W.Scott Thomas /^^ A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS. A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD BY A. H. GARLICK, B.A. (head master of the WOOLWICH P.T. CENTRE) A NEIV EDITION, WITH APPENDIX LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY 1897 All rights reserved 6 t CDUCATION DEPT. PREFACE. Some years' experience in the teaching of School Method has demonstrated that young students require much more help in this subject than is offered in existing manuals, and that the information contained should be offered in its most serviceable form. In fact, " Centre " experience has shown that no book is suitable unless it is c6mprehensive in its range, practical in its nature, and modern in its methods. There are books in the market meeting some of these requirements, but none meeting them all. The subject is very wide ; the time that can be allotted to it very small : hence the book should be such as to do most of its own teaching. For this reason all the subject matter has been carefully methodised, and much of it thrown into teaching form — the form which is most difficult to young teachers to acquire, and the most useful in practice. This work is based on the writer's teaching notes during the past ten years ; and as it grew to meet the wants of his own pupils for their recurring examinations, it is believed that it will be found specially suitable for pupil teachers, scholarship students, and students in training. Every Examination Question in the book is selected from the papers set at the various Queen's Scholarship and Pupil Teachers' Examinations. A. H. G. Woolwich P.T. Centre, 1896. 58()Mj)(; TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. I School Economy Physiology and Exiucation 1. The Popular View ---....... 2. The Scientific View ......... Headaches and Faintness 1. Food Headaches 2. From Impure Atmosphere 2 3. From Mental Causes 2 4. From Physical Causes 2 Light 2 1. Direction of Light 2 2. Diffusion of Light 2 3. Artificial Light 3 Ventilation Drill 1. Its Difficulties 3 2. Cubic Space ---- 2 3. Means of Ventilation 3 Warming --..^ The Thermometer 4 Qeaning 4 1. Its Objects 5 2. General Principles and Rules 5 The Playground 6 1. Physical Uses 6 2. Its Fittings 6 3. Its Moral Uses 6 4. The Teacher's Work 6 Furniture 7 The School Museum - 7 1. Special Objects 7 2. General Objects 7 3. Its Value 8 Galleries -8 Desks 9 1. Infant Departments 9 2. Other Departments - 9 Height and Dimensions 10 Best Position in the Desk 10 Schoolroom Decoration 10 1. WaUs - ... 10 2. Windows .--. --lo 3. Pictures 10 CONTENTS. 4- Maps - II £. Diagrams -..-.-.----ii 6. Honour Board ....-.----ii Examination Questions ----------ii CHAPTER n. Discipline - ■ 12 I. What it is 12 1. It must be based on Natural Principles - - - - - - 12 2. Its Aims must be good 12 II. Ways and Means ..-----.--12 1. Material Means ---13 2. Mental Means -----.-.--13 3. Moral Means ----.-13 4. Older Children as an Aid to Discipline 13 Order 14 Parental Co-operation -.---..---14 T. Correspondence 15 2. Visits -----15 3. School Entertainments 15 4. Local Residence 15 5. Local Affairs 15 6. Local Press 15 Auxiliary Means of Training 16 1. Recreation 16 2. Assistance 16 Punishment 16 1. Its Limits 16 2. Cases for no Punishment 17 3. The Amount of Punishment 17 4. Selection of Punishment 18 5. Kind.- of Punishment 18 (a) Blame 18 (3) Shame 18 Ic) Detention -18 (a) Pleasure 18 (e) Impositions 18 I/) Marks 18 m Corporal Punishment 18 (A) Expulsion -....18 6. Objectionable Forms of Punishment - 19 7. Corporal Punishment - - ' 19 Objections to Corporal Punishment ig 8. Yoimg Teachers and Corporal Punishment 19 Rewards 20 1. Principles underlying their Use ..--... 20 2. Rewards as Inducements to Work 20 3. School Rewards --.-. 21 (a) Place Taking 21 ij Decorations ... --....21 c) School Privileges - - - . - . .- -21 d) Prizes -..- 21 (e) Esteem, Praise 21 Good Manners - 21 Anger .......22 Obstinacy ---------_. .23 CONTENTS. ix PAOB I. Mistaken Obstinacy .--.-----23 1. Stupidity - 23 2. Physical Weakness 23 3. Fear 23 4. Treatment --.--.-.--23 II. Real Obstinacy 23 T. The Teacher 23 2. Fitful Obstinacy 23 3. Vicious Obstinacy ---- 33 4. Treatment 23 Crying 24 I. Stubborn and Domineering - - 24 3. Sorrow or Pain ....-.----24 Cruelty 24 1. Natural Tendency 24 2. Habit and Custom 25 3. History 25 4. Games 25 5. Animals ..--*- 25 6. Harshness ..-- 25 Kindness ---25 1. Its Scope -- 25 2. Its Cultivation -- 25 Cowardice .-.-------.-25 1. Frights 26 2. Ignorance ..--■. ---.•-26 3. Ill Health 26 4. Association -26 5. Moral Cowardice ---26 6. Heredity 26 Obedience 26 1. Slave Obedience 27 2. Military Obedience ---27 3. Cheerful Obedience -- --27 Inattention ---27 Conditions of Attention - .-27 1. The Will 27 2. Pleasurable -.-.-28 3. Physical Conditions .---..--28 4. Suitability of Work 28 5. Assistance 28 6. Obstacles 28 7. Punishment - - - .----- 28 Laziness ..---28 1. Constitutional Laziness 28 2, Habit I^aziness ..-.--..--28 Stupidity 29 1. When bestowed by the Parents 29 2. When bestowed by the Teacher 29 Truthfulness 29 I. Causes of Untruth - - 29 a. Treatment 30 Honesty 30 Tale-ielling 31 Copying 31 I. Its Sources .--- 31 a. Its Treatment 31 (a) Mechanical Means 31 X CONTENTS, PAGE (d) The Teacher 32 (c) Moral Means ---32 Unpunctuality -----.32 1. Its Causes .-----._.. .32 2. To Ensure Punctuality ---------32 Truancy 33 1. Its Causes 33 2. Its Treatment .---.33 Habit --34 1. Nature of Habit 34 2. The Training of Habit -- -.35 Character -...35 Its Cultivation - - - - - -35 Examination Questions - - - - - - - -- -37 CHAPTER III. Classification - 38 1. Its Basis - 38 2. Bad Classification ---------.38 3. Infant Schools and Classification 39 4. Sub-division of Classes in Infant Schools 39 5. Shapes of Classes --------..40 6. Collective Lessons 41 7. Promotion 41 Home Lessons 42 Arguments for and against Home Lessons . . . . - 43 Hindrances to Progress ------_. .43 Time Tables -->-..44 1. Revised Instructions and Time Tables 44 2. General Directions -.-.--...44 3. Advantages of Time Tables 45 4. Distribution of Time 46 (a) In Infant Department -- 46 (i) In Upper Department --- 46 Examination Questions ^7 CHAPTER IV. Notes of Lessons ...48 First Step 48 1. Class - ... - 48 2. Time 48 3- Aim 48 4. Introduction ----- ^g Second Step ------ cq Third Step -----.--....co 1. Matter ------ ^q 2. Matter in Order -------. ..rj Fourth Step ; Matter not in Order ------ ..^i Fifth Step ; Heads of Lessons ~ ....... r^ Sixth Step; B.B. Sketches 53 Seventh Step ; Apparatus -.-- C3 Final Step ; Complete Notes -- 54 Lessons criticised --•----.. ..C4 1. A Good Lesson ----.--...e4 2. A Bad Lesson -------. ..r^ CONTENTS. xi PAGE A Criticism Lesson • ' ' - 55 1. What it is -....^^ 2. Its Subject Matter -.-__g^ 3. Criticism -__2S Criticism Form - --56 CHAPTER V. Class Teaching -.. 57 The Teacher - 57 1. Mental Qualifications 57 2. Moral Qualifications -57 3. Physical Qualifications -58 The Diary 58 Exercise Books ........... ^g Aids to Teaching 59 A. Examination of Classes 59 1. Methods 60 2. The Written Method 60 3. The Oral Method 60 4. The Double Method - - 60 B. Questioning -60 1. Conditions for Success 60 2. The Objects of Questioning 61 3. Places for Questioning ---61 4. Rules for Questioning 61 (a) Positive Rules - - - -61 (^) Negative Rules 61 5. Defective Questions ... - - 61 C. Answering - - - - 61 1. Answers; their Value - ........ (,2 2. Good Answers --- 62 3. deceived Answers 62 4. Rejected Answers . . - 62 D. Explanation 63 E. Description 63 F. Definition 64 Elxamination Questions - 65 CHAPTER VI. Object Lessons 66 Suggestions - 67 Their Value - - - 68 1. Principal Uses 68 2. Minor Uses 68 The Training of the Senses 69 Schemes of Object Lessons 70 1. Plant Life 71 2. Animal Life 71 3. The Sky, the Air, the Surface of the Land and Water - - - 72 4. Object Lessons for Town Schools 73 5. Object Lessons for Country Schools 74 6. Object l^essons in the Science of Common Things - - - 74 7. Measuring, Weighing and Testing 75 Lesson on Sundew and Flesh-eating Plants 76 Notes of a Lesson on a Sponge 77 jExaminaiion Questions 78 xli CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAOE Kindergarten .._..79 I. What it is 79 2. Its Advantages 79 (a) Intellectual Advantages 79 (d) Physical Advantages 79 (c) Moral Advantages 79 Froebel's Gifts 79 1. Play 79 2. Song 80 3. Dance 80 4- Gifts 80 (a) First Gift - - 80 (l>) Second Gift 81 (c) Third Gift 81 !d) Fourth Gift 8:1 e) Fifth Gift si /) Sixth Gift 83 Q) Seventh Gift 84 Varied Occupations ---.85 Colour 86 1. Stages 86 2. How taught -_..86 3. Apparatus 87 4. General Principles - 87 Plan of a Lesson on a Secondary Colour 87 Form -- 87 1. Language 87 2. Size 87 3. Dimensions 4. Positions -------._ ..88 5- Curve 88 6. Surface --------_... 88 Drawing --_.88 First Stage go Second Stage -.--.^-____8q Third Stage go Examination Questions 89 CHAPTER VIII. Arithmetic ---91 Advantages of teaching Arithmetic 92 Notation ----90 1. The Numbers it0 9 - - - . .. > _ . -04 2. The Numbers from 10 to 20 - - - - - . - 94 3. Numbers above 20 ------_. .gr 4. The Notation of Hundreds , . . or Number Pictures --.-.06 1. Requirements ------- -._q6 2. Apparatus ^7 3. Teaching ^^ 4. Plan of Lessons ------. >..n8 5. To teach the Number 2 -----.. .98 6. Subsequent Lessons - oo Simple Addition --... iqo ^' i!""^ 100 2. Tens joj Simple Subtraction ------.... jqo CONTENTS, PAGE 1. First Lessons ---.. 102 2. The Method of Decomposition 102 3. The Method of Equal Additions - - 103 4. The Method of Complementary Addition 104 5. The Two Methods of Decomposition and Equal Additions com- pared 105 The Multiplication Tables -----_-.. 105 1. Memory ..--_-___ . jq^ 2. Teaching 106 Multiplication by One Figure ----.--- 107 Two Figures --- 108 ,, Three Figures 108 ,, Factors --_- 109 Short Methods no Short Division -.-._. m Division by Factors - - - - - - - - - -112 Divisibility of Numbers ---------- 113 Short Methods 114 Long Division 114 Compound Rules ------ 114 The Compound Rules criticised -116 Compound Subtraction - - - - - - - - - -116 Compound Multiplication - - - - - - - - -117 1. By One Figure 117 2. By Two Figures 118 3. Different Methods 118 4. Remarks on the Methods 119 Compound Division 119 1. Short Division - 120 2. Long Division 120 The Compound Tables 121 Reduction — How to Teach it 122 TheG.C.M. or H.C.F. 123 The L.C.M. 125 How to find the L.C.M. 126 Vulgar Fractions --- 127 Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers ------ 128 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions ------ 128 Multiplication of Fractions 129 1. To multiply a Vulgar Fraction by an Integer - - - 129 2. To multiply a Vulgar Fraction by a Vulgar Fraction - - 130 3. To prove the Multiplier and Multiplicand can be interchanged without altering the I^oduct 131 4. Harder Examples 131 Division of Fractions -- 132 Mechanical Aids for teaching Fractions 132 1. The Allied-Colour Fraction Chart 132 2. Cowham's Fractions at a Glance ------ 133 Cancelling 134 Practice - 135 Simple Practice 135 Compound Practice 136 Ratio ; Notes of Lesson 136 Proportion ; Notes of Lesson - - 137 The Unitary Method of Proportion 138 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Methods - - - 138 Decimals 139 Notation and Numeration -_- 139 xiv CONTENTS. PAGE Decimals, Finite and Infinite -------- 139 To determine the Limit of the Number of Repeating Figures in a Non-terminating Decimal ------- 140 To change a- Pure Circulating Decimal into a Vulgar Fraction - - 141 To convert an Impure Circulator into a Vulgar Fraction - - - 141 The Simple Rules 141 Applications of Proportion 142 Square Root ; Notes of Ixsson ..-..--.- 143 Mental Arithmetic .-.-.. 145 Objects of Mental Arithmetic - 145 How to obtain these Objects -------- 145 Tots 145 1. Arnold's Revolving Tots - - - - - - -- 146 2. The Oxford Tot Frame --«.....- 146 Some Special Rules for Mental Arithmetic 146 Typical Problems for each Standard - - 149 Examination Questions 151 CHAPTER IX. Reading - 153 Its Value ..--.- 1^3 General Principles 153 Age to commence the teaching of Reading - 155 Infant Reading and its Difficulties - - 1^6 To teach the Alphabet 157 1. Apparatus required ----..--, 1^7 2. Capital Letters --- 157 3. Plan of Lesson -----.._- - 1^3 4. Small Letters 158 Classification of Letters 1^3 First Lessons after the Alphabet 158 Card and Primer Stage 159 Methods of teaching Reading 160 1. The Alphabetic Method 160 2. ThePhonic Method .._ 161 3. The Phonetic Method 162 4. The Look-and-Say Method 163 5. The Syllabic Method 165 6. The Method of Phonic Analysis 165 7. The Combined Method 166 8. The English Method 167 Notes of a Reading Lesson 169 How to deal with Anomalous Difficulties in Reading .... 171 Qualities of Good Reading -. 171 1. Mechanical Qualities 171 la) Pronunciation 171 ll>) Enunciation ----..-.._ 171 (c) Articulation - 172 (V) Pitch - 172 le) Modulation and Tone - 172 /) Pace 172 (g) Accent 172 2. Mental Qualities ------..._ 173 (a) Emphasis ---.--_.__ 173 (6) Phrasing _ 173 }c) Fluency --------.._ 173 (d) Intelligence ------._._ 173 {e) Expression ---- 1^3 CONTENTS. XV PAGE Silent Reading ^74 Simultaneous Reading ^74 Backward Readers ^76 Reading Books - - - - i77 1. Their Qualities ^77 2. Variety ^77 3. Reading Books in Class Subjects 178 (a) Where the Class Subjects are taught 178 {/>) Where the Subjects are not taught 178 Fairy Tales as Reading Matter i79 Recitation 180 1. Physical Qualities - - - 180 2. Mental Qualities ,.__-- 180 3. Advantages ^80 4. Pieces suitable for Recitation - - • •• - - - - 181 Examination Questions 182 CHAPTER X. Spelling 184 Ways of teaching Spelling 184 X. The Reading Lesson 184 2. Lists of Words - . - 185 3. Transcription 185 4. Dictation 185 5. Formal Spelling Lessons 185 6. General Work 185 7. Composition .---• 185 8. Observation 185 9. Literature 185 10. Spelling Contests 185 Faults in the teaching of Spelling 186 Difficulties in Spelling 186 1. Higher Classes 186 2. Preparation for Class 187 3. Lower Classes 187 The Classification of Difficult Words 188 Rules for Spelling 189 Transcription 190 1. Its Functions ^9° 2. Its Conditions 190 3. Subject Matter 191 Dictation '9^ 1. Its Function »9i 2. Subject Matter 191 3. Correction 191 (a) Individual Correction by Teacher 191 (d) Monitorial Correction 192 {c) Inter-Correction 192 (er ?----------- 212 Manual Employments and Writing 213 Ruling of Slates ------ 214 Examination Questions - - - - - - - -- - 216 CHAPTER XII. Geography - 217 Objects of Teaching Geography 217 I. Primary ----.-,._,, 217 CONTENTS. xvu PAGE la) Maps and Plans 217 (6) Trade and Commerce .-- 217 (c) Literature 217 {d) Emigration 217 {e) Naval Power 217 2. Secondary .----- 217 General Principles ----------- 218 1. Illustration ----- 218 2. Intelligence .--- 218 3. Memory ..--- 218 4. Reasoning ----------- 219 5. Graduation ----------- 219 6. Realistic .....--- 219 First I^essons in Geography -....---- 219 Plans 220 1. Simple Plans ----- 220 (a) First Ideas 221 (6) Transition Objects 222 2. Plans to Scale 222 3. Plans of the School and District ------- 223 (a) Plan of Classroom 223 h) Plan of School 224 (c) Plan of School District 224 4. Maps and Plans 224 5. Difference between a Map and a Picture 227 How to teach the Points of the Compass 228 Shape and Size of the Earth 229 1. Shape 229 2. Size 229 Geographical Definitions 230 Lesson on Capes 230 Hills and Valleys 231 Mountams ; Notes of a Lesson -. 233 Origin of Mountains 235 1. Upheaval or Elevation 235 2. Depression 235 Rivers 236 The Build of a Country 236 How to teach Latitude and Longitude 237 A Lesson on Day and Night 241 Climate - ' 243 1. Meaning 243 2. Latitude 243 3. Elevation 244 4. Nature of the Soil 244 5. Proximity to the Sea 245 6. Rainfall 245 7. Prevailing Winds 245 8. Local Circumstances 245 A Lesson on Climate as influenced by Latitude - - - - 246 Notes of a Lesson on 1 tade Winds 248 A Lesson on Rain 250 Further Suggestions on the Teaching of Geography . . - - 252 Lessons on Towns 252 Lessons on Railways 253 Lessons on Articles of Commerce - - - - ' - - - 253 Lessons on Geographical Apparatus 254 The Globe 255 xviii CONTENTS. PAGE 1. Its principal Uses - ..-. - - - - -- 255 2. Preparatory Lessons 255 The Comparative Method .-- 255 Examination Questions - -- - - -- - - - 256 CHAPTER XIII. History - -.. - -- 258 Value of History ..-_. 258 The Objects of History -- - - -- - -- - 259 General Hints on ^he Teaching of History - 259 260 261 262 262 262 263 Difficulties in the Teaching of Histor Faults in the Teaching of History History Books Stages in Teaching History - 1, Stories - Biographies 3. Incidents ..-- 263 4. Periods - - - - - - -- -- - - 264 5. Constitutional History - - ----- - - 264 Lessons on Reigns ---------- 264 1. Their Use - 264 2. Method of Teaching - - ~ - 264 (a) The Chronological Method ------- 264 (d) The Epoch Method 265 (c) The Parliamentary Method •• 265 (d) The Classification Method - _ 265 ' {e) The Biographical Method ~ -' - - -_ -_ ?■ 266 (/) The Comparative Method - - - -" - - , - 266 Notes of Lessons on Biographies ',--. - 266 Lesson on Walpole - 267 Dates in History --- 268 The Ballad in History - 269 1. Its Uses - 269 2. Its Description ----- 270 3. The Choice of Ballads 270 ia) For the Lower Standards - - 270 (3) For the Higher Standards - - - . - - - - 271 Battles - - - ----- 271 Our Institutions - - - - - - 272 Notes of a Lesson on the Policeman - - ■-.". " " 273 Notes of a Lesson on the passing of a Bill through Parliament - - 274 Examination Questions - - --" 276 " ' CHAPTER XIV. English - - - - - - - - - - - - - 277 The Uses of Grammar -- - - -- -■ ; - - 277 Difficulties in Teaching - - - - --'- - - - - 277 Order of Teaching the Parts of Speech - - - - - - - 278 How to Teach the Predicate -- - -'- -'.- -• - 280 How to Teach the Adjective - - - ...-- -- - 281 The Adverb - - - - - - ---",,-: " " " ' 282 Pronouns - -- - - - ----- - 283 How to Teach the Case of the Relative Pronoun - - - - - - 284 Moods of Verbs - - - ~ - 285 Lesson on the Subjunctive Mood - - - - - - - 285 Tense - - ' - - 286 A First Lesson on Tense ..,,,,- ^ - 287 CONTENTS. xix PAGE Prepositions 288 How to Teach the Preposition 289 Parsing -- • 289 Its Difficulties and how to deal with them 289 Simple Parsing 291 Intermediate Form - - - - - - - - -- 291 Advanced Form - - -- -- - - -,- 291 Analysis - -- - 292 A Graduated Scheme of Analysis - - 292 Notes of a Lesson on the Complex Sentence . . - . _ 292 Word Building - 294 1. How to Teach Word Building - - - - - - . 294 (a) Prefixes \xt-.-_/ - - - .- - - - - 294 h) Suffixes /^ative| _ _ _. _ _ _ _ _ ^^^ Ic) Latin Elements ---.--.-- 296 (d) Greek Elements - - - -- - - -- 296 2. Word Branching 296 3. Inductive Lessons -- - 297 Rules of Concord 297 Notes of a Lesson ._- 298 Punctuation - 299 1. Its Object 299 2. What it is 299 3. Method of Teaching 299 4. The Full Stop or Period 299 5. Other Stops 300 6. The Semicolon 300 ■'7. The Comma ; Notes of a Lesson - .- - -" -" - . - 300 The Teaching of English Literature - - - - - - - 302 The Teaching of Composition 303 1. Its Requirements 303 2. Its Teaching 303 (a) Oral Composition 303 h) Written Composition 304 (c) Original Composition 305 3. The Correction of Composition - 305 Examination Questions 306 CHAPTER XV. Elementary Science - - 308 Advantages of studying Elementary Science ----.- 308 Practical Teaching .-.-■ 309 Methods of Teaching in Elementary Science 310 1. Observation 310 2. Experiment 310 3. Illustration 311 (a) Oral 311 1. Example 311 2. Analogy 312 Pictorial 312 {c) Material ..._ 312 Tests of their Value 312 4. Classification 313 5. Reasoning 314 [a) Inductive Reasoning -------- 314 \d) Deductive Reasoning -,,--.-. 31^ 1.1 ?e is XX CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. PAGE Music - 3^6 Its Value in Schools _.-- 316 Its Aim 317 Classification 3^7 The Two Notations compared 317 Voice Training 3^8 The Common Scale - 3^9 1. The Starting Point 3^9 2. Mental Effects 3^9 The Modulator 320 Early Lessons in Tune 320 How to arrange a School Music Class 321 Ear Training 321 1. Requirements for Success 322 2. Its Stages 322 (a) Imitation 322 {l>) Discrimination 322 {c) Dictation 322 3. Teaching 323 Time and Tune combined -, -- 324 Time 325 How to give the Idea of Time 325 To Teach Accent 326 The Time Chart 326 Plan of a Lesson on Time 326 Songs 327 A. Choice of School Songs 327 1. Suitable Songs 327 2. Qualities of a good School Song 327 B. How to Teach a School Song 328 1. For Young Classes 328 2. For Higher Classes 328 Part Singing 328 1, Its Advantages 328 2. Its Teaching 328 Singing Flat 329 How to teach Rounds 329 Defects in School Singing 33° Proper Division of Time 33° Qualifications of a Conductor 33° Choir Efficiency 33^ Examination Questions ---------- 331 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. CHAPTER I. SCHOOL ECONOMY. Physiologry and Education. — Physiology appears in the Code as a specific subject, and as an appreciable portion of Elementary Science and Domestic Economy. These facts emphasise its im- portance ; but the special object attempted here is to explain that importance by showing the mutually-interdependent relations which Education, Psychology, and Physiology bear to each other. 1. The Popular View. — The popular mind recognises the close connection between Education and Physiology in the use of its maxims and metaphors ; e.g., a sound mind in a sound body ; an angry man is said to have had his bile stirred up ; a sad or morose individual is said to be melancholy {melan, black; chole, bile) ; an irritable or bad-tempered person often throws the blame on his liver or nerves ; a. vindictive creature is said to be sple7ietic ; mercy is associated with the bowels (bowels of mercy), and the gentler emotions with the heart (tender-hearted). 2. The Scientific View. — The body is an aggregate of organs. Fatigue the Ixxly and the organs suffer. But certain organs are the physiological support of the brain, hence the brain suffers. Mental activity goes with physical activity ; but too much physical exercise is unfavourable to mental work and mental development. Conversely, too much mental activity impairs the bodily health, as it is seen in the case of brain- workers who suffer from headaches, nervous disorders, indigestion, etc. Memory, physiologically, is a series of new nervous growths, and these nervous growths are supported by nutrition, which is a physiological process. Memory is, furthermore, a plastic property of the mind, and this plasticity may be injured by too little or too much work. But to increase this plasticity the brain must be worked. All these facts show that if the teacher is to treat the subject of Education scientifically and progressively, he must be well grounded in the elementary principles and truths of Physiology, paying special attention to that part — nutrition — which is the basis of support to all the organs of the body. Headaches and Faintness. — Headaches arise from various causes, which may require separate treatment. They may arise from diet, or from an impure atmosphere ; from mental causes* from overwork, or from physical causes. 1. Food Headaches. — Luxury and overfeeding may be, but in elementary Bcbools rarely are, causes of headaches. Over-indulgence is not very prevalent, I 2 ' ■ ^ 'A NEW' MANJJAL OF METHOD. b^vhitpfopertfljet .is a (r\iit.Cu.l sou'-cc Costiveness is one result, and this causes an unSue quantity of blood to tiow to the head, which generates a headache. Excessive use of aperient medicine, and hearty suppers, are other causes. Digestive disorders cause sick headaches, and, generally, anything which tends to interfere with the circulation must be avoided. As a remedy. Domestic Economy lessons must be utilised to encourage the pupil to take plenty of exer- cise ; to explain the nature and effects of stimulating food ; to avoid all foods which make too much flesh, and to drink water only. 2. From Impure Atmosphere. — If there be too nmch CO2 in the air, giddi- ness sets in. The pressure of the CO2 in the air retards the elimination of the CO2 from the lungs, and general nutrition is impaired. A headache is then one of the results. Coke fires give off CO, which displaces O from the red cor- puscles, impoverishes the blood, and causes headaches. Sulphurous acid, which is always in the air of towns, and near fires, is also bad. Organic putres- cible matter which is breathed forth from the lungs, exhalations from sickly boys, and the foetid smell arising from damp clothing all taint the air and pro- duce headaches. Foul gases from bad drainage and damp basements, the dust in the air, chalk dust and similar impurities, and an overheated temperature are other causes. The remedy is to seek the cause, and if possible remove it. The lessons on health should lead to prevention, but some of these causes will be beyond the teacher's control. Pure air and a proper diet, however, always tend to cure. 3. From Mental Causes. — The child may be overworked. The lessons may be too exacting for the constitution of some. The excitement of examinations, anxiety, worry, etc., will all produce headache at times. In such cases the teacher should shorten the hours of study, recommend more exercise, and the keeping of the body well nourished. i. From Physical Causes. — These will include such things as tight lacing, tight collars, tight boots, etc. , too little or too much muscular exercise, insomnia. The quantity of sleep required depends very largely on the work and tempera- ment of each individual. The sufferers should be advised to dress reasonably, to regulate the quantity of exercise taken, and to indulge in a fair amount of sleep. ZiIGHT. — " Light goes with knowledge, and assists to develop mental power." 1. Direction of Light. (1) It must not come direct from the front. This is its worst direction. (2) It should come from a point on either side, the le/il being the best, especially for class rooms. All other windows in class rooms should be regarded as supplementary, or for summer ventilation. (3) Or, it should come from a point above the shoulder. (4) Or, from behind, (5) It must not enter from both sides of the room, unless the room is very large. At the same time, no school should be lighted from one side only, but the gable ends should be fully utilised for light. 2. Diffusion of Light. ^i) Light should be equally diffused throughout the room. (2) The main light should be from the north, because it is steadier and cooler. (3) The light should be abundant, but all glare should be avoided. Hence southern windows are not the best, although there should be one southern window for cheerfulness. (4) The colour of the walls should assist, and grey is best for this purpose. All kinds of glazing which diminish the light and are troublesome to keep in repair should be avoided. (5) The sills of the main lighting windows should be placed about four feet above the floor, and the tops of some should always reach nearly to, SCHOOL ECONOMY. 3 the ceiling. In fact, the higher the windows rise to the ceiling, the better for light and ventilation. A dim religious light may be good for sentiment, but rt is bad for health. If the windows can be placed six or seven feet above the ground, so much the better, for the diffusion of light is better, and shadows are avoided. (6) When windows are low, side lights are preferable, and the left side is always the best. (7) A domed roof is best for light, whilst flat skylights should be protected by proper blinds. (8) A large portion of each window should be made to open for ventilation and cleaning. 3. Artificial Light. — Wall lights are bad, because the air soon becomes im- paired. Cross lights are to be avoided, because they multiply shadows. Gas is not a desirable form of lighting from a hygienic point of view, although the incandescent gaslight system is a great advance in this form of lighting. The electric light would be an improvement. VENTHjATION. — The teacher should be acqu^nted with its main principles. 1. Its Difficulties. — These arise from various causes, (i) The different forms of building in use. (2) The aspect of the rooms. (3) The nature, size, and position of the surrounding objects. (4) The difference of constitution, temperament, and health. (5) From overcrowding. It will be easily understood that what may be a good arrangement for one building may fail to suit another. If the windows face the prevailing winds, and these happen to be of an unfavourable nature, then further difficulties are raised. High buildings, objectionable factories, etc., when near, are all serious considerations. But perhaps the most important of all is the negligence of many to use the means at their disposal for good ventilation. 2. Cubic Space. — Cubic space is but little guide in school statistics, for the number of children a room can accommodate depends on several things which do not enter into the usual considerations of these matters. Furthermore, the age of the children is an important factor. The Department recommends the following desk space : — 18 inches for each junior desk. 22 ,, senior ,, 18 ,, the gangway. But on the point of health this is not satisfactory. We each breathe about 16 times a minute, or 960 times in an hour, and every breath helps to vitiate the air. Elach adult destroys i6*6 cubic feet of air per hour, 100 times that quantity per hour being required to keep the air pure. Remember that three scholars equal two adults. Now, in pure air we have '04 of COg, and i per cent will give a headache, whilst 4 p)er cent, would be fatal. When too much CO2 is produced a foetid smell arises, and this is the result of overcrowding or bad ventilation. Other evils are the raising of the temperature and the pro- duction of draughts, and to obviate these evils the room should be flushed at frequent intervals. This is the simplest method of ventilation, and often the only one the teacher can employ. 3. Means of Ventilation. (i) Doors and Windows. — All windows should be made to open top and bottom ; a slight ojx'ning both top and bottom being effectual. Win- dows are best for ventilation, and the window space should be at least one-fifth of the wall space. A small swing window, as far from the lighting windows as possible, and near the ceiling, is important. (7) Gratings. — These can be used in connection with fireplaces and stoves. (3) Shafts.— Shafts like the vertical shaft ventilators can be used. For the admission of fresh air a Tobin ventilating shaft in the corner of the ,4 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. room is recommended. It should communicate below with the outer air, and open about seven feet above the floor, so as to introduce a current of air where no draught will be felt by the head. (4) Ventilators. — The principal use of these is to prevent the collection of stagnant air. There are many good kinds in the market, in- cluding the cowl ventilator, Arnot's Balance Valve, and the Louvre Ventilators. (5) Fireplaces. — A wide open chimney is desirable in small rooms, but they are unsatisfactory in large rooms. Ordinary closed stoves are bad. There should be provision for the outlet of foul air at the highest point of the room. This can be best done by building to each room a separate air chimney, carried up in the same stack as the smoke flues. An outlet should always be warmed in some manner, or it will frequently act as a cold inlet. The exits for foul air should be greater than the entrances for pure air. WARMING. — The warming should be moderate, and evenly distributed, so as to maintain a temperature of from 56° to 60° F. When a corridor or lobby is warmed, the rooms are more easily dealt with, and are less liable to cold draughts. Where schools are wholly warmed by hot water, the principle of direct radiation is recommended. In such cases open grates are occasionally useful for extra warming, and their flues for ventilation always. Stoves can only be allowed if they are provided with proper chim- neys, and are found not to contaminate the air, or to render it too dry. The Thermometer. — The walls of a school should never be allowed to cool down below 45° F. night or day. An equable and suitable temperature is a great desideratum for warming. The thermometer should not be hung near a fireplace or stove, nor in the direction of any draught, nor in too close contact with gas. It may be hung upon a wall as near the centre of the room as pos- sible, provided it does not infringe any of the above suggestions. It must be hung where it will give the best measure of the average temperature of the room, and this will depend very largely upon the plan or shape of the room, and its locality. Cleaning. — The following suggestions apply to the school, and not to the home : — 1. The school should be swept and dusted each day 2. The floor should be scrubbed every few weeks. 3. The windows should be cleaned as often as the weather and other cir- cumstances make it necessary ; but in any case once a quarter. 4. Stoves and fireplaces should be cleaned weekly. When fires cease, the stoves, etc., should be fresh painted. 5. The walls should be swept down once a month (oftener in some cases), and the pictures, maps, and diagrams dusted. All framed pictures should be washed Once or twice a year. 6. Every three to seven years, depending oji the neighbourhood and use of the schoolrooms, the whole building should be painted inside and out. SCHOOL ECONOMY. 5 DrilL — Drill is perhaps the chief recognised means of promot- ing Physical Education in the school, whilst the encouragement and carrying out of games is the chief means outside the school. Both are essential to the maintenance of a good standard of health. I. Its Objects.— These may be briefly enumerated as follows : 1. To promote an improved blood circulation. 2. To take away from the muscular system a tendency to improper con- traction, 3. To aid in the formation of proper habits of subjection. 4. To act as a check against absent-mindedness. 5. To promote a love of order. 6. To afford an easy and effectual mode of promoting habits of prompt obedience. 7. To harden and develop the muscular system generally. To improve the health by a projser action of all the organs. A consideration of the above will show the two main functions of drill to be a cleansing process and development. Its influence is very wide, for it makes healthy subjects and law-abiding citizens. It quickens the actions, and the mind sometimes, and so makes better men of business. It encourages habits of neatness, promptness, cleanlmess, ready obedience, and order. It develops a love of action, which finds vent in our national games, and so acts as a great moral agent. H. General Principles and Rules. — These are largely gathered from observing children at play. 1. Movements should not be confined to arms alone. The various postures into which children unconsciously throw themselves show the necessity of exer- cise for every part of the body. 2. No one part of the body should be exercised too long. Children illus- trate this law by their constant change of games. 3. Begin with easy movements first ; then follow with the more fatiguing ones; i.e., the training should be gradual. 4. The lessons should be frequent and regular. A few minutes each day is better than one long lesson per week. In fine weather use the playground ; in bad weather, the largest room. 5. The children must be suitably dressed. Tight fitting garments are injurious. 6. Respiration should be perfectly free during exercise; the chest well expanded, the head erect. A child suddenly getting red in the face should be told to breathe freely, as checked or impeded respiration is often the cause of the raised colour. 7. Pallor is a sign that the exercise is too severe. Withdraw such children immediately. 8. Each movement has a definite aim in the physical education of the body. Teachers should strive to achieve this aim by insisting on precision and steadiness of movement. 9. The children should stand at arm's length from each other. 10. Give a few seconds' rest between each movement. 11. The teacher should correctly perform each new movement before com- manding it to the class. 12. Corrections should be short and clear. They should be made when children are resting. 13. Elach movement should be repeated three or four times. 14. The " word of attention," which tells children what movement is to be taken, should be given in a calm, descriptive manner. 15. The " word of execution" should be given in a sharp, decisive manner as a rule. 6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. THE PIiAVGROUND. I. Physical Uses. — A playground is the lung of a school. It is as essential to a proper and efficient education as the school- room itself. It is the workshop for the manufacture of the sound body, as the schoolroom is for the sound mind. It offers relief after mental work, and brings into play the overcramped muscles. It is a healthy agency for the overflow of that abundant spon- taneity of child life, which may become so troublesome to disci- pline if not regulated. II. Its Fittings. — A playground should be fitted with gymnas- tic apparatus, like the giant-stride, parallel bars, etc., and a drmking fountain. One portion should always be covered in to meet cases of bad weather. Offices should be provided, and should meet all requirements of cleanliness, decency, and accommodation. It should be well detached from the street (in towns), by a high wall, by position, or by both. If large, around its edges and near the walls, a narrow strip might be devoted to the cultivation of shrubs, flowers, etc. It should be asphalted if possible, and drained by the placing of small sinks, and the slight sloping of the playground towards them. III. Its Moral Uses. — It brings brightness to the school life, and helps to engender a love for school by making it popular. It is a fine training ground for the emotions. Boys learn to disci- pline themselves in their sport, to submit their wills to the will of others. It is a great leveller and compensating force ; for the dullard may be a physical adept. He wins in the playground that respect which he cannot attain in the school ; for muscle is wor- shipped as much as brain. The bully is checked, the timid and shy get nerve and confidence by means of the playground's super- vised play. rv. The Teacher's Work. — Gymnastics shoul-d be encouraged by the teacher, and, in the case of boys, a little instruction might be given. Supervision should always be exercised. The presence of the teacher will often tempt a boy to try something which other- wise might be beyond his inclination. Games calculated to de- velop their strength, to give muscular control, to aid the growth of the will, such as our popular games, should be encouraged, sometimes shared, and sometimes directed by the teacher. Many now form and take an active interest in the cricket, football, and swimming clubs of their scholars, and they do not find it unpro- ductive labour. SCHOOL ECONOMY. 7 FURM IT U HE. — Students are expected to know something about the furnishing of a workman's home, and to offer sound opinions on it. Their knowledge is also expected to extend to the school furniture, hence this is thought a convenient place for dealing with several of the more important articles found in a school, such as the school museum, desks, galleries, and wall decorations. The School Museum. — Every school should contain its museum, which should be formed by the pupils and staff so far as its contents are concerned, and should not be purchased. The managers should supply the cupboard only. It should not be turned into a lumber cupboard, or it will smother all interest in itself. The objects of choice will vary somewhat with the district. Regard should be paid to local requirements and local scenery. These considerations will regulate the choice of the special objects for the museum, whilst there will always be a number of objects which may find a place, and these may be called the general objects. 1. Special Objects. — These should be classified : — (a) Animal Kingdom. — There should be specimens of local birds and their eggs, of insects, fish, classified feathers, bills or beaks, feet, etc., of birds, and so on. {d) Vegetable Kingdom.— There should be a collection of wild flowers be- longing to the district, properly pressed and classified. There should also be carefully prepared specimens of the leaf, the flower, the fruit of the trees, the ferns, the grasses, weeds, cereals of the district ; sea weed (if near the sea). {c) Mineral Kingdom. — There should be illustrations of the geological formation of the district. Models of the district should be made and contributed by the teachers or scholars. If the school is near the sea, there should be typical stones and shells from the sea shore. (d) Manufaoturei. — The local manufactures (if any) should be illustrated as much as possible. The material used should be shown in its various stages. Motiels of machines might be made, and models or specimens of tools. If the town is a port, there should be models of the various kinds of ships and boats, and the boys should be taught to distinguish the craft by name (sloop, barque, etc. ) ; to know the flags of the chief countries, and for this purpose a picture of flags should be placed in the schoolroom. If a mining town, the same method should be pur- sued with the mine. (e) Antiquities. — There should be drawings, photographs, and specimens illustrating the antiquities and historical associations of near places. 2. Oeneral Objects. (a) Scientific Apparatus.— By this is meant apparatus for object lessons and science lessons, and, where possible, this apparatus should be made by the pupils. (3) Commercial Specimens.- These would include specimens of the chief exports and imports. Where these are objects of manufacture, they shfiuld illustrate the whole process from the raw material to the finished article. The specimens nmst be limited to the chief only, and they 8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. should be arranged in the order of their importance, i.e., our greatest import, export, and manufacture should have their specimens respec- tively occupying the chief places of their class. {c) Common Objects. — These should be limited to the commonest specimens of the three productive kingdoms — animal, vegetable, and mineral. Specimens of the chief woods, the chief rocks, etc. , should be arranged in the order of their importance. Object lesson materials, in so far as they are not what are technically known as " Scientific," should also find a place. {d) Inventions. — It might also be made a receptacle for the inventive facul- ties of the children, to encourage production according to the special tastes and talents of the pupils, and for this purpose the selection need not be wholly scientific. 3. Its Value. (a) It is economical, because it supplies concrete or objective information to the pupil with the least expenditure, generally, of time and trouble. {b) It trains the attention by fixing it and bringing interest to its aid. \c) It stimulates observation, and the habit of care which this involves reacts on and influences all their other work. [d) A love of nature is encouraged, and followed by widened sympathies and enjoyments. In this way it may prove a stepping stone to a love of knowledge, gained by the most productive and the most pleasurable means. [e) It affords scope for hand and eye training; for the cultivation of tJie senses by the manufacture of models and apparatus. (/) It is a fine disciplinary aid. The children love such work, and by asso- ciation get to like their school, and to take a real pride and interest in it. {g) It widens their vocabulary. The things observed and described call into use exact and correct language, which improves their power of composition. Galleries. — Infant children receive many lessons upon gal- leries, hence it is necessary that each should be properly con- structed and properly placed. They are rarely found now anywhere but in Infant Departments. They are conducive to noise very often, and for that reason are not an unmixed blessing in the prin- cipal rooms. If the room is large, and the galleries are placed as far apart as possible, the noise is minimised ; but a separate class room is the best place for a gallery. On galleries for older chil- dren desks might be placed, and then the front desk could rest on the floor. In fact, a gallery then differs very little from the desk- fitted, stepped floors of the modern Board Schools. The construction of the gallery will depend somewhat upon where its place is, and its size also. In a class room it may be larger than in a principal room. A gallery usually contains five parallel seats, each rising above the other like steps. Each seat is about 14 or 15 feet long, depending on the number of children it is intended to seat. It should be so constructed as to allow the youngest children seats at the bottom. The following dimensions are recommended : — SCHOOL ECONOMY. g (i) The rise of the seat for the youngest child should not be greater than 7 inches. (2) This should be increased each row by half an inch for the varying ages and sizes of the children. (3) There should be a gang-way up either side, allowing plenty of room for either teacher or children to ascend or descend. Sometimes there is one central gangway, but this is not so good as the other method. (4) There should be a sloping back fitted to each seat for the infants, about 8 inches high. (a) It is necessary for health. (6) It leaves the child the free use of its arms. A higher one would not. (c) It protects the child from the restless feet of those on the seat above. (5) Each step should be nearly 2 feet wide, and the seat should be so placed as to leave at least a foot behind. i6) The walls should be boarded near the gallery. 7) There should be a hand rail suited to the size of the children, and placed on the exposed side of the gallery. If both sides are exposed, then there should be a railing on either side. Desks. I. Infant Departments. — Desks are used in these departments for writing or for kindergarten. No desks are required for the youngest. The height varies from \j\ to 19 J inches; the seats, from lo^ to 11^ inches. The back rests should be curved, and the centre of support should be about 7 inches above the seat. The top of the desk should be flat. It suits for kindergarten, but not for writing, hence the tops should be adjustable so that they could be made horizontal or angular as required. H. Other Departments. — The London School Board issue some general rules on this subject, as laid down by their medical officer. 1. The seat should not be so high as to prevent the child rest- ing its feet upon the floor, or on a footboard, and if the latter the knees should not be elevated. In those classes where the scholars change places, the height of the seat should be capable of regulation in proportion to the height of the pupils. 2. Assuming a child to be sitting upright in his seat, and the arms to be hanging freely down, the edge of the desk next the body should be about an inch higher than the level of the elbows in the boys, and from li to i| inches in the girls. If the desk be higher than this, there is a tendency for the body to be twisted, for one shoulder to be raised above the other, with the consequent risk of lateral curvature of the spine. 3. A line dropped from the edge of the desk ought to strike the edge of the seat, or at a point an inch or two within it. This arrangement obliges the child to assume an upright position, which is best both for the eyes and the spine. 4. No seat should be without a back, and the top of this should be one inch lower than the edge of the desk for boys, and one inch higher than the edge of the desk for girls. 16 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. In schools which are graded, great inequalities will be found in the size of the scholars in each room, to meet which it would be desirable to provide three sizes of desks. In schools of mixed ages there should be a large number of sizes. 5. The desk must not be flat. It should slightly incline towards the child. 6. The seat should not be flat, but saddle-shaped. Change of position will be desirable. 7. The desks must be easy of access, yet compactly arranged. The angle of vision for the teacher should not be more than 45°. Height and Dimensions. (i) The sloping part of the top should be not less than 12 inches in width. (2) The inclination should be about 2 inches, and the slope should be about I in 10. (3) The flat portion of the desk with the groove should be from 3 to 32 inches in width. (4) The proper height allows the forearm of the seated child to rest horizon- tally upon it without discomfort. (a) Youngest children - - 20" to 25" to the middle of the slope. (b) Intermediate children - 22" to 26" (c) Oldest scholars - - - 30" to 36" „ The seat should be 164 inches high. (5) The back rail should be not more than 7 inches for younger children, and not more than 10 inches for the older ones. (6) The minimum space for each child should be 20 inches, and 22 inches would be better. (7) The width of the gangway should be 18 inches at least. (8) The seats should be 8 inches wide. Best Position in the Desk. (i) Sit erect. (2) Keep the eyes in a parallel line with the surface of the desk. (3) Keep the shoulders at equal heights. (4) Keep the elbows close to the side, and not resting upon the desk. (5) Weakly and delicate children should have a support for the whole of the back. Schoolroom Decoration. 1. IValls. — These should be clean, and painted a light French grey or pale buff. The lower part should be of wood panelling, or, better still, of dark glazed bricks, so as to form a dado. 2. "Windows. — There should be an abundance of window- space. Nothing tends to brighten a room like this. The blinds should be well-kept and clean, and the frameworks should be regu- larly painted. 3. Pictures. — Pictures of foreign scenes are interesting and instructive, especially those dealing with primitive forms of life, like the African, the Indian, and the Esquimaux. A few good pictures, copies of our best masters' works, might be added. Historic pic- SCHOOL ECONOMY. tt tures are very interesting to children, and are all the brighter for being coloured. Pictures of trades, brightly coloured, are also very instructive, and very interesting, whilst a few well-chosen Scripture prints should always find a place, 4. Maps. — Picture maps are bright and instructive, preparing the way for the ordinary maps. Of those hanging on the walls, the ordinary ones should be bright-coloured, and should be re- moved as soon as they become dilapidated or dirty. In such a condition they are little good mentally, and positively bad morally. A few blank maps should be included among the wall decorations. 5. Diagrams. — These will include geographical diagrams for the teaching of definitions; astronomical diagrams for lessons on the sun, moon, and stars ; botanical diagrams for botany lessons ; mechanical diagrams for lessons on mechanics ; zoological, for lessons on animals, and so on. The choice of these diagrams will be regulated by the school curriculum. 6. Honour Board. — This should form a most appreciated portion of the wall decorations of a school. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 1. — Write out some of the chief principles to be observed in the lighting and ventilation of schoolrooms. 2. — What directions would you give for the daily and weekly cleaning of a school- room ? What additional cleaning is needed at longer intervals ? 3. — What are the objects of school drill? Show that it has an influence upon the character of children and their behaviour out of school. 4.— What do you consider to be the uses of a playground, and how would you en- deavour to make it subservient to the discipline of a school ? To what extent (if any) would you take a personal part in the children's play? 5.— What kind of desks would you like to find in any schoolroom in which you might have to teach writing ? Give the ground of your preference 6. — What sort of objects would you desire to collect in a school museum, and how would you classify them and use them ? 7.— Describe the proper height and size of desks: (i) for an infant school; and {2) for a school of older children. Say how desks ought to be placed in reference to the light. 8. — Give a list of the maps, pictures, diagrams, and apparatus which you think ought to be provided in a well-furnished schoolroom. 9. — What sort of decoration is most appropriate in a schoolroom, and most likely to make it bright and attractive to the scholars? 10.— What rules should be adopted by a teacher in order to keep the schoolroom per- fectly healthy and clean ? 11. — Describe the best system you know of drill and physical exercise for youn<; children (a) in the schoolroom ; (l>) or in the playground : and say what sort of apparatus would be of the most service in such exercises. 12.— Describe the most healthful and useful exercises in drill which you have seen, and say how you would conduct them. This Chapter is continued in the Appendix. 12 CHAPTER II. DISCIPLINE. I. "What it is. — You know a tree by its fruit, and Discipline is known by its results. 1. It must be based on Natural Principles. — It must recog- nise the child's love of activity and curiosity, and it must under- stand that these and similar impulses may lead the child to do injurious things. It must recognise the weakness of a child's intelligence, which cannot always detect the relation between action and result. It must recognise that character is a growth, and that discipline is the natural trainer and corrector of that growth. 2. Its Aims must be G-ood. — It ought to produce pupils who are not ashamed to confess ignorance by asking a question, and who show a willingness to be taught by any one. Do the scholars take pains with their work ? Do they love and seek their work ? Is the discipline sufficient to restrain all the unruly impulses of the children ? Is it maintained by love or by fear ? Does it make a right use of punishments, recognise the inborn idleness of some natures, and seek to remove it ? Does it cultivate the amicable sentiments ? Does it check and regulate moral precocity, which is always an expensive luxury? Does it make a proper use of the discipline of consequences ? Is it consistent, and does it tend to develop a self-governed being ? Is it in harmony with the child's nature, and does it possess sufficient flexibility and versatility, which are necessary from an analysis both of children and self? In so far as it fails in any of these objects, it fails to be good ; hence it is not sufficient to say that discipline is the power exer- cised by the teacher over the children, for that power may be bad. II. Ways and Means. — Discipline must be obtained in one of two ways — by personal influence or by force. " It is better to gain it by force than not to gain it at all " (Fitch). DISCIPLINE, 13 1. Material Means. (a) Good physical surroundings are essential. Ill furnished, badly lighted, badly ventilated, dirty, unattractive, or badly planned buildings, limited or insufficient playgtound accommodation, difficult or incon- venient means of entry and egress to school or classes— all such are impediments to good discipline. (d) The dress, manner, voice, and bearing of the teacher should be pleasing. {c) A certain formality and dignity should be maintained. It aids the influence of the teacher, and generates a certain amount of advisable awe. (d There should be a due alternation and remission of work. Suitable changes and a fair amount of recreation are great aids. 2. Mental Means. {a) All duties and offences should be expressed in simple, clear, and pre- cise language. The rules should be few and well understood. {d) Offences should be graduated, and for this purpose the teacher must know the principles of punishment. {c) There should be efficient organisation, classification, and thorough supervision. {d} The reasons for discipline should, as far as possible, be made intelli- gible to the children. Knowledge breeds confidence, and tends to obedience. (e) The methods of teaching used should be carefully studied, so as to produce the maximum gain at a minimum cost of temper and brain. 3. Moral Means. (a) Panishraent. — A right use of punishment is very important. Never chide hastily, but correct with gentleness and with evidence of pain. Seek to encourage, rather than to degrade. Have as few restraints as possible, and gradually shift the responsibility from the shoulders of the staff to that of the scholars. "With the elder scholars there is nothing like a feeling of responsibility for the production of a healthy discipline, although, at the same time, it must be remembered that this is not recommended for young children. Every teacher possesses more or less tact, and the quality of his discipline will largely depend upon what use he makes of this important talent. By tact is meant a keen observation of what is going on, of everything within the knowledge or experience of the teacher, and a readiness to convert these extraneous incidents into immediate allies. Nor does it finish with a quick and thorough observation. There must also be good and swift discrimina tion for the exercise of sound j udgments. {6) Government. — Avoid over-government. This is the antithesis of feeble government, and is, perhaps, as much to be condemned. The teacher must remember that authority exists for the benefit of the governed — not for the governors. For this purpose the voluntary dispositions of the children should be trusted as much as possible. A good class opinion should be created, as well as a pride in the moral condition of the school. 4. Older Children as an JUd to Discipline. (i) By their own example they can aid, for imitation is the strongest faculty in children. Admiration and esteem for the elder scholars is generally manifested by the younger ones, and they always evince great pleasure at recognition or notice by the elder ones. (2) By supervision. The qualities mentioned should be turned to account by the elder scholars to dd in the maintenance of discipline, both out of and in school They can share the games of the younger ones, or they can control them. They can act as monitors, assist in regulating assembly or dismissal, and generally hold a light controlling hand over their younger schoolfellows. 14 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. (3) By protection. They could and should aid to protect the property of the school, the persons of the scholars, and the character and reputa- tion of the school. ORDER. — Order is the groundwork and essential of all method. Just as order is said to be Heaven's first law, so should it be made the first law of life, whether in school or out. Without it efficient instruction is impossible. The best economy of time and force demands a place for everything, and everything to be in its place. There is a time for everything, hence there must be definiteness and an absence of procrastination. Order involves the doing of the right thing in the right way, time, and place by the right person. How to get it.— The teacher should demand order, and then see that he gets it. He must have a perfect control over himself and over the school. He must be quiet in voice and manner, and his voice must be heard as rarely as possible for the efficient dis- charge of his duties. He must be orderly in his habits, person, and school arrangements. He must be quick of eye and ear, and possess tact, if he is to be something better than a drill sergeant. He must feel and show sympathy with the scholars in their work and play. He must have just and intelligible rules, and these must be uniformly enforced. He must avoid over-government, as it is irritating and wasteful. There must be regularity in the school movements, and a cer- tain amount of uniformity. Industry must be enforced, and quiet- ness must be ensured — not too much quietness, as it is unnatural to child life, and bespeaks restraint rather than order. The busy hum of an industrious school is no evidence of a lack of order. Orderly methods of work should be demanded and taught, with neat and well-arranged slate and paper work. The children should always be arranged in an orderly manner. The appointment of monitors, curators, etc., will conduce to order, and a good time-table will assist. Finally, the teacher should see that there is good organi- sation, classification^ and careful supervision, with good and com- fortable physical surroundings, i.e.., a well-warmed, well-lighted, well-ventilated, and well-furnished school. parentaIj co-operation. A great deal of importance should be attached to this, and it will pay the teacher to get known among the parents of his pupils. Circumstances may vary, and each teacher may probably be the best judge as to the best means of doing this in his own particular DISCIPLINE. 15 case. Nevertheless, a few suggestions are here offered for any cases where they may be appHcable, and are wanted. 1. Correspondence. — A great deal may be done by a judicious letter now and then for special cases ; but, as a general method, it would be too expensive in time. It cannot, from staff limitations, be used as a sole means ; yet it is a good ally to other means. 2. Visits. — These are very productive so far as they go, whether paid or received ; but necessarily they cannot go very far. 3. School Entertainments. — These may take the form of concerts, entertainments, or prize distributions, and they are the best means at the teacher's disposal for securing the object de- sired. The parents generally like to attend such meetings, and in this way they get to know the teacher, and to be known, in a pleasant manner; both parents and children see the social side of the teacher's character. Experience recommends this method. It is a good investment for the teacher; for discipline becomes easier, attendance better, and parental support more general. 4. Iiocal Residence. — To reside among or near the parents is to place one's-self in a favourable position to become known and appreciated. Unfortunately, in many of the large towns, it is scarcely oossible for teachers to reside in the locality of their schools. 5. Iiocal Affairs.— The teacher can interest himself in local affairs. This will bring him under the notice of the parents; he will be better known, and light goes with knowledge. He will be better treated, better respected, better appreciated as ignorance of him, and perhaps prejudice in some cases, slowly melt away before a growing knowledge of his character. The multifarious associations, classes, societies, etc., in most parishes, will give him ample opportunity. The Vestries, Councils, and Corporations will give him an opportunity sometimes of serving his fellow- townsmen in a voluntary capacity, and of forming a powerful circle of friends and supporters. 