prematurely than in those which have passed 
 the full time of utero-gestation. This form of hernia 
 
278 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOaY. 
 
 often is an epiplocele, and enlargement of the abdomen 
 being more rapid than growth either of the omentum 
 major or of the mesentery, spontaneous reduction soon 
 takes place. If it does not the influence of a truss may- 
 be tried. This consists of a pad supported by straps, 
 which are fastened over the loins. It is kept from slipping 
 backwards by a back strap, and others passing between 
 the fore legs and becoming attached anteriorly to a 
 collar, from slipping forwards by a crupper. Difficulty 
 may be experienced in keeping this in position, so that 
 other means require to be resorted to ; the truss returns 
 the viscus and retains it, and thus removes the cause of 
 
 Fig. 57.— Truss applied for umbilical hernia. (Armatage,) 
 
 constant distension and enlargement of the umbilicus, 
 which is then free gradually to close. Powerful external 
 
 Fig. 58.— Clamps for umbilical hernia. Wooden, and *' iron screw 
 (Armatage.) 
 
 stimulation of the tumour, or subcutaneous injection of 
 irritants locally, as tending to excite adhesive inflamma- 
 tion and closure of the umbilicus, have been suggested, 
 but are not often effectual ; a preferable method is com- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 279 
 
 pression of the skin after return of the bowel^ either by 
 clamps or ligature. Two forms of clamps are suggested,, the 
 wooden, somewhat resembling the ordinary caustic wood 
 clamp for castration, jointed at one end, and arranged for 
 retention at the other by a ligature, and the iroriy consist- 
 ing of bars, averaging about seven inches in length, con- 
 nected together at each extremity by a screw (Fig. 58.) The 
 ligature treatment consists in careful return of the protruded 
 viscus, after which skewers are passed through the loose skin 
 covering the hernia at right angles to one another. A 
 cord is then tied round the skin between the abdomen 
 and the skewers, but too great pressure must not be 
 exerted, for the aim must be to excite extravasation of 
 plastic lymph to block up the umbilicus, and not rapid 
 strangulation of the puckered skin leading to sloughing. 
 An elastic ligature or ring is admirably adapted for these 
 cases, since it accommodates itself to diminutions in size 
 of the peduncle as they occur. In either of these opera- 
 tions the animal must be thrown and kept on its back, 
 which will facilitate the return of the contents of the sac ; 
 and as such cases in young animals as are operated on are 
 not liable to be adherent, there is but little chance of 
 injury of the intestines with the skewers, and will be none 
 if proper care be taken. 
 
 Ventral Hernia. — Protrusions of portions of abdominal 
 viscera through ruptures in the abdominal muscular walls. 
 The case is generally one of enterocele, and most fre- 
 quently results from cattle butting one another and from 
 " staking.^^ It appears suddenly, and the tumours present 
 all the characters of a hernia as above enumerated. These 
 cases are apt to become chronic, and a fibrous state of the 
 margins of the opening occurs. They are not likely to 
 become strangulated, but a hernia is always liable to 
 injury. When small and recent, they may be treated by 
 application of a powerful blister, which will promote repair, 
 but when small and chronic, they may be left alone ; but in 
 cows they are liable to become enlarged during parturition. 
 The operation for radical cure consists in careful incision 
 through the skin after return of the contents. The edges of 
 
280 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the rent in the muscles are then to be brought together and 
 retained by metallic sutures. The wound in the skin is to 
 be closed subsequently. In a case of extensive hernia, 
 the sooner this operation is performed the better, for the 
 edges of the muscular lesion will have undergone less 
 profound changes, and therefore lymph will be more readily 
 thrown out. Of course the animal must be cast for the 
 operation, and must be placed in a position varying with 
 that of the hernia. The patient must be kept on soft 
 food, and apart from the herd in a quiet shed, until the 
 external wound has healed. When a ventral hernia is 
 injured, the intestine enclosed may ulcerate with the skin 
 and 2b false anus be formed. 
 
 Phrenic, or Diaphragmatic hernia in the ox, is generally 
 a gastrocele. Thus in one case the reticulum and a 
 portion of the rumen passed into the chest. In another 
 the omasum and part of the abomasum (?) In such the 
 symptoms are those of strangulation in general, together 
 with special disturbance of respiration. Sometimes chronic 
 cases of this nature are found in cattle after death. Con- 
 cerning such, Youatt says, '^ The attack has been sudden 
 (at some time previously), but the colicky pains have not 
 been violent, they have intermitted, disappeared ; but an 
 habitual difficulty of breathing has been left behind, dis- 
 inclination to rapid motion, fright when suddenly moved, 
 anxiety of countenance, perhaps impairment of condition, 
 and certainly, impossibility of acquiring any considerable 
 degree of condition.^' 
 
 Mesenteric Hernia is passage of a portion of bowel 
 through a rent in the mesentery ; it seldom occurs in the 
 ox; is liable to become strangulated, but cannot be ac- 
 curately diagnosed, in so far as we know at present. 
 
 Inguinal and Scrotal Hernia differ simply in degree. 
 When the bowel — for it is generally enterocele — passes 
 through the internal abdominal ring, and so into the 
 inguinal canal, it is an inguinal hernia, but if it passes 
 through the external ring and enters the scrotum it is 
 scrotal. This form of hernia is frequently congenital, and 
 thus is very likely to disappear as the animal grows 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 281 
 
 older and the abdominal rings grow smaller, and the in- 
 guinal canal is occupied by the spermatic cord after descent 
 of the testis. It is sometimes seen in adults, and is apt 
 to become strangulated. It is by far more frequent in 
 bulls than in castrated males. 
 
 Treatment. — In cases of strangulation, attempts may be 
 made by taxis (manipulative means) to remove the im- 
 prisoned portion of bowel, traction being applied by the 
 hand in the rectum. This means failing, and it seldom i? 
 successful, the animal must be cast and placed on his back 
 to facilitate the gradual return by direct and special mani- 
 pulation. If this succeeds the animal, if a bull, should 
 then be castrated by the covered operation. But if the 
 hernia is irreducible the constricting portion must be 
 divided with a bistoury, as described in works on the 
 Surgery of the Horse (especially ^ Williams^ Surgery^). 
 Youatt mentions ^' a species of rupture, very difficult to be 
 treated, and occurs in cows in an advanced stage of preg- 
 nancy. An excessive accumulation of fluid has take place 
 in the womb or calf bed, and the tendinous expansion of 
 the muscles which support the lower part of the belly has 
 given way. The farmer says that the ' rim of the cow's 
 belly is ruptured ; ' a portion of the womb escapes through 
 the opening and descends into the groin or seems to occupy 
 the udder. Mr. Allison, of Idle, relates a case (' Yeteri- 
 narian,' 1831, p. 555) in which the head of the calf had 
 been forced down into the groin. The calf was extracted 
 with no great difficulty, but the bowels then descended 
 through the rupture into the place that had been occupied 
 by the foetus and the animal was irrecoverably lost." 
 
 Pelvic Hernia. — '^Gut-tie/' ^^ Bound/' is a form of dis- 
 placement of the bowel which is seen in certain districts, and 
 is most frequent in mountainous countries ; thus it is preva- 
 lent in Switzerland. Among English counties, Hereford, 
 Northampton, and Lincolnshire afford the greater number 
 of these. It is seen only in bullocks and most frequently 
 about the second or third year. 
 
 Symptoms. — Colicky pains, often of a very acute char- 
 acter, so that the animal alternately arches and curves 
 
282 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the back ; in the latter process, stretching the fore legs 
 forwards and the hind backwards, and almost bringing 
 the abdomen into contact with the ground. Moving the 
 hind quarters from side to side, crossing the legs, and a 
 tendency to press the hind parts against some standing 
 object, as a wall or fence. Much pain is manifested when 
 the hand is introduced into the rectum ; there is difficulty 
 in inserting it, but when it has been passed in and pressed to 
 the right the strangulated portion may be felt. Through- 
 out the attack the faeces are scanty in quantity, they are 
 sometimes bloody, also there is continuous straining. In 
 addition to the above, there are the general signs of 
 strangulation, which may lead to those indicating that the 
 bowel has become grangrenous. 
 
 Cause. — This is evidently a result of castration, and is 
 found to supervene on the '^ tearing '^ operation, when the 
 cord remains too long and becomes fixed in the internal 
 abdominal ring, and between this and the brim of the 
 pelvis the bowel passes, pushing the peritoneum before it as 
 the hernial sac. It is supposed that the gradual shortening 
 of the cord as it atrophies causes it to strangulate the im- 
 prisoned bowel. Williams considers that it is in some cases 
 due to twisting of the remnant of the cord around the in- 
 testine. Working oxen are very liable to become affected, 
 especially when they are on rough uneven ground. This form 
 of hernia may result from strains and intestinal commotions 
 like the other kinds. When the conditions are otherwise fa- 
 vorable the attack seldom, if ever, lasts more than eight days. 
 
 Treatment. — Causing the animal to take a ^' drop leap,'' 
 and rolling him about on his back after casting have been 
 suggested, and are sometimes effectual. Preferably we 
 may explore per rectum, and having detected the mass of 
 faecal matter obstructed near the hernia, exert pressure 
 upwards and forwards, and by special manipulative 
 means the adhesion of the cord may be broken down 
 ('Edinburgh Veterinary Eeview,' vol. i, p. 73). 
 
 Generally, however, abdominal section is necessary. 
 The hernia usually takes place on the right side, though 
 it may be on the left. The animal is kept in the stand- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 283 
 
 ing posture, with the left side against a wall. An in- 
 cision is made, large enough to admit the hand, down- 
 wards from the point opposite that of puncture of the 
 rumen, and the muscles are first divided ; subsequently 
 the peritoneum is perforated, and the hand is introduced 
 and passed upwards and backwards to behind the kidney, 
 where the remains of the cord may be felt and traced down- 
 wards. The bowel may be then gently drawn away, but 
 if it does not yield to very mild traction a probe-pointed 
 bistoury must be passed in, and the adhesion of the cord 
 to the abdominal ring divided, to prevent recurrence. 
 This is generally sufficient to permanently effect relief; 
 the colicky pains cease, and a free discharge of faeces 
 takes place. We need not further describe the operation, 
 for the abdominal incision must be closed in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 Peolapsus differs from hernia in that the protrusion 
 occurs through one of the natural orifices. The rectum is 
 the only bowel which can thus become displaced, and cases 
 of this are not uncommon. The causes are, violent strain- 
 ing, such as is symptomatic of the various conditions which 
 cause obstruction of the intestinal passage ; also, it some- 
 times results from parturition throes, or where impediment 
 prevents evacuation of the bladder. After protrusion the 
 part becomes strangulated, assumes a bright-red colour, 
 and then becomes very much enlarged by gelatinous ex- 
 travasation between the intestinal coats ; subsequently it 
 becomes cold and purple. 
 
 Treatment. — If possible, remove the cause of straining ; 
 then carefully clean the protruded bowel by washing it 
 with cold water, after which apply even pressure over the 
 organ, gradually returning it from the centre. There is 
 no serious objection to diminution of its bulk by scarifica- 
 tion. If all measures prove unsuccessful, and the organ 
 becomes purple, it may be amputated, and the edges of the 
 two cut portions of the bowel united together by sutures. 
 Subsequently anodyne agents, as opium, may be given, 
 and the diet be soft for some time. This lesion is some- 
 times termed j^roZa^Jsits ani. 
 
284 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Torpidity of fhe action of the bowels is a constitutional 
 peculiarity of some individuals, and it may arise as a 
 result of disease of other parts of the body. More or 
 less marked torpidity is found in fever. This must be dis- 
 tinguished from Constipation, in which there is a cessation 
 of passage of faeces on account of some impediment, me- 
 chanical or organic. Thus, it is a symptom of strictures 
 and impactions of the stomach or intestines, may be due 
 to tumours, either within, in the walls of, or pressing on 
 the bowels ; it is a symptom of volvulus, intussusception, 
 and intestinal calculi, and concretions of various kinds, 
 such as faecal accumulations. The cause should be deter- 
 mined as exactly as possible, aud counteracted when this 
 is possible. Faecal concretions are very rare in the ox. 
 When constipation depends upon organic disease it is liable 
 to recur, unless the animal be fed on very soft food and an 
 occasional laxative given. Relief of constipation is indi- 
 cated by the passage of hard faecal masses with a con- 
 siderable coating of mucus, sometimes also intermingled 
 with a small quantity of blood. If unrelieved, a faecal 
 accumulation may give rise to gangrene. The following 
 note, after Youatt, seems to show that we are, perhaps, not 
 often suflSciently bold in treatment of obscure intestinal 
 affections of the ox : — ^' Dr. Cheselden relates a very ex- 
 traordinary case of healing power, and does not forbid 
 hope, although the intestines may have been injured to a 
 very great extent. ' An ox,' he says, ^ was suffering under 
 constipation of the bowels. Thomas Brayer, a doctor for 
 cattle opened the ox in the flank, and took out a great part of 
 his bowels, upon searching which he found that there was a 
 perfect stoppage in the guts, and that the gut was, about the 
 stoppage, putrefied for about three yards; whereupon he 
 cut off so much of the gut as was putrefied, and took it 
 quite away, and then drew the ends of the guts which 
 remained sound, after what was cut off, together upon 
 a hollow keck, which was about three or four inches long, 
 and sewed the said ends of the guts together upon the said 
 keck, leaving the keck within the guts, and then sewed up 
 the hole cut in the hide upon the flank of the said ox. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 285 
 
 Within the space of one hour after this operation was per- 
 formed the ox dunged, and the piece of the keck which 
 the said end of the gut were sewn upon came away from 
 the ox with the dung, whereupon the ox recovered, and 
 lived to do the owner service for several years/ '^ 
 
 We may here discuss the value of cathartics in cattle 
 practice. All practitioners of experience advocate prompt 
 exhibition of a full cathartic dose when a beast is taken 
 ill. Undoubtedly, in the majority of cases, this is good 
 practice. It is useful in all inflammations, except of the 
 alimentary canal, and when this tube is affected symptoms 
 are generally manifested sufficiently long before the in- 
 flammatory stage occurs, and so one cause of these dis- 
 orders is removed, and congestion probably relieved by 
 the timely use of a saline cathartic. Again, the quality 
 or quantity of food ingested is the cause of many dis- 
 orders. The cathartic generally administered to the ox — 
 Epsom salts — is not so drastic as that given to the horse ; 
 and notably, catharsis can be produced with greater 
 facility and more rapidly in the former animal than in 
 the latter. This is probably due to the less complexity 
 and digestive importance of the intestines in the ox. A 
 direct result of it is that in this animal we seldom see super- 
 purgation, and when this does take place it must not be 
 hastily checked, but the food must be dry, and the animal 
 protected from exposure. It will seldom fail to cease spon- 
 taneously, but too hasty administration of powerful astrin- 
 gent agents might do serious harm. We must remember 
 that cathartic agents may remain in one of the oesophageal 
 compartments of the stomach for a considerable length of 
 time without producing any effect, and when the function of 
 the rumino-reticular sphincter is perverted, as in disease, 
 the whole of a cathartic dose may fall into an inert rumen ; 
 it cannot pass from here very freely when the move- 
 ments of this stomach are irregular. This state of affairs 
 is especially liable to take place when impaction of the 
 omasum tends to obstruct, if it does not actually block 
 up the lower part of the oesophageal passage. In some 
 cases stimulants or other cordial agents will rouse the 
 
286 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 rumen to action. The degree to which constipation may 
 exist in the ox, and the large amount of cathartic doses 
 which may be given, are well illustrated in a case recorded 
 in the ' Veterinarian/ 1829, p. 357, by Professor (then Mr.) 
 Simonds. Obstinate retention of faeces has been attributed 
 to fatty deposition around the rectum, since in prize beasts 
 accumulations of this nature are sometimes most remark- 
 able. 
 
 HLemoeehoids — piles — tumours in the terminal portion 
 of the rectum or about the anus, are described by Armatage 
 as of occasional occurrence in the ox. They are varicose 
 conditions of haemorrhoidal or rectal veins. The principal 
 symptoms to which they give rise are pain in defeecation, 
 protrusion of the anus, bloody faeces, the presence of tu- 
 mours, and often some constitutional disturbance. They 
 depend upon liver disorder or habitual constipation. 
 
 Treatment comprises soft diet, occasional administration 
 of laxatives, removal by ligature when practicable, and 
 astringent injections. Such measures, of course, are only 
 palliative. Cruzel describes as "Irritation venteuse du 
 rectum/' a disease which he attributes to the frequent 
 egress and ingress of air through the anus, as it occurs 
 in animals which work with their tails elevated. 
 
 Diarrhoea. — Frequent evacuation of excessively fluid 
 faeces is a symptom of many disorders, or else is a diseased 
 condition of the lining mucous membranes of the intestines, 
 which is congested and, in some cases, inflamed. The 
 latter state is verging on dysentery, in which diarrhoea 
 when long continued and uncontrolled terminates. The 
 faeces, besides being very liquid, are often highly foetid, and 
 are expelled suddenly with force. In acute cases there is 
 an injected condition of the lining membrane of the 
 rectum, and tenesmus is a marked feature. Colicky pains 
 may be present. The animal either feeds but little or the 
 appetite is depraved ; rumination is irregular and imperfect, 
 the urine scanty, and the patient stands apart from the 
 rest of the herd with arched back and anxious expression. 
 
 Causes. — Any irritation of the alimentary canal may 
 give rise to this disorder, thus coarse and badly saved 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 287 
 
 foodj certain acrid plants in a pasture^ even excess or sudden 
 changes of food. Sometimes when an animal is turned out 
 after being kept in a stall an attack comes on, also any ex- 
 posure to cold is a very fruitful cause, since thereby the ex- 
 cretory function of the skin is arrested, and extra work is 
 thrown on the internal organs, lungs, kidneys, and bowels. 
 Sometimes chronic diarrhoea results from long-continued 
 improper dieting, whereby the mucous membrane of the 
 alimentary canal becomes organically altered, and its 
 secretory function perverted. When calves are being 
 weaned they are very liable to become affected in this 
 way, and they have little strength of constitution to 
 enable them to withstand an attack. Indeed, in the 
 majority of cases of obstinate diarrhoea there is a debili- 
 tated state of the system which is a result of the flux, 
 but also proves an accessory cause. This explains the 
 obstinacy of the disorder. In diseases of the liver, and 
 it is said also of the pancreas, diarrhoea may be present. 
 When the flow of bile is excessive the evacuations become 
 dark -coloured, watery, and profuse. The presence of para- 
 sites is occasionally the cause, but in many cases diarrhoea 
 is merely an indication of blood disease. Thus, this is the 
 case in rinderpest, certain forms of anthrax, and notably 
 of scrofula, when either the mucous membrane of the 
 intestines or the mesenteric glands are affected. Sometimes 
 a relaxed state of the bowels occurs as a critical symptom 
 in disorders, of this ^' red water '^ is a notable instance. 
 
 On post-mortem examination a general angemic condition 
 is found associated with congestive blush of the gastric 
 and intestinal mucous membrane, and perhaps the organic 
 changes which produced the disorder will be detectable. 
 
 Treatment. — When called to a case of this disease we 
 must determine whether it be due to blood disease or local 
 irritation. In these cases it may even be advisable to pro- 
 mote it by administration of laxatives, preferably olea- 
 ginous agents. At the same time the patient should be care- 
 f ullynursed and stimulant tonics administered internally. In 
 all cases the diet must undergo a thorough change. Where 
 organic disease exists tonics must prove our main resource. 
 
288 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Mild astringents also may be given with judgment. The 
 mineral tonics are very useful in diarrhoea. Where colicky 
 pains are present tincture of opium is most useful. Water 
 must be given in only small quantities, the food should be 
 dry, and starch gruel is an astringent beverage. Where 
 there seems to be a perverted condition of the secretions, 
 the administration of calomel with opium is advisable. 
 Creta preparata is very useful as an antacid. When 
 scrofulous tumours are probably present, but little hope 
 of recovery can be entertained, but iodine compounds and 
 copper salts may be tried. Of the latter, the ammonio- 
 sulphate and iodide are most likely to prove beneficial. 
 In cases of enzootic outbreaks of diarrhoea something 
 more than curative influence is required from the prac- 
 titioner. The food must be carefully examined. Cakes 
 may contain mustard, the water may be prejudicial, or, 
 lastly, the herbage may be laxative, as in the scouring 
 lands of Somersetshire and other parts of the country. 
 
 Dysentery — bloody flux — is inflammation of the lining 
 membrane of the bowels, accompanied by ulceration. It 
 follows protracted diarrhoea, or may originate as a disease 
 in itself from exposure to cold, coarse innutritious pro- 
 vender, and almost any debilitating influence which acts 
 slowly but persistently. Thus, it is a sequela or culmina- 
 tion of some cases of scrofula, and may be found as a com- 
 plication in other blood diseases. It may be an after-effect 
 of poisonous ag/ents. 
 
 Symptoms. — -Sometimes the disease is acute, but more 
 often chronic. In the acute cases there is fever, together 
 with the signs of slight abdominal pains. The patient 
 stands with back arched, and constantly strains, passing 
 only a small amount of watery matter tinged with blood ; 
 sometimes vesicles maybe seen in the nostrils (Armatage). 
 As the disease advances signs of abdominal pain increase in 
 intensity, and the rapid emaciation takes place, and the 
 patient sinks and dies from exhaustion. In the chronic 
 form, which generally results from the acute, the sym- 
 ptoms are those of extreme debility (as described under 
 the heading '^ Anaemia'^) ; the patient is hide-bound, and 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 289 
 
 often cedematous^ in a state of extreme emaciation ', with 
 coat dry and staring, mucous membranes pallid, eyes 
 sunken, ears pendulous, dull glazed appearance of the 
 eyes, relaxed condition of the anus, from which there is 
 constantly a slight sanguineous discharge, and the rectum 
 protrudes a little ; back arched, pain on pressure of the 
 loins, and staggering gait. Generally, the skin is tho- 
 roughly invaded by lice. When faeces are passed in 
 quantity they are found to be highly offensive, san- 
 guineous, glairy, and viscid, in consequence of the amount 
 of mucus present. The animal will remain in this 
 state for a very long time, in spite of the most active 
 measures of treatment ; and when at length death occurs 
 from asthenia or slaughter, post-mortem examination 
 shows that the stomach may be involved, as well as the 
 intestines. Thus, the abomasum has its lining membrane 
 reddened, with a gelatinous effusion into its substance, and 
 into the submucous areolar tissue. The small intestines 
 are sometimes somewhat similarly affected, but not unfre- 
 quently present only a slight congestive blush of the lining 
 membrane. The large intestines are the main seat of the 
 disorder, and show spots of extravasation and ecchymosis, 
 also congestive streaking, giving them a bluish colour, 
 also ulcerations, penetrating the mucous coat more or less 
 deeply. The contents are of an offensive si 
 with blood. 
 
 Treatment is very unsatisfactory, whi( 
 Mr. Armatage suggests, is due to the fact^ 
 eased membrane of the alimentary canal is nli 
 dition to allow of ready absorption. He therefol 
 treatment by means of subcutaneous injection. We 
 adopt those measures already recommended for diarrhoea 
 due to organic change^ but in chronic cases may use 
 powerful astringents. Astringent enemas should be ad- 
 ministered, and, according to some authorities, doses of 
 carbolic acid, chlorinated lime, and hyposulphite of soda, 
 are beneficial. Careful nursing is absolutely necessary, 
 though these cases are so tedious that they are generally 
 left to take their chance. The food must be judiciously 
 
 19 
 
290 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 selected^ dry, and nutritious. Calomel with opium has 
 been followed by the best results, but this treatment needs 
 constant supervision by the practitioner. Animals which 
 are affected with dysentery are known as '^ scanterers" in 
 some parts of the country, or are said to be ^' rotten.^' 
 
 The disease known as Pantas, Moor-ill, or Wood-evil, 
 may here be mentioned. It is a form of gastro-enteritis 
 due to coarse or acrid food material ; it affects whole herds, 
 especially in long, dry summers, when there is a deficiency 
 of herbage, so that plants ordinarily avoided are con- 
 sumed. It is sometimes attributed to free consumption 
 of astringent buds, as of the oak tree, and of heath ; also 
 scarcity of food may be due to over-stocking of land, and 
 so an outbreak of this disease may occur. 
 
 8ymf tolas.' — The attack lasts from six days to about a 
 fortnight, and is ushered in by dulness and constipation. 
 The latter sign is found throughout, except in the latest 
 stages, when profuse dysenteric discharge precedes death. 
 A small amount of faeces, in dry, hard, small lumps, coated 
 with mucus of a thick, stringy character, and sometimes 
 with blood, is expelled occasionally with some difficulty. 
 The urine is scanty, high coloured, and voided with diffi- 
 culty. Lactation early ceases, and the appetite, from the 
 first, is irregular and depraved. Acute febrile signs soon 
 are manifested, and there is tympany with acute abdominal 
 pain. Yellowness of the visible mucous membranes indi- 
 cates that the liver is also involved. Sometimes the brain 
 seems affected, or the animal becomes almost wild with 
 pain. Rapid emaciation takes place, and all the symptoms 
 of acute dysentery precede death. 
 
 Autopsy shows the lesions of advanced dysentery. 
 
 The treatment differs only from that of the last- 
 mentioned disease in that the necessity of clearing the 
 alimentary canal is even more urgent, and more powerful 
 cathartics than Epsom salts should be given, to be followed 
 by salines and oils, if necessary. Stimulants and tonics 
 are especially indicated. Mucilaginous drinks are valuable 
 as sheathing the diseased membranes. Thorough change 
 of diet to laxative but nutritious food and liberal supply 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 291 
 
 of pure water are essential, and of course tlie patient must 
 be removed from the pasture wliicli has caused the disease. 
 
 Prophylaxis consists in administration of occasional 
 laxatives, a proper supply of water in dry seasons, and 
 avoidance of placing more animals on a limited pasture 
 than it w-ill support. 
 
 Enteeitis. — Inflammation of the intestines, especially 
 affecting the muscular coat, but extending to the mucous 
 and peritoneal, is not frequent in the ox, except in working 
 animals. Plethoric adults are most liable to become 
 affected. It is due to exposure to rough weather, drinking 
 cold water when in a state of perspiration, and ingestion 
 of irritant substances ; it also results from extension of in- 
 flammation, and may be brought about by volvulus, intus- 
 susception, and impaction. 
 
 Symptoms. — There are general signs of disorder, with 
 pain on pressure of the loins, frequent passage of a small 
 amount of dry f^ces, and perhaps some abdominal disten- 
 sion. Shortly acute febrile disturbance takes place, and 
 the patient stands obstinately in one place, with muzzle 
 protruded, and the hind limbs seem inclined to give way. 
 Thirst is excessive, but all inclination for food is lost ; the 
 animal moans, grinds his teeth, looks round at the right 
 flank, and flinches when pressure is made on the abdomen. 
 The pain is continuous, which, with the acute fever, serves 
 to distinguish this from colicky disorders. Shortly before 
 death the patient becomes unconscious and falls, moaning 
 continuously. The passage of faeces becomes suppressed, 
 and "a little stream of liquid excrement forces its way 
 through the hardened mass, by which the rectum is dis- 
 tended, and that which is voided has an exceedingly foetid 
 and putrid smell. '^ Youatt considers this diagnostic. 
 Sometimes death is preceded by cessation of pain, but the 
 animal is anxious, the extremities are extremely cold, the 
 pulse imperceptible or '^running down," and the internal 
 temperature falls rapidly. This is indicative of the occur- 
 rence of gangrene. Throughout the attack the pulse is 
 very quick and small, and the rectum, when examined 
 with the hand, is evidently very much increased in tem- 
 
292 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 perature. The torpidity of the bowels is due to cessation 
 of peristalsis, for the inflamed muscular coat loses its 
 contractile powers. 
 
 Post-mortem examination. — The intestines become very 
 soon distended with gas. The peritoneum is congested, 
 inflamed, or gangrenous over the parts of the intestine, 
 which are the centre of diseased action. The peritoneal 
 sac contains a considerable quantity of sero-sanguineous 
 fluid, sometimes also flocculi of lymph. Both small and 
 large bowels are generally involved. The walls of the bowel 
 are thickened and various in colour in different parts, from 
 the redness of simple congestion to the green condition 
 found in gangrene. There is much gelatinous effusion and 
 some blood extravasation between the muscular fibres, and 
 the contents of the bowels are mainly blood and mucus. 
 
 Treatment. — Careful nursing, external stimulation of 
 the abdomen by means of hot- water rugs and ammoniacal 
 or turpentine applications, manual removal of accumu- 
 lated faeces from the rectum, with anodyne and muci- 
 laginous injections. Cathartics must be avoided, for they 
 cannot make the intestines act, and will only irritate. 
 Aconite, or preferably opium, should be admistered inter- 
 nally, while the extreme thirst of the patient may be relieved 
 by nitrated water. In this disorder the early abstraction 
 of blood has been found highly beneficial, and the animals 
 affected are usually well able to stand the depletion. 
 Hot-water applications are used as follows : — The furnace 
 or copper having been set going to ensure a free supply 
 of boiling water a blanket is folded and placed trans- 
 versely beneath the belly of the patient ; it is held on 
 either side by a man, while a third pours fresh water in 
 when the blanket begins to cool. During the intervals 
 the blanket is kept well up against the abdomen. This 
 should generally be continued for about half an hour, 
 when the parts should be rubbed thoroughly dry, and a 
 little ammoniacal solution applied with friction. This 
 active method of treatment proves most effectual in some 
 abdominal disorders. It can be repeated if necessary. 
 
 Fibrinous Oasts of the Intestines are not rare in the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 293 
 
 OX. Specimens of considerable length are sometimes 
 described as parasites, and we are told that the animal 
 has '' passed a snake.^^ The casts are flaky on the surface, 
 generally have been thrown out from the mucous membrane 
 of the small intestines, and are of a croupous nature. Hence, 
 the form of enteritis in which they are expelled is some- 
 times termed Croupous Enteritis. It is less acute than 
 the other form, and after expulsion of the false mem- 
 brane recovery rapidly takes place. The treatment 
 in no way differs from that of the ordinary form of the 
 disease. 
 
 Intestinal Apoplexy — Rupture of the intestinal blood- 
 vessels is rare in the ox except in blood diseases. It, 
 however, sometimes results from injuries and in inflamma- 
 tion and partial obstruction. The blood diffuses between 
 the layers of the mesentery. Colicky pains are present, but 
 no diagnostic symptoms. In the ' Veterinarian,' vol. xlii, 
 p. 768, M. Genee records a case of enzootic outbreak of this 
 disorder leading to sudden death, attributed to feeding on 
 the refuse of beet-root. 
 
 Perforation or Eupture op the Intestines may be 
 brought about by external injury, ulceration, the giving 
 way of the disorganised wall of the bowel during opera- 
 tions for relief of hernia, and the use of drastic cathartics 
 in cases of intestinal obstruction. When the rupture is 
 large the signs are those of collapse, but when it is small 
 peritonitis gradually supervenes. If the bowel be exposed 
 and rupture take place catgut sutures may be inserted 
 and the bowel returned. Cases thus treated have been 
 known to do well. Injury of an umbilical or ventral 
 hernia sometimes causes ulceration of the skin extending 
 into the enclosed bowel. From the opening thus formed 
 the intestinal contents constantly escape. It is a ^^ false 
 anus/' and must be closed either by ligature or suture. 
 
 Rupture op the Rectum may occur in cases of pro- 
 lapsus, or the leg of the foetus may be passed through 
 the wall of the vagina and rectum in cases of difficult 
 parturition. These cases are not necessarily fatal, for the 
 terminal portion of the rectum is not invested by peri- 
 
294 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 toneum, and, therefore, the faoces do not pass into the 
 peritoneal sac. Their entry into the wound tends to 
 prevent it from healing, and a fistula in ano or recto-vaginal 
 fistula forms. This is not very liable to take place in the 
 ox, for the faeces are pultaceous. The presence of a recto- 
 vaginal fistula gives rise to passage of fseces through the 
 vulval opening, also chronic irritation of the generative 
 passage, and the opening may be felt on exploration. 
 
 Intestinal Parasites are comparatively rare in the ox, 
 and seldom give rise to serious disorder. The principal 
 are Ascaris lumhricoides, and various Strongyles. Tania 
 expansa is described by Law as causing serious indigestion 
 and abdominal disturbance in America, Australia, and 
 some parts of Germany. 
 
 Intestinal Tumours are generally fatty on the peritoneal 
 surface; cancerous when projecting into the intestinal 
 tube, hsemorrhoidal when in the rectum. The effects of 
 these and of calculi have been already noticed. 
 
 Malformation or the Intestines. — Of these proctatresia 
 or infijpervious anus is the most frequently seen in calves. 
 Sometimes the anal opening is closed by skin j in other 
 cases the anus is perfectly formed, but at a short distance 
 from the external orifice there is a membranous septum 
 separating the passage in which the meconium is situated 
 from the anus. In another form the large intestine termi- 
 nates in a cul'de-sac in the posterior part of the abdomen. 
 These latter cases are hopeless, but in either of the former 
 relief may be afforded by division of the obstructing 
 membrane by two crucial incisions. Attention is called 
 to this condition by violent straining of the young animal, 
 which has not passed fasces since birth. The first milk 
 excites the bowels to action for expulsion of the meconium, 
 but this relief is prevented. 
 
 Mechanical Distension of the Rectum with hard pellets of 
 meconium is sometimes a cause of similar symptoms. 
 The accumulated material must be gradually removed with 
 the oiled forefinger. Sometimes the quantity present is 
 enormous. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 295 
 
 Section 2. — Op the Liver. 
 
 In tlie ox this organ is large^ mainly confined to tlie 
 right side, has rounded margins, and is scarcely divided 
 into lobes, but a fairly large caudate lobe is present. The 
 excretory apparatus differs from that of the horse in that a 
 gall-bladder with a cystic duct is present, also the bile- 
 duct does not open with the pancreatic, but terminates by 
 itself at a distance of about two feet from the pylorus. 
 The gall-bladder lies on the posterior surface of the liver, 
 ."with its fundus projecting downwards ; it rests in a groove 
 
 Fig. 59. — Liver and pancreas of ox, with excretory apparatus, c. Pan- 
 creatic duct. d. Gall-bladder, e. Common bile-duct. /. Duodenum. 
 (Simonds.) 
 
 in the liver substance, but is not surrounded by it to 
 such an extent as in the dog. 
 
 Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver , is sometimes seen 
 in high-bred plethoric animals, as a result of feeding with 
 an excessive amount of highly stimulating food, associated 
 with want of exercise. It is most prevalent in hot weather. 
 It is also attributed to changes of temperature and of 
 food, as well as to expose of various kinds. 
 
 The Symptoms of some forms of liver disorder are 
 
296 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 somewliat obscure. Yellowness of tlie visible mucous 
 membranes and of the skin is considered a diagnostic of 
 derangement of tbe bile-secreting organ, but it is not 
 always so, for it may depend upon the nature of the food, 
 and is constantly present in some of the best breeds. 
 When this organ is inflamed a certain amount of abdominal 
 distension is observable, and the animal flinches, moans, 
 and grinds the teeth, when pressure is applied to the right 
 side over the seat of the liver. Its functions are arrested ; 
 thus, the secretion of bile is not carried on, hence the 
 bowels are torpid and the faeces are dry, scanty, and of a 
 chocolate colour; generally they are thickly coated with 
 mucus. Lying continually on the right side and fainting fits 
 are sometimes present. The milk is yellow and scanty, 
 and its cream thick and ^'ropy." There are occasional 
 colicky pains, and the skin is harsh, staring, and coated with 
 a yellowish-browny matter (which is considered a favor- 
 able sign) . The urine is excessively yellow, and the various 
 mucous membranes are all more or less tinged with the 
 same colour. The respiration is somewhat impeded, and 
 the pulse is soft, weak, and generally frequent. Lame- 
 ness of the right fore limb has not yet been observed in 
 cases of this kind in the ox. The animal is very dull, as 
 in most affections of this organ. 
 
 In Chronic cases, with the generally diffused yellowness 
 and the unthrifty and scurfy state of the skin, and the 
 dry clay-coloured condition of the faeces, there is per- 
 sistent dejection and falling off from condition, a want of in- 
 clination to move. The pulse and respiration are unaffected. 
 In one case of the acute disease the patient was so violent 
 that it was thought he was mad — the head extended, 
 eye fixed, shoulders cold, belly hot, pulse strong and rapid, 
 striking of head against the flank, and endeavouring to 
 bite those around. Here, on Autopsy , '^ the liver appeared 
 withered and dry, as if it had been exposed during several 
 days to an ardent sun.'^ In other cases we may find 
 atrophy of the organ, the areolar elements (Glisson^s 
 capsule) having been increased in size at the expense 
 of the more important secreting part. Sometimes the 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 297 
 
 liver is mucli enlarged and softened, as a result of 
 inflammation, whilst, in other cases, abscesses are 
 present. Inflammation of several parts of the liver 
 simultaneously is not infrequent, and this may lead 
 to multiple abscesses. Generally the peritoneal invest- 
 ment is either rendered opaque or is the seat of deposits 
 of lymph. Eemains of these latter indications are not 
 infrequent in old animals. In more recent cases the 
 accumulation of gelatinous material beneath the peri- 
 toneum somewhat obscures the normal brown chocolate 
 colour. 
 
 Treatment. — The indications in cases of this kind are 
 to apply external stimulants over the seat of the diseased 
 organ. Administer a saline cathartic, which will act 
 without materially affecting the liver, while it will also 
 act as a febrifuge. Aconite may be used to follow this 
 up as soon as any severe febrile disorder sets in. Of 
 course careful nursing is necessary, and the food, when 
 convalescence has set in, must be light and nutritious, 
 but in small quantity. Enemas must be utilised. In the 
 chronic form, where atrophy has occurred, we can do little 
 except give an occasional liver stimulant to rouse the torpid 
 organ into activity, at least so much of it as remains fit 
 to perform its duties. 
 
 Congestion op the Liver is manifested by dulness suc- 
 ceeding a meal, slight interference with respiration, 
 swelling on the right side (which is painful), constipation, 
 and a little yellowness of membranes. This must be 
 treated by a laxative, change of diet, fresh air, and some 
 exercise. It is generally of short duration, but when it 
 occurs frequently may give rise to chronic changes. 
 
 HePATIRHCEA H^MOREHAGB FROM THE LiVER RuPTURE 
 
 OP THE Liver — occasionally results from congestion and in 
 cases of degenerative changes of the organ. The sym- 
 ptoms are simply those of internal abdominal haemorrhage, 
 rapid sinking, and sometimes abdominal pain. In other 
 cases the peritoneal capsule does not give way, but the 
 blood accumulates beneath it. In the latter, recovery 
 is possible if the animal be kept very quiet and the 
 
298 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 strengtli supported, and subsequent feeding carefully 
 regulated. In the former case recovery is hopeless. Any 
 one accustomed to examine the changes which the liver 
 undergoes as a result of disease will be aware of the 
 very considerable absorption of liver substance which 
 may take place as a result of parasitic invasion or of 
 morbid deposits, without the function of the organ being 
 materially interfered with. It seems as if each lobule 
 were an independent organ, and not in any way concerned 
 in the state of its fellows. A direct consequence of this 
 is that very extensive changes of this nature may take 
 place, andno appreciable signs of them be manifested during 
 life; of these changes tubercular are most frequent. We 
 find also on record ^'osseous deposits," which, however, 
 hardly answer this description. Thus, in a case the 
 post-mortem examination of which reads very like that of 
 traumatic pericarditis, Mr. Younghusband describes the 
 liver of a milch cow, " which was three times the size of 
 one in a normal state, containing in its substance an im- 
 mense number of calcareous deposits, of the size of a 
 horse chestnut, which, when crumbled betwixt the finger 
 and thumb, gave a feeling of sand or grit. There were 
 some dozens of these deposits, but in none did I perceive 
 anything like the suppurative process." These were 
 perhaps calcified hydatids, but the case was peculiar. 
 The enormous extent to which this organ may become in- 
 vaded by Echinococcus veterinorum is satisfactorily illus- 
 trated by a case recorded by Messrs. East and Steel in 
 the ^Veterinarian^ for 1878. The specimen came from the 
 Yale of Aylesbury, where parasitic disorders are prevalent. 
 Considerable diminution of the secreting liver structure 
 results in advanced cases of invasion by Fasciola hepatica, 
 in consequence of thickening of the walls of large and 
 small bile- ducts, the result of irritation. 
 
 Kamollissement (softening of the liver). — Enlargement 
 with structural change does not seem so frequent as we 
 would be inclined to expect from the frequency of exces- 
 sive fattening of the ox, together with the want of exercise 
 during preparation for exhibition or sale. A good illus- 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 299 
 
 trative case of fatty liver is given in the ' Transactions 
 of the Veterinary Medical Association/ vol. iii, p. 234, by 
 Mr. Read. 
 
 Interesting cases of Congenital Hepatic Hernia are given 
 in the ' Veterinary Journal,' vol. iv, p. 344 and 423, by Mr. 
 Swarry of Selby and Mr. Kirk. In them it seems a por- 
 tion of the right lobe of the liver was connected with the 
 posterior part of the lang by the right lateral ligament, 
 there being a foramen through the diaphragm. 
 
 Addendum 1. 
 
 The gall-bladder of the ox has a capacity of several 
 ounces, and its duct decreases in size somewhat after its 
 commencement. The bile of the ox is of a greenish colour, 
 and consists of the following : — ^Water, 90*44 per cent. ; 
 biliary and fatty matter, 8 per cent. ; vesicular mucus, '30 
 per cent.; osmazone, chloride and lactate of soda, '74 per 
 cent. ; sodium, '41 per cent. ; phosphates of lime and soda, 
 •11 per cent. (Berzelius). Diseases of this excretory 
 apparatus have been observed, but are almost always 
 secondary in their character, due to disease of the bowels 
 or biliary ducts. The bile accumulated in the gall-bladder 
 is liable to undergo inspissation and to form biliary 
 calculi. These consist of the bile salts, also pigment and 
 cholesterin, arranged in concentric layers around a small 
 mass previously formed, which acts as a nucleus. . They 
 vary in form, but have rounded margins, and in size 
 upwards to the average size of a walnut. They have a 
 low specific gravity, and so float on bile. Often they are 
 extremely numerous. So long as they remain in the gall- 
 bladder they seem to cause no inconvenience, but during 
 their passage through the central portion of the cystic 
 duct and the terminal part of the common bile duct, cause 
 excruciating agony, due to spasm of the muscular fibre of 
 the wall of the duct. These cannot be distinguished from 
 ordinary colicky pains, our only aid to diagnosis being the 
 occurrence of some biliary calculi in the faeces. 
 
300 bovine pathology. 
 
 Addendum 2. 
 
 The Pancreas is large and lies to the right of the abdomen 
 in the root of the mesentery ; its ducts open separately 
 into the duodenum at a distance of over three feet from the 
 pylorus. 
 
 Scirrhous, tubercular and cancerous deposit, hypertrophy, 
 and abscess of this, organ are described, but nothing more 
 seems to be known about these disorders than that, when 
 chronic, they give rise to malnutrition, since they interfere 
 with the due elaboration of fat-forming material. Calculi 
 in the pancreas or its duct are occasionally found. They 
 are generally of a milky-white colour, dense and rough, 
 and about as big as a pea. 
 
 Section 3. — Of the Peritoneum. 
 
 This membrane of the ox is only remarkable as forming 
 a large and well- developed omentum major, which generally 
 contains much fat. 
 
 Peritonitis — inflammation of the lining memhrane of the 
 abdomen — is very rare in the ox, and we have often above 
 had occasion to remark the impunity with which very 
 formidable operations may be performed in which it is 
 subjected to injury. The various abdominal sections and 
 castration afPect it, and it is more or less involved in 
 inflammations of various abdominal viscera, but its disease 
 passes unnoticed in the general disorder, and it is only after 
 wounds and occasionally climatic changes that it thus pri- 
 marily becomes inflamed. Then the animal suffers from 
 obscure pain, and is, therefore, dull and anxious, looking 
 round occasionally at the flank, moaning, grinding the teeth, 
 stamping, and with hind limbs trembling. The bowels do 
 not act, the pulse has the hardness characteristic of inflam- 
 mations of serous membranes, the extremities are cold, 
 and these cases rapidly terminate fatally. It will be 
 observed that the respiration is characteristically thoracic, 
 the diaphragm being as much as possible relieved from its 
 duties, which cause extra pain. 
 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 301 
 
 Post-mortem examination. — Sometimes we find after 
 slaughter of a healthy animal that parts of the peritoneum 
 are united by adhesions, while others are opaque and 
 flocculent from the presence of white shreds of organised 
 lymph. These are indications of a previous attack of this 
 disease. In recent cases the membrane is in various parts 
 reddened, opaque, and hidden by lymphy deposits, which 
 bind the different abdominal organs together and vary in 
 the degree of organization according to their age. These 
 lesions are most marked around the point of injury. The 
 peritoneal sac contains a considerable quantity of fluid, 
 which is straw-coloured, milky, or sanguineous. Of 
 traumatic lesions giving rise to this disease passage of 
 sharp foreign bodies from the stomachs is not infrequent, 
 hence we generally find that peritonitis is present in cases 
 of traumatic pericarditis, bringing about union of the reti- 
 culum with the diaphragm, so that a cyst-like passage is 
 formed, which generally contains a milky serous fluid or 
 a blood-clot. 
 
 Treatment. — That suggested for enteritis. As in that 
 affection cathartics should not be administered, for increased 
 peristalsis will give rise to increased irritation of the 
 inflamed peritoneum. Opium is specially indicated to 
 check peristalsis. 
 
 Ascites {dropsy of the abdomen). — This is sometimes 
 the result of acute inflammatory disease of the peritoneum, 
 but more frequently of general debility or of mechanical 
 impediment to return of venous blood, such as exists in liver 
 or heart diseases, also tumours pressing on vena portse. 
 It is a complication of other dropsical disorders. It is 
 not frequent in the adult, but is met with in obstetric 
 practice, since congenital ascites is an impediment to 
 expulsion of the affected animal from the womb. In these 
 cases it seems to result from debility or scrofulous disease 
 of the parent ; the sickly foetus may therefore be sacrificed, 
 the fluid being evacuated either by direct incision with the 
 concealed knife through the abdominal walls, or by the 
 passage of a special long trocar and canula through the 
 chest into the abdomen. 
 
302 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Symptoms. — Of the acquired forms are abdominal disten- 
 sion, and on auscultation a wave of fluid may be detected 
 striking against tbe abdominal wall when the opposite 
 side is percussed. Anasarcous swellings appear on the 
 abdomen and underneath the chest. Eespiration is 
 thoracic, and there is gradually increasing anaemia with all 
 its characteristic symptoms (see page 92). 
 
 Treatment. — While endeavouring to remove the originat- 
 ing disease we must do all in our power to sustain the 
 strength of the patient by stimulant tonics, as beer or 
 gentian with nitrous ether ; also liberal diet of not too 
 watery composition. Iron salts (as the iodide) also are 
 indicated, and may be alternated with vegetable tonics. 
 Digitalis proves useful primarily as a sedative, but second- 
 arily by acting on the kidneys. Where the distension is 
 very great paracentesis abdominis j "tapping the belly,^' 
 will afford temporary relief. A small trocar-and-canula 
 is used, and the puncture is made just a little to one side 
 of the umbilicus, the instrument being inserted gently. 
 The reason of the obstinate resistance to absorption is 
 that the peritoneal stomata become blocked up by false 
 membranes and plugs of lymph. Besides the diseases 
 indicated it must be remembered that the peritoneum is 
 often one of the seats of '^ grapy '' deposits of scrofulous 
 origin. These give rise to subacute inflammation and 
 ascites. Opacity is generally produced in the opposite 
 portion of the peritoneum against which they rub. 
 
THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS . 303 
 
 CHAPTER v.— DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 The calibre of tLe air-passages of tlie ox is not so great 
 as that of the horse; the lungs are practically smaller, 
 and M. Colin has shown us that an ox breathes only about 
 82 per cent, of the amount of air required by a horse, 
 throwing off a proportionately small amount of carbonic 
 anhydride. This would lead us to anticipate that the 
 ordinary diseases of the respiratory organs of the ox are 
 less numerous and important than those of the horse. It 
 adapts the animal less for rapid and prolonged locomotion, 
 and is in accordance with the conditious of other parts of 
 the system ; thus, the large gastric mass of the ox prevents 
 rapid exertion after a meal, and the full conditions of these 
 organs remains for a long time. During this the action 
 of the diaphragm must be, to a certain extent, impeded as 
 far as its respiratory functions are concerned ; it facilitates 
 regurgitation constantly during rumination. Again, its 
 position is more upright. The conformation of the 
 skeleton of the ox gives us information that he is less 
 adapted for respiratory emergencies than the horse. 
 Ordinary respirations of the ox are frequent and not 
 deep, 15 to 18 in the adult, 18 to 20 in the young animal ; 
 they are liable to considerable increase in number even 
 during health. Similarly the healthy cough of the ox is 
 rather short and weak. The horse suffers so frequently from 
 disorders of the respiratory organs because he is pushed 
 to extremes of exertion, is pampered in hot, close, and 
 improperly ventilated stables, and is subjected to sudden 
 changes of temperature of the surrounding medium, and also 
 exposure to draughts, and under certain circumstances to 
 extremes of weather. With the skin acting profusely he 
 
804 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 is left standing in a current of air, and is otherwise 
 exposed. The working ox is somewhat similarly treated, 
 and hence of all bovines is most liable to diseases of respira- 
 tory organs, but he is not by any means pampered, and 
 seldom overworked. Cattle, especially when fat, are 
 sometimes overdriven, but ordinarily are in a state of 
 quietude in the stalls of not overdosed shippons or in 
 pastures. Under these circumstances traumatic causes 
 are the main influences which generate diseases of the 
 breathing apparatus. Dairy cows and prize fattening beasts 
 are certainly continuously subjected to the close and foul 
 atmosphere of byres, but they are not exercised and do 
 not change from heat to cold, so the predisposition engen- 
 dered by ammoniacal fumes and constant inspiration of 
 warm air laden with impurities seldom receives the 
 exciting cause necessary to give rise to acute pulmonary 
 disorder. The effect is more marked in arousing heredi- 
 tary or acquired tendency to scrofulous disease, especially 
 phthisis. We have previously made some general remarks 
 on the nature of respiratory processes, but must now recall 
 to our minds certain special means of diagnosis, which 
 acquire particular importance in relation to the diseases 
 under consideration. 
 
 Auscultation depends on the motion of air through 
 the air-passages, and the movements of the chest and 
 other parts during breathing. It is termed immediate 
 if the ear is applied directly to the surface, mediate 
 if the acoustic connection is indirect. The former method 
 is open to the objection that the surface is often 
 not fit for contact, as when the animal is covered with 
 lice. It is most useful as avoiding extra friction sounds, 
 which result from the intervention of a foreign body 
 between the ear and the chest. Generally a handker- 
 chief is placed on the surface, and a little practice enables 
 the observer to automatically ignore any complications 
 due to its presence. The stethoscope is a long tube with 
 a trumpet-shaped extremity for even contact with the 
 surface, and an ear-piece ; it is seldom used in veterinary 
 practice. It is an artificial prolongment of the external 
 
THE RESPIRATOEY APPARATUS. 305 
 
 auditory canal. Auscultation is resorted to in cardiac and 
 certain abdominal diseases^ but is mainly used for deter- 
 mining the states of the lungs and air-passages. These, 
 especially the former, are less accessible than in man, on 
 account of the greater bulk of surrounding substances, the 
 pectoral position of the fore extremities, and the restlessness 
 of the patient. Also the animal cannot be made to give 
 us the various phases of respiration on demand. Though 
 our diagnoses cannot, therefore, be so exact as those of 
 human practitioners, auscultation is most valuable to us. 
 
 Nasal sounds. — The normal rushing sound of air passing 
 through the nasal chambers is interfered with in cases of 
 tumours and other obstructions of these passages; also 
 when the mucous lining membrane is diseased. The ster- 
 torous character of breathing, as seen in coma, depends 
 on the state of the posterior nares and velum palati. 
 
 Laryngeal sounds. — The passage of air through the 
 healthy organ gives rise to a rushing sound. In cases of 
 thickening or impediment the sounds known as roaring 
 and whistling (which are familiar to us) will be distin- 
 guished. A peculiar crowing sound is considered dia- 
 gnostic of " croup.^^ The voice, of which this organ is the 
 seat, is sometimes modified ; its tones are not varied, for 
 the organ is very simple, but it is not difficult to distin- 
 guish the peculiar lowing indicative of pain. 
 