6. Ijocal Press. — Where possible, he should enlist the aid of the local press, which is sure to be read by many of the parents. Report the successes of the school ; its meetings, social and other- wise; the performances of distinguished scholars. The interest of the scholars and parents will be aroused, their sympathies en- 'isted, and their co-operation stimulated. i6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. AUXII.IARV MEANS OF TRAINING. Besides the usual course of school work, an excellent school seeks by other means to be of service to the children who attend It. Such means would embrace many expedients, among which the following would be included : — 1. Recreation. — The establishment of Athletic Clubs, such as football, cricket, and swimming, is now very general. A Ramblers' Club affords pleasure and profit if the teacher knows some Natural History. In each case the teacher should support the club by his presence. The manly and useful qualities, so well inculcated by our English games, when properly played, are among the most valuable results of our educative system. Con- certs have already been referred to. The establishment of a School Library would supply another healthy and educative source of recreation, and would help to form that love for sound literature which is such a blessing in after life. 2. Assistance. — Thrift might be encouraged by the adoption of Penny Banks. The teacher might also seek to cultivate influ- ence with neighbouring employers, so as to help to place some of the boys when leaving school. Other means of assisting will probably present themselves. Locality may afford or deny advan- tages of this sort, but where the teacher shows practically that he is concerned about the future welfare of his scholars, his influence will be none the less, and his success will be all the greater. In the poorest districts, the practical interest shown by the teachers in the penny, half-penny, and free dinners, and their appeals for cast-off clothing, is splendid evidence of the missionary spirit which many of them bring to bear upon their work. PUNISHMENT. I. Its Limits. — The subject of punishments is the most difficult and the most vexed in school management. There is a great and striking diversity of opinion on the subject. The teacher must remember that all punishment is suffering, and, as such, is an evil. Hence it should only be inflicted when necessary; and since it is intended to supply a counteracting force, weak punishments may be the worst of punishments. A pupil should never be punished at the moment of offence ; never when he is not expecting it ; and for serious cases ^always in private. The teacher should always look for the motive, as it is that which has to be checked ; and only punish when that motive is a, ba,d one. To punish judiciously DISCIPLINE. 17 and profitably much experience is required. Young teachers have not this experience, hence if they punish at all they should begin with light punishments. Unjust punishments are injurious mor- ally, mentally, and physically. They breed bad feeling between teacher and class ; they check the activities of the child, and often place the teacher in a dangerous and uncomfortable position. Hence seek to limit them as much as possible. H. Cases for no Punishment. — These, as laid down by Bentham, are : — 1. Where It is Groundless.— These would include such cases as these : — (a) Where there has been no real mischief. \b) Where the mischief is overweighted by a greater benefit. a. Where it is Inefficacious.— Such cases exist when : — (a) The penalty has not come under the child's notice. (b) Or, when he is unaware of the consequences of his act. {c) Or, when he is not a free agent. 3. Where it is Unprofitable —This includes cases where the evil of the punishment exceeds the evil of the offence ; or when it is likely to be useless through a weak will. The teacher must know what these evils are to measure them. Such evils of punishment would include : — (a) Coercion or restraint. {b) The uneasiness of apprehension. (c) The actual suffering. (d) The suffering caused to sympathisers with the sufferers. 4. Where It Is Needless. — It is needless when the end can be obtained in some other way ; as by instruction, persuasion, etc. Such cases would include obstreperousness in boys, some forms of crying, and cases in which the disci- pline of consequences avails. m. The Amount of Punishment. — The amount of punishment will be a varying quantity, but whether much or little, it should always be such as will be most likely to deter from any repetition of the offence. Some of these are worse than others, and demand a greater punishment; eg.., truancy and untruth should be punished more severely than simple truancy. The same punish- ment for the same offence in all cases alike would be unfair, for it makes no allowance for age, constitution, position in the school, etc., and ignores the individuality of the child. Then the less certain a punishment, or the longer it is delayed, the greater it should be, for penalties that are uncertain or remote fail to influence the child's mind. Sometimes a punishment may be well suited in quality, but it only exists in one absolute quantity Nevertheless, it may be advisable to employ it, although it may be a little beyond the measure of the offence ; e.g., Expulsion, Dismissal from Office, etc., and this may be thecase more particularly when the punishment constitutes a moral lesson. In any case, if the punish- ment is more likely to do harm than good, it should be omitted. 2 ig A NEW MANUAL oF METHOD. TV. Selection of Punishment. — In selecting a punishment, so far as is possible, the teacher should try to fit it to the offence. If the punishment is well fitted to the offence, the child begins to see that some offences carry more suffering than others, and so soon learns that there are degrees of guilt. The selection having been made the infliction of the punishment should be made as impressive as possible in its application, so as to afford an example to others. Again, where possible, the punishment should be so selected as to tend to reform by weakening the seductive and by strengthening the preserving motives, as in giving a habit of industry to the idle. The punishment selected may sometimes need to embrace and enforce compensation, as in making a child pay for damage to school property, and in the making up of neglected lessons. Then the punishment should be so chosen, where possible, that it could be remitted in case of mistake. Punishments like Corporal Punishment, Detention, etc., are inapplicable in such cases, but Deprivation of Marks, Deposition from Office and other like punishments would be available. But whatever the punish- ment selected may be, it should be well within the child's under- standing, and such as will gain the sympathy and support of the school ; otherwise it is weak and badly chosen. V. Kinds of Punishment. 1. Blame. — All forms of censure may be used, because they are a good and ready method. But the teacher should be sparing of it. Righteous and controlled indignation is a powerful weapon, which should be reserved for special occasions. 2. Shame.— Appeals should be made to the sense of shame. It is powerful with many, but not all. It depends for its value on the sensitiveness of the pupil, and class opinion. It is not suited to great offences, and so generally is uselul only for first offenders. Iteration weakens it. 3. Detention.— The stopping of play and loss of liberty are very irritating to children. Hence detention should be used for great and habit offences like riotous behaviour and un punctuality. Bain thinks it a bad form of punishment. 4. Pleasure. — The deprivation of some object of pleasure is a good form of punishment where applicable. There is another application of this punishment which is recommended by Locke. Take the offence itself and dose the offender until he is salted with it. 5. Impositions. — Here the pain lies in the weariness produced. There is also the irksomeness of confinement. They might be used for neglect of lessons, for unpunctuality, and for disobedience. But there is a strong division of opinion about their value. It is asserted, with some truth, that they create a distaste for school work, and so while checking one evil they produce another. By some they are even considered barbarous. 6. Maries. — The giving of bad marks may be useful, especially if it is pos- sible to erase them by subsequent good conduct. 7. Corporai Punishment.— See Section VII. 8. Expulsion. — This should be a last resource. Its failing is that it is not always available in an elementary school. DISCIPLINE. 19 VI. Objectionable Forms of Punishment. — Such punish- ments as a box on the ear, blows on the head or face, pulling the hair, pinching the ears, rapping knuckles, standing on one leg, crucifixion (standing with extended arms), impositions (according to some people), should all be strictly avoided. The dark room and the cupboard are barbarous and dangerous punishments. The fool's cap, the label, or the sandwich boards degrade the pupil in the estimation of his fellows, and often harden the culprit himself. VH. Corporal Punishment.— This is the most vexing form of this most vexed question of school management. Opinions on it are so conflicting, that any pronounced opinion is sure to offend some people. But our best educational authorities consider there are times when it is necessary, and when it would be a mistake not to use it. Objections to Corporal Punishment.— John Locke gives the following objections to its use : — (1) There is in us a natural propensity to indulge in corporeal and present pleasure. This wants rooting out. But corporal punishment strengthens the propensity by appealing to it. A child who abstains from any act through fear of corporal punishment only prefers a greater corporeal pleasure, or avoids a greater corporeal pain. {2) By association, it breeds aversion to that for which it is the teacher's business to create a liking. (3) It is a slavish discipline, and makes a slavish temper. {4) It often— in severe cases— brings a worse and more dangerous disease, by breaking ike mind. Instead of a disorderly boy you get a low- spirited, moping boy. VIII. Toung Teachers and Corporal Punishment. — Young teachers should be restricted from the use of corporal punishment, both for their own sake, and for the sake of their scholars. For the Scholar's Sake. 1. The infliction of corporal punishment is the most difficult and the most unpleasant part of a teacher's work ; and, therefore, for the sake of the scholars, it ought to be in- flicted only by those presumably most fit to do this delicate work. 2. Scholars are more ready to admit its justice from an older or principal teacher. 3. There is apt to be in young teachers : (a) More zeal than discretion ; (6) More feeling than judgment ; (c) More energy than sympathy; and, as a result, the children may be pun- ished unjustly. 4. It tends to harden and demoralise, and not to elevate. 5. It checks the will without disciplining it. and so makes the scholar less fit for work. For the Teacher's Sake. 1. The work is so unpleasant that young teachers should rather avoid than seek it. 2. Generally, it is against the opinion of School Boards, the public, the parents, the press, and the magistrates; and an antago- nism to so many authorities, and its conse- quent risks, is too big a price to pay for the authority in question. 3. It breeds bad feeling between pupils and teachers, and so discounts the efficiency of the work. 4. It often breeds insubordination when inflicted by a young teacher. 5. Punishment, for the most part, is nega- tive in its effects. It weakens vital force, and »o discounts work. It deters rather than excites to activity. 20 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. REVTARDS. 1. Principles underlying their Use. — i. A child should do its lessons and behave itself properly from a sense of duty ; but, un- fortunately, the sense of duty is weak in a child, and has to be cultivated. For the adequate accomplishment of our duty a moral impulse is at least occasionally necessary. But a moral impulse involves a moral sense, and here again we find children lacking. The cultivation of a proper moral sense is the great aim of school education on its moral side, and this is the work of years. Then, as the motives are weak, some inducements to right conduct must be held out to children : hence the necessity for rewards. The natural appetite of a healthy child is for play, and as all work cannot be made play, then rewards become necessary as an in- ducement. 2. But the proper bestowal of rewards involves the exercise of wisdom and justice. When to bestow them, why they are bestowed, and the amount to be bestowed, are three problems difficult to solve in some cases. Their moral effect must not be wasted or lost. The ground on which they are given is all-impor- tant. Effort and industry should be encouraged rather than intel- lectual ability ; moral work, rather than mental merit. 3. Rewards should not be too freely bestowed in the early stages of child life, for that is the period for developing the social sentiments, and emulation or rivalry is an anti-social emotion. II. Rewards as Inducements to "Work. — i. — They are an incentive to work, because they appeal to the love of gain , the love of approbation, the love of power, and kindred emotions. The risk attached to them is that they are apt to be looked upon as an end rather than as means. 2. They are a means of interesting the parents in the progress of their children. 3. They incite to obedience, and so strengthen the formation of good habits. 4. They often raise the successful pupils in their own and the estimation of the other pupils. They thus breed respect, which may be valued more than the reward itself. 5. They set up a pleasant and profitable association between industry and the best form of rewards. 6. They make a powerful appeal to emulation ; and the desire of surpassing others, of gaining distinction, of acquiring fame, is the most powerful known stimulant to intellectual work. DISCIPLINE. 21 7. Rewards bestow pleasure, and pleasure is one of the most powerful of motives. 8. Rewards are positive in their effects ; punishments are nega- tive : hence they are a better weapon than punishments. TTT School Rewards. 1. Place Taking. — This appeals powerfully to emulation. 2. Decorations. — These are of a simple character, 3. School PrlYileges.— These include such things as the right to occupy certain places, to fill certain oj^ces like that of monitors, curators, librarians of the school library, the marking of certain forms of school work, etc. 4. Prizes.— These can take the form oi books, certificates^ medals, and scholar- ships. Their effect varies. They often stimulate rivalry, which is an anti-social feeling ; or they may call forth the best of the social emotions— love for parents, respect or love for the teacher, and the consequent desire to give the loved or respected ones pleasure by the gaining of a prize. They often have a wider effect. There is the bitter feeling of disappointment in the less successful scholars, which may harden into indifference and a subsequent lack of effort, or there is the arousing of jealousies, envy, and a sense of injustice, A failure, rightly utilised, should become a further stimulus to success. 5. Esteem, Praise. — These are very powerful incentives to the mind, but they must be used judiciously to be effective. A pleasant association grows up between right conduct and praise ; and later, the right conduct becomes a habit, and sufficiently strong to exist independently of the association. GOOD IklANNERS. Good manners are a matter of breeding or habit, hence any efforts in the direction of good manners must go through habit. If home influences are antagonistic, the task is rendered more difficult ; but this difficulty ought to stimulate to greater effort. 1. Imitation.— The imitative faculty is strong in children, hence the teacher should always be well mannered before his pupils. He should see that they are well mannered to him and to each other, and both should be well mannered to visitors and officials, and in their private life. The better mannered boys might be held up as an example to the rest. This could be done in many ways without obtruding such pupils directly on the notice of their fellows. 8. Their Importance.— The teacher should make his class thoroughly understand the importance he attaches to good manners. There is a tendency toooftt;n to think too much of intellectual excellence, and to take excellence in bearing as a matter of course. If the class once understands that the teacher attaches as much importance to good manners as to good scholarship, the im- provement will be rapid .nnd wide. 8. Rewards.— These should be given for conduct as well as for ability. Good manners form a large element in conduct, and their cultivation will thus be encouraged. Rewards should not only go to the clever. Remember that education is moral as well as mental. 4. Good Company.— This is another opportunity for imitation. Take the children mio good company whenever pKjssible. Let them mingle with and see the manners of Ix'tter bred people than themselves. 6. Self Respect. — Inculcate a feeling of proper self-respect. Do not let there be too much humility, or hypocrisy or bashfulness will be the result, and both are ill-bred. But encourage such a feeling as will prevent any slight or disrespect in their manner to any one. A person who respects himself usually shows some respect to other people. 6. Caltivate their Dispositions.— Quickly and continuously cultivate their dispositions, seeking to produce such a disposition as will make them very 22 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. reluctant to offend any one ; and then aid them to show that disposition in the most agreeable way possible. In this way they will gradually become quiet and rcHned in their general bearing. Especially will a well-bred person seek to avoid makmg any one uneasy in conversation. 7. Good Literature. — Place good literature in their way. Let them read of cultured and refined people ; imbibe cultured and refined thoughts ; and the mellowing influence of such agencies, though probably slow in operation, will certainly bear fruit by improving their manners. ANGER. I. Causes. — Anger may be aroused by any number of specific causes, such as an injury, real or supposed ; unfair or capricious treatment, unnatural restraints of discipline, physical pain, spite, envy, or jealousy. But all these specific causes range themselves easily under one generic head — the sense of injury. II. Treatment.— Its treatment is difficult. The angry child is both physically and mentally disturbed. If the anger is exces- sive, the action of the heart is impeded, and the face turns pale. The digestive and other functions naturally suffer from the with- drawal of blood and nervous power. Or the excessive activity of the system engendered by anger may cause the face tO' redden, the veins to distend, and the action of the heart to quicken. This rousing of activity is characteristic of rage, and the child is in a very excitable condition altogether. The child is equally disturbed mentally. There is a shock of pain which discomposes the system ; a deep rankling pain, which wants to retaliate ; a state of feeling, which turns the pain to joy if the retaliation is successfully effected. A little knowledge of this sort shows the teacher the difficulty of his task. The child is in no fit state for argument or punish- ment. The first effort must be to soothe the child, and to restore him to something like a normal physical and mental condition. This will depend largely upon the temperament of the child, and the nature of the provocation. An unintended injury is easily satisfied, but injury done designedly is not so easily removed. (i) Bearing these facts in mind «/ a subsequent pei'iod, when anger has decreased or disappeared, the teacher might make some effort to strengthen the child against any similar outbreak. If any immediate action is taken at all, it should take one of two forms : — (i) The voluntary self-humiliation of the wrongdoer. (2) A compulsory humiliation inflicted upon the wrongdoer. Bain assures us that both of these are found to answer their end. (2) Later on the teacher might point out the dreadful effects of anger. He might show how it exhausts the energy; gives pain and annoyance to others ; makes enemies ; and brings dishke and distrust. Angry people are wisely shunned. (3) He should appeal to the class to bear and forbear ; to avoid anything likely to provoke to anger. DISCIPLINE. 23 (4) He should seek to cultivate the rejlective powers of the child, and this will give him a healthier view of the irritating causes. (5) Where possible he should trust to the discipline of consequences, for anger often brings its own punishment. (6) Where it leads to acts oi deliberate cruelty it must be checked, even at the expense of considerable severity. (7) He should appeal to the child s will, and make him understand that he should be the master, not the slave of his passions. He might also gently remind him that public opinion considers anger to be short madness. (8) Perhaps the best method of all will be \.o cultivate the social feelings ; to appeal to the higher side of the child's nature. OBSTINACnr. This is a fearful fault of temper in children, and one especially hard to deal with. Its treatment should depend upon its cause, and will often differ. Its detection is not always easy, for there may be states of mind which may be mistaken for it. We will first of all deal with those. I. Mistaken Obstinacy 1. Stupidity. — This is often mistaken for obstinacy by inexperienced or careless teachers. The natural obtuseness which keeps a child dumb when questioned, the lack of intellect which handicaps him in the right interpretation of work and rule, and often the consciousness of his own stupidity, are factors giving a product which wears the garb of obstinacy. 2. Physical Weakness. — This may not allow a child the necessary strength or energy for the proper performance of school duties. There is a shrinking from the censure expected or received ; a sort of passive suffering, lacking the necessary strength-fed courage. But it is not obstinacy. It is not a fault of tempser, but of constitution. 3. Fear. — Here the pupil will be in an extreme state of misery and depres- sion. All the activities are prostrated, and as a result the child will be afflicted with exaggerated ideas in all matters associated with this emotion. Remember the pain of fear is double, the present pain being augmented by a prospect of future pain, increased by uncertainty. It is a most destructive feeling. It wastes the energy of the child and scatters his thoughts, and consequently it is a great hindrance to progress. Generally it paralyses effort, and this is mis- taken for obstinacy. Treatment. — In all these cases there is no voluntary resistance, but constitu- tional defects, and punishment is unwise and unjust. The child does not require correction, but assistance; not severity, but sympathetic patience. n. Real Obstinacy. — This may originate in several ways. 1. The Teacher.— Harshness in manner and treatment ; a querulous nature with its chronic fault-finding ; the sneer, sarcasm, or other mode of irritating language; demanding too much of the pupil, and meeting failure with punish- ment — all these are provocative of real obstinacy. 2. Fitfal Obstinacy.— Here the obstinacy is a fluctuating and uncertain quantity. Its cause may be any of those specified, but its uncertainty is its chief characteristic. Wounded vanity is often the guilty agent. 8. Vicious Obstinacy.— I'his is a bad fault of temper, and is generally indicative of a low moral tone, or of a strong development of the anti-social emotions. The pupil deliberately defies authority, makes himself a nuisance, and often Ixxomes a force by the mere natiu-e of his objectionableness. Treatment. (a) Here the fault lies with the teacher, and the remedy also. Let him improve himself, and the evil will disappear. 24 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. (d) In the second case an effort must be made to turn the sympathy of the class against the boy. This being done, the boy is attacked in his most vulnerable point. In extreme cases, separation from his school- fellows or expulsion may be used. {c) There is some division of opinion among our best authorities as to the proper treatment in the tiiird case, but there are certain recommenda- tions common to all. (i) Do not let the boy think you mistrust him. (2) The teacher must be firm, unruffled, and reasonable. No personal motive mlist be present. (3) Avoid a contest with the boy if possible, but if you enter upon it you must win. (4) Enlist the sympathies of his fellows against him. (5) Most authorities consider this a fit case for corporal punishment, but only use it in extreme cases. Separation and reflection may render it unneces- sary. (6) Victory must be followed by gravity and kindness (7) Incorrigible cases must be expelled. CRYING.— According to Locke, there are two kinds of crying : — 1. Stubborn and Domineering. — This kind of crying is a striving for mas- tery. Children want their own way, and as they have not the power to obtain their desire, they will by their clamour and sobbing maintain their right to cry. If you permit this kind of crying, you merely encourage the child's unreason- able desires. Try persuasion at first, or divert their attention, or give them a little good- humoured banter. But the circumstances of the case and the child's temper must be considered. If these fail, use severity ; for where a look or command will not do it, corporal punishment must, for it is nothing but obstinacy. The will must be bent, for there the fault lies. It may involve a contest, .and, unless the crying is stopped, or its nature changed, then the whipping has been useless. Hence each case must be guided by its own circumstances. 2. Sorrow or Pain. — This kind of crying can be easily distinguished from the former. Crying is the first and natural way for children to declare their sufferings or wants ; and this needs to be remembered, especially in infant departments. But where it is passing into a habit it should be stopped. Gentle means will suffice. Children should be taught to bear physical pain or disappointment without crying. When they suffer little knocks and bruises through heedlessness, it is not pity they want but caution. Locke even sug- gests that we should bid them do it again. His great idea is to harden children. He says they should have no tenderness but what rises from an ingenuous shame and a quick sense of reputation. CRUEIjTY'. 1. Natural Tendency. — There is a natural tendency in some children to cruelty. The sympathies and affections of children are often but little de- veloped in character, and where the contrary passions are unusually strong, pure malevolence bestows intense pleasure. Cruelty may arise from thought- lessness or ignorance, as when a boy tortures a fly ; but every teacher of any experience knows that there are natures prone to voluntary cruelty. The character is often illustrated in literature — the Quilp of Dickens being a well- known instance. The anti-social feelings are strong in children, and cruelty is a development arising from them. A child is fond of domineering. The checking of this arouses antagonism. He resents injuries", real or supposed, and shows his resentment by striking other children. Nor is cruelty confined to physical pain only. We are early taught to hurt nobody by word or deed. The tongue, and a line of conduct painful to those who love us, are other familiar instances. Cruel children may make cruel adults, hence cruelty should always be checked. Neither teacher nor scholar can afford to be cruel, for cruelty is DISCIPLINE. 25 hated with a fearful hatred. Children should be bred up in abhorrence of cruelty, and taught that nothing should be spoiled or destroyed but for the sake of something better. 2. Habit and Custom. — These often engender cruelty. Harsh laws, whether in the home or school, do this. Many foolish parents whip their children for everything. Some teachers are too prone to the use of the cane. The teacher, by his own example, and by a kind and judicious rule, can do something to check this. 3. History. — There is often a large element of fighting and killing in history. Honour and renown fall more readily upon conquerors than upon others. The press and literature of the country sometimes aid in the same way. As a check to this the teacher should make a wise selection of reading matter, and his history lessons might be regulated for the same purpose. 4. Games.— Some of our games which, rightly played and under a right discipline, are checks to cruelty, may be, and olten are, abused instead of used. They may become mere channels for cruelty. Games must be encouraged, but the teacher must strive to regulate and discipline them. 5. Animals. — Cruelty often shows itself in the treatment of animals. A few natural history lessons, given with kindness as an aim, would check this. To cure cruelty is difficult, and often slow. Fighting, fagging, bullying, and tyrannising are common school forms of it. A hatred for all forms must be implanted. Sound principles of religion and morality will aid to check it, and the teacher must practise kindness both in word and deed. 6. Harshness. — " As is the teacher such is the child," is a scholastic truism within reasonable limits. The plastic nature of children is easily moulded for good or evil. Perhaps the teacher's character is the greatest influence bearing upon the children in this respect. It is useless to preach kindness and practise harshness. If children are to grow up with happy and cheerful tempers, then one important essential is that the teacher should be of a happy and cheerful temp>erament. Harshness is often the attendant of impatience. But a teacher must be patient, because the best results of his work are s^ow to show them- selves. A bad temper is a source of perpetual irritation and misery in school. " A boy compelled for 5^ hours a day to see the countenance and hear the voice of a fretful, unkind, hard, or passionate man, is placed in a school of vice" (Fitch). KINDNESS. 1. Its Scope. — Kindness is another name for benevolence, and some autho- rities assert that benevolence includes all the virtues. The ideal to aim at is to love your neighbour as yourself. It includes an internal factor— the cultivation of the affections in oneself; and an external factor — the promotion of happiness in others. 2. Its CnltiTation. — The teacher must practise benevolence. He must do deeds of kindness, for affection is shown in good actions. He must also teach the children to show kindness to each other. His discipline must be gentle, firm, considerate, and even generous. He must nevertheless be just before being generous, for the sp>ecial function of kindness only begins where justice ends. The pupil should also be taught that he owes slight services to his fellows; i.e., he should be "obliging". Any little service which can be done without inconvenience may be mutually demanded. Finally, he should culti- vate sympathy, which is something more than general benevolence. COVTARDICX:. Cowardice is one of the results of fear, and it has in it an element of meanness. It produces a general depression of tone; and mental depression, however arising, is exaggerated distrust of good and anticipation of evil. The susceptibility to fear in the 26 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. young, to a certain extent, may be a nervous property ; but the teacher must remember that there are certain temperaments, like the passive and susceptible, which are prone to it. Its cure should be sought through its causes. An effort should be made to dis- cover these and to remove them. 1. Frights. — Keep the children free from all kinds of frights. Bogey stories, ghosts, etc. , should be abstained from by those who have to deal with young children. A fright may leave a permanent injurious effect. Punish- ments, especially when they are excessive or capricious, often produce frights. Shutting children in cupboards, and locking them in dark rooms, are also some causes of frights. Violent threats and outbursts of temper are others. Avoid all. 2. Ignorance. — This is a fertile source of fear, and is very productive of cowardice in weak minds. Knowledge is the remedy. Perhaps no grander result is accruing from the general teaching of science than the disappearance day by day of those bits of superstition which often terrified the people and fed a feeling of cowardice. Uncertamty is a species of ignorance, and is thus sometimes productive of fear or cowardice. Here the teacher should try to work through its counteractive, and to cultivate a feeling of composure or cool- ness in the presence of danger, real or fancied. The pupils should be taught to get a measured estimate of the danger, and then to make a sufficient effort to overcome it. 3. Ill-Health. — Cowardice may frequently arise from a weak body, and here it might more justly be called something else. Such cases require kindness, sympathy, and forbearance. The best remedies are beyond the teacher's reach, for they include good or improved conditions of life. But a certain amount of familiarity with, and a knowledge of the objects feared may be beneficial. 4. Association.— Cowardice may arise by association. To check or cure it, form new associations of a stronger and conflicting character. Divert their thoughts, and mix pleasant things with the diversion. 5. Moral Cowardice. — Here the moral sense is weak, and needs cultivation. The higher emotions must be developed, and this will be a slow process. There is a weakness of motive, both in duty and in prudence. The cure is to give the child new motives. Withhold him from all strong temptations. It often arises also from weak intellect. " Please, sir, I couldn't help it," is a common excuse ; and here the pupil pleads his moral weakness in extenuation of his offence. Some punishment must be given, so that he may act differently when the same conditions again arise. 6. Heredity. — A family, like a nation, may be cowardly by nature. The process of cure is perhaps the hardest and slowest of all. OBEDIENCE. There can be no school without government, and no govern- ment without obedience. Obedience is a habit, and an important one both lor the individual and the State. It is not easy in its first stages with some children, as it involves the submission of their own will to that of another. The child has to learn to con- trol its own will, and this control is a resultant of several com- ponents. It has to learn to respond to the word of command, to imitate movements at sight, to act on a wish. There are several kinds of obedience, the best of which is cheerful and willing. The motives are the index of the kind. DISCIPLINE. 27 1. Slave Obedience. — This is such obedience as a slave gives to a master; a dog to a whip, a horse to a spur ; a child to the cane. The motive is weak, for it generally springs from a hope of favours to come, or from fear of some punishment. It manufactures a fair proportion of hypocrites. 2. Military Obedience.— This is the obedience of habit. There is no why or wherefore offered. The obedience is demanded, and it has to be given. It is a prompt species of obedience, brought about by a perfection of drill. Re- petition fixes it There is no cruelty necessarily attached to it; no fear. It is a matter of habit pure and simple, such as one sees in the army, navy, and cer- tain schools. It is pleasing to look at because of its smartness, and is apt to impress the martinet official favourably. It is always mechanical, and gene- rally unsympathetic Its failing is that it leaves the character weak, and the child is launched into the world subject to all the dangers which threaten a weak will. 3. Cheerftil Obedience. — This implies respect on the part of the pupils for the teacher, and it is obtained by a skilful use of natural principles. Affection is called to aid, for a child obeys willingly where it loves. Then, in a kind manner, it takes advantage of the sense of dependence in children, w hich arises from their ignorance and weakness. These failings produce a disposition to obey which the teacher skilfully uses. It also recognises the force of sympathy. Children are very much like sheep in this respect, for one does pretty much the same as all the others. Hence, a word of command, since it appeals to the majority, appeals to all, and so we find the will freely submitted to the authority of others without becoming weak. The will is in harmony with right, and an association has been set up which shows that the obedience springs from virtue, and not from habit only, or from fear. Authority is in- voked, for the teacher is in loco parentis, and must prove himself as much the friend of the scholar as the parent. The obedience is claimed on the ground that it is right to yield it. The personal equation is also a great aid. By this is meant an aggregate of quaUties and habits (qualities mental and moral) possessed by the teacher, and differing in quantity or quality, or both, in most teachers. It is a charac- teristic attribute which obtains for some men the title of " born to command," and among teachers the reputation of being " a born teacher ". A healthy school opinion is another great aid to cheerful obedience, and the teacher should cultivate it. If the school rules are just, the children will sympathise with them, and the co-Of)eration of the parents will be ensured. The reputation of the school should be placed in the hands of the scholars, and their pride and sense of responsibility will be thereby increased. Their respect will thus be obtained, and prompt and cheerful obedience will be the result. School games might also be made an auxiliary for this purpose. They afford the teacher many excellent opportunities of establishing that relation between him and the scholars which is so much desired. The efficacy of rewards and punishments as tending towards the same end has already been shown. ZNATTENTION. Inattention is often the fault of the teacher, and especially of young teachers. To fix and maintain the attention there are cer- tain laws of the mind which must be obeyed, and any violation of these laws is sure to be followed by more or less inattention. There is no guiding the young without the power of concentration. Conditions of Attention. 1. The Will, — The will is the chief influence, and the chief stimuli of the will are pleasure and pain. But it must be remembered that the will itself is a growth, so that the volunuiry attention of a child may not be great. Concen- tration is weak in children. 28 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. Pleasurable. — The teaching must be made pleasurable by the use of natural methods and by a pleasing manner. Pleasure supports the cause that brings it, and so the whole strength of the mind is ensured. Do not make the pleasure too great, or it will defeat its own object. Novelty is an aid. 3. Physical Conditions. — See that the physical or material surroundings of the children are comfortable ; that they are well sfrated, out of draughts, glare, etc. Mental concentration can hardly be expected where there is physical dis- comfort. 4. Suitability of Work. — The work should be suitable. It must be within the compass of the children, and adapted to their growing powers and likings. The lesson should make use of child activity, observation, and curiosity. With older scholars the higher faculties should be worked, 8. Assistance. — A fair amount of assistance should always be given, and the child's mind should not be kept bent too long upon the same subject. You may force the attention, but it is wearying and unprofitable. There should be proper changes of work. The physical should follow the mentft^l ; or the mechanical might dovetail the mental. Singing, drill, and writing are good changes following on the heavier lessons like arithmetic and grammar. 6. Obstacles. — Remove all distractions, such as sitting near an open window overlooking a street, or the proximity of some class at a noisy lesson, interrup- tions, outbursts of temper or disorder, and all kindred obstacles. 7. Punishment. — An injudicious use of punishment is a great hindrance to the maintenance of real attention. The child is thrown into a strong and antagonistic emotional state. In a depressed and subdued child the appear- ance of attention is not worth much. IjAZINESS. Relatively, few people in this climate are lazv, for climatic influences are against idleness. Public opinion condemns it, and necessity conflicts with it. The supposedly idle work, and some of them very hard. But laziness is used here in a limited sense. It is the refusal to perform, or the ill-performed task, which is called idleness. Of course, every teacher will meet with a few exceptional cases, where the children are " bone " lazy, and often some physical or constitutional cause will be found for this. The treatment of laziness will vary with its origin, I. Constitutional Laziness. 1. Health. — This may be the result of weak or delicate health, and in such cases it should be kindly dealt with. The tasks are too much for the pupil, and should be lightened, 2. Teacher. — It may spring from the teacher. Ignorance or indifference to the elementary principles of child life will generate laziness. There must be a natural application of the force which nature has supphed — child activity. If the task set does not make much demand upon this activity, there is a tendency to despise and reject it. 3. Natural Aptitudes. — The same may be said of the neglect of natural aptitudes. They are strong in children, and need careful regulation. The child will neglect the set task to indulge in his beloved pursuit. Watch him, see what it is, and give him a surfeit of it. This is LocJce's recommendation. Keep him hard at work on something, so as to form the habit of industry — the something of his choice which has proved the disturbing factor. He will weary of it, and return to his set task with relief. H. Habit Laziness. — An indolent disposition is not always the result of constitutional weakness. It may also be formed by DISCIPLINE. 29 habit, and the habit must be checked before it passes beyond treatment. It is easier to bend the pUant twig than the hardened stem. 1. Kindness.— A little kind conversation may be sufficient. The boy may respond to the interest thus kindly shown in him. The desire to please a kind teacher may prove a stronger motive than the desire to idle. His self-regard should also be appealed to. He should be made to understand that he is the actual loser by his idleness, by pointing out his present and prospective losses. The prospective losses are generally too distant in time to appeal to children, but iheir conjunction may strengthen the appeal to his present losses. 2. Shame. — If kindness fails, then try a little good-natured banter. Let there be no feeling or vindictiveness in your tone or manner, but let the child understand that he has sunk in your estimation and that of the class. 3. Punishment.— This should be used with care, for it is fatal to success to set up unpleasant associations. Neglected work may be done in playtime, or impositions may be given where they can be done honestly, and without making nmch demand upon the teacher's own time. Only in such cases as those in which it assumes an obstinate form should corporal punishment be used, and it may be said of punishment generally that it is often expensive and deceptive in cases of idleness. STUPIDITY.- This may be a gift from the parents or the teacher. 1. When Bestowed by the Parents. — When nature is responsible there is nothing for it but patience and kindness. The ordinary school curriculum does not suit such children, nor should they be placed under it The London School Board has humanely recognised this fact by providing a special curri- culum and central classes for such children. The school and its work want to be made especially attractive, and the teaching requires to be very largely com- posed of kindergarten, hand and eye training, and simple object lessons. Under no conditions should these children be forced, for the intellectual wealth of a country lies in the cultivation of its ability, and not in the forcing of its mediocrity. 2. When beatowed by the Teacher.— The child may be badly classified, and this may breed stupidity from lack of apprehension. The teacher may be unmethodical, or not properly acquainted with his subject. He may be careless or inaccurate in describing or informing, or in the correction of exercises. Or there may be a lack 0/ illustration and experiment. He may be harsh or cruel in his manner, and so chill or freeze the eftorts of the timid, the weak, or the shy. His questions may be badly framed, badly put, and put at the wrong time, and there may be no skill in dealing with the answers given. And gene- rally there may be too much ignorance of the elementary laws of the mind to deal with its training efficiently. TRUTHFTJItNESS. This is a wide term, including as it does not only accuracy in obtaining and stating facts, but sincerity, candour, ingenuousness, uprightness, respect for the property of others and for their own ; honesty in speech and time, as well as in money or goods. Lying will sometimes supplant it, and it must be the constant effort of the teacher to check the one and to cultivate the other. To grapple with untruth, seek out its causes, and deal with them. I. Causes of Untruth. — These may be various. 30 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. Cowardice (fear). — There may be a desire to evade some punishment, to shirk some pain. It is a ready and apparently cheap cover for any fault. 2. Gain.— It may be to secure some gain, to favour some cheating transac- tion, to remove some obstacle, to wm some contest. 3. Weakness. — It may spring from weakness, either physical, mental, or moral. The physical weakling may fear physical pain; the moral weakling may be the product of surrounding circumstances; the mental weakling is a species of fool, and is generally to be pitied. 4. Vanity.— With older pupils it may arise from vanity. A lively and fertile imagination is drawn upon for facts to establish the fame of the offender for some point of excellence. There is such an overweening opinion of self, such unbounded belief in one's own worth and capacity, that the fancied poten- tialities of the individual are dished up as actual occurrences. But in such cases memory is generally weaker than imagination, and these flights of fancy are sure to stand self-revealed sooner or later. 5. Malevolence. — There may be a desire for revenge ; to hurt by word ; to break the ninth commandment, so that they may break the eighth. II. Treatment. — The teacher must look beyond the act itself, and deal with the motive. He should aim to implant the principles of honesty in the disposition, rather than to prohibit certain acts. He should on the first occasion seem surprised, and gently reprove with an appearance of sorrow. If this be insufficient, rebuke the child, and show yourself very much displeased. There should be a removal of confidence, which should only be gradually restored after penitence has proved its genuineness by rigid truthfulness. The penalties attaching to lying should be placed before the child. People shun, distrust, and despise a liar. No one will knowingly employ him, and no good people will Vv'illingly associate with him. Shame and contempt can and should be shown if necessary. Lying should always be spoken of with detestation, as a quality totally inconsistent with the character of an honest man. The religious aspect of the question must be pointed out and enforced — the Bible is fertile in punishments following on this vice. The social necessity for truth should be explained, to the older scholars at least. The whole fabric of society and the credit of nations de- pend upon the sentiment of truth. Finally, the teacher's own example must be all that is demanded of the pupils, or they will readily see that he is seeking to force a commodity upon them which finds no favour with himself. Honesty. — This is a wider term than truthfulness. It will include all that is there expressed, and something more. It will embrace the full teachings of the eighth and ninth commandments. It forbids hands to pick or steal, or tongues to bear false witness. It includes the right use of school property, the scholar's clothes, books and playthings ; the right place in class ; the honest produc- tion of work ; and it excludes all copying, prevarication, or hybrid DISCIPLINE. 31 truths. It rejects the suppressio veri, the suggestio falsi, some forms of diplomacy, much business " cleverness," and any transactions where advantage overrides justice. Its treatment will be similar to that adopted for truthfulness, with the addition that wherever actual theft has occurred, compensation or restoration should be insisted on where possible. Tale-telling. — A clear distinction may be drawn between this and untruthfulness. The motive is different. In the one case the motive is bad, in the other it may or may not be good. The tale may be truth— and something more. It is a vice in the clothing of a virtue. There is an appearance of virtue in the apparent desire to check some breach of discipline or morals: but this may be subservient to the desire to inflict pain ; to seek revenge ; to indulge in spite. Or it may include the element of toadyism ; the desire to curry favour. This should be checked, but treated tenderly. So far as it is a desire to please, the motive is good, but weak. Divert it into healthier channels, and try to strengthen it. COPYING. I. Its Sources. — Children may copy because they do not know how to do the work set them. This ignorance may or may not be the fault of the teacher, but it will be his business to discover and remove it. It may arise from idleness or indifference, and a reluc- tance to make the requisite mental effort at the time of the test or other exercise ; or there may have been persistent idleness, which may have escaped the notice or may have been beyond the capa- city of the teacher to deal with. Where inattention is the cause, there is a sense of guilt. The child does not know that which might be reasonably expected of him, fears the consequence of his offence, and so falls a victim to this form of dishonesty. Nervous- ness, or shyness, or physical weakness, may handicap a boy when the explanation is being made to the class, or the information given. The power of concentration may be too weak to meet the demand involved by some lessons. Worse than all is the case in which the trwral tone is bad, and of which copying is merely one evidence. U. Its Treatment.— The following are some of the means at the teacher's disposal for the prevention of copying: — 1. Mechanical Meani.— Copying should be made practically impossible by the arrangement of the classes and pupils. Where possible they should be widely spaced, and sharp supnirvision should be maintained, and different examples should be given to different pupils. Any facility for copying left 32 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. within the reach of a pupil, and especially a young pupil, is a piece of cruel injustice. The moral sense of many children is not highly developed, and it should be the teacher's function to see that no undue strain should be placed upon it at this stage of its growth. 2. The Teacher. — The teacher himself may be a cause of copying. If the child copies from ignorance, the cause may be insufficient help from the teacher ; if from idleness, the teacher may be somewhat to blame for the growth and strengthening of the habit ; if from inattention, the teacher may again be to blame, for either his supervision is weak, or his methods of teaching may be bad, or both causes may operate. Where nervousness or shyness are the agents, no efforts may have been made to reduce or remove these inflictions. Where the moral sense is weak, the teacher must see that there is nothing in his observed life which may offer the least encouragement to deceit. The teacher who cannot be uniformly trusted in the absence of his superior is soon measured and estimated at his proper worth by the class ; and he must not be surprised if some weak or vicious member of the class should copy him as well as his neighbour's lessons. 3. Moral Means. — A sound moral tone is the best antidote to copying. Cultivate this ; live up to it ; place the honour of the class in the hands of the pupils themselves ; foster a pride in maintaining it ; give proper assistance in every case ; make the most suitable arrangements to reduce the temptation ; and then there will be but little fear of copying. tJNPUNCTUALITY. I. Its Causes. — These must be carefully ascertained, and dealt with separately. The causes may be various, requiring different treatment ; but the majority of cases will be traced to accident, habit, indifference, or some form of temptation. 1. Accident. — Here it should be overlooked. If the accidents become too numerous, it then, passes into carelessness, aud verges upon the second cause —habit. 2. Habit.— This may arise from laziness, or dilatoriness, and in such cases play should be stopped, and some task set whilst the others are at play. If the habit persists, shame might be used ; and, as a last resource, corporal punish- ment or expulsion should be tried, for then it has become sheer obstinacy, or chronic disobedience. 3. Indifference.— Some children do not care whether they are punctual or not, and in such cases the moral sense is generally weak. The evil effects of this habit upon the child's future prospects might be pointed out. No one will continue to employ an unpunctual person. If the indifference passes into habit, in so far as it produces the same results it should be treated in the same way. 4. Temptation.— The appearance of some local show, regatta, race, circus, etc., or the influence of some evil companion, may cause occasional backslid- ings. Do not punish such cases, but appeal to the boy's better nature. Urge him to cultivate good habits and a stronger sense of duty. Show him that to withstand such occasional temptations he will require some moral courage, and urge him to show his better nature by making the effort. II. To Ensure Punctuality.— The general means usually adopted to ensure punctuality are as follows : — 1. Registration.- Give each child a red mark who is punctual, and each late child a black mark. Apart from other considerations, a pride in scoring the creditable red marks is sufficient stimulus for many. At the end of the quarter a summary of attendances, punctual and unpunctual, should be sent to the parents, and an appeal made for their co-operation. DISCIPLINE. 33 2. Prizes, Rewards.— All the various forms of rewards may be brought into use. A system of tangible rewards should be adopted. 95 per cent, of regular and punctual attendances mip.ht entitle to a quarterly card. Two quarterly cards might be exchanged for a prize (a book) ; whilst 100 per cent, of regular and punctual attendances might entitle to a bronze medal. A continuation of such excellent attendance and punctuality might entitle to a silver medal. This is practically the system adopted by the London School Board. The practice of awarding a card weekly for 10 punctual attendances may or may not be adopted. Much can be said both for and against it. 3. Moral Means. — ( Both of these have been dealt with above under the I. Punitive Means.— I head of " Causes ". TRUANCY. I. Its Causes. 1. Restraint.— School life is a great restraint to some children. They naturally love their freedom, and view the school as an infringement of their liberty. Freedom is a pleasurable release from restraint, and the pursuit of pleasure is one of the strongest motives in humanity. Such children are acutely sensible to the coercion of the school, especially when they are children of great natural energy. The restraints of school discipline are prohibitions of pleasure. 2. Parents. — An ill-regulated, ill-disciplined, or immoral home will often produce truants. Self-indulgent parents, with a weak sense of duty, and over- indulgent parents, can hardly expect a sense of duty to be developed in their children. The training of the will is neglected or misdirected. The result is a tendency in their children to seek their own pleasures in their own way and at their own time. Unrestrained at home, they will not willingly face the restraint of a school. Nor is this the whole of the parental influence. Heredity may be a factor in truancy. The love of roving, the hatred of discipline, may be born in the child, and local circumstances may be unfortunate enough to develop them. 3. Children.— The influence of child on child, the sharp over the dull, the strong over the weak, the great over the small, may show itself in truancy. The strong and dommeering boy, prone to truancy, is sure to be a centre of truancy. The passionate boy, with strong appetites, the weak, the easy going, the restless, the fickle, the lazy, the school haters, the rovers, the impulsive, the self-pleasing, all may be led away by mutual influeuce, by a fine day, a local show, or a local race. I. Teacher.— An objectionable teacher produces truancy. Harshness, cruelty, irritability, mjustice, carelessness, or incompetency may produce it. Perhaps cruelty is as productive of truancy as any cause. A lack of sympathy on the part of the teacher, the feeling that the boys position in the class is a degrading one, or one to be derided, the constant wounding of the child's self- love and self-esteem are all possible causes. 8. Managers. — The increasing demands of the Education Department are making truancy from this source more and more impossible. But managers who maintain schools in old, dull, ill-lighted. ill-venlilated, and often ill-placed rooms, with a minimum staff, with the poorest and a minimum quantity of apparatus, must not be surprised if some truancy is laid at iheit doors. Chil- dren will not willingly seek such a gloomy, unhealthy life. Some will play the truant first. n. Its Treatment. — The treatment of truants is especially difficult, but it is not a case for corporal punishment. I. Pleasure.— The class of children who play truant from the feeling of restraint associated with school must be attratted into the place. The building should lie bright, roomy, airy, and well furnished. It should always be com fortable and healthy whatever the weather. The time table should be based on scientific principles ; there should be periods of play each session ; the 3 34 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. teaching should be made as attractive as possible ; and the recreative side of the school work should be developed. The children will thus gradually see that school is a happy place despite its restraints, and that to go to school is not an infliction, but an advantage. 2. Impositions. — In other cases than the last, treat with increasing severity. If the co-operation of the parent is obtained, and the parental influence is suffi- cient, impositions can be given to be done at home. But this is rarely the case, hence they must be done at school if they cannot be done at home. The staff would have to stay behind in turns for this purpose. Objections to this Method. (i) Parents often want their children ; are often unsympathetic ; and sometimes even hostile. (2) It throws extra work upon the teachers. (3) In large schools it interferes with the work of the school keepers very often. (4) It breeds a hatred for school work. 3. Detention. — Simple detention with no imposition is preferable to im- positions ; but it is open to the same objections prmcipally. 4. Fines.— Stop the play, and deprive of any other privileges prized by the children of the school. This is only available fot beginners. 5. Home Treatment.— It is best to write or visit, or invite a visit from the parent, and to place the whole matter in their hands. Show that truancy is an offence as much against home authority as school authority— some think more so. Have nothing to do with the punishment yourself, if you can help it. The teacher's work will be to win the boy into the school, not to thrash him in ; and at the same time to try and cultivate his moral sense. 6. Expulsion. — As a last resource this may be desirable and efficacious where it can be done. It helps to awaken hostile and indifferent parents to a proper sense of their duty. 7. Truant Schools.— These are only used for incorrigibles, and where they are available expulsion becomes unnecessary. The disciplinary life of a truant school for a period has been found the best treatment for bad cases yet devised. HABIT. —The best way to discipline children is to help them in the formation of good habits, for then the discipline will be a lasting influence. For this purpose both the nature and training of habit should be known. I. Nature of Habit. — Alter a thing has been done a certain number of times, there is a tendency to perform the action again on the slightest stimulus. After many repetitions, the action becomes very mechanical, and almost automatic. In this respect it resembles instinctive or reflex action. As a rule, to perform an act requires a stimulus, and there is desire or compulsion prompt- ing to the action. As habit grows, desire or compulsion becomes weaker, and a fixed disposition to act in the way specified is formed. This shows two facts as essential. 1. The Psychological Fact.— By this is meant there is a fixed disposition to perform the action, and that, too, without the promptings of desire. 2. The Physiological Fact.— This means that there is a modification of the nerve structiires involved, and this depends largely upon nutrition. A well- nourished child is a favourable subject to work upon. The habit may be mental as well as physical. We are said to have a habit of thought when we are subject to recurring mode^ DISCIPLINE. 35 of mental operation. Association is another element. Some stimulus gives rise to some movement, and by association there is a tendency for the one to recall the other. H. The Training of Habit.— Its importance is obvious, for habit is called second nature. We are creatures of habit, but we ought not to be its slaves. The teachers function is to form good habits. To do this he must induce his scholars to make an effort, which must be sufficient to act as a motive force. Then there must be plenty of repetition^ that the habit may grow and become mde- pendent of the will. Child life is the best period for this training. Example is necessary, as this brings into play the faculty for imitation, and lends consistency to the growth. Then the response to the stimulus must be prompt, for uncertainty and delay in response show imperfect habit. This course of training must be pursued until the child finds it produces discomfort to deny the habit, or difficulty to alter or regulate it. CHARACTER. — The cultivation of good habits is a great aid to the formation of a good character, and this should be looked upon as the ultimate goal of all discipline. The term has a wide range of meaning, but in education it is generally used to denote in a special way a good or virtuous disposition of the feelings and of the will. " A perfect moral character includes the familiar habits in- volved in a wide pursuit of individual good, such as industry, orderliness, temperance, the habitual control of the feelings, or moderation, and the firm control of the thoughts involved in reasonableness. It includes further the habits implied in a perfect fulfilment of human duty, as obedience, courtesy, veracity, justice, and beneficence." The essential ingredient is fixity of disposition in right directions. But a perfect character also shows itself in a habitual and half mechanical pursuit of a number of detached ends or forms of good ; it includes a disposition to reflect and deliberate when occasion requires. Its Cultivation.— A mere glance at the circumstances of early life tells us that the actions of a child are determined and regu- lated to a considerable extent by the wishes and commands of others, i.e., the first stage is to teach the child obedience. Some times It will be necessary to restrain or command, sometimes to persuade, advise, or enlighten ; hence a study of character in each child IS absolutely necessary. 36 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. The most powerful stimulus to goodness in others is goodness in oneself. Any one who can resist the influence of this mutual good- ness, showing itself in actions good to giver and receiver, is a fit subject for the government of fear, and nothing else. But the good and kind teacher will require to study character so as to be able successfully to discriminate between the two classes. " Do unto others as they do unto you," is as much as can be expected of children in this direction; and the teacher who does not study character will probably ask too much or too little, to the injury of all concerned. There must be an appeal to the feelings, for it is wrong to work by fear or pain alone. No good character could be formed in that way. The maxims of punishment must be grasped and applied upon an individual study of character. In this way the disposi- tions that lead to disorder and offence can be checked in the bud ; and, indeed, until there has been time for such training to operate, the mind should not be exposed to temptation. For this purpose the social affections should be cultivated. Activity should be recognised and utilised — not repressed. A child of an active temperament should be kept busy; whilst less demands should be made upon the weak and languid. Hence the work, to be profitable, needs differentiation. So far as the large classes of modern schools will permit, this principle of child life should never be neglected. Character will only be good and strong so long as it is built on the regulated forces of nature. The temperament must be recognised and allowed for. The sanguine, the boastful, the self-assured may need checking; whilst the nervous, the timid, and the shy will need encouragement. The worse faults of child nature must be treated with care, kind- ness, and patience. The best results of the teacher's efforts will often be slow to show themselves, for character is the growth of years. Variety is the spice of life, and this is remarkably true of child life. Monotony must not be allowed to deaden the budding gems of nobler thoughts and nobler aspirations which may be struggling to show themselves. Sustained effort is difficult to children, and it must ever be remembered that the moral side of child life often demands mightier efforts than anything submitted in the school curriculum. DISCIPLINE. 37 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. — Why should young teachers be restricted from the use of corporal punishment, (a) for the sake of their scholars? (b) for their own sake ' 2. — Point out some ot the ways in which school discipline may be useful in producing habits of ready obedience, and name some characteristic features of good discipline. 3. — Show that rewards may be usefully employed in stimulating children to work. Name some rewards that may be connected with the daily work of the school. 4.— Show that clear distinction may be drawn between truthfulness and " telling tales". How can older boys be employed in assisting to maintain the discipline of a school ? 5.— Show that inattention in a class may proceed from the faults of a teacher, or from causes other than faults in the children themselves. 6.— Show that harshness and untruthfulness in a teacher influence the character and behaviour of children out of school. 7. — Show that copying, especially in arithmetic, may be the result of bad teaching or of bad discipline. What precautions would you take to prevent the growth of such a habit? 8.— Is it a sufficient definition of good discipline to say that " it is the power exer- cised by the teacher over the children ' ? Give some distinguishing marks of good discipline. 9. — Show that what is called stupidity in children may arise from faults on the part of the teacher. Name some of the faults. 10. — Name some of the chief causes of truancy arising from faults in the teachers, or parents, or children. What steps were taken in your school to acquaint parents with irregularity of attendance ? How were truants punished ' II.— What is truthfulness? Name some ways in which a child may be untruthful in act without saying a word. 12.— Were any special means used to secure the co-operation of the parents of the children who attended your class ; and, if so. what was the result ? 13.— By what special means would you try to promote truthfulness and punctuality among your scholars? State the motives which you would lay before your scholars as incentives to the constant observance of truth and punctuality. 14. — Give your opinion as to the value of rewards and punishments; and state the principle on which you think they ought to be administered. 15.— Mention any difficulties you may have met with in the effort to control the children you had to teach, and state how those difficulties were o\ ercome. 16.— Illustrate from your practical experience, in a day school or elsewhere, the vital importance of securing good order in a school. 17.— How were you accustomed to deal with dull, lazy, or obstinate children, and what special means did you adopt for securing the attention of the children in your division ? 18. — What methods have been adopted within your knowledge for correcting these faults in children, inattention, untruthfulness, laziness, impertinence, sullenness, and with what effect ? 19.— It is said in the " Instructions to Inspectors ' that, besides the usual course of instruction, an excellent school " seeks by other means to be of service to the children who attend it ". Can you name any such means, and say which of them are likely to be most effective ? 20 —How far is it in the power of a teacher, by other means than school lessons, to improve the habits, manners, and character of the children of a school ? Mention any ways you know by which a teacher may exert useful influence in these respects. 21.— What is meant by good discipline? What are the means and ways of improv- ing discipline ? 22. — What are the best expedients you know for quickening and securing the atten- tion of a languid or disorderly class ? 23. — In some countries the teachers are absolutely forbidden to make use of corporal punishment in any form. Say by what other means it is possible to maintain discipline under such conditions. 24. — What is a criticism lesson ? Under the head of " discipline," what points would you attend to in such a lesson ? 25.— In what ways may aucceu in class teaching be promoted by studying the characters of children ? TAis Chapter is continued in the Appendix. 38 CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION. I. Its Basis. — A school may be classified on a single or on a plural basis. On a plural basis classification is a simple matter, but on a single basis there is more difficulty In the former case a pupil simply goes to the class in each subject for which he is most suited, but in the latter case the following facts must be borne in mind : — 1. Attainments differ. 2. Ability differs. 3. Age may, in special cases, have to be considered. 4. Special aptitudes and different rates of development in different children have to be allowed for Generally age and length of time in school will count for little or nothing. Equal attainments are the only real basis on which to proceed. —Most schools adopt the single basis, but perhaps it IS best to have a dual classification based on Reading and Arith- metic. Progress in these subjects is often very unequal, and so it would generally be more profitable to teacher and scholar to adopt the double basis. Where the single basis is adhered to, Arithmetic should be the deciding test. Inequalities in other sub- jects lend themselves more readily to class teaching than in Arithmetic, because greater mental demands are made by it. The industrious but dull pupil always labours with it ; the careless one is always in trouble with it: whilst the inattentive fails at it because it is synthetically progressive. II. Bad Classification.— There are certain evils associated with bad classification, so called ; but the term is almost a con- tradiction, for classification is grouping according to real resem- blances, and the real ones in school are ability and attainments. Some of the most obvious evils are as follow : — 1. There is a waUe of time, for the pupils are not placed where they will obtain the greatest profit. 2. The sympathy and respect of the clais are lessened, hence the teacher is robbed of his legitimate means of evoking the intelligence and activity of his pupils. CLASSIFICATION. 39 3. It prevents the children having constant and suitable employment. 4. // injures discipline for the reasons already given. 5. It produces dissatisfaction among the parents, and injures the reputation of the school. 6. It may ctius^ pecuniary loss to the school, both directly and indirectly. 7. It advertises the incapacity of the teacher. m. Infant Schools and Classification. — The Infant School contemplates in the lengthy variety, and character of its lessons the training of scholars whose delicate frames require very careful treatment. It is essential, then, that the length of the lesson should not in any case exceed thirty minutes, and should be con- fined in most cases to twenty minutes ; and that the lessons should be varied in length according to the section of the school, so that in the babies' room the actual work of the lesson should not be more than a quarter of an hour. Each lesson should also be followed by intervals of rest and song; the subjects of the lessons should be varied, beginning in the lowest section with familiar objects and animals, and interspersed with songs and stories appropriate to the lesson ; the spontaneous and co-operative activity of the scholars should form the object and animate the spirit of each lesson. Children will be classified according to ability, and not rigidly according to age. As a rule, the right classification of the chil- dren in an infant school will be found to correspond nearly with their ages. The best basis is Reading, because, as a rale, this will be found to agree broadly with age classification. Age classification is unnatural, and should only be followed so far as equal attainments are coincident with the average equal age. Backward children admitted during the year, however, should not be allowed to drift into the baby class. The discipline, association, and instruction of this class would be most unsuitable for elder children. They should form a special class, or otherwise receive special treatment until they are fit to be drafted into one or other of the existing classes. It will now be observed by the student that the single basis of classification in an upper department should be Arithmetic, and in an infant school Reading. IV. Sub-division of Classes in Infant Schools. — Where pos- sible, sub-division should be followed in the following lessons :— 1. needlework.— Little fingers are not likely to thread and use a needle properly, or with profit, without much supervision and showing. Individual assistance will be largely required, and this will be impossible in large classes. 2. Writing— In the early lessons, it is very important that the position of 40 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. the child and the manner of holding the pen or pencil should be well watched. Habits are being formed which will be physical evils if not closely watched and corrected. A smaller class is absolutely essential for this. 3. Reading. — The best practice in reading is individual practice. This is impossible in a large class. For the formation of a good enunciation, a distinct and clear articulation, the teacher must give the child much individual atten- tion. 4. Drawing requires much assistance, and consequently a small class is essential. If the proper and necessary assistance is not forthcoming in such subjects, the child may form a dislike for it— a very undesirable result. V. Shapes of Classes. — The shapes of the various classes depend on : — 1. The number of children in the class. 2. The amount of space available. 3. The furniture and its arrangements. 4. The amount and nature of the staff. A. Reading. 1. /n Desks. Children can sit or stand in their desks. This is not a good arrangement, even if the floor be stepped ; for, if sitting, the pupils lose the chance of a necessary change of position, and they are apt to become indolent and inattentive. If standing, there is the tendency to lounge against the desks, and to produce a slovenly and disorderly ap- pearance in the class. 2. Drafts. These should be formed out of the desks. {a) Semicircular Drafts. This method is pieferable to the desk method, as it secures the desired change of position, brings the pupils more directly under the observation and control of the teacher, and offers less opportunity for the formation of bad habits. {b) Parallel Drafts. The smaller children should be in the front row and the taller boys behind. The teacher will then be able to stand in front of the class, and have it completely within the range of his eye. B. Aritlimetic. The children can be arranged as in readino^, but only in drafts when working on the slate, on the B.B. , or from dictation. Usually this lesson will be given in the desks. If space permits the wide placing of the pupils, this arrangement is very satisfactory. But space rarely does permit. The class can then be examined or worked in two sections. It can be taught in one. The system of alternate boys working different examples tends to check copying, and to promote honesty, power, and indepen- dence. These advantages perhaps more than counterbalance the extra expenditure of time involved. C. Geography. Here the children can either be arranged in desks or on o. gallery, if the school possesses one. The latter is the better arrangement, if the class be a junior one, and is working from the map. If an upper class and atlases are being used, the desks are the better. The position of the teacher is important. Reading. He should be in front of the class and to the centre. He should stand back sufficiently to bring the front rows under his observation. Geography. If pointing to the map, he should be to the right, where his map should be placed. If the map be placed in front, he must either point inaccurately, or leave his class without supervision for short periods ; which, however, often prove long enough to encourage in- attention and disorder. If atlases are being used, he should "be in front. CLA SSI PICA TION. 41 Irithmetic. Same position as for geography. The B. B. should be to the right, so that the teacher can work and still keep the class somewhat under supervicion. When the B.B. is in front, he quite turns his back upon the class, and the class often shows that it is aware of the fact If the boys are working examples, he should stand in front and care- fully watch to check any idleness or copying. VT. Collective Iiessons. — It is often desirable and convenient to group classes tor some lessons, as it tends to economy in teach- ing power, and sets free one or more teachers for correction, pre- paration, or clerical work. In an infant school this grouping can be well done on a gallery. In an upper department, it might be done in the central hall, or in one of the larger rooms. There are certain subjects which lend themselves easily to the collective arrangement. 1. Singing.— Here sympathy of numbers will aid the physical and artistic training given by the teaching of this subject. Melodies and simple part songs, rounds and elementary sol-fa lessons can be better taught to a division than to a class, for such grouping gives confidence to the timid and shy. 2. Recitation. — Repetition and explanation, with some pattern work, is the programme here, and such instruction can be given to two classes as well as to one. 3. Scripture Lessons. — The moral truths of Scripture are generally pre- sented in some biblical story, which can be given in a manner quite within the grasp of several classes, without forfeiting the natural attractions of a story to children. *. Information Lessons. — Common information lessons can be given to many pupils at the same time, especially if the lesson is enlivened by a few sketches, diagrams, pictures, or experiments. 8. Musical Drill. — The size of the division will be limited by space some- times, but a certain amount of grouping for small schools is possible. 6. Ordinary Drill.- -After some preliminary lessons have been given, chil- dren may be grouped for military or Swedish drill. The added numbers gene- rally bring added interest and added pleasure. This will apply only to small classes. 7. Kindergarten. — Some of the lessons admit of grouping (see chapter on " Kindergarten '). 8. Class Subjects.— Their very name implies the possibility of grouping. Grammar, geogiaphy, history, elementary science, domestic economy, may all be grouped for instruction. 9. Elementary Subjects.— Mental arithmetic, and, in some cases, writing, also lend themselves to this arrangement. A change of place and attitude is an absolute physical neces- sity. It affords a welcome relief to the sitting in desks, releasing one set of muscles, and bringing into play another set. It is a check to twisted shoulders, curvature of the spine, and injury to the eyesight, all of which may be induced by careless and con- tinuous service in the desks. For Singing it offers special physical advantages, a standing position giving better play to the lungs. VH. Promotion. — Promotion should be systematic and regu- lar. Quarterly or half-yearly examinations should be held, and 4i A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. the sharpest or best prepared drafted into higher classes. Other- wise, bad effects are produced on the scholars. 1. They find time for mischief, for necessarily they must be idle part of their time, or working fruitlessly. 2. They weary of their work, which becomes a sort of mental treadmill — ever moving, never advancmg. 3. They frequently form a dislike for school altogether, and become more or less irregular. 4. They interfere with their slower comrades. 5. They often i-etrograde themselves, for monotony stunts. 6. Their non-promotion is an injustice to all concerned ; to the child, who has a right to as much, and to the best, instruction the school can give ; to the parents, and to the country, who share that right. 7. School life is short, therefore //-^'^r^jj should be as fast as Nature will permit. HOME IiESSONS. I. Subjects for Home Lessons. — The most appropriate sub- jects are those which involve either : — 1. Reproduction of some portion of the day's work, as in geography, arith- metic, grammar, or composition ; or 2. Preparation for the next day's work, like spelling, map drawing, memory work (recitation, geographical facts, chronology in history, rules, tables, ex- ceptions in grammar, etc. ). H. Revision of Home Xiessons. — The time and methods of revision will depend on the methods of instruction and the sub- jects taught ; and, probably, in some schools, upon the staff also, but it is assumed that all schools are staffed properly in these suggestions. Spelling would be part of the dictation lesson. Arithmetic can be marked by monitors or young teachers during some collective lesson. The chief errors can then be explained and corrected on the B.B. Grammar. Parsing and analysis can be corrected as in arithmetic, or, with a good teacher, in the grammar lesson itself. Let boys change books, the method or order of change being varied from time to time. The teacher will parse and analyse the piece, the boys writing in the cor- rections in black lead, coloured ink, or pencil. The number of errors should then be neatly placed at the bottom of the exercise, and the exercise should then be initialed by the boy who corrects it. This checks all spite, carelessness, or collusion between boys; for the in' accurately or dishonestly corrected exercise can always be traced. This method also acts as a good disciplinary training to the boys, and helps to fix their work. It ensures a maximum of attention, but it should only be used with the elder scholars. Memory work can be tested in the grammar lesson itself. Geography can be tested during the geography lesaoxi ; maps by monitors or pupil teachers during the collective lessons. The prevailing errors should then be dealt with on the B. B. If the geography is an abstract, it must be corrected out of school hours, or as in grammar. Composition must be marked out of school hours, or by young teachers during collective lessons. Correct the chief errors on the B.B., or, if composition lessons figure on the time table, the home lessons could be marked while the class is at composition. Scripture should be tested in the Scripture lesson, or marked out of school hours. CLASSIFICATION. 43 Arguments for and against Home Iiessons. For. 1. They cultivate self-reliance and industry. 2. W honestly done they are a true index of the child's own powers. 3. They make a favourable impression on some parents. 4. They supplement andyfx the learning of the child. 5. They set the master at liberty for higher work. 6 To a certam extent they keep children from the bad influences of the street. 7. Under certain conditions the Education Department recommends them. Their use should be "to illustrate and to fix in tlie memory lessons which have already been explained m school, rather than to break new ground or to call for a new mental effort. This purpose is served by lessons of a simple and definite character — a sum, a short poetical extract, a list of names or dates, a letter, an outline map, a parsing exercise, such as maybe readily piepared in half an hour, and may admit of very easy testing and correction on the following day. When these conditions are fulfilled, ;he home task is found to have a very valuable e ffect, not only in helping the progress of the scholar and in encouragmg the habit of application, but also awakening on the part of the parents an interest in the school work. ' (Revised instructions to H.M. Inspectors). Against. I The school day is already too long for young children, some of our best authorities say. 2. They conduce to over-pressure, and may be physically injurious. 3. They trequently a^n^Q friction between parent and children and teacher. 4. Public opinion is in part opposed to them 5. They may become injurious both mentally and morally by the formation of bad habits through want of proper supervision. 6. There is little or no accommodation in many of the homes for the doing of them. 7. Change of thought is necessary lor the healthy development of brain power .\ child should not take the school home with him. HINDRANCES TO PROGRESS.— These may have a twofold 1. From the Children. — Here again the causes may be various. la) 6tuptdtly. See notes on stupidity. \b) Poor Living. This may be partial only, local, or intermittent. But it is a serious hindrance. The difficulty is now grappled with by the institution of large agencies for cheap and free dinners. Thousands of children are now fed at times in this way. This treatment has proved its own value both physically, morally, and mentally. {c) Clothing. Children are insufficiently clad, and consequently physically uncomfortable, perhaps suffering. Appeal for old clothes in the local press or in any direction where your appeal may be successful. (ended or other similar lists as can be dealt with in the year without overburdening the scholars. Habits of observation are better culti- vated by the thorough examination of a few objects than by the super- ficial treatment of many. 2. No object should be chosen which the teacher cannot thoroughly illustrate either by the object itself or by some adequate representation of the object, or by both. All that is purely technical, whether in the mode of study or the language and terminology, should be carefully avoided. 3. The children should be encouraged to bring with them to the lesson illustrative specimens which they have collected or borrowed from friends. 4. The children should be encouraged to make simple drawings illustrative of their observations, wherever possible, and in certain cases to make simple records on square-ruled paper. Clay modelling and other manual occupations may be employed to test the accuracy of the im- pressions which the children form, and to fix them in their minds. Teachers should also frequently illustrate details of the lesson by B.B. drawings. Children who are jaded in five minutes by a lecture will be open-eyed and receptive for half an hour while the teacher draws as well as talks. 5. Visits to museums and other institutions of educational value are now recognised by the Code, and may advantageously be undertaken where possible in connection with the object teaching. Occasional class excursions out of school hours (or, if the instruction be in accordance with Article 12 (/) of the Code, in school hours), under proper guid- ance, will enable teachers both to provide suitable objects and to con- firm previous impressions. It should be borne in mind that objects when they are brought into the class room cannot be there studied under their ordinary conditions, and therefore it is important by a proper use of such expeditions to let the children see what part the object plavs in its usual surroundings. 6. If the scholars are to learn intelligently from their object lessons, the first requisite is trained attention. The right method of securing this is to direct, in a conversational way, the attention of the children to the different parts of the object in an orderly manner, and explain the relation of each part to the whole. After the analysis or study of separate detail, the object should again be treated as a whole. It should not Ije left in fragments, but the division into parts should be followed when possible by the reconstruction of them mto their original 68 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. unity. Through such teaching the vague and indefinite impressions which the children receive from objects when they are first presented to them are gradually converted into clear mental pictures. 7. "The attempt to teach children to be accurate m observation cannot be separated from the need of making them accurate in description. After the children have been trained to observe a fact, they should be prac- tised in making a correct statement of it in a sentence of their own. This oral answering in complete sentences will lead to correct use of the English language, both in talking and writing, and will store the mind with a useful vocabulary. In the higher standards, the children will be able to write brief weekly compositions in which they may express in a written form the ideas which they have acquired through oral instruction.' — Circular 369. 8. The lesson should be previously well thought out. the subject matter should be logically arranged ; the illustrations should be varied and suitable; there should be a proper use of experiment ; the childish love of activity should be used ; the personal qualities of the teacher must include tact, sympathy, and patience, and his language and questions must be suited to the capacity of the class ; the sequence of teaching must be observed, and the method of teaching must h^ psycho- logical ; i.e., the lessons should exercise the senses chiefly at first ; the conceptive faculty next ; and the reasoning faculty last. Their Value. I. Principal Uses. 1. The first and most important is to teach the children to observe, com- pare, and contrast. 2. To impart information. 3. To reinforce the other two by making the results of them the basis for instruction in language, drawing, number, modelling, and other handiwork. n. Minor Uses. 1. Object teaching makes the lives of the children more happy and inter- esting by opening up an easily accessible and attractive field for the exercise of brain, hand, and eye. 2. It gives the children an opportunity of learning the simplest natural facts, and directs their attention to external objects, making their education less bookish. 3. " It develops a love of nature and an interest in living things, and corrects the tendency which exists in many children to destructiveness and thoughtless unkindness to animals, and shows the ignorance and cruelty of such conduct. The value of the services which many animals render to man should be dwelt upon, and the importance of kindly treating them and preserving them should be pointed out." — Circular 369. 4. Whilst training the intelligence generally, they especially afford a fine medium for the training of the senses, and in so far as the first of the principal uses does not include this, it should be counted in that cate- gory. It also aids the teaching of the abstract by the concrete, and arouses a healthy curiosity. 5. Object teaching has also a moral use. It helps to form good habits which have a beneficial influence on the lives of the children when school days are over. It helps to develop a higher moral tone, for the beauties and marvels of nature, exemplified in everything around them, must tend to produce feelings of wonder, reverence and grati- tude to the Great Author of all. OBJECT LESSONS. 6g 6. Object lessons encourage a tendency to self-reliance in children, and in developing this tendency they do not seek so much to give information as to help the children to get information for themselves. They not only teach children to see things instead of merely looking at them, as is pointed out under their principal uses, but they teach them to de- compose the confused aggregate of impressions which things "at first make up>on the mind • to get them to classify and to generalise and to connect simple phenomena with their antecedents and consequents ; exercise the reason ; and to do this in Nature's own way, by bringing the learner as far as possible into direct contact with things, and satisfy his own instinctive needs". The Training^ of the Senses. One of the primary objects of object teaching is the proper training of the senses, especially of sight and touch, which are pre-eminently the intellectual senses. The importance of sense training is further recognised by the admission of hand and eye training, kindergarten and its developments, drawing, clay model- ling, and manual instruction into the school curriculum. All these exercise the senses in a number of ways, and so supply the materials of knowledge; for there can be neither a wide nor an accurate knowledge of the world around us without the proper exercise of the senses through material objects. This is the first and most important element in the training of the senses. Having presented proper materials in a suitable variety, the teacher next teaches the children to observe objects as distinct from mere sight sensations. Points which would escape the cur- sory glance of most children are detected with the teacher's aid, and an effort is made to stimulate curiosity and arouse interest. The children are invited to handle the things for themselves and to examine them. As much movement as is consonant with proper discipline is also allowed the children, so as to bring the feeling of muscular movement to the aid of sense impressions. The fixing of associations of this kind are not only necessary but valuable. The child's activity is thus utilised to the best advantage in allow- ing him to use his hands and his eyes in investigating the things supplied to him ; and it must ever be remembered that it is only in this way that real sense knowledge is ever acquired ; that is, in bringing the mind in contact with things immediately, and not mediately, through the intervention of another mind, whether it be the teacher's or that of any one else. The objects presented should be graded and then placed in juxtaposition for comparison and contrast. In teaching colour the simple colours should be first examined, then the compound, and 70 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. finally, shades of the same colour. Striking differences should always be first dealt with, the less obvious ones following in accordance with their difficulty of discrimination. A child will learn to distinguish the elm and the cedar more easily than the oak and beech. There must also be a certain amount of repetition to ensure familiarity and easy identification. Without this no habit of close examination can be formed, and no deep interest can be aroused. We are rarely, if ever, deeply interested either in mere passing objects, events, or acquaintances. The method of the lessons must be such as to cultivate the attention, and to train it to fix itself upon what is present. Con- centration is a form of genius, and to secure this the training must be such as to enable the child to turn its attention volun- tarily to the object under consideration. The play of the child should be utilised. This is the underlying principle of all kindergarten instruction which recognises the fact that a child never tires of a building box, whilst the clay modelling of the school is only an educational application of the mud pie of the gutter. Observation should be utilised in every possible branch of school work. Models, diagrams, pictures, and the various forms of apparatus have all sprung into existence in recognition of this fact. But there must be no hurry in any stage of the process, for where there is no firm grounding of sense knowledge, all after knowledge is limited. " Imagination will be hazy, thought loose and inaccurate, where the preliminary stage of perception has been hurried over." SCHEMES OF OBJECT LESSONS From Circular 369. The following lessons deal with the ordinary phenomena of common life and with objects familiar to the children. The teacher's choice is not confined to these lists ; other objects will be accepted subject to the approval of the Inspector. Any of the objects may be dealt with at the discretion of the teacher in more than one lesson ; and although they may have been grouped for con- venience of reference, it is not intended to prescribe any specified number of them for a yearly course. With different treatment the same object may be adapted to more than one standard. Some teachers may prefer to deal with the same object in successive years, or to recur to it after a year's interval, expanding the study to suit the growing powers of the scholars. To meet the varying requirements of teachers it will be noticed that in some cases the names of the objects have been merely enumerated, while in other cases a few sugges- tions have been added as to the mode of treatment. OBJECT LESSONS. 71 I. PLANT LIFE. (a) The Stady of Plants as Growing Things. 1. Grow an onion in a bottle of water, and note appearance of root and stem. Make a model in clay of the various stages of growth at short intervals. 2. Grow mustard seed on damp flannel, and note stages of growth. 3. Notice a few curious roots. (1) The Carrot.— Cm off the top of one and grow it in a saucer of water. Contrast the root of a daisy (fibrous). (2) Roots which ^i^aiA.— Strawberry or strayberry. (3) Violet Root. (4) Contrast root of Iris and Solomon's Seal in their modes of extension. 4. Stem. — Count the rings in a trunk that has been felled. Rings, how produced : the record of wet or dry seasons. Climbing Stems. Ivy. — Train bindweed up a stick, and note that it turns to the right. If you unwind it and force it the other way (to the left), note how it resumes its old direction again, holding the stick with one of its leaf stalks to get a purchase for the change. 5. Simple experiments to show effect of light on (i) leaves, and (2) roots. Celery; blanching. 6. Leaves of deciduous trees contrasted with leaves of evergreens. Contrast leaves of holly, ivy, and box with leaves of oak, elm, and beech. Note autumn tints. Collect and press leaves of various colours in autumn. 7. Buds.— Leaf buds and flower buds. Parts of a flower. 8. FrxiVs.— Different kinds. (b) Blossoms, Fruits, Seeds, and Leaves. Parts 0/ a /lower, o/ci ' Flowers of curious shape. Pea blossom. Insects and flowers. Colours of flowers and insects. Fruits. — How seeds are scattered. Shooting seeds. Flying seeds. Curious flowers, e.g., primrose, compound flower (daisy), water lily. Leaves.—Sh&pe, veining, arrangement. Flowers as supplying— (i) Weather glass. (2) Clock. (3) Calendar. (c) How Plants are Adapted to their Surroundings. A bunch of spring flowers (according to time of year). A bunch of summer flowers (according to time of year). A bunch of autumn flowers (according to time of year). Flowers and the soil. — Bog plants. Riverside plants. Plants that grow in running water. Plants that grow in still water. Meadow plants. Plants of the heath and moor. Plants of the hills. Plants of the wood. Plants of the sea coast and salt marshes. Sundew and flesh-eating plants. Ferns. The Spores of Ferns. — Grow some spores in a pan under glass and watch growth and development of fern. Contrast with growth of mustard from seed. Mosses. Lichens. Funguses. Simple experiments in manuring plants. How plants help or hinder each other's growth. Pa rasites .— M istle toe . Plants which help or injure man. II. ANIMAL LIFE. (a) The Cat (compare with dog).— Eyes, rough, dry tongue, soft peds and sharp claws, teeth, method of holding prey, drinking, covering of fur, whiskers, tail. The Cow (compare with sheep and goat). —How she takes her food, teeth, chewing, milk (cheese and butter), tail, hoofs, cover- ing, ears, horns, nose. The Ilorst (compare with donkey).— Covering, teeth, hoofs, tail, mane. The Rabbit (compare with hare). — Teeth, legs, feet, claws, covering, tail, whiskers, ears. eyes. The Mouse (compare with rat and water rat).— Teeth, paws, tail, whiskers, eyes, ears. A Fish.— How fitted to live iv water, weight, shape, covering, tempe."ature, movements. A Plaice (compare with herring).— Flat, eyes on one side of bead, gills, movements. Animals which sleep in winter. — Exam- files: Squirrel, dormouse, common snake, rog, toad, snail, slug. Preparation made for sleep. (6) Mole.— Shape, snout, teeth, paws, claws, eyes, ears, fur, food. Hedgehog.— Covering of spines, how it rolls itself into a ball and why, head, teeth, food. Common Snake (compare with viper).— Shape, covering, teeth, now it moves, how it swallows its prey. Frog (compare with toad and newt). — Movements, capture of prey, breathing, winter quarters. Garden Snail (compare with slug). — Shell, mantle, head, horns, eyes, food, preparation for winter sleep. Earth Worm.— Shape, rings, locomotion, food, usefulness. spider (contrast with bee).— Shape, seg- 72 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. ments, legs, eyes, jaws, spinnerets, web, breathing organs. (c) Paws and Claws and their uses. — Cat, dog, rabbit, mouse, mole, frog. Tails and their uses. — Horse, cow, dog, donkey, cat, monkey, harvest mouse. Tongues and their uses. — Cat, dog, cow, woodpecker, frogs. Teeth and their uses. — Man, cat, cow, horse, rabbit, snake, fangs of poisonous snakes; Hair, Fur, Wool and their uses. — Cat, mole, dog, sheep, fox. Beaks of Birds and their uses.— Duck, fowl, parrot, sparrow, goat sucker, heron. Feet of Birds and their uses. — Duck, fowl, swift, owl, etc. /ws<;c/s.— Examples: Bee, beetle, butter- fly, cockroach, silkworm. Insect develop- ment, legs, wings, segments, mouth, breath- ing apparatus, ovipositors. III. THE SKY, THE AIR, THE SURFACE OF THE LAND. AND WATER. (a) The Sky. Sunrise, Noon, and Sunset. — (Note the object over which the sun is seen to rise from month to month. Note sun's position at noon, and its varying height above the horizon.) Shadow. — (Note, by aid of a spike erect on a flat disc, the varying length of the shadow at noon. Study the shadows of objects, variation in sharpness and depth.) Moon. — (Note the changes. Draw the shape from week to week.) A few of the Brightest Constellations. — (Make diagrams on square ruled paper from a study of the sky itself. Great Bear and Pole Star, Lyre and Vega, Cassiopeia.) Planets. — (Note any planet visible when the lesson is given, Mark its position on square ruled paper for a few weeks.) Varying length of Day and Night. (b) The Air. Wind. — Varying direction, (Note and keep record of the direction of the wind from day to day.) Warmer and colder winds ; rainy and dry winds. Moisture in the air shown by seaweed; string (changing tension). Wet cloth dries in the wind (water turns to vapour). Vapour turns to water. (Breathing on slate. Clouds on hills. Evening mists.) Clouds in the sky. Three chief kinds : " Heaps," " beds," " feathers ", Rain.— (Note size of drops. Raindrops on dust form little balls. Note effect of heavy rain in tearing up roads. Note the channels so made, and the arrangement of the sand and pebbles washed to a dis- tance,) Rainbow. — (Note the succession of col- ours. Note position of the sun behind observer and of the bow where the shower of rain is falling. Note that height of arch changes. When is it higher and when lower?) Rainbow colours on shells, film of tar, etc., feathers of birds. Dew. — (Note when formed. Cloudless weather. On what does it lie thickest ?) Hoarfrost. Snow. — (Note size of flakes. Movement of flakes in the air as they fall. Snowdrift. Snow squeezed into ice.) Hail. — (Note when it falls. Examine hailstones. Is the hail accompanied by thunder?) Thunder and Lightning. (c) The Surface of the Land. Level or Sloping. — Simple way of measur- ing slope. Height of school and neighbour- ing hilltops above sea level. Flow of Water over the Land. — Neigh- bouring stream or streams. Water part- ings. The river basin in which the school is situated. Construct a model fountain and make simple observations on the pressure of water. Milldam. A head of water. Notion of falling water as a motor. Soils. — Clay, sand, slate, granite, chalk, quarries near school, gravel pits, clay pits, brick works. (Note how the rocks lie, in layers or in masses without structure.) Stones in the brook, water-worn ; pebbles on beach, rounded; pebbles in gravel pit, often with sharp edges, perhaps ice-borne. Difference between sand and mud. Crumoling Rocks. — Effect of frost on damp rocks. Caves by the sea formed by the waves. Caves inland formed by rain dissolving limestone , stalactites. (A lesson for schools in limestone regions or near rocky coasts.) Building Stone. — Marble, slate, bath- stone, sandstone, etc. In marble, note shells, etc. Note plants in coal. Volcanic Rocks. — Lava, brimstone, pu- mice stone, basalt or whinstone. (Accord- ing to the nature of the district.) Rock Salt. — Crystals of salt. Salt in sea water. »Mineral in solution. Hard and Soft Water.— Ra.\x\ water com- pared with streams from chalk or lime- stone. Leavings after evaporation. Fur in kettles. Softening hard water. (In certain districts) other minerals in solution Sulphur wells, iron springs, medi- cinal waters. Mortar and Cement. — (Slake lime and make mortar; note the heat, etc.) Surface Soils. — Crumbled rocks. Water- borne sand and mud. Vegetable mould and earthworms. Vegetation and Cultivation. — Forest, moor and heath, heathers. Hedgerow Trees. — Elms, ashes. OBJECT LESSONS. 73 Trees of the Forest. — Oak, birch, beech. Evergreen trees : Pines and firs. Evergreen Plants and Shrubs. — Ivy, holly, box. Contrast evergreen and de- ciduous leaves. (Note changes at fall of leaf. Autumn tints. Press specimens.) Riverside Trees. — Willows, poplars, as- p>ens. Hill Pastures and Meadows.— Imf on the downs and hay in the valleys. Gardens and their contents. Garden fruits and wild fruits. Garden flowers and wild flowers. id) Water. Standing Water.— Ponds, pond life. Springs and Running Water. — Clear water looks shallower than it is. Simple experiments in illustration. Study of Flow of a Stream.— Where the flow is quicker, (a) in the middle, (6) on one side, outer and inner bend. Where the bank is eaten away and where sand is spread out. Varying bottom, deep pools, shallows, sand banks. Confluence of tribu- tary. Delta. Measure the speed at which the water flows. Study of Sea Shore. — Rocky and sandy coasts. Soundings. The rise and fall of the tide. Currents. Drifting sand. Effect of frost on cliffs. Breakwaters. Layers of soil and rock exposed down the side of a cliff. Measure with thermometer the tempera- ture of (a) a spring; (6) a stream; (c) a pond ; (d) the sea. /«.— Study hardness, mode of fracture, splitting blocks with a needle. Does it smk or swim in water? Easy to make two surfaces of ice freeze together. Simple experiments with ice. Watch and record behaviour of thermo- meter plunged in melting ice. Melt some ice caref ullyto find out whether it takes up more or less room than the water into which it changes. (Force a mass of ice into a lump of clay, and let it melt there.) Freeze some water in a bottle, and note bursting of bottle. Bursting of pipes. Notes on expansion and contraction of substances illustrated by behaviour of water at different temperatures. Preliminary notion of thermometer. Watch cold spring water being heated to boiling point in transparent glass vessel Note bubbles of air given off, and as the water is heated bubbles of steam rise from below. Observe force of compressed steam. Preliminary notion of steam engine. Dribble powdered alum into clear water. Hang thread in the solution, and note the formation of crystal. Alum and other crystals. Expose to the air crystals of (i) salt; (2) soda. Note change. What difference? What difference according to weather? Expose to the air crystals of saltpetre, and note result. Dribble salt into clear water and note that it dissolves, quicker at first, then slower. At last no more is dissolved. Place a fresh egg in saturated solution, and afterwards transfer it to clear water. One liquid is denser than another. Com- pare water and mercury. Things which float in mercury and sink in water. Upward pressure of water on bodies dropped into it. Why bodies sink or float. Why steel ships float. Why cork floats. '•' ■■ ; • ' ■ disf water. Simple experiments in displacement of Simple experiments in pressure of water and pressure of air. Siphon, squirt, pump, diving bell. Distillation of water. Filtration. Water, a combination of two gases. Oxygen and hydrogen. Simple experi- j ments. IV. OBJECT LESSONS FOR TOWN SCHOOLS, (a) The water we drink.— Hov/ obtained Some of the simpler properties of water. River (or cana/).— According to circum- stances. Boats, barges, or ships, with which chil- dren are familiar. — According to circum- stances. Other ships, e.g., Atlantic liners. Bricks. — Their size, shape, and manu- facture ; their size, etc., to be ascertained by children's measurements. Bricklayer's work. — Arrangement of bricks in 14-inch wall and 9-inch wall, shown with real bricks or with small wooden ones ; mortar, etc. Coa/.— Its simpler properties. Coal. — How obtained. Coal. — How transported and how used. Coal gas.—\i may be made in the pres- ence of the children. Gas works and gas pipes. Petroleum.— Hoy/ obtained; its simpler properties and uses. Lamps and their dangers. Common stones used in building and road- making. Roadmaking and paving. Quarries and quarrymen. Railways. — General sketch. Engines and carriages. The work of railway men. The park or public garden. — One or two of its more conspicuous trees. The park or public garden.— One or two of its more conspicuous plants. Comparison between calico and flannel. Cotton and its manufacture, Lancashire and tne cotton district. — Mills. Sheep clipping and rearing. The West Riding of Yorkshire ; factories, etc. (6) Cart horse. Donkey. Sparrow. Rat or mouse. Cat. Plants grown in schoolroom. — (Acorn in 74 A NEW MANUAL Oi? METHOD. glass of water; mustard and cress; hya- cinth in water or pot ; fern.) Costermonger, and what he sells. Some common fruit sold in streets or shops, e.g., pears and apples, strawberries, oranges, cocoanuts. Things seen in a grocer's window, e.g., tea, sugar, coffee, currants, and raisins. The baker and his work. The milkman. The addressing and posting of a letter. The postman and Post Office. The sweep and his work. Dangers from fire, and how they may be avoided. The fireman and fire engines. 'Bus or tram drivers. The policeman. V. OBJECT LESSONS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. (a) The farmyard. — Its buildings and their contents. Animals kept on a farm and their uses. Necessity for cleanliness, kindness, and suitable food. The dairy and its contents. — Butter and cheese making. Bees. — Bee keeping. Spring. — Spring flowers. Work in the fields in spring. The cuckoo and swallow. Record date of arrival. Summer. — Different kinds of leaves and fruit. Work in the fields in summer. Autumn. — Work in the fields. A mill and the work of a miller. Winter. — Frost, ice, snow. BtVds.— Singing birds, as the thrush and nightingale. Birds of prey, as the hawk. Swimmmg and wading birds, as the duck and heron. Wild animals. — The fox, the hare, and rabbit. Minerals.— h. mine. Three useful mine- rals. The lessons on the seasons should cor- respond with the actual seasons of the year, and the different operations explained should be taken while each is in progress. Leaves of trees may be dried by simply placing them between sheets of paper and pressing them. Their shapes may be used for the children to draw round on paper, which can afterwards be pricked and then sewn round. ' The waking of Nature ; the lengthening daylight in the morning and even- ing; the coming warm weather; birds singing, building their nests, lay- ing their eggs ; the trees and hedges changing ; buds and leaves; the ^bloom on fruit trees. The local wild flowers of spring. — The daisy, primrose, bluebell. Summer time. The local wild flowers of summer. (b) springtime. A utumn. The local wild flowers of autumn. Winter. — The repose of nature. The land. — Woodland, meadowland, ploughland, moorland. The sky. A bird.— Covering, wings, beak, feet, motion, nests, eggs, food. Local birds. — Thrush or blackbird, lark, robin, rooks. Birds which come for the summer. Birds which come for the winter. Local wild animals.— Rahhit, hare, fox, hedgehog. A nimals on a farm. Our village. The carrier's cart. The cottage garden. The stream or river.— Its banks ; the birds and animals that live near it. A fish. A plant. (c) The garden and farm in the four sea- sons of the year. The weather and wind. The soil. — Sunshine, air, rain, frost, manure. The farmer's tools. — The plough, drill, reaping machine. The crops, — Grass, corn, root crops. Wheat. The potato. Trees. — Oak, elm, apple, evergreen trees. A n insect. The spider and his web. The butterfly, — Colours, beauty, history. Bees The farmer's pests. The farmer's friends. A pond. A frog. A ramble in a wood, and what may be seen there. The railway. Market day in the neighbouring town A newspaper. VL OBJECT LESSONS IN THE SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. {a) Water, — How carried : jugs, bottles, barrels, spouts, funnels. Wells. Things that float ; things that sink. Solids, — Hard and soft, in the room and in clothing. Files, hammer and nails, buttons. Powders, — Flour. Passes.— Paste, clay, putty. Things porous. — Bread, sponge. Things that melt. — Butter, tallow, sealing wax, ice, snow. Water. — Drying clothes, breathing on OBJECT LESSONS. 75 slates, frost on pane, the boiling of the kettle, the pot boiling over. Things that dissolve.—Sug&r, salt. Air. — Bubbles, pouring water through funnel into empty bottle. A burning candle. Fans, blowing feathers, paper windmills. Forms of strength. — The floor, joists, and boards. Wooden bridges. Steps and stairs. Things that stretch. — Elastic bands. Things that bend.— Bow and arrows, cord ropes. Machines.— Tops, roller for pastry, for garden, perambulator. .Wor«m«n/s.— Walking, running, leaping, creeping, crawling. Musical toys — Harmonicon, bell. (b) Water. — Pipes, taps, the fountain, canals, rafts, boats, anchors. Solids. — Teeth, nails, and claws, sand paper, pins, needles, awl, gimlet, hook and eye. Powders. — Chalk, pencil. Pastes.— Mud in streets, brickmaking. Things porous.— Brick., chalk, springs of water. Things that mt//.— Candlemaking, icicles. VV.— The pop-gun, the fire engine, winds, a sailing ship. Forms of strength. — The roof, railway bridges, cranes. Things that bend. — Clock spring, chains. Mac/imes.— The loom, threshing machine, rolling iron rails, coining. M ovements.— Flying. Musical toys. — Tin whistle, sounds from stretched cord. VII. MEASURING, WEIGHING, AND TESTING. A two-foot rule. Measurements (in inches only). Of length — first by eye, then with rule. Easy mea- surements of a square— first by eye, then with rule. Easy measurements of rectangles. The wire-gauge. Callipers. Scales and weights. — Weighing of com- mon objects— first by hand, then with scales ; weight in ounces only. Weighing letters. Plumb line. Spirit level. 5<«am.— Observations on boiling water; condensation of steam, etc. A/ercMry.- Weight of; cf. drop of mer- cury and drop of water ; eff'ect of heat on mercury. Alcohol.— Effect of heat on it; its evapo- ration. Thermometer. — Manufacture, uses, read- ings in ice, in boiling water, under the tongue, in schoolroom. A candle.— Us composition, the wick. Candle under bell-jar over water ; candle in narrow-necked bottle. Chalk. — Where found ; its origin. Chalk. — Its treatment with acid. Chalk. — Its reduction to quicklime with blow-pipe ; lime water. Sugar heated in test tube ; wood heated in test tube Sulphur heated in test tube; lead heated in test tube. Magnet and iron filings. The compass. Two illustrative lessons now follow selected from these schemes. That on the Sundew illustrates the special form of nutrition of some plants, and should follow lessons which have dealt with the general form. The lesson is drawn to suit a higher standard, whilst that on the Sponge is for a young class. 76 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. LESSON ON SUNDEW AND FLESH-EATING PLANTS. Information. I. Introduction. 1. Elements necessary to plant nutrition . C, H.O.N, etc. 2. Uses — C, O, and H, essential constit- uents of organic compounds; e.g., starch, sugar. N used in making proteid matter (protoplasm). 3. Origin. — C from COo in atmosphere. Others from the soil. H and O in the form of water, etc. N in the form of nitrates and ammonia salts. II. I. Some plants have no chlorophyll (as fungi), and so cannot assimilate. They must look for their food stuff ready made, and are either parasites or they feed on decaying animal or vegetable matter. 2. Other plants grow in marshy soils or in running water soils from which the essen- tial N salts have been washed away. These again have to look for other sources for their food, and are mainly insectivorous. They employ various devices for allurmg and catching insects. III. Sundew. 1. Distribution.— Three British species, the round-leaved being most common Found in most sphagnum bogs, and so is most frequent in the north, but also occurs frequently around London 2. Description.— LxtWeroot: smallrosette of 8-10 leaves of reddish tint and spoon shaped; numerous glandular hairs, the lar- gest round the margin. Flowers lipped and of a purple colour. 3. Food.— (a) In a non-irritant condition the tentacles are extended outwards, and in a horizontal position. They are tipped with a shining secretion which sparkles in the sunlight, and so serves to attract insects. (b) Fly settles on leaf, and is held by the secretion. The glandular hairs slowly bend over so as to enclose it, and in about ten minutes the fly dies. In a few hours all the hairs are bent over in such a way that the glands he exactly on the body, even if the fly be on the margin of the leaf. In 10-20 hours the leaf itself has curved over so as to enclose the fly. The secretion now poured out becomes acid, and contains a ferment allied to pepsin The nitrogenous matter in the body of the insect is thus ex- tracted and absorbed by the leaf Results.— (1) Movement of the glandular hairs and of margin. (2) Chemical action. lY. Butterwort.— Another of our native carnivorous plants. Bears a rosette of about 10 leaves; long, tongue-shaped, yellowish, and covered with a shiny sub stance. Flies are held by this till the leal rolls on to the midrib so as to enclose them Y. Yenus Fly Trap.— Closely allied to our Sundew Occurs on marshy moors of the two Carolinas, Lamina of leal divided Teaching Hints, Apparatus.— A plant or two of sundew growing in a saucer of water under a bell lar, pressed dried leaf of Venus fly-trap in the two positions ; a solution of the ferment obtained from leaves of sundew, butterwort, etc., or. in absence of this, a little pepsin to show its action on fibrin, etc I. All these facts to be elicited by ques- tions recapitulating previous lessons, II. Show a species of fungi Ask how they know it does not assimilate. No chlorophyll Take two glass vessels containing water. In the one place some ammonium chloride, and in the other some saltpetre. Stir, and they dissolve rapidly Show plant in saucer of water under bell jar in. I. Tell this. 2 All this will be learned from their ob- servation of the specimen plant. 3 (a) Show the specimen grown in the school • it will be in a non-irritant condition. (b) The change in the position of the hairs can be observed One leaf ought to have been fed the pre- vious day. and its position could then be compared with the others. Then test the two leaves with litmus paper. This Jerment can be extracted from the leaves by means of glycerine, and it will then digest fibrin This should be com- pared with the action of pepsin on food in the stomach (The action of pepsin on a bit of meat can easily be shown in illustra- tion.) It will be seen that the stimulus produces the results opposite. The plant can be cultivated easily enough in a saucer under a bell jar. and will pro- duce seeds ■ but these are neither so many, nor give rise to such vigorous seedlings, as if the parent plant be fed on meat or flies IV. Show specimen if possible, if not, picture of one These facts will then be learned from observation The acid from the ferment is m an irri- tant condition and will curdle milk. Y. Show a specimen, and have these facts learned from observation. Touch the bristles not gently, and note result. The two halves of leaf come to- gether with great rapidity and the stiff outgrowths fold over and interlock like fingers, thus preventing escape YI. A vibit to Kew or kindred places will be necessary to see this plant Show a picture (good ones are done by the publishers), and let as much of the in- formation as possible be learned from an examination of the picture What is the function of the downward OBJECT LESSONS. 77 LESSON ON SUNDEW AND FLESH EATING PLANTS— continued. Information. into two deeply segmented halves, con- nected by the midrib On the upper sur face of the leaf are half a dozen bristles On the edges of the leaves are some stiff outgrowths YL Pitcher Plant.— Found in Mada gascar and Ceylon ; a climbing plant. At the ends of the tendrils are pitcher-like growths and these pitchers are protected with lids They have various devices for alluring insects such as honey glands In some species the interior of the pitcher is so smooth that the insect cannot get loot hold, and so falls into the liquid at the bot tom. In other species there are a number of hairs pointing downwards When an insect falls in, copious secretions are poured forth Teaching Hints. hairs?— They prevent the insect getting out. What is the effect of the secretions? — They convert the fly into a kind of soup which is absorbed by the plant. Recapitulate. NOTES OF A LESSON ON A SPONGE. 7tw) Aim. eye 1. To train the colours. 2. To exercise the limbs in various ways. 3. To teach directions right and left. 4. To teach properties gene- rally (hard, soft, etc.). The ball or sphere is chosen for the first gift on account of its simplicity of form ; there are no angles and no differing dimensions. The impression made by a sphere is a single one and the view is always the same. {c) The Game. — Various movements are made with the ball. It is raised and lowered; moved to the right and then to the left ; passed from one hand to the other ; frcjin (jiic child to the other. The rate of movement also varies, being sometimes quick and sometimes slow, according to the word of com-> mand. These orders must be smartly, neatly, an4 §ir;iultaneously executed. KINDERGARTEN. 8i (d) Its Advantages. 1. The four mentioned under the head of Aim. 2. Fellowship. — The children act together, and so develop a sense of fellow- ship. 3. Pleasurable Association. — The teacher is gentle, and enforces gentleness from the children. This sets up an association between play and work, between teacher and class, which is pleasurable. 4. Selfishness Repressed. — The class has to act together. No child does what it likes, although it may like what it does. The training of the game is for all, not for one. Class sympathy is invoked, emulation is stimulated, but there is no competition for prizes. 5. Temper. — Children like working together. The solitary task is rarely liked by a young child, and impotent effort is both discouraging and souring. Class action avoids this. 2. Second Gift. (a) Materials. — This gift consists of the sphere, the cylinder, and the cube. Id) Aim. 1. To teach form. 2. To aid the child's natural power of observation, and to help him to dis- cover for himself the similarity and dissimilarity existing between different objects. ^^r.-s:i|gp i8>4 3. To give the use of right terms. {c) The Game. — The sides, corners, edges, etc. , (^f the cube are pointed out, explained, and counted. The sphere, cylinder, and cube are contrasted in shape, and so a difference in their pro p>erties is ded.'