 In the trachea and bronchial tubes we still find the rush- 
 ing sound ; in health it is prolonged, almost uniform in 
 expiration and inspiration, and with an even transition 
 through its various modulations ; under disease it may 
 become the mucous rale, when fluid exists in these tubes 
 in excess, and air bubbles through it, the cavernous rale, 
 when the air rushes from a comparatively small tube into 
 a large space containing fluid, so that there is a special 
 gurgling sound. This, of course, can only be heard in 
 connection with disease in the lungs; it is found when 
 a cavity has been formed in those organs by suppuration, 
 or by bronchial dilatation. Sibilus, when the air rushes 
 through small tubes with a dry condition of their mucous 
 lining, such as is seen in incipient inflammation. Rhonchus 
 
 20 
 
306 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 is a similar state when the larger tubes are involved. Other 
 refinements are distinguishable, but their characters are 
 rather indefinite. The Vesicular sound observed during 
 health depends upon the tension of the walls of the air-cells 
 during inspiration, together with the rush of air through 
 the narrow terminations of the bronchial tubes into these 
 dilatations, consequently it is appreciable also to a modified 
 degree during expiration. It can only be heard in some parts 
 of the lungs, for it is liable to be obscured by the bronchial 
 rushing sound. It is most perceptible in young animals, 
 for with age the cells are much dilated, and the transitions 
 from the tubes less abrupt. Determination of this sound 
 is important, as informing us of the pervious condition of 
 the air-passages and the air-cells. It is early supplanted 
 in cases of inflammation of the intimate structure of the 
 lungs by a peculiar crackling sound known as crepitation. 
 The intensity of these sounds varies with disease ; when a 
 part of the lung is lost for functional purposes the parts 
 which remain pervious give increased sound. Solidifica- 
 tion and deposition between a bronchus and the ear may 
 render its rushing sound more evident. In other cases 
 there is partial or complete loss of sound, due to an im- 
 pervious condition of the passages, as in lung consolidation 
 or collapse, or else to the presence of some bad conductor 
 of the sound, as in cases of hydrothorax. Our diagnosis 
 of the extent of disease also depends upon the stationary 
 or migratory condition of the sounds, as shown by frequent 
 examinations. The movements may be either abrupt, as 
 when some obstruction has been removed by coughing, or 
 gradual, as in hydrothorax. 
 
 The pleura, when inflamed, is the seat of the friction 
 sound, due either to two dry surfaces moving in contact 
 with one another, or to a similar application of two sur- 
 faces roughened by deposition of false membranes. 
 
 Examination of the Chest of the Ox, by Ausculta- 
 tion. — The extra lobe of the right lung extends rather in 
 front of the heart. The thorax is wide and rounded pos- 
 teriorly, but the diaphragm bulges into it to a marked ex- 
 tent, and gains firm attachment to the inner surface of the 
 
THE EESPIEATORY APPARATUS. 307 
 
 last rib but one^ so tbat the last intercostal space is not lined 
 by pleura. The rumen^ therefore, giving its various sounds, 
 occupies a large part of the posterior division of the left 
 side, while the liver lies on the right, and gives an area 
 of dulness. *^'We must determine the natural sound 
 when the animal ruminates, which may be heard at the 
 lower part of the chest at the level of the xiphoid carti- 
 lage of the sternum. It resembles the gurgling sound 
 when fluid passes from a bottle, and doubtless is due to 
 the liquids in the reticulum; since cattle, when sick, do 
 not generally ruminate, this noise will not be confounded 
 with abnormal sounds. Nevertheless, we have thought 
 right to note it here. We must also distinguish a crepi- 
 tation with a frothy sounds which originates in the rumen 
 when its muscular walls contract; it is audible at the 
 postero-superior part of the left side of the chest^^ 
 (Delafond). Since the shoulder occupies the anterior 
 part of the lateral surface of the chest as far back as the 
 fourth rib, and the diaphragm bulges posteriorly, the area 
 over which auscultation can be profitably performed in the 
 ox is very limited. However, the shoulder may be drawn 
 forwards to a certain extent, so that even the first rib may 
 be felt from behind, and considerable care will enable us 
 to distinguish lung sounds in the posterior region. 
 
 The lateral surface of the chest is divided into superior, 
 middle, and inferior thirds. '' Right side. — In the superior 
 region the vesicular sound is well marked from behind the 
 shoulder to the level of the tenth rib, from which it gradually 
 decreases in intensity to be lost opposite the eleventh. In 
 the median region a loud and sometimes rather rude re- 
 spiratory murmur is heard over the fourth and three fol- 
 lowing ribs, which, however, gradually decreases from the 
 seventh, and is lost over the tenth or eleventh. In the 
 lower region the sound may be said to be bronchial over 
 the fourth and fifth ribs, evidently on account of the con- 
 siderable tube passing to the fourth lobe of the right lung. 
 From the sixth to the ninth rib it is vesicular, and its force 
 decreases from before backwards. Left side. — The superior 
 region simply repeats that of the right side. In the median 
 
308 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 region the only difference is that the sound is more feeble 
 over the fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs. In the inferior region 
 a feeble respiratory murmur is heard over the fourth rib ; 
 this increases over the fifth and sixth, and then decreases 
 as far as the eighth or ninth ■'^ (Gamgee). Delafond warns 
 us against misinterpreting the crepitating sound, which 
 results from the looseness of the areolar tissue beneath 
 the skin of the chest of the ox. And Gamgee suggests 
 that useful information may be gained by auscultating the 
 chest of the ox from below through the sternum, since so 
 much of the lung is inferiorly placed. 
 
 Peecussion. — Applying blows to the surfaco in a special 
 manner, we have already seen, is useful in diagnosis of 
 tympany. It is direct or indirect. In the former case 
 the ends of the fingers brought together are sharply 
 applied to a part, generally to the skin rendered tense 
 over a bone, as a rib, or the nasals. It is possible to de- 
 termine, from the resulting sound, whether the cavity 
 within is empty or blocked up by some material of a solid 
 or liquid nature. The healthy resonance of the chest is 
 very characteristic, and is most marked over the course of 
 the bronchi and larger bronchial tubes. Dulness on per- 
 cussion indicates consolidation or accumulation of fluid in 
 the pleural sac. 
 
 Percussion of the Chest of the Ox, " Left side.— The 
 
 superior region is very resonant over the eighth, ninth, 
 and tenth ribs. If it be struck very gently between the 
 latter and the twelfth rib, the diminished resonance of 
 the posterior border of the lung may still be brought 
 out, though, if struck at all forcibly in this region, a 
 tympanic sound is produced, due to gas in the rumen. 
 The median region is very resonant over the fifth, 
 sixth, and seventh ribs, much less so ov^r the eighth 
 and ninth, and quite dull over the lower third of the 
 tenth and half the eleventh ; this dulness proceeds from 
 the abdominal organs. The lower region, unlike in 
 the horse, shows considerable resonance over the fourth, 
 fifth, and sixth ribs, from this part lying over the anterior 
 lobes of the right and left lungs, which almost completely 
 
THE EESPIKATOEY APPARATUS. 309 
 
 envelope tlie heart. From the seventh to the ninth ribs 
 the resonance diminishes and is entirely lost in the lower 
 fourth of the latter, as well as over all the ribs behind it. 
 In young and emaciated subjects, by drawing the limb 
 forcibly backwards, and applying the pleximeter as firmly 
 as possible over the first two ribs, a clear sound may be 
 obtained. Right side. — The resonance of the right side 
 differs little from that of the left ; the resonance sometimes 
 being perceptibly less posteriorly, on account of the pre- 
 sence of the liver. In very thin animals a clear sound is 
 produced by percussion in the fossae of the scapula/' 
 (Gamgee). 
 
 Manipulation. — Pressure on the intercostal space causes 
 flinching and other manifestations of pain in pleurisy and 
 pleuro-pneumonia. A fractured condition of the rib and 
 the presence of a needle which has migrated from the 
 reticulum have been determined by this means. 
 
 Siiccussion and Mensuration have not yet been found of 
 much value in cattle disorders. 
 
 The anterior nares have no false nostril, and are con- 
 nected with the upper lip by the smooth humid pad 
 which is termed the muffle. The organ of Jacobson 
 runs from the anterior part of the mouth to that of the 
 nasal chamber. In consequence of separation of the 
 lower margin of the vomer from the palatine suture the 
 nasal chambers communicate posteriorly, so that we can 
 speak only of one posterior naris opening into the pharynx. 
 The facial sinuses are very extensive, and separate the 
 outer from the inner plate of the frontal bone everywhere, 
 except at a point on either side of the centre of the fore- 
 head. They pass into the horn cores, rendering them 
 hollow, and through the parietal bones, and partly into the 
 occipital. The maxillary portion is prolonged into the 
 bony palate.* The nasal peak is trifid. There are described 
 three turbinated bones, but of these the one known as the 
 middle is simply the great ethmoid cell very much 
 enlarged. The lower margin of the vomer is remarkably 
 sharp. The posterior nares, as in other ruminants, are 
 very deep. 
 
310 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 The muffle becomes involved in certain exanthemata, 
 for it may be the seat of eruption. Its condition is a useful 
 but not infallible guide in determining the health of the 
 animal, since during fever it becomes dry. The pro- 
 trusible tongue is capable of removing excess of moisture 
 from this organ and the nostrils. The anterior naris is 
 less liable to laceration than that of the horse. The 
 Schneiderian membrane, as seen through it, is of a red- 
 dish colour, but varies much in shade and humidity with 
 the state of the health. 
 
 Catarrh — Flux from the nostrils — is due either to conges- 
 tion or inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane. Also, 
 as a rule, the lining membrane of the nasal sinuses and 
 those of the pharynx and larynx are, to a certain degree, 
 involved. Is most frequent in spring, when east winds 
 are prevalent, and when animals are suddenly exposed to 
 extremes of wet and cold after having been accustomed to 
 shelter. It may arise from dampness of the byres in 
 which cattle are kept, or exposure to draughts. Animals 
 debilitated by previous disease are especially prone to this 
 disorder. It is more frequent in young beasts than old, 
 and sometimes is attributable to the " dust and gravel 
 of the road" (Youatt). It may be due to certain 
 specific conditions of the atmosphere, when it assumes an 
 epizootic or enzootic form (see Influenza). Then it is 
 excessively debilitating, and under ordinary conditions it 
 reduces the strength of the patient, and on this account 
 as well as because it is often a forerunner of more serious 
 disorder, it is important, and requires prompt and 
 judicious treatment. 
 
 Symptoms. — In some cases simply a discharge from the 
 nostrils, with dulness, but generally slight fever, is 
 present, with the usual signs of ill health. The Schnei- 
 derian membrane is reddened and turgid. At first dry, it 
 soon gives a watery discharge, which later becomes of 
 a thick mucous character, and afterwards muco-purulent. 
 Sneezing is generally present, as also is cough, which is 
 especially marked when there is sore throat, as denoted by 
 pain on manipulation, swelling, and difficulty in swallowing. 
 
THE RESPIRATOEY APPARATTTS. 311 
 
 The conjunctiva is more or less congested, whicli leads to 
 lachrymation and accumulation of mucus at the inner 
 canthus. A profuse mucous discharge from the eyes 
 may afterwards set in. Generally these symptoms subside 
 in two or three days, but sometimes they become modified 
 to those indicative of laryngitis. 
 
 Treatment. — House the animal in a well-ventilated 
 place, and nurse. Counteract all such of the causes as 
 are in operation as much as possible ; especially place in 
 fresh air rather than in a close ammoniacal atmosphere. 
 Steam the nostrils either by holding the head over hot 
 washes, or by fixing on a nose- bag containing sawdust or 
 chaff soaked constantly in boiling water, or by Armatage's 
 steam douche, which consists of an india-rubber tube 
 attached to the spout of a tea kettle, the free end being 
 brought towards the animal^s nostrils when the vapour 
 begins to escape (see Fig. 9). A febrifuge dose of 
 Epsom salts, together with a diffusible stimulant, may be 
 given, and the animal allowed nitrated water to drink. 
 Altogether the treatment of simple catarrh is more a 
 matter of nursing than of medicine. 
 
 Epistaxis — Bleeding from the nostrils — is sometimes a 
 symptom of serious blood disorders where ulceration or 
 rupture of blood-vessels of the Schneiderian membrane is 
 present. It is seen as a disease per se in working oxen, 
 in which exposure to the heat of the sun, together with 
 laborious exercise, have given rise to congestion of the 
 vessels of the {Schneiderian membrane with subsequent 
 rupture of their walls. Sometimes it results from injury, 
 especially when there is fracture of the nasal bones. The 
 haemorrhage may be somewhat profuse. Under ordinary 
 circumstances it will cease spontaneously, but sometimes 
 cold-water applications, styptic injections, or plugging the 
 nostrils are necessary. These cases require careful exami- 
 nation, for the haemorrhage may be from some more 
 important membranes than that lining the nostrils. Some- 
 times it results from Polypus in the nasal chamber. Such 
 cases are very rare. Youatt relates one in which, while 
 the pedicle might be traced into the nasal chamber, the main 
 
312 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 part of the tumour hung down in the pharynx and acted 
 as an impediment to swallowing. Exploration was made 
 through the mouth, and the tumour (which weighed 
 nearly half a pound), removed by torsion. The ecraseur 
 may be used for such cases, or a ligature fixed round the 
 pedicle (see Pharyngeal Polypus). 
 
 Paeasites. — Youatt mentions the occasional entry of 
 leeches from stagnant water. They gain access to the 
 nasal chamber through the anterior nares when the 
 animal is drinking. After they have gorged their fill they 
 will loosen their hold and be expelled by sneezing, except 
 when in the superior part of the nasal chamber. They 
 cause considerable haemorrhage, and may be removed by 
 injections of salt and water. 
 
 Other foreign bodies may become fixed in the nasal 
 chamber, or the nasal sinuses may be diseased, giving 
 rise to Nasal Gleet, but this is rare in the ox as compared 
 with the horse, for he is less liable to injuries of the 
 facial bones, and can expel matters returned by vomition 
 through the mouth. 
 
 Laryngitis — Inflammation of the larynx — is a sequela of 
 catarrh or of bronchitis, but may exist as a primary 
 disease. Besides the general signs of inflammation, 
 the pulse has a peculiarly hard character, the throat is 
 swollen, and the muzzle protruded ; considerable pain is 
 evinced on pressure, and a dry, hard, paroxysmal cough 
 may be originated in this way, or occur spontaneously. 
 Also there is profuse discharge of saliva from the mouth, 
 and difficulty and pain in swallowing (sometimes com- 
 plete inability). There is discharge from the nostrils, 
 and the thickening of the laryngeal mucous membrane 
 gives rise to extreme difficulty in breathing, and an early 
 prostration of strength, such as results from defective 
 oxygen supply. This disease may be attributed to the 
 action of those causes which, under other circumstances, 
 give rise to catarrh. Death may occur either through 
 effusion around the rima glottidis, spasm of the larynx, or 
 extension of inflammation. A permanent thickening of the 
 lining mucous membrane of the larynx is likely to result. 
 
THE EESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 313 
 
 Treatment. — Where the breathing is excessively diffi- 
 cult, tracheotomy should be at once resorted to, as this is 
 a most valuable means of placing the larynx in a state of 
 rest. The throat should be freely fomented, and the 
 head steamed by either of the methods previously mentioned. 
 Nutrient enemas may be administered, and a free supply 
 of nitrated water allowed. Administration of drenches is 
 not advisable, for the pharynx is involved in inflammation, 
 and the difficulty in swallowing may lead to entry of some 
 fluid through the glottis, with its resulting ill-conse- 
 quences. When the disease tends to assume a subacute 
 character a stimulating application may be applied to 
 the throat. The compound liniment of cantharides is 
 
 FlO-. 60. — Tracheotomy Tube. (Armatage.) 
 
 about the best. These cases are generally of an acute 
 and urgent character. 
 
 ^-XV 
 
 Fig. 61. — Auimal wearing Tracheotomy Tube. (Artnatage.) 
 
 To jperform the ojperation of tracheotomy. — The head 
 being extended, the operator feels along the front 
 of the neck for the most superficial position of the 
 trachea. This having been found at about the centre 
 of the neck, a longitudinal incision, about two inches in 
 
314 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 length, is made througli the skin and muscle on to the 
 trachea, and the edges of the wound being held apart by 
 hooks, portions of two consecutive cartilaginous rings are 
 removed with a scalpel, so that a circular orifice extends 
 into the trachea large enough to admit the tracheotomy- 
 tube (see Fig. 60) ; the latter is then inserted and 
 retained by a band passing round the neck and attached 
 on each side of its plate (see Fig. 61). It must be 
 cleaned daily until, when a hand is kept over the orifice, 
 no impediment to breathing occurs. It must then be 
 permanently removed and the wound daily dressed with 
 carbolic glycerine until it closes. The opening in the 
 trachea becomes filled with fibrous substance or ossifi- 
 cation of the rings involved results. Care must be 
 taken lest the excised portions of cartilage fall into the 
 trachea. The operation may be performed on the animal 
 whether standing or lying. Sometimes it is supplanted 
 by Laryngotomy, which presents no special advantages 
 in the ox. It consists in perforation of the crico-thyroid 
 membrane, but the inferior position of the body of the 
 
 Fig. 62. — Larynx and Os hyoides of the ox. a. Epiglottis. 
 extremity of long cornua. (Simonds.) 
 
 h. Inferior 
 
 thyroid in the ox is rather an impediment. Besides this, 
 the larynx in bovines is remarkable for its simplicity, 
 the absence of ventricles aud the high attachment of the 
 wide epiglottis, which has a rounded apex. The connec- 
 
THE RESPIEATOEY APPAEATUS. 315 
 
 tion with the hyoid bone is less direct than in the 
 horse. 
 
 Pkaryngotomy. — After giving an account of an '^epi- 
 demic affection of the upper air-passages_,^^ which is evidently 
 the disease we have mentioned as diphtheria^ Youatt says : 
 "When there is no great external enlargement and yet 
 much difficulty of breathing exists and suffocation is 
 threatened, there is reason to apprehend that the pharynx, 
 or some factitious pouch which nature has suddenly formed 
 for the fluid, or (yet very rarely, for they are small in the 
 ox) the guttural pouches (?), or the commencement of the 
 communication between the mouth r.nd ear, are filled with 
 pus/^ In such cases he recommends the performance of 
 an operation similar to that known as hyovertebrotomy in 
 the horse. In the present day we would operate through 
 the mouth for this condition. 
 
 TuMOUES OF THE Larynx duc to scrous accumulations 
 beneath the glottal mucous membrane, cancerous growths, 
 &c., are not frequent in the ox. They prove serious 
 impediments to respiration. 
 
 Fractures of the Laryngeal Gartilage may take place 
 from injury ; union ensues, the earthy deposit uniting the 
 fractured edges sometimes forms a tumour projecting 
 beneath the laryngeal mucous membrane. Tumours of 
 neighbouring parts or impactions in the oesophagus may 
 impede respiration by pressure on the air-passages. 
 
 The trachea has more numerous rings and differs from 
 that of the horse, in that the ends of the cartilages meet to 
 form an acute angle posteriorly. There is a small special 
 bronchus given off from the right side of the tube some 
 distance before its termination. Though the dorsal 
 vertebrae and ribs of the ox are much less numerous 
 than those of the horse they are larger, and the posterior 
 ribs are longer, and therefore the differences between the 
 size of the thorax in the two animals is not so great as 
 might be expected. The most essential reduction depends 
 on the way the diaphragm bulges in the ox, so that 
 it extends to opposite the sixth and seventh ribs. The 
 flat sternum of the ruminant allows him to comfortably 
 
316 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 repose on the inferior surface of the trunk while chewing 
 the cud ; for, thanks to the synovial union between the 
 sternal and vertebral ribs, supero-inferior compression 
 leads to lateral expansion of the chest. Synovial union 
 of the first bone of the sternum with the second facili- 
 tates this. To this point of conformation also is attri- 
 buted the fact that the ox in the emergencies of pul- 
 monary disease often remains in the recumbent posi- 
 tion, a marked contrast to the persistent standing of 
 
 Fig. 63. — Healthy lungs of the ox, seen from above. Showing the extra 
 lobe of the right lung with its bronchus (J), a. Trachea, c. Kight 
 bronchus, d. Right bronchial tubes. (Simonds.) 
 
 the horse under similar circumstances. A study of 
 the arrangement of the respiratory muscles in ruminants 
 
THE EESPIEATOEY APPAEATUS. 317 
 
 serves to give mucli information as to their respiratory 
 uses. 
 
 Beonchitis — Inflammation of the Lining Membrane of 
 the Trachea and Bronchial Tubes — is of comparatively fre- 
 quent occurrence in the ox, depending either on the ordi- 
 nary cause of respiratory disorders, exposure, or on 
 extension of inflammation from the larynx and Schnei- 
 derian membrane. Also it may be due to mechani- 
 cal causes, the entry of solid or liquid particles into 
 the air-passages during temporary laxity of the glottis, 
 and the development and residence of parasites in the 
 lungs. 
 
 Symptoms. — Besides the ordinary signs of inflamma- 
 tion the pulse is remarkably hard, and the respirations are 
 increased out of all ordinary relation to the beats of the pulse, 
 the inspirations being difiicult, and each efi^ort short and 
 imperfect. The animal does not look at the side, nor flinch 
 at pressure on it. The cough is paroxysmal, frequent, and 
 very distressing. The visible mucous membranes are purple 
 through defective oxidation, and there is a considerable 
 amount of debility present, due to the same cause. Ausculta- 
 tion in the early stages gives various results according as 
 the larger or smaller air-tubes are involved ; later, both are 
 affected, as well as the lung -tissue in general. Rhonchus 
 or sibilus, according to the region auscultated, in the 
 early stages, and the mucous rale later in the attack, 
 may be present; sometimes, also, we find intermittent 
 loss of sound in some parts of the lung, due to mu- 
 cous accumulations plugging the bronchial tubes. In 
 some cases this latter condition may occur permanently, 
 and loss of small portions of the lung result. This 
 is much less important than the similar state in the 
 horse. The functionless parts atrophy and often burst, 
 and the neighbouring air-vesicles enlarge somewhat. 
 Percussion gives healthy results from every part of the 
 chest. The dry stage of the bronchi is succeeded by pro- 
 fuse discharge from the nostrils, which passes through 
 the usual phases, from watery to muco-purulent. This 
 relieves the inflammation, and recovery may now com- 
 
318 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ■mence. Sometimes tlie disease afterwards assumes a 
 chronic cliaracter. Death may result from suffocation as 
 when the effused fluid blocks up the air-passages and fills 
 the pulmonary cells, or from imperfect blood oxidation, or 
 from extension of the disease to the lungs, pleura, or 
 larynx. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows the air-passages blocked 
 up with frothy fluid, and their lining mucous membrane 
 discolored. The lungs have a sodden appearance, and 
 are also congested. 
 
 Treatment must be directed to support of the strength 
 of the patient, the promotion of resolution, and the avoid- 
 ance of lapse into the chronic stage. The animal must 
 be most carefully nursed, allowed a free supply of pure 
 air, a liberal supply of tempting food, and unlimited 
 nitrated water. The air-passages must be steamed and 
 stimulating applications applied to the sides and along 
 the course of the trachea ; these must not prove excessively 
 irritating nor vesicant. When the bowels are torpid 
 enemas may be administered, but not cathartics, for 
 though, in the ox, the alimentary mucous membrane does 
 not so readily become involved, together with that of the 
 respiratory passages, as in the horse, want of judgment in 
 this respect may cause diarrhoea, and fatally tax the 
 strength of the already debilitated patient. Aconite or 
 belladonna may be used to control febrile excitement. 
 When the patient commences to rally, diffusible stimu- 
 lants with vegetable tonics will prove most beneficial. 
 
 Chronic Bronchitis is frequent in the ox ; it sometimes 
 is a sequela of the acute form, but more frequently by far 
 results from scrofulous disorder. The lungs, in these 
 cases, non-specific as well as specific, undergo various 
 changes. The most remarkable of these are asthma, em- 
 physema, consolidation. The symptoms common to the 
 two are a persistent hacking cough, general unthriftiness, 
 and tendency to slight asthenic febrile attacks. Emacia- 
 tion becomes very marked, and the respirations are want- 
 ing in depth. The animal is unequal to the slightest 
 exertion. 
 
THE EESPIRATOEY APPAEATUS. 319 
 
 Asthma consists in inflammation of the muscular coat 
 of the bronchial tubes, which atrophies, whereby either 
 dilatation of the tubes occurs, or, since due supply of 
 air to each air-cell is not regulated, these become dilated, 
 and eventually ruptured, so that air escapes into the 
 interlobular areolar tissue. The latter condition is known 
 as interlobular emphysema ; the former is vesicular emphy- 
 sema. Dilatation of an air-cell leads to impervious con- 
 dition of the beautiful capillary network on its walls, 
 and so atrophy of the affected part of the lung is pro- 
 duced. The conditions observed in addition to these in 
 scrofulous bronchitis have been already denoted. We 
 can do nothing to cure these states, and but little to pal- 
 liate them. Stimulant tonics, easily digestible food, and 
 quiescence, will keep the animal alive for some time, 
 but the owner will generally prefer destruction of the 
 patient. 
 
 Parasitical Bronchitis, "hush/' " hoose," or "hoast-/' 
 phthisis pulmonalis verminalis. — This disease is of frequent 
 occurrence among calves under a year old ; it certainly is 
 seen in older animals when they are in a debilitated con- 
 dition, but seldom proves fatal in such cases, though it 
 sometimes causes considerable mortality among calves, for 
 in them there is not sufficient constitutional stamina to 
 enable them to resist the debilitating effects of the para- 
 sites. In the older animal the parasites may be found in 
 numbers in the lungs, even when no special indications of 
 their presence have been given ; but it must be clearly 
 understood that their ill effects are directly proportional 
 to the strength of constitution of the patient and the 
 number of the parasites. These worms are known as 
 8trongylus micrurus, the same parasite as is found so fre- 
 quently in the lungs of the ass. They are armed nema- 
 todes, and are also found sometimes in the alimentary 
 canal, and Williams notes their presence in the heart and 
 blood-vessels in some cases. Hence it is inferred that 
 they arrive at the lungs by entry of the alimentary canal 
 with the food, boring a passage into the blood-vessels, 
 passing with the current of blood through the blood- 
 
320 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 vessels, and from the latter into the bronchial tubes. 
 The arguments which have been brought to support 
 this, the most probable, view are that this is undoubtedly 
 the method of distribution of many forms of parasites, 
 and the disease is most frequent and the worm in the 
 lungs are most numerous in young animals in which the 
 tissues are most readily permeable. Other views are 
 those of direct migration from the alimentary canal and 
 entry through the larynx. There is no evidence to sup- 
 port the former view ; the latter is based upon the idea 
 that it is possible for entry to occur even in spite of 
 the coughing, which would result from the passage 
 of the worms through the glottis ; this is rather doubtful. 
 Again, they might, when immature and small, be carried 
 in with the inrush of air during inspiration. This view 
 does not account for the boring armature of the animal, 
 and it has not been found en voyage. As is usual with 
 parasitic affections, this disease is prevalent in wet seasons, 
 on low lands which are liable to flooding. It is seen par- 
 ticularly in calves kept out late in the autumn, and as a 
 result of feeding over land which has been previously 
 pastured by affected animals. It attacks a number of 
 animals at once, and the weakest are the first to give 
 way. The special nature of the irritant determines cer- 
 tain special features in the symptoms. Thus, acute 
 febrile signs are absent, except when the debility causes 
 that form of fever known as hectic. This only is observable 
 in the later stages. The cough is remarkably forcible, 
 distressing, and of a special hacking and paroxysmal 
 character. It leads to the expulsion of stringy mucus, 
 in which parasites may be detected or their ova observed 
 under a low power of the microscope. The attack has a 
 subacute character, and proves very exhausting. Thus, 
 emaciation rapidly increases, and diarrhoea sets in as a 
 complication. The parasites, embedded in stringy mucus, 
 lie intertwined in groups, or stretched against the bron- 
 chial mucous membrane. When in balls they block up 
 the air-passages; they also cause spasm of the bronchial 
 tubes. Thus, they seriously impede respiration, which is 
 
THE RESPIRATOEY APPAEATUS. 321 
 
 always remarkably laboured in this disease. It will be ob- 
 served, however, on autopsy ^ that little exudation into the 
 air-passages has taken place, and that, though the mucous 
 membrane is purple, it has not undergone such an amount 
 of change as a- ^Wori might have been anticipated. This is 
 attributable to the fact that the irritant is a living one, 
 capable of altering its position, and simply occupying its na- 
 tural habitat. When the lungs of an animal which has been 
 affected with this disorder, but has recovered, are examined, 
 it will be found that the worms have become encysted, and 
 have undergone calcareous degeneration, forming nodular 
 calcareous deposits in the lungs. The average duration 
 of an attack is two or three weeks. 
 
 Treatment. — Though we are not assured of all the 
 phases in the life history of Strongylus micrurus, we know 
 that when ova are expelled from the lungs on to pastures 
 they undergo changes which are dependent upon warmth 
 and moisture in some way or other, and result in the 
 assumption by the immature parasite of the state in 
 which it is fit to gain entry into the alimentary canal with 
 food or water. It remains for some little time in the 
 primao viae, and then becomes comparatively inaccessible. 
 
 Preventiorij therefore, consists in housing all severely 
 affected animals, and destruction of bedding materials and 
 other matters on which the discharges from the patients 
 fall; removal of all the slightly diseased to high and dry 
 pastures, giving them a judicious supply of water not 
 liable to be contaminated, and rock salt; feeding them 
 liberally with strengthening diet and administering doses 
 of iron tonics which are anthelmintic. With regard to 
 the housed animals they must be treated with stimulant 
 tonics and carefully nursed. Williams has seen excellent 
 results from administration of prussic acid, which allays 
 bronchial irritation and destroys the worms, but most 
 authorities seem to prefer more energetic treatment with 
 a view to actual expulsion of the parasites. Thus, tur- 
 pentine is much lauded, since it is excreted to a certain 
 extent through the bronchial mucous membrane, and is 
 supposed to render their habitat uncomfortable to the para- 
 
 21 
 
322 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 sites. Fumigations with chlorine, carbolic acid (coal-tar 
 smoke), and sulphurous anhydride, are supposed to kill the 
 entozoa. They certainly cause such an amount of coughing 
 as leads to expulsion of a very considerable number, but 
 it is highly probable that parasites can stand a more severe 
 dose of these agents than the calves can. Therefore, 
 though these means should be tried they must not supplant 
 the stimulant tonic treatment above suggested. The 
 usual method of fumigation is to collect the patients into 
 a loose box with closed doors and windows. In this the 
 gas is generated as long as the operator is able to bear it, 
 then the apparatus is removed, and the patients left 
 exposed to the gas for about a quarter of an hour accord- 
 ing to their state and the judgment of the veterinary 
 surgeon. The liberation of chlorine is brought about by 
 the action of sulphuric acid, either on a mixture of 
 chloride of sodium and black oxide of manganese, or on 
 bleaching powder. Sulphurous anhydride may be procured 
 by burning sulphur. Finally, we must insist on the avoid- 
 ance of pastures notorious for generating hoose ; especially 
 must caution farmers against keeping animals on them in 
 the later summer months, when the disease is acquired and 
 manifests itself towards the latter part of autumn. As 
 has been so frequently urged by Dr. Cobbold, parasitic 
 disorders of this kind are of national importance, and, 
 therefore, should be taken cognizance of by the govern- 
 ment with a view to prevention. Failing this, energetic 
 well directed action on the part of our agricultural societies 
 could materially reduce the prevalence of these formidable 
 diseases. Agents used in the treatment of husk are some- 
 times administered through the nostrils. Of course, this has 
 no advantage over the method of oral adminstration. It is 
 possible that beneficial effects may result from diffusion of 
 such an agent as turpentine over the nasal mucous mem- 
 brane, whereby it can impregnate thoroughly the inspired 
 air. It also will give rise to violent efforts at expulsion 
 by sneezing. 
 
 Pulmonary Congestion occasionally occurs in the ox 
 under an acute form, as a result of over- driving and over- 
 
THE RESPIEATORY APPARATUS. 323 
 
 work, when it is manifested by extreme dyspnoea, pro- 
 fuse cold perspirations, coldness of the extremities, and 
 extreme rapidity of the pulse, which is scarcely perceptible, 
 also frequent respirations, and, sometimes, a mucous 
 discharge from the nostrils intermingled with blood. The 
 patient occupies the recumbent position, coughs frequently, 
 and has a wild haggard look. 
 
 On post-mortem examination the lungs are found to be 
 enlarged, of a dark red colour, and increased specific 
 gravity. The cavities of the heart are gorged with black 
 blood, which also flows from a section of the lung sub- 
 stance. The bronchial tubes are filled with frothy, often 
 sanguineous mucus. This state is liable to be complicated 
 by rupture of the vessels and extravasation of blood. 
 This is termed Pulmonary Apoplexy, and very seriously 
 increases the complexity of the case, for the blood thus 
 thrown out does not readily become absorbed, and per- 
 manently interferes with the function of a part of the 
 lung varying according to the amount extravasated. 
 
 Subacute pulmonary congestion may be seen in the later 
 stages of blood diseases and anaemic conditions, being one 
 of the metastatic congestions due to deficient nerve force 
 most liable to bring about the death of the patient. Thus, 
 it is not infrequent, and is denoted by the above-men- 
 tioned symptoms manifested less urgently and appearing 
 slowly. In all such cases stimulants are required ; they 
 act in two principal ways, by rousing the weakened heart 
 to increased vigour of contraction and by stimulating the 
 nervous structure of the lungs, whereby the tone of the 
 vessels is resumed and the congestion overcome. Measures 
 must be taken to diffuse the blood which is abnormally 
 heaped up in the lungs by such means as hand-rubbing, 
 hay bandaging or stimulating the extremities. Stimu- 
 lants, too, may be applied to the sides, and the patient 
 clothed and nursed with care. Tonic agents may subse- 
 quently be called for. 
 
 HEMOPTYSIS is Bleeding from the Lungs. The flow of 
 blood may be somewhat profuse, and vary in colour. It 
 is intermingled with mucus, and takes place from the nose 
 
324 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and mouth. It results from acute pulmonary congestion, 
 from laceration of the lung substance, or from specific 
 disorders, such as give rise to ulceration in the lungs (as 
 phthisis) or as cause subacute congestion of those organs. 
 The amount of blood which thus escapes is not often 
 considerable and the flow will cease spontaneously, but 
 sometimes cold applications to the sides and administration 
 of haemostatics are indicated. 
 
 Pneumonitis — Inflammatory Pneumonia {Inflammation of 
 the Lungs) — varies in its nature at the commencement of 
 an attack according to the parts primarily involved. Thus 
 we find three forms described : 
 
 I. Grupous or lohar, due to blood disease, is preceded 
 by acute congestion, which is followed by accumulations, 
 mainly in the air-cells, of lymphy deposit intermingled 
 with leucocytes, proliferating epithelial cells, and extra va- 
 sated red corpuscles. Thus, the lung over a considerable 
 part of its extent is rendered firm, and is found granular 
 and somewhat mottled on section. This condition is red 
 hepatization. It is succeeded by more marked prolifera- 
 tion of the epithelial cells and increased escape of leu- 
 cocytes, and thus the air-cells becomes blocked up with 
 young cells, which subsequently undergo fatty degenera- 
 tion ; this is grey hepatization. Softening of the 
 deposits may occur as a secondary process. The inter- 
 lobular areolar tissue is the seat of lymphy deposit, and 
 constitutes yellowish bands extending across the cut 
 surface of the lung. 
 
 II. Broncho-pneumonia — Lobular or Catarrhal Inflam- 
 mation of the Lungs — results from extension of bronchitis 
 into the pulmonary vesicles. Sometimes it depends upon 
 reflux of inflammatory products ; in other cases it is 
 determined by the perversion of function which is 
 brought about by diminished supply of air. The air- 
 cells become blocked up with the inflammatory products 
 of mucous membrane; the inflamed parts of the lung 
 therefore undergo one form of grey consolidation. It 
 leads to congestion, collapse, and emphysema. As a 
 result of the inflammation, a serous effusion takes place 
 
THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 325 
 
 into the interlobular tissue, so that in an acute case the 
 lungs have a sodden appearance. 
 
 III. Interstitial ^-nieumonia or lung induration is a 
 chronic form consisting in hyperplasia of the interlobular 
 areolar tissue, due to persistence of disease in this struc- 
 ture after the more acute attack in the other lung elements 
 has subsided. It results in diminution in size of the air- 
 vesicles which undergo atrophy, in great firmness of lung 
 tissue, and extensive emphysema. Sometimes it is an 
 effect of broncho-pneumonia, in other cases of pleuritis. 
 
 There can be no doubt that each of these forms of pneu- 
 monia occurs in the ox. The croupous or exudative form 
 in pleuro-pneumonia zymotica, in which its exudative and 
 lobar characters are well marked and the mottled state of 
 the section is very evident. The catarrhal form results from 
 exposure, alternations of temperature, and other like causes 
 to those which originate bronchitis. Sometimes it depends 
 on the entry of acrid medicines and solid particles into the 
 lungs, as seen when the protective influence of laryngeal 
 sensibility is interfered with, as in parturient apoplexy, or 
 when the pneumogastrics have been injured. Besides the 
 ordinary signs of fever we find that there is a suppressed 
 cough, and the animal generally lies, but sometimes stands 
 with the muzzle protruded. The extremities are of variable 
 temperature until the latter stages, when they are persist- 
 ently cold. The pulse is frequent, and afterwards becomes 
 rapid, small, and weak. The breathing is accompanied by 
 a grunt, and is even, short, and quick. Ausculation shows 
 at first crepitus, but the vesicular murmur is soon lost ; 
 percussion gives a dull sound. As the disease progresses 
 suppuration or gangrene may supervene. The former 
 result is rare, except when due to specific disorder, as the 
 impactment of emboli in the blood-vessels. It is indi- 
 cated by rapidly increasing debility, a peculiar resonance 
 of the cough, and the cavernous rale. Also a purulent 
 discharge passes up from the lungs and sometimes this 
 contains the debris of the disorganised tissue. When gan- 
 grene takes place, there is a rapid sinking of the patient, 
 sudden fall of temperature, coldness of the extremities, and 
 
326 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 a very foetid condition of the breath, as also of the nasal 
 discharge, and the pulse runs down. In cases of lung dis- 
 ease we generally find that pressure of the enlarged organs 
 on the posterior vena cava causes congestion of the liver, as 
 denoted by yellowness of the visible mucous membranes. 
 It is also been noted that in the dry stage of inflammation 
 respiration is interfered with, but that when exudation 
 takes place, the patient experiences sudden relief. 
 
 Treatment. — The prospects of cure depend very con- 
 siderably on the extent of the disease, for if the two lungs 
 be involved the blood will remain unoxygenated, and 
 also be overloaded with impurities. Bleeding is admissible 
 under these circumstances. It is most likely to produce a 
 prompt cessation of the inflammatory process, and also to 
 a certain extent removes impurities from the system. 
 It is only to be adopted in the earliest stage of the 
 disease. Later, and in conjunction with this, we must 
 administer aconite and other sedatives, while we endeavour 
 to excite the kidneys and skin to increased action by saline 
 febrifuges and ether. The bowels should be relaxed by 
 enemas. Externally stimulants must be freely applied to 
 the sides and along the course of the trachea, the limbs 
 must be hand-rubbed, bandaged, and stimulated. Pure 
 air must be freely allowed, but the animal kept warmly 
 clothed. When active febrile symptoms have subsided 
 and secondary lung changes are taking place, our main 
 reliance must be upon diffusible stimulants and sometimes 
 vegetable tonics. This is especially necessary when there 
 is a tendency to suppuration and grangrene. We are not 
 prepared to reject the plan of active stimulation of the 
 body surface in pneumonitis ; though some practitioners 
 carry it to excess, its beneficial effects in some cases of 
 this nature will have been evident to all experienced 
 cattle pathologists. We are inclined to attribute the 
 benefit rather to reflex than to direct action. 
 
 The animal after recovery is liable to permanent changes 
 of the lungs, which will not interfere with its adaptation 
 for various uses. These changes are not so prejudicial to 
 fitness for duties as they would be in the horse. 
 
THE RESPIRATOEY APPARATUS. 327 
 
 Interstitial pneumonia has been described by some 
 autbors under the beading empbysema. Tbe latter state 
 is one of its results. Besides tbe causes already mentioned 
 it may be due to tbe " constant presence of effete matter 
 in tbe blood. Tbe large amount of areolar tissue of tbe 
 lungs of tbe ox must be considered a predisposing cause. 
 Tbe symptoms manifested by an animal suffering from 
 tbis form of pneumonia are obscure. Tbe patient is 
 manifestly unwell, and tbere is increasing anaemia. Tbe 
 skin is yellow and scurfy, and tbe bowels are irritable. 
 Auscultation sbows absence or diminution of tbe vesicular 
 murmur in tbe diseased and increase in tbe bealtby parts, 
 but percussion does not give definite results. Finally, tbe 
 anaGmia proves fatal, and after deatb tbe lungs are found 
 firm, pale, and markedly empbysematous. Tbe rigbt side 
 of tbe beart is bypertropbied. Cases of tbis kind are 
 cbronic and unsatisfactory. Stimulant tonics and good 
 feeding witb careful nursing are about tbe only means at 
 our disposal. Tbe absorbent action of iodide of potassium 
 may be tried. 
 
 Tbe effects of entry of non-respirable gases into tbe 
 lungs or of tbe passage of fluid matters in considerable 
 quantity down tbe tracbea are, primarily, aspbyxia, but if 
 tbe animal be able to rally from tbis tbe catarrhal form of 
 pneumonia supervenes ('Veterinarian,'' vol. xiv, p. 257). 
 
 Sometimes Echinococcus cysts are found in tbe lungs. 
 Tbey may be present in considerable number without our 
 attention having been drawn to any sign of ill health in 
 tbe host. The cysts are formed by tbe areolar tissue, 
 condensed and altered by the presence of the parasite 
 and enclosing it on every side. They may be deeply 
 embedded in tbe substance of the organ or projecting on 
 the surface, and sometimes are in tbe stage of calcareous 
 degeneration. Wounds of the Lungs are not so frequent, 
 for these organs are very elastic. An interesting case of a 
 " Cyst in the lung,^^ due probably to the passage of a 
 foreign body from the stomach, is given by Mr. G errard, of 
 Romford ('Veterinary Journal,^ vol. iv, p. 163). A laceration 
 of this organ leads to baBmoptysis, but repair somewhat 
 
328 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 readily takes place. The most frequent cause of laceration 
 is fracture of a rib with the extremities forced inwards. 
 ^' Tic '' under this name has been described '^ wind 
 sucking ^^ of the ox. It has been observed in France, 
 and is due to indigestion. 
 
 The pleura of the ox differs from that of the horse, 
 mainly in the fact that the lower part of the posterior 
 mediastinum is as stout as any other part of the median 
 septum of the chest. Hence an accumulation of fluid may 
 take place in one pleural sac only, a state of affairs not 
 often seen in the horse. 
 
 Pleueitis, Pleurisy. — Inflammation of the pleura 
 results from exposure, especially when east winds are 
 prevalent; it then assumes an enzootic, or even epizootic 
 character. It also occurs as a complication of pneumonia, 
 and a result of fractures of the ribs and other injuries. 
 It has been seen in a case of passage of a sharp agent from 
 the stomach, which gained exit from the body through the 
 thoracic walls. It is in some cases of a rheumatic character. 
 It may be circumscribed or diffused, unilateral or double. 
 
 Symptoms.— Besides the general signs of fever, the 
 pulse is small, quick, frequent, and hard. The respirations 
 are peculiar, being principally abdominal ; the inspiratory 
 efforts being cautious, and the expirations prolonged. 
 The patient usually stands with an anxious expression. 
 A sharp, suppressed, painful cough is present. Pain is 
 manifested on pressure between the intercostal spaces by 
 the animal flinching and giving a grunt. Auscultation 
 detects the friction sound in addition to the ordinary 
 respiratory murmurs. A sudden subsidence of the acute- 
 ness of the symptoms denotes when effusion into the pleural 
 sac has taken place (Hydrothorax). Then the pulse 
 becomes soft, but is still frequent and small. The breath- 
 ing is laboured, with prolonged expiration, the thorax is 
 enlarged, for the ribs are separated from each other to the 
 greatest degree possible. Less pain is manifested on pres- 
 sure of the sides, and the animal feeds freely. There have 
 been noted a peculiar flapping of the notrils, protrusion of 
 the muzzle, and an anxious expression. Dropsical swellings 
 
THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 329 
 
 appear, and the patient becomes very weak, and death 
 from asthenia results. Accumulation of fluid in the chest 
 rarely occurs except as a result of previous inflamma- 
 tory action. The most valuable indications of its presence 
 are afforded by auscultation and percussion. The lattei 
 test gives a dull sound as high as the fluid has risen in 
 the chest ; the former an absence of all sound below the 
 same line. 
 
 Results. — Eesolution frequently follows proper treat- 
 ment, and the deposits become reabsorbed. If the 
 disease has existed for some time some of the deposits 
 will have become organised uniting the pulmonary with 
 the costal pleura. Often we find that the pleura of a healthy 
 animal is opaque in patches, or has slight stringy lymph 
 bands connected with it, as a result of a previous attack 
 of pleurisy. Death may take place in the earliest stage 
 from fever, or in the later stage after prolonged disease 
 from collapse of the lungs, in consequence of pressure 
 from effusion, or it may be the culmination of progressive 
 debility. 
 
 Autopsy. — At first a congested condition of the pleura, 
 causing reddening and dryness, either diffused, localised, 
 or in patches ; later, opacity and lymph deposits, in various 
 stages of organisation, investing the pleural surface, 
 uniting the parietal and visceral layers of the membrane, 
 hanging as shreds in the effused lymph, or sepa- 
 rated as flocculi, which float in the effused serum, which 
 varies in quantity (sometimes amounting to several gal- 
 lons), colour (straw coloured or red), and turbidity. 
 Occasionally pus is found in the pleural sac, when the 
 condition is known as Empyema (but this, when it does 
 occur, is generally due to a ruptured abscess of the lungs, 
 for instance). The pleura may, in very acute cases, be 
 gangrenous, its lymphy deposit dark and wanting in con- 
 sistency, and of an offensive odour. In hydrothorax the 
 lung or lungs are small, firm, and somewhat congested. 
 
 Treatment, — That suggested for broncho-pneumonia 
 may be adopted, with the following modifications : — 
 Bleeding is not called for; laxative agents may be freely 
 
330 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 administered, for there is no such tendency to diarrhoea, 
 as is sometimes seen in pneumonia. External stimulation 
 must be resorted to under the form of mustard applica- 
 tions to the sides, or prolonged fomentation with hot water. 
 In the hydrothoracic stage nitre must be freely given in the 
 drinking-water. Digitalis is specially indicated as a seda- 
 tive agent, which materially promotes absorption. Iodide 
 of potassium and other resolvents are useful. The de- 
 position of false membranes, however, prevents absorption, 
 and the constantly increasing accumulation of fluid 
 threatens lung collapse. Under these circumstances 
 Paracentesis tJioracis or Thoracentesis — ^^ tapping of the 
 
 FiQ. 64. — Thoracentesis v. paracentesis thoracis. (Armatage.) 
 
 Fig. 65. — Thoracentesis. Primary incision, with the skin drawn to one 
 side. (Armatage.) 
 
 chest'^ — must be resorted to. This is performed as in 
 the horse; the sixth or seventh intercostal space, just 
 behind the point of the elbow, is chosen. A small trocar 
 and canula are used. The skin is drawn forwards (Fig. 65), 
 80 that the external wound may not correspond with the 
 
THE EESPIRATOEY APPARATUS. 3cJl 
 
 puncture into tlie chest. It is pierced by means of a scalpel. 
 The trocar is theninserted through the thoracic wall at about 
 the centre of the lower third_, near the anterior margin of 
 the rib. Directly the wall is punctured the canula is pushed 
 farther in, and the trocar withdrawn (Fig. 64). It is not 
 considered advisable to thoroughly empty the chest, and thus 
 suddenly and completely remove from the lung all the pres- 
 sure exerted by the fluid. Again, a rush inwards of air must 
 not be allowed. If a free flow of fluid does not occur, or 
 suddenly ceases, it may be due to lymph plugging the 
 tube ; this must be removed with a probe. In all cases 
 where empyema is diagnosed this operation must be 
 resorted to. It may require to be repeated two or three 
 times, and cases have been known to recover under this 
 treatment. Prognosis, however, is decidedly unfavorable. 
 
 Pneumothorax is accumulation of gas in the pleural sac, 
 due either to injury of the lung or a wound communicating 
 with the exterior. If the opening be closed the air will be- 
 come absorbed. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia sporadica. — We find that frequently 
 pneumonia and pleurisy are concomitant, the disease ori- 
 ginating either in the lungs or the pleura. The symptoms, 
 pathological changes, and methods of treatment which are 
 most beneficial are compounded of those of pleurisy and 
 pneumonitis, and do not here need recapitulation. The 
 case seems most like one of pleurisy in some instances, of 
 pneumonitis in others. The most important question for 
 consideration, with regard to this disorder, is in what 
 respects it is to be distinguished from the epizootic pleuro- 
 pneumonia. This is a matter of much importance, 
 especially to veterinary inspectors. The existence of 
 this sporadic disease has been denied, but most 
 unwarrantably. 
 
 Causes. — It cannot be attributed to contagion, but 
 results from exposure to cold, and other influences liable 
 to generate inflammation of the respiratory organs ; seldom 
 runs through a herd ; several animals, similarly exposed, 
 may become simultaneously affected, but removal of the 
 cause leads to cessation of fresh cases ; is most prevalent in 
 
332 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 inclement seasons, and is not usually found associated with 
 the introduction of a fresh lot of beasts on to a farm, nor 
 with exposure in fairs and markets. 
 
 Symjotoms. — Acute febrile signs are present, the attack 
 is sudden, runs its course rapidly, and frequently termi- 
 nates in resolution. We seldom find one lung more 
 affected than the other, and the phases of the disease in 
 the different parts of the lung are uniform. 
 
 Post-mortem ajppearances show the lung disease as 
 rather of the catarrhal than the croupous form. Both 
 lungs are generally uniformly involved. The section 
 presents a marked appearance, but not the variety of 
 colour seen in the other form — the yellow bands are not 
 so evident. With the exception of the intercostals the 
 muscular system presents no special change. 
 
 The diaphragm of the ox is very upright. The 
 muscular fibres gain attachment in a bipenniform manner 
 to a tendon running from above downwards centrally, 
 to just above foramen sinistrum. This arrangement is 
 very special. 
 
 EuPTURE OF THE DiAPHRAGM is somotimos scou in the ox ; 
 it is generally complicated with hernia. In some cases 
 it seems to be rather congenital deficiency than true 
 rupture. 
 
THE UEINE AND UEINAEY APPAEATUS. 
 
 333 
 
 CHAPTEK YI.— DISEASES 
 
 UKINARY APPARATUS. 
 
 AND 
 
 We find that in the ox the kidneys are lobulated, 
 since they retain the division into parts observable in the 
 foetus ; they are large, and present well-marked papillaD 
 
 A. B. C. 
 
 Fig. 66. — Kidney of the ox. A. Ri-.. ^ui^cro-external surface. B. Left; 
 infero-internal surface. C. Left : showing calyces. (After Chauveau.) 
 
 and calycine divisions of the pelvis. The bladder is 
 thoroughly invested by peritoneum, and is of considerable 
 size. The curve in the penis of the male interferes with 
 the passage of the catheter. Also the urethral passage is 
 small and situated deeply in the substance of the penis. 
 
334 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 In the female a small mucous pouch, which opens back- 
 wards, may be found on the floor of the vulva, just behind 
 the termination of the urethra. In passing the catheter 
 some care must be taken to avoid this cul-de-sac. The 
 urine of the ox is alkaline, of a light yellow colour, having 
 a specific gravity of 1032 to 1040. Boussingault estimates 
 the average amount passed at 7*2 kgrs. in twenty-four 
 hours, and his analyses show that as compared with the 
 urine of the horse that of the ox contains more water, hip- 
 purate of potash (16-5 — 4*7), sulphate of potash and chlo- 
 ride of sodium, and much less urea (18*5- — 31), and scarcely 
 any carbonate of lime (0"6 — 10*8). From the prepuce of the 
 male hang downwards long hairs in a tuft of a considerable 
 size. The urine flows in small straight stream while the 
 animal stands still. The cow postures herself for expulsion 
 of urine, and evacuates forcibly and in large stream. 
 
 Disorders of the urinary system naturally divide into 
 those of the secretory organ and the product of the 
 secretory process, on the one hand ; of the urinary passages 
 and the accumulation and evacuation, on the other. 
 
 Section 1. — -Abnormalities of the Urine. 
 
 The production of fluid may be excessive or the reverse, 
 may be perverted, or matters may be abnormally added. 
 
 Diabetes simplex, v. Insipidus. — Profuse urination is 
 dependent on excess of water in the blood (hydrsemia), 
 or on the presence in that fluid of some diuretic principle. 
 Thus, it is sometimes observed as a crisis of fevers, and 
 is nature's means of removal of impurities from the 
 blood. The total daily product of urine is in excess of the 
 normal, but its specific gravity is decreased, and there 
 is a deficiency of colour. The patient is very thirsty, 
 and some fever may be present. The bowels are torpid, 
 the appetite depraved, and the visible mucous membranes 
 very pale. Anajmia is present, and may increase to even 
 a fatal degree. This can hardly be considered a disease, 
 but rather a symptom of unsatisfactory composition of the 
 blood. It must not be too hastily checked, but the 
 
THE UKINE AND URINARY APPARATUS. 335 
 
 animal allowed a free supply of food and drinking water, 
 and nursed, care being taken to change the diet. Later, 
 doses of iodide of potassium will be found beneficial. 
 Special care should be taken that the skin be kept healthy, 
 and the bowels may be aroused into activity by a laxative 
 dose. Tonics may be required in the later stage. The 
 adminstration of laxatives is especially called for, since 
 food containing excess of moisture, or impure, or rank, 
 is liable to cause diabetes. Autopsy shows signs of anasmia. 
 This condition is rare. 
 