.ced. The children are asked to note that the cube and the cylinder vary according to the point from which they are viewed. As each property is distinguished, the proper terms are given and fixed in the minds of the children. (d) Advantages. 1. The ' ' gift " passes from the simple jjerception of the sphere to the per- ception and recognition of differences ; ^., sides, lines, surfaces, circumferences, etc. 2. It gives a large amount of actual instruction in the accepted meaning of the word. 3. The facts and relations on which geometrical truths are founded are now made familiar. 4. A good mental training is given. (i) The habit of accurate observation is encouraged. (2) Reasoning from one fact to another is demanded. (3) The perception of necessary relations is taught. 5. Third Gift. {a) Material. — A cube consisting of eight smaller cubes, and generally called the /"'trst Building Box. For the use of the children there is a wooden box containing the eight smaller cubes, each of one inch side. Those for the use of the teacher should be larger. 6 82 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD, (b) Aim. 1. To teach number ; to give the idea of whole and part. 2. To develop constructive power. 3. To teach lessons of symmetry. (c) The Game. — The child manipulates the small cubes in various ways, ZZa adding them, and taking them away, and so discovers the practical truths of the elementary rules. The things are then named, and some short formulae may be given. The child is encouraged to put its observations into words. A series of lessons can be given, and various objects may be constructed, such as a table, bench, door, window, steps, castle, clock, chair, etc. The lesson is aided by any anecdote, or any facts of natural history which the objects may sug- gest. Then after each sei lesson, the children should be allowed to build according to their own fancy. (d) Advantages. 1. Utility.— Objects of everyday use are manufactured, and so the children become familiar with their structure and uses. 2. Beauty.— The bricks are all symmetrically laid, and the completion of each object gives a sense of order and regularity. Mental. — Fresh observations, the perception of similarities and differ- ences, analogies and contrasts, are made. Interest. — The arousing of the child's interest is very obvious. Heart and soul is put into the work, and a pleasant and valuable association is set up between work and school. Originality. — This is called forth and st.mulated. The child is allowed to act independently, and this gives scope for original constructive efforts. The delight and value of such work are considerable. KINDERGARTEN. 83 4. Fourth Gift. {a) Material.— A cube which is divided into eight oblong bricks. It is called the Second Building Box. Length = twice the breadth. Breadth = twice the thickness. [b) Aim. 1. To advance upon former lessons, and to give more exercises in building and pattern forming. 2. To give the child the power of selecting the right side. ^P (f) Game. — This is much like the last. The child is still amused with its instructive and constructive play. The children first build from the teacher's dictation, and then from their own ideas. () Aim. — To develop more building exercises and symmetrical forms. (c) Game. — It is really an extension of the fourth game. (d) Advantages. — The advantages of the fourth gift will be increased and extended, since the combinations practised are more complex and advanced. 7. Seventh Gift. (a) Material. — This consists of planes of polished wood in two colours. There are five boxes, each of which contains a certain quantity of surface objects, e.g. : — A contains 64 squares. B ,, 64 right-angled isosceles triangles. C ,, 54 equilateral triangles. D , , 64 right-angled scalene triangles. E , , 64 obtuse-angled triangles. [b) Aim.— Bretsch says the seventh gift has immense capabilities. What they are will appear in the details that follow. Unfortunately, " much of its force and value has been lost for want of systematic form and sequence in the tablets ". It is designed to extend the child's knowledge of form and colour by introducing new combinations {c) Game. — Here there is a series of well-graded games. 1. The Square Tablet. — This is a type of four-sided figures. It is given first because it is the simplest of all four-sided figures. The square is the type of all quadrilateral figures. 2. Equilateral Tablet. — This is presented next because it is to triangles what the square is to quadrilaterals. 3. Isosceles Tablet. — Take a " square" and divide it from corner to corner, We get an isosceles triangle. KINDERGARTEN. 85 4. Scalene Tablet. — Draw a line bisecting one angle of the equilateral triangle, fold the triangle on this line, and we get the scalene triangle. 5. Obtuse Tablet — Place two scalene triangles base to base, and we get the obtuse tablet or triangle. Thus in the seventh gift there are hve forms, and these are capable of unlimited combinations. (d) Application. — Their application is chiefly artistic and mathematical. I. The Square. — This educates the eye to judge correctly of two very im- portant angles, 90° and 45°, and both of which are of immense importance to the artisan, draughtsman, and to designers. This can be seen from the fact that it gives us the T-square, and it forms part of each of the " set " squares. > > 1 X > > X X X X ml' X y 2. Eqnilateral Triangle. — This has three angles of (xP, and six of them just fill a circle. 3. Scalene Triangle. — This has angles of 90°, 60°, and 30°. The children must be made subsequently to understand that these are not the angles for all scalene triangles. These angles give us another of our " set" squares, and the triangle is very useful in drawing the hexagon^ as the 45° is useful in drawing the octagon. A child then knows all the chief angles of design and manufacture — 90°, 45°, 60°, and 30°. The above constitute the seven gifts of Froebel's system ; but the gifts have been largely expanded of late years, so that now we have stick laying, stick plaiting or interlacing, wood and cork work, rings, drawing, perforating, embroidery, sewing, paper cutting, paper folding, cardboard work, modelling, and others. Each of these is intrinsically very interesting, and each has its special educational value. Varied Occupations. — A little misapprehension sometimes exists in the minds of young teachers as to what are varied occu- pations. The following is an official list: — 86 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Ages Three to Five. Ages Five to Seven. I. Games with music. I. Games with music. 2. Games without music (guessing 2. Games without music. games, etc.). (a) Guessing Games, etc. 3. Recitations (nursery rhymes). (b) Taking messages. 4. Picture lessons (learning to answer in 3. Picture lessons. complete sentences as to what they can see 4. Object lessons. in a picture). 5. Story lessons. 5. Paper folding. (a) Stories from history. (6) Grimm's Household Tales. 6. Mosaic with coloured tablets. 7. Drawing. 6. Recitations. 8. Matching colours (picking out the 7. Paper folding. same shades of wool from a heap of rem- 8. Mosaic with coloured paper; use of nants). gum. g. Plaiting paper. 9. Drawing ; brush drawing. 10. Working patterns with needle and 10. Plaiting paper. worsted. II. Ruling simple geometrical forms. 11. Threading beads in twos, threes, etc. 12. Measuring and estimating length. 12. Arranging shells in twos, threes, etc. 13. Weighing; estimating weight. 13. Arranging " pictures of number " with 14. Setting a table. cubes. (a) Carrying a glass of water without 14. Word building. spilling it. (6) Moving cups without breaking them. 15. Modelling in clay. 16. Basket work. 17. Cutting out patterns and shapes with scissors. 18. Word building. 19. Number pictures, with cubes, beads, etc. Colour. — All knowledge commences through the senses by sense impressions ; hence these lessons should begin at the threshold of school life. Colour should be taught before form, because — T. It is more attractive to children. 2. It is a refreshing change from other work. 3. It is more simple than form. The recognition of colour is a simple sensation, whilst the recognition of form involves more than a simple sensation. Z. Stages. — There should be three stages. 1. To Distinguish Colours. — This should be confined to the three primary colours, red, blue, yellow, and should be the work of the babies. 2. To Match and Distinguish two shades of the same colour. — The shades selected should be widely apart. 3. To Harmonise Colours. — To fill in two or three shades between two extremes. H. How Taught. — These lessons can be given in various ways : — 1. By Contrast and Harmony. — The colours can be put one against the other in such a way as to illustrate both these principles. 2. By Reference. — Flowers, articles of clothing, etc., can be referred to. Worsted balls, ribbons, beads, niq.rbles, hair, eyes, chalks, etc., alsOr KINDERGARTEN. 87 3. By Kindergarten Gifts. — Several of the gifts lend themselves to this pur- pose, whilst colour sheets, pictures, and ravelling may all be utilised. Tablet laying, perforating, embroidery and sewing, paper cutting and paper folding, weaving, or paper plaiting, etc., all assist. m. Apparatus. — This will depend on the nature and method of teaching employed, but the following are recommended:— 1. A sheet of coloured squares showing — (a) Black and white. (6) Primary colours. (c) Secondary colours. (d) Common shades of different colours. 2. Loose cards coloured in the same way. 3. Coloured wools and textile fabrics. 4. Coloured pictures. 5. A set of small drawing models painted in different colours. rv. Oeneral Principles. Plan of a I^esson on a Secondary Colour. 1. Experiment and Observation. {a) .\fix the two primary colours which form it, e.g. : — Red and blue mixed give purple. Red and yellow „ orange. Blue and yellow „ green. Do not tell the children what will happen. Let them observe carefully, so that they may see the result for themselves. This will ensure interest and attention. (b) Use Si prism. Decompose light by the aid of a prism, and throw the colours on the wall. Of course, a suitable day is wanted. 2. Judgment. (a) Get the children to select a shade between two other shades, to point out a lighter or darker shade than the one pointed out by the teacher. {b) As a further exercise, they could have a number of colours submitted to them in a convenient way, which they should be asked to contrast. The shades in the clothing of their class mates would afford other illustrations. {c) As the colours are learned, the children should be required to match the loose cards from the coloured squares, or vice versa, {d) They should then be asked to name familiar objects of colour under observation. S. Harmony. — To teach harmony, accustom the eye of the child to good instances of it. Avoid inharmonious combinations in all lessons, and, if pos- sible, in the colour of the school walls. Form. — Lessons on form are better instruments for education than lessons on colour; but they are harder, and therefore follow colour. There is much in child school life that can aid the teacher in these lessons, such as kindergarten occupations, slates, pencils, some of the school furniture, the B.B., and books. 1, Langaage. — The teacher must be careful of his phraseology. Technical terms should be avoided. The child wants to learn the objects, not the names without the objects. For this purpose simple descriptive language should supersede technicalities until a later lesson, since a child may be able to recall an object, but fail to recall its difficult name. 2. Size.— Size should be taught first. Children readily perceive the different bulks of different bodies. Most answers will only be approximately right, and 88 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. the difficulty increases with difference of form and equality of bulk. The objects should be placed before the children, compared with some common standard, and their judgment should be invited and corrected where necessary. 3. Dimensions. — This would naturally lead on to the teaching of dimen- sions. Objects of similar shape are larger or smaller than each other, accord- ing as they are longer or shorter, broader or narrower, etc., and so the terms long and short, bj-oad and narj-ow, high and low, thick and thin, deep and shallow, are learjied. School objects will furnish plenty of material for this, whilst variety can be obtained by references to outside materials and buildings. In most cases — all where possible — the children should actually measure the objects themselves, for which purpose fiat wooden rulers should be supplied to them. The synonymity of height and depth should be illustrated. 4. Positions. — Lines may be drawn on the B.B. in one position, in two, and in three— the upright, the lying down or level, and the slanting. These can then be mixed and the class tested. The children can be asked to put their books or pencils, etc. , in the various positions. They can then draw the lines on their slates to the teacher's dictation. Drawing can also be done from imitation on the B.B,, the teacher gradually building letters like I, H, T, L, E, F, embracing perpendicular and horizontal lines (uprights and levels), whilst X, W, V, M, N, Z, introduce the slanting line. 5. Curve. — The curve will follow. It is already a familiar shape to the children. Balls, marbles, apples, oranges, coins, crockery, wheels, clocks, watches, etc. , are known, and can be utilised as illustrations. The capital letters like C, G, J, O, Q, B, R, D, S, can be introduced, and their elements analysed. The children might then try to copy them. Some teachers recommend the petals of flowers for the teaching of form and colour, but there are difficulties which make their use doubtful, at least for form, for young children. The supply of flowers would be one, the varied forms of the petals another, the difficulty for young children of folding out the petals to their true shape another ; but, where practicable, the exercise could be made very interesting. 6. Surface. — This could now be taught from the observation of flat and spherical bodies. Drawing. — This is one of the most interesting and most instructive of the many gifts of the kindergarten method. Its connection with writing has already been pointed out, but it pos- sesses other advantages over and above this. It is the first step to design.^ and the improvement of design is very necessary for the maintenance of some of our manufactures. It is an essential to many occupations ; it encourages and develops observation^ culti- vates the graphic memory., exercises the imagination in the construc- tion of design, cultivates the perceptive faculty , and gives a delicacy of manipulation which is very valuable. Furthermore, description appears in its most successful form in drawing, for the most gifted writer cannot present a scene like a picture, which always appeals to the understanding and the emotions more rapidly and more successfully than any word description. It develops the cssthetic emotion by raising the tastes of the people. Good works of art may and often do become objects of enjoyment where the drawing faculty has been cultivated, whilst habits of care, neatness, and accuracy are produced which must react upon the general character. KINDERGARTEN. 89 Apparatus.— Graduated slaie cards should be used in the earliest classes, squared paper iov the higher classes, and the whole work should be based on Froebel's system. Where Mulhauser's system of writing is taught, the squares are a training for the use cf the rhomboids. A chequered B.B. will be neces- sary for demonstration. The work might be divided into three stages. 1. First Stage.— Squared slates and paper are recommended for the follow- ing reasons: — (<2) To guide the childs hand. \b) To give the first ideas of length and proportion. Tliis stage deals only with the length and direction of straight lines and common angles. The exercises should be graded thus : — (fl) Level (horizontal) lines. (6) Upright (perpendicular) lines, (c) Slanting (oblique) lines. Common simple terms should be used first, the technical names being given afterwards. Alternate lines are then drawn through two spaces, and the per- f>endicular and horizontal are brought near to each other for comparison. Oblique lines are similarly treated, and the process is continued until the lines run through five squares. The common angles could then be taught. They could be spxjken of as small corners {cuute), large corners {obtuse)., and («/)-right comers. 2, Second Stage. — In this stage, the lines are grouped to form figures in various positions. The figures are geometrical, like the right-angled triangle, the square, and combinations of these ; e,^., two right-angled triangles may give a square ; a series of squares of graded sizes joined together give steps ; and so on. The children thus get their first idea of design by learning the analysis and synthesis of common geometrical figures. This method of teaching offers large scof)e for figure building, and is very interesting to children. 8. Third Stage. — Further combinations are made in this stage. Larger and more complicated figures are given, and simple, pretty, straight-lined designs are sometimes the result. The children might also be left to their own ingenuity now and then to devise designs of their own. The system also lends itself readily to dictated and memory drawing. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I.— Give the heads of a lesson on the three principal colours, and say what objects, pictures, or apparatus you would need to make such a lesson interesting and useful. 2. — Describe the best system you know for teaching form and colour. 3. — Explain the terms kindergarten, Froebel's gifts, and state fully the educational use of the second and fourth gifts. 4.— Detail some of the geometrical projjcrties that may be taught to young children by folding square or rectangular pieces of paper, and give illustrative diagrams. ^. — Give examples of kindergarten exercises that may be used to stimulate invention and imitation in young children. 6.— Enumerate Froebel's seven gifts, and show the progressive nature of their lessons. 7. — For what purposes are lessons on form and colour given to infants ? Name the order in which the principal plane figores should be taught. 8.— Describe tne earliest lessons in drawing which would be given in an infant school. go A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 9.— Of all the different employments now used in infant schools, besides the learning of reading, writing, and arithmetic, which do you consider most useful and interesting, and why ? 10.— The Code requires that " appropriate occupations shall be provided for children in an infant school, besides instructions in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in common objects ". What are the best of these " occupations," and what educative pur- pose do they serve ? II. — In what order would you use the kindergarten "gifts" in an infant school? How should the lessons be conducted so as best to exercise the intelligence and observa- tion of the children ? 12.— Notes 0/ Lessons. The square and its properties (I.). 13.—" It should be borne in mind that it is of little service to adopt the ' gifts' and mechanical occupations of the kindergarten, unless they are so used as to furnish real training in accuracy of hand and eye, in intelligence and in obedience." Explain and illustrate this passage, and show how a teacher can best give effect to its recommen- dation. 14. — Describe a good lesson on colour adapted for an infant class, and say what illustrations you would get together before giving such a lesson. 15. — Say how you could, either by paper folding or by simple drawing, make the properties of a square visible to young children, and explain what are the uses of such a lesson. 16.— Taking a square of paper, what simple ideas of form can you impress on a class by folding a paper so as to make a single crease in it ? T/ns Chapter is continued in the Atpendix. 91 CHAPTER VIII. ARITHMETIC. In the Revised Instructions issued to Her Majesty's Inspectors, it is stated that many experienced teachers believe that the true progression in Arithmetic is not to be found in advancing from addition and subtraction to multiplication and division, with the large numbers often given in sums; but in graduated exercises beginning with small numbers and exhausting all their combina- tions. Such teachers will take, for example, the number twenty, and, after helping the scholars to count cubes or other objects, will dissect the number, find out in how many ways it is made up, learn its fractions and aliquot parts, apply it to money, length, hours, and minutes, and perform all the arithmetical processes, both orally and in writing, which can be dealt with within that limit, higher numbers and more elaborate exercises in notation being reserved to a later stage. Whether this course be followed or not, the reasons of arithmetical processes should be properly explained and understood, for this is a department of school work which has been much overlooked. There is in an elementary school course scarcely any more effective discipline in thinking than is to be obtained from an investigation of the principles which underlie the rules of Arithmetic. When children obtain answers to sums and problems by mere mechanical routine, without knowing why they use the rule, or when, on receiving a question or a problem, they ask, " What rule is it in ? " they cannot be said to have been well instructed in Arithmetic. It must be remembered that Arithmetic is both an art and a science, the former being all-important for practice and the latter for training. The science deals with the properties and principles of numbers, discovers their truths, and hands them over to the art which applies them. Each has its value ; but when Arithmetic is all art, as it often has been in some schools, it then becomes a mere imitative or mechanical process, and quite useless as a 92 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. means of training — its highest value. It will thus be obvious that for the efficient handling of the subject it must, like Grammar, be taught inductively and applied deductively. Every new rule or truth should be taught by this inductive method; nor should the rule be applied to the working of examples until the reasoning underlying those truths is perfectly clear to the class. Good teaching will seek to reduce the labour involved in the work to a minimum ; to supply easy and short rules, clear and intelligent methods, sufficient and suitable explanations, backed by well-chosen examples. The newer and abbreviated methods will enable the teacher to get rid of cumbrous operations, which breed fatigue and disgust for the subject. Assistance will be so given as to encourage self-eff'ort ; the methods of teaching adopted will strengthen concentration, which is all-essential in Arithmetic ; and it will insist upon the work being set out in a neat, legible, and clear style, whilst numerous suitable exercises will ensure rapid and accurate computations and solutions. ADVANTAGES OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 1. Reasoning. — It is a fine aid towards building up the .reasoning powers, being both inductive and deductive in its teach- ing. A small number of fundamental propositions is laid down, consisting of such definitions as " Two is one and one," " Three is one and two " ; or such axioms as " The sums of equals are equal," or " The differences of equals are equal," and from these propositions are derived a large number of truths and applications of truths. Arithmetic makes the mind precise and accurate in its statements and judgments, and gives an orderly turn to it. By its aid the pupil learns to distinguish between the essential and the non-essential, and, generally, it supplies him with some neces- sary materials and training for scientific reasoning; and, finally, as it deals largely with abstract numbers, it assists considerably in developing the power of abstraction. 2. Truth. — It is an enemy to fallacies. Under its influence the pupil learns to accept nothing without a clear reason capable of demonstration. Some urge, however, that a too exclusive devotion to the wider subject of mathematics gives a wrong bias of mind respecting truth generally ; and although what is true of mathematics is largely true of arithmetic, nevertheless there is no fear of falling into this misfortune in an elementary school. We learn from Mill the reasons why the primary truths of mathe- ARITHMETIC. 93 matics seem to have a greater certainty than other inductive truths : — {a) Their Universality. — They are true of everything, everywhere, and at every time. (3) Their Extreme Familiarity. — The perception of their truth only requires the simple act of looking at objects in the proper position, and often only thinking of them in such a position. Hence exemplifications of their truth are incessantly presented to us. (c) The Absence of any Analogies to Suggest a Different Law. — This is very important. If everything in the universe always maintained a condition of absolute rest, we might find as much difficulty in conceiv- ing the possibility of the sun falling from the sky as we now have of conceiving that two straight lines can enclose a space. {d) They are Never Counteracted, being independent of causes. 3, Attention. — It is a fine aid to concentration, depending for its success upon the undivided attention of the pupil. 4, Emotional Efifects. — It is generally popular with children, especially with those who can master its difficulties readily. There is a consciousness oi power following success, an intensified interest of pursuit, a rebound of intellectual pleasure over some prob- lem solved. Its many devices for solution arouse wonder, and the capacity to deal with its problems gives a healthy self-esteem. 5, Its Pratctical Uses. — These are so obvious as to scarcely need mention. Apart from the training and discipline supplied on the inductive side, it forms a necessary qualification for everyday life, and especially for the shopkeeper, the merchant, the clerk, the engineer, surveyor, astronomer, accountant, and many other callings. NOTATION. — The teaching of notation to very young chil- dren requires much care and skill, for it involves the difficult transition from the concrete to the abstract. Such concrete objects as kindergarten sticks, cubes, the ball frame, lines or dots upon the B.B., picture numbers or money, are now invariably used, so that this branch of school work is taught on more scientific methods than formerly. Constant reference is made to the apparatus, and, where possible, the children are allowed to manipulate the objects themselves ; and although the very large classes in many of our modern schools make this manipulation a serious consideration both as to time, expense, and discipline, still it is based upon a principle of child life, and should be adopted even in the face of difficulties. The arithmetic then affords train- ing for both hand and eye, and both kindergarten sticks and pic- ture numbers afford opportunities for this kind of teaching. For this reason, where such things are available, and one kind at least 94 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. ought to be available in every school containing young children, it is recommended that the lessons be given with their aid. The Numbers from 1 to 9. — Taught with kindergarten sticks. Several lessons will be necessary. The skill of the teacher is the deciding factor rather than any fixed division of lessons. First Lessons. — Have 5 sticks distributed to each child. At a subsequent lesson tlie whole 9 could be given out. 1. {a) The teacher holds up one stick, and says one stick, the children re- peating while hfting up one stick each. The number name is thus associated with the object. {b) Now show one cube, one finger, one marble, etc. In each case the children repeat one cube, one finger, or one marble. The object is to accumulate instances. (c) Now place a dot or a line upon the B. B. The children again say ' ' one dot " or " one line". They should be asked to make a dot or a line upon their slates. Then put the figure one ( i ) on the B. B. Let them make it upon their slates. Tell them that it represents i stick, i cube, I marble, etc. Impress upon them the fact that i always means i something. The object is to get them to recognise the written symbol for I. 2. Hold up a second stick in the other hand. The children recognise it as one stick, and say so. They notice that you have one in each hand. They then take up another stick themselves, imitating you. Transfer both sticks to one hand, the children again copying. Now tell them that one stick and one stick make two sticks, the children repeating as before. Now make another dot or line upon the B.B., beside the first one. How many dots now ? Repeat with other objects. Then niake a figure 2 on the B. B. , let the children copy on their slates, and again make them understand that this figure stands for two something — sticks, cubes, balls, etc. Then exercise the class in picking out two things about the room. 3. Proceed in the same way with the other numbers, remembering that as the numbers increase in value fewer should be taken for one lesson, because a greater variety of simple arithmetic exercises may be worked from them. 4. Make use of the sticks to perform simple exercises in the simple rules ; e.g. , let children take up 3 sticks in one hand and 2 in the other. Then transfer them to one hand. Count them — thus 2 and 3 make 5. Such exercises as 4 + i, 3 + 2, 2 + 2, 2 + i, etc., could be worked in the same way ; or 5 - 4, 4 - 2, 3 - i. There are 2 twos in 4, 5 ones in 5, 5 ones make .15, and so on. Numbers from lO to 20, — Still taught by kindergarten sticks, but now each child will require two bound bundles of sticks, each bundle containing ten, and ten separate individual sticks also. This will be a big demand where the classes run to sixty, but it should be met if possible. The bundles should be strongly bound. 1. To Teach 10. — The teacher picks up 10 sticks one at a time, the children imitating and naming as the groups increase up to 9. When the tenth stick is reached give them the new name ten. Let them show their 10 sticks and name them. Vary the instances again, and let the children count and name in each case. Now write the symbol 10 on the B.B., let them write it on their slates, and make them understand that this represents ten somethings. Plenty of exercise of the kind specified now should be given. ^ ARITHMETIC 95 1. To Teach 11 and 12, etc. (a) Let the children take up a bundle of sticks each, and count the number of sticks in each bundle — 10. TAen one bundle is equal to ten single sticks. Take up a bundle in one hand and a single stick in the other. Class imitate. Transfer both to one hard. How many sticks has each one now? 10 and i. Tell them 10 and i make eleven. Let them repeat the name. Its notation presents afresh difficulty. Make a large figure 1 on the B. B. , and tell them that stands for i bundle, or 10 sticks in i bundle. Then make a small i beside it to represent the individual slick, thus, 1 1. Let them copy the symbol on their slates, and tell them that the figures stand for 11. The name is thus fixed to the symbol. Vary the instances again, showing 1 1 cubes, or 1 1 marbles, etc. , and let them name the number in each case. A proper arrange- ment of the cubes, dots, balls, etc. , will greatly assist in the formation of a right conception, thus — Ball Frame Din 10 Cubes ICube • • • ]| Cubes .10 Dots I Dot. l JO Beads^ I Bead. IIDots W •• Beads {b) The same method could be adopted for the teaching of 12, and now the teacher will be able to illustrate with a shilling and 12 pennies or with a sixpence and 12 halfpennies. All the numbers up to 19 could be thus treated, the teacher remembering to follow out the various steps in each case as detailed in the lessons given above. For the present the symbols might still be represented with a large figure for the tens, and a small one for the units, thus, li, I2, I3, I4, I5, and so on. But subsequently the teacher must reduce the tens figure to the same size as the units, and associate its greater value with its position. If coloured chalks are used in the first case to mark the tens figure, the symbols will be still more intelligible to the children. The teaching of 20 ought to present no difficulty to the teacher now numbers above 20.— The process is practically the same, an^ there ought to be no further difficulty in dealing with this branch of the subject. As the numbers proceed, the children should be exercised in building up the numbers with the sticks, and afterwards in decomposing them. This will afford capital practice both in synthesis and analysis of numbers, which is so necessary to the right understanding of some of the after processes in arithmetic. When the children are familiar with the new names for the symbols 30, 40, etc., the con- nection between them and the numbers between 12 and 20 might be contrasted and explained thus : — three (3) and K\\\xteen (13) and thir/y (30). four (4) ,, four/^^«(i4) ,, for/y (40). five (5) ,, f\Ueen (15) ,, fif/y (50). The Notation of Hundred*. — The class already knows up to 99. 1. Hew names.— With kindergarten sticks show that ten tens make 100. Give the new name, write its symbols on the B.B., let class copy on their slates and repeat the name. In a similar way, let them learn to recognise when written on the B.B. and on their slates 200, 300, etc., up to 900. There will be no difficulty with this step. H T 7 U 3 9 I I I 3 2 6 4 2 o 7 O 9 96 ^ NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. Decomposition. — Now have the numbers decomposed. The class are already famihar with the process with numbers of two figures, thus : — 100 = 10 tens and no units ; or i hundred o tens o units. 200 = 20 tens and no units ; or 2 hundreds o tens o units. 3. Notation. — Call attention to the fact that we simply name what is present, and say nothing of what is absent. We do not say one hundred no tens and no units, but simply one hundred, or two hundred, etc. Rule three parallel columns on the B.B., and head them units (U), tens (T), and hundreds (H), and see that the class understands them. 4. Furtlier Decomposition.— Give further practice in decom- position — 70 = 7 tens. 300 = 30 tens or 3 hundreds. Ill = II tens and i unit ; or i hundred i ten i unit. 326 = 32 tens and 6 units ; or 3 hundreds 2 tens 6 units. Now ask in which column 70 should be placed. Its de- composition helps them to recognise it as 7 tens, and so to place the 7 in the tens column ; 300 would be 3 placed in the hundreds column ; 9 would be placed in the first column, and so on. 8. The Cypher. — Now introduce the cypher. Hitherto we have not heeded it in the notation exercises of this stage. [a) In the Units. — Take 420 as an example. Have the number analysed into 4 himdreds and 2 tens. The absence of units is expressed by a cypher or nought (o). Compare 10 and 20. The 20 they already know " how to write, and the position of the hundreds (4) is now easily fixed for them. Give other examples, as 340, 670, 280. {b) In the Tens. — As in 709. Analyse again into 7 hundreds and 9 units. The absent tens a7'e expressed by a cypher (o). Then we write 7 in the hundreds column and 9 in the units. In the middle column (tens) there is a cypher (o) to indicate the absence of tens. Give other ex- amples. Diagrammatic aids may be given by varying the size of the figures according to their place values; e.g., 249- The chief value of such a system is that it accustoms children to associate increasing values with figures as they proceed to the left. The notation of thou- sands can be dealt with in the same way. Perhaps it is hardly neces- sary to remind students that this method of teaching notation teaches numeration at the same time. NUMBER PICTURES. — The use of number pictures is recommended by the Department in Circular 322 for use in all classes, and a scheme has been elaborated for teaching the num- bers up to twenty by means of these number pictures.* There is no doubt about their value educationally, and they constitute one of the best applications of kindergarten yet made. The work is made very attractive and suitable, and the old mechanical faults common to the teaching of this branch of arithmetic are destroyed by it. Children, rightly taught by these tablets, would soon love arithmetic, and would take their first steps under really scientific principles. There is no better method of teaching this stage of the work than by those sheets and tablets. Requirements. — To make their use effective the author lays down certain requirements. *fiand and Eye Arithmetic for Infants, Blackie & Soa ARITHMETIC. 97 1. The number pictures should be bright and attractive. 2. The value of each of the numbers i to 10 at least (preferably i to 20) should be impressed on the memory by a distinct mental picture. 3. The difference in the value of numbers should at once be apparent to the . eve. 4. In each picture number the concrete and the abstract should be com- bined. 5. The number pictures should allow all the component parts of the number to be vividly shown, both in the concrete and in the abstract, as a result. (a) The truth of the equality of each pair of components with the number itself is self-evident to the eye. (b) The picture of each pair of components is so vividly impressed upon the mind, through the eye, that the mention of one component immediately recalls the other. 6. The number picture should represent pictorial ly our system of notation. 7. The number pictures should be of such a character that they can be reproduced with ease by the children. 8. The number picture should, if possible, illustrate pictorially the processes of the four simple rules. Apparatus. 1. The YlYld Arithmetic Sheets for Number Laying.— These are for the teacher's use, and are adapted for class teaching. They include four large sheets on rollers, and on them each number from i to 20 is represented by a distinct picture in bright attractive colours. It is claimed that the value of each number is impressed on the mind in three ways : — (a) By the number o' unit squares which compose the concrete representation of the number. (6) By the size of the figure itself, each figure being drawn to scale. (c) By the space covered. 2. Ylvid Tablets. — These are supplied to the children, and correspond to the colours on the sheets, which enable them to build an exact representation of each picture number. 3. Other Apparatus.— So far as can be gathered from the first few lessons, there would also be required : — (a) Slates ruled in squares to suit the tablets. (6) Blackboard ruled to match the slates. (c) Cardboard Figures. A set of these should be given to each child. (d) Pencils. Three for each child. («) Apples. To teach fractions. Teaching. — Special stress is laid on the following instruc- tions : — 1. The »w , 9 beads and 5 beads make 14 beacjsy. 9 and 5 hiake ip , ,' i .' The teacher then draws a line beneath {he '3' ihd writes dovv^n thfe 14. The class might then go through the same process, beginning with the top figure. The children will see that the same answer is obtained. The work might then be varied with kindergarten cubes, thus : — 3 Cubes end 4 Cubes mahe 7 Cubes lI V i Vi'iV i ® 7 Cubes and 2 Cubes make C l ^ 1 1 1 ^ 1 ^1 ■ ! 'I ^1 ^ 1 9 Cubes * so on. The advantage of the cubes is that the growth of the addition is made clear step by step. As in the previous case the B. B. should be used. By thus varying the objects, the certainty and accuracy of the truths involved are impressed upon the child, who thus learns that whatever the object used may be, 4 and 3 always make 7. The transition to the abstract is also rendered easier. 6. All the concrete objects should now be removed, and the work done mentally. Other examples should follow to give the necessary practice for accuracy. ZI. Tens. — The preparatory lessons on notation, or the use of picture numbers and the arithmetic problems involved, ought still to be sufficient to make this next step fairly easy to the children. " Carrying " is an added difficulty in this case. The numerical box and the B.B. might be used for this lesson. 1. Show the box and explain the use of its compartments. Let Py" ^^r^ ■«;-- the class thoroughly under- n^^^V \^ V ^sj^^ stand that all the units will be placed in the compartments under the U, and all the tens in the compartments labelled T. The hundreds can be left till the next lesson. 2. Practise the class in the de- composition of numbers on the B.B. Thus:— 29 is equal to 20 and 9, i.t. , to 2 tens and 9 units 13 is equal to 10 and 3, i.e., to i ten and 3 units. 72 is equal to 70 and 2, i.e., to 7 tens and 2 units. lo tens make 100. Hence we have 100 and 14, which is written 114. 3. Set the above sum on the B.B., and decompose the first number 29 as shown. The class will readily understand you then when you place a sticks under the tens (T), and 9 sticks under the units (U). Proceed with the other numbers in the same way. The bottom compartments can be used as answer compartments. A 1. A A ~T\^ 3\ A ~7\ A -\ io\ i^v\ 1C2 A NEV/ MANUAL OF METHOD. 4. Commence with the units compartments. Take the 9 sticks out of the _ , tcp compaitmen^ ?Hd place them in the next below Let the class coanf all "the sticks in it —12, Then 9 sticks and 3 sticks make 12 ■ ' ' sticks. Next take the 12 sticks out and place them in the next below, and again let class count all the sticks within that compartment — 14. Then 12 sticks and 2 sticks make 14 sticks. 5. Then turn to the B B., and let the work be done there in the abstract, thus : 9 and 3 are 12, 12 and 2 are 14. 6. Proceed in the same way with the tens compartments. 7. Then explain as shown under the diagram, and the total is found to be 114. 8. Now turn to the B.B. Cast the units column upwards, T U beginning with the 2. The total is 14 again. Decom- pose this into i ten and 4 units. Tell the class to place 2 9 the 4 units under the units column, and then add the 113 ten to the tens column ; thus 1 + 7 + 1 + 2 = 11. Tell 7 2 them to write down the ii beside the 4, and they will perceive that the answer IS again 114. The reason for so 11 4 doing ought now to he well understood by the class. 9. As a confirmatory step compare the two methods of expressing the number 114, and let the class see that they both produce the same result. Thus 10 tens and 14 units = 100 and 14 = 1 14. II tens and 4 units =110 and 4 = 114. 10. Further exercises should be dealt with in the same way, the sticks and the box being eventually withdrawn, and the whole work done in the abstract with the figures only. "Hundreds" can be taught in the same way. SIMPIiB SUBTRACTION. I. First Ijessons. — It is assumed that the children can per- form easy examples in subtraction from the practice already received with the kindergarten sticks, picture numbers, cubes, beads, and ball irame. It is also assumed that they are familiar with the method of representing these simple exercises on the B.B. and on their slates, for both were used through these earlier lessons. The teacher's work should then commence where the last lessons finished. Preparatory Exercises.— These should involve neither borrowing nor de- composing. In every case the figures in the bottom line should be less than those above it in the top line. The children ought to be able to do these exercises mentally. Thus • — 18 27 35 19 17 12 78 91 13 16 21 8 4 10 53 60 ^11141113^2531 H, The Method of Decomposition. — Take 17 from 45. (a) Use the ball frame or kindergarten sticks Show that — 45 = 4 tens and 5 units =40+5 =45 = 3 tens and 15 units \ = 30 + 15! = 45) 17 = I ten and 7 units/ = 10 + 7 f -- 17/ Difference = 2 tens and 8 units = 20 + 8 =28 ARITHMETIC. 103 (b) Now work the process on the B.B. ; e.g., take 344 from 721. De- composing each number, we have — 721 = 7 hundreds and 2 tens and i unit =700+ 20+ i =721 = 6 hundreds and 12 tens and i unit =600+120+ i =721 = 6 hundreds and 11 tens and 11 units^ =600+ 110+ ii\ =721) 344 = 3 hundreds and 4 tens and 4 units/ = 300+ 40+ 4^=344/ DifiPnce = 3 hundreds and 7 tens and 7 units =300+ 70+7 =377 [c) Work other examples on the B.B,, supplementing, illustrating, explain- ing, and correcting where necessary. Let class then work exercises on their slates. m. The Method of Equal Additions. 1. Preparatory Exercises. — The object of these will be to reveal to the class the fundamental axiom on which this method is based. Use the ball frame or kindergarten sticks, and proceed as follows : — 9-4 = 5- (9 + 3) - (4 + 3) = 12 - 7 = 5 (9 + 6) - (4 + 6) = 15 ^ lo = 5 (9 + 8) - (4 + 8) = 17 - 12 = 5 From these and similar examples the class will infer that if the same quantity be sodded to two unequal numbers their difference will remain un- altered. 2. Application of this Truth to Other Examples.— Ask for the difference between 17 and 45—28 by the last method. But the answer will remain unaltered if I add the same number to both of these quantities, e.g. : — 45 + 10 = 4 tens and 15 units = 40 + 15 = 55 17 + 10 = 2 tens and 7 units = 20 + 7 = 27 Difference = 2 tens and 8 units = 20 + 8 = 28 The children may experience some difficulty in grasping the reason of this, the special point of difficulty bemg that the additions, although equal, are made to the units in the one case and to the tens in the other. Explain that this is merely a matter of convenience to make the work easier, and illustrate as follows: — {a) Original numbers 45) The children are to note that the 7 cannot 17 /be taken from the 5. {6) Add 10 to each quantity— 45 + 10 = 55 1 Children still to note that the 7 cannot be taken 17 + 10 = 27 /from the 5. {c) Now decompose the numbers. Children to note that the 7 now can be taken from 15. 55 = 4 tens and 15 units. 27 = 2 tens and 7 units. S. Exercises.— Now let exercises be worked on the B.B., and extend the process to 3 figures; e.ig., take 354 from 543. 543 = 5 hundreds 14 tens (10 tens added) 13 units (10 added) = 653 354 = 4 hundreds (loo added) 6 tens (i ten added) 4 units = 464 Diflfercncc= i hundred 8 tens 9 units -— 189 The class should now be invited to test the additions. There has been added — To the top line - - 10 tens and 10 units = 100 +10=110 To the bottom line - i hundred and i ten = 100 + 10 = 110 i.e.. Equal Additions are made In each case. 104 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. TV, The Method of Complementary Addition. — This method is much the same as what is known as "proving" subtraction, and it is claimed for it that it is easy and does away with one of the simple rules (subtraction), reducing the simple rules to three instead of four ; i.e., to addition, multiplication, and division. The practice which the children have already received in the analysis and synthesis of numbers, in decomposing them and in building them up, will assist materially in making these complementary additions. There are two difficulties to which the teacher will require to call attention : — (a) The case when borrowing is required in ordinary subtraction. (d) The case of cyphers. 1. Easy Examples. — First give some preparatory exercises : — 7 + g = i6. Here the complement of g is 7, and the complement of 7 is g, because g + 7 = 16 and 7 + g = 16. Other and similar examples might be given. Examples should then be set which are easy for the same reason that they are easy in either of the other methods, viz., that each figure in the top line is greater than the figure placed beneath it. 6842g 3 + (6) = g; i + (i)=2; 2 + 2 = 4; 7 + 1=8; 1+5 = 6. 17213 ) 51216 ) 2. Harder Examples. — This includes cases where any bottom figure is greater than any top figure placed above it. If the children are to under- stand the reason of the process they employ, the method becomes 2632 by no means so easy as is asserted. An analysis of the example 1756^ given will show that some of the difficulties of both the other J- methods are involved. Still there is no doubt that the method •876J is easy and quick in practice. units 6 + (6) = 12 = 2 units + i ten. tens 5 + (7) + (i) = 13 = 3 tens + i hundred, hundreds 7 + (8) + (i) = 16 = 6 hundred + i thousand, thousands i + (o) + (i) = 2. 3. The Cypher. — An examination of an example will show that the cypher must always be looked upon as 10, e.^. : — 30og 7 + (2) = g ; 3 + (7) = 10 = o tens and i hundred. 1537I 5 + (4) + (i) = 10 = o hundreds and i thousand. \ i + (i) + (i)= 3. 1472 J It will be observed that the complemental figure, and the figure to be canied, is expressed in brackets in these explanations. If such a method were adopted, it would probably be better expressed as follows : — 6842g 2632 30og 17213 1756 1537 51216 876 1472 ARITHMETIC. TWO METHODS COMPARED. 105 Decomposition. Fqual Additions. 1. It applies and extends the power of decomposing numbers already acquired by children. 2. By many the method is alleged to be simpler, and the reason of the process is more readily grasped because no new prin- ciple is involved. 3. It is not so largely used as the other method. 4. By many teachers it is not considered so safe as the method of equal additions. 5. Though easier in principle, it is harder in practice, through the mental process of decomposition involved. 6. It is the slower method for work pro- bably. 7. The occurrence of cyphers increases the difficulty of the work. 1. It introduces and applies one of the fundamental axioms of mathematics — that if the same quantity be added to two num- bers their difference remains unaltered. 2. It is more difficult of comprehension because the equal additions are made to different denominations. Some teachers hold a conflicting opinion to this. 3. It is the general method in practice, 4. Many consider it the safer method, because there is no difference in the pro- cess, although there may be in the examples. 5. Though more difficult of apprehension it is easier in practice. " Borrowing" and "paying-back" is a modification of this methud. 6. It is the quicker method for work. 7. The occurrence of cyphers does not increase its difficulty. THE MUXiTTPIjICATION TABIjES. I. Memory.— The period from the sixth to the tenth years is the best time for memory work, and it is called the plastic period of the mind. Repetition is necessary for permanence of impres- sion, and the art of teaching the multiplication tables is to lessen the number of repetitions for their retention. The work is ex- hausting, hence there should be suitable rests and sequences. The time for memory work is important. Early morning is favourable, because the total energy of the pupils is then at its greatest. The last hour of morning^ school is suitable, because the strength of the pupils is then at its best. Cold weather is conducive to vigorous mental work, because the vigour of the body is always greater at these periods. Some natures require prompting or stimulating, hence it may be necessary to subject some pupils to some form of pain, but the association is an unfortunate one, and should be avoided if possible. With the great majority it will always be sufficient to present the work in such a form as will arouse the greatest amount of interest. The formation of memory depends upon the formation of good habits of acquisition, e.g.y comparison, contrast, and classi- fication through the detection of similarity and difference. The method of questionings adopted by the teacher may also be made to aid memory very muclv io6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. n. Teaching^. — The tables may be grouped into two classes : those which are easy, and those which are more difficult of acqui- sition. 1. Sasy Tables. — These include the tables for two, three, four, five, ten, and eleven. {a) Two Times and Three Times. — Let the children make up these tables for themselves. Thus 2x3 = 6 can be verified by the child, who can count 3 twice or 2 thrice, and so find the total ; and so with the other numbers. If the picture numbers have been used, many of the easier products will be already known. The leaps here be- tween product and product are very small, and the mind is gene- rally agile enough to make them. They also enter more largely into the conversation of the children in their everyday life ; e.^. : " I'm twice as big as you; " "He has three times as many marbles as John". (d) Four Times. — This is easy for the same reasons, though increasing in difficulty over 2 and 3. [c) Five Times. — This is very easy from the alternate recurrence of the 5 and the o. [d) Ten Times.— This table also is very easy from the invariable recur- rence of the o, and from the similarity of figures in the product and the multiplicand, e.^. : — 10 X 8 = 80 j 10 X 5 = 50 > The attention should be called to all these mnemonics. 10 X II = no ) [e) Eleven Times. — This is easy until the century is passed, from the re- duplication of the figures in the product each time. e.g. : — II times 3 are 33. II ,, 4 M 44- II .. 5 M 55, etc. . . ,. After the century they are harder because this reduplication disappears. The teacher may use devices for fixing, but as there are but three items to learn, a little vigorous repetition would .soon fix these. In learning tables a certam amount of rote work is absolutely necessary, and must be faced. 2. Hard Tables. — These include the tables for six, seven, eight, nine, and twelve. (a) Six Times.— Seven-twelfths of this table are already known, e.g. :— 6 X 1=6 and is the same as 6 X 2 = 12 ,, 6 X 3 = 18 6 X 4 = 24 6 X 5 = 30 6 X 10 = 60 ,, 6 X II = 66 ,, Now divide the remaining products into two classes : — (i) 6 X 6 = 36. (2) 6x7 = 42. 6 X 8 = 48. 6 X 9 = 54. 6 X 12 = 72. In the first class, point to the typed coincidences, and give plenty of repetition to both. It may also be advisable to decompose the second class, and to show that 6 groups of 7 = 7 groups of 6, and to let the class count the product in each case, thus — I X 6 = 6. 2 X 6 = 12. 3 X 6 = 18. 4 X 6 = 24. 5 X 6 = 30. 10 X 6 = 60. II X 6 = 66. ARITHMETIC. 16^ 42. 6 groups of 7. 7 groups of 6 {^) Seven Times. — Eight-twelfths or two-thirds of this table are already known. Set out the known portion on the B.B. ; e.^., 7 times i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, and 11. The reduction of the work will be an incentive to learn the other third. These are — 7 X 7 =-- 49 ; 7 X 8 = 56 ; 7 X 9 = 63 ; 7 X 12 = 84. Mnemonics may be used ; 49 may be represented m the form of a square ; the numbers may be decomposed ; specialities may be notified as in the case of 7 x 9 = 63, where the sum of the digits in the product (6 -f 3) = 9 (the multiplier). But for so small a number of products repetition is the best method {c) Eight Times.— Proceed as in "6 times ' and "7 times". Only three products have to be learned — 8 X 8 = 64 ; 8 X 9 = 72 ; 8 x 12 = 96. All the rest are known. 64 may be demonstrated like 49 ; in the case of 8 X 9 = 72 we again have 7-1-2 = 9. But repetition is still the best method. (cfj Nine Time*.— There are only two products to learn — 9 X 9 = 81, and this can be demonstrated like 49 and 64. 9 X 12 = 108. Repetition would soon fix this. Then the whole table might be set out on the B. B. . and the memory assisted by the following mnemonics : — (i) Note the descending order of the units ; e.g., 9, 8,7,6,5,4, 3, 2, 1,0, 9, 8. (2) The ascending order of the tens ; e.g., i, 2, 3, 4. 5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. (3) The number of tens in the product is always one less than in the multiplier ; e.g., 9x2 = 18, 9 X 3 = 27. (4) The sum of the digits in the product in each case (except 9 x 1 1 ) is always 9 ; e.g., i8 = 1-1-8 = 9; 27 = 2 + 7 = 9; 36 = 34-6 = 9. {e) Twelve Times. — There is now only one product to learn in this table. All else is already known. As this product 12 x 12 = 144 is a perfect square, it can c.isily be fixed in the memory. Plenty of mental arith- metic, and recurring doses of repetition, will be found most efficacious for permanence of impression. Multiplication by One Figure. 1. Preparation. — The multiplication table should be known, and some mental arithmetic on the table chosen should be given. 2. Method of Teaching. (a) Show that multiplication is only a shortened form of addition, e.j^. : — 6x4 = 6 + 6-f6 + 6 = 4+4-h4 + 4 + 4-f-4 = 24. 9 X 1 = 9 9 X 2 = 18 9 X .3 = 27 9 X 4 = 36 9 X 5 = 45 9 X 6 = 54 9 X z = 63 9 X 8 = 72 9 X 9 = 8i 9 X 10 = 90 9 X II = 99 9 X 12 = 108 io8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. {d) Take an easy example ; e.^: and set out thus . — (I) 4000 X 4 = 16000 300 X 4 = 1200 50 X 4 = 200 2x4= 8 4352 X 4. Decompose the multiplicand, (2) 4000 + 300 + 50 + 2 4 16000 + 1200 + 200 + 8 4352 X 4 = 17408 {c) Then set out the sum on the B. B. in the ordinary form, and explain the "carrying," which the class will now be able to understand. To make the transition easier, and quite intelligible, one extra step might be introduced thus : — Final Form. 4352 4 T H T U 4 3 5 2 4 16 thous. 16 thous. 17 thous. 12 hun. or iT + 2H 4 hund. 20 tens or 2H tens 8 units. 8 units. 8 units. 17408 Multiplication by Two Figures. The class can multiply by one figure, and the same method enables them to multiply by numbers up to 12 ; hence they can multiply by 10. Take as an example 4872 x 67. 1. Analyse the multiplier into 60 + 7. We require 60 times 4872 and 7 times 4872, and if we add the two answers together we shall have 67 times 4872. 2. Exercise with multipliers having a cypher in the units ; e.g: , 20, 30, 40, etc. The class already know how to multiply by 10, and an analysis of the product will show that with all such multipliers we multiply by the tens figure and add a cypher to our answer. The reason is that 20 = 2 X 10, and so on. 3. Set the work on the B. B. as follows : — 4872 X 7 = 34104 4872 X 60 = 292320 4872 X 67 = 326424 4. Then set the work out in the ordinary form, and show that the bracketed cypher may be omitted without altering the value. Final Form. 4872 4872 67 67 34104 = 7 X 4872 29232(0) = 60 X 4872 34104 29232 326424 326424 = 67 X 4872 Multiplication by Three Fig^urea. I. Some preparatory work will be required to explain and accustom the class to two cyphers in the multiplier in such quantities as 200, 300, ARITHMETIC. log 400, etc. The class will soon understand why they add two cyphers in the answer. They can already multiply intelligently by such quantities as 20, 30, 40, etc. And decomposition will readily show that 200 = 20 X 10 ; 300 = 30 X 10 ; and in each case both these factors are within the multiplying capacity of the class. Some exercises should be given to test the soundness of their knowledge of this process ; e.g. , 6429 x 200 ; 7835 x 400, etc. 2. Take as an example 6843 ^ 234. 3. Decompose the multiplier into 200 + 30 + 4. 4. Proceed as follows: — 6843 X 200 = 1368600 6843 X 30 = 205290 6843 X 4 = 27372 6843 X 234 = 1601262 5. Combine the three into the ordinary form, putting the value of each product by its side, and again explaining and demonstrating that the bracketed cyphers may be omitted without altering the value of the answer. Final Form. 6843 6843 234 234 27372 = 4 X 6843 27372 20529(0) = 30 X 6843 20529 i3686(o)(o) = 200 X 6843 13686 1601262 = 234 X 6843 1601262 Multiplication by Tactors.— Multiplication by factors is useful as introducing a little variety into the work, and in the case of the products of two factors there may be some economy in time ; but there is rarely any advantage practically in dealing with factors beyond this limit. There is the advantage of the extra training in the analysis of numbers, but there is rarely any economy in dealing with such a quantity as 216 by factors, unless the pupil is very ready at such analysis. Whilst he is searching out the factors 6 x 4 x g, he would already have partly made his calculation by the ordinary method. There is no difficulty in demonstrating this method intelligently to the class. The. multi- plier is factored, and the value of each product is written against it. Take as examples 3456 x 28 and 7891 x 216. Factor the multipliers 7x4 = 28 19x4x6 = 216. 3456 7891 7 9 24192 = 7 X 3456 71019 = 9 X 7891 4 4 96768 = 28 (4 X 7) X 3456 284076 = 36 (4 X 9) X 7891 6 1704456 = 216 (6 X 4 X 9) X 7891 lo A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Short Methods. 1. With such numbers as loi, 201. 301, etc., it will be noticed that the units are unity and there are no tens. Take 68754 x 201 as an example. 68754 Put down the first two figures (54), and multiply the 201 first figure (4) by 2, adding in the third figure back (7), and so on. 13819554 This example should be set out on the B, B. , and worked by the ordinary method, and the two compared. The reason for the process will then be obvious. 2. With such numbers as 11 10 or 11 14, it will be noticed that each digit is unity except the first. Take as examples 56173 x mo and 56173 x 11 14. (a) 56173 Put down a cypher for the units in the first ex- II 10 ample. In the second multiply by 4, and then in each case add in at each multiplication as many 62352030 back figures as there are "ones " in the multiplier ; e.g., the carried figure is in brackets. (b) (000)56173 (a) o ; 3 ; 3 + 7 = 10 (o and carry i) ; 3 + 7 + i + 1114 (i) = 12 (2 and carry i) ; 7 + i + 6 + (i) = 15 ■ (5 and carry i) ; i + 6 + 5 + (i) = 13 (3 and carry 62576722 i) ; 6 + 5 + (i) = 12 (2 and carry i) ; 5 + (i) = 6. [d) The second case is a little more difficult, and it will save errors if the student imagines there to be as many cyphers prefixed to the multiplicand as there are ones in the multiplier. (4x3) = (1)2 I (4 X 5) + (3) + 6 + I + 7 = (3)7 (4 X 7) + (i) 4- 3 = (3)2 I (4 X o) + (3) 4- 5 4- 6 4- I = (1)5 (4 X 1)4- (3) 4-74-3 ={1)7 I (4 X o) 4- (1)4-04-5 4- 6 = (1)2 (4 X 6) 4- (i) -f I 4- 7 4- 3 = (3)6 I (4 X o) 4- (i) 4- o -t- o 4- 5 = 6 3. With multipliers composed wholly or mostly of nines, e.g:, 9, 999, 96, 993, etc., it will be noted that the numbers are always near some multiple of 10. The method is an application of the mathematical truth that if the same quantity be added and subtracted from a number you do not alter its value. Take as examples 3475 x 9 ; 999 ; 96. Deal with the multipliers thus : — 9 = 10 - I ; 999 = 1000 - I ; 96 = 100 - 4. 34750 = 10 times 3475 3475000 = 1000 times 3475 3475 = I M 3475 3475 = i m 31275 = g „ 3475 3471525 = 999 347500 = 100 times 3475 13900 = 4 „ „ 333600= 96 „ 4. With multipliers composed of multiples of 5. 25. Add two cyphers and divide by 4 for ^^ = 25. 125. „ three „ „ 8 „ i-V-^ = 125. 625. „ four „ „ 16 „ J-o^V-^ = 625. Obviously such examples as these must be left until division is learned. Some may have to be postponed until fractions and decimals are known, e.g. :— ARITHMETIC. ill 12^. Add two cyphers and divide by 8 for -V- = H^ =12^ i6i. „ „ „ 6 „ ^<^ = H^ = i6§ ii-i. „ „ „ 9 „ 11^ = ^^= iri 9-09. .. „ „ II „ 9/^ = V/ = ¥/ SHORT DIVISION. — The preparatory exercises introducing Short Division will have been thoroughly mastered during the earlier lessons on addition, notation, etc., with the kindergarten sticks or picture numbers, or other concrete aids. Each term as it is introduced should be explained. I. Its Connection with Multiplication.— The process is the inverse of multiplication, and depends on the recollection of what has been learned in multiplication. Multiplication. Division. 2x8 = 16 16-^2 = 8 3X4= 12 12-^3 = 4 7x6 = 42 42-r7=6 Let the class examine and compare these on the B. B. Lead them to see that there are— 8 groups of 2 in 16 or 2 groups of 8 in 16. 4 ,, 3 in 12 or 3 ,, 4 in 12. 6 ,, 7 in 42 or 7 ,, 6 in 42. H. Methods of Expression. — Give these next, both symbolic and verbal. Verbal Methods. (a) Divide 16 by 2. \b) How many 2*s are there in 16? \c) Divide 2 into 16. All these calculations can be made with concrete objects first and then mentally. Other examples should be given. m. Its Connection with Subtraction. — The teacher should now connect division with subtraction, by showing that it is a shortened form of subtraction. Thus, on the ball frame show that— 15 -r 5 = 3, or there are 3 groups ot 5 in 15. 15 -5-5-5 = 0; i.e., 3 groups of 5 have been subtracted from 15 and nothing is left, hence 15 is composed of three fives, or 5 into 15 goes 3. Show this step by step. 15 - 5 = 10 ; first position ; 5 taken away and 10 left. 10 - 5 = 5 ; second position ; 5 taken away and 5 left. 5 - 5 = o ; third position ; another 5 is taken away and o left. Similar examples should then be worked mentally. rv. Short Division with a Remainder. —Demonstrate with ^concrete objects. A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Division. II ^ 2 = 5 + I or 2)11 9-2 = 7! The number of groups of 2 is 5 and the remain- 5 + 1 5-2 = 3| der is i. i.e., there are 5 groups of 2 in II and I unit is left. Give other examples for practice, still working first in the concrete and then in the abstract, e.g. : — ig -^ 3 = 6 + I Call attention to the remainder in each case. It 23 -f 4 = 5 + 3 is always less than the divisor. The class will 45 4- 6 = 7 + 3 now see clearly that the divisor is not always con- 14 -r 4 = 3 + 2 tained an even number of times in the dividend. By this stage the class should have discovered that a number may be divided up into equal groups exactly, or into equal groups with some quantity less than one of the groups remaining over. The process of finding these groups is called division. The quantity contained in one group is called the divisor. The number to be divided into ■ groups is called the dividend. The number of groups into which it is divided is called the quotient. What is left over (if any) is called the remainder. V. Harder Examples. —Take as an example 5729 -f- 7. Decompose the dividend 5729 so far as possible into multiples of 7; i.e., into quantities containing an equal number of 7's without a remain- der, thus : — 5729 = 5600 + 70 + 59 then 7)5600 + 70 + 59 800 + 10 + 8 and 3 over. Which is expressed shortly thus : — 7)5729 818 + 3 The children will now be prepared to receive the rule as generally given, and to understand the processes which that rule embodies. VI. Division by Factors. — Take as an example 349 + 42. Decompose both divisor and dividend. 42 = 6 X 7 ; and 349 = 300 + 48 + 1 Then we have 6)300 + 48 + 1 50+8 and I remainder. i.e., 6)349 58 + 1 i.e., 58 groups of 6 and i unit as remainder. Now decompose 58 into 56 + 2 Then 7)56 + 2 8 and 2 remainder, i.e., 7)58 8 + ^ ARITHMETIC. 113 The whole process is then shown as r6)349 4. 1 7)58 4- 1 = 58 groups of 6 and i unit left. 8 + 2 = 8 groups of 42 and 2 sixes left For total remainder we have — 2 groups of 6 = 12 and I unit = i .'. Total remainder = 13 Which is found thus 2x6 + 1 Answer 8 + 13 over. Rule. — Factor the divisor, and divide the dividend by the first factor ; then divide its quotient by the next factor. Finally multiply the last remainder and the first divisor, and add in the other remainder {if any), and this will give the correct remainder Divisibility of Numbers. — A number is divisible by — 1. Two, if its units digit is measured by 2. The reason is obvious. 2. Three, if the sum of its digits is measured by 3. This will be explained under the divisibility for 9, as 3 is a factor of 9, and a number divisible by 9 is thus divisible by 3. 8. Four, if the units and tens divide by 4, for 100 is divisible by 4. (. Five, if the units digit is 5 or o, for all products of 5 end in 5 or o. 5. Six, if the number is divisible by 2 and 3, for 2 x 3 = 6. 6. Seven, a test of divisibility is known for 7, but it is best done by trial. 7. Eight, if the number expressed by its 3 lowest digits is measured by 8, for 1000 is divisible by 8. 8. Mine, if the sum of its digits is measured by 9. Take 57978 as an example. Decompose 57978 into 50000 + 7000 + goo + 70+8. Now 50000 = 9 X 5555 + 5^ It will be observed that the and 7000 = 9 X 777 + 7 I quantity is made up of and 900 = 9 X 99 + 9 r factors 0/ g + remainders and 70 = 9 X 7 + 7 I which are the same as the and 8 = + 8 J digits in the number. 9. Ten, if the number has a cypher in the units. The reason is obvious. 10. Eleven, if the difference between the sums of the digits in alternate places is o, or is measured by ii. For any number as 6743 is composed of — 3 = + 3*\ It will be observed that the number 40 = 4X XII-4I is composed of factors 0/ 11 + 700 = 7x gxii+7j or- remainders which are the 6000 = 6 X 91 X II - 6J same as the digits of the number. It will also be noticed that the signs run alternately Take another example : 20603. Sum of the odd places = 3 + 6 + 2 = 11. „ „ even places = + =0. Divide each by 11 and you get the same remainder (o). Hence a nuniber is divided by 11 when the sum of the odd figures and the sum of the even figures each divided by 11 leaves the same remainder. 8 114 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Short Methods. — Where practicable, the teacher should teach such short methods as the following : — 1. To divide by 625. Multiply by i6 in i line and mark off 4 places 16 I For = T— . loooo 625 2. To divide by '625. Multiply by 16 and mark off i place. ^ 16 1000 IiONGr DIVISION. — Work an easy example by both methods, and let the class thus discover the reason why the process is called long. They will readily observe that there is less work done mentally by this method, hence its name. Take as an example 6863 -^ 9. Short Division. Long Division. 9)6300 + 540 +18 + 5 9)6863(700 + 60 + 2 6300 = 9 X 700 700 +60+2 and 5 over. 563 subtracting Which is written thus : — 540 = 9 x 60 9)6863 23 subtracting 762 + 5 18 = 9 X 2 5 subtracting Which is written thus : The class will see that the decomposition is the 9)6863(762 same in each case, and that the principle ruling the 63 dcco7nposition is to get numbers which are multiples of the divisor, and that this is done in each case ex- 56 cept the last. The rule could then be given, and 54 other examples worked, gradually increasing in dififi- culty. The decomposition should be pointed out in 23 each case. It will always be found to be the sub- 18 trahend. The work should then be set out in the ordinary way. 5 If there is any lack of comprehension, the process might be further illus- trated as follows : — 6863 There are two points to notice. = 700 -f 563 remainder (i) Each remainder becomes a 9 new dividend until the last 563 is too small ; i.e., until the = 60 4- 23 remainder remainder is less than the 9 divisor. 23 (2) That the answer is composed = 2 -f 5 remainder of the sum of the quotients 9 -f- the last remainder. COMPOUND RUIiES. Meaning' of Term. — By this phrase we understand calcu- lations made in money and the various weights and measures. In the simple rules we have to deal with quantities formed on om ARITHMETIC. "5 regular denomination with a fixed relative value, which is regular and dependent on the position of the digits expressing those numbers. Thus in the number in, each figure to the left is ten times the value of the figure to its right. It can be expressed thus : — III = ICO + lO + I = (lo X id) + (id X i) + I = (lOO X i) + (lo X i) + I And this is always the case, although it is not always so obvious ; e.g., take the number 384, which can be thus decomposed : — 384 = 300 + 80 + 4 = (3 X 100) + (8 X 10) + {4x1) = (3 X 10 X 10) + (8 X 10 X i) + (4 X i) = ID times 10 times 3 + 10 times i times 8 + 1 times 4. But this is not the case in the compound rules. We make calcu- lations to different bases or denominations ; e.g., pounds, shillings, pence, farthings ; tons, cwts, etc. The principle is always the same practically; the " carrying" only differs. It will then be noticed that there is a combination of the simple and of some- thing else. This combination is called compound, and the rules dealing with such combinations compound rules. Explanation of Signs. — Pounds {£), shillings (s), pence {d)^ should be explained to the class. They are all derived from Latin words, which were the names of certain coins used by the Romans ; and in each case the first letter of the Latin name is used as the symbol. The words might be written on the B.B., but the class need not yet be asked to learn them. It will be sufficient for the present to illustrate their origin. The words are Libra, ^olidus, Denarius, Quadrans (farthings used to be represented by Q.). Tract the other symbols similarly, as they are wanted (cwts., qrs., lbs., etc.). The tables and their symbols should be gradually introduced, only the most common given, and examples should be based upon them. It will be necessary to point out that farthings are now expressed as parts of a penny, thus : — \ = one-fourth of a penny = i farthing. \ = one-half of a penny = i halfpenny. I =■ three. fourths of a penny = 3 farthings. How Taug^ht. — The compound rules should be taught by Comparison and Contrast with the Simple Rules. The two may be connected, and by carefully framed examples the class may be led to discover the rules for compound addition for themselves. But first of all the necessary tables should have been learned, ii6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. and plenty of mental exercises should be given on them, following example on B.B. : — £ s. d. 3 4 2i, 5 9 72 6 8 35 Set the £ s. d. /• 3 4 2 '' 1 5 9 7 2 6 8 3 2 6 8 2 [6 27 20 8 I I 2 — — — 2 + O ^7 28 22 17 8 10 , 1+8 I + 10 {a) Make a simple addition of each column, and let the class add them. {b) The "compound" element comes in in two ways: — 1. In the conversion of the total in each case ; e.g. , 22 pence become i shilling and 10 pence. 2. In the carrying ; 22 pence do not give 2 and carry 2 as in simple addition, but the 10 pence are placed under the pence column and the I shilling is carried to the shillings column. The difference will thus be seen to be one of denomination. In the simple the sum is divided by 10 always ; in the compound by 20, 12, or 4, or other numbers depending on the table? used. The reason for leaving the farthings blank should be pointed out. I'he principle is the same for compound sub- traction. The Compound Rules Criticised. 1. 7 hey are cumbrous and difficult to learn, 2. They are extravagant in time and energy. 3. The Metric System, if adopted in its entirety, would render their exist- ence unnecessary, and would make the work simpler, swifter, and more economical. 4. They militate against our trade on the authority of good judges. Foreigfn nations, in some cases, are showing some reluctance to be bothered with trade transactions involving a knowledge of our cumbrous system. Nevertheless, there are senous objections to changing the system, although it would be better if a national effort were made to overcome these. The change would be a shock to custom, to habit, and to business. It would also be very expensive, for the coinage would have to be recast. There is also the reluctance of adults to be bothered with the learning of any new system. COMPOUND SITBTRACTION'. I. Recapitulate simple subtraction as applied separately to pounds, shillings, Dence, and farthings, thus : — £ s. d. f. 1684 384 261 813 1297 19^ 199 724 Give easy examples of compound subtraction, e.g. : — £ s. d. £ s. d. 18 19 10^ 728 16 8i 4 13 5i 613 8 3j Such examples as these present no difficulty, and are understood at once. ARITHMETIC. 117 3. Follow with more difficult examples in which " borrowing ' is necessary. The result can be obtained — (a) By the method of decomposition, (t) By the method of equal additions, (f) By the method of complementary addition. By Decomposition. £ s. d. 1983 14 4| 694 16 8| £ s. d. 1982 33 I5t 694 16 8| 1288 17 7^ Equal Additions. £ ^' ^• 1983 14 4J 694 16 8f Complementary Addition. £ s. d. 1983 14 4|: £ 5- ^• = 1983 34 i6| = 695 17 9| 1288 17 7^ 694 16 8| 1288 17 7^ = the complementary addition made. 4. Introduce examples with missing denominations. The process is the same as before. Take as an example £ig os. ^d. - £7 8s. ^kd. £ s. d, 19 O 4 7 8 5i II II lof Decomposition. Equal Additions. Compl. Addition. £ s. d. 18 19 i5t 7 8 5^ 11 II io| £ s- d. 19 20 16J 8 9 6i II II io| £ ^. d. 19 o 4 7 8 5j II II 10^ COMPOUND MUIiTIPIiICATZON. By One Figure. 1. The class should have previously learned the pence and shillings tables, and should have received plenty of exercises in mental arithmetic preparatory to compound multiplication. Assuming this to have been done, the pupils should then be ready mentally to proceed as follows : — Take as an example ;^i8 135. y^d. x 5. £ s. d. ;Ci8 X 5 = ;^9o = £90 = 90 o o 13J. X 5 = 655. = 350 = 350 7rf. X 5 = 35(/. = o 211 =0 211 f X 5 = 15/'.= 0031=0031 ^18 135. 7|rf. X 5 £9^ 85. 2^, /• s. d. i8 13 7i 5 93 8 2| 118 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. Set out the example on the B.B., and work it by the ordinary method. The class will readily understand the reason of the rule from the analysis given in the previous step. They will see that the principle is the same as in simple multipU- cation, but that the denominations vary. In simple multiplication it is always 10 ; in compound it varies, being 10 for the pounds, because 10 is the basis ; 20 for the shillings, because 20J. = ;i^i ; 12 for the pence, because \2.d. = is. ; and being 4 for the farthings, because 4 farthings = \d. The class thus discovers what the practice is, viz. , to reduce each denomination to the next higher denomination, e.g. — farthings to pence (d) pence to shillings (s) shillings to pounds (£). 3. Plenty of exercises should be given for practice. By Two Figures. Take as an example ^4. i^s. 6^d. x 49. I. Take the same digits 41362 and multiply as in simple multiplication — 41362 49 decomposed = 40 + 9 49 372258 = 9 X 41362 165448 = 40 X 41362 2026738 = 49 X 41362 2. Now factor or decompose 49 in other ways and compare them — 49 = 40 + 9 = (4 X 10) + 9 10 X £4 13s. 6^d. (4 X 10) X £4 135. ^d. 9 X £4 13s. 6^d. 49 X £4 13^- ^d. 3. Lead the class to grasp intelligently the following facts : — (fl) Factor or decompose the multiplier- (b) Multiply each factor in its proper position. (c) Multiply farthings and reduce to pence ; multiply pence and reduce to shilhngs ; shillings to pounds. (d) Never place a cypher in the farthing product— in the example given it would convert the ^d. into 50^. if a cypher were added to indicate the absence of farthings. (£) The principle is the same both in simple and compound, but the denomina- tion is different. Different Methods. — There are several methods of working multiplication — (i) By factors ; (2) By decomposition ; (3) Without factors or decomposition ; (4) By special method ; (5) B^ practice. £ 4 I s. d. 3 6ix 10 9 46 15 5 4 187 42 I 8 I io| 225.^ 3 6| ARITHMETIC. 1 19 Here the first four methods only will be considered. The same example should be worked by each method on the B.B., the teacher explaining each step as he introduces it ; but this should not be done too soon, as it brings obscurity instead of clearness. By Factors. £ s. d. 4 13 6ix 7 32 14 9i = 7 (7 X 7). 7 times top line. 229 3 6J = 7 X 7 times top line. Special Method. £ s. d. 4 13 6^ X (50 - i). ID 46 15 5 5 233 4 17 13 I 6i = 10 times top line. 5x10 times top line. 6^ = I times top line. 229 3 6^ = (50 - I) = = 49 lines. rect Method. £ s. d. farthings. pence. shillings. pounds. 4 13 6^ X 49 49 49 49 49 49 2 6 13 4 229 3 6i 4)98 294 147 196 24i 24 49 33 12)318 637 229 26 26-6 20)663 33*3 The method by decomposition has already been demonstrated. Remarks on the Methods. 1. It is claimed that the direct method ensures greater accuracy, but it is long and tedious in the setting out. It dispenses with the necessity for learning the compound tables, but what it may gain m accuracy it un- doubtedly loses in time. 2. The special method is the best. Special methods usually are when available. The multiplication of 10 is easier than that of 7, while to subtract the top line is easier than to multiply by 9 and add. 3. Next to the special method factoring should be used where possible. 4. The method of decomposition is the one usually employed, txicause it lends itself to all cases. 5. Eventually all methods should be taught, (a) The mental training is better. It helps to break the unintelligent rule of thumb work, now rapidly becoming a thing of the past in our schools. It develops more mental resource by more fully revealing the truths contained, {b) It cultivates perception, and so gives greater practical skill. The child is taught to see readily the several methods of solution available. (c) It develops confidence from a recognised wealth of working means. (d) It adds interest from the variety of treatment, COMPOUNI> DIVISION.— Compound division is the arith- metic process by which we find how many times one compound I20 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. quantity is contained in another, or by which, as nearly as pos- sible, we divide a given compound quantity into a given number of equal parts. As in simple division, the process may be either " short " or " long," but the principle involved is the same in each case, and is merely an adaptation of the simple rule. The divisor may be either an abstract quantity as 492 ; or a concrete quantity like £14. 13s. 7^d. The teacher must deal with abstract divisors first. Wlien the Divisor is an Abstract Number. Short Division. — Take as an example £g 18s. ^^d, 4- 4, and explain the work as follows : — £ s. d. 4 )9 18 3^ 2 9 6f + 2 = ;£'2 + ;^i over, or 20s. over. £9 4 5. 18 4- 20 _ __ 4 ~ 4 d. 3 + 24 ^ 27 4 4 95. + 25. over, or i^d. over. 6d. + sd. over, or 12/. over. i + 2f. over. The teacher should then expect the class to discover the rule, and to get a thorough grasp of the following truths : — (a) £9 contain 2 groups of £4 and £1 over, or 20s. \b) i8s. and the 20s. over give 38s., which contain 9 groups of 45. and 2S. over, or 24d. (c) id. and 24^. give 2^cL., which contain 6 groups of 4^. and 3(i. or 12/. over. \d) \ or 2/, and izf. give 14/., which contain 3 groups (2) of 4, and 2/. over. The rule might then be stated by the class in some such words as these : — Find how many times the divisor (4) is contained in the highest de- nomination {£g) of the dividend, and place the result in the quotient under that denomination ; then reduce the remainder {£i) to the next lower de- nomination {shillings), and add them to the shillings in the dividend (18 + 20); then find how many times the divisor (4) is contained in 38s., and place the result in the quotient under the shillings; and proceed similarly with the remaining terms of the dividend. Iiong Division. — Long division presents no new principle. As in simple division, the principle is the same as in short division, but less work is done mentally, and more is set out on the paper. The example given above might be worked by long division, and the two processes compared. The teacher should aim at neat methods of setting out the work. The second method given here is neater than the first. ARITHMETIC. II) £ s. d. £ 4)9 i8 3i(2 8 5. 9 d. 6i (2) £ 5. ^. £ s. d. 4)9 18 3i(2 9 6| 8 I 20 •r 20 4)38(95. 36 i 2 12 2 12 4)27(6rf. 24 27 24 3 4 3 4 4)14(1 14 12 12 The Compound Tables. — Their common uses may be briefly enunciated as follows : — 1. Money. — For buying and selling. Wages, interest, discount, rent, etc., are really cases of buying and selling. 2. Avoirdupois. — Coals, bread, potatoes, butter, cheese, and many other articles of domestic and everyday life are bought by avoirdupois ; in the trades, tons of iron, stone, minerals, etc., are bought and sold; in the manufactures, for the measurement of force, of cargoes, loads, and our own weight ; the weight of the atmosphere, and in an infinity of ways, this table is in constant use. 8. Llqnld. — This will include ale and beer measure and wine measure. But beyond barrels and gallons it is scarcely necessary to go. Milk, beer, porter, etc. , are bought by the masses in small quantities — the half pint, the pint — rarely in quarts, gallons, or barrels. Stout is usually sold by the bottle, wine by the bottle also ; spirits in small quantities and by the bottle. Non-intoxi- cating drinks are usually sold in bottles, while water is generally measured by gallons. I. Lon^ Measare. — For measuring distance, great or small ; e.j^. , a man walks so many miles ; a ship steams or sails so many knots ; one runs so many yards in so many seconds, etc. It is largely used in mathematical geography and in astronomy, in all sorts of trades, in shopping, in estimating our own height, etc. 5. Sqaare Measure. — This table is required for boys only. It is used for surveying land, for the sale of carpets, oil cloths, ordinary cloths, calicoes and stuffs ; for the wood trades, like the lumber trade, carpentry, and cabinet making ; for the measurement of surfaces, whether land or water, and for many other purposes which will be within the experience or knowledge of the children. 6. Cabic Measure — For the estimation of bulk, volumes, gases, solid bodies, etc. 7. Time Measure.— The clock, watch, and chronometer sufficiently indicate the use of this table. Time is sometimes a measurement of space to be covered, as in trains and boats ; of wages to be paid, as with workmen ; of day and night ; of weeks, months, years, centuries, cycles of time etc. It is also used in longitude. 122 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 8. Capacity. — Some vegetables and fruits fall under this table. We speak of a bushel of potatoes, a sieve of apples, a peck of peas, a gallon of apples, etc. 9. Troy and Apothecaries. — These are not common tables, and should only be taught under special circumstances. In teaching the compound rules under weights and measures, the same methods should be adopted as in the case of compound money rules. The principles will be the same ; the tables with their varying denominations will furnish the only difference. REDUCTION— HOW TO TEACH IT. Truths, Rules, Definitions Teaching. I. Truths. 1. Quantities can be and are expressed in terms of the same unit. 2. Quantities can be changed from one denomination to an- other. II. Definition. When we convert or change a quantity from one denomination to another, we are said to reduce it, and the process is called Re- duction. III. Descending Reduction. In these cases the change is made from a unit of higher value to one of lower value. 1. Simple Quantities. Reduce £5 to farthings. £5 20 100 shillings in ;^5. 12 1200 pence in £$. 4 4800 farthings in £^. £^ = 4800 farthings. 2. Mixed Quantities. Quantities are often expressed as a mixture of several denomi- nations, e.g.i ;^i8 I2S. 4^d. Here 1. I. Show a sum of money composed of the same coins, e.g., 5s. in 5 separate shil- lings ; or IS. in 12 pennies ; or 6d. in 12 half- pennies. The quantity or sum of money in each case is expressed in terms of the same unit. 2. Show a shilling and 12 pennies. We can speak of it as a shilling or 12 pence. Show a penny and 4 farthings. We can speak of it as a penny or 4 farthings. In each case the detiomination or name is changed. II. The class should now give a defini- tion of reduction. If they fail to do it vary and increase the examples until they suc- ceed. They must notice carefully that the values of these quantities are not altered by the reduction. The value remains the same ; the names only are altered. III. The great thing in reduction is to see that the scholars know the value of each denomination as they reach it. To ensure this the teacher should always insist on the denominational name being written against each step in the reduction. 1. The process might be fully explained thus : — First Step. £1 = 20s. Then ^^5 = 5 x 205. = 1005. Second Step. 15. = I2d. Then 1005. = 100 x i2d. = 1200^. Third Step. id. = 4/: Then 1200^/. = 1200 x 4/. = 4800 farthings. Educe " descending " thus : — A shilling is less than £1; a penny is less than a shilling; a farthing is less than a penny. Hence the unit becomes less, or descends in value each step, and the process is therefore called descending reduction. 2. Reduce £iS 12s. ^^d. to farthings. ARITHMETIC. REDUCTION-HOW TO TEACH IT— continued. 123 Truths, Rules, Definitions. Teaching. we have four denominations- pounds, shillings, pence, far- things. Reduce ;{"i8 I2S. 4|rf. to farthings. 20 372 shillings in ;^i8 12s. ^^d. 12 4468 pence in ;^i8 12s. 4^^/. 4 17874 farthings in ;^i8 12s. ^^d. Rales for Mixed Quantities. 1. Reduce the highest denomi- nation {£) to the next lower (shillings), and add in the odd shillings (12). 2. Then reduce this total num- ber of shillings (372) to the next lower denomination (pence), and add in the odd pence (4). 3. Then reduce the total num- ber of pence (4468) to the next lower denomination (farthings), and add in the odd farthings (2). The total number of farthings is the answer. lY. Ascending Redaction. 1. Of simple cases; e.g.: — Reduce 17874 farthings to pounds {£). 2. Of mixed cases; e.g.: — Reduce 2698 hrs. 12 mins. 50 sees, to weeks. First Form. (a) £1 = 205. .-. ^18 = 18 X 20 = 3605. Add the odd 125. Total = 3725. t.e., £18 125. = 3725. (b) IS. = 12 pence. .'. 3725. = 372 X 12d. — 4464^. Add in the odd pence 4 Total = 4468^. i.e., ;£"i8 125. 4f example set for solution. The idea of a fraction is easily given to children, and requires no elaborate teaching. Two apples might be taken, one of which might be cut into four equal parts, and the other into four unequal parts. To the equal parts we give the name of fractions, and to the unequal parts fragments. The class thus gets a clear idea of the fundamental attribute of a fraction, viz., equality of division. There remains the word " vulgar" to explain as meaning "com- mon," and the class will then understand that they are dealing with common fractions. The concrete illustrations can be multi- plied and varied, if necessary. X28 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers. 1. First explain and demonstrate the meaning of the terms Nume- rator and Denominator. 2. Then make the significance of a fraction clear by comparing the sign of division with a fraction; e.g., -r and |. It will be seen that the dots are mere symbols representing any integers, or that the Numerator and Denominator take the places of the two dots. 3. Change -V- into a mixed number. The class will understand that there is a unit which is divided into 5 equal parts, and that 13 such parts are taken to form the fraction. Obviously there is more than one unit in the fraction. 4. Demonstrate with kindergarten cubes. m ESQ 53; X d Show a unit to the class. It contams 5 equal cubes or parts. Take 13 such cubes and build up units from them. There are 2 units and 3 cubes left ; i.e., 1 units and f of a unit, which may be ex- pressed as 2 + f» ^" = 2| = 2^. 2. By Diagram.— Take f x 3 as an example. Use coloured chalks to mark the various divisions. As the new numerator will contain 15 units, 15 divisions will be required. The pupil will soon understand this. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9H 10 11 12 D G A M E B D N H Let fig. ABCD = unity, i.e., it will contain 7 divisions. Then AMN D = f of a unit and AEFD = 5 x AMND = f of a unit also 3 X AEFD = 3 x f = AKLD = V- 8. By Money.— Use a guinea as the unit and take the same example. Then ^ of a guinea = 3 shillings and ^ „ „ = 5 X 3 = 15 shillings and 3 X ^ ,, „ = 3 X 15 = 45 shillings = 2 guineas + 3 shillings = 2f = y. 9 I30 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. i. Other Methods. {a) Four apples may be taken and cut into 8 equal parts each, 5 of these parts being taken in each case.. {b) Small cubes may be used. Eight would form a figure which would represent unity, and 5 parts could be taken from each. The work could thus be set on the B.B., taking | x 4 as an example. 4 = 20 4 = 20 eighths iX4 5 X and 5 eighths x i.e., I X 4 = ^1^ = -V- = 2| = 2i. Or again, 5 eighths x 4 = 20 eighths, or 5 halves i.e., I X 4 = ^i^ = f = 2^. N.B. — When possible divide the denominator for choice, since the product will then be expressed in its lowest terms Rule Deduced. — To multiply a vulgar fraction by an integer^ either multiply the numerator or divide the denominator by that integer. n. To Multiply a Vulgar Fraction by a Vulgar Fraction. — Take f of | as an example. 1. By Diagram. — In constructing the figure let the pupils notice that the 2 denominators must be multiplied together to determine the number of little squares necessary, i.e. , they represent a rectangle 6 by 4. Draw AB and divide it into 6 equal parts. Draw AD at right angles to AB and equal to 4 of these equal parts. Complete the rectangle ABCD. Through each of the points of division draw lines p>arallel to AB and AD. Then let ABCD = unity. ThenAEFB =|ofABCD and AELK = ^ of AEFB = i of f and AEGH = f of AEFB = f off. Then AEGH is the figure required. But AEGH contains 15 squares, and the total number of squares is 24, .-. AEGH is -^1 of the whole, i-e., f X f ^ i|. 2. By Money. Take | of | of ;£■! as an example. v# f of£i = 3x5 = 155. and I of f = ^ of 15 = 2s. 6d. and f of f = 5 X 2s. 6d. = 12s. 6d. i.e., I X f = if = f of £1 = I2S. 6d. 3. Generally. To find I off, the f must be divided into 4 equal parts, and 3 of these parts must be taken. Then each part is j; ^--i, and 3 such parts = ^-^-^ x 3 = f-^-| = ^. But I of f is the same as f of |, for it means that | must be divided into 6 parts, and therefore each part is :j^^, and 5 such parts = f^| = i|. Rule Deduced. — To multiply by a vulgar fraction, multiply by Us numerator and divide the product by its denominator ; or to multiply ARITHMETIC. 131 a fraction by a fraction^ multiply the numerators for a new numerator and the denominators for a new denominator. in. To Prove Multiplier and Multiplicand can be Inter- changed "Without Altering the Product. — To show that multiplicand x multiplier = multiplier x multiplicand. i.e., § X f = I X §. Do this by diagram, for the diagrams are useful to show the pupils how the product of 2 or more fractions may be smaller than either of the factors. This is otherwise a hard matter for the young mind to grasp, as it is apparently contrary to all their previous experience. Let ABCD = the unit thenAEFB = f of ABCD andAEGH = 2 of AEFB = |of^ of ABCD (i.) A H B W/ W4 m M. G D K C Again let ABCD be the unit then ADKH = | of ABCD andAEGH = iJ of ADKH = jof Jof ABCD (ii.) _ Hence comparing (i.) and (ii.) we see that J x ^ = ^ x J, for both equal ^^ ; i.e., the multiplier and multiplicand can both be interchanged without altering the product. A E B ZV. Harder Ibuunples.— Show that i(i-i) = 3»r by a diagram (scholarship). Note.— As the denominator of tli product is 24 that number of squar< will be required. Let ABCD = unity = Ji then each square = ij*^ Now AEFD -- 8 squares = ^ = | and AGHE = 6 squares = A; = J IIMIHI 1 :'■: 1 -ii 132 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Then AEFD - AEHG = GDFH = 2 squares and the 4 of 2 squares = I square (KHFL) .-. ^ (AEFD - AEHG) = KHFL = ^ ; i.e., ^ (i - i) = ^v. DIVISION OF FRACTIONS. Take as an example f -^ f . Here we have to find a quotient which, when multiplied by f , shall give the product f . Then f of this quotient = f therefore ^ ,, ,, = 4 -f 6 or ^^^ and therefore this quotient = ^^^ x 7 or ^'^^ but i^l = ^xi therefore | ^ f = | x |. That is, to divide one fraction by another invert the divisor and mul- tiply the dividend by the fraction thus inverted ; or multiply the fraction by the reciprocal of the divisor. MECHANICAIi AIDS FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS.— There are several of these upon the market now, and the enter- prise of different publishers keeps adding to their number. They are usually advertised with illustrations and explanations, and where the pupils cannot obtain the real thing, they are advised so far as it is possible to obtain specimens of these explanatory advertisements and to paste them in a book kept for that purpose. Two only are mentioned here as being typical, viz., The Allied- Colour Fraction Chart, and Cowhanv's Fractions at a Glance. The Allied-Colour Fraction Chart. — This chart illustrates the elementary principles of fractions and their relations to other fractions by means of related colours. The chart consists of twelve bars printed in various colours, each being distinctly marked from unity up to twelfths respectively. It is claimed for it that it is invaluable in teaching mental arithmetic, and that it is a valuable addition to the various efforts made to represent graphically to the eye the comparative values of different simple fractions. By means of this attractive, brightly-coloured chart, it is asserted that the task is rendered much easier and more pleasant. The bars are all the same size, and by using similar colours it is seen that halves, fourths, sixths, eighths, tenths, and twelfths are relations ; that three-sixths equal half, or five-tenths, or six-twelfths. In the same way thirds, sixths, ninths, and twelfths are shown to be akin to each other ; so are fifths and tenths ; while sevenths and elevenths and unity have colours to themselves. The chart is 30 x 21^ inches, is well mounted and varnished, and is distinct enough to be seen across a large schoolroom. The following is a reduced copy of it : — ARITHMETIC, 133 I Colour almost black. I All red. All yellow. I Obtained by dividing J i into halves, .-. col col- oured the same — red. i I i I I I i I i I All blue. Obtained by divid- ing each third into -r- j Y j Y i 1 \ halves, .-. coloured y I g II g I g I t I the same as i^ on the right and § on thft left, i.e., red on left and yellow on right.' flflflllflfl^l All green. I I I I I II I I ^ I ^ I ^ I Obtained by divid- = ' ing J mto halves, .-. coloured the same— r red. ilililililililMi j pbtairied by divid- mg J mto thirds, ,*, coloured the same as ^ — yellow. tV I tV I ^^F I iV I tV II tV I tV I A I iS I tV I Obtained by dividing each ^ mto halves, .*. coloured same as ^ on the right (blue), and ion the left (red). tV I tV I tV I A I iV I A- flV I tV hV I ?T I A J A separate colour. tVItVIMtV!tVIAIIiVItVIMiVIA t I Obtained by divid- -IX_ ' ing each § into halves, .". coloured the same as j\ on the right (yellow), and J on the left (red). Cowham's Fractions at a Olanoe. — This is a chart or dia- gram designed to make the rules of fractions both intelligible and interesting in a simple and effective manner. Special features are claimed for it, which are thus enumerated : — 1. A clear notion of the meaning of a *' fraction " is given. 2. By moving the T square along the chart all the rules of fractions can be explain^. 3. Much valuable knowledge is obtained by simple inspection of the chart by the scholars. 134 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 4. Full directions for use are printed on each chart. 5. The reasons for the rules of fractions may be illustrated and understood. The chart can be used for teaching the meaning of numerator and denominator, the comparison of fractions, the measuring of the common denominator of any series of fractions, addition, subtraction, multiplica- 9'i Illllllllllllll 7 8 i' !■• 1' 1- h tion, division, the difference between a vulgar and a decimal fraction, and the reduction of a vulgar to a decimal fraction. As a specimen of the way to use the chart an example in multiplication is chosen, viz.. The edge of the T square lies against |. By looking along the fourth slip you cannot see what the half of | is, but | is seen to coincide with f , and the ^ of f may be read off { j). CANCEIXING. In teaching cancelling commence with the recapitulation of the following rule : If we multiply the numerator and denominator of a simple fraction by the same number the value of the fraction is unaltered, e.g. — 6 = f X f = H ; again ^i| = Hl^§ = l^f The converse of this rule is also true. If we divide the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same quantity, suppos- ing both to be divisible by that quantity, the value of the fraction is unaltered, e.g. — il = \ltl = h ^'-^M f is equal to H- ARITHMETIC. 135 Illustrate by diagram. /V B ABCD = VVof AEFB, = ^2^ofAEFB, = 1 ofAEFB, Cancelling out the 2's and 3's in the first Q fraction, and the 2's in the second we have FRACTTC£. I. Name.— Make the class understand the reason for the name. It is so called because it is the practice of people in business to make their calculations by this way rather than by multiplication. H. Method of Work.— The calcula- tions are done by the addition of aliquot parts (i.e., fractional parts). The value of a unit of one denomination is always given. The teacher must explain aliquot (how many), and drill well in aliquot parts before ^ ^ any attempt is made to deal with examples. At first it will be best to confine the attention to the aliquot parts of the money tables, because the children will be more familiar with them. TTT, Blinds. — There are two kinds, simple and compound. 1. Simple.— The given number is expressed in the same denomination as the unit whose value is given ; e.^., 220 articles at 15J. 6^(i. each article. The unit whose value is given is one article, and the number is expressed in articles (220). The class should name what the unit is, and then decompose the 155. 6^rf. into loj. + y. +6d. + i^d. Then the Cost of 220 articles at 105. each = J the cost at ;;^i each = ;^iio o o 55. „ = i „ I05. „ = 55 o o 6d. „ =tV „ 55. „ = 5 10 o y- „ =A » 6d. „ = 092 1 2 3 ^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 155. 6it/. £170 19 2 The class should notice that aliquot or fractional parts were found for los., y., 6d., and Jeoimals, Finite and Infinite. (a) To Convert a Decimal to a Vulgar Fraction.— Before dealing with finite or infinite, or as they are sometimes called terminating and non-terminat- ing decimals, it will be necessary to show the class how to convert a decimal to a vulgar fraction. r40: A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Take 69-426 as an example. 69*426 After this and other examples have been worked and explained upon the B.B., the class might then be asked to state the rule : — Write down the given number, omitting the decimal point, for the numerator, and for the denominator write unity {1) followed by as many cyphers as there are decimal places in the given number. If there be no integral portion apply the rule to the decimal portion only, and reduce to its lowest terms ; e.^. — Reduce '0685 to a vulgar fraction. •0685 = xll7 + ToViT + T^UtT = X%%U = -sV/tT- The reverse process should then be shown, i.e., to convert a vulgar fraction to a decimal, and the two processes should be compared. {3) Terminating and Non-terminating Decimals.— Work a series of examples on the B.B. , and let the class discover this for themselves. They will then find that it is not possible to express every vulgar fraction as a decimal. They will discover that a vulgar fraction must have 10 or some power or factor of 10 for its denominator before it can be exactly expressed by a decimal. Take as examples ■^, j\, f, ^f, |, ■^%. TTJ = -4 TT = -272727 ... il = f = -6 ^ = -571428571428 . . . t\ = -3125 f = -88888 . . . Those to the left terminate ; those to the right do not. Now ask the class to examine the denominators of all these fractions, by reducing them to their prime factors. ID = 5x2 II is a prime number 5 = 5x1 7 m.. 16 = 2x2x2x2 9 = 3x3 It will be observed that the denominators of all the fractions which give terminating decimals contain the factors 2 or 5 or both, and these are the factors of 10. The denominators of the fractions which give non-terminating decimals contain neither 2 nor 5 as factors ; hence the rule : — If the denominator of the given vulgar fraction in its lowest terms be a multiple of the factors 2 or 5 only, the fraction can be expressed as an exact or terminating decimal ; otherwise it cannot. But though a given vulgar fraction may not be exactly expressed as a decimal, nevertheless we can express it to any degree of accuracy we please short of absolute accuracy. The accuracy may be so great as to be sufficient for all practical purposes; i.e., it may be practically accurate, although theoretically inaccurate. Take f as an example. I is greater than -8 but less than -g ; error less than ^V- •88 „ -9; „ A- .. '888 „ -9; ,, -2^^. .. '8888 ,, -9; ,, ^1-. The error is thus seen to grow less and less, and by taking a proper number of figures in the decimal part, f can be thu.-^ represented to any required degree of accuracy. To Determine the Iiimit of the Number of Repeating^ Figures in a Non-terminating Decimal. — Take f as an example to illustrate this. ARITHMETIC. 141 The divisor is 7, and it will be observed that the number of figures recurring is 6, which is the limit, or greatest number possible for this divisor, for since every remainder must be Reduce ^ to a decimal less than the divisor the only possible 7 )600000 remainders are 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, i, ando. But •857142 the cypher cannot be a remainder, else the decimal would not recur. There are, therefore, only 6 remainders possible, and, therefore, there cannot be more than 6 figures— there may be less — in the recurring period. The teacher should give other examples to show that the recurring figures are not necessarily always one less in number than the divisor, e.g., f = -8. Here the recurring figure is one only; with y\, which = "2% the recurring figures are two ; but in any case they can never he more than one less than the divisor. To Change a Pure Circulating Decimal into a Vulgar Fraction. — The method is as follows : — Change -701 to a vulgar fraction. 1. '701 X 1000 = 701 -701 = 701 + '701. Why multiply by 1000? Because there are 3 decimal places, and the object is to convert them into whole numbers (integers). Let the class note that 1000 gives 3 cyphers for 3 decimal places, loooo ,, 4 ,, II 4 II II and so on. 2. Now take 701 from each side and we get •701 X 999 = 701. 3. Next divide each side by 999, and we then get 701 =$5^. 4. The class should then state the rule : — The numerator of the vulgar fraction is the number formed by the digits in the recurring period ; the denominator is the number formed by repeating the digit 9 as many times as there are digits in the circulating period. To Convert an Impure Circulator into a Vulgar Fraction. Convert -45906 into a vulgar fraction. •45906 X looooo = 45906906906, etc. •45906 X 100 = 45^906906, etc. •45906 X 99900 = 45861. •45906 = 45861 . 99900 There are four steps. . . 1. Multiply by looooo to convert '45906 into whole numbers. 2. Multiply 45906 by 100 to convert the non-recurrers into whole numbers. 3. Then subtract both sides. 4. Then divide each side by 99900. The pupils should then be able to give the rule : — The numerator is formed by subtracting the non-recurrers from the whole quantity ; the denominator is formed by writing gfor every figure that recurs and a cypher for every figure that docs not recur. The IKmple Rules. — It is not anticipated that the young teacher will now find any difficulty in explaining intelligently the simple rules of decimals to a class, especially in the case of addi- 142 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. tion and subtraction. Multiplication should be handled with equal ease, and in all three cases the proofs should be given by vulgar fractions. There are now a number of good arithmetics in the market, and any one of these will probably give all the assist- ance that may be required for the efficient teaching of these rules. A little more difficulty may be felt in the case of division ; but even here the rule, however stated, always depends upon the same principle as that of ordinary simple division. The only difficulty is in fixing the position of the decimal point in the quotient ; but whatever method of working is adopted, the teacher should make the class thoroughly grasp the fact that there must always be as many decimal places in the divisor and quotient together as there are in the dividend alone. Applications of Proportion. — Many of the higher rules of arithmetic are really applications of proportion, and this is especi- ally true of interest, percentages, averages, and stocks. A number of technical terms are of necessity introduced ; but the principle of the work is more or less the same in all of them. These techni- calities must be carefully introduced, well explained, and freely illustrated by commercial examples. No attempts should be made to "draw" or "educe" these terms. They are matters for in- struction, rather than training. The solving of the examples themselves will afford plenty of opportunity for the educative side of the work, and the teacher will find his best results there. There is little difficulty in giving clear conceptions of such terms as interest, discount, amount, principal, rate {i.e., rate per cent, per annum, unless otherwise stated), commission, brokerage, etc. ; but there is always more difficulty in dealing with stocks, and the teacher must be prepared to devote plenty of time to this subject. This difficulty arises partly from the magnitude, or breadth rather, of the applications of stocks. The stock may be government stock, as distinct from commercial or business stock. To solve all cases dealing with government stock, a full and proper know- ledge of bonds, the national debt, the public funds, annuities, loans, consols and such jargon as the 3 per cents, the 4 per cents, etc., is required. Then the capital of public com- panies like our great banks, chartered companies, railways, gas, mines, shipping, etc., which issue stock or raise their funds by the sale of stock requires some explanation. These are generally offered in shares, and are generally bought and sold through the agency of stockbrokers, who require a commission which they call brokerage. The stock may be at par, at a dis- ARITHMETIC. 143 count, or at a premium, and so on. It will thus be seen that the child has to practically acquire a special vocabulary to understand the very terms in which his arithmetic problems are couched, before he can deal with the difficulties of the actual problems themselves. These names are often mere abstractions to the children for a time, and in the early stages it is advisable to sub- stitute the names of concrete objects where possible to aid them to a clear conception of the process. SQUARE ROOT. ' Truths and Examples. I. Explanation of Term. {Numbers, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Squares, i, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100. {Numbers, i, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100. Square roots, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. A. Definitions and Trutlis. 1. The Square of a number is the product of the number multiplied by itself. 2. The Square Root of a given number is a number which, multi- plied by itself, will produce the required number, 3. The square of the square root of a number is the number itself. 4. A number ending with 2, 3, 7, or 8 cannot be the square of any number. 5. The square of any number consists of twice as many figures, or twice as many, less one, as there are in the given number, e.g. — 20'^ = 20 X 20 = 400 8i2 = 81 X 81 = 6561 300* = 300 X 300 = 90000 910* = gio X 910 = 828100. B. The Symbol of Squ&^e Root — s/o' J'- Examples: n/_4 = 2; ^9_=3; Vi6 = 4; ^25 = 5. Teaching. I. Place the integers from i to 10 on the B.B. Let the class multiply each number by itself, and place the products under the given numbers. The products are called squares. Now illustrate by diagrams. For this purpose take the integers 3 and 4 and con- struct squares. Let the class count the A ( 3 £ H 1 2 3 1 2 — 1 3 4 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 9 10 li 12 C C ) J3 14 15 16 number of small squares in each of the larger ones. They will notice that— (0 3 X 3 = 9; 4 X 4 = 16. (2) AB X AC = ABDC (the square). (3) That 9 is the square of 3. (4) That 3 is the square root of 9. Deal in same way with the square EFGH. A. I. The class should now work the ex- amples given opposite, and others suggested by the teacher. 2. They should then be able to give the definition of square and square root. 3. Thev should have observed the truth contained in the third statement. 4. They should next have their attention called to the unit figure of each of the numbers called squares. They are i, 4, 9, 6, 5, o. The integers missing are 2, 3, 7, and 8 ; hence the truth of statement 4. 5. (a) Call attention to the numbers and squares on the B.B. The class discovers that the square of a number of one figure consists of either one figure or two figures. (b) Affix a cypher to the integer 2 : it be- comes 20. Let class square 20; it equals 400. Then they should observe from this and other examples that if one cypher (o) is affixed to the number, two (00) must be 144 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. SQUARE B.OOT— continued. Truths and Examples. e.g.— I- J = 1/ = { )i 2. ^4= ^4 = (4)*- 3- («) J (256 - 16 + 64) or (b) V256 - 16 + 64. II. Worked Examples. Find the square root of 529, 6241. III. Reasons for Process. 2. 7529 = 2 529 = 20+3 3 500 + 29 400 + 120 + 9 500 + 29 (20 + 3 400 100 + 29 \ or 120 + 9 J 120 + 9 2 20 + 3 20 + 3 20 X 3 + 3''= o2 + 20 X 3 202 + = 4< = 5^ 2 X 20 X 3 + 3- 30 + 120 + 9 50 + 29. 3. Proposition. If from the square of a number we subtract the square of one part of it, the remainder is a product of two factors : one factor is twice that part increased by the other part, and the other factor is the other part. Teaching. affixed to the square (400). Hence the square of a number of 2 figures consists oj 3 or ^fi'f^nres. (c) Similarly 2 cyphers (00) affixed to the number gives 4 cyphers (0000) to its square. Let the class verijy this by trial. Hence the square of a number of ^jigures consists of either 5 or 6 figures. The class could now deduce the general truth of 5. B. I. Tell the class that the root of _a number is denoted by the symbol ^ placed before it, the nature of the root being explained by the placing of a small figure in the top part of the angle. The real sign will be ^ , but it is customary to omit the index figure. 2. Show that it may also be represented by a fractional index ; e.g. : — J 4 = 4' 3. Tell the class that compound quanti- ties— (a)_May be represented by the root sign ( ^ ) placed before a bracket containing the quantities; or (b) By a vinculum covering the quantities. II. The system of pointing and the method of working should now be ex- plained on the B.B. The examples oppo- site, or similar ones, might be used for this purpose. III. I. Decompose 529 on the B.B. : — (a) Into 500 + 29 ; (b) Into 400 + 120 + 9. Set the work out on the B.B. as in i, and the class will see the elements of which the process is composed. 2. Present the same truths conversely as in 2. Decompose 23 into (20 + 3), and multiply the decomposed number by itself The product is seen to be equal to 529. 3. Lead the class to see that the extrac- tion of the square root depends upon the truth contained in proposition 3. Demon- strate as follows on the B.B. : — (23)2 = (20 + 3) (20 + 3). = (20 X 20) + (20 X 3) + (3 X 20) + (3 X 3). = 20* + 2 X 20 X 3 + 3^. = 202 + (2 X 20 + 3) X 3. .-. (23)2 - (20)2 = (2 X 20 + 3) X 3. i.e., (23)2 = 529 V and (20)- = 400/ Subtracting= 129 = (2 x 20 + 3) x 3. Examples. Plenty of carefully graded examples should now be given, commencing with easy numbers like 256. Every example will probably reveal some weakness or mis- apprehension somewhere in the class, and this must be met by further explanation. The cypher should be introduced when cypherless numbers are successfullyhandled. ARITHMETIC, 145 MENTAIj aiuthiviettc. I. Objects of Mental Arithmetic. 1. To ensure rapidity and accuracy in arithmetic. 2. To develop dexterity in the manipulation of quantities. 3. To train the mind for the arithmetic of the next standard. 4. To recapitulate rapidly and frequently the work of the lower standards. 5. To form the habit of mental activity. H. How to obtain these Objects. 1. Do not confine your questions to "scores" and "dozens," but give plenty of " tots " embracing practice in all the ordinary processes of arithmetic. 2. Let your examples be varied. 3. Let them deal both with the abstract and the concrete. 4. Give exercises in the fractional parts of money, and the commonest weights and measures. 5. Let the questions be practical. The dimensions of the schoolroom, the playground, and the desks. The weights of a few familiar objects should be accurately known and recorded, and occasionally referred to as standards of measurement. m. Tots. — A footnote to Schedule L in the Code requires the inspector to demand of scholars of the Fourth Standard and upwards the addition of columns of pounds, shillings, and pence within a specified time, in order to show readiness and accuracy. *' Occasionally a long column of figures may be written in the sight of the scholars, and they may be required to name in quick succession the results of each addition as the inspector or teacher points to the several figures in any order. Oral practice should be given in all the ordinary processes of arithmetic, and it should be so varied as to furnish as many different forms of exercise as possible." It will thus be seen that a great deal of importance is attached to practice in such calculations as are now known as " tots" and for this purpose, where possible, it is best to use a tot frame. Where the teacher has to write every " tot," a large amount of time is unnecessarily expended ; and so far as such things lie in the teacher's power, efforts should be made to avoid this. Nor should these exercises be postponed till the Fourth Standard ; they should begin in the First, and might find a place in the higher classes of the infant school. The nature of the 10 146 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. " tot" can DC suited to the capacity and requirements of the chil- dren. Tot cards are published and may be used, but the tot frame is undoubtedly the best aid for this work. 1. Arnold's ReYolving Tots. — This piece of apparatus consists of a re- volving sheet of figures, which can be covered so far as is desired by a revolving curtain. Both sheet and curtain are worked by screws at the top right-hand corner of the frame. It is obvious that an immense variety of e.xaniples can be supplied by the proper regulation of the sheet and curtain, and that that ready practice desired can easily be obtained. The immense variety of combinations possible prevents the tots ever be- coming " known," so that every fresh adjustment will always demand a fresh calculation. 2. The Oxford Tot Frame.— This tot frame is also specially suited to the requirements of the new Code. It consists of 16 reversible tablets, with figures on either side. The tablets are reversed very easily and very quickly, so that an infinite variety of examples can be supplied. The figures are painted white, and are I J inches in size, so that it is suitable for work with large classes. It is specially designed to rest on any easel, and it contains a very good feature in its B. B. space at the bottom for the answer. Provision is also made at the side for the keeping of a pointer, so that it is always ready to hand. A simpler frame is provided for younger classes, and a double frame for classes work- ing in two sections. Answers may be obtained from the firm selling these for this frame, but not for the simpler one. The tots can be lengthened or shortened by simply pointing to their limit, 4, 5, 6, or 7 rows, as the case may be, and variety is obtained by reversing one or more tablets. IV. Some Special Rules for Mental Arithmetic. 1. So much a Day, how much a Year. (a) Learn following table : — id. per day = ;£"i 10 5 per year, frf. „ = I 2 9| id. „ = o 15 2^ ,, \d. ,,=077^ ARITHMETIC. 147 (d) Multiply the shillings and pence per day by 5, add 7s. j^d. for every farthing, and then for every penny reckon £i}i ; e.g., 6s. ^^i. a day, how much a year £ s. d. 1. Add 155. 2}^d. for the ^d. per day = o 15 2^ 2. Multiply 65. 4^. by 5 = i 11 8 3. Add £1^ for every penny (76^.) =114 o o £116 6 lo^ 2. To reduce cwts. qrs. lbs. to lbs. — Rule. To the number represented by the cwts. and lbs. add 12 times the number of cwts., and add 28 for every quarter, e.g. : — Reduce 32 cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lbs. to lbs. (a) Number represented by cwts. and lbs. = 3224 (b) Add 12 times the number of cwts (12 x 32) = 384 {c) Add 2 X 28 for 2 qrs. = 56 3664 lbs. 3. Interest at 3 per cent., e.g., £6^g ly. od. at 5 per cent. (a) Call the pounds shillings and divide by 20 = ;^34 g o \b) 15s. is \ of £1 .'. call it J of a shilling = o o g £34 9 9 4. Interest at 2j per cent.— Proceed as for 5 per cent., and divide your answer by 2 B. Interest at ftj per cent., e.g., ^^960 i6s. Sd. at 6^ per cent. Divide the amount by 16, because 6^ is ^ of 100. £960 16 8 ■ ^ =;C6o I o^. Rates which are easy factors of 100 can be similarly dealt with. 6. Interest for an Aliquot Part of a Year.— This will include such quan- tities as 73 days, 219 days, etc. Note that the days are generally some easy factor of 365, Proceed as in 5 per cent, or 4 per cent., or the stated per- centage, and then divide by the required fraction ; e.g. : — ;^348 155, od. for 73 days at 5 per cent, (fl) 348 shillings - - - = £17 8 o (b) 151. = £1 ; call it jj. - = 009 (c) Add two together - =£^7^9 {d) Divide by i (i/^) --=£399 7. To find Interest at any Rate, e.g., £mS ^y. od. at 4 per cent. Multiply by double the given rate, point off the last figure in the ^'s, and call them shillings {i.e., all except the last figure). («) ^345 15*. cxf. X 8 . . . . = 2^66 o o j6) Point oflF last figure of 2766 = 2765. . =: 'x, 16 o ic) The 6 pomted off is j%s., which equals yid. (d) Adding {b), {c) we get £13 16s. od. + -j^d. = £13 165. y\d. 148 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 8. To find the Mean Proportional, e.g. , as 3 : :\; : : j; : 12. I^ule. Mul- tiply extremes and take the square root. 3 X 12 = 36 n/36 = 6 Hence 3 : 6 : : 6 : 12. Again. Find the mean proportional of 363 and 243. (a) Factor the numbers 3 x 121 and 3 x 81. {b) Rearrange in squares 121 x 81 x g and multiply. {c) Take square roots 11x9x3. \d) Multiply for product 297. Hence 363 : 297 : : 297 : 343. 9. Practice. {a) Aliquot Parts. 1. 4864 articles at 125. 6d. = £4864 x f (125. 6d. being | of £1). 4864 X 10 For convenience multiply by 2 = -^ = ;;^3040. i.e., Add a cypher and divide by 16. 2. For 2s. ^\d., e.g., 264 articles at 25. jhd. 25. j\d. — 25. bd. + ijrf. 25. 6d = £^ and i\d. =^ J5. Hence J x £264 = ;£"33 05. od. And I x 2645. == ;^ I 135. od. £34 135. od. 3. For g^d. Divide the amount or number by 16, and call your answer shillings, then multiply by 13 ; e.g., 562 articles at g^d. Divide by 16 = 562 -f 16 = 35^5. — 355. i^d. And 355. i^d. X 13 = 4565. j^d. .- ;^22 165. y^d. Reason for process — gf = ^^- = -\^^ =: --jr"^. {d) To Multiply by such Amounts as give easy Numerators or Denomi- nators. Take £^3 65. Sd. x 562 as an examole. £33 65. Sd. = 33^ = J-t^. ••• £33 65. Sd. X 562 = ^^ X 562 = ^^§^ = ;Ci8733 65. Sd. 10. Decimals. — To reduce one amount to the decimal of another, e.g., Reduce 6s. gd. to the decimal of £4. ly. gd. (a) Find the factors of the smaller sum 65. gd. = Sid. =9x9. (b) Divide the given sum by either of the factors (9 x 9) which is contained in it. (In this case both are.) Then £4 135. gd. -j- 9 = 105. ^d. (c) Then the fraction becomes -7- = yf^ — '072. It will be observed that a common factor (9) is cancelled out of each quan- tity, and the remaining factors 9 and los. $d. constitute the fraction which is reduced to a decimal. 11. To Square Numbers. (a) To Square a Special Number. - The numbers are just below or just above an exact number of hundreds, like 495 or 906. ARITHMETIC. 2^ (495)' = (495 + 5) (495 - 5) + 5'- = (500 X 490) + 25 = 245025. To those who know Algebra the reason for the rule is easily understood. For jr2 - v2 = {x + y){x - y), Then 'x"^ = {x ^- y) [x - y) + y^. Note that such a number is taken as will just raise or reduce the given number to an exact number of hundreds ; e.^., 5 is added and subtracted in the first case ; whilst 6 is subtracted and added in the second case. {f>) Having given a Number to find the Square of the next Highest Number.— This may be otherwise expressed as finding the square of a number just above or just below an exact number of tens ; e.g., 41. Decomposing 41 = (40 + i), And (41)2 = {40 + i)2 = (40)2 + 2.40.1 + 12 = i6oo X 80 + I = 1681 Reason for rule {x ■\- i)"^ = x^ + 2x ■¥ 1 And {x - i)2 = 4-2 - 2;r + I (cr) To Square any Number mentally, say 36. 1. Add the unit figure to the whole number ; 36 + 6 «= 42. 2. Multiply the 42 by the tens figure (3) ; 42 x 3 = 126. 3. Add a cypher to the right {i.e., multiply by 10) ; 1260. 4. Add the units figure squared (6-) ; 1260 + 36 = 1296. 12. To find True Discount. (a) At 5 % divide by 21 26 (6) » 4 % {c) „ 10% {d) „ 2^% (c) „ 10% „ II {d) „ 2^% „ 41 for ip = 21. ,, H^ = 26. " w 102i 2i = II. = 41. M lOi = lOI, and so on. Examples. 1. ;(^35o 7s. io\d. due in i year at 5%. Then ^350 -js. lo^d. + 21 = £16 135. S^rf. 2. ;^433 145. 3^. due in i year at 4%. Then £433 145. ^d. + 26 = £16 135. y^d. If for a certain Number of Years.— To find the fraction multiply the time (in years) by the rate. This gives the numerator. For a denominator add the numerator to 100. Find True Discount on ^^4120 8j. -jd. due 9 months hence at 4 per cent. Rate = 1x4 = 3. Then the fraction is y^,. And ;^4i2o 85. "jd. X ygj = ;^40 05. irf. x 3 = £i2oos. 3c/. V. T3rpical Problems for each Standard. Standard I. 1. How many must he added to 42 to make 72 ? 2. A man is 6 feet high. How many inches is that ? 3- A man spends 6s. in penny stamps. How many docs he get? 4. Apples are 6 a penny. How many for a shilling ? 5. Of what number is 36 the half? 6. Three 24's are the same as how many 8's ? 150 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Standard II. 1. A boy has los. How much will he have left after spending 6s. ii^d. ? 2. How many more tens are there in 130 than in 100 ? . 3. I have 10s. lod., and give 100 boys i penny each ; how much money do I keep 4. How many halfpenny oranges can be bought for is. i\d. ? 5. To 50 add 8 six times over. 6. 5 lbs. of bacon at iid. a lb. Standard III. 1. How many lbs. of butter at js. id. per lb. can be bought for 2.6s. ? 