 NoN-SECEETiON OP Urine scriously affects the blood, 
 giving rise to the condition know as urcemia. It is seen 
 experimentally after excision of both kidneys, also to a 
 less degree in inflammation of these organs, especially 
 when both are involved. Then the impurities in the 
 blood prove actually poisonous, though the liver and skin 
 endeavour, to a certain extent, to perform the duties of 
 the kidneys in addition to their own labours. This also 
 is but a symptom of disease, and must be treated with the 
 state upon which it depends. Sometimes there is defi- 
 cient secretion of urine, as in fever, and that which is 
 passed is of high specific gravity in consequence of the 
 large amount of extractives it contains. A similar state, 
 but of a chronic character, is due to deficient supply of 
 water for drinking purposes when the patient has been fed 
 on dry food. This certainly predisposes to calculous disor- 
 ders of the urinary passages. It is seen in draught beasts 
 in dry countries, or when animals are turned out on upland 
 pastures in hot, dry weather. Parhes estimates the amount 
 of water necessary for a working ox on dry food at 6 — 8 
 gallons per diem. 
 
 HEMATURIA. — Occurrence of hlood in the urine depends 
 upon injuries, acute congestion, or ulceration of the 
 kidneys or urinary passages. Sometimes also upon exces- 
 sive, indiscriminate, administration of diuretics or ingestion 
 of acrid plants. Straining, leaping on each other, and 
 falling into ditches are the most frequent cause of injury. 
 This is an accompaniment of some forms of blood disease, 
 and is often symptomatic of the presence of calculi. 
 
336 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Symptoms. — The urine contains blood in a coagulated 
 condition. There is pain on pressure of the loins, the 
 animal stands " in a heap '^ with the back arched, moves 
 with difficulty, and with a stiff staggering gait. There is 
 frequent passage of a small amount of urine. The 
 patient stands, and suffers from a variable amount of 
 sympathetic fever. Sometimes this is associated with 
 injuries caused at the same time. In one case clots 
 became fixed in the urethra and interfered with the flow 
 of urine, causing the symptoms of retention of urine. 
 Rectal exploration should be made in all cases of this 
 kind to determine whether any injury of the vertebra3 is 
 present, in which case there is likely also to be paralysis. 
 In the female, also, examination should be made per 
 vulvam. 
 
 Treatment. — Grenerally consists in the endeavour to cure 
 the injury upon which this depends, but where the flow is 
 very rapid cold enemas and cold-water applications to the 
 loins, and such haemostatic agents as sulphuric acid and 
 the acetate of lead may be given. Demulcent drinks are 
 a useful adjunct to more active measures. The diet 
 throughout the attack, and for some time after, should be 
 laxative ; small doses of oil will be beneficial. 
 
 Albuminuria is treated of at some length by Armatage. 
 He tell us it is due to disordered digestion and excretion 
 of imperfectly elaborated albumen by the kidneys. That 
 it results from irregular feeding and bad management, 
 and from diseases of the nervous and digestive systems. 
 
 Symptoms. — A great desire to stretch at full length, 
 constipation, stiffness, and straddling gait. Respiration 
 acclerated, urine thick, mucilaginous, and dark coloured. 
 We are also told that this fluid may not exhibit the 
 ordinary reactions of albumen, " but white precipitates 
 are obtained with nearly all the following : — Tincture of 
 galls, solution of bichloride of mercury, alcohol ; solution 
 of subnitrate of mercury, flesh colour; solution of ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium, acidulated with acetic acid, gives a 
 white precipitate after being heated. ^^ Paralysis and coma 
 result. Armatage considers this the same as Bright^s 
 
THE URINARY APPARATOS. 337 
 
 disease in man, but it has not the chronic character of 
 that disorder, the kidneys are not found in a state of 
 granular degeneration after death, and the urine has not 
 been shown to contain disorganised renal substance and 
 casts of the tubuli uriniferi. The analogy between the 
 two diseases can hardly be considered to be established, 
 but we must consider albuminuria of the ox a symptom of 
 defective assimilation. It must, therefore, be treated by 
 a cathartic dose, liberal administration of readily digestible 
 food, and vegetable tonics. Measures must not be taken 
 to check the activity of the kidneys. 
 
 Section 2. — Diseases op the Kidney. 
 
 Nephritis — Inflammation of the Kidney — is not a fre- 
 quent disease of cattle. It is seen in working oxen, for 
 these are most liable to exposure when heated and to 
 strains. In the horse this disease may generally be 
 traced to excessive administration of diuretic agents to 
 improve condition, but sometimes to over-weighting and 
 want of harmony between the movements of an awkward 
 rider and those of the horse. These influences do not 
 operate on the ox to such an extent, though the former 
 may be to him an occasional cause of this disease. In- 
 juries of various kinds and extension of inflammation from 
 neighbouring parts sometimes give rise to nephritis. 
 
 Symptoms. — Besides the general febrile signs we find 
 that if both kidneys be affected no urine is passed; if 
 only one, a diminished supply of urine of a thick viscid 
 character, containing much albumen, and perhaps blood 
 and pus. This is frequently passed in small quantities, and 
 afterwards the patient continues to make ineffectual at- 
 tempts to urinate ; passing the catheter or manual explora- 
 tion per rectum or vaginam shows that the bladder is 
 empty. There are generally obvious signs of colicky pain. 
 The patient stands, and moves stiffly, and with a straddling 
 painful gait. The back is arched, and acute pain is mani- 
 fested on pressure of the loins. In the latter stages 
 urasmic complications set in, denoted by double pulse, 
 
 22 
 
338 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 considerably increased fever, urinous sweats, foetid evacu- 
 ations of faeces, and paralysis. In some cases the 
 diagnosis of this disorder will be found very difficult. 
 
 On post-mortem examination, one or both kidneys are 
 found disorganised, enlarged, and reddened. Lymphy 
 deposits occur in parts of the organ, and sometimes sup- 
 purative changes which lead to formation of abscesses. 
 Gangrene of these organs is seldom seen. In chronic 
 cases, cystic disease due to accumulation of fluid in the 
 Malpighian corpuscles, with blocking of their tubes and 
 atrophy, are present. Hypertrophy of these corpuscles 
 may often be observed in the undiseased kidney. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleeding is indicated as exerting a seda- 
 tive influence and removing a considerable amount of 
 effete matter from the blood. The bowels and skin should 
 be aroused to activity to relieve the kidneys, Aconite 
 may be required as a febrifuge. Warm water to the 
 loins or the application of a fresh sheep skin to the 
 same part is decidedly beneficial, and warm enemas are 
 useful as fomentations. Digitalis applied as a decoc- 
 tion to the skin is recommended by Williams as a means 
 of exciting the secretion of urine when ursemic intoxica- 
 tion sets in. When pain is excessive, doses of opium 
 must be given. Thoughout the attack cantharides, tur- 
 pentine, and other stimulants which act on the kidneys, 
 must not be applied to the surface. 
 
 Abscess op the Kidney is denoted by passage of a con- 
 siderable amount of pus with the urine. It most often 
 depends on calculus. Little can be done in such cases 
 except to support the strength of the patient. This 
 condition may be secondary, due to emboli or to specific 
 blood diseases. 
 
 Renal Calculus of the ox is not infrequent. Generally 
 there are several of these concretions situated in the 
 calyces of the pelvis. They are irregular in form, are 
 dense and laminated. " And as they increase in size cause 
 absorption of the medullary structure of the kidney, and 
 to a certain extent interfere with the function of the organ. ^' 
 (Morton). They vary considerably in size and in theii' 
 
THE URINARY APPARATUS. 339 
 
 effects on tlie animal. Sometimes they cause no notice- 
 able symptoms ; in other cases there are signs of sup- 
 purative nephritis^ but of a chronic character. The 
 uncertainty of diagnosis and the deeply- seated position of 
 the concretion are impediments to remedial measures. 
 Stimulants freely administered, and. opiates when there ia 
 much pain, may be tried. The value of the so-called 
 lithontriptics, hydrochloric acid, for example, in such cases 
 is probably nil. These calculi must be considered to 
 result from an excess of salines or deficiency of water in 
 the urine ; probably a portion of inspissated mucus forms 
 the nucleus. Cases of free incision through the side and 
 removal of calculus from the kidney through the wound 
 have, I believe, been known, but there are many objec- 
 tions to this bold operation. It is better, if possible, 
 to fatten the patient for the butcher. 
 
 Parasites have been observed in the kidney of the ox, 
 but are less frequent than in the horse. 
 
 Encephaloid Cancer of the kidney. Professor Walley 
 records a case in the 'Veterinary Journal,' vol. ii, 1878, 
 p. 9. It was associated with similar tumours in the omen- 
 tum, and nothing was known of the history of the case. 
 
 Section 3. — Abnormalities of the Urinary Passages. 
 
 Sometimes a small calculus passes from the kidney into 
 the ureter and there becomes impacted, either on account 
 of its size or of spasm of the tube. Then severe colicky 
 pains take place, with straining, stamping the feet, lashing 
 the tail, and perhaps looking round at the side, until re- 
 laxation supervenes and the concretion passes on into the 
 bladder. Occasionally diagnosis in such cases is possible 
 from exploration per anum, when the stone may be re- 
 moved by incision through the wall of the bowel. This 
 operation is seldom called for. Sometimes the calculus 
 becomes fixed at the opening into the bladder, when 
 dilatation of the ureter and of the pelvis of the kidney 
 will result from accumulation of urine behind the obstruc- 
 tion. In these cases full doses of opium are indicated 
 
340 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 when pain is excessive ; it acts as an anodyne and relaxes 
 spasm of muscular fibres. 
 
 The bladder is subject to several serious disorders. 
 Of these the most important are associated with either 
 retention, incontinence, strangury, and dysury — symptoms 
 of disorder mostly dependent on several causes. 
 
 Retention op Urine must be distinguished from IscJiury, 
 In the latter case no urine is secreted, as may be seen in 
 nephritis. Retention is non-passage, attributable either to 
 obstruction or to want of expelling power. We are fre- 
 quently told by cowmen that the patient has not passed 
 any water for some time ; this must be interpreted as ^' has 
 not been seen to urinate,'^ it generally is a false alarm. 
 The retention may be due to loss of power of the bladder, 
 depending on nervous lesions, as in apoplectic cases j to 
 spasm of the neck of the organ, with or without inflamma- 
 tion ; blocking up of the urethral passage by calculi or 
 lymph j the pressure of a hardened mass of faeces in the rec- 
 tum may have this effect. The secretion of urine continues, 
 the longer, therefore, this state remains the more urgent 
 the symptoms ; but in cases due to nervous lesions accumu- 
 lation may take place to a suflBcient extent to rupture the 
 bladder without any appreciable signs of discomfort. 
 Under other circumstances the animal is very uneasy, 
 lashes the tail about, shifts the hind limbs, and sometimes 
 rises and lies down again frequently. He repeatedly en- 
 deavours to micturate, and perhaps looks round at the 
 flank. There is always an anxious expression of counte- 
 nance. Exploration jper rectum et vaginam discloses 
 the distended state of the bladder, and also ascertains 
 whether any cause exists in either of these parts to account 
 for the obstruction. Sometimes simple pressure on the 
 organ will rouse it to action, a point of great importance 
 in the male, in whom this accident most frequently occurs, 
 for the sigmoid flexure of the penis of this animal com- 
 plicates the passing of the catheter, which is the next 
 measure which suggests itself. The same form of catheter 
 is used for both male and female in cattle practice. It is 
 a metal tube, about 24 inches long, and with a calibre of 
 
THE URINARY APPARATUS. 
 
 341 
 
 about i inch, somewhat curved, blind at one rounded 
 extremity, but perforated at its sides just within this, open 
 at the other (see fig. 77, p. 394). The operator, standing on 
 the right ("near") side of the cow,passes the left hand, with 
 the index finger over the rounded end of the tube, into the 
 vulva, and thus introduces this end into the urethral opening 
 on the floor of the canal, avoiding the cul-de-sac placed 
 just behind the orifice. When the instrument enters the 
 bladder a rush of urine takes place. This easy operation 
 must be performed whenever a cow remains recumbent for 
 an unusual length of time. In the male the course of the 
 urethra must be traced to its extreme posterior part, and 
 an incision made into it behind the ischial arch. Through 
 
 Fig. 67. — Passing the Catheter in the ox. (Armatage.) 
 
 this the catheter may be passed. The animal will not 
 require to be cast ; indeed, this would not be satisfactory 
 in the highly distended state of the bladder. The wound 
 may be closed with a suture if it does not seem that 
 evacuation will require to be repeated. The method of 
 prepuhic puncture has been suggested, and might well be 
 performed in the ox if the symptoms be very urgent. 
 
 Incontinence op Urine [diuresis). — Constant dribbling 
 of urine may result either from relaxation of the urethral 
 canal at its commencement (the contact of whose walls is 
 now deemed the true physiological means of preventing 
 
342 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ihe escape of the accumulating urine), or from irritability 
 of the bladder, as in certain disorders of its lining mem- 
 brane or a cystic calculus ; also where the urine is abnor- 
 mally acrid and laden with irritating material ; thus, we 
 have noticed its presence in haematuria. Sometimes it 
 may be deemed advisable to inject demulcents into the 
 bladder. A free exhibition of fluids will dilute the urine 
 and render it less acrid. In all cases the cause must be 
 removed. 
 
 Dysuria is pain in expulsion of urine, seen in inflam- 
 mation of the urethral canal, presence of cystic calculus, 
 and some other cases. 
 
 Strangury, as seen in spasm or inflammation of the neck 
 of the bladder, is painful passage of urine guttatim. 
 
 Cystitis, inflammation of the bladder, is very rare, 
 though it may arise from several different causes, such as 
 excessive use of certain diuretics, cantharides more espe- 
 cially, injuries, and extension of inflammation from neigh- 
 bouring parts. It is also said to be attributable to 
 acrimony of the urine. The inflammation may involve 
 part or the whole of the organ. The neck is most fre- 
 quently the seat of the circumscribed form, probably as a 
 result of spasm. The lining membrane may become 
 involved in catarrhal diseases of the urethra. When the 
 greater part of the organ is affected examination per 
 rectum detects heat and pain on pressure of the bladder. 
 There is retention of urine, which, when evacuated, is 
 found to be bloody, albuminous, and thick, with a con- 
 siderable quantity of mucus. Colicky pains, looking 
 round at the flank, and uneasiness are present, spasmodic 
 contractions of the cremaster (in the bull), and acute 
 febrile signs. 
 
 Results. — Those enumerated are resolution, death from 
 exhaustion, rupture of the bladder, and uraemia. With 
 regard to the latter, it must be a direct result of destruc- 
 tion of the vesical epithelium, for under normal conditions 
 this is a very decided impediment to reabsorption of 
 urine. 
 
 Treatment, — When possible, injection of mucilaginous 
 
THE URINARY APPARATUS. 343 
 
 substances into the bladder, after drawing off its contents 
 with the catheter ; also free administration of water and 
 mucilaginous drinks, warm-water applications to the 
 abdomen; warm sedative injections, as infusion of 
 poppies ; sedative and febrifuge agents, which are not 
 excreted by the kidneys. Of course, careful nursing is 
 required. 
 
 Spasm op the Neck op the Bladder is not frequent in 
 the ox, but some cases have been recorded. 
 
 Rupture op the Bladder results from over-distension. 
 It is denoted by sudden cessation of the acute signs of reten- 
 tion, and especially collapse of the organ, as felt per rectum, 
 without any passage of the urine externally. Uraemic 
 symptoms occur and bring about death, which may take 
 place from collapse or the bursting of the viscus. When 
 there is retention of urine, throwing the animal for 
 operation may cause this accident. Sometimes it has 
 occurred when the animal fell in dying. The state of the 
 peritoneum ought to inform us whether such has been the 
 case, or the flooding of the abdomen with urine took place 
 earlier. This lesion is, of course, fatal. 
 
 Inversion op the Bladder is seen in the female animal, 
 and is due to violent parturient throes. Amatage has seen it 
 follow the administration of irritant medicines. Youatt 
 quotes a case where the wall of the vagina rup- 
 tured, and the bladder was herniated through it. The 
 practitioner in attendance punctured this, and the urine 
 escaped. In a true case of inversion {prolapsus vesica) 
 the organ appears as a red tumour, projecting from the 
 floor of the vulva, and having urine constantly trickling 
 from it. Thus, the urine constantly drops from the 
 urino-generative opening, and excoriates the surrounding 
 parts. In such a case it is advisable to slaughter the 
 patient, for the accident is extremely liable to recur. 
 After straining pains have ceased the organ may be re- 
 turned. Little difficulty is generally experienced in 
 accomplishing this, because of the large size of the 
 urethral canal in the female. In a case of rupture of the 
 wall of the vulva, with hernia of the bladder, the latter 
 
344 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 organ having been returned, the opening may be closed 
 by suture. 
 
 A Pervious Condition op the Urachus is sometimes 
 seen in calves. This passage, which in the foetus extends 
 from the peculiarly elongated bladder at the umbilicus to 
 the allantois, becomes, under normal circumstances, 
 plugged with lymph, which undergoes organisation and 
 degeneration when the bladder recedes from the umbilicus. 
 In scrofulous subjects, especially, this process does not 
 occur properly ; the lymph thrown out only becomes im- 
 perfectly organised, loosens from its position, and there 
 is a constant dribbling of urine through the umbilicus. 
 We have known a case in which a plug of lymph which 
 had receded into the bladder became fixed, and thus 
 opposed the exit of urine per urethram. Straining led 
 to prolapsus recti, and necessitated slaughter. In these 
 cases a ligature around the umbilicus must be resorted to, 
 or sutures may be inserted. The abnormal condition is 
 liable to disappear with development, for this condition is 
 of greatest frequency in animals born prematurely. 
 
 Calculus in the Bladder. — Cystic or vesical calculus 
 .depends upon excess of salines in the blood or upon 
 retention of urine. It is most frequent in the male, for 
 in him the urethral passage is much smaller than that 
 of the female, and is often attributable to a considerable 
 quality of special salines in the food or water, such as 
 the presence of many phosphates, as in oil- cake and 
 turnips. Sometimes renal calculi travel along the ureter, 
 and entering the bladder form the nuclei of larger con- 
 cretions, for cystic calculi are almost invariably laminated 
 and concentrically arranged around some nucleus or other. 
 They may attain a considerable size without giving rise 
 to much inconvenience, or may cause special symptoms. 
 Sabulous matter is sedimentary deposit from the urine 
 in the bladder ; it is largely passed off by the urine, but 
 accumulates in the viscus in considerable quantity, or 
 the deposit may assume a crystalline form known as 
 " graveV This also is partially expelled with the urine, 
 but frequently becomes embedded in the mucous mem- 
 
THE UEINARY APPARATUS. 345 
 
 brane, and gives rise to irritability of the bladder and 
 incontinence of urine. Fiirstenburg gives the following 
 composition as an average analysis of urinary calculi of 
 the ox : — Carbonate of lime, 84'8 ; carbonate of magnesia, 
 10*0; carbonate of iron, 0"6 ; organic matter, 1*6; water 
 and loss, 1*6 ; silicic acid, inconstant. The presence of 
 calculus in the bladder sometimes gives rise to hgematuria ; 
 generally, however, no alteration is observable in the 
 character of the urine further than a somewhat copious 
 sediment. In all cases there is a straddling movement with 
 the hind limbs and stiffness about the loins. Sometimes 
 the stone becomes fixed in the urethral passage, whereby 
 it interferes with the expulsion of the urine, and the 
 signs of retention are present and urgent. This con- 
 dition takes place in the male, and the urethra becomes 
 distended with urine to the obstructiouo It may result 
 in rupture of the urethral passage, a condition which may 
 also arise from injury (see ^Veterinarian,^ vol. xxi, p. 204). 
 Exploration per rectum is often useful in cases of cystic 
 calculus. The bladder may be found distended with urine, 
 as in spasm of its neck, but the calculus is perceptible, and 
 sometimes may be removed by pressure, whereupon a rapid 
 flow of urine results. In these cases, too, there is not gene- 
 rally complete retention, but the flow, at first free, suddenly 
 ceases, and the animal lashes its tail, grinds its teeth, moves 
 the hind feet, and makes violent expulsive efforts, which 
 only tend to fix the obstructing agent more firmly in the 
 passage. Surgical methods are resorted to for the relief 
 of this condition. Lithontriptic or " slow dissolving medi- 
 cinal agents ^' have been found wanting ; stimulants are 
 only palliative. There are three forms of operation. 
 
 Lithecstasy — Dilatation of the Urethra — is especially 
 resorted to in the female. It consists in the frequent dis- 
 tension of a bladder introduced into the urethral passage, 
 leading to dilatation to such an extent that the stone may 
 pass. It is seldom resorted to in veterinary practice. 
 
 Lithotrity consists in crushing the stone, whereby, being 
 reduced to the state of gravel, it can be expelled through 
 the urethra. The instruments by means of which this is 
 
346 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 done are large screw forceps curved and tootlied at the 
 end. They are passed through the urethra of the patient 
 (from, the perineal incision in the male), and the stone, 
 having been grasped, is broken by a few turns of the 
 screw handle. This operation is said to be facilitated 
 by frequent injection of a weak solution of hydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 Lithotomy — " Cutting for the stone '^ — consists in in- 
 cisions through the urethral walls, whereby the passage 
 is rendered large enough for extraction of the stone. 
 The presence of calculus having been confirmed by intro- 
 duction of a sound through the vulva and urethra of the 
 female, or through an incision made down on the urethra 
 at the ischial arch in the male, and so into the bladder, 
 the walls of the passage are incised obliquely upwards 
 and outwards (whereby the artery of the bulb is avoided) 
 by a concealed bistoury and the stone withdrawn with for- 
 ceps. Subsequently in the male, the wound requires to 
 be closed by means of sutures after the bladder has been 
 thoroughly washed out. This wound will gradually close, 
 but the bowels must be kept in a slightly relaxed state. 
 These operations, however, are seldom performed on the 
 oxj we have not, therefore, given minutely such details 
 as the practitioner will derive from works upon the sur- 
 gery of the horse. The bladder of the ox is much more 
 thoroughly invested by peritoneum than that of the 
 horse, and extends somewhat further forwards into the 
 abdominal cavity; thus, it might, in cases of emergency, 
 be punctured through the walls of the abdomen in front 
 of the symphysis ; again, it has been suggested to evacuate 
 the contents of the organ by incision from the rectum. 
 These formidable operations are seldom required. 
 
 Tumours in the Bladder are sometimes found post 
 mortem in cases of incontinence of urine. They are very 
 rare, and seem to be of an epitheliomatous nature.^ 
 
 1 Mr. H. King Shaw exhibited at the meeting of the Central Veterinary 
 Society, November, 1880, a most interesting case of vesicular polypus from a 
 cow. The principal tumour was pedunculated and of considerable size, and 
 two others were just commencing to grow. The specimen, without any 
 history, hud been obtained from a slaughter-house. 
 
THE URINARY APPARATUS. 347 
 
 Calculus op the Urethra is not uncommon in the ox, 
 but is generally a small vesical stone on its way to the 
 exterior. It has been stopped either by spasm of the 
 urethra or by the curvatures of the passage through the 
 penis, and gives rise to retention of urine of an obsti- 
 nate character. The symptoms are urgent, and must be 
 relieved by incision either longitudinally or obliquely 
 across the direction of the passage. The patient must not 
 be cast for the operation. There will be little difficulty in 
 determining the seat of obstruction, for the urethral 
 canal is distended to the same point. 
 
 Stricture op the Urethra may be organic or functional. 
 In the former case there is thickening of the lining mem- 
 brane of the canal, in the latter spasm of the accele- 
 rator urinae muscle. These give rise to more or less 
 complete impediment to the passage of urine. They are 
 seldom seen in cattle. 
 
 Preputial Calculus generally assumes the form of 
 calcareous deposit around the hairs hanging in a tuft 
 from the prepuce. These deposits are mainly phosphatic, 
 and depend upon excess of salts in the food. The slow 
 and unenergetic expulsion of urine predisposes to their 
 formation. They must be removed by excision of the 
 hairs, around which they sometimes accumulate to such 
 a degree as to cause obstruction to the flow of urine. 
 Modification of diet so as to avoid excess of salines, also 
 free supply of water and other solvents, must be looked 
 upon as prophylactics against calculous diseases. 
 
348 BOVINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— DISEASES OF THE OEGANS 
 OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 Section 1. — Abnoemalities op the Skin. 
 
 The skin of the ox is remarkable for its thickness, and 
 in some parts it is very loose^ as where it forms the 
 " dewlap/^ In other respects it somewhat closely resembles 
 that of other quadrupeds. Under healthy conditions it is 
 soft, elastic, and pliable, and the coat lies evenly and 
 smoothly. The animal or its fellows apply sharp rasping 
 friction to the surface of the integument by means of the 
 rough tongue with its horny epithelium. Ordinarily the 
 skin is loose and flexible, but when the animal is in a 
 state of ill health it becomes dry, harsh, and tightly 
 bound to the tissues beneath it. This state is known as 
 '' hidebound/* and is not a disease. It is generally accom- 
 panied by a '' staring coat/' due to erection of the hairs 
 in consequence of the minute muscular bundle of each 
 hair-follicle contracting in a spasmodic manner, as a result 
 of perversion of nervous energy. This is one of the general 
 signs of ill health to which we have had occasion fre- 
 quently to allude. It especially accompanies the rigors 
 which are indicative of the invasion of a febrile attack. 
 The disorders of the skin are divisible in the following 
 manner, primarily, into two classes : 
 
 ^Inflammatory — Eczema, Psoriasis, Impetigo, Erythema, 
 
 I Ecthyma, Herpes, Urticaria, Pemphigus, Furunculus. 
 Hypertrophic— 'Nadvns, Warts, Elephantiasis (Sclero- 
 NON-PAEASITIC <{ derma), Dermo-pilous cysts. Pityriasis, Keratoid. 
 
 I Atrophic — Alopecia. 
 Functional — Bloody sweat. Emphysema, (Edema, Pru- 
 1^ ritus. 
 p J Animal — Phthiriasis, (Estriasis, Acariasis. 
 
 L Vegetable — Tinea ; var. (1) tonsurans, (2) favosa. 
 
 In examining the list of skin diseases affecting the 
 
THE SKIN. 349 
 
 horse we are enabled to trace the majority of them to 
 improper or neglected grooming and exposure of various 
 kinds, either local or general. These influences seldom 
 affect the ox, and his skin is less delicate than that of the 
 horse ; hence it is less liable to disorder. Nevertheless, 
 as may be seen from the above list the diseases of the 
 skin of the ox are numerous, and deserving of careful 
 attention. 
 
 Suhsection 1. — Non-parasitic Diseases. 
 
 Inflammatory, Non-parasitic Disorders may be 
 
 included under the term Dermatitis. Of these, Ery- 
 thema is the most simple. It consists of a diffused 
 redness of a portion of the superficial layer of the 
 dermis, which gradually blends with the healthy skin. 
 It is characterised by disappearance of colour on pres- 
 sure, but its hasty recurrence. Other signs of inflam- 
 mation are little marked. It leads to vesication, effusion, 
 and sometimes ulceration. It depends upon slight 
 irritation long continued, as friction, dirt, mild irri- 
 tants (as urine in cases of incontinency), and in some 
 cases is attributable to intrinsic causes, such as indiges- 
 tion and ingestion of acrid matters. Treatment is seldom 
 required for simple, though a laxative dose is beneficial in 
 severe cases ; also lead lotion may be applied locally. 
 This disease sometimes tends to a chronic character, 
 as when it consists in ulcerations of a sluggish nature, 
 of which the most important are those the seat of which 
 is the teats. This is described as Eeythema mammillarum, 
 sore teats J or chro7iic erytJwma, and occurs especially in 
 newly- calved animals, though not infrequent under other 
 circumstances. In some cows the skin is very delicate, 
 and this disorder is particularly liable to develop, and is 
 difficult to cure. They are constantly affected while the 
 calf roughly manipulates the organ, and the ulcers assume a 
 very sluggish character. The calf should be removed and 
 fed by hand, the milk daily drawn off by means of a milk 
 syphon, and refrigerant lotion should be applied to the 
 
350 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 affected part ; a lajfative dose also may be administered. 
 Sometimes the disorder does not lead to ulceration^ but 
 in other cases even the gland tissue becomes involved, 
 and when the heat and pain in the parts is considerable, 
 the precautions suggested for acute mammitis must be 
 tried. Farmers usually keep elder ointment about them 
 for cases of this kind, but the ordinary Glycerinum Acidi 
 Carbolici will prove most useful when the calf has been 
 removed, for it will also keep away the flies. 
 
 Eczema is the vesicular stage of dermatitis, and, there- 
 fore, is generally preceded by erythema. The surface of 
 the skin presents a number of vesicles, while a somewhat 
 acrid fluid exudes upon it, and the hairs fall off. The 
 process is accompanied by a considerable amount of itch- 
 ing, and the friction with which the patient endeavours 
 to relieve this renders the parts raw and bloody. The 
 vesicular eruption is recurrent, and thus the case lasts for 
 some time ; it is liable to lead to cracks in the skin or to 
 resolution. In the latter case the secretion dries, and 
 protects the inflamed parts. When this disease becomes 
 chronic it leads to thickening of the skin, due to a horny 
 change of the epidermis and induration of the dermis 
 which is traversed by elongated sluggish ulcers. This 
 Armatage describes as Psoeiasis, and he says : '^ The 
 parts where this disease is located are the legs chiefly, 
 one, two, or all of which may be affected. We have seen 
 cattle of all ages turned upon clay pastures, and those in 
 which lime abounds, suffering repeatedly from the com- 
 bined irritation of these substances with wet and cold, as 
 well as severe lameness, to the great detriment of con- 
 dition, health, and even sloughing of hoofs.'^ He sug- 
 gests prolonged fomentations, followed by poultices, 
 a laxative dose, and clean quarters ; also doses of Liquor 
 Arsenicalis in long-standing cases. Simple erythema 
 almost always depends upon improper diet, and is asso- 
 ciated with special changes of surrounding influences. In 
 treatment of it the food must be changed, a cathartic dose 
 given, and weak carbolic solutions may be applied locally. 
 
 HERrES. — When the vesicles of eczema arc arranged in 
 
THE SKIN. 351 
 
 a gradually increasing circle they are sometimes described 
 as non-contagious ringworm or herpes. This disease is 
 subacute ; several rings may be present, and it is difficult 
 to account for their form. "When the vesicles burst their 
 discharge forms a scab. No special methods of treatment 
 are necessary. Herpes is not frequent in cattle. 
 
 Impetigo — Pustular Dermatitis — results from the power- 
 ful irritant action of certain plants, especially upon the 
 delicate skin of calves. It has also been traced to special 
 acrid plants growing in pastures, and has been found to 
 most often affect animals with white legs and muzzles, 
 which parts it usually involves. A crop of pustules forms, 
 and by the bursting and aggregation of these a yellowish 
 scab is formed, which is persistent, and remarkably dis- 
 figures the animal when it involves the muffle, as it is 
 apt to do. Change of pasture, and nitrate of zinc or of 
 mercury ointment, applied to the parts, will generally 
 effect a cure. A cathartic dose will remove the irritant 
 if it has been ingested, from the alimentary canal, for 
 undoubtedly some of these cases are due to disorder of 
 the digestive tracts, though others depend upon direct 
 irritation of the affected parts. 
 
 Ueticaeia — Nettle-rash — Surfeit — is characterised by 
 the sudden appearance of patches of elastic prominences 
 of the skin, which are in a constant state of itchiness, 
 and disappear almost as rapidly as they came. Several 
 forms have been described, according to the size of the 
 swellings and their heat. The most usual form is urti- 
 caria tuherosa. This is sometimes very dangerous, since 
 it may affect the structures of the muzzle and interfere with 
 respiration and ingestion of food. It is vulgarly termed 
 '^ sting e/^ " hlain/' or " singe/' probably on account of 
 the manifest tingling sensation to which it gives rise, and 
 which renders the animal very uneasy. The causes of this 
 disorder are a high surrounding temperature, a rich pas- 
 ture (especially after a run on poor land), also certain 
 constituents of food, and errors in dieting. Manifestly a 
 purgative is indicated in these cases, salines being pre- 
 ferable to others, and sedative agents may be applied 
 
352 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 to the surface of the skin. Some authorities trace this 
 disorder to defective action of excretory organs, notably 
 the kidneys. In cases of '^ stinge'^ tracheotomy may be 
 necessary. Urticaria is essentially a serous effusion. 
 
 Ecthyma or Acne is the formation of discrete (or sepa- 
 rate) abscesses, of various sizes, in skin substance, a 
 sebaceous gland being generally involved. These burst 
 externally, producing a brownish scab. " They may be 
 frequently seen if carefully sought for upon those parts of 
 cattle covered by thin skin and few hairs, as upon the 
 udder, and about the vulva, inside the thighs, &c." 
 Constitutional symptoms are seldom present ; the dis- 
 order seems to depend upon local influences. When the 
 pus has become evacuated the pustules heal with facility. 
 
 FuEUNCULUs is intense localised dermatitis, involving 
 the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and leading to death of 
 a portion of structure, which is expelled as the ^^ core'^ of 
 the boil. The inflammation runs high, and requires to 
 be determined to suppuration by poultices and fomenta- 
 tions, and, after bursting, the usual treatment of abscess. 
 
 Carbuncle differs from boil in the large amount of 
 tissue which dies, and requires to be removed by slough- 
 ing. It is generally due to specific influences, as in cases 
 of anthrax. It constitutes a serious drain on the system ; 
 hence removal of the dead parts with the knife, anti- 
 septic dressings, and (internally) stimulant tonics are 
 indicated. 
 
 Pemphigus. — Mr. Isaac Seaman, of Saffron Walden, 
 gives a good case of this disease, as affecting a three- 
 year-old bullock (see 'Veterinarian,' vol. xxv, p. 262). 
 There was diffused inflammation of the skin, with effusion 
 of serum, " which elevated the cuticle in places, forming 
 bullsB or bladders, varying in size from a small nut to a 
 fowl's egg. In other places a thin transparent fluid was drop- 
 ping from the hair, and in some places in quite a stream.'' 
 The mucous membranes also seemed involved, and consti- 
 tutional symptoms ran very high. The case terminated 
 successfully after about a week, but the hair was appa- 
 rently lost from several parts of the body. This disease is 
 
THE SKIN. 353 
 
 sometimes enzootic; often it assumes a chronic character, 
 and in some instances the effused fluid is intermingled 
 with blood or pus. It depends upon irritation of the 
 alimentary canal, and must be treated by evacuation of 
 the contents of the blebs, and subsequent dressings with 
 glycerin or oxide-of-zinc ointment. A cathartic should 
 also be administed. 
 
 Hypertrophic Disorders of the Skin are sometimes 
 seen in the ox. Of these, one of the most remarkable is 
 Keratoid change of the Epidermis. Hypertrophy of the 
 cuticle results from continued slight friction or from 
 gradual increase in size of a subcutaneous accumulation 
 of fluid with a tendency to burst. Thus, in every case, it 
 must be considered to be an effort to strengthen the skin, 
 and the better to adapt it to new conditions. A most 
 remarkable case of this disease has just come under our 
 notice. A beast has a tumour, of a globular form, 56 
 inches in circumference, in front of the knee, this contains 
 pus, and the skin investing it has a flocculent epidermis 
 of stringy horn. 
 
 Pityriasis is that scurfy condition of the skin which 
 not infrequently affects cattle without any other indica- 
 tions of disorder than some local irritation. The scurf 
 has a peculiar branny character, whence the name of the 
 disease. It occurs most frequently in young animals, and 
 is associated with mal-nutrition, whether from imperfect 
 supply of food or from deficiency of nutritive materials in 
 it. A change of diet to richer food, and the inunction of 
 the surface with some sedative must be adopted. 
 
 N^vus is hypertrophy of the superficial layer of the 
 dermis, constituting a slight swelling composed of blood- 
 vessels, often having an erectile character. It is rare in 
 the lower animals, but a congenital case is given by Mr. 
 L. Barker, in the ' Veterinary Journal,^ vol. iv, p. 255. In 
 this, intermittent free haemorrhage took place, and mate- 
 rially reduced the strength of the animal, but a cure was 
 ultimately effected. These tumours are liable to injury, 
 and may, when small or of moderate size, be removed by 
 the knife or by cauterisation. 
 
 23 
 
354 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Dermopilous Cysts are involutions of the integument. 
 They are occasionally found in various parts of the body, 
 and sometimes so deeply placed in viscera, such as the 
 testis, that the difficulty in attributing them to growth 
 from the skin has compelled pathologists to consider them 
 specimens of ^'foetus in foetuj' Generally a small fistu- 
 lous opening from the cyst discharges a fluid consisting 
 of watery matter and epithelial debris on to the surface 
 of the body, and a few long hairs may protrude through 
 the opening. The discharge is sometimes offensive ; 
 then the cyst may be removed by means of the knife 
 (see 'Edinburgh Veterinary Eeview,' vol. v, p. 593). 
 
 Elephantiasis — ^hypertrophy of the subcutaneous areolar 
 tissue, with increase in its density — is very rare in the 
 ox. Under this heading has been described a specimen 
 ofe-skin disease of the calf, in the Museum of the Royal 
 Veterinary College. The skin in this animal is in plates like 
 that of the rhinoceros, but on a smaller scale. This seems 
 a case of the disease described in man as Scleroderma. 
 
 Waets — '^ angle berries " — verrucce — are epidermic 
 growths primarily, but subsequently the true skin becomes 
 involved and hypertrophied, and thus are produced on the 
 surface of the body tumours of various sizes, confluent or 
 distinct. These, when subjected to friction, ulcerate, and 
 thus ugly fungus-like masses, in a raw condition, project 
 from the surface. They are most unsightly, and bleed on 
 the slightest pressure; are principally seen about the 
 genital apertures, eyelids, lips, and teats. We are not 
 assured of the cause of these growths, but in the majority 
 of cases dirt seems to be the exciting influence. Irrita- 
 tion of any kind may give rise to these circumscribed 
 dermal hypertrophies. A most singular case, reported by 
 Youatt, indicates their constitutional origin in some cases : 
 "At uncertain intervals, from six to nine or ten months, 
 a cow suddenly lost flesh, her coat stared, she would 
 scarcely eat, and at length rumination was entirely sus- 
 pended; then would appear, and nearly all over her, and 
 particularly about the udder and in the mouth and on the 
 evelids, a thick crop of warts, varying from the size of a 
 
THE SKIN. 855 
 
 millet seed to twice that bulk. In a fortniglit they were 
 gone/' We have already had occasion to notice warty 
 growths, as they are sometimes found in the oesophagus. 
 When developed on the udder and teats they prove very un- 
 satisfactory, for they make the animal troublesome to milk. 
 
 Treatment. — Where these growths prove unsightly or 
 detrimental they must be surgically removed, either with the 
 knife and actual cautery, or by means of ligature. They are 
 generally pedunculated, so that the latter can be applied 
 with facility. Some prefer to destroy by the application 
 of caustic agents, but this is a slow process. 
 
 Atrophic Diseases. — Alopecia or Depilation — bald- 
 ness of the skin — sometimes results from disease. Occa- 
 sionally calves are born in this state (see ' Veterinary 
 Journal,' vol. x, p. 302). It is hopeless to endeavour 
 to cure this in congenital cases, but when it is attributed 
 to disease, mild repeated stimulation, especially with can- 
 tharides, may promote renewal of hair. In man it is 
 sometimes due to parasites. 
 
 Functional Disorders.— (Edema, v. Anasarca, is not a 
 rare affection of cattle, in which there is dropsy of the sub- 
 cutaneous tissue of the lower parts of the body. It may 
 depend upon inflammation of the skin, but far more fre- 
 quently is due to constitutional disorder, as anaemia and 
 hydraemia. It accompanies dropsical affections of other 
 serous cavities. 
 
 Treatment of this state comprises tonic means and 
 sedative diuretics, such, especially, as digitalis. Careful 
 nursing and local friction by means of hand-rubbing of 
 the affected parts will tend to promote absorption. This 
 disease is not so frequent in the ox as in the horse. 
 
 Emphysema is escape of gas into the subcutaneous 
 areolar tissue, dependent upon decomposition of the blood 
 or of structural elements, or some profound changes in 
 the blood of the part due to nervous influence, sometimes 
 also to entry of air either through an external wound or 
 a tear in lung substance. This is most often seen in 
 black - quarter ; sometimes the foetus, on birth, is found to 
 be in an emphysematous condition. In these cases there 
 
856 BOVINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 is a peculiar crackling beneath the epidermis when pressure 
 is brought to bear upon the part. The gas is at liberty to 
 escape if incisions or punctures are made through the skin ; 
 in addition, the surface should be manipulated freely. 
 Sometimes the patient will require a stimulant dose. 
 
 Bloody Sweat, as occurring in oxen, has been dealt 
 with by Count Ercolani, the celebrated Italian veterinary 
 professor; his conclusions are given in volume iii of the 
 ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review,^ page 567. 
 
 Peuritus — Neurosis (Law) consists in itchiness of the 
 skin without any appreciable structural change. It is not 
 rare in cattle, and causes a considerable degree of rest- 
 lessness, so that the animal applies friction to the affected 
 part until it becomes raw. Such cases are generally 
 attributable to excessively high feeding and want of exer- 
 cise. They must be treated with saline cathartics and 
 sedative applications. 
 
 . The effects of colour on diseases of the slcin are sometimes 
 marked. White portions of the skin seem to be more 
 liable to disease than those which contain pigment. In cer- 
 tain forms of vegetable poisoning sloughing of only the 
 white portions of the skin is seen, and in cases of some 
 forms of impetigo it has been stated that the white por- 
 tions of the skin especially are involved. There is related 
 a peculiar case, illustrating the effects of colour, in the 
 ' Yeterinarian,"' 1834, p. 97 : — A white cow, with some black 
 spots on various parts of the body, suffered from acute 
 fever, with a peculiar hardness of the skin. Shortly, the 
 cuticle, and with it the hairs, separated from the dermis, 
 except where the skin was black ; the coloured spots re- 
 mained quite soft and healthy. The hair gradually grew 
 again^ except on the shoulders. 
 
 Subsection 2. — Parasitic Disorders of the SJcin. 
 
 Some of these are attributable to Dermatozoa (animal 
 parasites, or Ectozoa), others to Dermatophyta. The former 
 are most important, the latter are acquiring fresh interest 
 as we become more acquainted with the vegetable forms 
 which give rise to disease. 
 
THE SKIN. 
 
 357 
 
 Animal Parasitic Diseases of the Shin of Cattle. 
 
 Mange — Acaeiasis — is a contagious disorder due to tlie 
 presence and ravages of those Araclinidan or spider-like 
 parasites generally known as the Acarus hovis, which 
 comprises two forms (according to Gerlach)_, Bermato- 
 dectes hovis and Symohiotes hovis. Of these, the former is 
 most frequent, the latter being rare. Mange of the ox 
 is, therefore, due to Dermatodectes, which lives on the 
 surface of the epidermis, but gives rise to much irritation 
 by biting. Its most frequent seat is on the withers and 
 the root of the tail, but this preference is not very marked. 
 From the parts primarily affected the disease extends, and 
 passes through its various stages, during the more acute 
 of which there is intense itching. Circumscribed nodular 
 
 Fig. 68. — Mange insects {Acarus hovis). (Dobson.) 
 
 projections (papules) first appear; these become vesicles 
 and burst, giving exit to a watery fluid, which soon dries on 
 
358 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 the surface, forming crusts, whicli are liable to be succeeded 
 by ulceration. The hair falls off, or a few hairs persist and 
 project from the crusts. In chronic cases there is but little 
 irritation, but the skin is thickened, devoid of sensibility, 
 dry, harsh, and corrugated. " Thus, it will be observed, 
 no special symptoms indicate mange j it passes through 
 several stages — papular, vesicular, &c. Diagnosis must de- 
 pend, in the first place, upon detection of the parasites; also, 
 secondly, upon accurate tracing to an origin by contagion. 
 The latter must be, for we cannot allow that animals so 
 high in the scale as Acari can appear spontaneously. The 
 spontaneous origination of the disorder was once uni- 
 versally allowed, but this depended upon confusion of 
 mange with some of the simple non-parasitic diseases 
 already described, or hon-recognitiori of the presence of 
 parasites. This disease, in regularity of eruption, phases, 
 persistency, and contagiousness, resembles some of the 
 eruptive disorders of the system. Analogy leads us to 
 anticipate that the latter will, with improved means of in- 
 vestigation, be traced to parasitic forms of some kind or 
 other. This lesson learned from mange is a remarkable one. 
 When the disease is unchecked it exhibits urgency pro- 
 portioned to the seasons or the surrounding temperature. 
 Thus, it seems to be dormant in the winter, but in warm 
 weather and places is almost intolerable. The disease is 
 not truly transmissible to the attendants and to animals 
 of other species, for the parasites cause inconvenience for 
 a time but do not propagate in their new abode. The 
 Acari can be detected on the hairs and surface of the 
 epidermis, and can be seen with the naked eye as minute 
 white points moving about somewhat rapidly when the 
 patient stands in the full glare of the sun. Gerlach, who 
 is one of the leading authorities on this subject, suggests 
 for detection of Dermatodectes the removal of some of the 
 scales from the surface and placing them on the human 
 arm, with the under part uppermost, for an hour or more. 
 The Acari pass to the arm and there cause eruption, and 
 when the vesicles form they may be punctured with a needle 
 and the parasite obtained. Subsequently the arm should 
 
THE SKIN. 359 
 
 be rubbed with oil of turpentine or some oatmeal, as a 
 precaution against any increase of the parasites ; though 
 this is hardly necessary^ it is as well not to reject the 
 precaution. Acariasis is not frequent in the ox, but is 
 most prevalent in badly kept dirty herds, and is generally 
 associated with debility, which is traceable to the irritation 
 by the parasite being a constant source of worry. The 
 Acarus is the sole cause, and we cannot generate it by 
 any combination of ordinary causes. Nevertheless, it may 
 be that the skin of the weak animal forms a more con- 
 genial nidus for the acarus than that of an animal in 
 good health, and thus weakness becomes a predisposing 
 cause. 
 
 In the treatment of mange our efforts must be directed 
 to the destruction of the parasites. Also, it is necessary to 
 remember that after this has been accomplished the ova may 
 remain intact and undergo development in due course. 
 Two conditions lead to obstinacy of this disease (not so 
 marked in the ox as in some other animals) — the concealed 
 state of the parasites and the powers of resistance of the 
 ova. We must break down and remove the scales, and 
 generally must repeat our dressings at intervals, to de- 
 stroy the young Acari as they appear from the ova. The 
 removal of the epidermic debris may be best accomplished 
 by friction with a weak alkaline solution, as ordinary soft 
 soap and water. Subsequently, the solution of liver of 
 sulphur, tar, and turpentine liniment, arsenical wash, 
 solution of bichloride of mercury, or other anti-parasitics, 
 may be applied with care ; stavesacre or tobacco infusion 
 are also used for this purpose, and many prefer sulphur 
 ointment, or even simple reagents, which prevent access of 
 air to the Acari and thus suffocate them. When making 
 use of poisonous applications we must remember that 
 they are liable to become absorbed or to be ingested, 
 from animals licking themselves or one another. Another 
 practical inference is to frequently change the dressing in 
 any particular case, for the Acari seem to become tolerant 
 of some of the agents, which do not cause their death, 
 but simply their departure. The desirability of adop- 
 
360 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 tion of constitutional treatment is debated, but tbe 
 value of tonics, especially arsenic, cannot be questioned. 
 In this disease isolation must be enforced, all clotting 
 and appliances from the affected animal either destroyed 
 or thoroughly purified. 
 
 Symhiotes hovis infests the region of the tail, is rare, 
 and must be treated like Dermatodectes. 
 
 Phthieiasis — " Lousiness '' — is very common in cattle, 
 especially in marked cases of debility, whether due to 
 disease or to want of food and shelter (as in animals half- 
 starved in a straw yard) ; the lice abound, and cause 
 pruritus, and materially retard growth and development 
 of the stock. They prove troublesome to the auscultator 
 who has not remarked their presence. Several different 
 forms are described, as Hamatopinus vituli (which 
 specially affects the calf), and Harrii eurysternus, ani et 
 vulva, found on the cow, the former on the shoulders, 
 the latter in the positions which its name indicates. 
 Also, there is a form of Trichodectes present in some 
 cases. For the removal of these pests dressings with 
 tobacco water and stavesacre infusion are recommended. 
 These require to be several times repeated, well rubbed in, 
 and the animal should be subsequently thoroughly washed. 
 Measures should be taken to prevent their passage to man 
 or other animals. 
 
 CEsTEiASis {'' Warhles'^), — CEstrus hovis, the gad-fly of 
 the ox, assumes its imago or perfect form at about the end 
 of summer ; it then attacks cattle, puncturing their skin 
 by means of an ovipositor, and placing in the subcutaneous 
 tissue a drop of acrid fluid with an ovum. There results 
 an abscess of small size with a larva situated in it. A 
 small opening extends from the surface to the abscess 
 cavity; against this the respiratory orifice of the grub is 
 placed, and he feeds upon the pus of the abscess. At 
 length the abscess bursts (according to Youatt, always 
 between the hours of six and eight in the morning), and 
 the larva falls to the ground and becomes a chrysalis, if 
 it escapes its numerous enemies, notably birds, who con- 
 sider it a sweet morsel. This occurs in about June or 
 
THE SKIN. 361 
 
 July ; at tlie end of six weeks, under favorable conditions, 
 the full-blown dipterous insect escapes from its shell, 
 copulates, and the females deposit their eggs and then 
 die. The beast is much afraid of the fly, and rushes 
 towards water in a high state of excitement, with tail 
 erected and quivering. The pain results from the acrid 
 substance inserted with the egg. Mr. D. M. Storrar re- 
 lates a case in which he attributed paralysis to a number 
 of these warbles in their usual position on the loins on 
 each side of the spine. Sometimes they are very numerous 
 and give rise to fever, but more frequently do no harm, 
 except to the hides. Young animals and those in an 
 exuberant state of good health are generally chosen by 
 the fly, for in them the skin is soft and penetrable. The 
 CEstrus must be removed from the warble, which is 
 nature^s method of cure, and may be easily brought 
 about by pressure ; the results of its presence will then 
 be gradually obliterated. Care should be taken to destroy 
 the CEstrus (^^ maggot^' or "bob^^). Water is a very 
 effectual protective means, and cattle, when attacked, will 
 charge into it with great force. 
 
 The Tsetze fly, described by Livingstone, is more formi- 
 dable. It is seen in South and East Africa, and is capable 
 of poisoning cattle by its sting. Its technical name is 
 Glossina morsitans. Turpentine ointment is said to be 
 useful when applied for its bites. Maggots of the ordi- 
 nary fly are sometimes to be seen on neglected wounds 
 of cattle. Some forms of ticks (Ixodides) are sometimes 
 seen on cattle. 
 
 Vegetable Parasitic Diseases of the sTcin of Cattle : 
 Tinea — " Ringworm,'' 
 
 Tinea favosa is due to the fungus Achorion Schonleiniij 
 which originates from a spore which has gained entry 
 into a hair-follicle. It perforates the epidermic struc- 
 tures so that its spores may be found in the hairs as 
 well as in the main portion of the cuticle ; from the 
 opening of the hair-follicle the fungus projects and forms 
 a yellowish cup-like crust, with a hair projecting from its 
 
362 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 centre. A number of these aggregated produce a "honey- 
 comb-like mass, whence the disease is known as ^^ Honey- 
 comh Ringworm." It does not originate in the ox, but 
 is transmissible to this animal with some facility. Mice 
 and rats suffer from it, especially the former, for they 
 become much debilitated and their heads covered with 
 crust, in the form of an immense tumour, which causes 
 absorption of the facial bones by pressure. Pulverising 
 of the crust disseminates the spores, whence the disorder 
 is infectious, but certain conditions pf the skin, as seen in 
 young or debilitated aliimals, seem especially favorable to 
 its growth. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove the crusts and destroy them ; thus, 
 an ulcer caused by absorption of the superficial layer of 
 the dermis will be exposed. Eemove all affected hairs 
 and dress with nitrate-of-mercury ointment, nitrate of 
 silver, vinegar of cantharides, or, preferably, dilute sul- 
 phurous acid. Many kinds of animals suffer from this 
 disease, and true f^vus cruets have been grown from 
 spores on the acid cut surface of an apple. 
 
 Tinea tonsurans is caused by another and more simple 
 iungus—Trico^phyton tonsurans. Its constituents are 
 smaller than those of Favus, and it does not project as 
 cups on the surface, simply invading the epidermal struc- 
 tures and constituting a fine powder on the epidermis. 
 It affects young animals, especially when exposed to 
 damp, and with dirty skins, and is readily transmissible 
 from ox to ox, or to man and other animals. It attains 
 a greater luxuriance of growth in the ox than in man, 
 and the disease, when first received by man from the ox. 
 
 L.-TTn^wrse:! 
 
 Fig. 69. — Hair, with the spores of Trichophyton tonsurans. (After Harley 
 
 and Brown.) 
 
 is so luxuriant that it has been described as specifically 
 distinct. 
 
THE FOOT. 363 
 
 Symptoms. — Circular patches in various parts of the 
 body, characterised by the absence of the hair, the pre- 
 sence of vesicae near the outer margin, and a scurfy 
 condition of the central parts ; here and there in the ring 
 may be seen a dry looking hair, of a greyish colour, 
 somewhat twisted at the root, or the stump of a hair 
 which has broken off. Megnin considers the true Tinea of 
 the ox distinct from that of the horse, and terms it 
 T. decalvans or T. dejpilens. This he finds to be generally 
 nearly three times the size of T. tonsurans, to give rise 
 to more formidable symptoms when communicated to the 
 horse by inoculation, and to induce a different condition 
 of the affected hairs. In calves, the disease affects the 
 eyes, ears, neck, withers, and limbs. These cases must 
 be treated with the same applications as suggested for 
 T. favosa. 
 