2. How many more are 11 eights than 7 twelves ? 3. A milkman has 3J galls, of milk. How many half pints can he sell ? 4. How many children could take away 7 each from 63 ? 5. The circumference of a wheel is 12 feet. How many times will it go round in a mile ? 6. Eggs are 10 a shilling. How many for a guinea and a half? 7. A man was born in 1831, How old is he now ? 8. dd. an hour for 8 hours a day. For 6 days, how much ? 9. A joint of meat weighs 9J lbs. What did it cost at \od. a lb. ? 10. Divisor 25 ; quotient 8 ; remainder 6. What is the dividend ? Standard IV. 1. Suppose tea at 2s. 8d. a lb. How many oz, could be bought for los. ? 2. A man steps 2 feet. In how many steps will he walk a furlong and back again ? 3. A servant girl gets ^13 a year wages. How much is that a week? 4. A man drinks ^ pint of beer at dinner and J pint at supper. How long would it take him at that rate to empty a 9-gallon cask ? 5. 6 telegraph wires extend 5 miles each. What is the wire worth at id. per yard ? 6. A wall is 20 yds. by 6 feet. What will it cost to whitewash at ^d. a square foot? 7. A ton of coals costs 25J. What is that a cwt. ? 8. Potatoes are 3 lbs. for 2d. How many lbs. can be bought for 5^-. ? 9. 64 + 29 - 12 -f 9. Standard Y. 1. How many quarters are there in 3^ wholes ?. 2. What part of a sovereign is Bs. 4^."? 3. What number is the same part of 50 as 5 is of 6 ? 4. I buy tea at 2s. a lb. What would ^ of | lb. cost ? 5. Which is the greater, f of 7 or ^ of 5 ? 6. I buy a cart for ;^2o. I want to gain 10 per cent. For what must I sell it ? 7. How many men in 10 days will do the same amount of work as 5 men in 15 days ? 8. A man owes ;i^iSo. He becomes bankrupt, and can only pay 2s. 6d. in the /^. How much money has he ? Standards YI. and YII. 1. How many times is J contained in 3^ ? 2. S. 1. on ;^35o for 2 years at 5 per cent. 3. Express '05 of f as a vulgar fraction. 4. Reduce 25 threepenny pieces to the fraction of /^2. 5. A man pays ;,^8oo for a house. The ground rent is /^y ; the lease is 80 years. What does the house cost him ? 6. A man buys a bicycle for ^18, and gets 20 per cent, discount for cash. What does he pay for it ? 7. A man works on commission at 3J per cent. He receives ;^3ii. How much money does he collect ? ARITHMETIC. 151 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. — Explain fully, as to a class of beginners, the method of long division, and work out the following question so as to show the meaning and value of each figure in the answer : Divide £23782 los. 6d. by 17. 2. — Describe the best system you know for teaching numeration and notation. 3. — Make four sums — two in direct and two in inverse proportion — and show how you would explain to a class the working of one of them. 4. — Write out four simple problems in arithmetic, such as would be suitable in the Fourth Standard, for testing the intelligence with which the scholars had learned the rules. 5. — The new Code requires an exercise in rapid addition. Make out a column of figures suited for this exercise, and say how you would best secure quickness and accuracy in performing it. 6.— Show by means of illustrations how you would explain to a class of scholars the reason of one of these processes :— (a) Finding the common denominator of three or more fractions. (6) Reducing miles to half inches. 7. — Say how you would explain to beginners the rule for subtraction, and illustrate your answer by this example : tto6 - 527. 8.— Take the following sum in long division: £72185 13s. 2d. ■— 163, and work it so as to show fully the value of each separate figure in the answer, and of each remainder. 9. — In giving lessons on counting to very young children, say what apparatus you would find useful, and how you would make such lessons effective if you had no apparatus. 10. — Give as many forms of mental exercise as you can contrive on the number 24. II. — Explain what is the proper use of a ball frame or counting frame in teaching arithmetic. Suppose you had no such apparatus, explain how you might teach counting by any of the objects in the schoolroom. 12. — Notes of Lessons on multiplication of fractions, reduction of money, ratio, short division, multiplication of money, numeration and notation, long division, numeration, fractions, first lesson on practice, simple subtraction, rule of three by the method of unity. 13. — State how you would explain to a scholar in the Third Standard the value of the full remainder obtained in the division of 349 by 42, when the division is performed by the factors 6 and 7 respectively. 14. — Distinguish the teaching of the rule of three by the method of unity and by proportion, and compare their advantages. 15. — Write out a rule for converting a pure circulating decimal into a vulgar frac- tion, and work an easy example in such a way as to show the reason of the rule. 16. — Write out two or three problems in mental arithmetic requiring the application of three at least of the compound rules. 17. — Make and explain diagrams to illustrate the following: — 18. — Work at full length an example in compound practice which will prove your process in this instance to be shorter than the ordinary method of compound multipli- cation. i^. — In teaching subtraction two methods are commonly employed, viz., of equal additions and of decomposition. State and explain the method which you have been accustomed to employ, and set down a graduated series of sums leading up from the easiest to the most difficult process in subtraction. 20.— What is the meaning of the term " compound rules " ? Why are they so called ? 21. — To what common uses may the avoirdupois, liquid, and square measure tables be applied ? Give examples of such mental problems as you would employ in each of these tables for Fourth Standard children. 22. — Write down the rules for working mentally the following sums: prices of dozens, of scores, multiplying by 99, and dividing by 60. 23.— A class can multiply by numbers up to 9. What intermediate steps of reasoning and practice are needed that they may be able to multiply intelligently by such a number as 67 ? Give more difficult examples of each step. 24. — By what illustrations on the B.B. would you prove to children that — 25.— Name those tables of weights and measures that should be first taught to children. Justify your selection by the uses to which the selected tables are applied. 26.— Suggest some different methods for multiplying £3 iis. o^t/. by 99. Show which you consider to be the shortest or simplest way. Would you think it advisable to teach young children more than one method ? Give vour reasons. 27. — A class of infants understand the notation of numbers up to (but not including) 10. How would vou proceed to teacn them the notation of numbers between 10 and ao? Say especially what illustrations you would use. 152 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 28.— In learning the multiplication table, which products do children commonly find most difficulty in committing to memory? Account for some of the most difficult cases. 29. — What immediate steps are needed in leading a class which can multiply by 7 to" multiplication by 777 ? 30-— Hovv would you commence teaching arithmetic in an infant school, and how far do you think children under seven may be expected to go in learning arithmetic ? . 31.'— Give some examples of suitable exercises in mental arithmetic adapted for scholars of the First and Fifth Standards respectively. 32.— Of the two methods of explaining subtraction— (i) equal additions; (2) decom- p'osition— which do you prefer, and why ? Illustrate your answer by an example fully worked out. 33.— Make four sums such as would be properly suited to test the proficiency of a scholar in the Fifth Standard ; and give a few examples also of the sort of questions in mental arithmetic which such a scholar should be able to answer. 34.— What objects should be kept in view in the teaching of mental arithmetic ? Say how these objects may be best attained, and give some examples of good oral exercises suitable to the Second Standard. 35.— Show how you would explain to a class of beginners the reason of any one of the following processes in arithmetic : {a) ascending reduction ; (6) subtraction of frac- tions ; {c) cancelling. 36.— Multiply 74086 by 900, and explain, as to a class, the process of working, and the separate value of each line of figures. 37-— State a;nd explain, as to a class, the rule for the multiplication of a whole number by a fraction. 38.— Describe some varied exercises in mental arithmetic suitable for scholars either— ' (fl) In an Infant Class ; or (6) In the Fourth Standard. 39. — What useful purpose is served by analysing a sum in arithmetic, and showing the separate value of each figure ? Illustrate your answer by working the following question in long division : — : ■ 537682 -f 37. 40. — Explain, as to a class of scholars, the rule for cancelling in either fractions or proportion, and give some examples. 41.— Name some of the most effective visible and tangible illustrations for use in teaching either (a) Notation, or (6) Practice. 42. — Make some mental exercises on money suited for the First and Second Stan- dards, and let them be as varied in form as possible. 43. — Explain how you would make young children familiar with the right use and value of the figures i to 7 as the notation for 17. 44. — What are the shortest processes of working mentally the following sums: 57 X 25 ; 3 doz. articles at 7jrf. each ; 85 x 99 ? 45. — Describe your method of teaching infants between six and seven years of age to carry in addition, and say by what sort of visible illustration you could be helped to make the rule intelligible to such a class, 46. — Give exan.ples of questions in mental arithmetic, suited to children of the Third Standard, which shall illustrate all the rules taught to children of that Standard, and shall prepare them for the work of the Fourth. . 47. — Show by what sort of visible objects and illustrations you could make the rule for the addition effractions intelligible to a class of beginners, 48.— Give some examples of exercises in mental arithmetic suitable for the highest class in a school, and show by what means rapidity and accuracy can be best secured in conducting such exercises. 49. — Give some hints for making oral exercises in arithmetic interesting. 50.— Explain any way you know of making clear to the eye the process called multiplying 5- by i. 51, — Take the number 30 and say how many forms of mental exercise you could devise with that number for a class of children in Standard I,, so as to give them some early acquaintance with concrete and fractional, as well as simple arithmetic. 52. — Frame three sets of arithmetical questions suited for scholars in the Fourth Standard, so as to test knowledge of the reasons of rules as well as the power of applying them, .53. — Say what sort of pictorial or other visible illustration you would use in teaching the elements of arithmetic to very young children, and show what use you would make pf such illustration. This Chapter is continued in the Atpendix. 153 CHAPTER IX. READING. Its Value. No branch of school education is more valuable than reading, and none is more important. Its uses and applications are so numerous and far-reaching that its value becomes self-evident. Nearly every branch of school work is affected by it, and educa- tion goes on by means of it as long as life lasts. It is a great aid to mental and moral culture ; it records and lays bare the progress of the world, and it is the great enemy of ignorance and supersti- tion, which often are the forerunners of sin and suffering. It adds immensely to the pleasures of mankind, and may be made a healthy form of mental recreation. Books are largely the vehicles for information, and now-a-days without our newspapers we are " out of the world ". Bacon says that where there is little reading there is need for much cunning ; the former is within the reach of all now, the latter is the attribute of the few. The ability to read also prepares us for our great field of literature, with all its attendant advantages. The mind, like the body, needs exercise, and some of the most suitable and enjoyable forms of mental exercise are to be found in reading. General Principles. The teacher must remember the nature and extreme difficulty of the work he is attempting ; and there are certain broad prin- ciples or general rules, the remembrance and application of which will tend to minimise these difficulties. There is no royal road to reading, but there are certain well-formed tracks along which the way is shorter and the work easier. 1. nature of the Acqaisition.— Reading is a triple task; there are the idea in the mind, the spoken words, and the symbols representing those words. That is, there are the idea, the sound, and the symbol If the idea is translated by sounds we get spoken language ; if by written or printed symbols, we get reading. The first combination is already formed when children enter school, 154 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. for they have within certain limits learned to express their ideas by sounds (words). The teacher's work is to form the combination between the words and the symbols, i.e. , between the sounds and the characters which represent them. This is a long and difficult task, requiring skill, method, and patience, which the teacher must always be prepared to give. 2. The Sequence in Teaching. —As in all other subjects of instruction the sequence in teaching must be observed. The teacher must proceed from the known to the unknown, and from the simple to the complex. {a) From the Known to the Unknown. A beginning must be made with words, and not with letters. Children already know many words as sounds and the meanings attached to them, as their use of them shows ; but probably they know little or nothing of letters, hence to begin any system of reading with letters is to violate one of the cardinal prin- ciples of all teaching. It is the violation of this principle that consti- tutes one of the great blots in the synthetic methods (alphabetic and phonic methods). (b) From ike Siinple to the Complex. This is specially important, but it seems in some measure to conflict with the preceding principle as far as reading is concerned. If we always started with the known we should have to begin with the most familiar or the oft-recurring words. But these are generally the words of most irregular notation, and therefore, in one respect at least, the most complex to children. Several times it is pointed out in this chapter that our system of spelling is most anomalous and defective, and the introduction of these anomalies at this early stage would give a series of shocks to the child, and destroy its confidence. So far as possible, its faith in law and regularity must be maintained ; but if reading is to proceed from the known to the unknown, these anomalous words must soon be pre- sented to the child with their attendant difficulties. It is wise to point out this difficulty, but it is largely dependent on the method used, as will be subsequently seen. So long as the Look-and-Say (analytic) method is used, it is absent or minimised ; and it only makes its appearance to any appreciable degree with the introduction of the synthetic methods ; and the lesson to be learned is not to be too anxious to introduce the synthetic method to any great degree in the early lessons on reading. Even when it is introduced, there are plenty of short, easy words of regular notation which lend themselves to synthetic treatment. [c) The Artistic Element. There is yet another reason why reading should begin with words rather than letters. Written or printed words are forms, and form, which is a matter for the eye, should be mastered as a whole. The parts may give no idea of the whole ; the whole may give ideas of the parts. 3. Interest. — The teacher must study to maintain interest ; and to do this he must seek to create a love for the subject, The subject matter of the lessons must be suitable, and intrinsically interesting. (For further information under this head the student is referred to the sections on Reading Books and Fairy Tales. ) The teacher's manner must be pleasant and winning, his methods must be sound and scientific, based upon knowledge of child life and child mind. The lessons must be graduated, and a skilful use should be made of those useful aids, comparison and contrast. As soon as possible the scholars' assistance in the detection and correction of errors should be enlisted, and they should be made to feel that they are sharing the work and responsibility with the teacher. Ex- planations should be introduced in a suitable manner, and at suitable times, and there should be no interruptions or distractions either physical or mental. There should be no glare of light, no noise, no uncomfortable seats ; nor should ill- placed spelling or explanation be given by the teacher, nor bad discipline toler- ated from the class. i. Assistance. — The amount of assistance rendered should vary. In the READING. 155 earlier lessons much help will be required, for in school work teaching should precede learning. The B. B, can be freely used, words can be classified and syllabified, plenty of pattern work can be given for imitation, and writing can be made to assist. But as the scholars become older more work should then be thrown upon them. Help will still be required, but it will be for other aspects of the subject, so as to produce expressive reading. 5. Correction. — When giving the class practice in reading the teacher should listen with closed book. He will thus be in a better position to correct all kinds of errors, whether of word saying, of articulation, enunciation, or expression. Good reading places the listener in as good a position as the reader, and unless the teacher feels himself to be in that position, he knows that there is something needing correction. These corrections should always be made in a nice way, or there may be set up an unpleasant association which will handicap all sub- sequent efforts in these lessons. 6. Amount. — The amount attempted must always depend upon such factors as the following : — (a) The nature and extent of local provincialisms. \b) The intelligence of the children, and the extent ot the curriculum. These should be interdependent. In a " slum " school or in a village school the same amount can hardly be expected as in the more favoured districts. \c) The length of time the children stay at school, and the degree of regu- larity attained. {d) The amount and quality of the staj. There will always be favoured children, with special aptitude for reading. This fact is within the experience of every teacher. But the gifted must not be chosen as a standard for the others. The average ability and the average oppor- tunities of the class should be gauged, and the quantity of the work should be apportioned accordingly. A little well done is better than a dabbling with much. Age to Commence the Teaching of Reading^. There is a general opinion among experts that no instruction should be attempted in the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic until the age of five ; and this fact receives official sanction, for children are not compelled to attend school before that age. But this opinion is not shared by many of the ablest infant school teachers in the country. " On the contrary, it is often found in practice that piecing little words and sentences together with a movable or picture alphabet, imitating the forms of letters and figures with paper patterns or pencils, and counting the objects around them are occupations not more laborious, and certainly not less interesting, than many of the exercises of the kindergarten. Moreover, it is found that by the judicious admix- ture of exercises on simple words and on numbers, with other infantine employments, little children frequently overcome some of the earlier difficulties of reading and writing almost uncon- sciously, and before they are aware that they are difficulties. . . . Having regard to the short period of school life among the chil- dren of the labouring class, and to the indispensable importance of the three elementary subjects, it must always be held to be part 156 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. of the office of the preparatory or infant class to provide the rudiments of instruction in these subjects." Infant Reading and its I>ifficulties. I. "Work of the Infant Stage.— This should be threefold :— 1. To teach the letters and their powers. 2. To teach the combination of the letters into small or easy words. 3. To teach the combination of little words into simple sen- tences. H. Difficulties. 1, Physical. — These fall easily under four heads, (a) Distinct Articulation. The vocal organs of young children are some- times but poorly developed, and others are defective. The distinct arti- culation necessary for pure pronunciation is the result of careful culture and growth. The imitative faculty must be freely used. The shape of the mouth and the position of the tongue should be frequently shown, and much patience should be exercised towards the dull and stupid. Common errors should be met with systematic vocal drill, and exercises should be formed by the teacher for class practice. These should take the form of short sentences ; e.g. — Vocal Difficulty. Exercises. th : The raoth&c and izthzx went v^'xth them. r: He rode round the broad road on a brown horse. \b) Voice Modulation. Too often the reading of young children is a series of jerky monotones. There is no cadence of voice to indicate the sense of the passage. This can only be met by plenty of pattern work and by imitation. A little explanatory conversation on the subject matter of the lesson may sometimes add intelligence to the reading, which may show itself in an improved vocal delivery, but, as a rule, the other methods will have to be relied on. [c] Weak Attention. The power of concentration is very small in children. Sustained attention is physically exhausting, so that only reasonable demands should be made upon them. Concentration is a slow growth ; hence there should be short lessons and suitable changes. Interest is a great factor in attention, and the teacher must seek all legitimate devices to arouse and maintain it. By-and-by habit begins to assert itself, and attention follows as a matter of custom and association. (d) Constitutional Difficulties. There may be a weak constitution, a timid nature, bashfulness, shyness, all of which may result from physical causes. Laziness may be another result. 2. Mental. (a) Association. There is a threefold association to set up (see General Principles). This association requires time and some ingenuity to do it intelligently. {b) Intelligence. Intelligent reading should be expected of children. They read childish books dealing with the common experiences and incidents of child life, and therefore their reading ought to indicate understand- ing of the subject matter. The words require grouping or phrasing according to the sense; i.e., the reading should be notional. It is a difficulty which receives increasing attention as the difficulty attached to word-naming (recognising and saymg the words) grows less. It is ignored in the earliest lessons. In the later lessons it is of primary importance, and practically monopolises the teacher's attention. READING. 157 (c) Defective Alphabet. Most childish difficulties arise from this source. '1 here are 42 elementary sounds in our language, and only 26 letters to express them. Furthermore, some of these letters are redundant, some are silent, and some sounds are represented in several ways. A child having learned ^.o, no, and so is staggered to find the o different in to and do. There is a breach of expectation, a shock to childish confi- dence, which breeds timidity and distrust of all future phonetic attempts. 3. Moral. — A child may be wilfully inattentive, through some fault of temper like obstinacy or sullenness ; or from laziness, and laziness in healthy people is not far removed from imperfect morality. To Teach the Alphabet. Whatever method of teaching is adopted, the alphabet will have to be learned sooner or later, but do not begin with it. Begin with small words, as already instructed, and for the reasons already given. If the teacher wishes to concentrate the work, he could adopt some such system as " Livesey's Object and Word Method". Eight common objects, or pictures of them, could be shown, the words printed on the B.B., or some other apparatus like the word-building frame could be used, and these words could be dealt with until all the letters are known. The words given are caw, hox., jug, feZy drum, quill, whip, and key, but the teacher could form other words for himself if necessary. I. Apparatus Required. — Some or all of the following should be used : — (a) B.B., chalk and duster. {dj Cards of letters ; one capital, and one small, t) Kindergarten sticks. d) Picture letters. e) Word-building frames and solid letters. /) Slates suitably ruled, and pencils for drawing the letters. n. Capital Zjetters. — These should be taught first, and this may be done in several ways. 1. By Simple Recognition. la) In their order. This is the worst method. \b) By grouping according to their element si This may be a good method for leaching the writing of the letters, but it has no special claims for reading. a. By Memory Aids. —These will include :— (a) Picture cards ; e.g., A is the archer, etc. This is the principle oi asso- ciation. b\ Kindergarten sticks. This is slow, but sure and interesting. c) Letter box or word-building frame. The principle is the same in either case, and the teaching should arouse curiosity and maintain interest. (rf) The B.B. may be used alone, or in conjunction with one or more of the other aids. The letters should be printed one at a time on the B. E }.1 158 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. m. Flan of Iiesson. 1. Take a group of easily constructed letters — I, X, Y, T, L, H, etc. 2. The letter I should be taken first as the simplest and easiest. Print it on the B. B. Name it. The children must repeat the name whilst looking at it. 3. Next take the card of capital letters. Class to point out the I. 4. Then let the children pick it out from the box of letters. 5. The same letter might then be picked out from the picture cards. 6. Now let all the children make an I with kindei-garten stick. 7. Take another letter (T) and proceed in same way. 8. The two letters can then be formed into a word, IT. 9. The remaining letters could be taught in same way, and where possible little words should be formed and learned. 10. Later on the children should W7'ite the letters on their slates — (a) From a copy. {b) From dictation. rv. Small Ijetters. 1. Teach those first which are most like the capitals ; e.g., c, o, x, z, Y, W, s. 2. Group those likely to be confused and compare and contrast them ; e.g., b, d; p, q; m, n, u, v. 3. When the small letters have been learned, place them side by side with the large ones, and let the children compare and contrast them. Then mix them and let the class name them picked out at random. Classification of Iietters. 1. Capitals. — In classifying the capital letters for the purpose of teaching the alphabet the teacher must remember that sight is to be studied more than sound, as reading is a matter for the eye. So far as possible, the groupings should have some common element, for in comparing letters points of similarity are more important than points of difference. Hence the form of the letters should be the basis of classification adopted. Class I. Common element, straight li?te, I, L, T, H, F, E, , , 2. , , elements, straight and oblique lines. A, Y, W, X, Z, N, M, K, Y. ,, 3. ,, element, ^z^rz*^, C, G, 0, Q, D, U, S, J. ,, 4. ,, e\Qmeni, cuj-ve and st?-aight line, 'Pf'Rf'R. 2. Small Letters. — These do not lend themselves- so readily to classification by form. Nevertheless it is the proper and best classification for the reasons g^ven above. Class I. Common element, right line, 1, 1, t. ,, 2. ,, oblique line, y, w, k, y, z. ,,3. ,, right line with hook, m, n, u, r, h, f, j. ,> 4- M curve, c, e, x, o, g, a, s. , , 5. , , right line with curve, b, d, q, p. First Iiessons after the Alphabet. Object. — The object is to teach the powers of the consonants and woj-ds of two letters. It is assumed that the class knows the alphabet and the powers of the vowels. Apparatus. — B.B., chalk and duster; card with words of two letters; letter box and kindergarten sticks. Lesson. 1. Print a vowel (say A) on the B. B. Class to name it. 2. Place some consonants, one by one, before it, as ba, da, fa, la, pa, etc. Class to watch the teacher's mouth while he slowly pronounces each syllable, afterwards repeating each syllable after him. READING. 159 3. Now let the children take the same consonants with another vowel (E), A new set of syllables is produced, as be, de, fe, le, pe, etc. The teacher goes through the same steps as before, the class carefully noticing his mouth. 4. Then let the teacher contrast the two series, placing them side by side, and having them ref)eated alternately ; e.g., ba, be, da, de, etc. A few combinations like this will be enough for one lesson. Do not weary the children so as to breed a dislike for the work. 5. Then to fi.x the syllables let them form them with their kindergarten sticks, and repeat them when formed. They should next form the same syllables from the letter box, going through the same process. 6. As a final exercise the syllables might be repeated first simultaneously and then individually. Card and Primer Stag^e. Object. — To teach words of "^ or ^ letters, or even more letters when the words are common ; also to teach the powers of the letters in combination. Apparatus. 1. A set of cards containing easy words of 3 or 4 letters. 2. A very easy primer containing not more than 40 pages. The book is to be printed in large type ; the words of more than one syllable are to be divided, and the book should be well illustrated. A child' s first acquaintance with a book must be a pleasant memory. 3. Use the cards at first ; then sometimes cards and sometimes books ; then books alone. Lesson. I. The earlier cards might be arranged on the Phonic Method. The teacher could name the first sound, the class could repeat it simultaneously, then several pupils individually ; e.g. , -at, b-at, c-at, h-at, p-at, etc. , the teacher prefixing the consonants. a. Then double consonants might be prefixed — sb-at, sc-at, sh-at, sp-at, etc. The children again to repeat after the teacher. 3. A few other combinations might be treated in the same way. In each case the teacher must test by sample. 4. A farrf should then be taken containing short sentences embodying the words thus taught, and these words should be read by the class. If there are no suitable cards the sentences should be written on the B. B. Too much word building is wearisome in one lesson : it is reading that interests the children. 5. When all the words of a sentence are known the sentence may be read with expression by the teacher, the children copying. There will probably be need to exaggerate the emphasis for young children, for they rarely reach the standard set them. 6. Any difficult words should be written on the B. B. during the lesson, and spelt and learnt orally within reasonable limits, for it is not advisable to have too much interruption in a reading lesson. 7. A few lessons of this kind will enable the children to use the cards and primers very soon. With these the teacher should read single words, the class repeating after him until a sentence is known This should then be re-read by the teacher for proper expression, the class imitating, and several scholars following individually. Each sentence can be mastered in this wav. 8. The paragraphs should be recapitulated in the same manner as sentences. This will supply the very essential element of connected reading, which is a pleasurable acquisition to most children. 9. Finally the whole chapter should be thus recapitulated. The teacher will now be able to read the chapter in sentences, paying great attention to enunciation and expression. i6o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. METHODS OF TEACHING READING. The difficulty and importance of reading as a subject of in- struction are shown by the methodised attempts that have been made to improve its teaching. There are a number of methods in use, and, as usual, where interest or necessity has called forth many efforts, there is the usual conflict of opinion as to the rela- tive merits of the various systems in use. Each of the best known systems is here dealt with briefly. The salient points are noticed and followed with a criticism in each case. The best known of the methods are the following : — 1. The Alphabetic Method. 2. The Phonic Method. 3. The Phonetic Method. 4. The Method of Phonic Analysis. 5. The Look and Say Method. 6. The Syllabic Method. 7. The Combined Method. 8. The English Method. Some of these are analytic, some synthetic, whilst some are more or less a combination of the two. But whatever method may be used, there are certain general principles or processes of instruction, which must more or less regulate all methods. There must always be : — 1. Preparation by the teacher. 2. Pattern work by the teacher. 3. Imitation by the class. 4. Correction of errors. 5. Plenty of practice (individual practice is the best). 6. Examination. THE AIiPHABETIC METHOD. Description. It is called the Alphabetic Method because it associates the sound of a word with its sign through the medium of the series of its letter names taken either collectively or syllabically. Printed words are placed before the child, and its attention is directed to each letter in succession. The teacher names it distinctly, and the child pronounces it after him. In this way the scholar is expected to learn the alphabet first. The method may be briefly described thus : — 1. The alphabet is learned as already pointed out. 2. The vowels are then associated with each consonant in turn ; e.^. :— READING. i6i at, et, it, ot, ut, ab, eb, ib, ob, ub, ac, ec, ic, oc, uc, and so on. 3. Then a consonant is affixed ; e.g. : — bat, bet, bot, bit, but, dab, dib, deb, dob, dub, etc. 4. The short vowels are then lengthened by the addition of e ; e.g. bete, bite, bote, bute. It is a word building synthetic method. bate, Advantages. 1. It is claimed that it is a method for teaching reading and spelling together^ and the reading through the spelling : but this is hardly true. The converse is the case, 2. There is a saving of labour, the work requisite for learning the one being made available for learning the other. 3. It has the sanction of long usage, but is now rapidly becom- ing obsolete. 4. It appears to he the natural method to begin elements, and to proceed to combinations ; i.e., from the simple to the complex. 5. The sounds of the letters composing words when uttered in quick succession sometimes suggest the sound of the word itself. Disadvantages. 1. This combination of teaching reading and spelling together is awkward and un- natural. In many irregular words the spell- ing is a hindrance to acquiring the word sound. 2. The saving of time is illusory, for one subject interferes with the other ; and the introduction of awkward and useless spell- ing combinations is a waste of time. 3. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, and therefore this method inverts the proper relation of these subjects ; for reading gives natural facilities for learning spelling, whereas by this method those facilities are lost, because the attention is distracted frt)m the reading to the spelling. 4. Our alphabet is very imperfect, hence any method of teaching reading based upon it must necessarily be imperfect also. 5. It encourages indolence, for frequent repetitions of the letters of a word will at length suggest the word itself, and conse- quently the learner does not put forth the necessary degree of attention for mastering words. 6. It is contrary to the actual method of acquiring spoken language. In talking a child learns words first. 7. The method is tedious, and very often produces a dislike for reading. 8. It is wrong in principle. It applies synthesis to the mastery of form by the eye ; whereas form must first be learnt as a whole. THE PHONIC METHOD. Description. The Phonic or Sound Method associates the sound of the word with the letter sounds composing it. The powers of the letters or sounds are associated with their shapes. The child then constructs the sound of the word for himself. The method professes to teach each sound, and to have it separately uttered before pronouncing the word. In the first lessons plenty of drill in the phonic alphabet is given. It is a synthetic method, and practically it has three stages ; — II [62 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. The analysis of the sound of a word into its component sounds. 2. The power to recognise the picture (letter) of the sound, and to articulate it. 3. The application to new cases. Taking any common word as an illustration, the process might be as follows : — 1. Take the word bat, and try to give the sound of each letter in it, thus be-a-tg. 2. Then pronounce the word bat. Get the pupils to notice the sound of your lips, and their position, whilst saying b ; then say be. The children notice the difference at once, and can then imitate these sounds. 3. The reverse pjocess is then pursued. The entire word is sounded, and the children are required to give the sounds of the letters. 4. A picture (b) of the sound is then shown. The usual devices must then be used for fixing the picture and the sound. 5. Lip work or silent spelling then follows. The children watch the teacher's mouth, and recognise the letters from the shape of the lips. The same process in its entirety should be adopted for other letters. 6. The sound of two or more letters in combination like a-te is next taught. 7. Other letters with which the children are familiar could then be pre- fixed, and the words sounded; e.g., (b)at, (c)at, (p)at. This is an exercise in word building or vocabularies. 8. The last step should be the combination of the words learned into easy narrative. Advantages. 1. If adopted in its purity it would greatly facilitate the process of learning to read. It is asserted that it extends the words of regular notation to 75 per cent, of the whole, leaving 25 per cent, only for the Look-and- Say Method. 2. It is a good method for obtaining good articulation, and accurate and careful enun- ciation. 3. Theoretically the method is sound, the pronunciation of a whole being taught by the prounciation of the parts. 4. It teaches reading and spelling to- gether. 5. It enables children to apply their knowledge to fresh cases. 6. Some teachers have made it very effec- tive ; and more or less it forms part of the methods used by most teachers. Disadvantages. 1. A purely phonic method is possible only where the number of letters and elementary sounds correspond. But in English the letters are only five-eighths of the elementary sounds. 2. The same letter ought always to repre- sent the same sound, but one letter often represents two or more sounds. 3. Some sounds are represented by more than one letter. 4. Some letters are silent. 5. " It is nothing but a variety of the Alphabetic Method with other names to the letters." 6. It is wrong in principle, as it applies synthesis to the mastery of form by the eye. 7. The system is too elaborate and too complex for rough usage. 8. It requires special preparation, and therefore cannot very well be entrusted to a young teacher. 9. The attempt to give the powers of the labials, dentals, and liquids, has a tendency to induce stammering. THK PHONETIC METHOD. Description. This is a method designed to meet some of the difficulties of the Phonic Method. The principle of the method is that the rapid READING. 163 utterance of the sounds of the letters of a word will give the sound of the word itself. Each of the ordinary letters has a single sound, and then the rest of the elementary sounds of the language are provided for by variations of the letters in use. These varia- tions are expressed by means of diacritical signs ; e.g., the letter a has four sounds, which are thus expressed : — I. No mark a as in cat. 2. a >> fare. 3. a )) car. 4- d j> call. This arrangement extends the alphabet to 65 symbols, 32 of which are vowels, and 33 consonants. The distinction between some of the symbols is very fine, and it requires care to dis- tinguish them. Type arrangements help. Silent letters are printed in italics, as dum6, ^nife ; while whispered consonants are done in light type^ as (s)ing, (s)ound. The diphthongs are expressed by means of diagraphs^ as b-oa-t. The sounds of this extended alphabet are given first, and the word sound is then supposed to follow, and the nearer the alphabet comes to perfection the truer this is. After the lessons have been given in the extended alpha- bet, they are then repeated in the ordinary alphabet Criticltm. — The advantages of this method are much the same as those of the Phonic Method, but it only removes some of the disadvantages of that method to make room for others. The first four difficulties disappear with the extended alphabet, but the others remain, and are reinforced by the following additions : — 1. The new letters make it look like a strange language. 2. It destroys the face history of words and their origin. 3. Special books are required. 4. There are two alphabets to learn, and one of them a very long one, with very fine differences. Hence the work becomes wearying, tends to confusion, and proves a hindrance rather than a help to acquiring the art of reading, for in some cases two forms for the same word have to be learnt. 5. It does not remove the difficulties of our alphabet ; it only postpones them. THE liOOK-AND-SAT METHOD. Description. This is a method of reading without spelling. Each word is taught as a whole, and its sound is associated with it as a whole. The learning of the alphabet is no part of the plan, although it gets to be known by the children. The method may be briefly illustrated as follows : — 164 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. The teacher takes a reading sheet containing short sentences. He points to a word, pronounces it, and the class repeats it after him. A sentejice is thus read. 2. He then requires the class to read the same sentence simultaneously as he points to the words. 3. Then some child is selected to read it. 4. The teacher might then point to the same words in other parts of the sheet, and ask the children to name them. 5. The children next begin to notice differences in apparent similarities, e.g:, felt and left ; saw and was ; on and no. Up to this point the child has only noticed form as a whole. Now the analytic process begins, and he recognises some of the elements. 6. The children might next be introduced to books. They should always point to each word as it is read. As they improve in their reading this becomes less important, and eventually it may be dropped altogether. Advantages. Disadvantages. 1. The word is mastered by the eye. Children talk words when they enter school; now they learn to recognise pic- tures of words. The child has something to start with, and so starts with some ad- vantage. 2. It enables the child not only to recog- nise the word in the sign, but to acquire practical acquaintance with the powers of letters and syllables, for it associates sound, sign, and idea, in a natural way. 3. It is suitable to the circumstances of common schools. (a) It meets the best requirements of class instruction by stimulating attention and self-respect. A child learns to read quicker by this method than by any other, and it brings interest because the child is dealing with words which it knows. (6) It requires no special preparation,3in6. so can be entrusted to a young teacher. (c) It impresses by frequent repetition. Many words can be learned by no other method, and these are the most common in child vocabularies. 4. "It gives more practice in sounding letters in combination, hence the necessary mental generalisations for acquiring the powers of letters and syllables are more readily acquired." 5. It is the method which forms the basis of the methods adopted by most teachers. Few, perhaps none, use it in its purity, but many approximate to it. 1. It is a Chinese method. This is an unjust and an untrue criticism, for although each word symbol is learned independently, yet when the word is known as a whole it is analysed into its elements. In Chinese no such analysis is possible. This objec- tion is wrong in another point ; it assumes that the method gives no power to master new words. 2. A habit of guessing will be formed in the earlier lessons, unless great care is exercised. 3. It may produce carelessness — words of similar form are sometimes confounded — indistinct articulation and bad enunciation. 4. It resiukesstipplementing by the Phonic Method and by transcription. Some assert that the power to apply the knowledge of reading to new words is not so rapidly de- veloped as by the Phonic Method. This may be true for words of regular notation, but it is hardly true of the less regular words, which, be it remembered, are numerous and common. 5. Unless the teacher exercises great watchfulness, its moral effects are bad. Pupils pretend to read or point, and so attempt to deceive the teacher. 6. It may breed laziness. The idle or in- different will seek to shelter themselves under the chorus of class voices. 7. It may in some measure demoralise the teacher without zeal. The chorus of sound is supposed evidence of work, and he is content to rest to the hum of the voices. But this objection can only apply to simul- taneous reading, and then it is true of all methods. 8. Spelling is likely to suffer if the method is not supplemented. READING. 165 ^HE SYTiTiABTC METHOD. This is only a modified form of the Look-and-Say Method. The principle is practically the same, for words are still learned as a whole for monosyllables. The variation occurs with words of more than one syllable. Briefly, the method may be sum- marised as follows : — 1. Words of one syllable are first mastered on the Look-and-Say Method. 2. The method then proceeds to words of 7nore than one syllable, the words being carefully graduated. 3. These words are then broken up into syllables, words of regular notation being first taken. 4. The children are then taught each syllable on the Look-and-Say plan. 5. The complete word is then sounded. 6. The syllables are always classified, the commonest being taken first. THE METHOD OF PHONIC ANAL7SIS Description. This method is based upon the comparison of sounds, and, as its name implies, is a combination of the Phonic and Look-and- Say Methods. The idea is to use the Look-and-Say as a basis, then to combine the two, and, finally, for all words of regular notation, to use the Phonic Method. It is an attempt to combine the best points of the two most popular methods. 1. The first lessons are on the Look-and-Say Method for the acquirement of monosyllables and short irregular words of common use. 2. Next, words are analysed where they conveniently admit of it ; e.g., and = an-d, pad = p-ad, bad = b-ad. 3. The completing sound (initial or final) is done by the Phonic Method ; e.g., h-am,J-am, s-am, r-am. (a) Vocal. The process is as follows -.—The word am is slowly spoken, and the children are invited to watch the teacher's mouth at the time, noting the use of the vocal organs. Then the class utters the word. Repetition is given until a child learns how a particular sound is produced. (6) Symbol. The word ts next written on the B.B., ana the initial or final letter is placed apart as above. The word is then slowly pronounced again, first the syllable, then the whole sound. The children are then told that the separated letter is the sign for the completing sound. 4. When a number of words have been learnt in this way they are compared. This comparison is an important element in the method, for the powers of the consonants are taught by means of it ; e.g. , (c)an, (f)an, (m)aii, |p)an, (b)an, (t)an, (r)an, (d)aii. 5. When the children have progressed thus far phonic drill and comparison are used for the acquisition of new words. 6. Words are carefully classified, the more irregular being introduced gradually. 7. Sentence reading follows each new acquisition and embraces any of the words already learned 8. In the final stages the Phonic Method is used only. i66 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Advantages. 1. It is a good spelling method. The combination of the Look-and-Say and the Phonic is a good one. 2. It gives a certain amount of power to recognise fresh words by directing the attention to the structure of words. 3. It conduces to good enunciation, arti- culation, and pronunciation by teaching the powers of the letters. 4. It is less Chinese than the Look-and- Say, and less absurd than the Phonic. Disadvantages. 1. It is weak or wrong in principle, for it fixes the attention more on the parts than the whole. 2. It is not suited to the circumstances of many schools, for it would require very careful preparation, and could not well be entrusted to a young teacher. 3. Special sets of reading books would be required to suit the plan. A series of progressive, carefully graduated lessons would be required. 4. As in the Phonic Method, the attempt to give the powers of the letters might induce stammering in some cases. THE COMBINED ItlETHOD. The Combined Method, as its name impHes, is a composition formed by contributions from all the other methods. Probably in no two schools is it alike, for the constituents are mixed by different teachers in different proportions. But whatever may be the relative proportions of the contributing methods, it is by times find it described as the Eclectic Method. Anything that is good in the other methods is appropriated, and, as far as possible, incorporated in this. The Look-and-Say forms the basis, but the word building and spelling of the A Iphabetic, the powers of the letters and the word building of the Phonic, the syllabic treatment of words of the Syllabic, and the analysis and comparison of the Phono- Analytic are all used. Another great feature of the method is its elasticity. The teacher is at liberty to use any portion of any method at any particular moment, when it may be applied with most advantage. Probably most teachers knowingly or unknow- ingly use this method. It has already been pointed out that it may present any number of combinations, one of which is given as a sample. But the "personal equation" will always be an important factor in such a method as this. 1. The alphabet may be taught as in the Alphabetic Method by some of the many pleasant devices now in use. 2. Easy words could then be taught on the Look-and-Say plan. 3. The powers of the consonants could then be taught as in the Phono- Analytic Method. 4. Reading lessons on the Look-and-Say plan could still go on, but they should be varied and supplemented by lessons on word building as in the Phonic Method. 5. Specially difficult words could be written on the B. B. , analysed as in the Syllabic Method, and spelled as in the Alphabetic Method, READING. 167 6. Simultaneous reading could be practised on the Look-and-Say plan from the pattern work of the teacher. 7. Plenty of individual practice should be given, and the necessary correc- tions should be made in any method most suitable. THE engt.tsh: method. Description. This is a method of teaching reading which has been elaborated by Messrs. Sonnenschein and Meiklejohn. It is a word-building plan, and an attempt to analyse and classify the fundamental combinations of the language. It is called the English Method. The plan consists of four courses. I. The Nursery Book or Two Letter Word Sheets. This book contains 17 lessons carefully graded, and the progressive nature of the lessons can be graphically represented thus : — Lesson. Consisting of ^ a,i. a, 1, o, go, BO. a, i, o, go, so, ho, lo, no. a, i, 0, go, BO, ho, lo, no, ox, on, of, or, and so on. II. The First or AT Course. This consists of short vowels with single con- sonants. It "consists entirely of A, E, I, O, U, with the addition to them of one letter in each lesson. The child is intended to learn one letter in each lesson — not its name, but its function or use. Capitals are introduced in the order of their difficulty, thus I or S is easier than P ; P than G ; and so on." " The child should write or print on his slate the practice, the lesson, and as many of the sentences as there is time for with neatness and clearness." Flan of a Iiesson for First Course. 1. Practice. — The book is divided into sections, of which there are 23. Each section begins with a practice, which contains all the vowel combinations used in that section. The practice is read off on the Look-and-Say Method, both horizontally and perpendicularly, till the pupils know every syllable. The first practice is given in illustration. at et It ot nt et at ot nt it it at at et ot ot it ut at et at ot et it at 9. Lesson. — The Usson then follows, in which these syllables are combined with a consonant b, hence we get lists of words and syllables such as bat, bet, bit, bot, bat. Lists are made as in the practice, and they are first read across, then down, till known. The teacher then points at words here and there. 8. Exercise. — An exercise then follows of short sentences composed of words of two or three letters, like it is on the bat ; it is a bit of the bat. I^essons and exercises then follow each other to the end of the section, towards which the exercises become more numerous. «. Second Practice.— /"Aw introduces a fresh combination. Another con- sonant is chosen, and the same method is pursued. i68 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. III. The Second or ANT Course. This course consists of short vowels with double consonants. It is the first course, with the addition of a second con- sonant. Lesson and exercise now follow each other, but the lesson is divided into two parts. {a) Syllables are given to practise until fully known. \b) These syllables are combined instantaneously into words of two syllables. The Bridge. — There is a bridge between this course and the next. A series of words and syllables is given, and the pupil has to say which are words and which not ; e.g. : — at et ot ad lat ret lot lad flat pret plot clad and so on. The bridge is not introduced until the later lessons. IV. The Third Course. This consists of long vowels. It is the first course again, " but with the vowels lengthened, and the learner will at once find that this comes about by the addition of a final e ". Sto)'ies then follow written without the help of any words with double vowels. Practice, lesson, and exercise follow each other as before. V. The Fourth Course contains all the double vowels in the language with apparent anomalies, and some words that cannot be classified. The whole method may be graphically illustrated as follows : — A, E, I, O, U. I With I Consonant, With 2 Consonants, Lengthened, or ^ — s or ' — N or The First Course. The Second Course. Third Course, ist Bridge. 2nd Bridge. II The English Language (as represented by words and letters). Doubled, or Fourth Course. Advantages. 1. It is synthetic. 2. It is well graded. The lessons are progressive and systematic. Difficulties are carefully bridged. 3. It introduces plenty of recapitulation. 4. It enables the pupil to see the sym- metry and regularity of the English lan- guage as a whole. 5. It soon gives the pupils a feeling of mastery and a sensation of progress. 6. Children trained on this system have always been thoroughly good spellers. They spell by principle and law. 7. It is thorough and comprehensive. By the arithmetical process of permutations and combinations every actual and possible syllable in the English language is intro- duced, and accepted or rejected as is con- sidered right in each individual case. Disadvantages. 1. It is unnatural. Children should learn to read as they learn to talk. Words are not difficult for reading purposes altogether, either from the fewness or from the number of their letters, but from their degree of familiarity or otherwise to the children. 2. Like all synthetic methods it is wrong in principle. See Alphabetic Method, Dis- advantages, 8. 3. It is dull and uninteresting, ^ It is difficult to conceive any love for a subject hanging round such a bag of dry bones. Children trained «nder this system, who have developed a love for reading, must have acquired that feeling from the personal qualities of the teacher or themselves. 4. It may make good spellers, but this is a reading system and not a spelling one. 5. Speaking generally, it is a well-classified edition of the Phonic System, and has many of its disadvantages. 6. It is not popular. Relatively few teachers know it, and fewer practise it, although it has aheady attained its majority. READING, 169 NOTES OF A READING liESSON. I. Preparation 1. Language. The chapter should be read through and marked. 1. To show the amount read by each child. 2. To mark emphasis and accent where necessary 3. To prepare a hst of difficult words for learning. 4. To mark words producing provincialisms. 5. With a young class to prepare a list of words likely to be confused, e.g., saw and was, or mispronounced. 2. Subject Matter. 1. Explanation of allusions (if any). 2. To prepare a few illustrations (if necessary). 3. To be able to give a brief explanation of the whole chapter. As a rule the mechanical difficulties will be the chief with a young class, but generally the difficulties will depend upon — (i) The attendance. (2) The ability and zeal of the teacher. (3) The subject matter read. (4) The arrangement of the time table. XL Sample of Subject Matter. — In writing notes for a reading lesson it will only be necessary to take a portion of the subject matter to show how you would deal with it. " Who is this that cometh from the south, thinly clad in a light transparent garment ? Her breath is hot and sultry; she seeks the refreshment of the cool shade; she seeks the crystal brook to bathe her languid limbs. The tanned haymakers welcome her coming, and the sheep shearer who clips the fleeces of his flock with his sounding shears." m. Introduction. 1. The class must be prop)erly arranged. This will depend upon the nature of rooms and the space at the disposal of the teacher. Where possible the class should always stand for reading — (a) In semicircular drafts for small classes. (6) In parallel rows, the shortest children being in front, for larger classes. In many of our large modern schools the children have to take their reading lesson in the desks. 2. Arrangements should be made for the proper and orderly passing of the books. 3. The position of each child should be comfortable and orderly. 4. There should be a few minutes' conversation on the subject matter to ensure understanding. 5. New words and difficult words should be written on the B.B., and rapidly learned. There need be no explanation at this stage. IV. The I«es8on.— There are two chief objects which must be kept in view in giving the lesson. I. To extend the pupil's knowledge of language by enlarging his stock of words, and making them plain to him. a. To enable him to grasp the ideas in his book, so as to get intelligent reading. A. Mechanical Difficulties. 1. Pattern Reading. — The teacher will pattern read for imitation by the class. This may be done by sentences, by several sentences, or by the class. Tbe wanu and abilities of the classes must decide bow. After the primary I70 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. pattern reading of the teacher, secondary pattern -work may be given by some of the better scholars. Where the class possesses some very good readers, much of the primary pattern work should be thrown on them. 2. Imitation by Scliolars. — The scholars will then imitate the pattern set them. This again may be varied. It may take the form of — (a) Individual imitation. (6) Sectional imitation. This is a useful practice, as it arouses emulation. (c) Class imitation. 3. Practice : Simultaneous and Individual. — Plenty of time should be allowed in the lesson for practice in reading unpatterned portions. A portion might be read individually, and then simultaneously. The object should be to give as much practice as possible. B. Difficulties of Iiang^uag^e. — The amount and quality of the explanation will depend upon the class. As a rule, too much should not be attempted, but no dogmatic directions can be given. The anticipated difficulties should be underlined in the teacher's book. Words and Phrases for Explanation (in sample). [a] Who is this, etc. Personification of the S. W, wind. Explain that the whole piece is personification (if necessary explain personification). Describe the characteristics of the S. wind to the class, and show the appropriate nature of the various descriptions. [V) Clad in a bright, etc. Referring to the clear sky which generally accom- panies this wind. {c) Hot and sultry breath. A reference to the warmth of this wind. Breath is wind. The simile is good, for a hot breath would indicate a condition of bodily languor. {d) Crystal brook. Show a crystal, and let the class see how it sparkles. The brook sparkles in the sun like a crystal. {e) Languid limbs. A reference to the fatiguing effects of the S. wind. C. Difficulties of Style. 1. Punctuation. The teacher must insist upon the punctuation marks receiving proper attention and proper interpretation. Plenty of cor- rection, pattern work, and explanation will be required. 2. Emphasis should be placed on this, hot, sultjy, tanned haymakers and sheep sheai-ers. Where necessary accent must receive attention. 3. Intelligence. Where children do not understand what they are reading, style must necessarily be bad. The efficient explanation of IV. (b) will facilitate the necessary understanding. 4. Voice. The voice should be nicely pitched with varied cadence. There must be no artificiality, and the pace must not be too fast. Enuncia- tion and articulation must be pttre and distinct. D. Discipline. 1. Some points of discipline have already been mentioned under the head of introduction. These include the position of the scholars, the distri- bution and collection of books, the arrangement of the class. 2. The teacher' s position should allow every child to fall within his range of vision, 3. The room should be physically comfortable. Noise, glare, and distractions of every kind should be removed. 4. Each child should have a book. There should be no " looking over ", 5. Children should not always read in tu7-n. When inattention is detected or suspected, the offender should immediately be called upon to read. READING. 