 Section 2. — ;Diseases op the 
 
 The foot of the ox, in a zoological sei 
 the structures from the knee and hock (inclii^ 
 wards in the fore and hind limbs. Custom sanctiol 
 application of the term foot to the inferior part of each ex- 
 tremity from the fetlock-joint downwards. From a 
 pathological point of view it matters little which view 
 we adopt. Suffice it to say that the knee of the ox 
 is remarkable for the peculiar manner in which it is 
 bent inwards in consequence of the obliquity upwards 
 and outwards of the inferior articulatory surface of the 
 radius, whence the proverbial term " Calf -kneed.'' That 
 the ulna meets the carpal bones, os pisiforme (Trapezium) 
 is less developed than in the horse, that the trapezoid 
 and magnum are fused into a single bone, and no true tra- 
 pezium is present. The metacarpus consists of a rudi- 
 mentary splint bone on the outer side, and of two fully 
 developed metacarpals blended together along the central 
 line, separating inferiorly, each division bearing three 
 pastern bones and a navicular, resembling moieties of the 
 corresponding bones in the horse. The two diverg- 
 
364 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ing digits are connected together by certain interdigital 
 ligaments, and each bears a hoof resembling half the hoof 
 of the horse. Finally, behind the fetlocks are two rudi- 
 mentary claws, each with a contained bone, the os pedis 
 of a rudimentary digit. Thus, to sum up, the foot of the 
 ox consists of two functional digits united together 
 superiorly, which together represent the compound func- 
 tional digit of the horse, and two very rudimentary digits, 
 of which the outer has a splint bone, a hoof, and a pedal 
 bone, but the inner has no splint bone. In the hind 
 limb the arrangement of the bones is much the same, but 
 there are no distinct splint bones, and the hock consists of 
 a well- developed astragalus, which forms a well-marked 
 hinge-joint below, with a bone compounded of the large 
 cuneiform and the cuboid, and is freely movable on os 
 calcis, which has a long, rather slight process. The 
 cuneiforme medium is only of moderate size, and the 
 cuneiforme parvum is very small. The joint between the 
 upper and lower row of tarsal bones renders the hock 
 capable of a great degree of flexion. Diseases of the 
 foot in the ox are very rare, especially in this country, 
 for — 1st, its conformation is such as to render it less 
 liable to injury, as being more simple than that of the 
 horse ; 2nd, the ox is seldom used for draught purposes, 
 and never for conveying heavy weights for great dis- 
 tances along hard roads, nor for excessively rapid progres- 
 sion on the racecourse ; 3rd, but few cattle are shod. 
 
 Foul, Loo, Low. — This term is applied, somewhat indefi- 
 nitely, to the formation of abscess in the foot and resulting 
 disorganisation of structure. This may be attributed either 
 to common causes or specific influences. The latter are 
 scrofulous and perhaps rheumatic conditions. Scrofulous 
 arthritis not unfrequently affects the bones and joints of 
 the foot, causing such disease of them as of other parts 
 of the skeleton. This disease may be caused by the 
 presence of foreign bodies fixed between the claws, giving 
 rise to inflammation, by overgrowth of the hoof-horn on 
 the inner side, by various kinds of injuries, and, among 
 others, certain sprains of the pastern, pedal joints, &c. 
 
THE FOOT. 365 
 
 It most frequently affects tlie hind feet, and is most 
 prevalent on low marshy lands, such as promote over- 
 growth and excessive malformation of the hoof. It is in 
 many respects similar to the non-contagious form of foot- 
 rot of sheep, and somewhat resembles quittor of the horse. 
 The extreme cases of non-specific foot-rot and foul which we 
 see occasionally are due to neglect, whereby inflammation 
 extends to the joints of the foot and leads to acute arthritic 
 disorder. Thus, the pathological conditions of this disease 
 are, at first, the existence of inflammation in the interdigital 
 substance, which may be partially removed by sloughmg, 
 then the presence of pus beneath the hoof-horn, boring 
 and forming simple sinuses ; also later, arthritis and ostitis, 
 leading to increased suppuration and the formation of 
 sinuses, which extend outwards and burst on the surface. 
 The patient is very lame, and the digits are separated 
 from one another in a remarkable manner. Considerable 
 sympathetic fever is generally present in such advanced 
 cases, and the animal materially loses condition, suc- 
 cumbing to the pain of the disorder in a very rapid 
 manner. This entails considerable loss upon the owner, 
 and necessitates energetic treatment, which must consist 
 of removal of the patient to a thoroughly clean quiet 
 place, careful washing of the foot, removal of any ragged 
 horn and overgrowth, also of any part of the hoof which 
 is underrun by the pus, poulticing for removal of the 
 pain and to arouse a healthy process, also a cathartic dose. 
 Subsequently, carbolic dressings, or mild astringents may 
 be applied, but such powerful caustic agents as were 
 once used are not required. Neither is the prolonged 
 interdigital friction, which was considered beneficial, and 
 was usually applied by means of a tar rope. The diseased 
 foot will require to be dressed and to be protected by 
 means of a bandage. The mode of elevation of the foot 
 usually adopted has been already mentioned (see page 71). 
 Bleeding from the coronet, whereby much blood may 
 be removed, is recommended by Youatt and others, but its 
 effects are not likely to produce much benefit in this sub- 
 acute disorder, and it is preferable not to bleed too near 
 
866 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 inflamed parts. In long-standing cases, with considerable 
 disorganisation of bones and joints, amputation may be 
 
 Fig. 70.— Method of applying dressings between hoofs. (Armatage.) 
 
 performed, for the patient will thrive better after removal 
 of the diseased organ, and the case cannot otherwise be 
 cured. Either one digit may be removed at the pas- 
 tern, or both may be simultaneously amputated at the 
 fetlock, or through the metacarpal region. 
 
 The operation is performed by casting the animal and 
 freeing the diseased limb. A tourniquet, consisting of a 
 band passing round the centre of the metacarpal region, 
 with pads on the inner side, tightened by passage of a 
 bar through it and twisting, is used to restrain haemor- 
 rhage. This must be brought into use just before the 
 operation is commenced. Either disarticulation or ampu- 
 tation through the bone is then performed with the fol- 
 lowing precautions : to leave a good flap or flaps of skin 
 to cover the exposed surface, and to ligature all the larger 
 arteries. Then the wound is closed by approximation of 
 the flaps, and maintained by sutures, the ends of the arterial 
 ligatures being allowed to hang free. The stump must be 
 protected with tow and a bandage. The operation may pre- 
 ferably be performed with antiseptic precautions. The 
 animal will favour the limb thus operated upon, and will 
 be able to make shift with the others, and may be pro- 
 vided with such a wooden leg as described by Mr. Litt, 
 of Shrewsbury, in ' Veterinary Journal,' vol. iv, p. 241 . 
 This operation has become thoroughly established in vete- 
 rinary practice. 
 
 With regard to the diagnosis of this disease, it is said to 
 be sometimes confounded with foot-and-mouth disease. 
 The latter, when neglected, degenerates into " foul ^' of an 
 
THE FOOT. 367 
 
 aggravated character ; it seems probable that at this stage 
 all virulence is lost. The treatment of " foul " in scro- 
 fulous animals is, of course, only palliative. 
 
 Laminitis, " Founder,'' — Inflammation of the sensitive 
 structure of the foot is not frequent in cattle, but some- 
 times results, especially in very heavy and highly-fed 
 animals, from over-driving. It is also somewhat often 
 seen in working oxen. The simplicity of the foot of the 
 ox renders this a comparatively unimportant affection. 
 It may cause removal of the hoofs, but they will grow again. 
 The patient is better able to remain recumbent and to remove 
 the weight from an affected digit than is the horse. This 
 disease may be treated by a cathartic dose, rest, cold-water 
 applications, and, if necessary, sedatives. 
 
 Loss of a Hoof may arise from other causes than foul 
 and laminitis, as when the foot becomes caught by the 
 landing stage during unshipping, and under certain other 
 emergencies of travel. If time be allowed a fairly perfect 
 new hoof will be produced, until when the animal cleverly 
 utilises the companion claw for purposes of progression. 
 
 SoEE Feet result from excessive wear of the hoof from 
 travelling along hard roads. These must be dressed with 
 tar or put in a poultice, and the animals rested. On this 
 matter Youatt says : " There is not a farmer that has not 
 had cows in his dairy that have lost for a time full half 
 of their milk on account of the pain which tender and dis- 
 eased feet have occasioned ; the grazier sometimes loses 
 the advantage of three or four months^ feeding from the 
 same cause, and in London dairies tender feet are often a 
 most serious ailment, and compel the milkman to part 
 with some of his best cows, and that in a very indifferent 
 condition.'^ 
 
 This liability to sore feet necessitates the shoeing of 
 working oxen, which consists in affixing thin plates of 
 iron to the soles of the hoofs by three nails to each. 
 These nails are small, and require considerable care in 
 driving, on account of the thinness of the hoofs. The 
 animal is liable to prove restless while being shod, and 
 thus pricks may occur. 
 
368 BOVINE PATHOLOGY, 
 
 OvEROROWTH OP HoRN, though not a disease, occasionally 
 requires attention from the veterinarian, since it may give 
 rise to foul and other diseases. It is seen in animals con- 
 stantly housed, and so deprived of the attrition which 
 naturally maintains the proper length of the hoof, and the 
 remedy consists in regulated application of the rasp and 
 drawing-knife. 
 
 Pricks and other Penetrating Wounds op the Foot 
 must be treated in such a manner as to give free exit to 
 all discharges, by removal of horn, so as to form a depend- 
 ing orifice ; and carbolic dressings ; however, cases of this 
 kind are not so important in the ox as in the horse, for 
 the pus readily bores its way to the coronet, and gains 
 exit in consequence of the comparatively loose union of 
 the laminated surfaces, whereas in the horse there is a 
 tendency to form secondary sinuses. Youatt lays stress 
 on this difference. 
 
 Monstrous condition op the Foot. — The development 
 of extra digits in the ox is of very rare occurrence, but 
 we have before us an instance in which the inner rudi- 
 mentary digit was fully developed, and bore a hoof about 
 three quarters as large as those of the two functional 
 digits. A case was mentioned before the Societe 
 Centrale de Medecine Yeterinaire of an ox with a cloven 
 condition of one hind limb, extending up to the tarsus.^ 
 
 Interdigital Fibromata are sometimes seen ; as they 
 increase in size they cause lameness, tension of the inter- 
 digital ligament, and may ultimately lead to foul. They 
 should be removed with the knife. 
 
 Ulceration op the Heel, of a sluggish character, either 
 associated with foul or as a distinct affection, sometimes 
 proves obstinate to treatment. It develops luxuriant 
 papillae, assuming a fungoid character, or may form an 
 irregular, hard, callous mass. In either case cauterisa- 
 tion is called for. This condition results from long-con- 
 tinued exposure to cold and dirt. Youatt compares it to 
 
 ^ We have just received the hind limb of a calf with a well- developed digit, 
 consisting of a metatarsal, the full number of phalanges, and a fairly 
 formed hoof, curling upwards from the inner side of the hock. 
 
THE FOOT, EYE, AND EAR. 369 
 
 grease in the horse, but is not very successful in esta- 
 blishing the comparison. 
 
 Section 3. — Diseases op the Ear. 
 
 The ear of the ox presents no special anatomical or 
 physiological features of import to us at present, nor is 
 it frequently involved in diseased action. The external 
 ear may be lacerated, and must then be treated on con- 
 servative principles. The skin investing it is also liable 
 to be involved in skin diseases ; and Youatt mentions 
 the occurrence of fungous granulations springing up within 
 the ear. 
 
 Otitis is a formidable affection, not frequently recog- 
 nised, but liable to be confounded with disease of the 
 brain, because of the violence exerted by the animal, 
 since this is a very painful disease. We have before us 
 a case in which extensive abscess had formed in the bone, 
 but the true nature of the disease was discovered only 
 after death. The principal symptoms, besides those of 
 fever, are carrying the head to one side and heat and red- 
 ness of the external parts. If this state is diagnosed 
 nothing can be done more than powerful stimulation 
 around the root of the ear, and the administration of 
 febrifuges and cathartics. 
 
 Section 4. — Diseases op the Eye and its Appendages. 
 
 8uh-section 1. — Abnormalities of the Ocular Appendages. 
 
 The orbit of the ox has its external opening laterally 
 placed, giving a considerable backward range of sight — a 
 feature observable in all ruminants. This margin is formed 
 only of three bones, the squamous temporal being excluded 
 by the peculiar bifurcation of the posterior portion of the 
 malar. In other respects the orbit essentially resembles 
 that of the horse, and the accessory organs of vision are 
 
 24 
 
370 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 very similar, except that the retractor muscle is even more 
 powerful, and the lachrymal and Meibomian glands are 
 very well developed, as also is the Harderian gland, which 
 is situated inside the cartilago-nictitans, and secretes a lu- 
 bricating fluid. The ductus ad nasum does not extend so 
 far down as the anterior naris. We have already noted the 
 frequent presence of bony tumours on the margin of the orbit. 
 Fractures of this part are not rare as a result of various 
 kinds of injuries ; either a small portion of bone is chipped 
 off the edge, or the orbital frontal process may be entirely 
 fractured. Loose portions of bone must be removed 
 artificially, or will slough out, and the attachments of the 
 eyelid may be interfered with, or depression of the frag- 
 ments may exert pressure on the contents of the orbit. 
 A highly vascular encephaloid or medullary sarcomatous 
 growth sometimes commences at the back of the orbit, and 
 grows rapidly, pressing on the optic nerve, and forcing 
 the eyeball to one side. It appears at the surface as a 
 highly vascular mass, and is termed Fungus H^matodes. 
 It produces complete loss of sight, and must be treated by 
 extirpation of the contents of the orbit, and subsequent 
 application of the actual cautery, to restrain haemorrhage 
 and destroy the last vestiges of the cancerous mass. The 
 patient should then be fattened for slaughter. This is 
 perhaps the most frequent cancerous growth in the ox. 
 
 Laceeations of the Eyelids must be treated on the 
 principle of not removing any part which can possibly be 
 saved. Youatt tells us that '* the eyelids are more subject 
 to disease in the ox than in any other domestic animal," 
 and mentions Spontaneous Emphysema of the organs to be 
 cured by puncture ; and also (Edema, which is a sign of 
 general debility, or may be a sign of the existence of some 
 irritant in the eye. Sometimes cases of this kind lead to 
 chronic thickening. 
 
 Warty Growths are sometimes seen on the eyelids, and 
 must be snipped off, and their roots touched with caustic. 
 Finally, the largely developed Meibomian glands may 
 become inflamed or their ducts blocked up, and a small 
 abscess results. When this bursts or is opened the parts 
 
THE EYE. 371 
 
 regain their normal condition. We are not aware that 
 inversion and eversion of the eyelids have ever been seen 
 in the ox. We have found records of a few cases of 
 Ptosis, dropping of the upper eyelid, but have no evi- 
 dence as to the occurrence of disease in the lachrymal 
 apparatus. 
 
 TUMOUES OF THE CaRUNCULA LACHRYMALIS AND CaRTILAGO- 
 
 NiCTiTANS sometimes attain a considerable size. They 
 result from chronic irritation or conjunctivitis, and must 
 be removed by means of the scissors, the animal having 
 been cast and the cartilage fixed. The latter must be as 
 little injured as possible in the operation. Sometimes 
 caustic applications will suffice to destroy these tumours, 
 but generally it is found necessary to operate. 
 
 Suh-secHon 2. — Diseases of the Eyeball. 
 
 The eyeball is somewhat flatter in the ox than in the 
 horse, the cornea more convex, and the tapetum lucidum 
 has a golden-green colour, bluish near the margin, and a 
 fibrous structure. 
 
 Conjunctivitis — Simjple Ophthalmia — results from in- 
 juries, and especially from the entry of foreign matters 
 into the eye. It is denoted by profuse lachrymation, the 
 tears trickling down the cheek, thickening of the eyelids, 
 intolerance of light, redness of the conjunctiva, and 
 generally some opacity of the cornea through extension 
 of irritation, due to general causes, as exposure to cold, or 
 to acrid vapours ; both eyes may be thus affected (but this 
 seems to be very rare). An examination must be made for 
 the detection of foreign bodies, the lids being separated by 
 the finger and thumb, and each everted in turn. The 
 rapid movement of the haw over the eye renders this ex- 
 amination a little more complicated than it otherwise would 
 be. The cause having been removed the irritation may be 
 overcome by fomentations and dressings with solution of the 
 subacetate of lead, and the eye or eyes should be protected 
 from the light. This disease is generally complicated with 
 keratitis or corneitis, in which the cdlls which are collected 
 
372 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 together to form the cornea proliferate freely and cause 
 opacity. 
 
 Opacity op the Cornea also depends upon nutritive 
 conditions, and sometimes upon pressure, due to swelling 
 of the contents of the eyeball. Under these circumstances 
 it is temporary, and disappears with its cause, but when 
 it results from blows or other injuries, and sometimes after 
 ophthalmia, it may be permanent. When a slight bluish 
 imperfect opacity it is termed nebula, if more circum- 
 scribed, perfect, and with well-defined outlines, it is termed 
 albugo. These conditions are incurable ; they may become 
 less marked with time, and the process of diminution in 
 size may be accelerated by the application of caustic 
 agents, such as nitrate of silver. Cartwright describes it 
 in some cases, as due to plethora and the pendent position 
 of the head (^ Edinburgh Veterinary Review,' vol. v, 
 p. 22) ; but it probably is more frequently dependent on 
 defective nutrition. 
 
 Staphyloma is either a tumour on the cornea or pro- 
 trusion of the lining membrane of the aqueous chamber 
 with its contents through an ulceration of the cornea. 
 Such ulcerations result from debility, especially that due 
 
 Fig. 71. — Staphyloma. (Arraatage.) 
 
 to defective assimilation of tissue formers, or occasionally, 
 perhaps, from ophthalmic corneitis. The projection is 
 opaque and generally irregular on the surface,' and in the 
 ulcerative form there is a tendency to evacuation of the 
 contents of the aqueous chamber. Ulcerations of the 
 cornea and tumours on it may be touched with nitrate of 
 
THE EYE. 373 
 
 silver. Special attention must be directed to improve- 
 ment of the condition of the animal. Repair may be 
 established, even after the aqueous humour has escaped. 
 
 Go7ifjenital hairy tumours have been seen on the sclerotic. 
 The most recent case on record is that in the ' Veterinary 
 Journal/ vol. iv, p. 169. Development shows us that 
 the conjunctiva is but a modified portion of the external 
 investment of the body ; this is a teratological proof of 
 the same fact. 
 
 Worm in the Eye is sometimes seen in the ox (see ' Veteri- 
 narian/ vol. i, p. 77). The parasite is a Nematode (either 
 Filaria lachrymalis, F. papillosaf or 8trongylus armatus), 
 and occupies the anterior chamber, where it excites irri- 
 tation, and thus produces corneitis and some degree of 
 conjunctivitis. We have no instance of this occurring in 
 this country, but perhaps it might be seen more often in 
 India. Incision at the supero- external part of the cornea, 
 with pressure on the eyeball, causing the aqueous humour 
 to squirt out, carrying the worm with it, should be tried, 
 as in similar cases in the horse. 
 
 Lymjphy deposits in the Aqueous Ghamhers result from 
 inflammation of the eye, especially the rheumatic form, 
 and they may cause adhesion of the iris to the lens 
 capsule. They are generally only temporary, and soon 
 disappear. When small and attached to the anterior part 
 of the lens capsule they may be mistaken for cataract, 
 unless care be exercised. In the ' Veterinarian,^ vol. xxv, 
 p. 3, Mr. Cartwright relates a case of lymphy deposit, 
 which he attributed to inflammation of the iris. No 
 treatment is required — simply time for absorption. 
 
 Specific or Peeiodic Ophthalmia, also described as 
 Retinitis, is not so frequent in the ox as in the horse.^ 
 It is probably rheumatic, since it is periodical, and under- 
 goes metastatic passage from one eye to the other. It 
 especially effects the deeper structures, causing disorgani- 
 sation of the retina, a breaking up of the hyaloid mem- 
 brane, opacity of the lens, an orange colour of the iris, and 
 
 1 Many cattle pathologists deny that this disorder occurs in the ox. The 
 balance of opinion seems to favour the view advanced in the text. 
 
374 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 its attachment to the capsule of the lens (both conditions 
 due to lymph extravasation), a jagged condition of its free 
 margin, and paralysis of its muscular structure, deposits 
 of lymph in the aqueous chamber, opacity of the cornea 
 of a temporary character, and constitutional irritability. 
 The symptoms are those of common ophthalmia of a severe 
 character, but on examination, the deeper structures of the 
 eye will be found to be the parts principally involved, and 
 those which are visible will be found altered more or less, 
 as above described. The attack is generally sudden, and 
 only one eye affected at a time. This disease leads to ca- 
 taract, atrophy, and thorough disorganisation of the eyeball. 
 
 Treatment. — The same as for simple ophthalmia, and in 
 addition constitutional remedies, such as colchicum and 
 iodide of potassium. Is seldom amenable to treatment. 
 Animals thus affected, should be prepared for the butcher, 
 and should not be used for breeding purposes, for the 
 disease is certainly hereditary. 
 
 Cataract. — Opacity of the lens, or of its capsule, or of 
 both these structures, may be circumscribed or diffused, 
 in the latter case it causes complete blindness. It is 
 caused by rheumatic ophthalmia, and sometimes by blows. 
 In the latter case it is a fracture of the lens, and is 
 generally a stellate opacity. 
 
 Treatment in the lower animals is not likely to prove 
 beneficial. 
 
 Amaurosis — Paralysis of the Retina — is denoted by per- 
 manent dilatation of the pupil (except when the iris is 
 influenced by sympathy with the other eye) and by a 
 greenish and transparent condition of the posterior part 
 of the eye. The primary lesion may be in the cranium 
 as when a tumour presses on the optic nerve, along the 
 extracranial portion of the nerve as injury or com- 
 pression, or in the retina as in cases of depositions of 
 lymph in it as a result of inflammation. It also some- 
 times depends upon debility and excessive loss of blood. 
 It is not frequent in the ox. When due to compression 
 or structural change^ nothing can be done which will 
 be likely to effect a cure. That form due to debility is 
 
THE EYE. 375 
 
 only temporary. When the eye cannot be any longer 
 used as an organ of vision the retina atrophies. This 
 is to be seen in cases of cataract. (' Veterinarian/ vol. iii^ 
 p. 141.) 
 
 Section 5. — Diseases op the Organ op Taste. 
 
 We have already dealt with the abnormalities of the 
 tongue (Chap. TV, Section 1). Perversion of Gustation is 
 generally present in cases of depraved appetite. 
 
376 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII.— DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 The nervous system of the ox is not very highly 
 developed as a whole, though, perhaps, the sympathetic 
 portion somewhat exceeds the average. The brain is more 
 rounded and tilted upwards anteriorly than that of the 
 horse ; it has not such a numerous and complex state of 
 the convolutions. The spinal cord, and cerebral, spinal, 
 and sympathetic nerves present no special differences in the 
 two animals. 
 
 Section 1. — The Ceeebro-spinal System. 
 
 The brain seems to be especially affected by inflam- 
 mation, apoplexy, and those ill-ascertained conditions 
 known as epilepsy. 
 
 Phrentis — Inflammation of the Brain — preferably may be 
 called Encephalitis, since we cannot diagnose inflammation 
 of the brain or Cerebritis, in which simply the cere- 
 brum is involved, from that diseased action of an inflam- 
 matory nature which involves both brain and membranes. 
 Aitkin, as quoted by Williams, gives the following 
 features of distinction between cerebral and meningeal 
 disease. The former is characterised by loss of some 
 proper nerve function from the first, not at all by high 
 exaggeration of function nor vascular excitement, and 
 paralysis, anaBsthesia, loss of volition, are its distinctives. 
 In the latter, loss of nerve force takes place only some 
 time after the attack commenced ; it is generally pre- 
 ceded by exaggeration of function and much vascular 
 excitement and local disturbance. Also spasms, pain, 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 377 
 
 and delirium^ are present. Sometimes abscess in the 
 brain occurs. 
 
 The disease usually described as phrenitis is primarily 
 congestive, subsequently inflammatory. ' It is vulgarly 
 known as ^' Phrensy,'^ and is highly acute. The exag- 
 geration of cerebral functions and of vascular excitement 
 are very marked. Perhaps the shortness of the neck of 
 the ox proves a predisposing cause to this and apoplectic 
 conditions against which even the complex Rete Mirabile 
 at the base of the brain is not always an efficient preven- 
 tive. Encephalitis is not of rare occurrence, and is espe- 
 cially prevalent in hot countries and hot seasons, and more 
 particularly affects working oxen^ those exposed in pastures, 
 and plethoric males. 
 
 It is found that the disease also is less prevalent now 
 than formerly, perhaps due to less frequent over- driving 
 and greater care of animals. Fortunately, too, bull- 
 baiting, which would tend in this direction, is under 
 the ban of public opinion. Sometimes injury is the 
 cause. 
 
 The congestive stage is denoted by a highly injected 
 condition of the conjunctival membrane, together with a 
 condition of stupor, during which the pulse is slow, 
 respirations infrequent, there is a tendency to somnolence, 
 and the patient is " foolish. ^^ Soon general febrile sym- 
 ptoms and the true phrenitic signs are developed. A 
 wild and staring condition of the eyes, bellowing, and 
 charging at all available objects. This is the stage of 
 delirium. When the disease is more advanced, convul- 
 sions are present, and there is a gradual tendency to loss 
 of power as denoted by frequent falling. The patient is 
 throughout the delirious stage all but unapproachable ; 
 the pulse is full and bounding, the respirations are not 
 usually accelerated, but sometimes slower than usual. 
 There is a want of method in the fury of a phrenitic ox 
 not discernible in that of a rabid one. Later, paralysis 
 sets in, and is succeeded by death. 
 
 Treatment. — The beast having been secured and con- 
 fined by the horns, blood may be abstracted to consider- 
 
378 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 able amount, which will materially tend to relieve the 
 cerebral and meningeal congestion ; also, cold water may- 
 be constantly applied to the head, and, when possible, a 
 cathartic dose administered. Sometimes croton can be 
 given where more bulky remedial agents are rejected, 
 and the subcutaneous injection of sedative (not narcotic) 
 agents, such as hydrocyanic acid, may be tried, and the 
 tincture of aconite may be administered if possible. 
 
 Diagnosis. — This disease may be confounded with certain 
 abdominal disorders, especially impaction of the omasum. 
 It may be distinguished by its greater acuteness of the 
 symptoms, the presence of acute febrile conditions, and 
 the history of the case. 
 
 Prognosis^ on account of the difficulty in managing 
 the patient, is unfavorable, since we are not even able 
 to adopt proper measures of nursing. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows a highly congested 
 condition of the membranes and of the brain substance, as 
 denoted by unusual distinctness of the puncta vasculosa ; 
 also, sometimes the brain is softened, and there is fluid 
 in considerable quantity in the arachnoid and subarach- 
 noid spaces. Should the animal recover, there is a 
 liability to recurrence, so that altogether, when this 
 affection is present, the best treatment is to destroy the 
 patient and utilise the carcase. 
 
 Epilepsy — Megrims or Staggers — is only a symptom of 
 disorder, as shown by the varied appearances seen post 
 mortem. Sometimes it is seen in diseases of an ordinary cha- 
 racter, as anaemia, and certain other forms of blood disease. 
 Thus, it is mostly prevalent among young and debilitated 
 animals. Sometimes on autopsy a spiculum of bone is found 
 penetrating the brain, in other cases there are scrofulous 
 or other deposits, and, again, there may be induration of 
 the white matter, with a marbled or rosy colour of the 
 grey, and adhesions of the membranes to the surface 
 (Watson). How far these apply to the conditions in the 
 ox we are not in a position to state, but certainly we find 
 epilepsy associated with irregular blood supply. '^We 
 have in this malady another illustration of the fact that. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 379 
 
 when the controlling influence of the cerehrum is sus- 
 pended, the peculiar functions of the spinal marrow are 
 exercised, not only in a disorderly, but also in an un- 
 usually energetic manner" (Watson). Thus, the symptoms 
 of an epileptic fit are, after a premonitory dulness, a 
 sudden loss of brain power, as denoted by the animal 
 staggering and falling, and remaining for a shorter or 
 longer time in a state of unconsciousness. Convulsive 
 movements of the limbs, which are outstretched and 
 shivering, of the respiratory and ocular muscles, and 
 of those of mastication, are very marked. There is froth- 
 ing at the mouth and involuntary passage of faeces and 
 urine. Finally, the convulsions cease and the animal 
 rises, and shortly seems again in a healthy state. 
 
 Treatment must be palliative, and directed to the pro- 
 duction of blood in greater quantity and of a better quality, 
 and also to ensuring its regular supply to the head. In 
 young stock this diseased condition is most frequently seen. 
 Since, in the majority of cases, there is a deficient supply of 
 blood to the head, bleeding must not be performed. A 
 cathartic will prove useful in removing any irritant from 
 the alimentary canal. As soon as possible animals which 
 have once suffered in this way should be sent to the 
 butcher. Cases of epilepsy in the ox are rare. 
 
 Apoplexy is the reverse condition, in so far as blood 
 supply goes, to that which is observed in most cases of 
 epilepsy, being attributable to an over-distension of the 
 encephalic vessels with blood, and a giving way of their 
 walls, thus undue pressure is exerted upon the brain 
 by extravasated blood. Similar symptoms also may be 
 seen when sudden pressure results from bursting of an 
 accumulation, and other influences similar in their nature. 
 Plethora is the most fruitful predisposing cause. The 
 conditions of life of the ox especially tend to render him 
 plethoric, and when he is over-driven or excited during 
 hot weather apoplexy is apt to occur. 
 
 Symptoms. — Some slight dulness may at first be present, 
 but generally the animal is noticed to fall suddenly, with 
 complete loss of sensibility, consciousness, and power of 
 
380 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 voluntary movement ; the eyes in an amaurotic condition ; 
 the breathing slow, stertorous, laboured; the surface of 
 the body covered with cold sweat. Often the convulsive 
 movements, rolling of the eyes, and sudden falling may 
 lead to diagnosis of epilepsy, but this will soon be with- 
 drawn, as the case remains in the same condition, or lapses 
 into the quiescent form, or rapidly terminates in death. 
 This results from extension of the pressure to the medulla 
 oblongata, and interference with its functions. It will 
 be observed that the symptoms vary somewhat, according 
 to the seat of the extravasated blood. This condition is 
 sometimes seen in association with fracture of the cranium 
 and with rupture of the blood-vessels such as may also 
 arise from other forms of external injury. 
 
 Treatment consists in free bleeding and administration 
 of a laxative, but is seldom effectual, and the disease is 
 apt to recur. 
 
 Dropsy op the Beain : Hydrocephalus — is the accumula- 
 tion of serous fluid in the cranium, either between or 
 below the membranes of the brain, or else dropsy of the 
 ventricles. The latter condition is said to sometimes occur 
 in adults, but it certainly is very rare. Youatt tells us 
 the symptoms mostly resemble those of apoplexy, but are 
 gradually developed. The former state occurs in the 
 foetus, and causes enormous enlargement of the head and 
 impediment to parturition. The practitioner, when called 
 in, finds the head partly in the generative passage, either 
 the muzzle or forehead projecting with the fore limbs. The 
 enormous cranium is yielding, but must be diminished in 
 bulk by tapping with a trocar and long canula, or by 
 opening with the knife. To give room the fore feet should 
 be secured with ropes and returned into the uterine cavity. 
 When the cranium collapses the calf will readily be 
 expelled, of course dead. The loss is not to be lamented, 
 as it would have done no good, the animal remaining 
 weakly and unthrifty for a short time, and then dying. 
 Youatt gives an interesting case, in which puncture was 
 tried, but tetanus supervened and the animal died. He 
 also mentions that the disease may appear in weakly ani- 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 381 
 
 mals after birth. In these cases we sliall find the cranial 
 bones thin and widespread, and large numbers of stellate 
 Wormian bones placed between them, in the endeavour to 
 
 Fig. 72 . —Congenital hydrocephalus, causing difficult parturition. (Simonds). 
 
382 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 close up the large cavity, but not sufficient to replace a 
 great part of the membranous walls. The brain is im- 
 perfectly developed. Sometimes we find only the floor of 
 the cranium present, its bony walls being entirely absent, 
 and the margins of the imperfect walls regularly 
 rounded off. 
 
 Paeasites occasionally grow in the brain. These are 
 the same hydatids as are seen in the brain of sheep, giving 
 rise to "turnsick.''^ They are known as Gcenuri cerehrales, 
 are the larval form of the Taenia coenurus, seen in its and 
 adult state in the dog. They affect various parts of the 
 
 Fig. 73. — Ccenurus cerehralis. 
 (After Cobbold). 
 
 Fig, 74. — Ccenurus cerehralis. 
 (a) In situ, (After Cobbold). 
 
 brain, generally the cerebral hemispheres. The embryo 
 which has escaped from the ovum of the tapeworm bores 
 its way through the tissues and enters a blood-vessel. It 
 lis carried in the round of the circulation to the brain, and 
 there locates itself. It increases in size, and generally is 
 large before it causes any appreciable symptoms, which 
 are those due to circumscribed deficiency of a portion of 
 the brain, or some forms of pressure on the surface, viz. 
 constantly moving round and round in the same direction, 
 and generally towards the side on which pressure is made. 
 The disease is most prevalent in young animals, and in 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 383 
 
 some seasons than others ; it is also somewhat rare in this 
 country. 
 
 Fost-mortem examination having proved the presence of 
 the parasite, this must not be thrown away carelessly, but 
 destroyed or preserved as a specimen, for it is of interest. 
 Trephining. may be experimentally tried, for in calves the 
 sinuses are very small, and so sometimes a yielding of thb 
 bone over the hydatid may be perceived. With regard to 
 the direction of turning and other interesting physiological 
 deductions from this disease, as seen in the sheep, 
 the 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' 1879-80, may 
 be consulted with benefit. 
 
 The occurrence of bony tumours in the cranium is 
 noticed under the heading " Exostoses.'' It will be 
 remembered that the cases of " ossified brain'' recorded 
 are of this nature. 
 
 We know but little of the derangements of the brain of 
 a less striking nature than those hitherto described which, 
 perhaps, occur in the ox. But we must remember that 
 the conditions of life of this animal are not such as to 
 call for any high exercise of cerebral functions, nor are 
 cattle, as a rule, subjected to such close scrutiny as 
 suffices to detect slight indications of brain disorder. 
 This organ is very liable to disease in association with 
 deranged conditions of the digestive apparatus, and a 
 disease of this kind has been described as Stomach staggers, 
 but really is a case of functional brain disease due to con- 
 gestion. We are familiar with the drowsy sensation 
 which results from a fulness of the stomach ; the same is 
 sometimes exaggerated in cattle, giving rise to Goma, 
 which is denoted by dulness and a torpid condition, with 
 sleepiness and a tendency to fall down, especially when 
 the head is elevated. The respirations are deep and slow, 
 the pulse full and slow, and the pupil dilated. This is 
 the state also induced by narcotic poisons ; it is then 
 termed Narcosis, It must be treated by bleeding, stimu- 
 lants, and a full cathartic dose. 
 
 Delirium is a condition of perverted cerebral functions 
 seen in some diseases, such as encephalitis and some forms 
 
384 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 of blood disorder,, and it also results from the action 
 of certain poisons. There is a wild look of the eye, 
 excitement and sometimes fury, with violent struggling 
 and discharge of frothy saliva from the mouth. 
 
 Diseases of the Spinal Coed have not been diagnosed 
 with thorough accuracy, though Cruzel gives a long 
 account of myelitis, which, he says, is very rare in the 
 ox. Associated with this important nervous centre are 
 two remarkable conditions which, having been described 
 as distinct diseases, must be rather looked upon much in the 
 same light as coma and delirium, they being symptoms 
 which may be dependent upon any of several pathological 
 states. Thus, Tetanus or Locked Jaw may be caused by 
 electric stimulation of a motor nerve or the spinal cord, or 
 by the introduction of strychnia into the system, or by 
 certain conditions of nerves associated with a wound, or, 
 we believe, as a result of the action of cold and other 
 influences. It is simply an excitation of the spinal cord, 
 causing it to throw so many impressions into the motor 
 nerves so closely following one another that tonic spasm 
 results. It may be diffused or circumscribed. In the 
 latter case simply the source of motor-nerve force to the 
 muscles of the head may be affected then the jaws are 
 fixed and the retractor muscle draws the eyeball back 
 into the orbit and so causes persistent protrusion of 
 cartilage -nictitans. This is known as trismus. Again, we 
 may find only the muscles of one side of the body affected 
 (jpleurosthotonos) J or those above the spine (opisthotonos), 
 or those below (emprosthotonos) . In other cases we find 
 a combination of these conditions. In disease is de- 
 scribed as Traumatic when due to wounds, and Idiopathic 
 when no wound can be found to which it may be attri- 
 buted. It must not be supposed that it is only the 
 motor portion of the cord which is affected, for there are 
 indications that hyperaosthesia is present often to a 
 marked degree, thus, excitation of the patient is apt to 
 give rise to exaggeration of the spasm, and quietude is by 
 far the most important feature of treatment. 
 
 Symptoms. — A gradually increasing difficulty is evi- 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 385 
 
 dently found in separating the jaws, and in performance of 
 the voluntary movements in general. The disinclination 
 to feed is the first matter which directs attention to the 
 case, but there is no concomitant fever. There is a 
 straddling gait, due to inflexibility of the hind limbs. 
 Attention is directed to the mouth to determine the cause 
 of refusal of food, and it is found that by this time the 
 jaws are locked. Usually there is a flow of saliva of a 
 foetid character from the mouth when the lips are separated. 
 Soon the appearance of the patient becomes characteristic ; 
 there is a marked condition of the muscles, due to rigi- 
 dity, the tail is slightly straightened, the haw protruded, 
 and the animal moves '^ all of one piece.'^ If the haw be 
 not protruded it will do so when the head is raised. The 
 muzzle is extended forwards, and there is obstinate con- 
 stipation. The animal sometimes tries to feed, and 
 succeeds in sucking up a small quantity of fluid ; he some- 
 times falls and continues in the recumbent position, but 
 as often stands persistently. Respiration is materially 
 interfered with by the contraction of the inspiratory 
 muscles, but the diaphragm for a long time retains its 
 activity. That the sympathetic system is involved is 
 inferred from the state of the bowels ; in some cases this 
 may be primary, and the disease of the cord secondary. 
 As a general rule, the reverse is the case. Sometimes 
 the disease proves rapidly fatal, and causes death on the 
 second or third day ; if the patient lives to the sixth day 
 some hopes of cure may be held out, but the prog- 
 nosis is never very favorable, for we are working very 
 much in the dark in treating tetanus. In some cases it 
 is directly traceable to a wound either in the suppurative 
 or cicatrising stage, when it is supposed that some nerve- 
 fibre is entangled in the scar or otherwise disordered. Of 
 these wounds the most frequent are surface-grazes, those 
 produced in castration, and pricks in shoeing. Owing to 
 the frequency of the latter, it is said to be most prevalent 
 in working oxen. The idiopathic forms are attributable 
 to exposure to cold and sudden changes of temperature, 
 especially when the skin is heated. Thus, it is some- 
 
 25 
 
386 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 times seen in newly-born animals as Trismus nascentium. 
 It is also attributed to over-driving (when it may depend 
 on soreness of the feet) and the presence of irritants in 
 the alimentary canal. The latter, besides (probably) 
 causing the disease, increase its intensity, as is proved by 
 the beneficial effects of catharsis. To induce this extremely 
 large doses of powerful drastics are given, and it is wonder- 
 ful with what impunity. Once trismus has set in adminis- 
 tration of medicines in the ordinary way is difficult, but croton 
 oil may be placed on the tongue. Other agents may be 
 given per rectum, but the best method is subcutaneous 
 injection. Thus, morphia may be administered, or prussic 
 acid, or a trial may be made of the nitrite of amyl. Chloro- 
 form inhaled is found to relax spasm temporarily, and the 
 same effect follows its administration per rectum ; it 
 exerts no permanent influence. In these cases quiet 
 must be substituted even for ordinary nursing measures. 
 The patient must be placed in a dark and hushed place, 
 and left there with a free supply of gruel available and a 
 good bed. The wound to which the attack is attributed 
 may be treated by sedative applications and poulticed. 
 Moller has shown (see ' Veterinarian,^ 1880) that tetanus 
 cannot be produced by transfusion of blood from a 
 tetanic to a healthy animal; it, therefore, is not specific, 
 as some suppose. No definite post-mortem lesions have 
 been observed, but in many cases there are congestion 
 of the spinal cord and its membranes, softening of the 
 cord, and accumulation of fluid between the membranes. 
 
 An interesting feature of this disease is the height to 
 which the internal temperature may rise. Some of the 
 highest readings on record in the human being were 
 taken from acute cases of this disorder. 
 
 Paralysis — Palsy — is also a symptomatic condition 
 referable to many different causes, and varying much in 
 its characters. It is loss of voluntary motor power in a 
 few or many of the muscles of the body, and generally 
 is accompanied by a similar condition, anaesthesia, loss 
 of sensory power. This union of the two conditions is 
 the result of the proximity of the sensory and motorial 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 387 
 
 tracts, bofh in the majority of nerves and in the spinal 
 cord. Tlie degree of palsy may vary from that of a 
 single muscle to total paralysis. When the whole of one 
 side of the body is affected, it is termed hemiplegia, 
 when both hind limbs, paraplegia. In the other cases, 
 simply " paralysis.'^ It may result from pressure on, or 
 disease of the medulla oblongata, pressure on the 
 spinal cord on the same side as the loss of power 
 between the origin of the roots of the nerves and the 
 brain, or on the nerves of supply to the affected part. 
 Section of these structures or diseased action has the 
 same effect. The loss of power does not generally occur 
 suddenly, though it may do so, but where the limbs are 
 affected there is a staggering gait, and a tendency to cross 
 the hind legs. The most prevalent form in the ox is 
 paraplegia. It is most frequent in old animals, especially 
 those turned out on damp low pastures and during severe 
 weather. All hardships tend to the occurrence of cases 
 of this kind in the herd. Sometimes we find that 
 the pressure on the nerves or cord is due to fracture ; 
 in this case the paraplegia occurs suddenly after a fall 
 or some other form of injury, and the animal retains 
 sensibility and motor power in all parts anterior to the 
 fracture, and loses them posteriorly, but it must be 
 remembered that reflex movements may occur, though 
 they are not frequent. In the horse, intermittent para- 
 lysis of the hind limbs has been found to be due to 
 plugging of the iliac arteries with lymph ; such cases 
 have not been noticed in the ox, but cases of paraplegia 
 in pregnant animals are sometimes seen, in which the 
 paralysis disappears after parturition ; in them there may 
 be pressure on the posterior aorta, or the iliacs more 
 particularly, interfering with blood supply. Tumours of 
 various kinds may be observed post-mortem, or even 
 during life, in such positions as to press upon the nerves 
 of the affected part. Sometimes paralysis is due to the 
 action of poisonous agents ; of these cases, lead palsy is 
 the most remarkable. 
 
 Treatment. — All attention must be paid to the comfort 
 
388 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 of the animal, which must have a good bed and be 
 frequently turned to avoid bed-sores^ which are very 
 liable to occur under an aggravated form in these patients. 
 When the case is attributable to debility, we may expect 
 success in restoring the patient, but, as a rule, these are 
 protracted and doubtful cases. When fracture of the 
 spine exists, or we surmise that tumours compress the 
 nerves and cannot be removed, we must anticipate a 
 prolonged course of treatment, loss of condition, and 
 want of success. It is better, therefore, to at once 
 have the patient destroyed. When the pressure is due 
 to inflammatory deposits, we may expect these to become 
 absorbed in time, and the process of removal will perhaps 
 be accelerated by the use of such agents as the iodide ol: 
 iron, which is at once deobstruent and tonic ; also by the 
 external application of biniodide-of-mercury ointment. The 
 food should always be as nutritious as the digestive appa- 
 ratus is able to bear, and also of a laxative nature. The 
 urine may require to be removed frequently by means of the 
 catheter. Lastly, treatment of chronic cases by strychnia in 
 two-grain doses, gradually increasing and continuedfor some 
 time, may lead to return of nerve force to a portion of 
 the spinal cord, which has had its powers reduced by 
 some influence. Hand-rubbing of the affected parts, and 
 mild stimulation and clothing, are useful adjuncts. The 
 muscles of the paralysed part decrease in size, and some- 
 times degenerate into masses of fibrous tissue ; this is 
 an advanced stage. The muscles less affected are found 
 in the stage of fatty degeneration. This is well seen in 
 cases of progressive lipomatous paralysis, such as is 
 noticed in the ' Veterinarian ' for 1880. We have often 
 observed this in our dissection of monstrosities, in which 
 the nerve centres have been destroyed after due develop- 
 ment of the muscles, or in which muscles and nerves 
 have developed independently of nerve centres. It seems 
 that as long as they are involuntary the skeletal muscles 
 develop without the aid of nerve centres, but when they 
 become striated, unless used they degenerate, and they 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 389 
 
 can scarcely come into use except under the influence of 
 the cerebro- spinal nerve centres. 
 
 Adynamia nervosa generalis (Armatage) is that 
 nervous debility wbich affects some cows during the later 
 stages of pregnancy, which has been confounded with 
 parturient apoplexy, but which is only indicated by a 
 want of ability to rise, a tendency to coldness of the 
 
 b^h 
 
 Fig. 7o. — The natural position of rest as retained in adynamia. (Armatage.) 
 
 surface, and a weakness of the pulse, with some torpidity 
 of the bowels, otherwise the animal remains apparently in 
 good health. It has been attributed to pressure of the 
 uterus containing the foetus on the posterior aorta, pre- 
 venting the proper supply of blood to the hind extremities, 
 and in some instances this seems to be the case, but it 
 often persists after parturition, therefore it must be due 
 also to other causes. Of these, the demands of the fcetus 
 on the nutritive material of the blood is considered to be 
 one of the principal. Sometimes it is treated successfully 
 by suddenly frightening the animal, but it is better to 
 keep the bowels open by means of enemas and the 
 surface of the body warm, and support the strength of 
 the animal until it has entirely recovered from the effects 
 of utero-gestation. Small doses of strychnia have been 
 
390 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 recommended, and stimulant applications along the length 
 of the back are of decided benefit. 
 
 Chorea — Stringhalt. — Cases of this nature charac- 
 terised by clonic muscular spasms have been described, 
 as in the 'Veterinarian/ vol. xv, p. 71, and ' Edinburgh 
 Yeterinary Keview,^ vol. iv, p. 237. In the latter instance 
 a number of animals were affected, and this was attri- 
 buted to the practice of giving them burnt ale with their 
 food. 
 
 Partur[ent Apoplexy — " milh fever/' " dropjping after 
 calving^' — is a disease peculiar to the cow, generally 
 occurring after calving, and within three days of that 
 event, most frequent after easy accomplishment of birth, 
 in good milkers, and in old animals seldom before the 
 third calf, perhaps most often seen after the fifth ; very 
 liable to recurrence in animals which have once suffered 
 from it when the time for parturition again comes round. 
 It is noticed most frequently in warm weather, and in 
 animals which are in a plethoric state at the time of par- 
 turition. The disease is mentioned as also taking place 
 in some cases before birth, and some say even several 
 weeks after that event ; but this is very doubtful, and, at 
 any rate, quite exceptional. 
 
 Symptoms. — The cow, some time after parturition, 
 generally about four hours, becomes restless, raises the 
 hind feet alternately, breathes rather quickly, is unwilling 
 to move, and staggers during progression. There is 
 cessation of appetite and rumination, a staring condition 
 of the eye and — a sign of great significance — the supply 
 of milk suddenly fails. Shortly, in about twenty-four 
 hours after parturition, the animal falls, the hind limbs 
 giving way, and remains on the ground, generally after 
 several ineffectual attempts to rise. Then, it is found that 
 the eyes are protruding and bloodshot, and insensible to 
 the touch; in fact, there is a general loss of sensation 
 and power of voluntary motion. The pulse is now full, 
 soft, and frequently slow, but subsequently it becomes 
 faster, smaller, and finally imperceptible. The respiratory 
 efforts are slow and infrequent, and, after a little time, 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 391 
 
 stertorous. The visible mucous -membranes are purple in 
 colour, and the head and horns are hot. The animal is 
 delirious, and dashes the head about with extreme violence. 
 
 Fia. 76. — Puerperal (Parturient) apoplexy in the Cow. (From Fleming'a 
 * Veterinary Obstetrics.') 
 
 or becomes comatose, and lies with the head flexed round 
 on the shoulder^. Amaurosis sets in, and there are twitch- 
 ings of the muscles of the eyelids. The udder remains 
 soft and flaccid, or sometimes becomes hard and small. 
 All power of swallowing is lost, the bowels do not act, and 
 the urine is retained. Tympany also is present. Usually 
 the coma becomes more profound and the signs of vitality 
 less marked, until the patient dies ; but in other cases 
 the functions of the internal organs commence to be more 
 satisfactorily performed ; the bowels act, the pulse becomes 
 perceptible, and the respirations more frequent, and 
 gradually the patient recovers. Even after the animal is 
 far advanced towards convalescence relapse may take 
 place, and we have seen cases in which the slow recovery 
 was seriously interfered witb, the sloughing of large 
 patches of skin — bed-sores, in fact — resulting from a want 
 of attention to frequent turning and protection from the 
 acridity of urine while the animal was recumbent. To these 
 lesions an animal recovering from this disease seems par- 
 
 ^ This is by some considered due to special tonic spasm of the cervical 
 
 mus 
 
 icles. 
 
392 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ticularly liable, probably in consequence of interference 
 with the nervous supply of the superficial parts. 
 
 Post-mortem exa/mination. — The blood dark in colour 
 and distending the veins; petechias of various serous 
 membranes ; congestion of the brain and spinal cord, with 
 apoplectic clots on various parts. 
 
 Pathology. — Gamgee and other authorities on this 
 subject consider that there is present in the blood a specific 
 element. The congested condition of the veins in general 
 and the dark colour of the blood, together with the ecchy- 
 mosis of the serous membranes observed post-mortem, 
 seem to support this view until we consider that the blood 
 must contain many impurities, as a result of defective 
 action of all the excretory organs. Probably those cases 
 in which the disease has been communicated were septic 
 peritonitis, a disease frequently mistaken for that in ques- 
 tion. Another argument advanced is, that the disease 
 sometimes assumes an enzootic form, but this is probably 
 attributable to uniformity of surroundings and mis- 
 management of a number of pregnant cows. The " ana- 
 tomical theory '^ is that this disease is due to the arrange- 
 ment of the arteries at the base of the brain, as a rete 
 mirabile, rendering the cow liable to apoplexy, especially 
 when the supply of blood to the pregnant uterus is cut 
 off, and there is no compensatory determination to the 
 mammary gland. That the arrangement of the arteries 
 has little to with the matter is shown by the fact of 
 the spinal cord, as well as the brain, being the seat 
 of extravasations. Some attribute the disease to accu- 
 mulation of milk-producing elements in the blood, giving 
 rise to fever and, practically, blood poisoning ; to sudden 
 overloadiug of the system with blood, causing nervous 
 disorder; to encephalic anaamia (eclampsia). After a 
 very careful consideration of the various theories on 
 the subject, Fleming ('Veterinary Obstetrics,' p. Q&S) 
 adopts the latter view, as suggested by Franck, and he 
 considers the view of Professor Barlow, one of the ablest 
 of British cattle pathologists, as "most far-fetched.^' 
 He hardly treats this view, which is supported by Pro- 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 393 
 
 fessor Williams, with proper respect. These professors 
 considered the disease a disorder of the sympathetic 
 nervous system. Many considerations tend to render 
 this view most probable. In the ox, and especially 
 the milch cow, this system is most highly developed. 
 Alimentation, lactation, and utero-gestation, are under its 
 direct control, and its influence is especially appreciable 
 in the various secretory processes. At parturition, when 
 the act is rapidly accomplished, undoubtedly a large 
 excess of blood is thrown upon the system ; the effects 
 are the same as when a flux of long standing is suddenly 
 stopped — either some excretory organ exerts its powers of 
 vicarious action, or there is sudden increase in blood 
 pressure, and congestions and apoplectic lesions take place. 
 Normally, the mammary gland becomes very active, and 
 removes the excess of nutritive blood constituents, while 
 watery matters and salines are also removed by the 
 other excretory organs. If any influences lead to imper- 
 fection of this safety-valve action congestions and apo- 
 plexy take place. That the functions presided over by 
 the sympathetic gangliated cord are not duly performed 
 is evident in parturient apoplexy. The sudden loss of 
 milk, retention of urine, torpidity of the bowels, and loss 
 of power of deglutition, are proofs of this. But the next 
 question is as to what has brought about this disorder ? 
 We must answer this by saying that the violent throes 
 which were necessary for the rapid expulsion of the foetus 
 depended on excessively violent nervous efforts, which so 
 exhausted the sympathetic system as not to admit of its 
 recovery until apoplectic mischief has been done by the 
 method above described. With the present state of phy- 
 siological knowledge of the sympathetic nervous system 
 we are not in a position to reason the matter out more 
 closely, but it is evident that this view is worthy of atten- 
 tion, and some pathologists will find it hard to believe 
 that apoplexy is due to angemic conditions of a part which 
 is found congested after death. The occurrence of coma, 
 delirium, and convulsions is thoroughly explicable, as due 
 to congestion of the brain and spinal cord. The disten- 
 
394 • BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 sion of the blood-vessels seen post mortem and the purple 
 colour of the visible mucous membranes throughout the 
 attack show that extreme fulness of vessels is present in 
 these cases, and also a loss of tone of their muscular 
 structure. Several other theories as to the nature of the 
 disease might be given, but it is not necessary. Williams' 
 idea, ''that the particular congestion of the brain and its 
 meninges is determined by the state of mental excitement 
 which is always present at this period, an argument borne 
 out by the fact that the removal of the offspring from the 
 mother is a fruitful cause of the so-called milk fever,'' is 
 feasible, but such an exciting cause is not absolutely 
 essential, and the brain is not the only part of the body 
 which is congested and presents blood extravasations. 
 