171 HOVr TO DEAIi WITH ANOMAIiOUS DrFFICUIiTTES TK READING. These may be illustrated by some such passage as the follow- ing extract (1879): — " He would take no pains to teach any boy who could not at least write what boys of eight years old can write ". Like Sounds and Unlike Spellings. 1. Would.— Proorf, hood, good, could; compare and contrast, and note the silent I. 2. Pains. — Panes, canes, reigns, deigns, veins, reins. Compare and contrast again. 3. Teach.— The ea sound needs attention here. Compare it with reach, preach, tea, sea ; and contrast with screech, breech, teeth, see. 4. Any. — Compare with many and con- trast with penny. Call attention to the sounds of a and e. 5. Who, What.— Teacher to pattern the correct sound ; class to imitate it. Phonic drill should be given on other combinations like- which where while when whither whether whilst whom wheel white why whose The pronunciation of who might then be compared with do and coo ; what might be contrasted with pot, lot, got. 6. Write.- Compare with rite, mite, spite, kite, and contrast with right, height, fight, sleight. 7. EiAt.— Compare with ate, hate, late, plate, slate, skate, mate, pate, bate, rate, date, fate. Like Spellings and Unlike Sounds. I. Would.— BoHW(er), mould. Here the syllabic combinations are alike, but the sounds are different. 2. Pains. — Mountain, capfatn. Contrast with pains, and compare pains with dis- dain, main/am, again. 3. Teach. — This word presents no diffi- culties under this head. 4. Any. — Contrast with litany, Bethany. 5. Who, What. — Who might be com- pared with whom and contrasted with whorl. What will present no difficulties under this head. 6. Write.— No difficulty under this head. Practically ite is an invariable sound. 7. Eight.— Contrast with sleight and height. In all these cases contrast and comparison should be brought into play, and the similarities and differences should be placed side by side on the B.B. The words should be spelled, written on slates or paper, learned, explained where necessary, and then dictated. Sentences should then be given containing them, and these should be dictated and read. The class should then be given sentence composition on these words. QTJAliTnXIS OF GOOD ItEADINO. These may roughly be divided into two classes — mechanical and mental. The two classes are not mutually exclusive, but the difference is sufficient to afford a basis for classification. Z. MeohamoaL 1. Pronunciation. — Correct pronuncmtion defends upon the proper sound- ing of the vowels, for there can be no purity of^ utterance unless they receive their right quantities and powers. Many of our provincialisms are due to incorrect pronunciation of vowels. a. Enunciation.— The aspirate, the th, the r, the final t are difficulties. Various other combinations will suggest themselves, and the student is advised to compose a list for himself. As good pronunciation depends on vowels, so 172 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. good enunciation depends upon the correct sounding of the consonants. Where any pronounced and general defect exists vocal drill should be regularly given for its cure. 3. Articulation. — By articulation is meant the proper Jilting of one syllable on to another. The derivation of the word (Lat., artus, a joint) reveals its meaning. It has a threefold reference : — (a) The proper formation of elementary sounds. (b) The formation of these sounds into distinct syllables. (c) The formation of these syllables into words. Bad articulation is often due to faulty enunciation. Children are slovenly, too quick, careless, and inattentive at times; w^hereas " in just articulation the words are not hurried over nor melted together ; they are neither abridged nor prolonged ; they are not swallowed nor are they shot from the mouth; neither are they trailed, and then suffered to drop unfinished ; but they are delivered from the lips, as beautiful coins are issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, neatly struck by the proper organs — distinct, sharp, perfectly finished ". 4. Pitch. — School children often read too loud, and their voices are just as often pitched too high. There can be no invariable standard for all ; but the pitch generally should be that which permits of an easy, audible, unfatiguing production. 5. Modulation and Tone. — By modulation is meant variation in the pitch of the voice, so as to produce what is sometimes called cadence or tone. The rising and falling inflection gives that change of intonation which makes a voice pleasant to listen to, and facilitates attention. The tone requires to be pleasant and dis- tinct, but not boisterous or noisy. Where there is no modulation, for the listener there is probably little comfort, and for the reader probably less understanding. These two qualities of reading are difficult to deal with. They are more often gifts than acquirements, and any drilling in them often produces a stilted and artificial style. 6. Pace. — The subject matter will always determine the pace. The voice should give a fair translation of the sentiments it is uttering, or the emotions it is revealing. But it should never be fast unless the reader is blessed with a clear and audible production. Drawling is the other extreme, and it is just as bad. Obviously pace is a varying quantity, and may have to change many times in the same chapter. 7. Accent. — This is a superior force of voice or of articulative effort upon some particular syllable of a word distinguishing it from the others. Some- times it means more than this when it signifies a peculiar or characteristic modu- lation or modification of the voice, as when we say a person speaks with a good accent. In poetry it also indicates a slight stress upon a tone to mark its posi- tion in the measure. In such cases the accent is regular, and marks the flow of the rhythm. In GilVs School Management a much wider function is claimed for accent. There it is stated that " accent is a stress or bounding of the voice, followed by a slight pause, which groups in pronunciation those words that are so closely combined in sense as to convey but one notion, and to separate which would be to destroy the sense. It also draws attention to that word on which the notion to be conveyed depends. By means of accent phrases are read, not as a succes- sion of words, but as a series of notions, which are in this way made distinct. In fact, accent is the expedient by which every distinct notion is separated and distinguished in reading. In some cases, two phrases are so intimately joined in sense as to form but one compound notion ; and at such times two accents are heard, a primary and a secondary — the primary being placed on the word that limits the phrase, or renders it more specific." If all this can be justly claimed as the work of accent, then it would have to be classed as a mental rather than a mechanical quality. READING. 173 EL MentaL 1. Emphasis. — By this is meant fh^ stress of utterance or force of voice given to the words or parts of statements intended to be specially impressed on the listener. It often removes the accent from its natural or customary position to some other word in the sentence. Its chief effect is to indicate a contrast, e.g. : — This is the house that Jack built — this and no other. This is the house that Jack built — as contr^ted with other buildings. This is the house that Jack built — as contrasted with other builders. This is the house that Jack built — as contrasted with others he may have bought, etc. It requires good analytic power, and it is this that makes it a mental attri- bute of reading ; for a proper analysis means a clear understanding. There is a variety of ways of expressing it. The voice may be raised and intensified, or lowered and softened ; there may be a sudden change of voice, the use of the pause, or even gesture may be utilised. 2. Phrasing. — This involves a proper understanding and translation of pimctuation, and something more. Words have to be group>ed into notions, and the various relations of these groups of words have to be vocally indicated. Like emphasis, this makes substantial demands on the intelligence, and requires good analytic power. 8. Fluency. — Ccr\si\n mechanical conditions are essential for fluency. The typ)e must be good, the light abundant without glare, good eyesight, and a comfortable position. The words have to be readily recognised and easily uttered. There must be no physical defects, such as stammering, or faults of habit, such as slurring, stumbling, and miscalling. The eye has to run on in advance of the voice, and the mind has to instantaneously interpret the sense. The words must come naturally. Fluent reading must not be confounded with rapid reading. Reading may be rapid, but incorrect and unintelligent. It may be a mere patter or stilted, and in none of these cases is it fluent. Plenty of practice will be required. 1. Intelligence. — If the reading is to be good the child must understand what it reads, hence all the methods of teaching any of the school subjects should be intelligent. Especially in reading lessons will suitable matter have to be chosen, and suitable explanations given where necessary. Exposition lessons are particularly serviceable for this purpose. If the reading does not put the listener in as good a position as the reader, the reading can hardly be called in- telligent. All the qualities of good reading are essential constituents of intelli- gent reading, and the absence of any one is a defect. S. Expression. — This is the highest quality of good reading. It embraces intelligent reading and something more, for reading may be intelligent without being expressive. The reader enters into the spirit of the author, and gives it efficient interpretation. The beauties of the language are presented so as to appeal to the audience. For its successful production it requires a very sympa- thetic nature : a nature that can feel the sentiments and emotions revealed with sufficient reality to give them vitality. It is most difficult to secure; but so far as it can be imparted, it may be done through the aid of suitable subject matter, good pattern work, the cultivation of the vocal powers of the class, by plenty of practice for fluency, by the cultivation of the heart as well as the head, by ex- planation, and by recitation. Perhaps the recitation of sympathetic pieces will be the best means, but dialogues, extracts from Shakespeare's plays, and kindred pieces, will also be serviceable. From this list of the qualities of good reading the young teacher will easily be able to enumerate the chief faults of reading. He has only to present the converse of each quality, such as bad pronunciation, imperfect articulation, etc., and the short description appended under each head will enable him to recog- nise the fault and to suggest its cure. 174 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD shiSnt bjsading. Silent reading may be practised sometimes, but always under supervision, and only in the higher classes, where draft and simul- taneous reading are less suitable than in the lower classes. A portion of reading may be mapped out, and the class allowed to read it, but some oral questioning should follow. A little preparatory explanation, skilfully and pertinently given, would arouse interest and make the exercise more successful. The practice has its advan- tages. The children are taught to cultivate a love for reading in this way, and this love may show itself in home reading through the medium of the school or circulating library. The process is pleasurable, for they read with little or no restriction ; they are continuously occupied ; they learn to rely on themselves for grasping the point and meaning of the subject matter; they are not harassed by the many points of discipline incidental to an oral reading lesson ; they read with greater physical comfort ; they read more than by the oral method ; and they become better spellers. SIMULTANEOUS HEiADING. I. Description. — The method and quantity will vary according to the class. Roughly speaking, there are three stages : (a) Words ; (b) Phrases ; (c) Sentences. 1. Words. — The teacher reads a word ; the class pronounces it slowly after him, the enunciation being slow and distinct in each case. This process is followed to the end of the sentence. Repetition will probably be necessary. Then the sentence can be read by a few boys individually. A few sentences may be treated in this way, and they will be sufficient for one lesson. 2. Phrases. — Here a few words are first read by the teacher, and then repeated by the class, who point to the words as they are read. So far as possible, the teacher will make the phrases notional, and for this purpose the number of words will vary. A short chapter can be treated in this way, and each chapter should be mastered as follows : — (a) The teacher reads z. phrase ; the class reads the next phrase. This pro- ceeds to the completion oi \h&Jirst period. {b) The teacher then pattern reads the sentence. The class copies simul- taneously. ic) A few scholars might then be asked to read the sentence individually, d) A whole paragraph could then be recapitulated by individual reading. e) The whole chapter could be thus treated, paragraph by paragraph. READING. 175 (/) For variety and emulation the class might then be divided into two sections, each section reading set portions alternately and simul- taneously. [£) The final step should be to read the whole chapter individually. 3. Sentences. — The pupils are now ready for sentences from their training in the last method. This is the best method : — (c) The teacher reads a sentence, or several sentences, slowly, with good emphasis and expression. {b) The children follow simultaneously, copying the pattern of the teacher. The whole lesson can be treated in this way. fc) Sectional emulative simultaneous reading should follow. d) Individual reading again should be the final stage. H. "When ITsed. — In the early stages the practice is useless unless the child is following with its eye what it is saying with its voice. This makes pointing a necessity, otherwise the child will repeat from memory, or catch up what the other scholars are repeating. For these reasons it should be used with some modera- tion in the earliest classes. As soon as the eye can recognise words, then it may be used more generally. It will be used most in the lower classes of the upper departments and in the upper classes of the infant departments. In the higher classes it has its uses, and in the large classes of modern primary schools these uses are important ; but the more individual reading a teacher can give to his pupils, the better for the pupils. Advantages. 1. It increases the quantity of reading for the class. 2. It increases the command over the organs of voice, and so facilitates y?Menc>. 3. It improves pronunciation, enunciation, and articulation if carefully taught. Each has to go the same pace, and each is encouraged under cover of his class-fellows' voices to greater vocal effort. 4. The pitch of the voice is regulated, and modulation is learned, whilst common faults of intonation are cured. p. It improves the pace of the reading, stimulating the slow and checking the fast. 6. It modifies individual mannerisms. 7. It improves the intelligence in some cases, especially when dove-tailed with individual reading. From the pattern reading of the teacher, and from the ex- ample and influence of the better readers, more expression is given, and the sense of the subject matter is better grasped. Disadvantages. 1. It is uncertain whether the reader follows with his eye the words he repeats after the teacher. 2. Children, from too much repetition, get to repeat from memory, and it has often been found that they can proceed with the lesson without the aid of the book. 3. It may, in the. hands of a poor, lazy, or careless teacher, encourage idleness, and even deception. 4. Unless taught with care it may produce inaccuracy and in- distinctness, and accentuate the vocal faults it is well fitted to cure. 176 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD BACK'WARD HEADERS. The treatment of backward readers is a difficulty common to all schools. They require special attention, and should receive it both during, before, and after the lesson. The treatment will depend upon the cause, which may be the result of inaptitude or general dulness. I. Inaptitude. — The poor reading may be simply a special case of inaptitude through bad or neglected teaching, or through relative dislike, owing to a strong preference for other subjects. Where special aptitudes exist, the teacher should take advantage of these to improve the reading. A pupil may excel at some other subject, although he may read and spell badly. The treat- ment is easy here. Time can well be spared from the strong subject for the weak one, and thus more practice will be obtained. The difficulties lie chiefly with word naming. H. General Dulness. — Special treatment will be required in these cases. 1. Before the Lesson. {a) The backward scholars can be taught some of the more difficult words, which can be written on the B.B. and learnt. The words should be briefly explained where necessary, as they then become intelligent pic- tures to the children. The better readers could be employed at some other subject. (b) A list of the hardest or strangest words could have been given them the night before to learn, the teacher having previously pronounced each word carefully with the class. {c) V^hex^ parental co-operation is assured, the boys might be permitted to take home the reading book for the purpose of reading the chapter through. Where home help is forthcoming this assistance would be valuable. But, as a rule, this can only be done in better-class schools — generally where it is least wanted — and even there it will be found expensive, and at times not over thorough. [d) Transcription, dictation, or composition may be used before the reading lesson, to make them familiar with the the chief mechanical difficulties. 2. During the Lesson. [a] Bad readers should be well under the teacher's eye, so that he may super- vise them well ; and he should see that they point and follow carefully all that is read. {J}) A good reader, as a rule, should follow the pattern reading of the teacher. It breeds confidence in the boys, for the gpilf between boy and boy is less than that between teacher and boy. A backward reader should then follow. He should read the piece through twice — thrice, if necessary — but he must read it perfectly before he finishes. (c) The weaker readers, being grouped together, might read a portion simultaneously after the teacher, and then simultaneously without the teacher, to be followed by one or two individual readers, 3. After the Lesson. {a) As word naming is the chief difficulty of the backward readers the READING. 177 teacher might pursue the same course as before the lesson. His list of words will now have decreased, and a few minutes ought now to be sufficient. \b) Where home work is taken, the class might be asked to reproduce the substance of the chapter as an exercise in composition, or the composi- tion might be done in school. (r) A dictation lesson might be given embodying the chief difficult words which ought to have been previously prepared and learned. (elling, composition, and grammar. A sample syllabic combination can be taken, and words can be built from it ; e.g. : — •at c-at so-at sc-at-ter scat-ter-ed -at p-at sp-at sp-at-n sp-at-u-la not -with -stand -Ing nev -er -the -less, and so on. 8. Observation. — Childish curiosity and activity show themselves in the reading of miscellaneous matter like shop names and advertisements. Encourage it, for it is a good aid. 9. Literature. — Easy story books, fables, and childish literature generally are more or less now within the reach of most children, and the reading of these aids spelling. School libraries assist older scholars, but they make no provision for younger scholars. 10. Spelling Contests.— These were in great fashion as ".Spelling Bees" a few years since ; and although they have dropped out of public favour, there is no reason why they should not be maintained in the school. They stimulate emulation and effort, and that desire for success which can only be obtained by constant preparation. i86 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Faults in the Teaching of Spelling^. 1. The ear and the tongue are appealed to rather than the eye. Both should be used, but there should be observation as well as repetition. The deaf and dumb generally spell correctly, and this is some evidence as to the value of the eye. Then the visual or pictorial memory is stronger in most people than the verbal, hence the eye should be used more than the tongue and the ear. Spelling is essentially a matter for the eye, for, after all, it is nothing more nor less than the mastery of form ; but the tongue and the ear can be brought in as aids to strengthen the associative links. 2. Lists of disconnected isolated words are given to be learnt, w^hereas they should be chosen from lessons done or to be done. 3. The number of syllables is generally the only basis of classification. This is not scientific. The words should be grouped, and plenty of use made of contrast and comparison. 4. The meanings of words should always be g^ven, not in set definitions, but in suitable explanation, so that each word may as far as possible become notional to the class. The meanings, when required, are too often overlooked or neglected. 5. Dictation should always be prepared in the lower classes, so that the right form may be first learned, and then there will be nothing to unlearn. Teachers are often too anxious to test by dictation before they have prepared by spelling or transcription. 6. More use should be made of composition exercises. It has already been pointed out that spelling is often worse in composition than in other spelling exercises, and it generally reveals many of the special weak- nesses of each pupil. The teacher then knows where to concentrate his work. 7. There should be lessons in word building. It is a good phonetic and synthetic exercise, and it gives confidence to the children, and so helps to check that demoralisation which often attacks young scholars when they are undergoing repeated shocks of spelling anomalies. 8. There is often an absence of incidental aids like phrase spelling, classified spellings, and spelling bees. All of these have their use and their value, and they should not be neglected. 9. Spellings are sometimes taught at the wrong time, although such times must be very rare. But to obtrude the spelling of a word when the class is deeply interested in some experiment, illustration, or descrip- tion, is to attempt the right thing at the wrong time. Difficulties in Spelling. Our anomalous and defective alphabet is the chief source of these difficulties. Mr. Gill in his School Method emphasises this fact by showing that ten selected letters have thirty-eight sounds, and furthermore that seventeen sounds have ninety-eight different ways of representing them. These are the difficulties of be- ginners. I. ^gher Classes. — The thorough and successful teacher will always make sufficient preparation for all lessons where pre- paration is necessary ; and so in spelling preparatory observations should be made as to its difficulties before proceeding to write from dictation. The words must not only be learnt, but the difficulties as they exist in each word must be pointed out and SPELLING, 187 compared with similar syllables and similar sounds. These diffi- culties, from their very nature, need frequent rather than prolonged attention. Spelling is a memory exercise, so that there must be repetition, concentration, and interest, for without these memory is weak. To make a spelling lesson interesting requires some skill and preparation. Furthermore, the class should thoroughly understand the piece ; hence, where necessary, words should be explained. The following fragment might be taken as an ex- ample : — H. Preparation for Class. A. Subject Matter. — " The watery dykes display luxuriant verdure; bulrushes and water/lags have attained their freshness; willows are rich with foliage in sylvan nooks ; agreeably hidden in a leafy arbour you may catch glimpses of the retiring denizens of the more secluded labyrinths of the forests" (1883). 1. Have the piece read simultaneously, and then by several scholars indi- vidually, either from the B. B. or books. 2. Underline the difficult words after having written the piece on the B. B. The piece should have been, previous to the lesson, already written on theB.B. 3. ti aw group the words as far as possible, and deal with them both as to spelling and meaning seriatim. B. "Words. 1. Watery, agreeably, leafy. Note the y sound in each word, -y, -ly, -y. Compare with -ie, -ey, -ee, -ea, -i (foliage). Explain the words, and then have them learnt. 2. Luxuriant) bulrushes, secluded. Call attention to the different sounds of the -u. Explain words, and have them learnt. Previously a speci- men or picture of a bulrush might have been shown. Bui (syllable) should be compared with bull (a complete word). Se might be com- pared with sea, see, -cei. 3. Sylvan, dykes, labyrinth. Note the y sound again, and contrast with I. Explain the words, and have them learnt. Sketch or show a picture of a dyke. Derivations may be given in many cases to an advanced class, especially if they throw any light upon the history of the words and their changes of meanings. 4. Attained. Compare pain, gain, Cain, lain, drain, stain, etc. Contrast mane, pane, rein, reign, deign, bane, etc. 5. Denizens. A phonetic word. Explain the meaning, and have the spelling learnt. 6. The words might now be rapidly recapitulated in their spelling, and the class will then be ready for the dictation or reading. m. Zjower Claases. — With younger children the method pursued should be somewhat different. Take the following piece for children in the Second Standard : — A. Subject Matter.— "The tiger's tongue is so rough that if it were to lick your hand it would cause blood to flow ; its colour is a 1 88 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. light tawny brown with beautiful black stripes ; its feet are cushioned, and it has whiskers to help it feel its way" (1880). B. Words. 1. Tiger's. Here the apostrophe is the difficulty. Show that it denotes possession; convert to "the tongue of the tiger"; note that it is singular, and contrast with the plural form (tigers'). 2. Tongue. The letters ue are silent ; the o has a u sound, hence the word is pronounced tung: Compare with rung; sung, hung, bung, dun^. 3. Rough. The most tiresome syllable in the English language. See ' ' Ways of Teaching Spelling ". 4. Would. Compare with could and should— s\Qxi'i I; and contrast with wood, hood, good. 5. Blood. The -00 has the sound oi a {= blM). Contrast with hood, wood, good ; and compare with mud, stud, spud. 6. Flow and brown. Note the difference of the -ow sound in the two words. Compare /low with know, sow, stow, throw, etc., and brown with cow, row, now. 7. Colour. Silent u. Compare with parlour, governour, labour ; explain that these words are now sometimes spelt without the u, as in color, labor. 8. Tawny. Compare tawn-y with lawn, pawn, dawn, and contrast with torn, corn, morn, ior-lorn. 9. Beautiful. Explain beau, and have it spelled. Point out the difference in spelling hetween/ull (word) and/ul (suffix). 10. Cushioned. Its length, strangeness, the t, and the pronunciation would constitute its difficulties here. The first part of the word could be compared with push, and contrasted with lush and rt^sh. But the meaning having been given, repetition and writing will be the best means of learning this word. 11. Whiskers. The O.E. wh {hw) is the difficulty here probably. The regular observance of the proper pronunciation of who, which, what, when, where, and why would make this difficulty easy. 12. Finally the words should be v^ritten on the B. B. ; the class should be allowed to learn them, and subsequently they should be dictated in the piece of composition to which they belong. The errors (if any) should then be dealt with and learned. The Classification of Difficult "Words. The Teachers' Monthly in the November number of 1893 con- tained the following list of 200 words (which were adjudged the best of a number of lists submitted) as being typical of the errors that are most likely to occur in the dictation exercises of Standard III. The list was furnished by Mr. Mitchell, Schoolhouse, Ferry- side, Carmarthenshire, and the classification is a very good one. I. Tendency to omiiXeitvc^, beginning safety beaMtiful wooUen address shep/ierd king-dom slip/)ery compel/ed agreeable success swimming biggest hottest except carriage ascend generaUy opposite immediate marnage descend stre/ching possess whiteness travel/er disap/>oint foMrth tem/)tation quarrel/ing account government forgetHng likeness forgiveness dif/icult addition thinner safely redder convenient occasion daisies particwlar occurred pleasant useful surprised accustom sup/jose af/ord jealous reaUy get«ng dessert SPELLING • II. Tendency to insert letters not required , burOied untilO tigOress welOcome linOen wis()dom wcx>d()en al()most pasOtime necOessary subOtractioi. hundOreds umbOrellaO grieOvous deliOver quarrelOsome obligOing imOage perOil ful()fil() welOfare misOtaken imOagine tresOpass skilOfuK) alOways travelO exOercise shinOing preOsently drownOed truOly alOready bal()ance us()ing III. Tendency to mistake von>eit. bMStness grammar separate divide pursue governor cotton standard visible surface purchase doctor sj'stem scholar persuade figures senstble basm leisure destroy sailor sugar manners different regular IV. Tendency to mistalie consonants. nephew medicine clothes picture pro/it prophet monarcA duchess conceal expense ancAor accident grocer physic i practise ( practice certainly accept chimney ra^or Y. Tendency to reverse order (ei, ie, oi). believe pieces receive violent mischtVf reUrve siege conceive violet grief fiery niece seize thieves friendship series YI. Silent letters. knowledge neighbour y^nitting cu/> board solemn ploughing unu;holesome scenery Arnocking autumn ulet dimming rou^Aly wrouF/tt n&ughty doubtfully column foreign indeeted answer kiln tombstone sovereign althoug'fe dough YII. Miscellaneous. J current J currant ( course ( coarse (whether 'rowed ■ rode ^road advise < weather advice fatigue view ( wether error plateau colonel scythe stomach patience tight wreck desOert valleys 189 Rules for Spelling^. If the teacher should decide to give formal spelling lessons in school, or to supply lists of words for home work, h might make use of the rules of spelling which have been ably formed by Pro- fessor Meiklejohn in his new spelling book. In such cases the rule should first be learned inductively. Plenty of examples should be given, and from these the rule should be discovered and given. Then the lists of words might be committed to memory. But there are two primary objections to such lessons. Spelling is usually learned as a preparation for some other lesson, and the choice of words will necessarily be limited by the subject matter of that lesson. This would necessitate the introduction of a number of strange (to the lesson) words for the purpose of dis- covering the rule, or the rules will only be capable of partial application ; and, secondly, the numder of exceptions is so large as to make the total result sometimes confusing. Perhaps the igo A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Dest way to solve the difficulty would be to have a number of formal spelling lessons, and then in such cases as preparation for dictation, or in the correction of spelling errors, each case could be brought under its own rule at once. That is, for the correction of errors, the rule should be applied deductively. One or two rules are given here as types, but the student could form others for himself, or he could get a copy of the book referred to, where he will find all that he wants. 1. When the vowels ei and ie have the sound of ee, ei follows c, but ie all other consonants. When e and i, or i and e are sounded like the e in me. After all consonants but c the i must go before the e. Exceptions : Jinancier, plebeian, seize, weird. If the diphthong has any other sound than ee, the order of the letters is always ei. 2. A final y is changed into i when a syllable is added, unless — (a) The affix begins with i, as ing, ish, ist. (b) The y is preceded by a vowel. Exceptions : dryness, shyness, etc. ; shyly, daily, gaiety, gaily, laid, plaid, said, slain. 3. The final ^ of a word is retained when a syllable beginning with a consonant is added, but dropped if the affix begins with a vowel. Exceptions: abridgment, acknowledgment, argument, awful, duly, judgment, lodgment, truly, wholly, woful, etc. Transcription. I. Its Functions. 1. To Teach Spelling. This is its primary function, and it does it in a natural way — through the eye. If followed by spelling orally and dic- tation, the words become permanently fixed. 2. Practice in Writing. Care and attention can be given to the writing, although this is a subordinate object of the lesson. 3. Style. If the pieces are well chosen, some of the pupils may be gradually leavened with the style of the author ; but if is feared that, as a rule, the exercise becomes too mechanical to have much influence of that kind. 4. Grammar. The frequent transcription of correct forms of speech tends to the use of correct language, and this, too, in an easy way. 5. Punctuation. What has b^en said of grammar is equally true of punctuation, which is always a difficulty with scholars. 6. Discipline. It engenders habits of carefulness, for it demands minute inspection for accuracy, and for this reason it is not an easy exercise. Furthermore, the sentiments expressed in the subject matter, and slowly transcribed by the pupil, have better opportunities (from their brevity, and the comparative leisure offered for their comprehension) of fixing themselves in the minds of the scholars. n. Its Conditions. 1. The subject matter must be understood by the children. 2. All errors must be carefully corrected, and the corrections icarned. 3. The time for the lesson will vary. In the lower classes it should follow a reading lesson, in which the subject matter has been read and explained. In the higher classes it can be used with more freedom. Its best use will be as a preparation for dictation. SPELLING. 191 TTT Subject Matter. — In the early stages, the pieces will be chosen principally with a view to the maximum advantages in spelling, and with a due regard to the handwriting. But when the handwriting is well formed, the teacher can then select passages without any particular attention to the writing. He can then concentrate the attention on the — 1. Difficulties of orthography or derivation ; or upon the 2. Difficulties of style ; or upon the 3. Difficulties of grammar In such cases the lesson will be something more than a mere aid to spelling ; it will become an instrument of culture, by elevating the style or the thoughts, or by enriching the expressive vocabu- lary of the pupils. Dictation. I. Its Function. — This is one of the methods of teaching spelling and composition. It teaches spelling indirectly and composition directly. The chief aim of a dictation lesson should be to prevent, not to correct mistakes. For this reason it is necessary that it should usually be preceded by some kind of preparation, so that its real office becomes a testing rather than a teaching one. H. Subject Matter. 1. Suitability. The subject matter must be suitable to the capacities of the children. The thoughts and language should be within the grasp of their comprehension, and the limit should be kept within a little explanation from the teacher. 2. Preparation. It must be prepared in most cases. For young pupils to write unseens is to learn to write mistakes. Unseens are tests only, and our difficult system of spelling makes preparation absolutely essential. 3. Qaantity. Long pieces may be a test of physical endurance, or of juvenile hard- headed ness ; but they can scarcely claim to be safe tests either of knowledge or intelligence, for the strain is too great for some pupils. It is not the quantity dictated, but the amount corrected which has the educational value. The amount will grow with the growing power of retaining phrases in the mind. 4. Teacher. The teacher must dictate the words once only. The dis- ciplinary effect of this is great. He should previously read the passage through in a clear, deliberate voice, especially if the piece is a test. But he must never forget that distinct speech is no substitute for pre- paration. m. Correction. — The methods of correction will generally depend upon the quantity and quality of the staff. There are four principal methods in use. 1. Indivldaal Correction by the Teacher.— This is the best method, but certain objections are alleged against it. 192 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. {a) It is too expensive in time to be done in school hours. (d) It is unjust to expect a teacher to do it ouf of school hours as a rule. Such methods of correction should be the exception and not the rule. 2. Monitorial Correction. — In some schools monitors or curators are selected to examine the work. It is an office of trust and responsibility, and so becomes an aid to diligence and progress. But this, like all other methods, is open to objections. {a) It is unfair to the monitors. It is a wearying task ; and unless special arrangements are made for the adequate instruction of the monitors, they lose their own lessons. {(5) If the monitors are paid this objection disappears, but even then there is a very poor return for so much fagging work. {c) It involves implicit trust in the monitors. The monitor, remembering his tender years, may prove unreliable from some cause or other. [d) The monitor, from fatigue, or indifference, or a weak sense of duty, may correct carelessly. {e) Monitorial correction may breed ill-feeling in the class. 3. Inter-Correction. — This is the method usually adopted. The children change slates or books, and correct each other's work. They are thus revising the lesson and correcting at the same time. The method is open to serious objections (a) It tends to collusion between scholars to mark work dishonestly. \b) It gives opportunities for the display of petty spite, malice, revenge, etc. , in the incorrect marking of exercises. (c) It leads to disputes, bad feeling, and disorder. Children are prepared to dispute the marking of a fellow-pupil. 4. Self-Correction. — This method allows the class to correct their own work at the dictation of the teacher. It is the same process of correction as 3, with the exception that each pupil marks his own books. Its objections are: — [a) It places too great a strain upon the moral strength of ^ some of the pupils. There are more moral weaklings than either physical or mental ones, and it is unwise and unjust to set many a moral task beyond their moral strength. {b) The primary object of correction is usually defeated — the throwing up boldly of all errors. There is too much self-tenderness with this method. Errors are either passed over, or else marked so faintly or so minutely as almost to escape attention. rv. The Moral Side of Correction. — All correction should be done with the greatest care, and in a reasonable period of time. Books should rarely be kept more than a day or two. The care- less correction of errors produces a whole crop of evils, some of the chief of which are as follows : — 1. A habit of carelessness is bred in the pupils. They become untidy in their methods, their lessons, and sometimes in their habits generally. 2. Deceit is engendered. The pupil is induced to cheat, because there is less probability of detection. 3. It would cause laziness and probably indifference, for where a lack of care, and by inference a lack of interest are shown by the teacher, the infection will soon spread to the scholars and develop into laziness. 4. It increases the difficulties of school work. The pupil will cease to respect the teacher, and so discipline and teaching will become harder. This may lead to Increased severity or increased carelessness on the part of the teacher. 5. The tone of the school will deteriorate. A careless teacher puts himself on an inclined plane, and the rate of his descent increases. In- SPELLING. 193 difference, untidiness, laziness, cheating, untruthfulness, loss of respect, all may arise from the careless correction of work. 6. It is unjust to the pupils. Each error is like a signpost guiding the direction of the teaching, for errors indicate the individual wants of the pupils. If these errors are carelessly treated, the child is deprived of that attention and training which it has a right to expect, and which it is just as rightly expected the teacher will give him. 7. It is wasteful, for much time, interest, power, and zeal are lost. NOTES ON A DICTATION IjESSON. [Chiss — Standard III. Time — ^o minutes.) I. Class Arrang^ement. 1. Arrange the class as widely apart as the desk space will allow. 2. See that the ink wells have been properly filled. 3. Have the dictation books and pens given out. This is best done by placing the required number at the end of each row, and by having them passed upon the sign or command of the teacher. Dictation books should be used — not pieces of paper. The book then becomes a register of progress both in handwHting and spelling. WTien filled, these books should be preserved by the teacher, for they allow him to collect and classify all the commonest spelling errors of the class, and so to arrange his future lessons to meet these recurring errors. He should not burden his lessons with words of rare occurrence. n. Class Preparation. 1. The piece may have been previously prepared either — (a) In the Reading Lesson. 1^) In the Transcription Lesson. \c\ In a Spelling Lesson. \d) In Special Class Work. \e) In Composition Exercises, (/) In Home Work. 2. If not, write the following words on the B.B., and have them learnt : — Curfew, Tolls, Knell, Ijnving, Lea, Ploughman, Weary, Glimmtringy Landscape, Drowsy, etc. Have them spelt simultaneously and then individually. 3. Or have the piece previously written upon the B.B., underline the most difficult words, and turn the B. B. to the class so that the words may be learned. This is a good method, as the teacher cannot successfully anticipate the difficulties of every boy, whilst this method allows each boy to run through and select his own difficulties. T¥T Dictation. —Read the passage through slowly and dis- tinctly onu; then dictate in phrases, samples of which are marked below : — The curfew tolls | the knell of parting day ; | The lowing herd | winds slowly | o'er the lea ; | The ploughman homeward plods | his weary way, | And leaves the world | to darkness and to me. | ZV. CorrecHoB. I. Change books; vary the method, sometimes with the boy in front, sometimes with the one behind ; to the ri^ht to the left ; the end boy on the right hand of each row to pass hw book to the left-hand boy of his row, and then return to his place. Then pass the rest of the books one place to the right. 13 194 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. (a) Spell the passage through distinctly, and have each misspelt word marked through in each book. The total number of errors should be put at the end of the exercise. If the word is underlined it allows more chance of alteration and consequent dispute. Marking through prevents this. {b) Or let them correct from their reading books, if the piece be taken from a reading book. In this case the right number of books should have been previously placed at the end of each row, and when the books have been exchanged, upon the sign of the teacher the books should be passed and the page announced. {c) Or it can be corrected by having the piece previously written on the B.B. Everything is then ready (see No. 3 under Class Preparation). 3. Books to be changed back to their owners. 4. Now write the most difficult words on the B.B. Methods (b) and {c) avoid this waste of time. 5. Have the errors carefully written under the exercise, learned, and repeated to the teacher, who is moving quietly about the class hearing mistakes spelt, inspecting books, and marking the exercises. If the class is very large, one or two of the best pupils might be called upon to assist. V. Conclusion. — The dictation books and reading books (if used) to be passed to the ends of the desks ; the pens also should be passed unless required for the next lesson. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. — Name eight words in the spelling of which young children often make mistakes, and explain by what sort of exercises such mistakes may be corrected or avoided. 2. — Take the following v/ords, and give a list of others which might be grouped with them for a spelling lesson : rough, should, which, many, taught. 3. — What preparatory observations as to difficulties of spelling should be made before proceeding to write from dictation the following passage ? — " The watery dykes display luxuriant verdure ; bulrushes and water-flags have attained their freshness ; willows are rich with foliage in sylvan nooks ; agreeably hidden in a leafy arbour you may catch glimpses of the retiring denizens of the more secluded labyrinths of the forests ". 4. — Distinguish the uses of dictation and transcription lessons for children lately transferred from an infant school. 5. — Show that some words would present special difficulties of spelling in the follow- ing passage, dictated to children who had not passed the Second Standard : — " The tiger's tongue is so rough, that if it were to lick your hand it would cause blood to flow ; its colour is a light tawny brown, with beautiful black stripes ; its feet are cushioned, and it has whiskers to help it feel its way". 6. — Before giving out a passage for dictation, what preparation is needed to prevent possible misspellings ? 7. — Describe the various methods used to teach spelling in your school. Did you rely chiefly on the eye or on the ear in teaching spelling ? 8. — Give some (not more than six) of the commonest misspellings of children in the First Standard, and account for each natural confusion in spelling. How did you correct written exercises in spelling ? 9. — How have you been accustomed to give a dictation lesson ? How was the exer- cise corrected ? What expedients were adopted to prevent copying ? 10. — How would you conduct a dictation lesson to the Third Standard ? How should the mistakes be corrected ? II. — Mention any twelve words, the spelling of which presents special difficulty to young learners ; and say by what sort of exercises you can best help such learners to spell them correctly. 12. — What points would you chiefly keep in view in giving a dictation lesson ? 13.— Name some of the commonest faults of young assistants in teaching spelling. How much of a spelling exercise should be oral, and how much should be written ? 195 CHAPTER XI. WRITING. Writing is important and valuable both for its practical worth and its aid to training. It is a recognised and essential means of communication in private life. It bridges distance, and brings the absent within the range of conversation. Its business im- portance is too obvious to need comment. Professionally it may generally be taken to indicate the character of the school and its work. It appeals easily and readily to the parents as an index of the progress of their children ; a just pride is bred, which reacts favourably on the school reputation, and consequently upon its attendance. Nor is its literary value less. Before the invention of printing all books were written, and they still have to be written, although they are given to the world in a printed form. But the literature of a country is dependent upon writing for its existence and growth. Shorthand is a form of writmg with a new set of symbols. Nevertheless, it is writing, and a very important development of it too. Its importance is recognised by the Code and our schools in a practical way; and for journalism, office work, and secretarial duties, it is now almost absolutely essential Nor are the training advantages of writing to be overlooked. Without being what is understood as an intellectual subject, it nevertheless affords some training, both mental and moral. The careful and successful writer is taught to observe form and pro- portion closely, to note those small details which give quality and style to the writing. The memory is exercised in the earlier stages in remembering the items observed, although little memory training can be claimed for what is almost purely an imitative exercise. There is more training for the attention if the lessons are properly supervised and carried on, whilst the judgment is cultivated by the study of spacing, slopes, and proportion. The aitistic value of writing must also be recognised, for it is a 196 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. correlative to drawing, and it develops the sense of beauty and proportion. Writing is not without its moral advantages. It induces habits of neatness, care, and accuracy, which help to leaven the whole character. Position for "Writing. — As writing is a mechanical acquire- ment very largely, it is essential that the physical side of the subject should receive proper attention, so that no habits in- jurious to health may be formed. This will include the considera- tion of such things as the position of the body, the place of the slate or paper, light, the position of the ink, and the holding of the pen. 1. Body. — The body must be kept in an easy position, upright, and not leaning against the edge of the desk, but nearly as possible parallel with it. There should be no leaning either one way or the other, otherwise the weight of the body will not be evenly distributed on the seat. The pupil should not be allowed to bend over the work, nor to rest the head upon the left hand. (See notes on " Desks ".) 2. Slates, etc. — The slate, copy-book, or paper should be parallel with the desk, but placed slightly to the right, so that the handle of the pen should point over the right shoulder. 3. Light. — If possible, this should fall from the left. (See notes on ' ' Light ". ) i. Ink. — This should be placed slightly to the right, so as not to necessitate a change of position. S. Holding the Pen. {a) The pen will be held between the first two fingers on the one side, and the thumb on the other. {d) The two fingers and the thumb should all be bent^— the thumb most so. {c) The forefinger should rest upon the top of the pen. Id) The hand should rest upon the last two fingers. [e) The pen should be held lightly, and should point towards the shoulder. Both sides should be equally pressed, but not clutched. (/) The pen should not be held too near the nib. If too near, the action is cramped, the writing often stiff, and the work more often dirty. (g) The arm should rest on the desk a little below the elbow. (^) The hand should not be supported by the wrist, or rapidity and quality will suffer. MUIiKAUSER'S METHOD. Mulhauser belonged to Geneva, and he prepared his system of writing at the request of the French Government. It was intro- duced into this country in 1840 by the Committee of Council on Education. He lays down certain essentials for good writing, which refer to the seat, the body, and the pen. The child was to be well seated, with its body in a healthy position, and the pen was to be properly held. His theory was that writing was to be an instructive as well as an imitative art. Experience has shown that the method, despite its complexity, is a good one. WRITING. 197 Principles of Construction. 1. The elements and the letters themselves were to be taught in the order of their simplicity. 2. The pupil was to be furnished with a standard by which he could deter- mine for himself the height, the breadth, the inclination, and the points of combination of the letters. This was to be done by his celebrated system of rhomboids. 3. Such instruction was to be given in the course of the lesson as would make the exercise an intelligent and interesting one. Analysis of Movements. -Analysis is the teacher's work, synthesis the child's. Writing is effected by movements of the hand and arm. Analysing these movements, he found there were four of the hand — up, down, right, and left ; and that the movement of the arm was lateral to the right, and that by it the symmetry, uniformity, and parallelism of the writing was to be maintained. Analysis of Zietters. — These are resolved into elements. Some say that there are but four ; e.g. : — {a) The right line down and up, as / (l>) The carve down and up, as I J ; (c) The loop down and up, as ^ /; (d) The crotchet, as in the ^. But perhaps it will be better to divide them into eight elements. (a) Right Line. This has four different heights, and it is the first principal element. (1) One height, as in i. (2) One and a half heights, as in t. (3) Two heights, as in h. (4) Two and a half heights, as in p. (*) Link. This is the first connective element. It forms the latter part of the letters i, e, t, m, n, etc. {£:) Hook, This is the second connective element. It forms the first part of the letters n, m, v, y, etc. (y»z. (Two heights are now inoregeneial.) One height One height and a half Two heights Two heights and a half Three heights = f . CLASSIFICATION Or CAFTTAIi LETTERS. Capital letters should be classified accordinj^ to their similarity of form, and should be taught for writing in the groups thus formed. Any system of ruling by which the forms and proportions of letters are duly shown, and which produces a bold and legible 202 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. style, may be accounted a good one. But whatever system of ruling is adopted, generally speaking, each capital letter should be twice the height of a small letter, and this is true of all letters except J, Y, G and Z ; these are ^ higher. Mulhauser's system does not deal with capitals. Group I. TAe common element is the down stroke of the I. The base of the letters should not be made too small, as they then look top heavy and inartistic. A common fault is to make the left-hand portions of the P, B, and R too small. II. III. The right-hand loop of the P is often too large, whilst the up curve of the / is often written as a down curve. The 7" is the easiest letter, and should be taught first. The others should follow in this order : F, /, 5, Z., P, B, R. Group II. The common element is the down stroke with the hook head. These letters are difficult, and require plenty of practice. Group III. The common element here is the upward curve, which forms the first part of each letter. In the M and the A^ the teacher must see that the up curves are parallel. The neglect of this rule causes the production of some very distorted looking letters. Group lY. The cm-ve is the common element of this class. The letters will require plenty of practice to give that free sweep of the pen which is so requisite for the proper production of letters containing curves such as these. * The Z should be in this group. WRITING. 203 Group Y. The curve again is the common element, but it is the reverse curv^. In this group the curve falls to the right ; in Group IV. it goes to the left. It is a down curve in each letter except D, where it is an up curve. D is a difficult letter, and will require plenty of practice. If the capitals are to be practised with rhomboids then copy books suitably ruled (B.B. also) must be supplied. A SCHEME OF -WTUTTNO FOR INFANT SCHOOLS. Writing can commence in the earliest classes of an infant school, for it makes little or no demand on the brain. It is an art which recognises the child's love of activity by encouraging its imitative faculty. Locke, in his system of writing, recommends that writing should begin when the child can read ; but there is no necessity to wait so long. Instruction in the two subjects may go on together ; and if any preference in time is to be given to either, then it must be to writing, as being the easier and more pleasing exercise. X. Preparation. — There are certain preliminaries requiring the teacher's attention for the successful working of any scheme. With young children like these, the holding of the pencil, the 204 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. position of the body, the length and pointing of the pencil, the slates, and B.B. will all need attention. The pencils should be pointed, and of reasonable length. Short pencils should be for- bidden, as they lead to a cramped style. The slates should be ruled on one side in rhomboids, and the B.B. should be ruled to match the slates. With young children like these, the formation oi good habits is equally im.portant with the formation of a good style of writing. For this reason there should be some preliminary drill leading up to the writing lesson. The slates and pencils should be orderly passed, the holding of the pencil should be shown and imitated, and the healthy position of the children should be insisted on. II. Plan of a Ijesson. 1. Copy setting. The teacher writes on the B.B. the element or letter which the children have to imitate, the children watching carefully. 2. Imitation. The children then imitate on their slates. 3. Position. Meantime the teacher is noting the position of each child, and the way it is holding its pencil. 4. Examination. Every step must be seen by the teacher. The individual efforts of the children invariably call for fresh explanation and further demonstration on the B. B. 5. Repetition. The teacher goes through the same process with the next portion of the lesson, and so on until the lesson is complete. 6. Revision. The whole lesson should be revised. m. Order of Iiessons. 1. Early Lessons. — These should be confined — (a) To the simplest elements of the letters. The first lessons should be de- voted to the right line, and this should be practised at various heights. ZTVT^ '/////'/ /\ '///////////// ///// ' / / ///// / / , /////////////// ///// /////// / / / / ////. //////// The B.B. and one side of the slates should be ruled with rhomboids, and the earliest efforts should be limited to i height. Then \\ heights, and finally 2 heights. A right line of 2 heights requires more muscular control than at i height, hence a beginning should be made with I height. These lessons will simply form another example of their earliest drawing efforts, which will be limited to straight lines drawn with similar aids. When a fair degree of proficiency is attained on the lines, the class should receive lessons and practice in writing the same element between the lines. WRITING. 205 (f>) The Link should be taken next, as it is the simplest extension of the right line for the purposes of writing. Here, again, the same order should be pujsued, both as to heights and lines and spaces. The teacher might then »mbine these elements into a word — til — thus giving the first lesson in Joins, and bringing more interest to bear on the work. The addition of the bar in the letter / will present no difficulty. (c) The Hook.— This is another simple combination with the right line. The same steps should be followed as in the previous cases. The element should be practised separately, first on /ings, then in spaces, and then with theyW»j. The letters a, n, and m could then be mtroduced, and combinations made of these three elements into words such as in, tin, nit, til, mil, etc. The letters p and h can now be introduced, the number of words thus being again increased. These lessons ought to be sufficient for the baby room and for the class above, but the division of a scheme must of necessity depend upon the number of classes in the 2o6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. school. But if the school be small or the staff weak, too little should be attempted at the bottom, rather than too much at the top. Assuming there are six classes in the school, and a baby room, the next lesson should commence with Class V. 2. Class Y. — The remaining elements should now be introduced, viz., the curve, single (() and double (0), the loop, both up and down and the crotchet (A'). They should be introduced in the order . . named, and each element should pass through the same stages \ "^ of treatment as in the previous cases. Combinations should ^ be introduced as each element is mastered, so that interest may not flag. Later on the complex letters s, x, z, k should be given one at the time, and finally the class should be writing small words. The writing should be § of an inch. 3. Glass lY. — The work of this class should be a simple expansion of the work in Class V. Longer words should be introduced, and more difficult com- binations. The writing should still be § of an inch in height. If the rhomboids are retained, the height of the rhomboids must determine the size of the writing ; but, if possilDle, the rhomboids should be ruled | of an inch in height. 4. Class III. — The capital letters should now be introduced in the order previously laid down for their classification. Their height should be | of an inch, or twice the size of the other letters. For capitals the rhomboids are per- plexing at first, but patience will overcome this difficulty. Slates should still be used, but if paper is adopted then the children should have the assistance of tracing, which could be done by the teacher with black lead, and should be apportioned to the individual wants of each child. Copies should be set on the B.B. , and the construction, height, and proportion of each letter, as well as the joins, should be repeatedly demonstrated. The formation of a good style at this plastic age is very important. Heights should not yet be looped. 5. Class II. — The work should now be on paper, although there is a division of opinion on the subject. The work will consist of a recapitulation of the steps already taken on slates. The climax will be to produce the same degree of work and excellence on paper that is produced in Class IIL on slates. Tracing will still be used with the same restrictions as in the previous Standard, and the teacher is recommended to pattern-write, whenever opportunity presents itself, in the books or on the paper of each child. Nothing stimulates effort and tends to produce a good style and a uniform " hand " like this. If the work is still confined to slates, a greater degree of excellence should be expected, and double heights (except d, of course) should be looped. 6. Class I. — The same standard of writing should be reached here as is expected in Standard I. WRITING. 207 THE SIZE OF 'WniTTN'G. I. Small Hand. — The introduction of small hand should not be deferred too long. Writing, in school life, obtains much of its value as an aid to other departments of instruction, and it is not well to let such a force lie idle longer than necessary, despite its difficulties. 