 Treatment. — Prophylactic consists in ensuring a healthy 
 state of the constitution towards the time of parturition by 
 allowing a little exercise and adopting other means to 
 avoid plethora. Some authorities even suggest cathartic 
 doses and bleeding with this object. 
 
 Curative. — In the earliest stages the abstraction of blood 
 is decidedly beneficial, and a large cathartic dose must be 
 administered. This latter measure should always be 
 adopted whatever the stage of the disorder, for one of 
 the most important indications is to get the bowels to act, 
 and it is really wonderful what large doses of purgatives 
 may remain in the alimentary canal without producing 
 any effect, for the great distension of the blood-vessels 
 prevents their absorption. Usually a combination of 
 salines with aloes is recommended. In no disease is more 
 careful and assiduous nursing required. The animal must 
 be supported by bundles of straw, and covered with cloths, 
 the udder stripped regularly, and friction applied all over 
 the surface of the body. Cold water or ice may be 
 applied to the forehead, which may tend to rouse the 
 tonicity of the cranial arteries, which may thereby overcome 
 the passive congestion, but a more important means is 
 the frequent administration of small doses of diffusible 
 stimulants, which, we believe, tend to rouse the sympa- 
 thetic system into activity, and to diffuse some of that 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 395 
 
 nerve force now heaped up in tlie cerebro- spinal centres, 
 as manifested by delirium and convulsive efforts. It is 
 usual to apply a stimulant or a sheep- skin along the course 
 of the spine. Enemas should be frequently given, and 
 the urine drawn off with the catheter. All agents 
 
 Fig. 77.— Catheter. 
 
 administered internally should be given by means of the 
 stomach-pump, as deglutition is impaired and fluids are 
 apt to fall down the trachea, and to cause the death by 
 mechanical bronchitis of an animal which otherwise might 
 have recovered. Also introduction of the tube into the 
 stomach will tend to relieve tympany. A very good plan 
 is to insert the trochar and canula, and to administer the 
 stimulant doses through the opening. Any change for 
 the better must not cause relaxation in our efforts, but the 
 animal must not be allowed to feed on anything but easily 
 digestible laxative food, or strictly for some time kept on 
 a gruel diet. 
 
 Results. — We have already alluded to the liability of this 
 disorder to recur. Resolution takes place more frequently 
 in some parts of the country than in others, and thus the 
 fatality has been variously estimated. Paraplegia is one of 
 the most unsatisfactory results, dependent upon pressure on 
 or disorganisation of the cord. Such cases are occasionally 
 treated successfully by means of tonics, strychnia, and 
 absorbent agents, and blisters over the course of the spine. 
 Sometimes, as the deposit is gradually removed, they 
 undergo spontaneous cure. Where there are no signs of 
 amendment after a short treatment, the animal should be 
 slaughtered, and, if in a fit state, used as food. Whether 
 the carcase of an animal which has been destroyed while 
 suffering from milk fever is fit for food is much debated. 
 It has nothing specific about it, but the blood is so laden 
 with impurities that we must condemn such meat as bad. 
 
396 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 though we cannot say that it will cause disease in animals 
 which consume it. 
 
 Cases of Parturient Fever, ordinary fever observed 
 after parturition, which present no special features of 
 treatment, must not be confused with parturient apoplexy ; 
 and the latter disease must be carefully distinguished 
 from septic peritonitis, adynamia, and simple metritis. 
 
 Mania pueepeealis is a disease which is occasionally 
 seen a few days after parturition, characterised by extreme 
 excitement, constant champing of the jaws, with gnawing 
 of the surrounding objects, especially the animaFs own 
 fore legs. These symptoms are somewhat similar to those 
 of rabies, but contagion cannot be traced, there is the 
 special relation to parturition, and the attack generally 
 lasts only a short time and yields to the action of opiates. 
 It is attributed to dyspepsia, exposure, and to removal of 
 the calf from the cow. Cases are recorded in the ' Vete- 
 rinary Journal,' vol. ii, p. 17, and vol. ix, p. 13. Mr. 
 Storrar, of Chester, prefers to consider this disease as a 
 form of epilepsy. 
 
 With regard to the Nerves, we can only state that 
 Neueotomy has been performed in the ox as in the horse, 
 the anterior plantar nerves being divided as well as the 
 lateral. The operation is so seldom performed that we 
 need merely allude to it here as having been resorted to 
 successfully. 
 
 In the third volume of the ' Edinburgh Yeterinary 
 Review,' p. 503, is a case of suppose division of the 
 jpneumo gastric nerve in bleeding. Vomition, cough, and 
 atrophy of the left lung resulted. 
 
 Section 2. 
 
 Diseases of the Sympathetic nervous system in the ox 
 do not seem to have been recognised, except in so far as 
 has been already mentioned. (See Parturient Apoplexy.) 
 
DISEASES OF THE SKELETON. 397 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— DISEASES OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 The Skeleton of the ox is heavy and comparatively 
 simple. The skull is large^ for the face has to accommo- 
 date the huge grinding teeth. It also is peculiarly bent 
 upon the cranium. The f rentals especially are well 
 developed^ occupying the whole of the upper part of the 
 cranium, prolonged on each side as a horn core and per- 
 meated throughout by sinuses, which contain heated air, 
 and lessen the weight of the head. The cervical vertebras 
 are short and stout, and ligamentum nuchae is well developed, 
 but special in its character, having a layer of it on each 
 side lying externally to complexus major. The lumbar 
 region is composed of stout bones with long non-articulatory 
 transverse processes. The shoulder-girdle consists of a 
 scapula, with the coracoid appended to it as a process. The 
 clavicle is only represented by a white fibrous band. 
 The humerus has a single groove at its supero-anterior 
 part, and the ulna is prolonged to the knee. The pelvic 
 girdle is principally remarkable for the large size of the 
 ischium, which (with its symphysis) inclines peculiarly 
 upwards posteriorly. Consequently the sacro-sciatic liga- 
 ment is small. The most important feature of the hip- 
 joint is the absence of the pubio-femoral ligament ; the 
 femur, therefore, has freer movement than that of the 
 horse, its trochanter major is not so much divided, and 
 there is no third trochanter. The fibula, in all but very 
 old animals, is ligamentous throughout, except where it 
 is situated below the outer side of the tibia, and assists in 
 the formation of the tarsus by articulating with os calcis. 
 Other peculiarities have been already mentioned (as at 
 
398 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 pp, 309 and 316, &c.). Diseases of the skeleton in the ox 
 are not so frequent as in the horse, but yet are not un- 
 common. 
 
 Section 1. — Abnoemalities of the Osseous System. 
 
 Ostitis. — Inflammation of Bone — results from injury 
 or from specific influences, especially the scrofulous 
 
 Fig. 78. — Skeleton of the ox. (Dobson .) 
 
 diathesis. Abscess is the most frequent result. Also, 
 since the inflammation causes condensation of bone tissue, 
 the supply of nutriment to the articular surfaces is cut off, 
 and caries with arthritis ensues. Pain is very marked in 
 these cases, and swelling is but slight and very gradual. 
 The death of bone is termed necrosis, and the portion 
 removed is a sequestrum. When a bone is diseased at 
 the bottom of a wound, or when an abscess from a bone 
 has burst externally, the most important indication is to 
 remove all dead parts, otherwise an ichorous discharge 
 persists, sinuses extend in various directions, and the 
 
DISEASES OF THE SKELETON. 399 
 
 affected part undergoes extensive disorganisation. When 
 a number of fragments of bone are separated in a com- 
 minuted fracture these act as foreign bodies^ and necrose 
 through defective blood supply. When this is the case 
 the larger portions may be surgically removed, and when- 
 ever a small amount of necrosis is present hydrochloric acid 
 dressings will prove useful by breaking up the bony 
 structure. One of the most frequent seats of necrosis is 
 the pastern bones in cases of foul. In cases of ostitis 
 poultices should be applied, and the parts freely fomented 
 and as thoroughly rested as possible. Besides a laxative 
 dose no constitutional treatment is generally required. 
 
 Peeiositis and Inflammation of the Outer Lamina of 
 A Bone result from injury and, occasionally, from rheu- 
 matism. The membrane becomes thickened, and some- 
 times much congested, and an exudation of lymph beneath 
 it occurs, which becomes converted into bone. The pro- 
 cess is painful, and sometimes requires to be relieved by 
 ■periosteotomy. This operation does not seem to have 
 been used in cattle practice. A case of diffused meta- 
 tarsal periostitis, by Professor Walley, may be read in the 
 ^Veterinary Journal,' 1880, vol. i^ 126. It was a com- 
 plication of arthritis of the hock and fetlock, and led to 
 encasement of the upper three fourths of the metatarsus 
 by a bony layer. Chronic cases of ostitis and periostitis 
 are sometimes benefited by a blister. 
 
 Exostosis — Bony Growth from Bone — results in most 
 cases from periostitis. In the first place it is simply 
 lymphy material thrown out, but later earthy matter is de- 
 posited in it, and this in process of time becomes converted 
 into true bone. Callus thrown out round a fracture has 
 much the same nature, but is specially arranged in relation 
 to the injured bone. The most remarkable growths of this 
 nature seen in the ox are those dense outgrowths from the 
 petrous temporal bone which extend into the cranial 
 cavity and cause absorption of the brain ; they attain an 
 immense size and weight, and become closely moulded 
 against the cranial walls in such a way that often they 
 present a lobulated appearance, and have ramifying grooves 
 
400 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 upon their surface for blood-vessels. Hence, they have 
 been mistakenly described as " ossified brains/^ Strange 
 to say, such cases are seen in animals in good condition 
 brought for slaughter, no special signs of disorder having 
 been noticed in connection with them. Bony growths 
 are not infrequent, too, around the margin of the orbit, 
 dependent on periostitis, the result of injury. They some- 
 times attain such a size as to require to be removed with 
 a saw. Sometimes they bend inwards and exert pressure 
 on the eyeball, and they are always rather liable to injury, 
 which causes ulceration. Small or large bony tumours 
 are sometimes found on the ribs, extending into the thorax. 
 Once exostoses have assumed the true bony character 
 they will remain as part of the body whatever treatment 
 may be adopted. The application of blisters will promote 
 absorption of any surrounding deposit. Cases of this 
 kind seldom require treatment. 
 
 Osteophytes, or bony growths, result from ossification of 
 exudates or of fibrous tissue. They are distinguished 
 from exostoses by not being attached to bone. 
 
 Feagilitas ossium is a condition in which, through 
 excess of earthy matter, produced either by too great 
 removal of animal constituents (as seen in old age, and as 
 a result of inflammation), or, less frequently, by excessive 
 earthy deposit, the bones readily break. Under this 
 heading must be recorded the disease known as Cachexia 
 ossifraga malacia, which was especially noticed in the 
 ' Edinburgh Veterinary Keview,^ vol. iii, pp. 16, 75, and 
 223, and also treated of in the 'Americali Veterinary 
 Journal,' May, 1852. It is vulgarly known as '^Cripple'' 
 or " Stiffness,^' and is enzootic in certain situations, and 
 affects especially milch cows. It is attributed to the non- 
 assimilation of phosphatic material, or its excessive re- 
 moval from the system in milk. A deficiency of phosphates 
 in the soil is considered the main cause, and over-stocking 
 land is likely to give rise to it. 
 
 Symptoms. — Indigestion, with progressive debility, stiff- 
 ness of gait and staggering. Later, inability to rise, swell- 
 ing of the bones, especially at the joints, and paralysis. 
 
THE SKELETON. 401 
 
 These cases are long and tedious, and require to be treated 
 by change to full and highly nutritious diet, a mild 
 laxative to empty the alimentary canal, and subsequently 
 mineral tonics. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows ligaments torn away 
 from their attachments, bones enlarged, friable, and pre- 
 senting outgrowths. Fractures also are generally present. 
 This disease is similar in many of its characters to " Osteo- 
 porosis '' as seen in the horse, but differs in the presence 
 of friable tumours and in the considerable alteration in 
 shape which the bones undergo. Whether these are the 
 same disease is a matter of importance, for Osteoporosis has 
 been described as affecting the ox by Professor Williams, 
 who says, " Cattle reared on bad, ill- drained land, poorly 
 kept in the winter, grazed on sterile upland pastures 
 during dry summers, or otherwise ill-used, are liable to be 
 affected with it.^-* This matter must be settled by micro- 
 scopical examination of the bones. 
 
 Kachitis — Uickets — is an imperfection of bones seen in 
 young animals, and essentially dependent on the non- 
 deposition of sufficient earthy matter in the ossifying tissue, 
 which therefore yields to the superincumbent weight. 
 This depends on imperfect nutritive supply or mal-assi- 
 milation, and is not infrequently associated with the 
 scrofulous diathesis. As seen in calves it is characterised 
 by enlargement of the joints, a bent condition of the 
 limbs, especially below the knee and the hock. Also, it 
 is almost invariably accompanied by indigestion and 
 diarrhoea. It is first manifested when the animal is a few 
 weeks old, and can be sometimes traced to imperfect 
 supply of milk ; in other cases it may be associated with 
 lesions of the nervous system. 
 
 Treatment. — Careful nursing, nutritious and digestible 
 diet, cod-liver oil and lime water, mineral and vegetable 
 tonics. The medicinal agents should be given in milk. The 
 bent portions of the limb may be supported by properly 
 applied splints on the convex surfaces. As the animal 
 grows older the bones will become hardened, but will 
 remain deformed. 
 
 26 
 
402 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 A degneration of the gastrocnemii tendons has been 
 seen in young cattle. 
 
 Fractures — solutions of continuity of the hard struc- 
 tures of the body — are simple, compound, or comminuted. 
 A fracture is simple when there is a breaking into two 
 parts ; when several fragments are formed it is commi- 
 nuted ; and it is compound when there is a communication 
 with the surface through a wound and sometimes pro- 
 trusion of a portion of bone. When one of the long 
 bones of the extremity is the seat (they are the most 
 frequent) the fracture may be longitudinal, transverse, or 
 oblique. The latter are the easiest to set, but the most 
 difficult to retain in position, and their sharp ends are apt 
 to pierce the skin and to convert a simple fracture into a 
 compound one, which is not at all satisfactory, since ex- 
 posure to the air excites suppuration, and materially 
 delays repair. Transverse fractures are difficult to set, 
 but easy to retain in position ; longitudinal are least liable 
 to displacement. When the bone is in a comminuted 
 condition, it requires to throw off all portions of which 
 the nutritive supply is cut on, and to unite together the 
 remaining fragments. Reunion of a fractured bone results 
 from the calcification and subsequent ossification of lymph, 
 which is thrown out around the fracture and forms the 
 interior callus, a plug inside the bone; the intervening 
 situated between the fractured surfaces, and the ensheath- 
 ing around the parts, binding them together. The callus 
 after a time almost disappears, and but little trace of the 
 fracture of the bone is visible. Rest is essential to the 
 proper performance of these processes, otherwise simply a 
 lymphy bond of union between the fragments may be 
 formed, constituting the condition known as '^ false joint.^' 
 Certain minor details of the process of repair have not 
 been touched upon, such as the rounding off of sharp 
 projections and the establishment of cancellated and 
 compact tissues continuous with one another. 
 
 Symptoms of Fracture. — The principal symptoms are 
 deformities and pain of the part, interference with its 
 function, crepitation when on manipulation the extremities 
 
THE SKELETON. 403 
 
 are rubbed together. Soon swelling sets in and renders 
 diagnosis obscure. 
 
 Treatment comprises restoration of tbe fragments to 
 their natural position, and maintaining them there in a 
 state of rest until union has been completed. This takes 
 over a month, so that such cases are rather serious ones 
 to take in hand. ^^ Setting the bone,^^ can best be 
 effected by extension and counter-extension, but the 
 details must vary with the part affected. Eetention may 
 be accomplished by bandages, compresses, or splints ; 
 the latter are made of leather, gutta percha (warmed in 
 hot water), or some other soft yielding substance, and 
 must not be bound on too closely, but allowance made for 
 the swelling which will ensue. These are retained in 
 position by a starch bandage, which gives even pressure ; 
 depressions below the splints must be padded in such a 
 way as to secure this. A pitch-plaster is useful in some 
 cases where splints and bandages cannot be applied. To 
 secure as much rest as possible the patient should be 
 housed and allowed a good bed and regular laxative diet. 
 Of particular fractures we may specify — 
 
 Fracture of the Horns, — It is often seen, especially in 
 young animals which have been fighting. The horn core may 
 be fractured transversely without injury of the horn ; the 
 latter then will act as splints. When both core and horn 
 have been broken off, haemorrhage will be profuse, and 
 must be restrained by pressure, or, if necessary, by the 
 actual cautery. The opening extending into the frontal 
 sinuses must then be covered with a tarred cloth, which 
 must not be bound on too closely, or it may give rise to 
 exostotic growth from the exposed bone as in a case before 
 us, where the tumour measures about two feet ten inches 
 in longitudinal circumference, and weighs about five 
 pounds. Anything of this kind must be removed with 
 a saw. An imperfect horny covering will, in due time, 
 invest the exposed extremity. 
 
 Fracture of the Metacarpal or Metatarsal Bone, 
 when compound or comminuted, may be treated by 
 amputation, performed as recommended for foul. 
 
404 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Fracture of the Os Innominatum may be througli tlie 
 acetabulum, when, if the animal is at all in condition, it 
 should he killed for the butcher. The same rule applies 
 to fractures of the more serious kind involving joints, or 
 penetrating cavities in any part of the body. Animals 
 rushing through doors, over landing stages, or through 
 gates which shut on them, are liable to fracture of the 
 antero-inferior spinous process of the ilium ; this never 
 unites, but a false joint forms, and the animal remains 
 permanently deformed, ^^ ragged '' or '' hipped,^' as it is 
 termed. 
 
 Fractures of the Bihs may lead to passage of the frag- 
 ments inwards and laceration of the lung or to pleurisy. 
 
 Fractures of the Granium are seldom seen in cattle, and 
 not likely to compress the brain, for the plates of bone of 
 the cranium are separated almost everywhere by the 
 frontal sinuses, so that the outer gives way without the 
 inner. 
 
 Fractures of young animals unite more readily than 
 those of the adult ; in them we occasionally see cases 
 of partial fracture, fracture with bending, or greenstich 
 fracture, and apparent fracture may be due simply to 
 separation of epiphyses, especially those of the olecranon 
 and of the summit of the process of os calcis. In such 
 cases there is flexure of the limb at the hock or the 
 elbow, generally a hard tumour above the joints of these 
 parts, and a thickened condition of the muscles higher 
 up. In such cases the limbs must be forcibly kept 
 straightened for a considerable time, and an attempt must 
 be made to bring the separated parts in apposition, and 
 maintain them there. Such cases are troublesome. 
 
 As in other lower animals, the difficulty in treatment 
 of fractures in the ox consists in our inability to keep the 
 patient quite quiet and at rest. Again, we cannot satis- 
 factorily use slings for him as we would for the horse 
 for they too much compress the abdominal viscera and 
 interfere with digestion. Still, we do not require 
 such accurate and perfect union in the ox as in the 
 
THE SKELETON. 405 
 
 horse. Altogether treatment of the majority of cases is 
 indicated. 
 
 Section 2. — Injueies and Diseases of Ligaments and 
 
 Muscles. 
 
 Sprain is rupture of some of the fibres of a ligament or 
 tendon. When all give way simultaneously we have to 
 do with complete rupture of a white fibrous band, thus, 
 these conditions so often described separately are simply 
 one and the same, but the latter is an exaggeration of the 
 former. Eeparative inflammation is set up and thus the 
 parts become hard, swollen, hot and painful, and there is 
 a want of free movement of the tendon. Over-tension 
 of some kind is the cause of this state, as when an 
 animal progressing rapidly steps in a deep hole, catches 
 its foot in any place, or bears its weight improperly on 
 the limb. Of course the tendons of the limbs are most 
 frequently the seat of this lesion. Generally some amount 
 of thickening remains after recovery. 
 
 Treatment comprises thorough rest, not only by keep- 
 ing the patient quiet, but sometimes by placing the limb in 
 a favorable posture. In the early stages warm water 
 may be used to relax the parts and lessen pain, but 
 when possible, cold water may be continuously applied, 
 whereby tendency to excessive deposit will be prevented ; 
 and also there will be a certain amount of local anaesthesia 
 produced ; unless the application be continuous, it may as 
 well be left alone. When all heat has subsided in the 
 part it will be advisable to complete the repair by the 
 stimulating action of a blister or even of the actual 
 cautery. 
 
 Sprain of the Fetlock Joint is perhaps the most frequent 
 lesion of this nature. It depends upon excessive diver- 
 gence of the digits, and here mainly falls the stress of all 
 the weight thrown upon the limb. This form of injury 
 is most frequent in working oxen, and presents nothing 
 special in its course and treatment except that it is liable 
 
406 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 to be accompanied by arthritis and to result in false 
 anchylosis of the joint. The sheaths of the tendons 
 about this part always undergo thickening in such cases. 
 Sometimes the inflammation runs so high as to give rise 
 to considerable systemic disorder^ so that a cathartic 
 and febrifuge agents must be administered. Overgrowth 
 of the hoofs, by giving rise to abnormal direction of 
 tension, predisposes to this injury. 
 
 Sprain of Ligamentum Teres of the Hip is seen in the 
 ox, for he has no pubio-femoral ligament to strengthen 
 the union of the head of the femur with the acetabulum. 
 Armatage gives the following symptoms : — Flexion of the 
 affected limb during rest and drooping of the haunch of 
 that side. Inability to raise the thigh and advance the 
 leg, so that the hoof is dragged along the ground. Great 
 pain on movement of the limb, absence of external in- 
 dications, and in chronic cases, wasting of the quarter, 
 with a clicking noise during progression. The most 
 frequent cause of this is beasts ^'mounting'' on one 
 another, but blows may also give rise to it. Abscess 
 in the hip-joint may result. These cases are not rare, 
 and prove severe and protracted, and seriously interfere 
 with condition. The ordinary treatment for sprain must 
 be tried ; in chronic cases a seton may prove useful. 
 Above all things thorough rest must be secured ; this 
 ligament has been found ruptured. 
 
 A case of Ruptured Suspensory Ligament may be read in 
 the ' Veterinarian,^ vol. xvi, p. 254. This ligament divides 
 inferiorly into four in the ox and assists the perforatus 
 to form its sheaths for perforans. 
 
 The muscular system of the ox is less liable to injury 
 and disorder than that of the horse, since the tendons 
 are seldom subject to excessive strain, and the animal is 
 not compelled to undergo excessive muscular exertion. 
 Yet, as a result of over-feeding, the muscles degenerate, 
 undergoing fatty change, and are liable to give way 
 under the influence of a comparatively slight degree of 
 force. Of this nature is the Rupture of serratus magnus, 
 
THE SKELETON. 407 
 
 which gives rise to excessive and sudden lameness when 
 heavy fat cattle are made to travel any distance. 
 
 Displacement of the A hdudor femoris has been described 
 by some authors. It gives rise to hip lameness, with 
 a dragging of the limb and imperfect flexion. Incision 
 through the investing fascia is necessary to free the 
 muscle. It is seen in working cattle and in mountainous 
 districts. 
 
 In muscles certain parasites take up their abode. Of 
 these the most important are the Trichina and Cysticerci. 
 These have, in this country, only been found in the ox as 
 a result of experimental investigation. It seems probable 
 that the Cysticercus hovis frequently occurs in the flesh of 
 cattle in India and other warm climates. Certain psoro- 
 sperms, very low organisms belonging to the Gregarinidae, 
 have been found in the flesh of oxen. These have been 
 described as cattle-plague bodies — '^ Miescher's^^ or 
 " E-ainey's^^ bodies — are detectable under high powers, and 
 have no clinical importance. They are found in healthy 
 as well as diseased animals. 
 
 Sometimes wounds lay open synovial tendinous sheaths. 
 The lining membrane exposed to the air becomes 
 thickened and discharges largely, manifesting all the 
 signs of acute inflammation. The continuous application 
 of cold water seems to be the best means which can be 
 adopted. 
 
 Section 3. — Abnoemalities of the Joints. 
 
 The various affections of the joints are not so frequent 
 in the ox as in the horse. We may enumerate the 
 following : 
 
 Aethkitis — Inflammation of a Joint — generally depends 
 upon rheumatism or scrofula, or arsenical-fume poisoning, 
 but sometimes is simple and due to ostitis, or punctured 
 wounds or bruises. The specific affections have been 
 already noticed and compared. Traumatic arthritis causes 
 ulceration of the extremities of the bones, which produces 
 ulceration of the articular surfaces, with sometimes loose 
 
408 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 portions of bone ; also a distended condition of tlie joint 
 cavity, with the ordinary local signs of inflammation, the 
 swelling being particularly hard. Fever is apt to run 
 high, and when the diseased joint is in one of the limbs 
 lameness is intense. The discharge through the puncture 
 is at first profuse ; subsequently it becomes flocculent, and 
 sometimes sanguineous. 
 
 Results. — Of these anchylosis is the most frequent unto- 
 ward condition ; to it all these cases tend. It is nature's 
 method of cure of the disorganised joint by establishing 
 bony connection between its constituent portions^ and thus 
 entirely obliterating its cavity. 
 
 The best treatment in such cases is to secure as much 
 rest of the parts as possible, and to endeavour to close the 
 wound before inflammation is excited in the joint. This 
 may sometimes be done by adhesives or sutures. When 
 admissible, of course the wound must be thoroughly 
 cleansed. Later cold water must be applied continuously, 
 which will allow only enough inflammatory action for re- 
 parative purposes. More recently the application of a 
 smart blister around the joint has been found to be very 
 successful, since it serves to limit motion and close up 
 the wound by the swelling it causes. Severe constitu- 
 tional irritation may occur in these cases. Even where 
 anchylosis has resulted the patient will probably be able 
 to get sufficient food to fatten himself ; thus, we may deem 
 a cure of this nature fairly satisfactory in the ox, whereas 
 it would prove useless in the horse. Remarkable cases of 
 arthritis are those seen in ^^ copper- smoke disease.^' 
 
 The Stifle-joint is very liable to injury from blows, 
 bruises, and other traumatic influences. The affected 
 limb is raised from the ground, and there are fluctuating 
 swellings, due to accumulations of synovia in the joints. 
 Weight on the limb causes extreme pain, and the animal 
 will not lie down, or when recumbent can scarcely rise. 
 Sometimes these cases last a very long time. 
 
 Hydrops Articulorum — Dropsy of Joints — results either 
 from inflammation, or as a result of constitutional or local 
 debility. It is seen most frequently in young animals when 
 
THE SKELETON. 409 
 
 it is due to tlie latter causes. It is not frequent in 
 cattle. 
 
 Treatment. — Subdue any inflammation present, then 
 paint with tincture of iodine, or apply friction and give 
 tonics. 
 
 Synovitis — Inflammation of a Synovial Memhrane — 
 occurs whenever it is exposed to the air, as in open joint, 
 bursa, or sheath, and is a complication of tendinous inflam- 
 mations. It leads to the throwing out of lymph and adhe- 
 sions, which impede free movements of tendons in the case 
 of sheaths and bursas. The membrane undergoes the 
 various stages of congestion, with dryness, thickening 
 from interstitial effusion, and lymphy exudation ; and there 
 is considerable pain, and fever runs high. 
 
 Treatment comprises active antiphlogistic means. The 
 most important point is to prevent extension of inflamma- 
 tion to the neighbouring cartilages. 
 
 Other diseased conditions of the structure of the skeleton 
 are of minor importance, and will present no difficulties to 
 the scientific practitioner. 
 
 Eelaxation op the Pelvic Symphysis has been seen in 
 cows after parturition. 
 
 Dislocations or Luxations are misplacements of joint 
 surfaces, to allow of which some of the retaining ligaments 
 have given way. This leads to deformity, interference 
 with function, and subsequently to changes of the articular 
 surfaces in the direction of an adaptation of the parts to 
 their new situations. Thus, cartilage is removed, promi- 
 nences are levelled, and new depressions are formed, and 
 condensed bony tissue to a certain extent replaces the 
 articular cartilage (eburnation), and receives a polish. 
 These displacements depend upon some irregular action of 
 muscles or force applied to the surface; they are most 
 frequent in young animals with delicate ligaments and 
 only partially developed articular surfaces. 
 
 Treatment comprises reduction of the dislocation, reten- 
 tion of the parts in their natural position, and artificial 
 strengthening of parts. Hip-joint and patella dislocation 
 are the forms of this lesion most frequently seen in cattle 
 
410 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 practice. The former lesion is seldom unaccompanied by 
 fracture of the acetabulum. 
 
 Fig. 79. — Dislocation of the patella. (Armatage.) 
 
 Dislocation of the Patella is the most frequent luxation 
 in cattle, and is almost always outwards, so that the bone 
 
 Fig. 80.— Means for preventing recurrence of dislocation of the patella. 
 (Armatage.) 
 
 may sometimes be distinguished as a hard tumour outside 
 of its normal position. The limb is drawn and maintained 
 forcibly backwards in a manner which cannot be mistaken. 
 Reduction must be attempted by drawing the limb for- 
 wards by a hobble round the fetlock, with a rope attached 
 
THE SKELETON. 411 
 
 to it, and connected with a band passed round the neck, 
 at the same time pressure inwards is brought to bear on 
 the displaced bone, which will probably easily slip back 
 into its position. The limb should be kept forwards by 
 tying the hobble rope to the neck band, and a blister may 
 be applied over the stifle to excite effusion as a means of 
 retention, for sometimes this dislocation is recurrent, and 
 the patella, constantly passing out of and into position, 
 causes absorption of the outer ridge of the femur, and still 
 further aggravates the case, and renders it incurable. 
 The immediate causes are slipping of the limb backwards, 
 as into a ditch, and want of tone of the surrounding 
 muscles. It is said to be most frequent in mountainous 
 districts. 
 
 
412 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER X.— WOUNDS AND OTHER SURGICAL 
 CONDITIONS. 
 
 Section 1, 
 
 Wounds are solutions of the continuity of the superficial 
 soft parts of the animal body, extending more or less deeply 
 into other structures. They generally result from violence 
 or other form of injury applied from without, and vary 
 with the nature of the cause. Thus : 
 
 Incised Wounds are cleanly cut with straight edges, a 
 tendency to bleed profusely, and to heal readily. They 
 are simple separations of parts of a tissue from one another, 
 and hence can be sometimes repaired by simply bringing 
 the parts again into apposition. 
 
 Punctured Wounds result from forcible contact with 
 some penetrating instrument, which may break and leave 
 a portion of its substance in the depths of the wound. 
 The body, in the course of its entry, either cleanly cuts its 
 way or lacerates the tissues through which it passes ; in 
 the latter case healing is least readily brought about, but 
 this is not of much importance, for such wounds must heal 
 at the bottom first, and if union prematurely occur near 
 the surface accumulation of liquid products may give rise 
 to inconvenience and retard the healing process. It is 
 principally in wounds of this kind that we find serous 
 cavities and joints penetrated ; serious complications being 
 not of rare occurrence. 
 
 Lacerated Wounds result from bluntness of the injuring 
 body and moderate force, whereby the tissues are torn, 
 their elasticity exceeded, and destruction of material along 
 the course of the instrument brought about. There is 
 seldom much haemorrhage in these cases, but the ragged 
 ends of the tissue require to be removed by sloughing, and 
 
WOUNDS 413 
 
 the retraction of the parts generally leaves a large exposed 
 surface. 
 
 Contused Wounds are those in which, besides a cut, con- 
 siderable bruising of surrounding parts results from in- 
 jury with a blunt instrument, or contact with a hard, irre- 
 gular surface. The bruise renders the case much more 
 complex than it otherwise would be, for, besides simple 
 repair of the cut, much tissue must be removed or re- 
 stored. A similar condition without the cut is termed a 
 contusion, and is less serious, as reparative changes take 
 place most readily without access of the air. The blood 
 thrown out in this latter case forms a hamatoma or blood 
 tumour. The clot which is formed does not undergo 
 organisation, at any rate as a rule, but becomes slowly 
 absorbed. 
 
 Poisoned Wounds show a tendency to gangrenous 
 results, and heal very badly ; they are not frequent in 
 cattle. 
 
 Gunshot Wounds require no detailed notice from us. 
 The methods by which repair is brought about are as fol- 
 lows : — Repair by growth, where no reparative processes 
 are set up, but the injury has not been sufficient to dis- 
 arrange the relations between the cells, so in process of 
 time the space left is filled up ; ^primary union, where the 
 parts, being brought together at once after the wound, 
 become united without any mark of injury being left ; the 
 two surfaces are so grafted together that the necessary in- 
 fluences of neighbouring tissues may be exerted between 
 them ; jprimary adhesion occurs when two exposed surfaces 
 are brought together some little time after the injury, and 
 maintained in apposition, union being the result of the ad- 
 hesive influence of lymphy material on each surface ; 
 repair by granulation is the most frequent method ; in this 
 the exposed surface, after haemorrhage has ceased, seems 
 to be covered with a glaze, which is the adhesive material, 
 simply thrown-out by the blood-vessels; this becomes 
 covered with little, highly vascular, minute projections, 
 resembling papillae in their figure ; also pus is formed at 
 about this time. The wound is gradually closed by the 
 
414 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 growth and aggregation of successive crops of these pro- 
 cesses, which are termed granulations ; they consist of 
 granulation tissue, which is at first composed solely of 
 leucocytes, either united by soft fibrinous intercellular 
 substance, or aggregated longitudinally around certain 
 capillary loops, which are shooting into the new tissue 
 from the blood-vessels of the nearest uninjured part. As a 
 fresh outpouring of leucocytes occurs those nearest the 
 surface escape as pus, and those deeply situated become 
 new tissue. The skin surrounding the wound is stretched 
 over it to the utmost extent of its yielding, and the part of 
 the surface still uncovered is closed in by a growth of epi- 
 thelial cells, which takes place from the nearest cutis, or 
 sometimes from some generating centres in the granula- 
 tion tissue on the surface of the wound. This process of 
 completing repair is termed cicatrisation. Union by 
 granulation is slow, taxes the strength, and its newly- 
 formed tissue is liable to become the seat of degenerations. 
 Sometimes healing under a scab takes place ; it is granu- 
 lation without access of the air, whereby all the leucocytic 
 material can be utilised for granulation, and none is lost 
 as pus. The scab is formed by the discharges of the 
 wound, which have dried and entangled other matters with 
 them to form a hard layer. 
 
 Adhesion of Granulations may be brought about by 
 binding together of two granulating surfaces, whereby 
 organic continuity is induced. 
 
 In the treatment of wounds the first indication is to 
 chech hcemorrhage, if present. This may be arterial or 
 venous. When not very profuse it will not require special 
 measures, but sometimes it persists long enough to debili- 
 tate the patient, and even produce syncope. Arterial 
 haemorrhage depends upon the nature of the incision or 
 wound of the artery. When an artery is completely 
 divided it retracts into its sheath, and also contracts, and 
 thus impediment to haemorrhage is brought about, except 
 when the vessel is a large one. Partial division may be 
 longitudinal or transverse ; in the latter case the haemor- 
 rhage will be greater, for the wound gapes. Persistent 
 
WOUNDS. 416 
 
 haemorrliage results from oblique imperfect division of 
 the arterial coats. Arterial haemorrliage differs from 
 venous, in that the blood is pumped out in jerks and of a 
 bright scarlet colour, and the flow is promptly lessened by- 
 pressure on the course of the artery of supply to the injured 
 part. Venous hasmorrhage depends upon wounds of various 
 kinds, but these are less important in their effects than 
 those of arteries, on account of the smaller pressure in the 
 veins, whence haemorrhage is less difficult to control, and 
 also the blood which escapes being impure, its loss is less 
 felt by the system. 
 
 When an artery has been partially divided complete 
 division generally suffices to check haemorrhage. In 
 other cases pressure will prove useful. This is applied 
 along the course of the artery between the heart and the 
 seat of injury ; torsion also is a very useful means, as it 
 places the coats of the vessel on the stretch in a spiral 
 manner, until they give way, and the jagged edges thus 
 produced recoil, and plug up the orifice of the vessel (see 
 figs. 35, 36, p. 222). LigaUires must sometimes be tried, 
 and tied with sufficient force to rupture the middle and inner 
 coats of the artery, for these retracting will lessen the lia- 
 bility to secondary haemorrhage when the ligature separates. 
 Application of the Actual Cautery to a bleeding wound 
 is a rough but effectual method, and in our patients, less 
 under supervision than human beings, is specially called 
 for when it is necessary to leave the patient to himself 
 after the operation. Hsemostatic agents administered in- 
 ternally (such as tannic and gallic acids) are seldom re- 
 quired. Styptics, as the chloride of iron and various 
 caustics, are sometimes very useful. Cold water is, per- 
 haps, the best of these agents. Yenous haemorrhage may 
 be generally restrained by pressure over the wound, or 
 by compression of the veins of supply. Usually it ceases 
 spontaneously. 
 
 Bleeding having been checked all foreign bodies must 
 he removed. This is a matter of difficulty in some cases 
 of punctured wound, and it must be remembered that not 
 only bodies actually foreign, but pieces of dead tissue 
 
416 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and loose bone must be removed, or they will retard healing. 
 Any extravasated blood should also be extracted. All this 
 must be done by gentle fomentation of the part, with 
 slight manipulation, lest haemorrhage recur. Next, nature's 
 processes must be assisted as much as possible, and in the 
 first place it must be our aim as often as we can to pro- 
 mote primary union ; even if this be brought about only 
 to a slight extent the duration of healing may be mate- 
 rially lessened. 
 
 The edges of the wound must be brought together by 
 means of Sutures. Of these there are several kinds. 
 
 Figure-of-eight Suture. — Formed by passing a pin through 
 the two edges of the wound, and winding thread round 
 each end in turn. 
 
 Ik 
 
 Fig. 81. — Pin, or figure-of-eight 
 Buture . (Dobson. ) 
 
 Fig. 82. — Interrupted suture. 
 (Dobson.) 
 
 Interrujpted. — Stitches passed at intervals through the 
 edges of the wound, and each tied separately. 
 
 Uninterrupted. — Suture material passed successively and 
 continuously several times through the edges of the 
 wound alternately. 
 
 Quilled are semi-cylindrical pieces of wood, resting by 
 their flat surfaces against the edges of the wound, which 
 they keep level and prevent from tearing. They are 
 retained by the thread sutures. 
 
WOUNDS. 417 
 
 Catgut, metal, or thread are used for these sutures; of 
 them the first is best in almost every respect, as it causes 
 but little, if any, irritation, and will, in course of time, 
 become absorbed. It is also very strong, but may some- 
 times require to be replaced by the metal when great 
 strain is put on the sutures. In large wounds the many- 
 tailed bandage is a useful means of retaining the parts in 
 apposition with one another. 
 
 Of the methods adopted to promote healing of wounds, 
 and to ward off ill consequences, the most remarkable is the 
 system of antiseptic surgery, sometimes called " Lis- 
 terisin.'' This consists in somewhat elaborate methods for 
 avoidance of contamination qf wounds by atmospheric 
 germs, which prove irritants, and, as such, promote sup- 
 puration. They also are the cause of gangrene. Wound 
 dressing on this system is accomplished under a spray of 
 carbolic acid and water, which is also diffused through the 
 atmosphere while the operations are being performed. 
 Drainage tubes of decalcified bone or of carbolised lint are 
 so arranged as to allow ''the drainage of decomposable 
 fluids from the wound without admitting the entrance to 
 it of unfiltered air.^' Certainly this method has materially 
 reduced mortality in human surgery, but the refinements 
 of method and constant supervision necessary render it 
 seldom admissible in cattle practice. We, therefore, have 
 to resort to the simpler means of antiseptic lotions and 
 stimulants, especially those of carbolic acid, which keep 
 off flies, allay pain and suppuration, and promote granu- 
 lation. 
 
 All our measures of treatment must tend to assist 
 nature, and especially to keep the affected parts in a state 
 of rest. Unless we can accomplish the latter object the 
 granulations will become irritable, and the discharge from 
 them of an ichorous character. 
 
 Sir William Fergusson, in the treatment of simple 
 wounds, preferred cold-water dressings, and their value 
 has been often noted in veterinary practice. Reparation 
 is brought about by salutary inflammation, and unless this 
 be interfered with no treatment will be required. When, 
 
 27 
 
418 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 however, motion between tlie surfaces occurs there is a 
 tendency to excessive irritation, which must be restrained. 
 Again, we must observe that, in some cases, stimulating 
 treatment will be required, either in consequence of general 
 or local debility. Thus, judgment must be exercised in 
 the treatment of every wound. A punctured wound run- 
 ning obliquely to the surface may, by a bold slit, be con- 
 verted into an incised wound much more formidable in 
 appearance, but which will heal in half the time. In a 
 contused wound blood will often require to be freed from 
 the tissue spaces into which it had escaped. Few matters 
 in surgery require more judgment than the treatment of 
 wounds. 
 
 In the ox suppuration does not so readily occur as in 
 the horse, and the pus, when formed, is of a special odour, 
 and not of uniform consistence. Incised wounds are not 
 frequent in this animal, but punctures from the horns of 
 companions are both frequent and formidable. Lacerated 
 wounds, too, are often seen, but the thick skin of the ox 
 acts as a preventive against these. 
 
 Of the results of wounds we may say that gangrene, 
 pyaemia, and tetanus are rare, and sympathetic fever 
 seldom runs high. Punctured wounds of the abdomen 
 may lead to rupture or to injury of the bowels, as already 
 described. A wound of the same nature extending into 
 the chest leads to the easily repaired laceration of the 
 lung and to pleuritis, with considerable embarrassment of 
 respiration, but seldom proves fatal. 
 
 Chronic wounds, fistulas, and the various kinds of ulcer, 
 have been already described at length. 
 
 Section 2. — Tumours. 
 
 Swellings of a circumscribed character due to abnormal 
 accumulation of tissue materials are described under this 
 name. They may be situated on the surface of the body, 
 or more deeply, and are primarily divisible into malignant 
 and non-malignant. 
 
TUMOURS. 
 
 419 
 
 Suh-section 1. — Malignant Tumours, 
 
 The former essentially depend upon constitutional con- 
 ditions and exhibit a tendency to infective distribution. 
 They are specific in their character, and are commonly 
 
 known as Cancers or Carcinomata. We have had 
 occasion already to notice the cachexia which results 
 from constitutional impregnation with cancerous matter, 
 and have shown how cancer may be generated by a 
 process of grafting, so that local developments may be 
 either the cause or result of constitutional conditions. 
 This local manifestation either assumes the character of 
 an infiltration or more frequently of a tumour. The latter 
 is less dangerous to the system than the former; its 
 virulent cells are confined and are less liable to invade 
 important organs ; also the case may be palliated by 
 removal of the masses of specific cells. The cachexia 
 remains in a scarcely manifest state throughout the stage 
 of generation of the tumours, and according as the latter 
 have a soft or a hard character is the rapidity of systemic 
 complication ; when the swelling begins to soften the. 
 infective processes are in their greatest activity. Carcino- 
 mata are of several kinds : 
 
 
 Fig. 83. — Scirrhous growth from mammary gland, x 200, (After Harley 
 
 and Brown.) 
 
 SciREHus, dense, hard, generally lobulated, consisting 
 
420 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 of groups of cancer-cells embedded in a fibrous stroma, 
 which is very plentiful. These are of slow development. 
 
 Colloid, gelatinous, adhesive, generally amber yellow 
 and soft, consisting usually of but little stroma and a great 
 number of cells. The cells separate somewhat freely, 
 leaving the areolar network behind. 
 
 Medullary Saecoma or Encephaloid, a lobulated mass 
 of brain-like substance, the skin investing which presents 
 very much enlarged veins, consisting of a more or less 
 plentiful stroma with cells in its loculi. 
 
 It will be seen that each of these forms of cancer con- 
 sists of cells in stroma. The cells are of a special 
 character. They vary very much in form and in their degree 
 of nucleation, but are all endowed with a high degree of 
 vital activity, which seems specially exaggerated in the 
 direction of reproduction. Thus, new cells are rapidly 
 produced within the older ones, and another sign of 
 activity is the tendency to migrate ; softening of the 
 cancer masses leads to ulceration, for the superficial 
 layers of the body become invaded and softened, and thus 
 a large ulcer may be present, the distinctive characteristic 
 of which is the fact that its surface is largely composed 
 of cancer-cells. The discharge is of an ichorous or 
 special character and consists of specific cells ; the danger 
 of cancer lies in this, that it consists of special highly 
 vital tissue, which grows more rapidly than other tissues, 
 and constantly increases in size, involving neighbouring 
 parts ; thus, it extends to the surface and produces an 
 ulcer, which does not tend to heal, and it involves all 
 tissues. Finally, its constituents are conveyed by the 
 lymphatics through the lymph glands, where a similar 
 diseased process results, and thus the blood constantly 
 receives supplies of the specific cells. We must not be 
 understood to imply that there is any special appearance 
 of cancer-cells by which they may be at once determined; 
 their specificity consists in their origin and effects ; they 
 are frequently quite similar to normal tissue elements. 
 The cancerous nature of a tumour may generally be 
 determined by examination of a section of it, or of some 
 
TUMOURS. 421 
 
 '^ cancer juice '' scraped from its surface. The manner of 
 extension and any infective indications will confirm the 
 diagnosis. These tumours exhibit all variations in size 
 and form as well as in consistence. 
 
 Causes. — These growths are due to hereditary influence 
 and have been originated by inoculation. The latter 
 process is attended with much difficulty and cannot be a 
 frequent occurrence in nature ; we must, therefore, con- 
 sider hereditary tendency to be the predisposition, and we 
 find that mechanical and other injuries prove excitants. 
 Under these circumstances we cannot be surprised that ma- 
 lignant tumours are less frequent in the lower animals than 
 in man. Besides the above enumerated forms of cancer two 
 other kinds are to be included under this heading ; they 
 are less malignant than the others, and sometimes seem 
 to be simply local. 
 
 Epithelioma consists of freely proliferating epithelial 
 cells embedded in a fibrous stroma. The cells present 
 must not be considered truly of an epithelial nature, but 
 rather mimic the cells of the tissue in which the tumour 
 grows, either the skin or mucous membrane. 
 
 Melanosis, sometimes called '^ hlach cancer,*' is some- 
 what similar, but its cells resemble those of the Mal- 
 pighian layer of the skin which contain pigment in the 
 granular form. They differ from them, however, in their 
 high reproductive activity and in their tendency to in- 
 filtrate other tissues. Thus, melanotic infiltrations of 
 various organs sometimes are seen, but they are very rare 
 in the ox, in which animal, however, tumours of this black 
 cancerous material occur, and often are of very considerable 
 size. They differ from those of the horse in having a less 
 marked tendency to spread, and also in not having a pre- 
 ference for the anal and coccygeal parts of the body. 
 
 Treatment of cancerous tumours is not satisfactory. 
 The constitutional tendency remains except in a local 
 case taken very early ; also there is a great liability to 
 recurrence. Excision is the only means of relief, and 
 all the morbid material must be removed. Cases of this 
 disease are not frequent in the ox but some are on record. 
 
422 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 The question may arise as to the propriety of use of the 
 flesh of a cancerous animal for food ; if the patient 
 presents marked constitutional changes the carcase ought 
 to be at once condemned. But we have no proof of 
 cancer of the lower animals being communicable to man, 
 and it is highly improbable that a disease which can 
 scarcely be communicated by inoculation to another animal 
 of the same species would be produced by ingestion of 
 the flesh as food. Thus, the use of such flesh must be 
 sanctioned, but we must remember that this may possibly 
 be a source of human disease, and should make this a 
 matter for testing by observations and experiments. 
 Next in importance to the true cancers must be placed the 
 Sarcomata — tumours composed of embryonic tissue. 
 They are generally described as cancer, but are dis 
 tinguishable from it by the nature of their elements. 
 These vary considerably in their characters, but in all 
 cases they present the distinctive features of new and 
 imperfectly formed tissue. This generalised nature often 
 makes them seem malignant, for they may grow in 
 tissues of different kinds, and are frequently seated in 
 the lymphatic system. They tend to recur, for since 
 they are similar in nature to the parts in which they are 
 found, the generating tissue cannot be completely re- 
 moved. They are not frequent in the ox unless the 
 disease known as Osteosarcoma or Spina ventosa is to be 
 considered under this heading, as it probably ought to be. 
 It appears as a swelling of the face, which is hot and 
 painful, opposite the molar teeth either of the upper or 
 lower jaw. This increases in size but does not materially 
 prevent the animal from feeding. The patient is generally 
 young, and the disease seems to be more prevalent in 
 some parts of the country than in others. As it progresses 
 the molar teeth become loose, and softening of the swelling 
 occurs in spots, which ultimately burst, and there is then 
 a profuse discharge of a gelatinous or purulent character. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows disorganization of the 
 bone apparently of a colloid nature. The swollen bony 
 structure is arranged in bands and layers, the spaces 
 
TUMOURS. 423 
 
 between them being filled with a gelatinous reddish or 
 somewhat white and creamy substance. The true nature 
 of the disease is doubtful. Gamgee terms it " Fihro-plastic 
 degeneration of the hone." Williams thinks it is tubercular. 
 By others it is considered either truly cancerous or sarco- 
 matous. Lastly, it is thought to be simply a form of osteo- 
 myelitis. Until more careful examination of its nature has 
 been made, we shall be hardly in a position to decide this 
 matter. Generally some injury is the exciting cause. 
 
 Treatment in the early stages must consist of cutting 
 down on the diseased parts and removing them, which 
 must be done with a saw or bone forceps. All the growth 
 must be removed to avoid recurrence. The edges of the 
 wound must be closed by sutures, and the ordinary treat- 
 ment of such lesions adopted. In advanced cases the 
 animal may be fattened with care for the butcher. 
 
 Subsection 2. — Non-malignant or Innocent Tumours, 
 
 Ordinary Simple Tumours are hypertrophies of the tissues 
 of the body, and hence are of several kinds solid or cystic. 
 
 Solid : Epidermic or Epithelial Tumours, such as ordi- 
 nary warts (for which see p. 354) on the skin and in the oeso- 
 phagus. These are hypertrophies of the skin or of mucous 
 membrane, the whole thickness of tissue being involved. 
 
 Fibromata consist of the ordinary elements of areolar 
 tissue j sometimes they are highly vascular. Of these, 
 the principal are the subcutaneous fibromata, polypi (as 
 of the pharynx, nasal chamber, or vagina), and fibrous 
 tumours on the knees, which often attain a very con- 
 siderable size as a result of pressure. 
 
 Lipomata — fatty tumours — may result from hypertro- 
 phy of adipose tissue in almost any part of the body ; 
 the most important are those in the appendices epiploicae, 
 which may have such long peduncles as to enable them 
 to become twisted round the bowel, producing strangulation. 
 
 Enchondromata — cartilaginous tumours — are not often 
 seen in the ox, they generally grow from pre-existing 
 cartilage. 
 
424 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Exostoses and Osseous Tumours, in general, are the result 
 of ossification of an inflammatory deposit, whether in 
 connection with or separate from a bone. Osteophytes 
 are bony tumours, generally of loose texture. Exostoses 
 are treated more in detail elsewhere (see p. 399). 
 
 Calcareous Tumours are inflammatory exudates, in which 
 earthy matter has been deposited, or, not infrequently, the 
 result of calcareous degeneration of hydatids. 
 
 Lymphomata have been already alluded to (see p. 225). 
 
 There are other forms of solid tumours, but they are of 
 little importance to us at present. 
 
 Cystic Tumours are not simple hypertrophies, but 
 result from the formation of cavities filled with fluid, 
 their walls being more or less dense. They comprise : — 
 
 Hoematomata — blood-containing cysts — generally the 
 result of injury, and sometimes having a false aneurismal 
 character. 
 
 Serous Abscesses j due to injury, which has caused the for- 
 mation of a space by rupture of areolar fibres and condensa- 
 tion of the surrounding connective tissue to form the wall of 
 a cavity containing serum. These are most frequently seen 
 in front of the knee. They are most prevalent in bulls. 
 
 Fig. 84. — Suction Trocar, used in exploring fluctuating tumours. The 
 blunt end of the instrument consists of a compressible india-rubber ball. 
 (From Erichsen's ' Surgery.') 
 
 Bursal enlargements. — Dropsies of bursse may be due to 
 excessive accumulation of synovia, or to sprain of the tendon 
 belonging to the bursa, or simply the manifestation of 
 a general tendency to effusion in consequence of debility. 
 
 Hydatids. — These are larval tapeworms, sometimes en- 
 closed in a fibrous investment formed by condensation of 
 the areolar tissue of the part in which they are situated. 
 
 Dermopilous cysts have been described among skin 
 diseases (p. 354). 
 
TUMOUBS. 
 
 425 
 
 We find no record of cyst-bearing and dentigerous 
 cysts having been observed in cattle practice. 
 
 Fig 85. — Pneumatic Aspirator, used for the removal of the contents of 
 fluctuating tumours without admission of air. 
 
 Clinically, tumours are of minor importance in com- 
 parative pathology. Their diagnosis comprises determi- 
 nation of their nature. It must be first decided whether 
 the swelling is solid or contains liquid. Certain of the 
 cancers, especially of the medullary form, may seem to 
 contain fluid. Generally the grooved exploring needle 
 or the suction trocar (fig. 84) may be used, and the 
 material brought out with it will often give us a clue 
 to the nature of the case. Signs of malignancy must 
 be sought for, especially the diseased condition of lym- 
 phatic glands. There seems to be in some animals 
 a tendency to hypertrophy of certain tissues, hence, 
 not infrequently, a number of fibrous or osseous tumours 
 appear, simultaneously however, which contrasts with the 
 consecutive growth in cases of malignance; also the 
 growths all occupy one kind of tissue. Some swellings 
 depend on inflammations, and must be considered exu- 
 dates in a more or less altered condition. Our guide in 
 determining the nature of these, and distinguishing them 
 from hypertrophies, must be their origination with an 
 inflammatory attack, also their course to a standstill 
 or decrease when inflammation ceases. The position of 
 the growth and its physical characters will generally 
 
426 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 enable the practitioner to determine with considerable 
 accuracy its composition and importance; sometimes 
 growths prove troublesome by their tendency to block 
 up passages either by pressure or by plugging ; again, 
 they may interfere with nutritive supply by pressure 
 on vessels (though generally they grow so as to avoid 
 Ihis) j often they cause ulceration of the investing 
 skin by pressure, and are thus transformed into obstinate 
 ulcers or irregular bloody projecting masses of a highly 
 irritable character, and with a tendency to bleed pro- 
 fusely; sometimes, by their size, form, and position, 
 they are serious eyesores. In growth, they may become 
 pedunculated or wide at the base. 
 
 Treatment consists in their removal with the knife or 
 hot iron, or by some other cauterising agent, or their 
 destruction through defective nutritive supply from pres- 
 sure of a ligature round the base. In cases of cystic 
 tumour other measures must be tried before recourse is 
 had to surgical removal. Generally evacuation of the 
 contents is indicated, the exceptions being hsematomata, 
 synovial cysts, and recent serous abscesses. In them 
 inflammation must be set up to lead to consolidation, or 
 absorbent agents, as the biniodide of mercury, must be 
 freely applied ; pressure also is highly valuable as a 
 means of promoting absorption. Surgical removal of a 
 tumour of any considerable size necessitates casting the 
 animal. The skin must be boldly divided, and all the 
 mass removed, the process of dissection being more or 
 less careful according to the proximity or otherwise of 
 important organs. Carbolic spray may be used during 
 the operation, and, if deemed advisable, the part may be 
 placed in a state of anaesthesia or the patient put under 
 chloroform. All arteries should be tied with catgut 
 thread, and bleeding may be reduced as much as possible 
 by a free supply of cold water, sponging, and some- 
 times pressure along the course of the artery of supply. 
 Finally, sutures may be inserted, and the animal 
 allowed to rise. Bony tumours must be removed with a 
 saw or bone forceps. After-treatment is that required 
 
TUMOURS. 
 
 427 
 
 for ordinary wounds of some size. In these operations 
 no skin must be removed unless it is discard, however 
 loose it may seem ; after removal of the tumour it will 
 soon adapt itself to the parts beneath. 
 
 Caustics^ when used for the destruction of tumours, 
 generally require to be several times repeated. The best 
 for this purpose are those which penetrate deeply and 
 cause considerable destruction of tissue, such as the 
 mineral acids. Occasionally destruction is brought about 
 by placing masses of caustic in the centre of the tumour, 
 which lead to destructive changes of the surrounding 
 mass. The red-hot iron is one of the most effectual 
 caustics ; with it a projecting mass of tumour may be 
 amputated without danger from haemorrhage. Acetic 
 acid has been recommended in cancers, as having a 
 special influence in causing swelling and destruction of 
 the cells. (The galvanic cautery is used in human prac- 
 tice.) The ecraseur is a useful instrument for removal 
 of tumours. Ligatures around the pedicles of tumours 
 may be of thread or horsehair; they must not be too 
 large, and must be sufficiently tight to exert firm pres- 
 sure ; an elastic ring may be used instead, and is very 
 effectual. 
 
 '%. 
 
 Fig. 86. — Miles* Ecraseur. 
 
 Fig. 87.— Beach's Ecraseur. 
 
428 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER XI.— THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 Section 1. — Diseases of the Male Organs of Genera- 
 tion. 
 
 The testes of the bull are well developed, and elongated 
 from above downwards. The vesiculse seminales are 
 glandular, and Cowper^s glands are absent, but the most 
 remarkable structure as compared with that of the horse is 
 the penis, which is very long and narrow, having a firm 
 external investment surrounding it, and a well-developed 
 band in the centre of the corpus cavernosum. Just behind 
 the scrotum the organ presents an S-shaped flexure, to the 
 posterior convexity of which are attached the retractor 
 muscles. The glans penis is fine and tapering; to the 
 sheath, at about opposite the umbilicus, run the retractor 
 muscles from behind, and circular fibres from in front 
 extend through the prepuce and are known as the pro- 
 tractors. A tuft of hair hangs down from the opening of 
 the prepuce. As in the case of the horse, early castration 
 prevents many of the generative disorders to which the 
 ox would otherwise be liable, while it also checks pug- 
 nacity and so lessens the frequency of injury. The 
 castrated male is more docile, forms better beef, and often 
 a larger body than the uncastrated ; the change induced 
 by the operation is, therefore, in every respect, beneficial. 
 The operation of Castration is performed by removal of 
 the generative glands, and various methods of performance 
 of this have been suggested. In India " mulling " 
 is the popular method. It is described by Mr. Richard 
 Poyser in the * Veterinary Journar (1875) as orchithlasis, 
 and depends upon breaking down the structures of the sper- 
 
THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 429 
 
 matic cord by a special manipulative process. In this 
 country a simple method termed 'Hashing'^ used to be very 
 
 Fig. 88.— External gpnerative organs of a bull dissected. 1 and 2. Muscles 
 of prepuce. 3. Scrotum, dartos muscle ; above it the spermatic cord. 
 4. Anterior curvature of penis. 5. Retractor muscles of penis. 
 6. Superficial abdominal veins. (Chauveau.) 
 
 Fm. 89.— Urethral canal of the ox a. Bladder, b. Straight portions of 
 canal, c. Curvatures, d. Retractor muscles. (Armatage.) 
 
 prevalent ; it consisted of tying a piece of cord so tightly 
 
430 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 round the root of tlie scrotum that this organ with its 
 contents underwent mortification, and in due course of 
 time sloughed off, or was removed with the knife. 
 Quite recently a modification of this process has been 
 suggested and tried in France with some success ; this 
 is the compression of the root of the scrotum by means 
 of an elastic hand, considerably too small. This method 
 has the advantage of the pressure being even, and 
 constantly varying with the diminution in size of the 
 root. Generally the process of removal with the hot 
 iron is adopted. The patient is thrown, the skin rendered 
 tense over one testicle with the hand, and an incision 
 made boldly in as far as the tunica vaginalis testis; 
 the sperm gland is then drawn out, and the opera- 
 tion completed by division of the cord by means of a 
 red-hot iron. Sometimes the scrotum is opened with the 
 hot iron, it being urged that this entirely checks any ten- 
 dency to union of the external wound by first intention, 
 whereby the pus from the seared end of the cord is apt 
 to become pent up. Subsequently the parts should be 
 examined occasionally, to see that this closure does not 
 take place too early, and also to break down any adhesion 
 between the spermatic cord and the external wound. 
 After the testis has been freed the cord may be scraped 
 through with a knife having a jagged edge, or the posterior 
 part having been freely divided, the anterior may be 
 scraped through. This method has the advantage of being 
 quick, surgical, and not liable to be followed by haemor- 
 rhage or other complications ; also not infrequently the 
 parts heal, even without suppuration. 
 
 The method of ligature consists in tying either the whole 
 cord or only the spermatic artery in the anterior part, and 
 then removing the testis. It is said that tetanus is rather 
 apt to follow this form of the operation, also there is a lia- 
 bility to secondary haemorrhage when the ligature separates. 
 
 Torsion, either of the whole cord, or simply of 
 the spermatic artery, until it gives way, is not liable to 
 be followed by haemorrhage, and is preferred by some 
 practitioners; it certainly is very effectual. In France 
 
THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 431 
 
 torsion without incision into tlie scrotum is performed in 
 a special manner, and leads to atrophy of the testes. The 
 barbarous operation of tearing out the testicle used to be 
 followed, but is not much resorted to now. It is said 
 especially to predispose to pelvic hernia, and the cord is 
 apt to tear off too short, and thus give rise to inconve- 
 nience and disorder. The removal of the testis, after it 
 has been exposed, by means of the ecraseuvj is easy, 
 quick, and effectual, and the use of this instrument is 
 regarded with considerable favour in the present day. 
 
 Fig. 90. — Castrating Clamps. 
 
 Removal with the Glamps, and hy the Covered Operation 
 are seldom resorted to now, the latter, as already noticed, 
 being required in cases of inguinal and scrotal herniae, 
 such as require the operation for radical cure (seep. 281). 
 Animals are chosen to undergo castration when they 
 are two or three months old, before the glands have mani- 
 fested their generative activity. If it be performed later 
 there is greater liability to untoward complications, and 
 it is said the meat is not so good. Indeed, it is not at 
 all advisable to delay the operation, for the extra develop- 
 ment is not an advantage, as in the horse. Sometimes, 
 but rarely, we require to operate upon an older animal, 
 then the scraping method is still very good, but castration 
 with the hot iron is generally preferred. Greater liability 
 to complications is seen in old animals than in young. 
 Of these the principal are hernia, haemorrhage, tetanus, 
 and peritonitis, and adhesions of the testis to the scrotum. 
 In the primary incision care must be taken lest a small 
 portion of bowel in the scrotum be divided. All animals 
 
432 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 should be carefully examined, to ensure the absence of 
 hernia, before castration is commenced. Haemorrhage 
 may be treated by cold-water applications, or by taking 
 up the artery and applying a ligature. Adhesions must 
 be broken down, and not allowed to interfere with the 
 operation. Finally, if flies be troublesome, the parts may 
 be dressed with carbolic solution, but animals should be 
 castrated as much as possible when no flies are about. 
 The slight movements of the animals in pasture, and green 
 food will do them good. Sometimes it is deemed advisable 
 to perform the operation with the patient standing. He 
 is then secured by fastening the hind limbs together, or 
 by means of the side-line. 
 
 Emasculation of the ox is less frequently performed by 
 the veterinary practitioner than of the horse. It is 
 generally placed in the hands of empirical operators, 
 who sometimes, by practice, attain considerable dexterity, 
 but are not competent to meet the emergencies which 
 may arise, and require prompt action. It is thus not 
 infrequent to find the operation omitted from works on 
 diseases and treatment of cattle, but we have thought it 
 advisable to give the above resume of methods. 
 
 Orchitis — inflammation of the testicle — may result 
 from injury or excessive copulation. The former is the 
 most frequent cause. There is considerable pain and 
 heat in the diseased part, the dense investment of which 
 does not freely admit of swelling, and fever may run high. 
 Atrophy and suppuration have been noted as consequences ; 
 in either case there is apt to be loss of generative power, 
 or the animal will become an irregular stock getter. 
 Measures adapted to control local inflammation, together 
 with febrifuges, will generally restore the animal to health. 
 Sometimes the inflammation is of a scrofulous character, 
 leading to deposits of a speciflc nature in the testis; 
 this is the state known as Tubercular Sarcocele. The 
 animal should not then be again utilised for breeding 
 purposes, but early castration may check the progress of 
 the disease. 
 
 Sarcocele is enlargement of the testis ; it may be can- 
 
THE MALE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 433 
 
 cerouSj or non-specific, but a scrofulous form is most 
 frequent. The spermatic cord is liable to certain morbid 
 conditions of its various components. Aneurisms and vari- 
 cose veins are sometimes present, giving rise to swelling, 
 not necessarily of a painful character. These conditions 
 are generally associated under the name varicocele. 
 
 In a specimen before us. Sterility was attributable to 
 fatty deposits around the structures of the cord. It may be 
 due also to morbid changes in the seminiferous passages 
 blocking them up ; and in other cases is attributable to 
 nervous disorder, due to over- excitement of the sexual 
 apparatus. In such cases high feeding, regular exercise, 
 and tonics should be tried, and the animal prevented from 
 the exercise of the generative functions for some time. 
 This derangement is especially liable to occur in young 
 bulls allowed too early to exercise their procreative powers. 
 
 Sometimes on incision into the scrotum in castration 
 a considerable amount of fluid escapes. This dropsy of 
 the vaginal cavity is Hydrocele ; it is not frequent in the ox, 
 and seldom of much importance. 
 
 The penis is liable to injury suh coitu, which interferes 
 with its protraction or retraction. The rapid perform- 
 ance of the act in cattle rather predisposes to this. 
 Generally the parts are restored to their healthy state 
 after a short period of inability ; but deposits may give 
 rise to permanent deformity. 
 
 Such injuries predispose to Cancer of the organ, which 
 is occasionally seen in cattle. Cases of this kind are 
 given in the ^ Yeterinarian,^ vol. xii, p. 51, and the 
 ' Veterinary Eecord,^ vol. iii, p. 232. They may neces- 
 sitate amputation of the glans or of a still larger portion of 
 the organ. This is performed by casting the animal, 
 drawing out the penis, passing a sound along the urethral 
 passage, and retaining it in position by a ligature tightly 
 compressing the organ posteriorly to the seat of amputa- 
 tion. A circular incision must then be made on to the 
 sound all round, and the ligature be left on for a day or 
 two, the sound also remaining in position to keep open the 
 urethral passage. 
 
 28 
 
434 BOVINE PATHOLOGr* 
 
 Phymosis is inability to protrude the penis, due generally 
 to contraction of tlie anterior part of the prepuce or to 
 disease of the glans. It may also result from excessive 
 accumulation of smegma. It is associated with certain 
 chronic inflammations of the sheath which result from 
 irritating discharges, in some of which there is extensive 
 ulceration of the surrounding parts. Usually there is an 
 impediment to the passage of urine, which trickles on to 
 the surrounding parts, and increases the extent of the 
 disease, which at first has an erythematous character. 
 Phymosis is less apt to occur in the ox than the horse, 
 because of the mobility of the prepuce in the former 
 animal, the pointed condition of the glans, and the great 
 freedom of movement of the penis. It requires to be treated 
 by fomentations to cleanse the parts, and manipulative 
 protrusion of the penis, which can generally be accomplished 
 after prolonged fomentation. Failing this, an incision may 
 be made into the sheath. If any morbid growths are on the 
 glans, they must be removed with the knife. The sur- 
 rounding parts will require to be protected with glycerine, 
 vaseline, or lard. 
 
 Calculus of the Urethral Passage depends upon the 
 entry of a small stone from the bladder, its impactment, 
 and an impediment to the free flow of urine. Sometimes 
 the obstruction is complete, in other cases only partial. 
 In the latter, strangury is the most prominent sign, and 
 the symptoms are less urgent. In the former there is no 
 passage of urine, the urethral canal is distended to the 
 seat of calculus, and the over-distended bladder tends to 
 burst , this occurs and causes death in some cases. In one 
 the membranous portion of the urethra gave way, and 
 infiltration of urine into the surrounding tissues took 
 place and resulted in uraemia. The stone generally becomes 
 fixed against the flexure of the penis, and the presence of 
 this, as well as the smallness of the canal, is the cause of 
 the greater frequence of this disorder in the ox than the 
 horse ; also it is attributable to the fact that the food of 
 the former contains often an excessive amount of phos- 
 phates, which are liable to form deposits, especially around 
 
THE MALE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 435 
 
 tlie prepuce and tte hairs hanging down from it, on which 
 the excess of phosphates in the urine forms stalagmitic 
 threads. The slow expulsion of the urine is one cause of 
 this. Accumulations of inspissated secretion around the 
 urethral orifice also sometimes impede the escape of 
 urine. Hairs thus covered may be cut off, and the ac- 
 cumulated calcareous matter and sebaceous material must 
 be removed from around the glans. In cases of urethral 
 calculus, relief must be afforded by incision on to the 
 stone and its removal, when a great rush of urine will 
 take place through the wound. This incision must be 
 made longitudinally and suflQciently long to allow of the 
 free exit of the stone. The animal may be kept standing, 
 but the hind legs fastened together. In the distended 
 state of the bladder it is not always advisable to cast 
 him. The escape of urine will be followed by cessation 
 of violent signs of over- distension of the bladder. The 
 wound should be closed with sutures. Urethral calculi 
 are not often seen in the female.^ 
 
 GoNORRHoeA, vulgarly termed '^ Bull Burnt/' is a dis- 
 ease of the glans penis and sheath of the bull, associated 
 with a certain amount of disorder of the lining membrane 
 of the urethra. When the latter is much affected, there 
 is a profuse discharge of thick mucus, and evident pain 
 on passage of urine is observable in every case, but is 
 sometimes very extreme. The patient stamps, moans, 
 lashes the tail, and evacuates the urine in jets rather 
 than in full stream. A certain amount of fever is present. 
 The prepuce may be primarily or secondarily affected ; 
 it is swollen, hot, and tender, and becomes ulcerated 
 internally, and abscesses may form in it, and sinuses 
 extend into the substance of the penis. The inflamma- 
 tion of the urethra is attributable to excessive venery, 
 and is most frequently seen in highly fed animals. When 
 neglected the disease terminates in fungous growths, 
 which may necessitate amputation of the penis. It is 
 certain that if bulls thus affected be allowed to copulate 
 
 ' I have a record of but one such case ; it is by Mr. Matthew Hedlcy, of 
 the Irish Veteriuury D<ipurtmcut. 
 
436 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 they give rise to a similar disease o£ tlie lining mem- 
 brane of the vagina and the vulva. Thus, it has been 
 supposed that this discharge has a specific character 
 resembling that of the syphilitic gonorrhoea of man. 
 There is grave doubt with regard to the nature of some 
 cases of gonorrhoea, but certainly that form seen in this 
 country is not specific. The ulceration of the vulvo- 
 vaginal membrane is due to acridity of the discharges 
 (see Leucorrhoea). Though considerable sexual excitement 
 is manifested by both male and female animals affected 
 by this disorder they must not be indulged, since this 
 only aggravates the case. 
 
 Treatment comprises thorough cleansing of the affected 
 parts, for which purpose the bull generally requires to be 
 cast, opening of abscesses, and slitting up of sinuses ; 
 touching long-standing ulcers with nitrate of silver and 
 the reduction of fungous growths with more powerful 
 caustics, such as the butter of antimony; a dressing of 
 Glycerinum Acidi Carbolici to be applied all over the 
 diseased surface to allay irritability and promote healing. 
 The parts must be dressed every second or third day, 
 according to the state of the case, but the animal need 
 not be cast each time. Cases of this kind will thus not 
 prove so protracted as they are generally considered to be. 
 
 Uretheitis — simple inflammation of the urethra — un- 
 complicated by the above disorder is very rare. When 
 a case occurs, it must be treated with anodyne fomenta- 
 tions and injections. The most distressing symptoms 
 arise from spasm of the accelerator muscle during passage 
 of the urine. 
 
 Section 2. — Diseases op the Female Generative Organs. 
 
 The uterus of the cow differs from that of the mare in 
 the fact that its horns, situated at the free margins of the 
 broad ligaments, are twisted upwards, so that their con- 
 cavity is inferiorly placed. Also, in the pregnant animal, 
 the increased vascularity of the mucous membrane is con- 
 fined to certain spots, the uterine cotyledons, for rumi- 
 
rOETUS IN UTERO, 
 surrounded, by Us membranes 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEQANS. 
 
 437 
 
 nants have the placenta formed by a number of cotyledons; 
 the walls of the vagina contain rudimentary tubes, canals 
 of Gaertner ; the labia are thick, and from the inferior 
 commissure hangs a tuft of hair. The pelvis of the cow 
 is so arranged that the expulsion of the foetus is more 
 tardy than in the mare. The ischium is very large and 
 expanded, and forms a very considerable part of the pelvic 
 wall, the sacro-sciatic ligament being correspondingly 
 shortened. The posterior part of the ischial junction 
 forms, with the remainder of the symphysis, an oblique 
 angle superiorly, and thus the pelvic outlet is diminished 
 in size, and placed above the general level of the floor of 
 the cavity. The pelvic passage of the cow is long. 
 
 Fig. 91. Female generative organs, a. Body of uterus, h. Its external os. 
 c. Its horns, d. Fallopian tubes, e. Ovaries. /. Broad ligaments. 
 g. Bladder, h. Meatus urinarius externus. i. Cavity of vagina. (After 
 Simonds.) 
 
 The ovaries of the cow are smaller than those of the 
 mare ; they are liable to only two forms of disorder. 
 
 Deopsy of THE OvAEiES is sccn in old animals, and 
 especially in those which have not been impregnated. It 
 
438 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 is due to tlie continued and unrelieved distension of the 
 Graafian vesicles, which enlarge so slowly that the fibrous 
 coat of the ovary is still able to protect them from burst- 
 ing. This condition is denoted by constant oestrum, 
 which does not seem to be relieved by copulation. It can 
 only be treated by removal of the organs. 
 
 Ateophy or THE Ovaries is associated with hermaphro- 
 ditic malformations of the generative apparatus, and with 
 malignant disease, either of the organs themselves or the 
 generative passages. It is not described as a distinct 
 disease. This condition can hardly be diagnosed. Only 
 one ovary may be in this state, then the animal will be 
 in a condition to breed. 
 
 Ovariotomy — Removal of the Ovaries — Spaying — Cas- 
 tration OF Cows — is an operation of which the value, from 
 an economical point of view, has been much debated. The 
 following arguments have been advanced in its favour : 
 
 1. The milk is produced continuously, and in increased 
 quantity, and of better quality after the operation. This 
 is not, however, by any means generally admitted. 
 
 2. The animals are not subject to the periodical incon- 
 venience of oestrum. 
 
 3. They are not so liable to disease, especially the 
 numerous and complex disorders of the generative 
 apparatus. 
 
 4. They fatten more readily and attain a greater weight 
 than other cows. 
 
 5. By spaying beasts of doubtful value for breeding 
 purposes the race will be gradually improved. 
 
 Nevertheless the operation has not been generally 
 adopted, for some of the above-mentioned arguments 
 are of a doubtful character. The animals operated upon 
 are not so generally useful, tend too much, in some 
 cases, to the laying on of fat, and altogether are not so 
 profitable as the uncastrated females. 
 
 Spaying sometimes requires to be performed as a 
 curative means. An incision is made in the flank in 
 the usual manner. The hand is introduced and feels for 
 the ovaries, which are drawn out through the wound and 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 439 
 
 excised by means of tlie jagged-edged knife, or removed 
 with the ecraseur. Only one incision is generally neces- 
 sary, for both ovaries can be reached through it. This 
 may preferably be made on the left side. After the 
 operation has been completed, the wound being closed 
 in the usual way, the patient must be kept quiet and 
 fed on nourishing food, and the bowels kept open. Un- 
 toward results seldom follow this operation. Removal of the 
 ovaries through the vaginal wall has been tried with success. 
 Menstruation of the cow is associated with the escape 
 of the ova from the ovaries, being accompanied by that con- 
 
 FiG. 92.— Maternal and foetal cotyledons of the cow. A. Pedicle of the 
 maternal cotyledon. b. Maternal cotyledon. c. Fcetal cotyledon 
 D. Plticental villi. B. Chorion. (From Fleming's 'Veterinary Ob- 
 stetrics.') 
 
 dition of excitation known as CEstrum, or Heat. " Kahleis, 
 Fuchs, Spinola, Numan, and others, have observed evident 
 
440 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 sanguine emissions in the cow, and have also noted that 
 the discharge occurs regularly at intervals of nineteen or 
 twenty days, when the animal is not giving milk or in calf. 
 The hasmorrhagic flow appears two or three days after the 
 commencement of the 'rutting/ and when this is most 
 intense" (Fleming). Thus, we have the opinions of the 
 leading observers on the subject summarised by the author 
 of the excellent work on 'Veterinary Obstetrics.' It 
 generally commences when the animal is about twelve 
 months old, and occurs with fair regularity every month 
 or three weeks during the '' rutting" season, the duration 
 of each period being but short. Whether or not impregna- 
 tion takes place, a proliferation of the uterine epithelium 
 occurs. When this is thrown off it is intermingled with 
 a small amount of blood. Sometimes the discharge has 
 not a sanguineous character. The oestral ^products may 
 be retained, as in cases of impervious neck of the 
 uterus or imperforate hymen. They then accumulate, and 
 give rise to symptoms resembling those of dropsy of the 
 uterus. Again, they may be very profusej and contain 
 much blood, as in a case related by Mr. Macgillivray, of 
 Banff ('Veterinary Journal,' vol. iv, p. 186). In others 
 they are suppressed, and then the ordinary signs of oestrum 
 are usually, but not always, absent. Such cases of sup- 
 pression must be distinguished from those of retention, 
 the latter being by far the more serious condition. Sup- 
 pression is due to debilitating constitutional disorders, and 
 must be looked upon as a symptom of disease. With reten- 
 tion it is generally included under the heading Amenorrhcea. 
 Sterility is not at all infrequent in heifers, especially 
 well-bred animals. It is generally associated with fre- 
 quent oestrum, but sometimes there is an absence of 
 sexual desire. It may depend upon imperviousness of any 
 of the generative passages, such as results from inflamma- 
 tion of them, scrofulous disease, or morbid growths ; it is, 
 therefore, one of the symptoms of scirrhous os uteri, im- 
 pervious hymen, and congenital malformation of the gene- 
 rative organs, as seen in hermaphrodites. Again, the 
 excessively fattened condition may cause sterility. 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 441 
 
 Feee Martins are born twins with bull calves, and have 
 the external form of the female, but are reputed to be 
 sterile. John Hunter, whose great mind neglected no 
 source of information, made this popular opinion a matter 
 of inquiry. He found that the apparently female calf is 
 often hermaphroditic, but all free martins are not to be 
 considered sterile, as many prove fertile. 
 
 The progress of llteiO -gestation is associated with a 
 higher development of the structures of the uterine wall, 
 whereby they are adapted for the supply of oxygen and 
 nutritive materials to the foetus. These changes, being in 
 the direction of higher development, increase the liability 
 to disease. Sometimes False Labour-pains occur before 
 the usual period, tending to produce abortion, and due to 
 such influences as disturb the relations between the mother 
 and the foetus. Thus, falls and injuries separate some of 
 the cotyledons, and stimulate the muscular walls of the 
 uterus to contract. Any colicky pains dependent upon 
 the pregnant condition of the uterus, but not succeeded by 
 expulsion of the foetus, must be classed under this head- 
 ing. Some authorities also include those which produce 
 untimely expulsion. The difference is one of degree, 
 not of kind : therefore these uterine spasms, whenever 
 they take place prematurely, should be carefully watched, 
 and, if they seem likely to produce ill effects, must be 
 controlled by opium or some other antispasmodic. At 
 the same time all irritant food-stuffs which may have 
 been the cause by reflex action, must in future be 
 avoided. 
 
 The Signs op Pregnancy are, sometimes a cessation 
 of oestrum and a considerable improvement in condition 
 together with a want of inclination for the bull. The 
 abdomen enlarges and becomes pendulous, and the 
 mammae increase in size, as also does the mucous mem- 
 brane of the vulva and vagina and its secretion is 
 increased. About the fifth month the fcetus may he 
 detected hy manipulation of the right side ; the wall of 
 the abdomen in front of the stifle being suddenly raised 
 with the hand, the foetus in utero will fall back again 
 
442 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and be felt. About this time, too, careful examination 
 will detect foetal movements, and later these can be per- 
 ceived without manipulation. Exploration per rectum or 
 per vaginam is sometimes resorted to as a means of con- 
 firming the diagnosis, and it is said that the beats of the 
 foetal heart may be detected by auscultation in front of 
 the symphysis pubis. 
 
 Abortion occurs very frequently, due to the nature of 
 the food and other influences. It must be distinguished 
 artifically from premature birth in which the foetus is 
 able to live for a longer or shorter time after expulsion. 
 Fleming estimates all cases as abortions which take place 
 thirty-five days before the normal period of from nine to 
 ten months. He quotes the valuable observations of 
 Earl Spencer, that no calf can be born alive before the 
 220th nor after the 313th day, and that it is im- 
 possible to rear those born before the 242nd day. This 
 accident is termed slinking or slipping the calf, and is 
 sometimes sporadic, often epizootic or enzootic. It varies 
 in importance with the stage of pregnancy in which it 
 occurs. Thus, in early stages it may cause no apparent 
 inconvenience, later it is accompanied by some fever, a 
 yellowish-red discharge from the vagina, and a consider- 
 able amount of uneasiness, and still later, there are all 
 the ordinary signs of parturition. It is liable to be brought 
 on by too frequently taking the bull, by various kinds of 
 injuries, by bad feeding, or the presence of fungi, such as 
 ergot or ustilago (rust) on the food, and by excessive expo- 
 sure to cold. It often results from debility. It generally 
 takes place in pregnant animals affected with blood disease, 
 is common in cases of hernia, and may be due to nervous 
 influence. Owing to the latter condition, if one cow 
 abort, many others in the same shed will do so too. By 
 some, however, these enzootics of abortion are attributed to 
 the influence of certain prevalent bacterian organisms 
 which are developed in the foetal membranes and on the 
 vaginal mucous surface, and ordinarily cause a breaking 
 down of the foetal coverings. Consequently, if some of 
 the latter be left about it may prove most prejudicial, and 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 443 
 
 rigid separation of animals which have aborted from those 
 which are pregnant should be attended to in all cases. 
 It is remarked that enzootics of abortion occur most fre- 
 quently in seasons favorable to the development of fungi. 
 Sometimes abortion leads to flooding, but the most im- 
 portant ill effect is the loss to the owner, for not only is 
 the calf dead but also the regular secretion of milk may 
 be seriously interfered with. 
 
 Treatment. — After an abortion, an animal should be 
 nursed and carefully watched. Sometimes stimulant 
 tonics are requisite. As a rule, the foetal membranes are 
 passed investing the foetus, but if not, they should be 
 removed as soon as possible. Special care must be taken 
 to isolate all affected animals, and since the irregularity 
 is very liable to recur when pregnancy again advances to 
 the stage when the accident happened, it is often better 
 to fatten the cow for sale. We may conclude that any 
 cause seriously altering the constitutional conditions of 
 a pregnant animal may bring about abortion ; some of 
 these influences also directly cause death of the foetus, 
 others do not do so. In the former case it is not to be 
 regretted that abortion takes place. The occurrence of 
 the false labour pains must be met by antispasmodics. 
 
 Premature Birth depends upon influences similar to 
 those which give rise to abortion. We note it here as 
 necessitating special care in the rearing of the calf. The 
 small animal thus prematurely brought into the world is 
 deficient m heat-producing power, and also in strength, 
 but in due time may progress as well as if the full 
 period of gestation had been completed. In many cases 
 the utero- gestation is remarhahly prolonged ; in one 
 recorded it amounted to fifty-two weeks, this was most 
 remarkable ; it is not usually found that the calf is excep- 
 tionally large in these cases. The number of animals 
 horn at one time from the same cow is sometimes very 
 extraordinary. The most extreme case was one in which 
 fifteen embryos were found in the uterus. Cases have 
 been known of animals producing five calves at a birth 
 and all of them living. 
 
444 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 SuPEKFCETATiON is the impregnation of a second ovum 
 after the embryo from another has undergone a certain 
 degree of development and is still in the uterus. It 
 sometimes is observed in the cow. 
 
 Extra-uterine Conception — development of the foetus 
 in situations other than the cavity of the womb — is an 
 extraordinary phenomenon of which some cases in the 
 cow are recorded. It is rare, and seems in this animal 
 only to assume the abdominal form. Exploration per 
 vaginam vel rectum discloses no foetus, though the 
 abdomen has become enlarged and the other signs of 
 utero-gestation have appeared in due course, and even 
 there are indications of approaching parturition. The 
 foetus is found in the peritoneal sac, embedded in fibri- 
 nous material, and often in a very advanced stage of deve- 
 lopment, the neighbouring parts of the mother taking 
 upon themselves the nutritive functions of the uterine 
 walls. 
 
 The Gasarean Operation may be tried in these cases, as 
 being the only chance of relief, for if the foetus be re- 
 tained, it may give rise to septic disease of the mother. 
 Occasionally it undergoes calcification. It must be noted 
 that in these cases the position of the foetus may be 
 determined, and it may even be removed without inci- 
 sion into the peritoneal sac. Nature sometimes adopts 
 this method, and throws off the decomposed foetus in the 
 pus of an abscess. The animal having been cast on the 
 left side and the right leg loosened and drawn backwards, 
 an incision is then to be made with the usual precautions, 
 as in ruminotomy but about one foot in length. 
 The intestines having been drawn to one side, an incision 
 must be made through the uterine walls or into the 
 tumour in which the foetus is embedded, and the latter is 
 taken out and the umbilical cord ligatured and divided. 
 The membranes are then to be removed, and the uterine 
 walls to be closed with catgut sutures, the outer wall 
 being closed in the usual way. This operation is very 
 formidable, but may succeed if properly performed with 
 due antiseptic precautions. It must be had recourse to. 
 
THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE OEQANS. 445 
 
 when necessary, before the patient's strength begins to 
 flag, and may even be the means of saving both calf and 
 mother. It is also indicated when some deformity of the 
 cow or calf absolutely prevents expulsion in the usual way. 
 The ordinary signs of parturition are swelling and 
 occurrence of milk in the mammary gland, discharge of 
 thick mucus from the vulval opening with swelling of 
 the labia and relaxation of the pelvic ligaments. Then 
 the animal separates from the herd and manifests signs 
 of discomfort. The os uteri enlarges and gradually there 
 flows a watery fluid, liquor allantoides. The animal may 
 assume the recumbent position or remain standing. For 
 some time labour-pains will have been observed ; they 
 gradually increase in severity and frequency. The 
 amnion is next seen protruding as a bladder containing fluid 
 (" water bladder '') from the opening. Soon the fore feet of 
 the young animal appear, and then the head resting on the 
 fore legs ; finally, it is entirely expelled and falls slowly to 
 the ground, the umbilical cord being often ruptured in the 
 fall. The process of parturition generally occupies upwards 
 of an hour ; its duration varies with the constitution of the 
 cow. When more than one calf is present, the second may 
 be retained some time after the expulsion of the first, and 
 the third after the second. The chorion may not be ex- 
 pelled for several hours, or even days, as its cotyledon ary 
 union with the uterine mucous membrane is complex. The 
 process of removal is termed '^ Cleansing/' and the pro- 
 duct the " After-birth." In case of Retention op the 
 F(ETAL Membeanes it is advisable to remove them, for 
 sometimes they decompose in the cavity of the uterus 
 and give rise to septic disorder of the system. It seems 
 probable that their retention is due to entanglement as a 
 result of uterine contractions, but it also is attributable 
 to want of the necessary efforts in consequence of debility. 
 In natural cases a slight recurrence of pains brings about 
 their expulsion through the os uteri, which is still un- 
 relaxed, and when these do not seem to be very effectual 
 traction may be applied on the protruding portion of 
 the cord, the efforts coinciding to the pains. A more 
 
446 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. -' 
 
 effectual grasp of the protruding parts will be obtained 
 by rolling them round a piece of stick. Regularly applied 
 traction will often succeed in removing them, but some- 
 times it is necessary to introduce the greased hand into 
 the uterus and separate each cotyledon from its attachment 
 by a special peeling process. This measure should not be 
 resorted to until all chance of natural expulsion has passed. 
 Too forcible separation may give rise to haemorrhage. 
 Sometimes retention is seen after abortion, then, if left 
 alone, the membranes will pass off in due time. When 
 the foetal appendages commence to undergo decomposi- 
 tion there is a foetid discharge from the vulva, and typhoid 
 symptoms may be manifested. 
 
 AfteE'PAins sometimes are present in cases of reten- 
 tion of the foetal membranes, of injury to the womb, and 
 even of the presence of an irritant in the intestines. 
 When birth has been completed the uterus tends to con- 
 tract, is checked in this to a certain extent during 
 passage of the membranes, but subsequently succeeds in 
 its efforts, and thereby tends to prevent haemorrhage, and 
 to return to something like its state before pregnancy. 
 Sometimes after-pains indicate incipient uterine inflam- 
 mation, but they generally yield to an antispasmodic dose. 
 We have on record one case of Placenta pe^via, in which 
 a cotyledon was situated over os uteri. 
 
 H^MOEEHAGE PEE VULVAM is of two kinds, uteriixe and 
 vaginal or vulval. In either case it may depend upon 
 injury either from the foetus or from the instruments used 
 in extracting it. If is indicated by a constant trickling 
 of either arterial or venous blood from the external 
 opening, together with restlessness and increasing debility 
 of the patient. When the womb is affected the flow is 
 profuse, the passage painful, and the blood, when ex- 
 pelled, is clotted. The usual symptoms of haemorrhage 
 are present. The practitioner will generally find that the 
 application of cold water continuously to the loins, or cold 
 intra-uterine injections will excite contraction and check 
 haemorrhage, but sometimes it is necessary to make use 
 of the ordinary haemostatic measures. In the later 
 
4 THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE OEGANS. 447 
 
 stages stimulants are required. Uterine hasmorrliage is 
 generally termed " bloody flux/' There may be slight 
 haemorrhage before parturition, Ante-partum Bleeding, 
 due to the sudden separation of the foetus from the 
 maternal membranes or to injury ; it often is not of 
 importance, but sometimes it indicates that the foetus is 
 dead. After birth bleeding may take place from the 
 cut end of the cord ; it does not last long and is unimpor- 
 tant. The peculiar depravity of appetite of cows in-calf leads 
 them to devour all sorts of extraordinary things ; the foetal 
 membranes will often thus be transferred to the rumen. 
 
 When called in to a case of calving, the practitioner 
 will find that he has to do with a case of normal peesen- 
 TATION or abnormal. In the normal form the owner has 
 generally adopted such measures as his experience sug- 
 gests. Sometimes his anxiety has led him into appre- 
 hension when the birth is simply prolonged. In this 
 the foetus is in its proper position, but in consequence 
 of imperfection of the throes is not expelled. In such 
 cases a stimulant may lead to the desired effect, or, in 
 move extreme instances, the careful administration of 
 ergot of rye may be tried. The latter agent should never 
 be given unless there is no impediment in the passages 
 and the os uteri is relaxed. Often mechanical assistance 
 is required. The passages of the generative organs, and 
 the OS uteri especially, having been found, lubricated, and 
 relaxed, the hand is passed into the uterine cavity. It is 
 thus enabled to determine with a certain degree of accuracy 
 the nature of the contents and their position. The parts 
 of the foetus are very slippery, the fluids are passed in 
 considerably quantities, and the room for working is con- 
 fined, hence the extraction of the foetus is not so easy as 
 it seems. Looped cords, forceps, hooks, crutches, and 
 other instruments, are required to assist in parturitions, 
 and the number of appliances now used is very considerable. 
 In all these cases the main aim must be to support the 
 strength of the patient and to restore or keep the calf in 
 its natural position and then to overcome every impediment. 
 It is important never to lose control over any part which 
 
448 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 has once presented itself. A cord round tlie lower jaw and 
 one round each fore foot will be very useful for th«is purpose. 
 
 Fig. 93.— Normal presentation. Foetus enclosed in membranes. (After 
 
 Simonds). 
 
 False or Abnormal Presentations may be : 
 
 a. Head presented and one foot. — Secure the foot 
 and head ; introduce the hand with the slipping noose of 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 449 
 
 a rope and feel the flexed other fore limb ; trace it down- 
 wards to the fetlock and slip the noose on to the foot^ 
 
 Fig. 94. — Abnormal presentation (b). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 then push the foetus forwards while traction is brought 
 to bear through the rope on the flexed limb 
 
 6. Head presented without the feet, — Secure the 
 
 29 
 
450 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 lower jaw, then press the head back into the uterus, 
 find the fore legs, and secure and draw them upwards. 
 
 /••^7-s., 
 
 Jj'lO. 95. — Abnormal presentation (c). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 c. Head turned backwards, feet presented, — Feel for 
 the head, and, if possible, fix a rope on the lower jaw and 
 also one round each of the feet, or a hook may be fixed 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 451 
 
 in the eye. Then if pressure be applied to the chest, 
 forcing the foetus deeper into the womb, by traction 
 
 Fig. 96. — Abnormal presentation (e). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 of its cords the head may be brought into position. 
 When the head is out of reach embryotomy must be 
 performed. 
 
462 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 d. Head turned hachwards, and only side of neck pre- 
 sented. — Proceed as much as possible as in c. 
 
 Fig. 97. — Abnormal presentation (/). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 e. Nape of neck against as uteri and one fore leg fro- 
 jecting.— Secure the other foot and continue as in c. 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 453 
 
 /. Foetus on its hacli, vajpe of neck presented. — 
 Pass a rope round the jaw and one around each fetlock. 
 
 Fig. 98. — Abnormal presentation (i). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 bring the two latter round to the same side of the head ; 
 support the withers with the hand. Then apply pressure 
 
454 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 in a rotatory manner from below, while an assistant pulls 
 the ropes on the limbs. A gradual change to the ordinary 
 
 Fig. 99. — Abnormal presentation (J). 
 (After Simonds.) 
 
 position may take place, otherwise forward pressure 
 must be applied, and an attempt made to deliver the calf 
 as it is. 
 
THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE OEGANS, 455 
 
 g, Foetus on its hack, hind feet presented. — Extract 
 in position. 
 
 h. Foetus on its hack, hind feet inclined forwards. — 
 Endeavour to press the calf downwards and forwards, and 
 then flex the hocks and obtain position {g). If this be 
 not sucessful, amputate at the hip. 
 
 i. Hind feet jprotruded. — Kemove in this position. 
 
 j. Breech presentation ; hind feet ^projecting down- 
 luards and forwards, — A case of great difficulty, there 
 being no room for operations. By means of a special 
 instrument a cord is passed round each thigh, the body 
 of the foetus is then pushed forwards by means of the 
 crutch, and the loop passed down to the fetlocks ; then, 
 the pressure being still made, the feet are drawn by 
 flexure of the hocks and other joints into the passage 
 and removal is effected. 
 
 Certain other presentations have been noted, but the 
 above are the principal. Besides these may be men- 
 tioned some of a special character, due to diseases and 
 irregularities of the calf. 
 
 Hydrocephalus congenitalis has been already noted (see 
 p. 379), as also ascites of the foetus at time of parturition. 
 Each must be treated by the process of tapping. In the 
 latter case, the simplest method will be found to be direct 
 puncture by means of a concealed knife carried in the 
 hand into the uterus. In the former, the operation is 
 performed by means of a perforator, the head being held 
 in position by a hook fixed in the eye, but this is not always 
 necessary. Occasionally the foetus is enormously enlarged 
 by disease, either general emphysema, or the condition 
 known as polysarca or oedema congenitalis. Emphysema 
 generally results from decomposition of a dead foetus, 
 from which the gas must be removed by incisions. 
 Polysarca is an enlarged fatty condition of the foetus 
 not often seen; cedema or anasarca causes premature 
 birth. 
 
 Irregularities of the foetus comprise the various forms 
 of MONSTROSITIES, of which the principal seen in the cow 
 are as follows : 
 
456 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 1. Anidiaiis, — Rounded masses of living matter^ con- 
 
 FiG. 100. — Congenital ascites, causing difficult parturition. 
 (After Siinonds.) 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEQANS, 
 
 457 
 
 sisting of bones, muscles, vessels, &c., sustained bj an 
 umbilical cord. 
 
 2. Celosomians. — Abdominal walls deficient, bowels 
 loose in amniotic cavity. 
 
 Fig. 101. — A special tbrm of hydro- PiG. 102. — Harelip. Schistoce- 
 
 cephalus of the calf. (From Flera- phalusfissilabrus.(From Flem- 
 
 ing's * Veterinary Obstetrics.') ing's 'Veterinary Obstetrics.'} 
 
 8. Ectopia cordis (see Heart). 
 
 4. Harelip or cleft-palate forms ; tlie separation usually 
 extends tbrougli the whole face. 
 
 5. Campylorrhachides. — Twisted condition of the spine, 
 so that often all four feet project forwards. 
 
 6. Dicephalians, or double-headed animals. The 
 division may simply comprise the faces or there may be 
 two distinct skulls. 
 
 7. Hermaphrodites with a confused mixture of male and 
 female organs, or external generative organs of the male 
 and internal of the female, or vice versa. 
 
 8. Megalomelus perissodactylus. — Before us is a speci- 
 men in which the rudimentary metatarsal bears a distinct 
 digit, as is sometimes the case in the horse. 
 
 9. Schistomehis. — In a case recorded, the hind limb 
 was cleft up to the hock. 
 
458 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 10. Twin calves J united more or less intimately. 
 
 11. Folymelians, many-limbed forms. 
 
 We have mentioned some of the above forms more on 
 account of their curious characters than of their practical 
 importance in parturition. These peculiar creatures used 
 to be termed Lusus Naturce, but recently the study of 
 them. Teratology, has been remarkably advanced by the 
 experimental method, and it has been shown that they 
 are not '^ freaks/' but produced according to definite 
 laws. Thus they may depend upon pressure as preventing 
 the development of any part, upon amputation performed 
 by a twist of the umbilical cord, upon budding of the 
 ovum, or upon exaggerated or arrested development. The 
 various kinds which occur in domesticated animals are 
 treated of at length by Fleming in his ' Obstetrics,^ where 
 he fills a great blank which long existed in English 
 veterinary literature. Monstrosities are of very frequent 
 occurrence in the cow, and cases of double or even triple 
 calf, twisted spine, dicephalus, and polymelianism may 
 give rise to difficult parturition and necessitate adjustment, 
 and often embryotomy. Some monsters are unable to live 
 independently of the parent, others are unable to stand 
 the pressure exerted upon them in expulsion, as those with 
 ectopia cordis. Many live and are much appreciated by 
 itinerant showmen. Sometimes it is most astonishing 
 what peculiar bodies can be expelled without much 
 trouble. 
 
 Whenever the foetus cannot be removed by ordinary 
 traction, embryotomy must be tried. It consists in the 
 reduction of the size of the foetus by removal of parts, which 
 are separated with a special concealed knife (Fig. 103), or 
 by means of a curved pointed blade which has a ring for its 
 handle (Fig. 105), and thus may be fixed on the middle 
 finger and carried in the hollow of the hand into the uterus. 
 Operations with these knives are limited by the small 
 space in the pregnant uterus, and by the cramped state of 
 the arms of the operator from the pressure exerted upon 
 them, particularly during the uterine throes. Sometimes 
 the chain saw (Fig. 106), will be found useful. The fore 
 
THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 459 
 
 limbs are the parts most frequently removed in this way. 
 An incision is made through the skin from as high up as 
 possible longitudinally downwards as far as the fetlock. 
 
 Fia. 104!. — Gowan's Knife. 
 
 Fig. 105— Finger Hook. 
 
 Tig. 103. — Common 
 Embryotomy Knife. 
 
 Fig. 106. — Chain Saw, with removable handles, for embryotomy. 
 
 where a circular division of the skin is made. The 
 subcutaneous areolar tissue is then divided as much as 
 possible, first with the knife, then with the fingers. The 
 limb is then removed by a forcible steady pull, its muscular 
 attachments to the trunk giving way. The skin can sub- 
 sequently be used for traction, a rope being fixed to it, and 
 also, in some cases of embryotomy, serves to protect sharp 
 
460 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 bony edges. Care must be taken with the embryotomy 
 knife, as with other instruments, lest injury of the uterine 
 walls result from a false stroke or a slip. This operation 
 is generally performed when the cow is in the recumbent 
 position, and she may be supported by occasional doses 
 of stimulants. It must be resorted to only when other 
 means fail, the foetus being too large for the passage or 
 inaccessible otherwise. It is generally best to sacrifice 
 the life of the foetus to save that of the mother. In all 
 obstetric operations great care must be exercised to avoid 
 injury of the uterine walls ; the feet when moved, must be 
 taken into the hand and then gently drawn round. Again, 
 it is always necessary to carefully examine the contents 
 of the uterus. The two legs projecting with the head, 
 may be not such as are most convenient for easy removal, 
 as seen in cases of curved spine and many-limbed animals. 
 Again, the projecting feet may belong to distinct animals. 
 
 Twins. — The presence of two calves in the uterus being 
 so frequent, we should always after removal of one look 
 for a second. They generally lie in reverse positions ; one 
 being presented in the ordinary way, the other with its 
 hind legs first. Twins are usually small, and therefore 
 do not cause much difficulty in expulsion. They are apt 
 to become fixed together in the genital passages. In such 
 cases, the state of affairs having been clearly ascertained, 
 the fore legs of the normally presented calf are to be secured 
 with ropes, and, these being kept tight, the other calf is 
 forced back into the uterus. The first can then be 
 removed in the usual way, and the second will generally 
 follow. 
 
 Diseases of the foetal membranes are not very fre- 
 quent, but some few are on record. 
 
 Cases of Dropsy op the Amnion — Hydramnios — are 
 some-what often seen in the cow, they give rise to undue 
 distension, which may lead to abortion, or to over-dis- 
 tension of the uterine walls with corresponding inertia. 
 The accumulated fluid is described as sometimes resem- 
 bling Vitreous Humour in its characters. The causes of 
 this condition are ill-ascertained, and its diagnosis from 
 
THE FEMALE QENEEATIVE OEGANS. 461 
 
 Hydrops Uteri is not frequently possible. Thus, as in 
 that disorder, the accumulated fluid must be evacuated 
 through the os uteri. In the ' Veterinary Journal,' vol. iii, 
 October, is recorded a case of firm union of the foetus, 
 membranes, and uterine walls, probably resulting from 
 endometritis. 
 
 Haie balls — ^GAGEOPiLES — are occasionally seen in the 
 liquor amnii. This fluid consists largely of the products 
 of excretory action of the skin; the aggregation of the 
 hairs results from the regular movements of the mem- 
 brane which are known to take place in the living 
 animal. 
 
 The cause of difficult parturition often resides in the 
 cow. The passages in a normal state may be too small 
 for the calf, as when a small cow has been put to a very 
 large bull, or the parts may not have sufficiently relaxed. 
 In the latter case enough time may not have been allowed 
 for relaxation of the os to take place, then the practitioner 
 must wait and mark the progress of the case. Often 
 there is some actual impediment present. Thus, there 
 may have been fracture of the os innominatum, with a 
 considerable deposition of callus, or some exostosis or 
 other tumour ^pressing upon the genital passages. Such 
 cases are most formidable and generally necessitate opera- 
 tive interference. 
 
 There may be tumoues in the genital passages ; such 
 growths in the vagina are of a fibromatous, lipomatous, or 
 serous cystic character. They must be incised if cystic, 
 and removed by ligament or the ecraseur otherwise. They 
 are often appreciable only on manual exploration. Of 
 course the progress of parturition is gravely affected both 
 by the position and size of such growths. Another cause 
 preventing expulsion of the foetus is impeeeoeate vagina, 
 due either to congenital malformation or to inflammation 
 of that passage. This may be complete or partial. In 
 the former case there is retention of the products of 
 oestrum, and sooner or later severe straining sets in. The 
 state of the parts can be detected on exploration, and the 
 animal generally has not been known to take the bull.. 
 
462 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 In the latter, impregnation may occur, and the excessive 
 diminution in size of the vaginal passage not be detected 
 until the time of parturition, when it may be necessary even 
 to perform the Caesarian section. In the 'Edinburgh 
 Yeterinary Journal,' vol. ii, p. 283, is given a case in 
 which a hand extended across the os uteri, probably the 
 result of inflammation of the parts. It required to be 
 divided before parturition could be effected. The os uteri 
 may be affected with spasm, but this is not very fre- 
 quent; rigid occlusion of the orifice is more frequently 
 due to STEICTUEE, in which the muscular walls undergo 
 various changes, as the fibrous, and especially the carti- 
 laginous. Then labour pains occur in due course, but do 
 not result in expulsion of the foetus, and on exploration 
 the hard and firmly constricted condition of the os is 
 determined. This state seems sometimes to be hereditary, 
 it may also result from injury. The fingers and thCimb 
 of the hand in the vagina having been approximated, an 
 attempt' is to be made to insert the hand as a wedge 
 through the opening ; this will seldom be accomplished. 
 The instrument suggested for lithecstasy might be 
 tried, or incisions made through the cervix in various 
 directions by means of the concealed bistoury. In cases 
 which resist these means the Caesarian operation must be 
 tried or the patient slaughtered. Sometimes the os is 
 unyielding and incapable of relaxation in consequence of 
 disease of a cancerous or scrofulous nature. These " Soft 
 Steictuees '' of Macgillivray require to be treated by inci- 
 sion, an operation known as vaginal hysterotomy. This may 
 give rise to much haemorrhage, but will not usually do so. 
 When the narrowing of the os is due to spasm, there are 
 generally powerful uterine contractions, and the parts are 
 regular, tender, and somewhat yielding. Antispasmodics 
 may be had recourse to or even the abstraction of blood, 
 manual dilatation, or the lithecstasy apparatus may be 
 tried. Usually the spasm will relax in time. Warm- 
 water vaginal injections are indicated. 
 
 An iMPEEvious STATE OP Os Uteei has been observed, 
 probably it is due to the throwing out of false membranes 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 463 
 
 as a result of inflammation. In the virgin animal it gives 
 rise to uterine dropsy from retention of fluid ; in the 
 pregnant cow there is generally a small opening through 
 which impregnation has taken place. This must be 
 treated by incision and dilatation. 
 
 Persistent Hymen is sometimes a cause of impeded 
 parturition in the cow. It is found to be a fibrous band 
 extending across the vulvo-vaginal passage^ just above the 
 meatus urinarius. This must be divided, and then no 
 further difficulty in expulsion will be experienced. 
 
 Torsion or the Neck op the Womb, or of the anterior 
 part of the vagina, is rather common in the cow, pro- 
 bably on account of the special position of the cornua, 
 which tend to *^ heel over '^ where the extra weight of a 
 foetus is in one of them. This constitutes the predispos- 
 ing cause, but blows, falls, and injuries of other kinds, 
 are the most frequent exciting influences. The twisting 
 may be complete, incomplete, or double. 
 
 Symptoms. — Labour-pains in due course, but not lead- 
 ing to protrusion of the amnion; violent abdominal 
 spasms; extreme indications of abdominal pain. The 
 hand introduced into the vagina meets an impediment, 
 and recognises the twist in the spiral arrangement of the 
 walls at ^ the anterior part. If these conditions be not 
 relieved remission of the labour-pains occurs, and death 
 ultimately results from asthenia. The direction of torsion 
 may be determined by the way in which the back of 
 the hand introduced into the twist inclines ; when to the 
 left, it is a case of left torsion and vice versa. 
 
 Prognosis in such cases is unfavorable, but not abso- 
 lutely hopeless. They generally necessitate some severe 
 operation. Rolling the cow in a direction opposite to 
 that of the twist, the uterus with the foetus in it being 
 as much as possible retained in position by means of the 
 hand introduced through the os has been tried. Sometimes 
 the strain on the hand is found to increase, then the body 
 must be turned in the opposite direction. When relief has 
 taken place, there is generally an escape of liquor amnii. 
 Failing this means the Caesarian operation muvst be per. 
 
464 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 formed. Sometimes a slight torsion may be counteracted 
 by manipulative means per vaginam, any protruding por- 
 tion of the foetus being grasped and rotated. In other 
 cases abdominal section with manual restoration of the 
 uterus to its position has been tried with success, but the 
 operation is difficult. 
 
 Dilatation op Os Uteei. — Post-partum the os in due 
 time contracts, but sometimes this is not so. This is 
 generally associated with imperfect contraction of the 
 main portion of the uterus. It indicates a want of 
 tone, and may be generally overcome by cold-water 
 applications. 
 
 The Imperfect Post-paetum Oonteaction op the Uteeus 
 may be associated with haemorrhage, for diminution in 
 the volume of the organ normally suffices to prevent 
 bleeding from the slightly lacerated cotyledons. In such 
 a case it may be treated by cold-water injections either 
 into the uterus or the rectum. But when unassociated 
 with such a complication, it may be overcome by 
 administration of stimulants, or even small doses of ergot 
 of rye. 
 
 "When Inertia op the Uteeine Walls takes place in 
 the pregnant animal, it is apt to lead to a want of re- 
 sponse to the ordinary indications for expulsion of the 
 foetus, and therefore to prolonged retention. Then the 
 young animal may continue to grow, and thus become 
 large enough to cause some difficulty in expulsion, or it 
 may die, and either decompose and cause septic disorder 
 of the cow, or, if the os uteri prevent access of air, it 
 is apt to undergo dry gangrene and mummify. 
 
 Sometimes the decomposed foetal remains are expelled 
 gradually as a discharge jper vulvam ; in one case alluded 
 to by Youatt, expulsion took place per anumj the caecum 
 and uterus having contracted adhesions and become 
 connected by a fistula. The tincture of the ergot 
 of rye is a most valuable excitant of the walls of the 
 uterus to contraction. In cases of prolonged parturition, 
 the uterus may lose its power and remain in a relaxed 
 state with the foetus still in its cavity and labour-pains 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 465 
 
 ceased. In sucli a case as this, when the passages are 
 clear, the use of ergot is indicated. 
 
 FuEGE UTEEiNijs. — Sometimes cows remain as it were 
 in a constant state of oestrum, always ready to receive 
 attentions from the bull, in a highly excitable condition, 
 and often with a slight discharge trickling constantly 
 from the lower part of the urino-generative aperture. 
 The vaginal mucous membrane is congested. These 
 animals are termed " hullers/' and the furor is not always 
 to be associated with uterine disorders. Thus, it is a sign 
 of dropsy of the ovaries, of inflammation of the vulvo- 
 vaginal membranes, and often of the presence of tumours 
 in the generative passages. It is most frequently at- 
 tributable to scrofulous disease of the uterine walls, or 
 some other chronic inflammatory action in the uterus. 
 
 Hydeops uteei. — Though many cases of retention of 
 oestral products have undoubtedly been mistaken for true 
 dropsy, some instances of the latter state are recorded. 
 These occur in animals supposed to be pregnant ; but 
 when distension of the uterus has taken place, the os 
 opens and there is a spontaneous evacuation of a 
 watery, or more frequently a semi-purulent or sanguineous, 
 fluid. This gives relief, and is succeeded by a gradual 
 reaccumulation and a recurrence of the false pregnancy. 
 Trying for the foetus in the usual manner is ineffectual in 
 these cases, and there are several signs of this not being true 
 pregnancy. The pent-up fluid should be evacuated as soon 
 as the disease has been diagnosed. Then the uterus should 
 be washed out frequently by syringing it with a weak 
 solution of carbolic acid or chloride of lime. In the 
 meanwhile the patient should be well fed and nursed, for 
 the disease results from debility, injuries, and slight in- 
 flammation. Tonic agents (especially mineral) will prove 
 beneficial. 
 
 Inflammation op the Uteeus may be of three kinds, 
 according as the external, middle, or internal coat is the 
 main seat of disease. 
 
 Endometeitis. — Inflammation of the mucous membrane 
 of the uterus results from injuries during parturition, 
 
 30 
 
466 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 and occasionally perhaps from abortion, or exposure 
 when the animal is heated. It is not very frequent 
 nor urgent, but during its course there may be false 
 pains, and usually the products of inflammatory action 
 accumulate in the cavity and so cause distension. Thus 
 this disorder leads to dropsy of the uterus, but sometimes 
 the products pass off as a continuous discharge. In some 
 cases the lining membrane is much disorganised by 
 ulceration, there is then frequent straining and rapid 
 loss of flesh. In cases of protracted labour the discharges 
 from the generative passages become acrid and may cause 
 endometritis by retention. This acridity is proved by the 
 ectkymatous disease which so frequently affects the arms 
 of veterinary ohstetristsj and which is fully described by 
 Professor Gamgee in the ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review,^' 
 vol. i, p. 23, where a beautiful illustration of the affected 
 arm of the professor is also given. Endometritis must be 
 treated by antiseptic injections and careful nursing. 
 When it occurs during pregnancy, separation of the fcetal 
 membranes from the lining of the uterus will cause 
 death of the foetus in some cases. Inflammation of the 
 muscular coat of the uterus without the other layers being 
 affected is seldom or never seen, 
 
 Meteo-Peritonitis or Puerperal Peritonitis (Barlow). — 
 We have already alluded to septicaemia in general, and 
 noted that it especially occurs in connection with partu- 
 rition and its accidents. The substance of the womb 
 being inflamed, the peritoneum generally is involved, and 
 the diseased action spreads remarkably rapidly, and in- 
 volves a considerable extent of surface. Cases of this 
 kind used to be confounded with true parturient apoplexy, 
 but are now diagnosed with certainty since the symptoms 
 differ in many important particulars. Thus together with 
 the general signs of disorder succeeded by those of fever, 
 there is found a peculiarly hard quick pulse, which also 
 is frequent. The respirations as the disease progresses 
 becomes quickened, frequent, and often thoracic. There 
 is straining and the passage of a chocolate-coloured fluid 
 through the vulval opening, and the lining membrane of 
 
THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 4G7 
 
 this part is of a dark-purple colour, the labia being 
 small, contracted, and oedematous. The cessation of 
 secretion of milk is generally sudden and the udder 
 becomes soft and flaccid. In the later stages the pulse 
 becomes very rapid and imperceptible, the rumen dis- 
 tended with gas, the patient comatose. There are usually 
 signs of abdominal pain of rather an acute character. 
 The prostration of strength is rapid and the animal dies 
 from asthenia. 
 
 On post-mortem examination , the cavity of the uterus is 
 found to be small and to contain chocolate-coloured fluid. 
 The diminution in size results from the thickening of the 
 walls of the organ as a result of deposits. Blood extra- 
 vasations are to be seen beneath the peritoneum which 
 exhibits the various marks of inflammation. The veins of 
 the uterus contain dark blood in a coagulated state and 
 ecchymoses are visible on many of the serous membranes, 
 and sometimes on the inner surface of the labia. Ecchy- 
 moses have been noted in the cranial membranes. 
 
 Causes. — Such cases supervene on retention of the 
 after-birth or of the foetus. Wounds received during 
 assistance in parturition, especially in protracted cases, 
 prolapsus, inversion of the uterus, also exposure during 
 or after parturition, or over-driving also cause them, ple- 
 thoric animals being predisposed. It usually manifests its 
 first symptoms from a half to three days after parturition. 
 
 Results, — Most frequently runs a rapid course and ends 
 in death from blood poisoning. Occasionally very rapid 
 resolution occurs, and sometimes the attack degenerates into 
 a chronic endometritis tending to flooding, leucorrhoea, and 
 dropsical accumulations in the womb. 
 
 Treatment. — The system of the patient must be sus- 
 tained by stimulant tonics, especially the tinctures of the 
 vegetable bitters, and nourishing soft diet must be sup- 
 plied to her for sometimes the appetite remains after 
 the commencement of the attack. All debilitating in- 
 fluences must be avoided, and it is questionable whether 
 administration of cathartics is beneficial. However, we 
 deem this advisable, for it is an advantage to keep those 
 
'468 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 important excretory organs, the bowels, in free action ; the 
 influence of the cathartic is derivative, and the peritonitis 
 is not so diffused as in idiopathic cases of that disorder. 
 Local treatment comprises the administration of belladonna 
 or other anodyne enemas and of carbolic intrauterine injec- 
 tions. All endeavours must be made to remove decom- 
 posing membranes or the remains of a foetus, but the 
 practitioner must be most careful not to injure his arms 
 or hands with foetal bones, nor to work in such cases with 
 an exposed wound on the parts brought into contact with 
 the decomposing material. The hands may be advanta- 
 geously lubricated with carbolised soft soap. Neglect of 
 these precautions has proved fatal to some country prac- 
 titioners. 
 
 Lacerations of the Uterine Walls result from ex- 
 cessively powerful throes in different cases of parturition, 
 from wounds either by the foot of the foetus or by instru- 
 ments during delivery, and sometimes as a direct result 
 of other forms of injury. These lacerations may be partial 
 or complete. In some cases of metritis abscesses form in 
 the thickness of the coats, and in time burst into the cavity 
 of the uterus, leaving behind them spaces, which become 
 fistulous in consequence of the constant entry of the acrid 
 uterine discharges. Thus Uterine Fistula is established. 
 The symptoms are those indicative of endometritis, and 
 are usually slight. Sometimes we have a true fistulous 
 communication, between the uterus and the intestines for 
 instance. We can only treat such cases as suggested for 
 endometritis. Perfect or complete laceration is Rupture 
 OF THE Uterus, which may occur either before parturition, 
 during labour, or after delivery. When it takes place 
 before or during parturition it generally results in the 
 falling of the foetus into the abdominal cavity. A 
 remarkable form of this lesion is noticed by Fleming, after 
 Count Ercolani of Bologna, in which transverse rupture of 
 the uterus (either the body or one cornu) results in the 
 hanging of the anterior separated part of the organ as a 
 foetus -containing cyst, supported by the broad ligament 
 below the lumbar region. The development of the foetus 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
 
 469 
 
 continues ; probably the rupture is gradual. It has not 
 been observed in this country. Rupture is often seen in 
 the everted uterus, but the organ may be returned and 
 the case recover. It is generally considered unneces- 
 sary to insert sutures in such cases. The reparative 
 powers of the uterus seem very extraordinary, for the 
 organ contracts after evacuation of its contents, and thus 
 the edges of any wound are kept close together and in a 
 condition favorable to rapid healing. Protrusion of the 
 small intestines through the rupture (which generally is 
 at one side of the anterior part of the organ) is some- 
 times seen. The symptoms of rupture of the womb are 
 those indicative of collapse ; sometimes there is a flow of 
 blood or sanguineous fluid through the vulva, but this 
 symptom may be absent. When the foetus has fallen in the 
 abdominal cavity there will be sudden alteration in the 
 shape of the abdomen and in the position of the foetus. 
 In such cases all that can be done is to perform the 
 Caesarian operation as early as possible; in others all our 
 efforts must be directed to supporting the strength of 
 the patient and counteracting untoward results. 
 
 Fia. 107. — Portion of chorion with placentulae. Cow. 1. Chorion. 2. Pla- 
 centulsB. (From Fleming's * Veterinary Obstetrics.') 
 
 Prolapsus vel Inversio uteri — '^ Falling of the read 
 or calf-bed '^ — the turning inside-out of the uterus — may 
 
470 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 be complete or incomplete. In tlie latter case the cornua 
 are generally not involved, but even they may be par- 
 
 FiG. 108.— Cotyledon of a cow's uterus. a a. Surface of foetal chorion. 
 b b. Blood-vessels of foetal chorion, c c. Surface of uterine mucous 
 membranes, dd. Blood-vessels of the same. f. Secretion from utricular 
 glands. (From Fleming's ' Veterinary Obstetrics.') 
 
 tially inverted. The uterus with its mucous surface and 
 maternal cotyledons protrudes through the vulval opening 
 and hangs downwards for a distance varying with the 
 severity of the case. It generally becomes strangulated 
 by the action of the sphincter vulvae or the narrowness 
 of the passage, and thus tends to increase largely in size 
 in consequence of infiltration of serum into its substance 
 and accumulation of blood in its Vessels. It generally 
 is somewhat lacerated as a result of exposure to external 
 injury, and even tearing up by the patient ; sometimes 
 rupture of its walls has taken place. To allow the 
 inversion, the broad ligaments have generally become 
 lacerated and the vagina may be involved with the uterus. 
 The patient strains constantly, and thus tends to aggravate 
 the case. This accident occurs at or shortly after par- 
 turition and may result from excessive spasmodic con- 
 traction of the uterine walls, non-contraction of os uteri 
 post-partum, adhesion of the foetal membranes to the 
 walls of the uterus, and it is especially frequent in 
 animals in a state of debility. 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 471 
 
 Treatment comprises restoration of the organ, its 
 retention, and the counteraction of the ill consequences 
 of the accident. Restoration may be effected either from 
 the neck or from the fundus, or by both these methods 
 combined. As a preliminary measure the surface of the 
 womb must be cleansed from all foreign bodies, especially 
 also from adhering portions of the foetal membranes. The 
 animal must be placed with the hind part of the body 
 raised and kept in that position, which is important not 
 only as a means of facilitating return of the part but 
 also of retention. The protruding organ must be sup- 
 ported by a towel held on each side during the process 
 of cleansing and return. In the latter effort the fist 
 must be closed and applied to the fundus of the organ 
 which must be pressed inwards at the intervals between 
 the throes and prevented from return during their efforts, 
 which must be prevented as much as possible by distrac- 
 tion of the patient's attention and pressure on the loins. 
 While the pressure is brought to bear on the fundus an 
 endeavour must be made to gradually return the neck, for 
 a combination of the two methods is decidedly the most 
 satisfactory. When the protruded uterus is very much 
 swollen, it may be reduced in size by cold-water applica- 
 tions and by pressure evenly applied from the fundus 
 towards the neck. This may be best accomplished by an 
 Esmarch's bandage, which also assists in the return of 
 the organ, but it may be effected by fixing a carbolised 
 cloth around the protruding organ and manipulating in a 
 manner which may be learned rather from observation 
 than description. The fist with the fundus must be 
 passed in so far as not to cause great increase in the 
 expulsive efforts, and must be kept in position for some 
 time. Of retentive means the most important are dis- 
 tension of the uterus with some bland mucilaginous fluid, 
 with an antispasmodic dissolved in it ; the use of a 
 special retentive appliance termed a pessary. These are of 
 various kinds, but the most readily available and simple 
 of all is an ordinary glass bottle. The concavity on the 
 floor of this fits well against the os uteri, and its neck 
 
472 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 may be fixed at the vulval aperture to tlie truss or 
 sutures. The narrowness of the neck allows urine to 
 pass freely, and its rounded edges and smooth surface render 
 it very unlikely to cause irritation (see ' Veterinarian,^ 
 1880, p. 296). In cases where it is found impossible other- 
 wise to return the organ, it has been suggested to place 
 the animal on its back and elevate the hind quarters by 
 means of pulleys. When the spasms are excessive large 
 doses of opium are beneficial to allay this undue straining. 
 On return of the womb it has been suggested to place 
 metallic sutures through the os uteri, but these may prove 
 a source of irritation, therefore the application of a truss 
 (such as Gowing^s, shown in the accompanying figure 109) 
 is suggested. Trusses for this purpose are of various kinds, 
 and some are valuable as being composed of a simple 
 rope specially arranged (see Fig. 110). For a description of 
 these we must consult Fleming^s ^ Obstetrics."' Sometimes 
 it is deemed advisable to apply a truss in every case after 
 parturition; this preventive means should certainly be taken 
 with all debilitated animals and those which have previously 
 suffered from prolapsus. Standing on a floor slanting 
 
 Fig. 109. — Gowing's Truss for prolapsus uteri. (After Simonds.) 
 
 forwards is always a useful precaution after parturition. 
 Some practitioners insert sutures through the labia instead 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 473 
 
 of using the truss; the quilled suture is the best, and 
 the ligatures must be stout, so as not to readily tear 
 
 Fia. 110. — The loop of Delwart's Truss. (From Fleming's ' Veterinary Ob- 
 stetrics.') 
 
 away ; a good hold also must be taken. All measures failing 
 to effect the return of the protruding organ, it may be 
 amputated. This operation, Amjputation of the Uterus, 
 has often been successfully performed The neck being 
 constricted by an ordinary ligature, the greater part of 
 the organ may be removed with the knife or with the 
 heated iron, or the method of caustic clamp or elastic 
 ligature may be tried, and the use of the ecraseur has 
 been suggested for this purpose. The patient will require 
 to be cast in the usual way and the operation be performed 
 under chloroform. 
 
 Prognosis in cases of prolapsus uteri must be considered 
 favorable. In many cases the recovery is so perfect as to 
 make the animal useful for breeding purposes afterwards, 
 but such animals should always be carefully watched during 
 parturition and the truss applied directly the foetus has 
 passed. Death may take place through shock on ampu- 
 tation, or from mortification of the protruded organ. 
 An animal which has once been thus affected, can be 
 returned to the vendor, according to the law of some 
 countries. 
 
 Inversion op the Yagina is a frequent accompaniment 
 of prolapsus uteri, and cannot be said to render the case 
 more complicated. Sometimes it is seen as a distinct 
 lesion ; then there is a red tumour hanging from the vulval 
 opening which presents no cotyledons, has an opening at 
 its fundus, and at its lower part may be seen the orifice 
 of the urethra. It is not difficult to return this after 
 cleansing, but the accident is very liable to recur, there- 
 
474 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 fore the truss or sutures tlirougli the labia must be used. 
 This lesion is sometimes chronic ; the lining membrane of 
 the organ becomes indurated. In such cases, since return- 
 ing is only effectual for a short time, amputation has been 
 tried with success, the operation being performed with 
 the hot iron or with the knife, the edges of the wounds 
 being united by sutures ; this measure is seldom 
 necessary. The prolapsus results from prolonged reten- 
 tion of the foetus in the vulvo-vaginal canal and dryness 
 of the passages. It is apt to give rise to dysuria from 
 pressure on the urethral orifice. 
 
 Inveesion of the Bladder has been already mentioned 
 (see p. 343). We allude to it here to prevent the everted 
 organ being mistaken for a polypus. Its position is diag- 
 nostic, as also its form. 
 
 Hernia uteri or Hysterocele is rare in the cow on 
 account of the large size of the organ. We have already 
 alluded {p. 281) to the cases in which it is seen in front 
 of the pubis. Such seldom interfere with parturition. 
 
 Tumours in the Uterus. — Fibromata either highly vas- 
 cular or lowly organised, hence either soft or hard, and 
 generally pedunculated, have been found in the uterus of 
 the cow, attached to almost every part of it in the various 
 cases. When near the os, these may prevent parturition 
 by becoming fixed in the cervix, and the same may be 
 said of those from any part of the cavity, provided the 
 peduncle be sufficiently long. In such cases the tumour 
 must be returned into the uterine cavity so that extraction 
 of the foetus may be possible. Afterwards an attempt 
 must be made to remove the growth by means of the 
 ecraseur or ligature, the latter being most generally avail- 
 able. We have no record of malignant tumours in the 
 uterus, but in some cases the external os uteri is affected 
 by disease apparently of the nature of true cancer. 
 
 Malformations of the Uterus are seen in. hermaphro- 
 dite heifers, which are generally sterile. 
 
 Kupture of the Yagina or Yulva is somewhat frequent 
 in parturition. It also is sometimes due to introduction 
 of sticks and other rough instruments by boys and 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 475 
 
 labourers, who seem to consider this an excellent joke. 
 Some hasmorrhage will take place through the external 
 opening, and later, a discharge of a muco-purulent cha- 
 racter will appear. Manual exploration of the parts will 
 disclose the lesion. Cases of this kind do not seem to 
 be attributable to the penis of the bull. During birth 
 a foot of the foetus may be forced into the rectum and 
 protrude through the anus, or pass into the areolar tissue 
 around the vulva. The throes being powerful, more or 
 less laceration occurs, and thus in some cases the peri- 
 nseum may be entirely lacerated and the anus and vulval 
 opening become continuous with one another. This lesion 
 is seldom seen in the cow. When the foot protrudes 
 through the anus it must be returned as soon as possible, 
 and the calf removed through its normal passage. There 
 is after this great liability to Eecto-vaginal Fistula, 
 which must be avoided as much as possible by keeping 
 the contents of the rectum soft, whereby they can pass 
 easily, and by adopting dressings calculated to promote 
 speedy healing of the orifice. 
 
 Yesico-Yaginal Fistula is not frequent. It causes in- 
 continence of urine, and the fistula can hardly be got to 
 heal because of the constant passage of the urine. A 
 rupture of the vagina may be far enough forwards to 
 admit of protrusion of the intestines and to be compli- 
 cated with peritonitis. Injuries, and especially bruises 
 during parturition, are rather liable to cause blood 
 tumours, Hamatomataj in the erectile tissue of the bulb 
 of the vagina. 
 
 Leucorrhcea — '^ The WJiites/' — Yaginitis sometimes 
 results from injury, but generally subsides rapidly, and is 
 represented by a chronic form of inflammation of the 
 lining membrane of- the vulva and vagina, which in some 
 cases is ulcerated, in others simply thickened, and some- 
 times is the seat of scrofulous deposit. It may be more 
 or less extremely diseased. The discharge varies in 
 amount and in consistence also in constancy of flow. It 
 may be quite white and profuse, or purulent or sangui- 
 neous. Also the constitution is variably aflected; there 
 
476 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 may be considerable fever or scarcely any. Generally the 
 patient exhibits constant sexual desire, but seldom becomes 
 pregnant, and if it does is liable to abort. There 
 usually the general signs of unthriftiness. 
 
 Causes. — Gonorrhoea of the bull, debility, and the scro- 
 fulous diathesis are the principal. 
 
 Treatment. — Tonics, nutritious diet, avoidance of sexual 
 intercourse, and stimulant astringent applications after 
 thorough cleansing. In cases of ulceration, the applica- 
 tion of nitrate of silver. These cases sometimes prove 
 very obstinate. A crupous form of vagnitis has been 
 described. 
 
 Addendum 1. — The Lactifeeous Appaeatus. 
 
 The mammary gland of the cow is largely developed, 
 having been much increased in size by artificial selection. 
 It consists of four distinct quarters, each with a teat, 
 and sometimes two rudimentary teats, imperforated, are 
 
 Fig. 111. — Some of the smallest lobules of the lacteal gland of a puerperal 
 woman, x 70. (After Langer.) 
 
 situated behind those which are more fully developed. 
 The most frequent malformation is the Absence oe Impee- 
 POEATED STATE OP THE Teats, and in animals thus formed, 
 
THU FEMALE GENEEATIVE OEGANS. 477 
 
 after impregnation the gland enlarges, and in proper 
 time produces milk, but this cannot gain exit ; it remains 
 in the milk channels, and gives rise to mammitis. Some- 
 times an incision at the extremity of the teat will open 
 the partially developed duct, when the milk must be drawn 
 off regularly with a syphon. Usually an abscess forms, 
 and the curdled and decomposed milk is thrown off in the 
 pus. Such animals should not be bred from, as there is 
 some risk, and this, like other vices of conformation, may 
 be transmitted to the progeny. 
 
 Mammitis — " Garget " — '' Downfall of the Udder *^ — 
 inflammation of the mammary gland — is frequent in the 
 cow, as might have been expected from the facts that this 
 animal is used as a milk-producing machine, and has its 
 lactiferous apparatus very largely developed. This dis- 
 ease is of the highest importance as affecting the yield of 
 milk rather than the life of the animal. It may be par- 
 tial or complete, for the quarters of the gland are sepa- 
 rated from each other by dense fibrous septa, so thatj 
 practically, there are four glands, and inflammation may 
 rage in one or more quarters without the rest being 
 affected. It may be acute or chronic, and most frequently 
 is seen in young cattle, especially primiparae (those with 
 the first calf), kept in a plethoric state. Sometimes it 
 commences directly after calving, but in other cases only 
 comes on some time after. Exposure to cold when 
 heated, injuries of various kinds, obstructions to the flow 
 of milk, eczema epizootica, and other specific disorders, 
 may be enumerated as causes ; in some cases it seems 
 traceable to metastasis from the lungs, since its appear- 
 ance is associated with sudden disappearance of pneumo- 
 nitis. It has been observed to be most frequent in hot 
 summers. Among the most frequent causes must be in- 
 cluded imperfect removal of the milk ('' Hefting ''), and 
 allowing the animal to remain too long without milking, 
 to ensure a full and tempting bag at the time of sale. 
 
 Symptoms. — Fever runs high and the affected gland 
 is swollen, hot, painful, and hard to the touch. The 
 skin investing it is reddened, and there is generally lame- 
 
478 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 4? 
 
 ness of one hind limb. The milk is markedly decreased 
 and is curdled, and often intermingled with blood, or 
 simply a thin serous fluid is removed when efforts are 
 made to milk the animal. The inflammatory action may 
 originate in the substance of the gland, or extend from 
 the openings of the teats into the ducts. As the disease 
 progresses resolution may be gradually brought about 
 with subsidence of acute symptoms. Sujp'puration is of 
 frequent occurrence, and is denoted by softness of some 
 part of the gland, which pits on pressure. The abscesses 
 sometimes involve a very considerable part of the giand 
 substance, forming sinuses and fistulas extending from 
 the milk sinuses to the surface. In more acute cases 
 gangrene takes place, and the mortified portions of gland 
 become cold, pasty to the feel, and are removed by slough- 
 ing ; at the same time the constitutional symptoms have 
 a markedly asthenic character. When the inflammation is 
 less acute induration is apt to occur, constituting the so- 
 called '^ scirrhous " condition of one or more quarters of 
 the udder. In either of these cases, suppuration, gangrene, 
 or induration, the quarter is lost. 
 
 In the purchase of a cow the state of the udder, the 
 perfection of all its quarters, must be specially looked to. 
 We have already alluded (p. 174) to a form of septic mam- 
 mitis, which has been described, and admitted that it is just 
 possible that there is a diphtheritic form of the disorder, 
 in which the milk may prove the vehicle of contagion, but 
 we have no positive evidence on this point. 
 
 Treatment of this disorder comprises constitutional and 
 local antiphlogistic means. A cathartic dose should be 
 administered, and the animal allowed nitre in the drink- 
 ing water. Aconite will counteract the systemic excite- 
 ment, and in some cases it is thought advisable to bleed. 
 This measure will prove beneficial when the inflammation 
 runs very high, threatening gangrene, otherwise it may 
 be omitted. The superficial abdominal or milk vein used 
 to be preferred for this operation; it is remarkably 
 developed in the cow, and takes a course from behind for- 
 wards to the internal thoracic veins. This local abstraction 
 
THE FEMALE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 479 
 
 can have no more beneficial effect than general bleeding. 
 The vessels the milk vein receives from the udder are 
 very small^ for the greater part of the blood from this 
 
 Fig. 112. — Means of supportii^ 
 the udder in mammitis. ('Arma- 
 tage.) 
 
 Fig. 113.— Injection of fluids 
 into the mammary gland, 
 (Armatage.) 
 
 gland passes into the femoral veins indirectly through the 
 subpubic. Local treatment comprises removal of all the 
 milk at regular intervals, either by milking, by use of the 
 teat syphon, or by allowing the calf free access. Some- 
 times the cow will not allow the calf to suck at the dis- 
 eased quarters. Next foment freely, and afterwards 
 apply a poultice containing belladonna to the whole gland, 
 supporting it and the weight of the organ by a wide 
 bandage passed over the loins. As soon as suppuration 
 has taken place, and the abscess is perceptible, it must be 
 opened with a lancet, or an irregular wound will result 
 from its bursting, and the pus will burrow extensively 
 and cause disorganisation. By early puncture a part of 
 the quarter may be preserved. Subsequently the abscess 
 cavity should be dressed with tincture of myrrh or carbolic 
 ointment. In cases of gangrene the strength of the patient 
 must be supported by means of stimulant tonics, and the 
 mortified parts excised, or if they have sloughed away, the 
 wounds must be dressed with solution of chloride of lime 
 or of carbolic acid. In those cases where the disease 
 
480 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 assumes a chronic character, and there is a tendency to 
 induration, we must endeavour to break down the masses 
 of curdled milk in the gland by alkaline injections 
 through the teats, and constant attention to milking; and 
 we must endeavour to promote the removal of exuded 
 fibrinous matter in early cases by stimulating applications, 
 as soon as all active inflammation has subsided ; later, 
 by iodine ointments and iodide of potassium administered 
 internally. Throughout cases of mammitis the use of 
 food materials containing large quantities of milk-forming 
 elements should be avoided. In the early stages the calf 
 may be allowed the milk, but when this becomes mingled 
 with inflammatory products, and especially when gangrene 
 sets in, this fluid must be thrown away. During oestrum 
 and the first production of milk a congested condition of 
 the mammary gland has been observed. This is the 
 early stage of true mammitis, but the supervention of 
 inflammation may often be prevented by the timely with- 
 drawal of milk and fomentation. Mammitis is very seldom 
 seen in *"' dried cows ^' ('' drapes ''). 
 
 Sore Teats — Erythema Mammillarum — has been 
 already mentioned (see '^Diseases of the Skin,^^ p. 349). 
 
 Tumours on the Teats. — Warty growths are sometimes 
 seen on the teats; they interfere with milking, and are 
 liable to injury, but can be easily removed with the 
 knife, or by means of ligatures. 
 
 Obstructions in the Teats are not rare; in milking 
 the animal they can be felt as nodules along the course 
 of the duct, and the flow will be more or less impeded. 
 These are either masses of curdled milk, small tumours 
 attached by pedicles to the mucous membrane, or Lac- 
 teal Calculi. These impediments to free flow tend to 
 produce mammitis, and must, therefore, be removed. This 
 is not always an easy matter, but, when not extracted, they 
 may be returnable to the galactophorous sinuses, where they 
 will often remain without causing inconvenience. 
 
 Inflammation op the Lining Memrrane op the Duct, 
 occurring as a complication of mammitis, sometimes results 
 in stricture of the passage. This may be relieved by 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 481 
 
 frequent passage of probes or syphons of gradually 
 increasing size. 
 
 Relaxation is seen as a result of the practice of allowing 
 over-accumulation of milk. It gives rise to Lactorrh(ea. 
 The mechanism by which the milk is retained in the galac- 
 tophores is variously described as an elastic ring or a 
 sphincter of muscular fibre. The fact that the cow can 
 retain the milk if an attempt be made to remove it by a 
 stranger seems to support the latter opinion. When this 
 muscular substance is disordered a free flow takes place. To 
 palliate this the sphincter has been artificially replaced by 
 an elastic band which compresses the teat enough to close 
 its passage but not to strangulate it. This is removed 
 at milking time, and seems to answer in many cases. 
 Lactorrhoea sometimes results from inattention and want 
 of milking after removal of a calf (' Edinburgh Veterinary 
 Review/ vol. iii^ p. 190). 
 
 Addendum 2. — Milk and its Disorders. 
 
 The milk of the cow has a specific gravity, averaging 
 1030, and contains less fatty matter, albumen, and sugar 
 than that of the human female, but considerably more 
 casein and salines. It varies very much in quality and 
 quantity with the nature of the diet. Is tested by means 
 of a special form of the hydrometer, termed the lacto- 
 meter, and also by microscopical examination. We need 
 not enter into details of this, but simply remark that 
 though under healthy conditions the variations in quality 
 and quantity of this fluid are rather extensive, they are 
 more so as a result of disease. 
 
 Agalactia is the non-production of milk in consequence 
 either of atrophy of the mammary gland, which results 
 from inflammation, or of debility of the system in general. 
 In the former case it is incurable, in the latter, by 
 judicious feeding with highly nutritious diet, the flow of 
 milk may be restored. The value of galactagogues is not 
 quite a matter of certainty. It is said by some that 
 
 31 
 
482 
 
 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 agalactia takes place in two or three years after spaying 
 has been performed, but others assert that this is only a 
 
 
 Fig. 115. — A. Lobule of mamma filled with 
 milk. B. Milk globules. C. Colostrum. 
 a. Cell with visible nucleus, b. Cells from 
 which the nucleus has disappeared. (From 
 Colin, 'Physiologie des animaux domes- 
 tiques.*) 
 
 Fig. 114. — Section of the 
 cow's teat, a a. Principal 
 lactiferous ducts, b. Lac- 
 tiferous sinus, c c. Acini. 
 d d. Dartoid tissue of the 
 teat. e. Orifice of the 
 teat. (From Colin, "Physi- 
 ologic des animaux do- 
 mestiques.*') 
 
 very exceptional condition, the secretion of milk being 
 constant and lasting for a long time. Aged cows dry up, and 
 a loss of milk is the first symptom in many important 
 diseases. 
 
 Hypergaladia, or prolonged lactation, is not so frequent 
 and is often seen in very good milkers. It is hardly a 
 diseased state, but it constitutes a great strain on the 
 system. 
 
 Changes in the quality op the Milk are — (1) due to 
 excess or deficiency of natural components. Thus, some 
 milk gives scarcely any cream, while in other cases the 
 secretion is scanty, but very rich. Bluish watery milk is 
 given sometimes in normal quantity by debilitated animals. 
 These and other similar conditions are dependent on feed- 
 ing, and other points of management. The nature of the 
 food very frequently affects the flavour of the butter. 
 Sometimes it is found that the milk gives little 
 butter, and at other times is not valuable for cheese. 
 (2) Admixture of foreign matters, as blood, pus, specific 
 discharges, bacteria, &c. These result from specific or 
 
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 483 
 
 ordinary inflammation; in the former case the milk may- 
 prove the vehicle of contagion to man and other animals. 
 In foot-and-mouth disease^ and other specific disorders, 
 the calf if left with the dam may become affected with 
 a virulent form of the disease. Medicinal agents adminis- 
 tered to the cow pass off in the milk and may seriously 
 affect the calf or children fed on this fluid. It has been 
 proposed to thus prepare medicines in a palatable and 
 bland form for human use at the expense of the cow, but 
 this method has not been generally adopted. 
 
 Fia. 116.— Milk or Teat Syphon. 
 
 Addendum 3. — Diseases op very Young Animals. 
 
 The young animal on birth is sometimes found asphyxi-' 
 ated. No respiratory efforts are made ; the '^ necessity 
 for breathing '' does not produce the usual effect. Artificial 
 respiration may be tried or douching with cold water. 
 
 Umbilical Hcemorrhage may result from breaking off of 
 the cord too close to the abdomen. The usual styptic 
 measures may be tried, and if possible, a ligature put on. 
 
 Perviousness of the UracTius, Gastro-enteritisj and Hernice 
 of young animals have been already described. Also we 
 have alluded to the accumulations of meconium, which give 
 rise to constipation and general abdominal disorder, and 
 result either from excessive accumulation, or from the 
 young animal being deprived of the colostrum, its natural 
 cathartic. 
 
 Inflammation op the Umbilical Cord — Omphalitis — is 
 especially seen in the progeny of scrofulous animals, and 
 may result from any ordinary irritating influence ; the ten- 
 dency calves have to suck the remains of the umbilical cord 
 especially gives rise to this. The scrofulous cases are very 
 obstinate, but ordinary ones soon suppurate, and there is a 
 
484 BOVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 tendency of tlie pus to pass up the cord and cause sinuses. 
 These must be opened^ the young animal removed from 
 among other calves, and the inflamed part fomented 
 and protected from injury, after opening it must be 
 dressed with the glycerine or oil of carbolic acid. No 
 special measure is necessary in the treatment, but a long 
 and severe case of this disorder may considerably retard 
 the development of the calf. It also may give rise to a 
 disorder which has been described by M. Lenglen, of 
 Arras, in a paper which has been translated for the 
 ' Veterinarian,^ December, 1880. It is termed Gangeenous 
 Stomatitis, being similar to a disease of the same name 
 which affects children who are badly nourished. The 
 buccal membrane sloughs in patches of considerable size 
 against the molar tooth, and there is a tendency to the 
 formation of an abscess in the cheek or lips. Foetid 
 diarrhoea is present, and often carries off the patient. 
 Though most frequently seen in very young animals this 
 disease may be found in calves several months old, and 
 should be treated by nourishing diet, vegetable tonics, 
 and, according to M. Lenglen, coffee. The lesions should 
 be touched with caustic after the sloughing patches have 
 been removed. All the hygenic conditions should be 
 carefully regulated. 
 
 (Edema op the Umbilicus also results from calves suck- 
 ing one another. It must not be mistaken for umbilical 
 hernia. A bandage may be put on to protect the part. 
 
 Fig. 117. -rarturltion forcepj 
 
NOTES ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CATTLE 
 PATHOLOGY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 PoR a long time after some scientific knowledge liad been brought 
 to bear on the subject of the diseases of the horse, the treatment of 
 other domesticated animals remained in the hands of the most 
 ignorant of empirics, who, under the name of " Cow leeches," were 
 called in to attend such cases as proved beyond the experience of 
 the owner. The vilest and moat complicated of nostrums were 
 administered by these worthies, and it seems that it was generally 
 considered to be safer for the farmer to trust to his simple know- 
 ledge of disease and the prescriptions handed down to him by 
 his ancestors, than to expend money on medicinal treatment with 
 little prospect of receiving its value, and considerable likelihood of 
 detriment to his stock. Hence, we find that accounts of the diseases 
 of the ox are, with those of other animals, treated of in works on 
 Husbandry, such as Markham's Way to Wealth and Country Farmer, 
 and we need scarcely say that the language used and the notions 
 expressed in these works were markedly diflferent from those 
 sanctioned by science. Before 1825, some books were produced 
 specially touching upon the management and diseases of cattle, of 
 these we may mention : 
 
 Mascall on " Cattle " (1680). 
 
 Mills on "Cattle" (1776). 
 
 Downing on " Cattle " (1797). 
 
 Feron's " Farriery" (1803). 
 
 RowHn's " Cow Doctor " (1804). 
 
 Boothby on " Cattle " (1809). 
 
 Causer on " Domestic Animals " (1822). 
 Also the works of Lawrence, Tindall, Ry dings. Peck, and Rydge, 
 and those of Clater and White, which, under much modified forms, 
 have remained to the present day ; the latest edition of Clater's 
 Cattle Doctor by Armatage being one of no little value, to which we 
 are indebted for many useful hints and illustrations. White was 
 an author of much repute and merit, and his Veterinary Dictionary 
 and Cattle Medicine are still worth examination, especially the 1842 
 edition of the latter, which was brought out by Mr. W. C. Spooner, 
 an eminent veterinary surgeon and accomplished writer. Topham 
 produced a book specially on the Diseases of Cattle, and this period 
 of the evolution of the literature of cattle pathology led to such 
 monographs on special subjects, as Parkinson on Parturient 
 Animals, Skellet on the Breeding Cow, and Blurton on Milking. 
 
 In 1798 was published Jenner's remarkable work on Variola 
 Vaccina. 
 During the rise of veterinary science appeared books useful both 
 
486 NOTES ON BIBLIOGEAPHY OP CATTLE PATHOLOGT. 
 
 for the owners of cattle and to the members of the young profession ; 
 of these the one which most largely has influenced the progress of 
 cattle pathology is that excellent work, Youatt On Cattle, which 
 appeared in 1834, and may still be consulted with benefit in spite of 
 the vast strides of all branches of pathology since then. More 
 recently members of the veterinary profession have contributed 
 largely to the advancement of this branch of science, and our 
 leading authors have treated of the diseases of cattle generally with 
 those of our other patients, as in the works of Blaine, Dick, 
 Gamgee, and Williams, the Veterinary Surgery and Veterinary 
 Medicine of the last of these authors, and the work of Gamgee on 
 Our Domestic Animals in Health and Disease, are those which we 
 suggest as most valuable to the student of cattle pathology in the 
 present day. For information on special subjects he cannot do 
 better than consult such works as those of Fleming on Animal 
 Plagues, Babies and Hydrophobia, Veterinary Sanitary Science and 
 Police, and (especially) Veterinary Obstetrics, the publication of 
 which has rendered it less necessary for us to enter into prolonged 
 treatment of this section of bovine practice than has seemed right 
 to our predecessors in this branch of professional literature. Also 
 Wallet's Four Bovine Scourges is of special value and interest ; it 
 is a marked gain to veterinary science. We must here also allude 
 to the small but useful papers by Morton and Simonds, the former 
 on Calculous Concretions and Toxicology, the latter on Pleuro- 
 pneumonia, Parturient Apoplexy, and so on. Also to that formidable 
 but interesting volume, Gamgee oh Cattle Plague. For our informa- 
 tion on the action of medicinal agents we are indebted to the works 
 of Morton, Tuson, and Finlay Dun ; and we have derived much 
 valuable matter from Dr. Gobbold's Parasites, and The Parasites 
 of our Domesticated Animals, as well as from notes on his course 
 of lectures at the Royal Veterinary College, which we, as a stu- 
 dent, had the privilege of taking. A few works on cattle have been 
 recently produced in America, of these we need only allude to Pro- 
 fessor James Law's Farmer's Veterinary Adviser, as in many points 
 original and always worth reading. Dobson On the Ox, through 
 which we have been fortunate enough to obtain many of our illus- 
 trations, is addressed to the farmer as well as the practitioner, and 
 is therefore hardly sufficient fo:: the requirements of the profession 
 in the present day. It has proved of considerable use to students 
 and practitioners, and we can conscientiously allude to it as a 
 simple, interesting, and practical work. With those of Youatt, 
 Armatage, and Spooner, already alluded to, it has recently repre- 
 sented that portion of veterinary literature most directly dealing 
 with diseases of the ox. Not the least valuable portion of the 
 literature of my subject must be sought for in the columns of such 
 periodical publications as the Veterinarian, Veterinary Journal, 
 Edinburgh and American Veterinary Beviews, Veterinary Becord, 
 Abstract of Proceedings of the Veterinary Medical Association, and 
 also the journals of the various agricultural societies. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abductor f emorls, dislocation 
 
 of 407 
 
 Aneurism 
 
 
 220 
 
 Abnormal presentations 
 
 
 . 448 
 
 " Angle berries'* 
 
 
 354 
 
 Abomasitis 
 
 
 264, 267 
 
 Anidians . ^. . . 
 
 
 456 
 
 Abomasum 
 
 
 . 250 
 
 Animal parasites of skin 
 
 
 357 
 
 — impaction of 
 
 
 . 267 
 
 — vaccination 
 
 
 157 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 
 . 268 
 
 Anorexia 
 
 
 67 
 
 Abscess . 
 
 
 . 27 
 
 Ante-partum bleeding 
 
 
 441 
 
 — of kidney . 
 
 
 . 338 
 
 Anthracoid affections 
 
 
 161 
 
 — serous . 
 
 
 . 424 
 
 Anthrax . 
 
 
 161 
 
 Absence of teats 
 
 
 . 476 
 
 Antidotes 
 
 
 
 189 
 
 Acariasis . 
 
 
 . 357 
 
 Antiphlogi sties 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Accumulations of meconium 
 
 . 483 
 
 Antiseptic surgery 
 
 
 
 417 
 
 Acne 
 
 
 . 352 
 
 — system 
 
 
 
 417 
 
 Aconite . 
 
 
 . 193 
 
 Anus, false 
 
 
 . 280 
 
 , 293 
 
 Active congestion . 
 
 
 . 35 
 
 — impervious . 
 
 
 
 294 
 
 — haemorrhage 
 
 
 . 37 
 
 Aphtha . 
 
 
 
 236 
 
 Acute disease . 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 — epizootica . 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 — inflammation 
 
 
 . 35 
 
 — genitalium . 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 Administration of chloroform 
 
 . 72 
 
 — infectious . 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 — of drenches . 
 
 
 . 74 
 
 Apnoea . 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 — of medicines 
 
 
 . 73 
 
 Apoplexy 
 
 
 
 379 
 
 Adrenals . 
 
 
 . 226 
 
 — intestinal . 
 
 
 
 293 
 
 Adynamia nervosa . 
 
 
 . 389 
 
 — parturient . 
 
 
 
 390 
 
 -^gagropiles . 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 — puerperal . 
 
 
 
 390 
 
 — in liquor amnii . 
 
 
 . 461 
 
 — pulmonary . 
 
 
 
 322 
 
 Afterbirth 
 
 
 . 445 
 
 — splenic 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 Afterpains 
 
 
 . 446 
 
 Appendages of the eye, di 
 
 seases 
 
 
 Agalactia . 
 
 
 . 481 
 
 of . . . 
 
 
 369 
 
 Age in relation to disease 
 
 . 61 
 
 Application of boiling wai 
 
 ier . 
 
 85 
 
 Air . . . . 
 
 
 . 59 
 
 Aqueous chamber, deposit 
 
 s in . 
 
 373 
 
 — expired 
 
 
 . 67 
 
 Arsenic . 
 
 
 197 
 
 Albugo . 
 
 
 . 372 
 
 Arteries . 
 
 
 220 
 
 Albuminuria . 
 
 
 . 336 
 
 — irregularities of . 
 
 
 221 
 
 Alimentary canal 
 
 
 . 227 
 
 Arthritis . , . . 
 
 
 407 
 
 Alopecia . 
 
 
 . 355 
 
 — rheumatic . 
 
 
 104 
 
 Alvitis . 
 
 
 . 260 
 
 — scrofulous . 
 
 
 124 
 
 Amaurosis 
 
 
 . 374 
 
 Ascites . 
 
 
 301 
 
 Amenorrhcea . 
 
 
 . 440 
 
 — congenital . 
 
 
 456 
 
 Amnion, dropsy of . 
 
 
 . 460 
 
 Asphyxia 
 
 
 9 
 
 Amputation of a foot 
 
 
 . 366 
 
 — neonatorum 
 
 
 483 
 
 — of the penis 
 
 
 . 433 
 
 Asthenia . . . . 
 
 
 16 
 
 — of the uterus 
 
 
 . 473 
 
 Asthenic inflammation 
 
 
 34 
 
 — of the vagina 
 
 
 . 474 
 
 Asthma . 
 
 
 319 
 
 Anaemia . 
 
 
 16,92 
 
 Astringent poisons . 
 
 
 196 
 
 Anaesthetics . 
 
 
 . 44 
 
 Atheroma 
 
 
 220 
 
 Anasarca . 
 
 
 . 855 
 
 Atmosphere 
 
 
 
 59 
 
488 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 PAas 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Atrophy . 
 
 
 22 
 
 " Bnllers" 
 
 . 465 
 
 — of the blood 
 
 
 92 
 
 "Bull-burnt" . 
 
 . 435 
 
 — of the heart 
 
 
 210 
 
 Bursal enlargements 
 
 . 424 
 
 — of the omasum . 
 
 
 267 
 
 
 
 — of the ovaries 
 
 
 437 
 
 Cachexia aquosa verminosa 93 
 
 — of the skin . 
 
 
 355 
 
 — ossifraga malacia 
 
 . 400 
 
 — of the spleen 
 
 
 225 
 
 Csesarean operation 
 
 . 444 
 
 Auscultation . 
 
 .* 304, 306 
 
 Calcareous tumours 
 
 . 424 
 
 
 
 
 Calcification . 
 
 20, 25 
 
 Bacillus . 
 
 
 161 
 
 Calculus, cystic 
 
 . 344 
 
 Bacterium of anthrax 
 
 
 161 
 
 — gastric 
 
 . 263 
 
 Baldness . 
 
 
 355 
 
 ■— intestinal . 
 
 . . 274 
 
 Balls for cattle 
 
 
 74 
 
 — lacteal 
 
 . 482 
 
 Barbs 
 
 
 232 
 
 — pancreatic . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Bearers . 
 
 
 201 
 
 — preputial , 
 
 . 348 
 
 "Bed-sores" . 
 
 
 391 
 
 — renal . 
 
 . 338 
 
 Bending of a bone . 
 
 
 404 
 
 — salivary 
 
 . 232 
 
 Bile 
 
 
 299 
 
 — urethral 
 
 . 347,434 
 
 Birth, premature 
 
 
 443 
 
 — uretal . 
 
 . 339 
 
 " Black cancer** 
 
 
 421 
 
 Callous ulcer . 
 
 . 321 
 
 " Black leg'' . 
 
 
 170 
 
 Callus . 
 
 . 402 
 
 "Black quarter'* . 
 
 
 170 
 
 Campy lorrhachides . 
 
 . 457 
 
 " Black water*' 
 
 
 106 
 
 Canal, alimentary . 
 
 . 322 
 
 Bladder, inflammation of 
 
 
 342 
 
 Cancer 
 
 . 119, 419 
 
 — inversion of . 
 
 343, 475 
 
 — black . . . , 
 
 . 421 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 
 343 
 
 — of kidney . 
 
 . 339 
 
 — spasm of the neck 
 
 
 343 
 
 — of penis 
 
 . 433 
 
 — tumour of . 
 
 
 346 
 
 — - of tongue . 
 
 . 234 
 
 Blaine or blain 
 
 169 
 
 ,351 
 
 Capillary haemorrhage 
 
 . 222 
 
 Blebs 
 
 
 33 
 
 Carbuncle 
 
 . 352 
 
 Bleeding from the lungs . 
 
 
 323 
 
 Carbuncular erysipelas 
 
 . 170 
 
 — from the nostrils 
 
 
 311 
 
 Carbonic- acid poisoning , 
 
 . 180 
 
 — ante-partum 
 
 
 446 
 
 Carcinomata . 
 
 . 419 
 
 Blistering 
 
 
 85 
 
 Cardiac polypi 
 
 . 217 
 
 Blood . . . . 
 
 
 89 
 
 Carditis . . . , 
 
 . 210 
 
 — in urine 
 
 
 335 
 
 Caries .... 
 
 . 29 
 
 Bloodletting . 
 
 
 86 
 
 — of molars . 
 
 . 218 
 
 — local . . . . 
 
 
 57 
 
 Cartilago-nictitans . 
 
 . 371 
 
 Bloody flux 
 
 288,447 1 
 
 Caruncula lachrymalis 
 
 . 371 
 
 — sweat 
 
 
 356 
 
 Caseation 
 
 . 19 
 
 "Blown" 
 
 
 254 
 
 Castration 
 
 . 428 
 
 Bone, fibro-plastic degenei 
 
 •ation 
 
 
 — of cows 
 
 . 438 
 
 of ... . 
 
 
 423 
 
 Cataplasmata . 
 
 . 85 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 
 396 
 
 Cataract .... 
 
 . 374 
 
 Bony tumours on orbit . 
 
 
 370 
 
 Catarrh .... 
 
 . 310 
 
 Borborygma . 
 
 
 67 
 
 — malignant . 
 
 . 179 
 
 "Bound" 
 
 
 281 
 
 Cathartics 
 
 . 285 
 
 Bowels, diseases of . 
 
 
 274 
 
 Catheter, passing the 
 
 . 340 
 
 Brain, dropsy of 
 
 
 380 
 
 Cattle plague . 
 
 . 147 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 
 376 
 
 Causes .... 
 
 2 
 
 — parasites in 
 
 
 382 
 
 — determining 
 
 . 114 
 
 Breeding, " in-and-in" . 
 
 
 58 
 
 Cautery, castration by the 
 
 . 431 
 
 — special 
 
 
 47 
 
 Cavernous rdle . , 
 
 . 305 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 
 315 
 
 Cerebritis 
 
 . 375 
 
 — chronic 
 
 
 318 
 
 Cerebro-spinal system 
 
 . 375 
 
 — parasitic 
 
 
 319 
 
 Charbon .... 
 
 . 167 
 
 Broncho-pneumonia 
 
 
 134 
 
 — essential 
 
 . 167 
 
 Bulimia • » » 
 
 
 241 
 
 — external 
 
 . 170 
 
INDEX. 
 
 489 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Charbon, symptomatic . 
 
 . 
 
 170 
 
 Cramp of tongue 
 
 . 235 
 
 Charbonous gangrene of lungs . 
 
 170 
 
 Cranium, fractures of 
 
 . 404 
 
 « Chine felon " 
 
 , 
 
 104 
 
 Crepitation 
 
 . 306 
 
 Chlorofown 
 
 44, 71 
 
 " Cripples " . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Choking 
 
 
 240 
 
 « Crochles " . 
 
 . 104 
 
 Chorea .... 
 
 
 390 
 
 Crupous enteritis . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Chronic disease 
 
 
 40 
 
 — pneumonia . 
 
 , 324 
 
 — inflammation 
 
 
 51 
 
 Cud, dropping the . 
 
 . 230 
 
 Cicatrisation . ... 
 
 
 414 
 
 Cumulative agents . 
 
 . 186 
 
 Clamps, castration with . 
 
 
 431 
 
 Cuticular cyst in parotid 
 
 . 232 
 
 — umbilical 
 
 
 278 
 
 " Cutting for the stone " 
 
 . 346 
 
 Classification of poisons . 
 
 
 186 
 
 Cyanosis . 
 
 . 219 
 
 — of skin diseases . 
 
 
 348 
 
 Cystic calculus 
 
 . 344 
 
 "Cleansing" . 
 
 
 445 
 
 — tumours 
 
 . 424 
 
 Cleft palate . 
 
 
 457 
 
 Cystitis . 
 
 . 342 
 
 Climate .... 
 
 
 60 
 
 Cystocele 
 
 . 276 
 
 "Clue bound" 
 
 
 264 
 
 Cysts . 
 
 . 235 
 
 "Clyers" 
 
 
 124 
 
 — dermopilous 
 
 . 354 
 
 Coat staring . 
 
 
 348 
 
 
 
 Coelosomians . 
 
 
 457 
 
 Dead foetus . 
 
 . 465 
 
 CoitA, injuries sub . 
 
 
 433 
 
 Death . 
 
 . 15 
 
 Colchicum 
 
 
 194 
 
 Debility . 
 
 . 92 
 
 Cold abscesses 
 
 
 27 
 
 Degeneration . 
 
 . 18 
 
 — efi'ects of . 
 
 
 51 
 
 — cretaceous, of heart 
 
 . 211 
 
 Colic, flatulent 
 
 
 274 
 
 — fatty, of heart . 
 
 . 211 
 
 — simple 
 
 
 273 
 
 — of arteries . 
 
 . 220 
 
 Collapse .... 
 
 
 45 
 
 — of bone, fibro-plastic 
 
 . 423 
 
 Colloid .... 
 
 
 420 
 
 — of oesophagus 
 
 . 235 
 
 Colon .... 
 
 
 270 
 
 Delirium . . -. 
 
 . 383 
 
 Colour, effects on skin diseases 
 
 356 
 
 Delitescence . 
 
 . 34 
 
 Coma .... 
 
 
 17 
 
 Demarcation, line of 
 
 33,48 
 
 Concentric hypertrophy . 
 
 
 210 
 
 Depilation 
 
 . 353 
 
 Conception, extra uterine 
 
 
 443 
 
 Derivatives 
 
 . 49 
 
 Confluent ulcer 
 
 
 32 
 
 Dermatitis 
 
 . 349 
 
 Conformation . 
 
 
 61 
 
 — pustulosa . 
 
 . 351 
 
 Congenital disease . 
 
 
 47 
 
 Dermatophyta . 
 
 . 356 
 
 — hairy tumour 
 
 
 373 
 
 Dermatozoa . 
 
 . 356 
 
 — hydrocephalus . 
 
 
 456 
 
 Dermopilous cysts . 
 
 . 354 
 
 Congestion 
 
 35, 52 1 
 
 Detection of foetus . 
 
 . 441 
 
 — hepatic 
 
 
 297 
 
 Determining causes . 
 
 . 114 
 
 — pulmonary . 
 
 
 322 
 
 " Dew blown " 
 
 . 254 
 
 Conium .... 
 
 
 193 
 
 Diabetes insipidus . 
 
 111, 334 
 
 Conjunctivitis . 
 
 
 371 
 
 — mellitus 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Conservative surgery 
 
 
 46 
 
 Diagnosis 
 
 3 
 
 Constipation . 
 
 
 284 
 
 Diaphragm, rupture of 
 
 . 332 
 
 Contagion 
 
 
 113 
 
 Diaphragmatic hernia 
 
 . 280 
 
 Continuity, solutions of . 
 
 
 37 
 
 Diarrhoea 
 
 . 286 
 
 Contraction, imperfect, of 
 
 08 
 
 
 Diet . . . . 
 
 . 38 
 
 uteri 
 
 
 464 
 
 Difficult parturition 
 
 . 461 
 
 Contused wounds 
 
 
 412 
 
 Digestive system 
 
 . 227 
 
 " Copper smoke disease " 
 
 
 198 
 
 Digitalis . . . . 
 
 49, 194 
 
 Cord, spinal, diseases of . 
 
 
 384 
 
 Dilatation of os uterJ 
 
 . 464 
 
 — umbilical, inflammation of 
 
 
 483 
 
 — of oesophagus 
 
 . 258 
 
 Cornea, opacity of . 
 
 
 372 
 
 — of urethra . 
 
 . 339 
 
 Corneitis 
 
 
 371 
 
 — of ureter . 
 
 . 345 
 
 Coryza .... 
 
 
 179 
 
 Diphtheria 
 
 . 176 
 
 Cough .... 
 
 10, 64 1 
 
 Disease . . . . 
 
 1 
 
 Covered operation of castration 
 
 431 1 
 
 Diseases, specific 
 
 . Ill 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Disinfection 
 
 , 
 
 
 86 
 
 Enteritis 
 
 290 
 
 — for pleuro-pneumonia 
 
 
 152 
 
 — crupous .... 
 
 291 
 
 Dislocations . 
 
 , 
 
 
 409 
 
 Enterocele . . . . 
 
 276 
 
 — of the patella 
 
 . 
 
 
 410 
 
 Enzootics . . . . 
 
 40 
 
 Displacement of 
 
 abduct 
 
 or fe- 
 
 
 Epidermal tumours . 
 
 423 
 
 moris 
 
 , 
 
 
 407 
 
 Epidermis, keratoid change of 
 
 353 
 
 Diuresis . 
 
 
 
 341 
 
 Epilepsy 
 
 378 
 
 Doses . . . 
 
 , 
 
 
 77 
 
 Epiphyses, separation of . 
 
 404 
 
 "Downfall of the udder" 
 
 
 477 
 
 Epiplocele . . . . 
 
 276 
 
 Draughts 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Epistaxis .... 
 
 311 
 
 Drenches . 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Epithelial tumours . 
 
 423 
 
 Dressing feet . 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 Epithelioma , . . . 
 
 421 
 
 Drink 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 Epizootics .... 
 
 40 
 
 Dropsy . 
 
 
 ' 25, 53 
 
 — vesicular .... 
 
 40 
 
 — of abdomen 
 
 
 
 301 
 
 Erysipelas . . . . 
 
 176 
 
 — of amnion . 
 
 
 
 460 
 
 — carbuncular 
 
 170 
 
 — of brain 
 
 
 
 379 
 
 Erythema . . . . 
 
 349 
 
 — of joints 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 — chronica . . . . 
 
 349 
 
 — of ovaries . 
 
 
 
 437 
 
 — mammillarum 
 
 349 
 
 — of pericardium 
 
 
 
 217 
 
 Essential charbon . 
 
 167 
 
 — of uterus 
 
 
 
 465 
 
 Etiology ..... 
 
 2 
 
 Dysentery 
 
 
 
 288 
 
 Evil, quarter .... 
 
 170 
 
 Dysorexia 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 Examinations, post-mortem 
 
 38 
 
 Dyspnoea . 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Exanthemata .... 
 
 155 
 
 Dysuria . 
 
 
 
 342 
 
 Excipients .... 
 Exomphalos .... 
 
 85 
 277 
 
 Ear, diseases of 
 
 
 
 369 
 
 Exostosis . . . 399 
 
 , 424 
 
 Eburnation 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 Extra uterine conception . 
 
 443 
 
 Eccentric hypertrophy of 
 
 heart 
 
 210 
 
 Extravasation .... 
 
 36 
 
 Echinococcus . 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 Exudation .... 
 
 26 
 
 — in liver 
 
 
 
 297 
 
 Eye 
 
 369 
 
 Ecraseur 
 
 
 427, 
 
 431 
 
 — worm in ... . 
 
 373 
 
 Ecthyma 
 
 
 
 352 
 
 Eyeball, diseases of 
 
 371 
 
 Ectopia cordis 
 
 
 219, 
 
 457 
 
 Eyelids, laceration of 
 
 370 
 
 Ectozoa . 
 
 
 
 356 
 
 
 
 Eczema . 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 "Falling of the read" . 
 
 460 
 
 — contagiosa . 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 False anus .... 
 
 280 
 
 — epizootica . 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 — labour pains 
 
 441 
 
 Effusion . 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 — presentation 
 
 448 
 
 Elastic band for castratioi 
 
 
 432 
 
 Farcy 
 
 175 
 
 Elephantiasis . 
 
 . 
 
 
 354 
 
 Fatty deposits in spermatic 
 
 
 Eliminative poisons . 
 
 
 197 
 
 cord 
 
 432 
 
 Emasculation . 
 
 
 
 430 
 
 — tumours .... 
 
 423 
 
 Embolism 
 
 
 
 221 
 
 Felon chine .... 
 
 104 
 
 Embryotomy , 
 
 
 
 458 
 
 — joint . . . . . 
 
 104 
 
 Emphysema . 
 
 
 319, 
 
 355 
 
 Fetlock, sprain of . 
 
 405 
 
 — f cetal . 
 
 
 
 456 
 
 Fever 
 
 93 
 
 — infectuosum 
 
 
 
 170 
 
 — inflammatory 
 
 170 
 
 — spontaneous 
 
 
 
 370 
 
 — parturient . . . 173, 
 
 396 
 
 Emprosthotonos 
 
 
 
 384 
 
 — Spanish .... 
 
 168 
 
 Empyema 
 
 
 27, 
 
 328 
 
 — splenic .... 
 
 167 
 
 Encephalitis . 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 —-Texas 
 
 168 
 
 Encephaloid . 
 
 
 
 420 
 
 Fibrinous intestinal casts 
 
 292 
 
 Enchondromata 
 
 
 
 423 
 
 Fibromata .... 
 
 425 
 
 Endocarditis . 
 
 
 
 211 
 
 — interdigital 
 
 368 
 
 Endometritis . 
 
 
 
 466 
 
 Fistula 
 
 32 
 
 Enemas . 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 — in ano .... 
 
 294 
 
 Enlargements, bursal 
 
 
 424 
 
 — of rumen . , , . 
 
 264 
 
INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Fistula, recto-vaginal 
 
 — uterine 
 
 — vesico-vaginal 
 Flatulence 
 Fluke . 
 Flux, nasal 
 Fly, tsetze 
 Foetal membranes, diseases 
 
 — removal of . 
 
 — retention of 
 Foetid pus 
 Foetus dead 
 
 — detection of 
 Fog sickness 
 Fomentations . 
 Foot 
 
 — and mouth disease 
 Foreign bodies in reticul 
 
 — — rumen . 
 "Foul" . 
 
 *' Founder " 
 Fractures 
 
 — greenstick . 
 
 — of cranium . 
 
 — of horns 
 
 — of metacarpals . 
 
 — of OS innominatum 
 
 — of ribs 
 
 — partial 
 Fragilitas ossium 
 Free martins . 
 Friction sound 
 Fumigation 
 Functional disorders 
 
 — disease of heart . 
 
 — of skin 
 
 Fungus hsematodes . 
 Furor uterinus 
 Furunculus 
 
 Gall bladder . 
 Gangrene 
 
 — of lungs 
 Gangrenous stomatitis 
 « Garget " 
 Gasterocele 
 
 Gastro enteritis 
 General symptoms . 
 Generative system, female 
 
 male 
 
 Genital aphtha 
 
 Glanders 
 
 « Glanders '* . 
 
 Glands, salivary 
 
 — vascular 
 Gleet, nasal 
 Gloss-anthrax . 
 Glossitis . 
 
 of 
 
 PAGE 
 
 294, 475 
 
 . 468 
 
 . 475 
 
 . 67 
 
 . 98 
 
 . 310 
 
 . 361 
 460 
 
 . 445 
 
 . 445 
 
 . 29 
 
 . 465 
 
 . 441 
 
 . 254 
 
 . 85 
 
 . 363 
 
 . 141 
 
 I . 263 
 
 . 263 
 
 . 364 
 
 . 367 
 
 37, 402 
 
 . 404 
 
 . 404 
 
 . 403 
 
 . 403 
 
 . 404 
 
 . 404 
 
 . 402 
 
 . 400 
 
 . 440 
 
 . 306 
 
 . 322 
 
 . 37 
 
 209, 264 
 
 . 355 
 
 . 370 
 
 • 465 
 
 . 352 
 
 . 299 
 
 . 32 
 
 . 170 
 
 . 484 
 
 178, 477 
 
 . 276 
 
 . 269 
 
 . 62 
 
 . 436 
 
 . 288 
 
 . 160 
 
 . 175 
 
 '. 179 
 
 . 230 
 
 . 225 
 
 . 312 
 
 . 169 
 
 . 232 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gmelin's test . , . . 101 
 
 Gonorrhoea .... 435 
 
 " Grain-sick " . . . . 260 
 
 Granulations .... 30 
 "Grapes" . . . .138 
 
 Greenstick fracture . . 404 
 
 Gregariousness ... 58 
 
 Groove, oesophageal . . . 298 
 
 Grooved needle ... 14 
 
 Growths, warty . . . 370 
 
 Gunshot wounds . . . 412 
 
 Gustation .... 375 
 "Gut tie" . . . .281 
 
 Haematomata 217, 413, 424, 476 
 
 Haemo-albuminuria . : . 106 
 
 Haemoptysis .... 322 
 Haemorrhage . . .36, 414 
 
 — capillary .... 222 
 
 — from the liver . . . 297 
 
 — from vulva .... 446 
 
 — umbilical .... 483 
 Haemorrhagic infarction . . 37 
 Haemorrhoids .... 286 
 Hair balls .... 268 
 
 — in liquor amnii . . . 461 
 Hairy tumours, congenital . 375 
 
 Hare-lip 457 
 
 "Hawks" . . . .169 
 
 Healthy ulcer .... 31 
 
 Heart 207 
 
 — diseases of . . . . 209 
 
 — misplacement of . . . 219 
 
 — pouched .... 211 
 
 — rupture of . . . . 218 
 Heat . . . .57,439 
 
 — of inflammation ... 24 
 Heel, ulceration of . . . 368 
 Hemiplegia .... 387 
 Hepatic hernia . . .299 
 Hepatirrhoea .... 297 
 Hepatitis .... 295 
 Hereditary influence . . 58 
 Hermaphrodites . . . 457 
 Hernia 278 
 
 — diaphragmatic . . . 280 
 
 — hepatic .... 299 
 
 — inguinal .... 280 
 
 — mesenteric .... 280 
 
 — of rumen .... 264 
 
 — pelvic 281 
 
 — phrenic .... 280 
 
 — scrotal .... 280 
 
 — uteri 475 
 
 — ventral .... 279 
 
 Herpes 350 
 
 Hide bound .... 348 
 
 History of cases ... 5 
 
•*x)£i 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ei^. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Honeycomb ringwor 
 
 m . .362 
 
 Inflammation of the brain . 375 
 
 Hoof, loss of . 
 
 . 369 
 
 — of the spleen 
 
 . 225 
 
 Horns, fractures of . 
 
 . 405 
 
 Inflammatory fever . 
 
 . 170 
 
 — overgrowth of . 
 
 . 368 
 
 — ulcer .... 
 
 . 31 
 
 Hosts 
 
 . 201 
 
 Infusoria 
 
 . 200 
 
 Hoven < . 
 
 . 254 
 
 Inguinal hernia 
 
 . 280 
 
 Hydatids . 
 
 . 424 
 
 Inhalations 
 
 . 76 
 
 Hydramnios . 
 
 . 460 
 
 Injection, hypodermic 
 
 . 77 
 
 Hydrocele 
 
 . 433 
 
 — intravenous 
 
 . 76 
 
 Hydrocephalus 
 
 . 379 
 
 — subcutaneous 
 
 . 77 
 
 — congenitalis 
 
 . 456 
 
 Inoculation 
 
 47, 113 
 
 Hydrophobia . 
 
 . 181 
 
 — for anthrax 
 
 . 166 
 
 Hydrops articulorun 
 
 1 . .408 
 
 — for cattle plague . 
 
 • 152 
 
 — pericardii . 
 
 . 217 
 
 — for pleuro pneumonia . 
 
 . 139 
 
 — uteri . 
 
 . 465 
 
 Inspissated pus 
 
 . 29 
 
 Hydrothorax . 
 
 . 328 
 
 Interdigital fibromata 
 
 . 368 
 
 Hymen, impervious . 
 
 . 463 
 
 Interlobular emphysema 
 
 . 319 
 
 Hyperemia . 
 
 . 35 
 
 Interstitial pnenmonia 
 
 . 325 
 
 Hypertrophy , 
 
 . 21 
 
 Intestines 
 
 . 270 
 
 >- of blood . 
 
 . 91 
 
 — malformations of 
 
 . 294 
 
 — of heart 
 
 . 210 
 
 — parasites in 
 
 . 294 
 
 — of skin 
 
 . 353 
 
 — tumours of . 
 
 . 294 
 
 — of spleen , 
 
 . 225 
 
 — ruptures of . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Hypergalactia . 
 
 . 482 
 
 Intestinal apoplexy . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Hysterocele 
 
 . 475 
 
 — casts . 
 
 . 292 
 
 Hysterotomy, vagin 
 
 al . . 462 
 
 Intussusception 
 
 . 274 
 
 
 
 Invagination . 
 
 . 274 
 
 Ichorous pus . 
 
 . 29 
 
 Inversion of bladder 
 
 343, 475 
 
 Icterus , 
 
 . 101 
 
 — of uterus . 
 
 . 470 
 
 Idiopathic haemorrh. 
 
 ^ge . . 37 
 
 — of vagina . 
 
 . 474 
 
 — inflammation 
 
 . 34 
 
 Irregularities of arteries 
 
 . 221 
 
 — pericarditis . 
 
 • 216 
 
 Irritant poisons 
 
 . 196 
 
 — tetanus 
 
 . 384 
 
 Irritation venteuse . 
 
 . 286 
 
 Ileus 
 
 Immediate contagio 
 
 Impaction of abomas 
 
 — bowels 
 
 — omasum 
 
 . 275 
 
 n . .113 
 
 mm . . 267 
 
 . 274 
 
 . 264 
 
 Jaundice 
 "Joint felon" 
 Joints, dropsy of 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 101 
 
 . 104 
 . 408 
 . 407 
 
 — rumen 
 
 . 260 
 
 Keratitis 
 
 . 371 
 
 Imperforate vagina 
 
 . 461 
 
 Keratoid change of skin 
 
 . 353 
 
 Impervious anus 
 
 . 294 
 
 Kidney, abscess of . 
 
 . 338 
 
 — teats . 
 
 . 476 
 
 — encephaloid of . 
 
 . 339 
 
 Impetigo . 
 
 . 351 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 337 
 
 Incised wounds 
 
 . 412 
 
 
 
 Incisors . 
 
 . 227 
 
 Labour pains, false . 
 
 . 441 
 
 Incontinency of urii 
 
 le . . 341 
 
 Laburnum 
 
 . 195 
 
 Indigestion 
 
 . 268 
 
 Lacerated wounds . 
 
 . 412 
 
 Induration of mam 
 
 mary gland 479 
 
 Lacerations of the eyelids 
 
 . 370 
 
 — of thyroid . 
 
 . 226 
 
 — of the uterus 
 
 . 468 
 
 — of tonpjue . 
 
 . 234 
 
 Lactorrhoea . 
 
 . 481 
 
 Inertia of uterine w 
 
 alls . . 464 
 
 Laminitis 
 
 . 367 
 
 Infarction, hsemorrl 
 
 lagic . . 37 
 
 Lands, scouring 
 
 . 288 
 
 Infection 
 
 . . . 113 
 
 Laparotomy . 
 
 . 275 
 
 Infectious aphtha 
 
 . 160 
 
 Laryngitis 
 
 . 312 
 
 Infiltration 
 
 . 20 
 
 Laryngotomy . 
 
 . 314 
 
 Inflamed ulcer 
 
 . 32 
 
 Larynx, fractures of 
 
 . 315 
 
 Inflammation , 
 
 . . . 23 
 
 — tumours of . 
 
 . 315 
 
 — of the blood 
 
 . 95 
 
 "Lashing'' . 
 
 . 429 
 
INDEX, 
 
 493 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Latent period . 
 
 . 117 
 
 "Mawbound" . , 
 
 . 260 
 
 Laudable pus . 
 
 . 29 
 
 Meat, scrofulous 
 
 . 129 
 
 Lead 
 
 .195 
 
 Mechanical congestion 
 
 . 35 
 
 Legislative measures 
 
 . 47 
 
 Meconium, accumulations 
 
 of . 483 
 
 Leucaemia 
 
 . 99 
 
 Mediate contagion . 
 
 . 113 
 
 Leucocythaemia 
 
 . 99 
 
 Medullary sarcoma . 
 
 . 420 
 
 Leucorrhoea 
 
 . 475 
 
 Megalomelians 
 
 . . 457 
 
 Lice 
 
 . 360 
 
 Megrims 
 
 . 378 
 
 Ligaraentum teres, spr 
 
 ainof . 406 
 
 Melanosis 
 
 . 421 
 
 Ligature for castration 
 
 . 430 
 
 Meningitis, tubercular 
 
 . 124 
 
 Lightning shock 
 
 . 98 
 
 Menstruation . 
 
 . 439 
 
 Lipomata 
 
 . 423 
 
 Mensuration . 
 
 . 309 
 
 Lipomatous paralysis 
 
 . 388 
 
 Mercury . 
 
 . 49 
 
 Lips . . . 
 
 . 227 
 
 Mesenteric hernia 
 
 . 280 
 
 Listerism 
 
 . 417 
 
 Metacarpal, fracture of th 
 
 e . 483 
 
 Lithecstasy 
 
 . 345 
 
 Metastasis 
 
 . 34 
 
 Lithotomy 
 
 . 346 
 
 Meteorisation . 
 
 . 254 
 
 Lithotrity 
 
 . 345 
 
 Metro-peritonitis 
 
 . 466 
 
 Liver, congestion of . 
 
 . 297 
 
 Miescher's bodies . 
 
 . 407 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Miliary tubercle 
 
 . 127 
 
 — ruptures of 
 
 . 297 
 
 Milk 
 
 . 481 
 
 — softening of 
 
 . 298 
 
 — changes of quality 
 
 . 482 
 
 " Locked jaw . 
 
 . 384 
 
 — fever . . . 
 
 . 390 
 
 Loo. 
 
 . 364 
 
 — pathological 
 
 . 29 
 
 Loss of a hoof . 
 
 . 367 
 
 Misplacement of the heart 
 
 . 219 
 
 Lousiness 
 
 . 360 
 
 Molars 
 
 . 228 
 
 Low 
 
 . 367 
 
 Monstrosities . 
 
 . 456 
 
 Lumbago 
 
 . 104 
 
 Monstrous condition of fo 
 
 3t . 368 
 
 Lung disease . 
 
 . 130 
 
 « Moor-ill" 
 
 . 290 
 
 — induration of 
 
 . 325 
 
 Morbid anatomy 
 
 . 17 
 
 — wound of . 
 
 . 327 
 
 Mortification . 
 
 32, 52 
 
 Lusus naturae . 
 
 . 458 
 
 Mucous membranes 
 
 . 66 
 
 Luxations 
 
 . 409 
 
 — rale . 
 
 . 305 
 
 Lymph adhesions . 
 
 . 225 
 
 Muffle . . . . 
 
 . 310 
 
 — coagulable . 
 
 . 25 
 
 " Muir-iU" 
 
 . 106 
 
 — vaccine 
 
 . 157 
 
 " Mulling^' . 
 
 . 428 
 
 Lymphatic system . 
 
 . 224 
 
 Murrain , 
 
 . 141 
 
 Lymphoma 
 
 . 225, 424 
 
 Muscles of mastication . 
 
 . 229 
 
 Lymphy deposit in 
 
 aqueous 
 
 — parasites in 
 
 . 407 
 
 chamber . 
 
 . 373 
 
 Myelitis . 
 
 . 384 
 
 
 
 Myo-carditis . 
 
 . 210 
 
 Malformations 
 
 . 219 
 
 
 
 — of intestines 
 
 . 294 
 
 Naevus . . . . 
 
 . 353 
 
 — of palate 
 
 . . :257 
 
 Narcosis . . . , 
 
 . 383 
 
 — of uterus . 
 
 . . 474 
 
 Narcotic poisons 
 
 . 191 
 
 Malignant catarrh . 
 
 . 179 
 
 Nasal polypus . 
 
 . 311 
 
 — sore throat 
 
 . 169 
 
 — gleet . . . . 
 
 . 312 
 
 — tumours 
 
 . 419 
 
 Nausea . . . . 
 
 . 67 
 
 Mammary gland 
 
 . .478 
 
 Nebula . . . . 
 
 . 372 
 
 Mammitis 
 
 . 477 
 
 Neck of bladder, spasm of 
 
 . 348 
 
 — from eczema 
 
 . 143 
 
 — of womb, torsion of 
 
 . 463 
 
 — septic . 
 
 . 174 
 
 Necrsemia 
 
 76,98 
 
 Mange 
 
 . 357 
 
 Necrosis . . . . 
 
 33, 398 
 
 Mania puerperalis . 
 
 . 396 
 
 Nephritis 
 
 . 337 
 
 Manipulations 
 
 . 303 
 
 Nerve, phrenic, division o 
 
 f . 396 
 
 Manual exploration . 
 
 . 13 
 
 — sympathetic 
 
 . 396 
 
 Manyplies 
 
 . 249 
 
 Nerves . 
 
 . 396 
 
 "Martins" . 
 
 . 440 
 
 Nervous system 
 
 . 376 
 
494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nettle-rash 
 Neurosis . 
 Neurotomy 
 
 Non-secretion of urine 
 Nostrils, bleeding from 
 Number at a birth . 
 Nursing . 
 
 (Edema . 
 
 — umbilical . 
 (Esophageal groove . 
 ffisophagitis . 
 (Esophagotomy 
 (Esophagus . . 
 
 — dilatation of 
 
 — fibrous degeneration of 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 — stricture of . 
 (Estral products, profuse 
 
 — retained 
 
 — suppressed . . . 
 (Estriasis 
 
 (Estrum .... 
 Omasitis .... 
 Omasum . . . 
 
 — atrophy of . 
 Omphalitis 
 Opacity of the cornea 
 Open synovial sheaths 
 Operations 
 Ophthalmia, periodic 
 
 — simple 
 
 — specific 
 Opisthotonos . 
 Opium .... 
 Orchithlasis 
 
 Orchitis .... 
 Organic disease of the heart 
 Orthopncea . . 
 Osseophytes 
 Osseous tumours 
 Osteoporosis . 
 Osteosarcoma . 
 Ostitis .... 
 Os uteri, dilatation of 
 
 — imperfect contraction of 
 
 — impervious . 
 
 Otitis .... 
 Ovaries, atrophy of 
 
 — dropsy of 
 Ovariotomy 
 Overgrowth of horn 
 
 Palate, malformations of . 
 
 Palliatives 
 
 Palpitation of the heart . 
 
 Palsy .... 
 
 Pancreas, diseases of 
 
 "Pantas'' 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 351 
 
 . 356 
 
 . 396 
 
 . 334 
 
 . 311 
 
 . 443 
 . 46, 50, 72 
 
 25, 310, 355 
 
 . 484 
 
 . 248 
 
 . 238 
 
 . 243 
 
 . 237 
 
 . 238 
 
 . 238 
 
 . 239 
 
 . 238 
 
 . 440 
 
 . 440 
 
 . 440 
 
 . 360 
 
 . 439 
 
 . 266 
 
 . 249 
 
 . 267 
 
 . 483 
 
 . 372 
 
 . 407 
 
 . 43 
 
 . 373 
 
 . 371 
 
 . 373 
 
 . 384 
 49, 191 
 
 . 428 
 
 . 432 
 
 . 210 
 9 
 
 . 400 
 
 . 424 
 
 . 401 
 
 . 422 
 
 464 
 464 
 463 
 369 
 437 
 437 
 438 
 368 
 
 237 
 42 
 209 
 386 
 300 
 290 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Panzootic 
 
 . 40 
 
 Paps 
 
 . 232 
 
 Paracentesis abdominis 
 
 • 301 
 
 — thoracis 
 
 . 330 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 . 3S6 
 
 — of retina 
 
 . 374 
 
 — of tongue . 
 
 . 236 
 
 Paraplegia 
 
 . 387 
 
 Parasites 
 
 183, 198 
 
 — in brain 
 
 . 382 
 
 — in heart 
 
 . 218 
 
 — in intestines 
 
 . 294 
 
 — in kidney . 
 
 . 339 
 
 — in muscles . 
 
 . 407 
 
 — in nasal chambers 
 
 . 312 
 
 — in oesophagus 
 
 . 239 
 
 — in rumen 
 
 . 263 
 
 — vegetable . 
 
 . 206 
 
 Parasitic disorders of the 
 
 skin . 356 
 
 Parasitism, partial . 
 
 . 203 
 
 Parasitismus . 
 
 . 198 
 
 Parotiditis 
 
 . 231 
 
 Partial fracture 
 
 . 404 
 
 Parturient apoplexy 
 
 . 390 
 
 — fever . 
 
 . 173,396 
 
 — septicaemia . 
 
 . 173 
 
 Parturition 
 
 . 445 
 
 — difficult 
 
 . 461 
 
 Passive congestion . 
 
 . 35 
 
 — haemorrhage 
 
 . 37 
 
 Patella, dislocation of 
 
 . 410 
 
 Pathognomonic 
 
 5 
 
 Pathological milk . 
 
 . 29 
 
 Pathology, intimate 
 
 . 17 
 
 •' Paunching " . 
 
 . 261 
 
 Pelvic hernia . 
 
 . 211 
 
 — symphysis, relaxation ( 
 
 )f . 400 
 
 Pemphigus 
 
 . 352 
 
 Percussion 
 
 . 308 
 
 Perforation of intestine . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Pericardial dropsy . 
 
 . 217 
 
 — rupture 
 
 . 217 
 
 Pericarditis 
 
 . 213 
 
 Period, latent . 
 
 . 117 
 
 Periosteotomy . 
 
 . 399 
 
 Periostitis 
 
 . 399 
 
 Peripneumonia 
 
 . 130 
 
 Peritonitis 
 
 . 300 
 
 — puerperal . 
 
 . 467 
 
 Persistent hymen . 
 
 . 463 
 
 Pervious urachus 
 
 . 344 
 
 Petechise . 
 
 . 37 
 
 Pettenkofer's test . 
 
 . 101 
 
 Phagedaemic ulcer . 
 
 . 32 
 
 Pharyngeal polypus 
 
 . 237 
 
 Pharyngotomy 
 
 . 315 
 
 Pharynx . 
 
 237 
 
 Phlebitis . 
 
 , 222 
 
INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Phlebotomy 
 
 
 . 86 
 
 Prolapsus recti . , 
 
 . 283 
 
 Phlegmon 
 
 
 . 23 
 
 — uteri .... 
 
 . 469 
 
 Phrenic hernia 
 
 
 . 280 
 
 — vesical 
 
 . 343 
 
 Phrenitis 
 
 
 . 375 
 
 Prolonged utero-gestation 
 
 . 443 
 
 « Phrensy" . 
 
 
 . 376 
 
 Prophylaxis 
 
 . 46 
 
 Phthiriasis 
 
 
 . 360 
 
 Pruritus .... 
 
 . 356 
 
 Phthisis pnlmonalis 
 
 . 121 
 
 Psoriasis .... 
 
 . 350 
 
 Phymosis 
 
 , , 
 
 . 483 
 
 Ptosis .... 
 
 . 370 
 
 Piles 
 
 , , 
 
 . 286 
 
 Ptyalism .... 
 
 65, 231 
 
 Pityriasis 
 
 . 
 
 . 353 
 
 Puerperal apoplexy . 
 
 . 390 
 
 Placenta prsevia 
 
 . 
 
 . 446 
 
 — mania .... 
 
 . 396 
 
 Plenalvia 
 
 , , 
 
 . 260 
 
 — peritonitis . 
 
 . 487 
 
 Plethora . 
 
 , 
 
 . 91 
 
 Pulmonary apoplexy 
 
 . 323 
 
 Pleurisy . 
 
 . 
 
 . 328 
 
 — congestion . 
 
 . 322 
 
 Pleuritis . 
 
 , , 
 
 . 328 
 
 Pulse .... 
 
 6,62 
 
 Pleuro 
 
 . 
 
 . 131 
 
 — venous 
 
 . 63 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia 
 
 contagiosa 
 
 . 131 
 
 Puncture of rumen . 
 
 . 258 
 
 — exudativa . 
 
 . 
 
 . 131 
 
 Punctured wounds . 
 
 . 412 
 
 — pathology of 
 
 . 
 
 . 135 
 
 Purgatives . . , 
 
 . 285 
 
 — sporadica . 
 
 . 
 
 . 331 
 
 Purpura haemorrhagica , 
 
 . 110 
 
 — zymotica 
 
 , 
 
 , 131 
 
 Purulent infiltration 
 
 . 27 
 
 Pleurosthotonos 
 
 , 
 
 . 384 
 
 Pus .... 
 
 26,29 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 , , 
 
 . 324 
 
 Puschima . . . 
 
 . 147 
 
 Pneumonitis . 
 
 , , 
 
 . 324 
 
 Pustular dermatitis 
 
 . 351 
 
 Pneumothorax 
 
 . 
 
 . 331 
 
 Pyaemia .... 
 
 . 173 
 
 Poisoned wounds 
 
 
 . 412 
 
 Pylorus, stricture of 
 
 . 268 
 
 Poisoning, carbonic anhydride 
 
 . 100 
 
 Pyrexia .... 
 
 . 95 
 
 Poisons . 
 Polymelians 
 
 
 . 185 
 
 . 458 
 
 " Quarter-evir* 
 
 . 170 
 
 Polypus, cardiac 
 
 
 . 217 
 
 Rabies .... 
 
 . 181 
 
 — nasal . 
 
 
 . 311 
 
 Rachitis .... 
 
 . 401 
 
 — pharyngeal . 
 
 
 . 237 
 
 Rainey's bodies 
 
 . 407 
 
 Polysarca 
 
 
 . 456 
 
 Raie .... 
 
 . 305 
 
 Porcellaneous deposit 
 
 . 105 
 
 Ramollissement 
 
 . 298 
 
 Post-mortem examination 
 
 . 38 
 
 Record of cases 
 
 6 
 
 " Pouched heart" 
 
 
 . 211 
 
 Recto-vaginal fistula 
 
 . 475 
 
 Poultices . 
 
 
 . 85 
 
 Rectum, distension of 
 
 . 294 
 
 Prseputial calculus 
 
 
 . 347 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Predisposition . 
 
 
 2 
 
 Relaxation of pelvic symphysis 409 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 
 . 59 
 
 — of teats 
 
 . 481 
 
 — signs of 
 
 
 . 441 
 
 Remittent fevers 
 
 . 182 
 
 Preliminary treatment 
 
 . 44 
 
 Renal calculus 
 
 . 338 
 
 Premature birth 
 
 . 
 
 . 443 
 
 Repair .... 
 
 . 413 
 
 Premonitory symptoms . 
 
 4 
 
 Resolution 
 
 . 34 
 
 Presentation, false 
 
 
 . 448 
 
 Respirations . . . 
 
 .8, 64 
 
 — true . 
 
 
 . 447 
 
 Respiratory organs . 
 
 . 302 
 
 Prevention 
 
 
 . 46 
 
 Rest .... 
 
 . 48 
 
 Pricks . 
 
 
 . 368 
 
 Restraint 
 
 . 70 
 
 Primary disease 
 
 
 . 49 
 
 Results of wounds . 
 
 . 418 
 
 Probang . 
 
 
 . 242 
 
 Retention of foetal membranes . 445 
 
 — corkscrew . 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 — of oestral products 
 
 . 440 
 
 — forceps 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 — of urine 
 
 . 340 
 
 — passing the . 
 
 
 . 243 
 
 Reticulum 
 
 . 249 
 
 Proctatresia 
 
 
 . 294 
 
 Retina, paralysis of . 
 
 . 374 
 
 Profusion of oestral 
 
 products 
 
 . 440 
 
 Retinitis 
 
 . 373 
 
 Prognosis 
 
 . , 
 
 14,67 
 
 Rheumatism . 
 
 . 104 
 
 Progressive paralysis 
 
 . 388 
 
 Rhonchus 
 
 . 305 
 
 Prolapsus ani . 
 
 . 
 
 . 283 
 
 Ribs, fractures of . 
 
 . 404 
 
496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rictets . 
 
 . 401 
 
 Serous abscess . 
 
 36, 424 
 
 Rinderpest 
 
 . 147 
 
 — extravasation 
 
 . 26 
 
 Ringworm, contagious 
 
 . 361, 362 
 
 Serratus magnus, rupture 
 
 of . 406 
 
 — honeycomb . 
 
 . 361 
 
 Setons 
 
 . 88 
 
 — non-contagious . 
 
 . 35f 
 
 " Setting " a bone . 
 
 . 403 
 
 Rot ... 
 
 . 93 
 
 Sex. 
 
 . 61 
 
 ** Rotten " beasts . 
 
 . 290 
 
 "Shackling" . 
 
 . 70 
 
 Rumen . 
 
 . 248 
 
 Shoeing . 
 
 . 367 
 
 Rumination 
 
 . 252 
 
 Sibilus . 
 
 . 305 
 
 Ruminotomy . 
 
 . 261 
 
 Simple hypertrophy . 
 
 . 210 
 
 Rupture of abomasum 
 
 . 269 
 
 — ulcer . 
 
 . 31 
 
 — bladder 
 
 . 348 
 
 Singe 
 
 . 351 
 
 — diaphragm . 
 
 . 332 
 
 Sinus 
 
 . 32 
 
 — heart . 
 
 . 218 
 
 Skeleton . 
 
 . 397 
 
 — intestines 
 
 . 293 
 
 Skin 
 
 . 67 
 
 — oesophagus . 
 
 . 239 
 
 — diseases of . 
 
 . 348 
 
 — pericardium 
 
 . 217 
 
 Skit . . ' . 
 
 . 269 
 
 — rectum 
 
 . 293 
 
 Slinging . 
 
 . 71 
 
 — rumen 
 
 . 262 
 
 " Slinking " a calf . 
 
 . 442 
 
 — serratus magnus . 
 
 . 406 
 
 Slipping a calf 
 
 . 442 
 
 — suspensory ligament 
 
 . 406 
 
 Sloughing 
 
 . 33 
 
 — urethra 
 
 . 345 
 
 Smallpox in cattle . 
 
 . 156 
 
 — uterus 
 
 . 469 
 
 Solutions of continuity . 
 
 . 37 
 
 — vagina 
 
 . 475 
 
 Sore feet . . . , 
 
 . 367 
 
 — veins . 
 
 . 223 
 
 — teats . 
 
 . 349 
 
 — vulva 
 
 . 475 
 
 — throat, malignant 
 
 . 169 
 
 — white fibrous band 
 
 . 405 
 
 Sounds, respiratory . 
 
 . 305 
 
 
 
 Spanish fever . 
 
 . 168 
 
 Salivary calculi 
 
 . 232 
 
 Spasm of the bowels 
 
 . 273 
 
 — glands 
 
 . 230 
 
 — of OS uteri . 
 
 . 462 
 
 Salutary inflammation 
 
 . 47 
 
 Spaying . . . . 
 
 . 438 
 
 Sanguineous extravasatioi 
 
 1 . 36 
 
 Special breeding 
 
 . 47 
 
 Sanious pus 
 
 . 29 
 
 — stimulant poisons 
 
 . 190 
 
 Sarcocele . 
 
 . 432 
 
 Specific diseases 
 
 . Ill 
 
 — tubercular . 
 
 . 432 
 
 — inflammation 
 
 . 34 
 
 Sarcomata 
 
 . 422 
 
 — ophthalmia . 
 
 . 373 
 
 Scab, healing under a 
 
 . 414 
 
 — pus . . . , 
 
 . 29 
 
 ** Scanterers " 
 
 . 290 
 
 — ulcer . . . . 
 
 . 32 
 
 Scarlatina 
 
 . 110 
 
 "Speed** 
 
 . 170 
 
 Schistomelus . 
 
 . 457 
 
 Sphacelus 
 
 . 32 
 
 Scirrhous udder 
 
 . 478 
 
 Spina ventosa . 
 
 . 422 
 
 Scirrhus . 
 
 . 419 
 
 Spinal cord, diseases of . 
 
 . 384 
 
 — of tongue . 
 
 . 233 
 
 Spleen, hypertrophy of . 
 
 . 225 
 
 Scleroderma . 
 
 . 354 
 
 Splenic apoplexy 
 
 . 167 
 
 Scour 
 
 . 269 
 
 — fever . . . . 
 
 . 167 
 
 Scouring lands . • 
 
 . 288 
 
 American 
 
 . 168 
 
 Scrofula . 
 
 . 121 
 
 Spongio-piline . 
 
 . 86 
 
 Scrofulous meat 
 
 . 129 
 
 Sporadic diseases 
 
 . 40 
 
 Scrotal hernia . 
 
 . 280 
 
 — pleuro-pneumonia 
 
 . 331 
 
 Secondary disease . 
 
 5 
 
 Sprain . . . . 
 
 . 405 
 
 Sedative poisons 
 
 . 193 
 
 — of fetlock . 
 
 . 405 
 
 Sedatives, local 
 
 . 51 
 
 — of ligament teres 
 
 . 406 
 
 Senile ulcer . 
 
 . 32 
 
 Spray diffuser . 
 
 . 44 
 
 Separation of epiphysis 
 
 . 404 
 
 "Staggers" . 
 
 . 264 
 
 Septic mammitis 
 
 . 174 
 
 Staggers . . . . 
 
 . 378 
 
 Septicaemia 
 
 . 173 
 
 — stomach 
 
 . 383 
 
 — parturient . 
 
 . 173 
 
 " Stamping out" 
 
 . 152 
 
 Sequestrum . 
 
 33, 398 
 
 Staphyloma 
 
 . 372 
 
INDEX. 
 
 4-97 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Staring coat . 
 
 
 348 
 
 Teeth . 
 
 
 227 
 
 Sterility of female . 
 
 
 440 
 
 Temperature, surface 
 
 
 11 
 
 — male . 
 
 
 432 
 
 — internal 
 
 ! io, 64 
 
 Stertor . 
 
 
 10 
 
 Teres, ligamentum, sprain 
 
 of . 
 
 406 
 
 Sthenic inflammation 
 
 
 34 
 
 Testicle, diseases of 
 
 
 432 
 
 " Stiffness " . 
 
 
 400 
 
 Tetanus . 
 
 
 384 
 
 Stimulants for inflammation . 
 
 50 
 
 Texas fever 
 
 
 168 
 
 Stinge 
 
 , 
 
 351 
 
 Thoracentesis . 
 
 
 330 
 
 Stomach-pump 
 
 . 
 
 74 
 
 Thrombus 
 
 
 221 
 
 Stomachs 
 
 , 
 
 248 
 
 — of veins 
 
 
 223 
 
 Stomatitis gangrenosa 
 
 484 
 
 Thrush in the mouth 
 
 
 236 
 
 — pustulosa . 
 
 . 
 
 160 
 
 Thymus body . 
 
 
 226 
 
 Strangles 
 
 . 
 
 175 
 
 Thyroid — 
 
 
 226 
 
 Strangury- 
 
 , 
 
 342 
 
 "Tic" . 
 
 
 328 
 
 Stricture of oesophagus . 
 
 238 
 
 Ticks . 
 
 
 360 
 
 — of OS uteri . 
 
 
 462 
 
 Tinea favosa . 
 
 
 361 
 
 soft 
 
 
 463 
 
 — tonsurans . 
 
 
 362 
 
 — of pylorus . 
 
 
 268 
 
 Tinea . . . . 
 
 
 361 
 
 — of urethra . 
 
 
 347 
 
 Toleration 
 
 
 186 
 
 Stringhalt 
 
 
 390 
 
 Tongue . 
 
 
 232 
 
 Strumous pus . 
 
 
 29 
 
 — cancer of . 
 
 
 234 
 
 Strychnia 
 
 
 190 
 
 — cramp of 
 
 
 235 
 
 Subacute disease 
 
 
 40 
 
 — cysts of . 
 
 
 235 
 
 Succussiou 
 
 
 309 
 
 — induration of 
 
 
 234 
 
 Suction trocar . 
 
 
 424 
 
 — paralysis of 
 
 
 236 
 
 Superfcetation . 
 
 
 443 
 
 — scirrhus of . 
 
 
 233 
 
 Suppression of oestral 
 
 products . 
 
 440 
 
 — ulcers of 
 
 
 236 
 
 Suppuration 
 
 26, 52 
 
 Tonsils . . . 
 
 
 236 
 
 Supra-pharyngeal glands, sup- 
 
 
 Torsion in castration 
 
 
 430 
 
 puration of 
 
 , 
 
 125 
 
 — of uterine neck . 
 
 
 463 
 
 Surfeit . 
 
 . 
 
 357 
 
 Trachea . 
 
 
 315 
 
 Surgery, antiseptic . 
 
 . 
 
 417 
 
 Tracheotomy . 
 
 
 513 
 
 Surgical treatment . 
 
 . 
 
 42 
 
 Transfusion 
 
 
 16 
 
 Suspensoi'y ligament. 
 
 rupture of 
 
 406 
 
 Transmission of tuberculo 
 
 sis . 
 
 129 
 
 Sutures . 
 
 . 
 
 416 
 
 Traumatic haemorrhage 
 
 
 37 
 
 Swelling . 
 
 , 
 
 24 
 
 — inflammation 
 
 
 34 
 
 Sympathetic nervous 
 
 system . 
 
 396 
 
 — pericarditis 
 
 
 213 
 
 Symphysis, pelvic, relaxation of 
 
 409 
 
 — tetanus 
 
 
 384 
 
 Symptoms 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 Treatment 
 
 ! 41, G9 
 
 — general 
 
 , , 
 
 62 
 
 — of inflammation . 
 
 
 47 
 
 — objective 
 
 , 
 
 65 
 
 — of specific diseases 
 
 
 118 
 
 — subjective . 
 
 , 
 
 65 
 
 Trismus . 
 
 
 384 
 
 Syncephali 
 
 . 
 
 457 
 
 — nascentium . 
 
 
 386 
 
 Synovial membranes, 
 
 inflamma- 
 
 
 Trochar, suction 
 
 
 424 
 
 tion of . 
 
 , , 
 
 408 
 
 Truss, Delwart's 
 
 
 473 
 
 —• sheaths, open 
 
 . 
 
 407 
 
 — uterine 
 
 
 473 
 
 Synovitis . 
 
 . 
 
 408 
 
 Tsetze fly 
 
 
 360 
 
 System, antiseptic . 
 
 , 
 
 417 
 
 Tubercle . 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 — in man 
 
 
 128 
 
 Tabes, mesenterica , 
 
 , 
 
 126 
 
 Tubercular meningitis , 
 
 
 124 
 
 Tapping the chest . 
 
 , 
 
 330 
 
 — sarcocele 
 
 
 432 
 
 Tartar emetic 
 
 , , 
 
 49 
 
 Tuberculosis . . . 
 
 
 121 
 
 Taste 
 
 . 
 
 375 
 
 Tuberculous ulcer . 
 
 
 130 
 
 "Tearing "process 
 
 of castra- 
 
 
 Tumours 
 
 
 418 
 
 tion . 
 
 
 430 
 
 — calcareous . 
 
 
 424 
 
 Teats, absence of 
 
 , , 
 
 476 
 
 — cystic . . . . 
 
 
 424 
 
 — imperforate state 
 
 of . 
 
 476 
 
 — epidermic . 
 
 
 423 
 
 — sore . 
 
 . 
 
 349 
 
 — epithelial . 
 
 
 423 
 
498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tumours in genital passages . 461 
 
 Vaccination, animal 
 
 . 157 
 
 — innocent 
 
 . 428 
 
 Vaccine . . . . 
 
 . 157 
 
 — intestinal . 
 
 . 294 
 
 Vaccinia . 
 
 . 156 
 
 — laryngeal . 
 
 . 315 
 
 Vaccinoides 
 
 . 158 
 
 — malignant . 
 
 . 419 
 
 Vagina, imperforate 
 
 . 461 
 
 — non-malignant . 
 
 . 423 
 
 Vaginal amputation 
 
 . 474 
 
 — of veins 
 
 . 224 
 
 — hysterotomy 
 
 . 463 
 
 — ordinary simple . 
 
 . 423 
 
 — inversion 
 
 . 474 
 
 — osseous 
 
 . 424 
 
 — rupture 
 
 . 475 
 
 — scrofulous . 
 
 . 124 
 
 Vaginitis . 
 
 . 475 
 
 — uterine 
 
 . 474 
 
 Varicella . 
 
 . 158 
 
 Twins 
 
 . 460 
 
 Varicocele 
 
 . 433 
 
 Twist of the bowels . 
 
 . 275 
 
 Varicosity 
 
 . 223 
 
 Tympany 
 
 . 67, 254 
 
 Variola ... 
 
 . 156 
 
 Typhoid ulcer . 
 
 . 130 
 
 — ovina . 
 
 . 158 
 
 Udder, dropping of . 
 
 . 477 
 
 Vascular glands 
 
 . 225 
 
 Ulceration 
 
 29, 52 
 
 Vegetable parasites . 
 
 . 206 
 
 — of the heel . 
 
 . 368 
 
 — of the skin . 
 
 . 360 
 
 Ulcers . 
 
 . 31 
 
 Vehicles . 
 
 . 85 
 
 — of the tongue 
 
 . 236 
 
 Veins, tumours of . 
 
 . 224 
 
 Umbilical cord, inflamn] 
 
 lation of 483 
 
 Venesection 
 
 . 86 
 
 — haemorrhage 
 
 .483 
 
 Venous pulse . 
 
 63 
 
 — hernia 
 
 .27 
 
 Ventral hernia 
 
 . 279 
 
 Umbilicus, oedema of 
 
 . 484 
 
 Vertigo . 
 
 . 264 
 
 Urachus, pervious . 
 
 . 344 
 
 Vesical calculus 
 
 . 344 
 
 Uraemia . 
 
 . 103, 335 
 
 Vesico-vaginal fistula 
 
 . 476 
 
 Uretal calculus 
 
 . 339 
 
 Vesicular emphysema 
 
 . 319 
 
 Ureter, dilatation of 
 
 . 339 
 
 — epizootic 
 
 . 141 
 
 Urethra, calculus of 
 
 . 347,434 
 
 — sound . 
 
 . 306 
 
 — dilatation of 
 
 . 345 
 
 Vicarious activity . 
 
 . 49 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 . 315 
 
 Volvulus 
 
 . 275 
 
 — stricture of . 
 
 . 347 
 
 Vomition 
 
 . 67, 246 
 
 Urethritis 
 
 . 436 
 
 Vulval rupture 
 
 . 475 
 
 Urinary passages 
 
 . 339 
 
 Warbles . 
 
 . 360 
 
 Urination, profuse . 
 
 . 334 
 
 Warts . 
 
 . 354 
 
 Urine 
 
 67, 334 
 
 Warty growths 
 
 . 370 
 
 — blood in . 
 
 . 834 
 
 Water . 
 
 . 61 
 
 — disorders of 
 
 . 334 
 
 — boiling 
 
 . 85 
 
 — incontinence of . 
 
 . 341 
 
 "Water bladder" . 
 
 . 445 
 
 — non-secretion of . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Weak ulcers . 
 
 . 32 
 
 — retention of 
 
 . 340 
 
 " Wens'' 
 
 . 124 
 
 Urticaria . 
 
 . 110, 351 
 
 " Whites " 
 
 . 479 
 
 Uterine dropsy 
 
 . 465 
 
 "White skit". 
 
 . 265 
 
 — fistula 
 
 . 468 
 
 Wind sucking . 
 
 . 328 
 
 — furor . 
 
 . 465 
 
 Womb, dropsy of . 
 
 . 465 
 
 — inversion 
 
 . 470 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 466 
 
 — malformation 
 
 . 474 
 
 — torsion of neck . 
 
 . 463 
 
 — prolapsus . 
 
 . 469 
 
 "Woodevil" . 
 
 . 290 
 
 — rupture 
 
 . 469 
 
 Worm in the eye 
 
 . 373 
 
 — tumours 
 
 . 474 
 
 Wounds . . , , 
 
 . 412 
 
 Utero-gestation 
 
 . 441 
 
 — of arteries . 
 
 . 221 
 
 — prolonged . 
 
 . 443 
 
 — of lungs 
 
 . 327 
 
 Uterus, amputation of 
 
 . 473 
 
 Yew, effects of 
 
 . 194 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 466 
 
 Yeoon pleuro-pneumonic ] 
 
 esions 135 
 
 — laceration of 
 
 . 468 
 
 Young animals, diseases ol 
 
 f very 483 
 
 Vaccination 
 
 . 47, 152 
 
 Zymotic pleuro-pneumoni 
 
 X . 133 
 
 PfilNTED BY J. E. ADLAED, BAKTHOLOMEW CLOSE. 
 
UN 
 
 IVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Due t«SS«^s «n«- date. 
 
 V 
 
 ^\6 
 
 \i ^ 
 
 30Tn-7,'12 
 
^42.46 
 
 S7 
 
 BIOLOGY 
 liBBARY 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY 
 
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