1. Difficulties. — The chief difficulties are mechanical. A finer command of the muscles of the hand and arm is required ; the judgment requires more development, for neither proportions nor space are so obvious as in large or text hand. As a result it makes more demand on the eye, hence more cultiva- tion is needed for the proper appreciation of the forms and proportions of the letters, and greater care and exactness are required for regularity and uniformity. 2. How learned. — Small hand may be learned best by a careful gradation of the size of the ^^Titing. When children leave an infant school their writing is generally large or half text. In the upper departments a First Standard should write half text, i.e., the writing should be about § of an inch in size. A large small hand might be adopted for Standard II., and a legitimate small hand might reasonably be exjjected in Standard III. The copy books and exercise books should be double ruled up to the Third Standard. This mechanical aid, supplemented by ordinary care and teaching, with pattern-writing now and then in the books of the pupils, and with demonstrations of the most apparent errors on the B. B. , ought to secure good small hand. H. Ijarge Hand. — There is a good deal of vagueness as to what is meant by large hand. It is synonymous with text and half text, and practically means that the small letters are to be i of an inch in height. The object to be kept in view is command of the pen and freedom of hand. It increases and develop* the power gained over the hand, and should therefore be practised sometimes in the higher classes. Apart from this it has a good business value, and therefore should be maintained. Its advantages are the antithesis of the difficulties of small hand. It also provides a desirable change from the small hand, appeals more to the artistic sense, and helps to maintain a good style. Copies.— There are three methods in use. I. Set Ck>pies. — Blank books are used by many teachers who set their own copies ; and where this system is possible, it is considered by many to be the best, for the following reasons: — 1. The pupil is encouraged to do what he knows his teacher has done. The value of the copy is increased if the child can see the teacher set the copy under similar conditions to those under which he has to write it afterwards. 2. Writing is an imitative process, and the imitative faculty is more encouraged than by any other process. 3. Set copies are an aid to discipline. Children appreciate good writing more rapidly than excellence in any other subject. The teacher who writes fine copy-heads wins the admiration of the class. 4. They can be readily varied to suit the varying progress of the different scholars. 2o8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Objections. — There are certain objections urged against this system by the advocates of the next, whether the copy-heads are written in the books or the copy is set from the B. B. In most schools with their large classes the B.B. copies must of necessity be the form the set copies take, as there would not be time for individual copy setting. As a matter of fact, the objections are practically levelled against the B.B. copies, because few teachers have the time to practise the other method. Mr. Jackson makes the following objections : — 1. B.B. copies are inferior and defective, and inferior copies produce defective writing. The teacher requires to write a good hand to teach properly from B.B. copies ; but many teachers cannot write well, and therefore for many teachers the system is not an efficient one. 2. B.B. copies are irregular and varying. Change of class or Standard, or change of teacher, will change not only the style of writing but the mode or method of instruction also. 3. B.B. copies are often ungi-aded or badly graded. This weakness is likely to be found in rural and very large schools. It is asserted that it is not possible to obtain properly graded copies from haphazard sentences extemporised for the occasion. The teacher's labours will thus be heavily handicapped and the progress proportionately retarded. 4. B.B. copies are so transient. Efficient correction is simply an impossi- bility, more particularly in large classes. After the writing lesson of the day, correction by comparison is out of the question. 5. The promiscuous character of these copies seriously militates against their adoption. The copies are neither consecutive, well arranged, nor educative very often. 6. Individual grading is impossible with B.B. copies, and this is one of the most serious flaws of the system ; 40 to 60 boys, however classified, must require distinct and separate treatment, and they cannot get it from B.B. copies. 7. B.B. copies waste time — the time the teacher takes in setting the copy, the time the quick, the gifted, and the facile lose in going the same pace as the slowest members of the class. 8. B.B. copies are more difficult. It is much easier \.o facsimile the same size, than to reduce znd facsimile. It is easier to imitate a copy, on paper than a copy on a B.B. often many feet distant from the paper. 9. B.B. copies make no provision for shortsighted children, and this may prove another serious objection. 10. 'J 'hey tnake no provision for absentees. This becomes a particular case of the sixth objection. If a child has been absent for some time, it has to do the same work as those whose instruction and practice have never stopped. 11. Generally, the use of blank books is an attempt to elevate an art by the removal of its highest and most perfect models, and by the substitution of inferior standards. n. Engraved Headlines. — This is the copy-book system, with its printed or engraved copies. It is the system generally in use, and the large classes of our town modern schools make it almost a necessity. It is an easy plan, and saves the teacher's time, but it is not considered a good plan by some until the child has mastered the ordinary difficulties of writing ; and an abuse of the system has been responsible for a good deal of bad writing. These headlines are one of tne results of the pupil teacher system, and an able and conscientious pupil teacher could give good writing lessons with their aid. WRITING. 209 The engraved headlines can be placed two or three on a page, and they are, as a rule, well graduated and often educative. Mechanical aids, where necessary, are given, and to the extent thought desirable. If each page contains several copies, there is some guarantee that the pupils will imitate their copies. But unless the books are inspected every two or three lines, or unless the teacher is passing continuously from boy to boy during the writing lesson, the copies will often be unnoticed by the pupils, and bad habits and bad writing are very often the result. A study of the objections to B.B. copies would suggest the advantages alleged by some teachers to be possessed by engraved head- lines. TTT Copy Slips. — Undoubtedly this is the worst method, and fortunately it is rapidly disappearing. The following are the ob- jections usually put forward against them : — 1. Pupils wTite first line from imitation, and then very often take no further notice of their copy slip. Close supervision is the only way to check this. 2. The copy slips soon become dirty and ragged, and their moral influence is then bad for the school. 3. However expeditiously they may be distributed, there must always be an unnecessary expenditure of time over the process. The little thought required to fix and select a properly graded copy may become a serious item in the total, especially if the class is a large one. But used by a skilful and careful teacher, in conjunction with the B. B. , they may be of some use. The system allows good gradation, and the copy slips may be moved down the book so as to have the copy always immediately above the pupil's writing. TRACING. Z. Advantages. — Tracing in writing is some aid to a beginner. The muscles are trained, the style of writing is more or less fixed, the proportions of letters are given, the spacing is regulated, the joins and uniformity of thickness are taught, the eye and the judgment are simultaneously cultivated with the muscles, and the class all acquire the same *' hand". TT Teaching.— The chief thing for the teacher to decide is how much tracing can be allowed with the greatest profit. Writing is an imitative art, and is commenced when the imitative faculty js strong in children, and the muscles are plastic. But it is doubtful whether it teaches much in the way of imitation. It is good hand training ; it is not so certain that it is good eye training. The children often trace or mark over the letters mechanically, with little or no thought of form. 14 2IO A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. All new elements should be traced as they are introduced; and they should be introduced as laid down in the " System of Writing for Infant Schools ". The amount of tracing requisite really depends upon the individual capacity of each child; but as the teacher will be compelled to adopt a series of copy books, as a rule, he should seek a series which grades the tracing best. Some such graduation as follows should be expected : — 1. The element is introduced, and there will be a copy or two of tracing. 2. Then follow copies in which the tracing is intermitted with independent e^ort, the intervals for the latter gradually becoming less. 3. Then will follow a copy or two of independent effort. 4. The next element should then be introduced, and the same order should be observed. 5. Combination exercises should then be given. 6. This order will be continued until a letter or letters can be made. The tracing should still be graded, but the quantity should be reduced. 7. Tracing will not be needed beyond the "letter" stage. When a pupil can make " letters '' he should be thrown on his own resources, so far as tracing is concerned. m. Disadvantag^es. 1. Unless carefully watched and regulated, tracing may make the children dependent, careless, and lazy. 2. If the teacher uses blank books, or gives tracing assistance in any books, he must be a good writer, or the class will repeat his deficiencies. 3. The printed copies for tracing, with their copperplate perfection, often discourage the scholar, who thinks such excellence unattainable. Hence the teacher must often supply the trace in black lead. 4. It allows the pupils, unless closely watched, to begin their letters any- where, and so to generate bad habits in writing. HOW TO TEST "WRITING. 1. The down strokes of right lines must be of uniform thickness. 2. The strokes must not be rough. 3. The letters must be well proportioned. 4. The links and hooks must be neither too thick nor too fine. 5. The curves must be properly formed. 6. The letters must be properly joined. 7. The letters must preserve their parallelism. 8. The form of the letters must be accurate. 9. The letters must be carefully spaced. 10. The composition, transcription, and dictation exercise should bear out the style and character of the copy setting. GOOD vmmNG. I. Its Characteristics.— These are legibility, grace or sym- metry, ease and rapidity. n. How Secured. I. Legibility. — Legibility in writing ought to be as important as distinctness in articulation. This is the first and most essential attribute of writing, and if WRITING. 211 necessary everything else should give way to it. If the writing is to be legible the letters must be simple, for flourishes spoil legibility. The letters should be round or oval, according to the style used, but never pointed, as in the angular Italian " ladies' " hand. Good writing is always legible, and the upright hand is probably more legible than the sloping. The heights and thickness of the letters must be attended to, for uniformity aids legibility. The letters and words should also be correctly spaced, and the joins carefully made. 2. Grace. — By grace or symmetry of style we mean that the forms of the letters should be pleasing to the eye. Many of the elements of legibility are also elements of beauty, especially parallelism, finish, and uniformity. 3. Ease and Rapidity. — These are the result mainly of a good style and plenty of practice. The p>osition of the body, the manner of holding the pen, the style of writing adopted, the kind of training the pupil has received in this subject, the absence of flourishes, and personal endowment are all factors requiring attention. The pupil should not be allowed to take the pen off the paper, as a rule, whilst writing a word, or the writing may be neither free nor flowing. Under no circumstances must legibility be sacrificed to pace. Points to be Noticed in "Writing Iiessons. (Fearon.) 1. The difference between examination and teaching. Is every child taught to write, or is the teacher merely satisfied with examining how he writes? 2. Let the child begin to handle the pen as soon as possible ; i.e., as soon as he has progressed far enough in the use of the pencil. 3. Is the work of the classes systematically corrected, so as to regulate pace as well as to test the results ? 4. Can the teacher write well on the B. B. ? 5. Can he give collective instruction in writing ? With respect to number 4 the Department has expressed an opinion on this subject. It says : " The capacity to teach handwriting is an essen- tial qualification of any teacher ; but a teacher who is himself a bad writer can never, by the most skilful teaching, entirely destroy the bad eff"ect of his own example ". CHISSF Z31XIORS HX W KITING-. — The Education Depart- ment itself has laid down the most noticeable errors in writing. Accordinj; to its own memorandum issued on the subject, these are : — 1. *' Want of uniformity in the thickness of the straight lines. 2. Roughness of stroke. 3. Letters too tall or too short. 4. Links and hooks too thick or too fine. 5. Curves wrongly formed. 6. Letters not properly formed ; " and to these might be added :— 7. Unsuitable slope. It is sometimes too great, sometimes not parallel, sometimes too acute, sometimes too olHuse. From 90" to 60" is the best angle. 8. "Writing as taught in schools is apt to be too small and indistinct. Pupils should be taught to write a firm, round, legible hand." Bow to Deal with Them. 1. There should be demonstration on the P. IV. ;iih1 explanation of style, rules, etc., followed by pattern writing in ilie books of the chief offenders against uniformity of thickness. 212 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. Pattern writing is the best remedy for this. 3. The sizes of the letters should be given, and their relative sizes demon- strated on the B. B. , which should be ruled to match the style of ruling on the slates. The errors should be placed side by side on the B.B. with the corrected copy. 4. These elements should be analysed on the B. B. , and the correction should then proceed as in number 3. Analysis, comparison, and pattern writing should follow each other. 5. Correct the position of the body, and see that the pen is held properly. The curves are often badly made through physical faults. They are often wrongly formed through bad teaching, no teaching, bad super- vision, and an abuse of rhomboids. 6. The same remarks are equally true here. Both faults have the same origin, and require the same treatment. The incorrect and the correct should be pointed out on the B. B. side by side ; the letters should be analysed, and slowly formed in the presence of the class. Plenty of practice should then be given, supported by close supervision, 7. Use rhomboids, and give plenty of practice. 8. The remedy is obvious. Vertical Writing. — The advocates of this system offer the following arguments in support of it : — 1. It is the most scientific, hygienic, consistent, and comprehensive. Three of these claims are debatable, but there is no doubt about the other. This system is undoubtedly more healthy than the sloping style. The body is straight and the shoulders are level. The two arms are placed equally, and the result is no twisting of the back, and no risk of curvature of the spine. Obliquity of vision is also guarded against, for the eyes are at equal distances from the writing. The writing, being upright, makes less strain on the eyes, for they are accustomed to the upright style in printing. It is also claimed for it that it prevents writers' cramp, and adapts itself equally to both hands. 2. It is the most simple and natural. 3. It is the easiest to teach, learn, and write. 4. It is the most rapid, legible, fluent, and elegant. It is undoubtedly the most rapid, for the strokes being shorter must take less time in making. Its approximation to printing, so far as direction is concerned, and its rounder base make it the most legible. 5. It is the most educative and the most carefully graded. 6. It is free from all empirical disfigurements, for it has simple capitals and short loops. 7. It secures the greatest freedom in junction. 8. It presents a minimum of shading in the down strokes. Slates or Paper? Should young children begin to write on slates or on paper ? There is some diversity of opinion, but there is not much diversity in practice on the subject. The following arguments are used : — WRITING. 213 Slates. 1. Slates are more economical. It is al- most too expensive to furnish every child continuously with paper in every school, and paper writing requires more teaching and more supervision. 2. Slates are more conducive to order than paper, unless the school is remarkably well staffed. They are sooner given out, and more easily managed. 3. Progress is more rapid with slates than with pap)er — at first ; and, as writing helps spelling, composition, transcription, and dictation, there is better progress made in these subjects. Again, the pencil is easier to manipulate than the pen, and this brings slate writing under the general principle that difficulties should be ap- proached one at a time. 4. The Code begins with slates. 5. Slates often involve the use of stumps of pencil, and they are therefore risky training. 6. The ease with which errors can be cor- rected makes children careless. 7. The cUaninf; of slates is generally filthy and dangerous. Paper. 1. Paper is more instructive. Experi- ence shows that the ability to write well on slates does not necessarily mean ability to write well on paper; whereas, generally, the children who can write well on paper can write well on slates. 2. Paper is best for discipline. Habits of care, accuracy, neatness, and beauty are more likely to be engendered by paper. 3. Some, however, dispute this. They maintain that to begin on paper is the quickest and most projitable -way, and that slate writing is often a hindrance to writing well on paper, from the formation of bad habits. Children can begin on paper with black lead pencils. This is a compromise between paper and slates ; but with young children the breaking of the pencil points is a serious consideration. Judgment. A weighing of this evidence shows that — Theoretically it is best to begin on paper, for children gain greater ability, are better trained morally, and avoid hindrances. Practically. Experience shows that it is best to begin on siates. It is more econo- mical, more orderly, and more profitable for a time. Manual Employmenta and Writing^. The connection between these two things is educationally very important; for as writing is essentially a matter for both hand and eye, and as the one great object of all manual employ- ments is to train both hand and eye, the connection stands revealed at once. This truth is obvious from an examination of the qualities required for writing. The eye has to learn to distinguish the shades of outline, heights, and distances, which vary absolutely and relatively, and to appreciate the different grades of beauty in the various forms of curve employed. The child must learn to perceive a shape before he can imitate it. Then comes manual training. The discipline of the muscles, regulated by the judgment of the eye, and both demanding much practice, shows writing to be essentially a matter of hand and eye training. Now, the problem is, which of the many exercises embraced under the terms Kindergarten or Manual Training give this required training in the sense demanded by writing, remembering that the problem applies to Infant School children ? The Kindergarten method of learning to write shows that 214 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. several " occupations " contribute to this training, for this method consists of four steps, each of which is a means for manual training. 1. Clay Modelling. — The hand is first trained upon moulding objects in clay. 2. Paper Cutting. — The cutting out of paper figures follows. 3. Drawing. — These exercises gradually lead up to elementary drawing. 4. Writing. — The children then commence writing lessons. It will be noticed that drawing is the final step preparatory to writing itself; and if drawing be reckoned among such employ- ments, it undoubtedly assists more than anything, for writing is but another form of drawing. This is obvious from a comparison of the elements involved. Writing. The right line. The link. The hook. The crotchet. The curve. The bar. Writing is a combination of these. \/ Drawing. Perpendicular line. Horizontal line. Oblique lines. Various forms of the curve, including the O (circle). Drawing is a combination of these. Ruling of Slates. Slates may be ruled in several dijBferent ways, all of which have something to be said in their favour. One important method, the rhomboidal, has already been pointed out and illus- trated, but other methods are now more frequently used. To say nothing of the trouble or expense of ruling, just where the rhom- boids are most useful, there they are most confusing. Young children get muddled and discouraged with the many lines of this method and its many technicalities. Generally, the style of ruling adopted will depend upon the class. The younger the class, up to a certain limit, the more help they want. For Infants. — As a rule four lines are used in ruling the slates, but five are an improvement. When four only are used no line is given for joins, and children require as much help there as anywhere. The object is to avoid confusing the children whilst helping them, and this is easily done by a judicious mixture of faint and thick lines. A specimen of the proposed ruling follows. Between each complete set of lines as here shown a space of y\ of an inch should be left. WRITING. 215 I of an inch space. A A For Standard I. — l^ess help should now be given, and only sets of three lines should be used, one for heights and one for the ordinary letters. The size of the writing should be reduced, and the spacings between sets of lines should be less. This ruling will suit Standard I. also in an Infant School, or any class approximating to the work of Standard I. The line for the joins may or may not be retained, but where possible it ought to be omitted. If retained this gives two alternative forms for threefold ruling ; one as in the specimen given below, and the other consisting of the two thick lines, with a centre faint one for the joins. The one system fixes the heights and depths of long letters, the other the joins : and as there are many more joins than heights the method of joins is probably the better. \ of an inch. \ (. wym/ m ^7 r/7^77j ^JTTTF. For Standard II.— The ruling should now simply be two liiics, at such a distance as gives what is called a large small hand. Such ruling is found in some of the blank copy books, and is generally spoken of as double lines. A specimen follows : — T 2i6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Other Standards. — These should be left to the ordinary one-line ruling, as seen in copy books and exercise books. If any assistance is required in correct- ing faults and giving practice to prevent their recurrence, Mulhauser's rhomboids might be used. But they should be dropped as soon as the correction is fixed. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. — Write as a large hand copy the words " Geometrical Drawing," and point out which of the letters are likely to present special difficulties to a young scholar, and what rules should be observed in forming such letters. 2. — Arrange the letters of the alphabet in the order of their difficulty for the teaching of writing ; and show how you would group together the easiest of them, for lessons to young beginners. 3. — Show how you would group the capital letters in the English alphabet for teaching. 4. — Show what kind of ruling on the slates and copy books of the younger children is best suited to teach the proper forms and proportions of letters. Give illustrations. 5. — Write six capital letters in such a way as to show the proper forms and pro- portions of their parts, and say how you would give a lesson on them. 6. — Write the words " Geographical Analysis" in text hand, and give rules for the length of the letters p, h, /, and y. 7. — Explain fully the principles of Mulhauser's method of teaching writing; and write the word " trustfulness " according to that method. 8. — Describe the proper position of the body for writing, the right way of holding the pen, and the best way of setting copies for advanced classes. 9. — What elements are common to the written letters p, q, h, g, d, y ? In what order, and in what combinations, would you teach these elements to infants ? 10. — What are the chief difficulties to be encountered by a child beginning small hand copies ? How would you deal with them ? II.— Arrange the following words in order according to the difficulty of writing they present to beginners, and give your reasons : man, mat, mamma, mask, mast, men, meat, mend, mane, most, mind. 12. — Show clearly the elementary component parts of the written letters a, h, g, m, d. 13. — How would you teach children to write (a) on slates, or (b) on paper ? What are the important points to be attended to in teaching children to write ? 14. — Show how you would group or classify the letters of the alphabet for teaching the elements of writing to very young children. Explain by an illustration what use can be made of the system of threefold ruling on slate or copy book. 15. — Say what use you think it right to make of "tracing" in teaching writing. Write in large hand the five capital letters B, K, Q, M, W, and point out the commoner faults made by learners in forming them. 16. — Draw up a course to be followed in the teaching of handwriting to each of the classes of an infant school, giving examples of the size and style of the letters you would adopt. 17. — Which do you prefer in teaching writing — engraved copies, or copies set by the teacher on the B.B. ? Give reasons for your preference, and write, as illustrations of the true forms and proportions of letters, four capital letters and tour small letters such as should be grouped together for the purpose of teaching. 18. — Classify the capital letters according to the similarity of their forms, and the order in which you would teach them. Give specimens of any six capital letters, carefully written, so as to illustrate their proportions and the rules for their formation. 19. — What are the advantages of teachmg large hand before small or running hand, and how far is it desirable to continue large hand practice in the upper classes ? Give a model copy in each hand. 20. — Give some simple rules showing the best way of conducting a class lesson in writing. 21. — Describe the best way of ruling slates so as to help young scholars to under- stand the forms and proportions of letters. Give an example. 22. — Describe the way of teaching the children to hold their pencils properly. What are the common mistakes to be guarded against ? 23. — In writing in copy books there is a great tendency to repeat the same mistake down a whole page. What is the best method of correcting this ? 24. — What is the use of tracing in the earlier copy book exercises, and what are the objections, if any, to the practice ? 25. — Write the word "striding" in small letters, and point out the mistakes in it which you would watch for. 26. — What use could you make of a threefold ruling of the lines on a child's slate and on the teacher's B.B., in order to show more clearly the forms and proportions of letters and the mode of joining them? 27. — Which of the manual employments of an infant school is most useful as a help in the teaching of writing ? Explain and illustrate your answer. 217 CHAPTER XII. GEOGRAPHY. OBJECTS OF TEACEONa GEOCUtAPHT. I. Primary. — The practical value attached to a knowledge of the subject must always be considered its primary object, and the chief practical objects are as follow : — 1. Maps and Plans. — The pupil is taught to grasp the mean- ing and use of these, and as they figure appreciably in the every- day life of the people, a right understanding of them is important. 2. Trade and Commerce. — England is the greatest manu- facturing and commercial nation of the world. If this supremacy is to be maintained, the productive districts and the chief markets, actual and potential, should be known. The quickest, safest, and cheapest trade routes ; the national tastes and require- ments of foreign customers ; the sources of our food supply, and many kindred questions also become of vital importance. 3. Ziiterature. — Much of our literature, and especially news- papers, assumes a fair amount of geographical knowledge, hence this subject should be taught for the intelligent comprehension of modern literature. 4. Emigration. — England is said to be over-populated, and fields for emigration are essential to relieve the surplus popula- tion, and to carry out the advisable and beneficent planting of the earth by the English people. 5. Naval Power. — England is the greatest naval and maritime power in the world. From this point of view alone the necessity for geographical knowledge is obvious. ZZ. Seoondary. — Rightly taught, the subject is interesting, instructive, pleasant, and intellectual. It affords excellent oppor- tunities for intellectual training ; observation, imagination, memory, and reasoning all being cultivated by its teaching. These subjects are dealt with more fully under the next heading. 2i8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. GENERAIi FRINCIFIjSS. If the subject is to be presented to the pupils in an interesting and scientific manner, if the interest is to be maintained, and if the dull and backward children are not to be left in the rear, then there are certain general principles which it will be necessary to observe in its teaching. 1. Illustration. — The subject must be profusely illustrated, for this arouses interest and gives life to the lesson. The B.B. should be freely used, and sketches in coloured chalks introduced where necessary. Maps and diagrams of all sorts, apparatus and models, are essential. Objects of manufactures, export and import, should be exhibited. Even reading, poetry, and anecdotes may be utilised for this purpose. Treatment of this sort will tend to destroy the still paramount idea among children, that geography is a dry subject. 2. Intelligence. —One of the great faults of modern geography lessons is the undue use of the memory involved. Memory will always be necessary, but the higher faculties of the mind should be called into play. The reasoning powers of the pupils should be taxed. Observation should be stimulated by careful attention to the local physical and political facts. So far as possible, the locality of the school should be made to furnish the illustrations, the instances, and sometimes even the lessons themselves. The pupils will then see things more fully, and with more interest. They will form the habit of noticing things in the best sense of the word. Then, in good lessons, there is plenty of scope for the proper development of the imagination, and for this purpose ideas rather than words must be given. Graphic description must be cultivated by the teacher, so that the mental image created by the child may approximate to the real thing described. The mental effort required to form a picture of an Indian forest, or a mine, is greatly aided by good verbal description, pictures, and sketches. There should also be continuity in the teaching. Isolated facts have little interest for children, so that each fact should be pre- sented in relation to other facts. 3. Memory. — The abuse of geography chiefly rests here. The memory is often overworked, to the neglect of the other faculties involved. The object of the teacher is to get the biggest return for the smallest outlay of memory. Too often there is mere rote work, without any, or with but little intelligence, as in the learning GEOGRAPHY. 219 of strings of bays, capes, or counties. To avoid this we must arouse interest by natural associations. Classifications must be made on the basis of real resemblances. A free use of comparison and contrast^ which present the positive and negative side of the com- parative method, should be made, and the assistance of drawing and pictures should be enlisted ; for drawing is a fine aid to the graphic memory, whilst pictures appeal to the pictorial memory, which is good in most children. Instances oi natural association would be the joining of certain bays with certain ports ; coal fields with m.anufactures ; produc- tions with industries. The etymology of the names of places may be given in the higher classes, and some choice may be exercised in the presentation of facts. This choice of facts should be regu- lated by the following rules : — (a) All statistics should be given in comparison with some well-known stan- dard ; e.g. , all areas might be compared with that of England. {d) General statistics should be given in round numbers. {c) Special statistics in exact figures. 4. Reasoning. — Classifications, generalisations, and discoveries have to be made ; cause and effect traced ; and the general truths of the subject demonstrated and grasped. 6. Graduation. — The first lessons should be very simple, and there should be a careful graduation of subsequent lessons. Familiar terms should be used where possible, rather than technical ones, which could and should be introduced later; e.g., " neck " for " isthmus," " feeder " for "tributary," etc. Then the lessons should be short, so that they may be thorough, and they should show a unity of plan. There is always a temptation to digress, and this should be resisted. 6. Realistic. —The teaching should be realistic. The children should be encouraged to observe local features, and to describe them orally to the teacher. The child's knowledge and experience should be used, for this knowledge will form the basis for efforts of constructive imagination when proceeding to the unknown. By the aid of models, toys, apparatus, and specimens, the real things, or substantial approximations to them, can be shown. Children can see in this way real miniature mountains, real rivers, real capes, etc. FIRST IJE8SONS IN OSOORAPB7. The first lessons in geography should be given as a series of object lessons connected with familiar things, and freely illustrated by pictures. The children will then commence — as they should — 220 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. with the concrete, for the elementary notions that form the basis of all true geographical teaching must be gained through the senses, and the subsequent transition to the abstract will then be made with greater ease and success. The more simple objects should be taken first, such as earthenware, iron, wood, tin, coal and chalk. The children should not only see the articles but also handle them, and so all their ideas will thus be accurate and sound. Furthermore, let them name any of the uses of these objects, and this will show to them the reason why men take so much trouble to get them. Receive and utilise every answer that is in the least pertinent. The places from which they are obtained might be described with the aid of pictures, and the distance of each place could be given by estimating the time it would take a person to walk there. The manner of bringing them — train, road, river, or ship — could then be pointed out. Such a course as this will necessarily involve lessons and explanations of the various geographical definitions, and these could be taught realistically. The productions of our own land should next receive attention — animal, vegetable, and mineral. These could subsequently be compared with the productions of other countries, the better known being taken first. These lessons on other lands will require efforts of imagination, which will thus get material supplied for fresh constructive efforts. Finally, the lessons might embrace the people, their trades and occupations, their customs, their food, clothing, habits, etc. ; and these again in their turn should be compared with those of other countries. PIiANS. I. Simple Plans. — The teacher's first task is to give the children an accurate idea of what is meant by a plan. For this purpose a number of simple and suitable familiar objects should be used for demonstration. The lesson will require some such graduation as follows, commencing with the dot or point, and finishing with some simple geometric solid or common object. It is not advisable at this stage to bother about scale. It will be sufficient for the present to simply preserve a general proportion, the children aiding by suggesting as much as possible the draw- ing of the lines. A plan is properly the representation of anything drawn on a GEOGRAPHY. plane, and in a special sense it is the representation of a horizontal section of anything. The teacher's task is to convey this information in simple language and by suitable demonstration. On no account should such a definition be given to the class ; but explanation and demonstration by the teacher should be followed by a simple description from the class. It is advised that an attempt be made to develop the idea by some such method as follows : — 1. First Ideas. (a) The children take their slates and pencils. Each one is instructed to make a dot on his slate, the teacher doing likewise. The teacher then brings his eye in a direct line over the dot on his slate, and invites the class to do likewise. They are then asked to describe what they see — a dof. That is called the plan of a dot. (d) The teacher next takes a knitting needle or something similar. It is held in a horizontal position, and is brought in a direct line beneath the eyes of several of the boys. They . are again invited to describe what they see — a A B straight line (B). That is called the plan of the knitting needle. The teacher draws the plan on the B. B. , and directs the class to draw a similar plan on their slates. The needle is then held vertically, and the same process is followed. This time they see only a point or dot. That is the plan of the needle in a vertical position (A). (r) A square piece of paper or cardboard is next taken. The same method is adopted. The square is first held horizontally in a direct line beneath the eye ; the class is invited to name what they see ; the plan is then drawn on the B.B. by the teacher, and the class are instructed to draw the plan (A) on their slates. The figure (A) is called the plan of the square. The square is next held in a vertical position ; the same steps are gone through, and the plan is recognised as the figure (B). (^^IL 1. Show their Necessity. — Take a suitable ball. Make a mark A upon it, and then ask the children to locate the mark. They cannot. Let the ball represent the earth, and suppose this spot to be placed in some ocean or desert. They cannot locate it because they have no starting point to fix its relative position. a. Find a Starting^ Point.— For this purpose it will be necessary to fix the polar points and to draw an equator. Proceed as follows : — (a) Plx the Polar Points. Take a piece of wire of suitable length and run it through the centre of the ball. Then make the ball revolve on this line, which is called an axU. Refer to the axis of a cart wheel as an illustration. The ends of this line are called poles. A pole means a Fio. I. 238 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. pivot, and the class will see the appropriateness of the name. The children can fix the spot A now by reference to its distance from either pole. But it can be fixed more precisely than that. N.Pole N.Pore S.Pole Fig. 2. (3) Draw an Equator. Compare the word "equal " with equator, and tell the class the line is so called because it divides the earth into two equal parts. The point A can now be better located. Its distance from the equator can be given as well as its distance from the poles. Measure its distance above the equator. This distance is called latitude. 3. Iiatitude. — The class can now define latitude as distance from the Equator north or south. Draw a line through the point N.Pole A parallel to the equator. This is called a parallel of latitude. There can be any number of them, as BC, DE, etc. Any spot we may wish to locate will have one of these parallels of latitude drawn through it, so as to fix its distance from the equator. The lines go right round the earth parallel with the equator, and all places on the b.Hole same line have the same latitude. Fig. 4. 4. Degn^ees. — The earth is 25,000 miles round the equator, which is divided into 360 parts. Each part is called a degree. Make the class quite understand that this is an arbitrary number, and it might have been 100, 500, or anything else. It was chosen because it is divisible by all numbers from i to 12 except 7 and 11. This fact should be told. A little problem then might be given asking how many miles there are in a degree at the equator, e.g.^ 25,000 -f 360 = 69*39 miles. Then let the class compare the parallels of latitude with GEOGRAPHY. 239 the equator — they decrease as they reach the poles; but as every circle on the globe is divided into 360°, the number of miles in a degn^ee on a parallel of latitude varies with its position. At London, the number of miles in a degree on London's parallel of latitude is about 6g'io; at the poles about 68*69. Take a globe, point out the parallels of latitude and their decreasing size towards the poles, and so demonstrate these facts practically. Where a globe is not available use a sphere from the drawing models or an ordinary ball. Fig. 5. 5. Ijongitude. — Ask the class to tell you how far east or west the spot A is. They cannot, because they again have no starting place. Suppose we fix on some place as a starting point — say Greenwich. The choice again is an arbitrary one. Now we can say how far east or west A is from Greenwich. If G be the posi- tion of Greenwich, draw a line round the ball passing through the two poles and the point G. This line is called a meridian, because all places along it have midday at the same time. Draw a diagram on the B.B. illustrating this. All the places a, b, r, rf, e, along the meridian N.S. have midday at the same time. Meridian, means midday line. Now we can say that the point A is so far 'measure distance) west of Greenwich. This line through Green- wich is called the first meridian^ because it is the point fixed upon to start from. The class should now give a de- finition of longitude. 6. Meridian liinec— Mark points along the equator at equal distances (Fig. 6). Through these points and the poles draw circles. The children should be invited to notice that they are Fig. 7. 240 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. not parallel, hence there are no parallels of longitude. The circles are called meridians for the reason given. These meridians are also divided into 360°, but as they are all the same size, a deg^ree on a meridian of longitude always contains the same number of miles. 7. How to find Latitude and Iion^tude. — The position of A will be fixed by drawing through it — |\J [a) A parallel of latitude BAG. {b) A meridian of longitude NAS. The intersection of these two lines at A locates it. The spot A is so many degrees W. longitude, and so many degrees N. latitude. But when a ship is at sea, it is not possible to measure this distance, as chil- dren usually understand the word measure. Explain the method adopted as follows : — {a) Iiatitude. — This is fixed by the relative position of the polar star by night, and by the altitude of the sun by day. 1. By Night. Tell the class that the pole star is always the same number of degrees above the horizon as the observer is removed from the equator, so that the height of the pole star gives the latitude of the observer. Now, the height of the pole star can be measured. (Reserve the method how for another lesson.) If a person travelled 10° northward, the polar star would appear to rise 10°. 2. By Day. The measurement is most often made by day, and then the altitude or height of the sun is used instead of the pole star. (6) Iiongitude. — All ships carry chronometers. These keep accurate Greenwich (the starting place) time. Suppose the height of the sun shows it to be 10 a.m. where the ship is, when it is 3 p.m. by the chronometer. A distance of 15° is allowed for each hour, because 360° -f 24 hours = 15° for each hour. Then the longitude is 15° for every hour's difference in the two times ; i.e., it is 5 X 15° = 75° W. longitude. The longitude is W., because the time by the sun is in advance of the time by the chronometer. Again, suppose the sun to show it to be 4 p.m. and the chronometer 10 a.m. Then the longitude 6 x 15° = go° E., because the time by the sun is after the time by the chronometer. Give plenty of examples, and do not forget to tell the class that all these lines are imaginary. GEOGRAPHY. 24t A subsequent lesson should be given showing the method of taking observations in greater detail. A liESSON ON DAY AND NIGHT. Perhaps there is no more frequently recurring lesson in the whole range of school geographical teaching than the above. It figures frequently in examination papers, and finds a place in nearly every scheme of lessons in geography. These two facts are a practical way of emphasising its importance. Furthermore, the lesson is not an easy one for young teachers, hence it has been thought advisable to give it in detail. Matter and MateriaL I. LIGHT AND DARK. Demonstrate this with a globe and a candle lamp. Globe to represent Candle to represent the earth. the sun. Method. 1. I. The class should observe that half the globe is lighted, and half not lighted ; i.e., in the dark. 2. Turn the globe into other positions, and let the boys observe that the result is the same — one half in the light and one half in the dark. ' The earth turns round on its axis once in 24 hours, one half being turned towards the sun (day) and one half being turned away from the sun {night). II. BUNRISE AND SUNSET. The interval of light gives us day. The interval of darkness gives us night. Sunset, sunrise, midday, mid- night, are other points in the course of the daily motion of the earth. 3. Next mark any spot on the surface of the globe. Now revolve the globe slowly until that spot takes up its original position. They will then see that every spot is for half its course in the light and for half its course in the dark. The light part equals day. The dark part equals night. II. Mark any spot A on the dark side of the earth. Then slowly revolve the globe round its axis, calling attention to the posi- tion of the mark— 1. When it is just quitting the dark part to come into the light— fcrea* o/day, dawn, sunrise. 2. When it is halfway round the light portion; i.e., when it is right opposite to the candle — noon (explain), midday. 3. When it is just quitting the light for the dark— SKfM*/. 16 242 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Matter and Material. III. MOVEMENTS. 1. Apparent Movements. The sun seems to rise every morning, travel across the heavens from east to west, and then set. This seems to cause day and night. 2. Real Movements. The earth turns round on its axis once every 24 hours, and causes the sun to appear to move. lY. VARIATIONS IN DAY AND NIGHT. 1. In the summer the days are long and the nights are short. 2. In the winter the nights are long and the days are short. 3. In spring and autumn the days and nights are more equal in length. Method. 4. When it is halfway round the dark part; i.e., farthest away from the sun— midnight. The course of the sun from sunrise to sunset gives us day; from sunset to sun- rise, night, III. I. Refer to a railway train ; the trees, etc., seem to be running away from the passengers. 2. If two trains are in a station, and one is moving out whilst the other is stationary, a person looking out of the window of a car- riage of the stationary train on the side towards the moving train, will fancy his train is moving and the other not. 3. In rising in a balloon, the earth seems to sink away from you. These are all apparent motions. The real motion is understood in each case. Apply this to the earth, which turns round on its own axis, and thus causes the sun to appear to move. IV. Reference has hitherto been made to the days and nights as though they were always of equal length — twelve hours. This is incorrect, and the information given opposite, which expresses the real case, can easily be obtained by questioning. The explanation of the phenomena ex- pressed in IV. (i, 2, and 3) is as follows : — By observation the class should notice — I. The Arctic Circle rotates entirely in the dark, hence it is winter at the North Pole, and constant night. It is beyond the direct Hght and heat of the sun. The earth's axis is inclined to its orbit at 23^^°, and this will explain the difference in the lengths of the days and nights at — Explain orbit, and draw a diagram illus- trating. 2. The Antarctic is the reverse, being wholly within the light and heat of the sun. Hence it is summer in the southern hemi- sphere. GEOGRAPHY. 243 Matter and Material. 1. Different latitudes at the same time. 2. The same latitudes at different times. In summer any given place is turned more directly towards the sun's rays ; in the winter it is turned more directly away from the sun's rays. Twilight might be deferred to an- other lesson. N.B. — The student might afterwards ftrepare a lesson on the seasons on similar ines. Method. 3. The farther we proceed from the North Pole to the Equator, the nearer we ap- proach the sphere of light, until, at the Equator, we have the days and nights equal again. The result will be that the days lengthen as we get nearer the Equator. 4. Now proceed from the Equator to the Antarctic Circle, and the region of light increases ; i.e., the amount of light is more and longer, giving us longer days. 5. The class should again be asked to notice that it is winter in the northern hemisphere, and that on any given parallel of latitude (say Cancer) more of that parallel is in the dark than in the light ; and this is true of all parallels until we reach the Equator ; i.e., the nights are long and the days short in the winter. 6. In the southern hemisphere it is summer. There the greater portion of any given parallel is in the light (day) ; i.e., the days are longer in summer and the nights shorter. Hence the days and nights vary in length at different latitudes at the same time. To prove they vary in the same latitude at different times, take any town (London). Appeal to the experience of the class. Days and nights do vary at different times. Why ? Because the position of London with re- spect to the sun is different in the summer and winter. This might be illustrated by a B.B. dia- gram. This lesson might be well illustrated with the tellurian or the terrestrial time globe, if they should be accessible. GZJni!A.TIL L Meaning^. — In dealing with climate the teacher should com- mence by giving the class a clear and accurate idea of what the term now embraces. For this purpose he should invite definitions or descriptions from the class, and seek to gather up all the correct items into one statement. He might assist by giving the derivation (klima) and its meaning. He might point out that the word really means a slope or inclination, and that the inclination referred to is the obliquity of the sun's rays. But the term embraces more than this, including as it does not only the temperature of a district, but its meteorological conditions generally. a. Zifttltad*.— (a) The effect of the sun's rays is greatest where they fall perpendicularly on the surface of the earth, and diminishes as their obliquity increases. 244 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. (b) The surface covered by the oblique rays is greater than that covered by the perpendicular rays. (c) There is more absorption in the oblique rays, because the sun has to traverse more air particles, and as a result more is absorbed. Both these facts are clearly demonstrated in Fig. i of the lesson on climate which follows. (d) The slope is important ; to the south it is warmer than to the north. This is true of all latitudes. These are the main points which the teacher will have to put before the class to give a clear conception of the influence of lati- tude on climate. 3. Elevation. — What is the influence of elevation ? The teacher must point out that the higher we ascend the colder it becomes. Thus altitude has the same effect as latitude. But there are modifying circumstances, and the teacher must be careful to point them out. He must make the class understand that the actual temperature of the air depends not so much upon the direct rays of the sun as upon the radiation from the heated surface of the earth. He must be supplied with suitable illustrations showing that the mountains may keep off hot or cold winds ; they may chill the winds with their snow caps ; they may bring down the rain by condensing the moisture in the atmosphere ; they may lie across, or in a line with the rain-bearing wind. These facts make the rainfall an important factor in climate. The addition of the snow chills, hence the nature of the surface is important ; and, as they influence or intercept winds, the prevailing winds are of conse- quence ; whilst it has already been shown that the direction of their slopes is a contributing element. Let us consider some of these influences in greater detail. 4. The Nature of the Soil. — The teacher will need to bring the following facts under the notice of his class : — [a) A sandy desert, a tract of luxuriant vegetation, an expanse of water radiate heat in very different degrees. The desert raises the tempera- ture of the air much ; the vv^ater little. These facts should be illus- trated by a reference to the great heat of well-know^n deserts, and to their extremes of temperature sometimes. A reference to summer visits to the seaside, and a possible reference to land and sea breezes, w^ould emphasise the more equable temperature of water as compared with land, [b) A newly ploughed field both absorbs and radiates heat much more rapidly than a grass field. [c) But good absorbers are good radiators. Hence the desert cools quickly ; water does not. Why ? 1. Heat is diffused through a larger mass owing to the depth to which solar radiation penetrates. 2. Owing to vertical and horizontal currents to great depths. GEOGRAPHY. 245 5. Proximity to the Sea. — We have maritime climates and continental climates, the temperature of the former being more equable. A few statistics might be quoted in proof of this ; e.g., the climate of England might be compared with that of Canada or Russia, the comparison being restricted to parts lying in the same latitude. Again, oceanic currents, both hot and cold, are great in- fluences, and the Gulf Stream and the North Polar current might be given in illustration. The amount of the evaporation is in- fluenced by the proximity of the sea, and this leads us on naturally to the rainfall. 6. Rainfall. — The points here to be noticed are : — (a) Coast countries have more rain than inland countries. Id) Mountain regions are wetter than the plains. (c) The tropics have more rain than other zones. Examples in illustration should be given in each case. 7. Prevailing VTinds. — Atmospheric currents exercise a greater influence upon climate than oceanic currents. Illustrate by a reference to our own prevailing winds- our warm S.W. and our cold E. winds. Explain the cause m each case. 8. Ziocal Circumstances. — All the influences enumerated may be more or less modified by local circumstances, but the teacher will not experience much difficulty with some of these, as they are almost self-explanatory. Such facts as the following are included : — I a) The amount of snowfall. I d) Bogs and marshes cool the air, and generate fogs. ic) Clay soils retain the moisture, and have the same effects as marshes. I d) The relative duration of summer and winter. I e) Some kinds of marshes abound in malarious and other exhalations un- favourable to health. (/) Large tracts of forests often produce the same results. {g) The clearing, drainage, and cultivation of land generally have favour- able effects on climate. On the other hand, a too complete removal of forests may prevent the deposition of moisture to such an extent as to cause droughts (W. I. Isles) or even floods (valley of Po). The teacher should be prepared to furnish examples in illus- tration of every one of these phenomena. g. Finally the class might have the distinction between weather and climate pointed out. Weather is daily ; climate embraces an average effect extending over many years. In the teaching of climate too much must not be crowded into one lesson. The subject is far too wide for that. It will be suffi- cient if two or three headings are taken up and dealt with thoroughly in each lesson, as in the subjoined instance, which deals only with latitude. 246 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. A LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY LATITUDE. Information. Teaching. Latitude. This determines the amount of heat received from the sun. I. Places nearer the equator are warmer than those more remote. It is assumed that the class knows the meaning of the word climate as it is generally used. Facts I, 2, 3, and 4 can be elicited by questioning. They could be explained by means of the following diagrams, which should be drawn upon the B.B. : — SUN Fig. I. 2. The day is warmer than the night. 3. Summer is warmer than winter. 4. Mid-day is warmer than morn- ing or evening. A. Temperature. By this term is meant the different degrees of heat and cold. (a) Annual range. This is cal- culated on the average of the vary- ing temperature of the different seasons spread over several years. {b) Daily range. By this is meant the difference between the tempera- ture of day and night. B. Places having the same lati- tude may have different climates, e.g. :— Let A and B represent different bundles of equal rays ; bb is longer than aa, hence an equal amount of heat is spread over a greater space. See Fig. 5 also. Let the light portion represent day and the shaded portion night. The light Place. Edinboro Moscow Lati- tude. 56° 56° Average I Average Summer ' Winter Tempera- Tempera- ture, ture. 57° 64 Range. Fig. 2. portion is turned towards the sun, the dark portion away from the sun. As the Earth turns round upon its axis once in every twenty-four hours, and as each half is alternately exposed to the sun for twelve hours (day), and turned away from the sun twelve hours (night), the difference in GEOGRAPHY. 247 LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY LATITUDE— con/tMi«rd. Information. Teaching. C. If the earth were entirely covered with water, or consisted entirely of land, then the climate of any part would be determined by its latitude, and therefore all places having the same latitude would have the same climate. temperature between day and night will be obvious. Tell the children that the sun is never so high in the sky during the winter as it is in the summer. Appeal to their experience, and ask if any of them have ever noticed this fact. Then sketch Fig. 3 in illustration. Fig. 4 will explain the reason of this, and should be carefully prepared by the teacher for this purpose. Fig. 3. Greenwich Greenwich ^'^H WINTER Fig. 4. SUMMER D. Case of the Equator. The days and nights are equal all the year, hence — 1. The heat received by day, and that lost by radiation at night, are practically constant. j 2. As a result there is no marked I difference between summer and | winter temperature. 3. Hence there is no range of| temperature. At sunrise and sunset the sun is near the horizon, and a pencil of rays {aa) is spread over a much greater space than an equal pencil (66) at noon. At sunrise and sunset there is also greater thickness of atmo- sphere for the heat rays to pass through, and consequently more absorption of heat by the atmosphere. A. Writ? A, a, b upon the B.B., and have them learnt by the class. B. Then explain and illustrate them by a reference to table B. Write this Ubie on the B.B. Have a map of Europe put up before the class, and let the places be 248 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY L AT IT\J-DE— continued. BcMidday Horizon Fig. 5. Information. E. 1. Insular Climate. (a) The range is small. {b) The climate is temperate be- cause water surfaces tend to equalise temperatures. 2. Continental Climate. A climate of extremes and great range of temperature. Teaching. pointed out. The parallel of latitude should be traced from Edinburgh to Moscow to show that their latitudes are the same. C and D. Explain these. E. Elucidate E by a reference to B. NOTES OF A USSSON ON TRADE WINDS. In the teaching of winds three lessons stand out as of para- mount importance — land and sea breezes, trade winds, and monsoons. As considerations of space prevent the giving of these three lessons in detail, one only, that on trade winds, is given as a type of the method to be adopted. The student should practise himself in writing similar notes on the other two. Information. I. Introduction. I. Air, when unequally heated, forms currents, because heated air expands and ascends, and the colder air flows in to take its place. Teaching, I. This lesson should be one of a series. Lessons on winds generally, and one on land and sea breezes, should have preceded it. The teacher should briefly recapitulate the truths taught in those lessons. The class will discover, before the lesson finishes, some similarity between this lesson and the lesson on land and sea breezes. GEOGRAPHY. LESSON ON TRADE WINDS— continued. 249 Information. 2. Land and sea breezes are due to the varying temperature of the air. II. Origin. 1. The air at the equator, being the most heated, ascends, and begins to move towards the higher latitudes, and in the direction of the poles. 2. At about 30^ (N. or S.) this current of air reaches the surface of the earth, and since it has left the air at the equator more rarefied, part of it, mingled with the air from the poles, returns to the equator, while part continues its course to the poles. III. Direction. 1. The equatorial current or upper trade wind. (a) S.W. in N. hemisphere. (6) N.W. in S. hemisphere. 2. The polar current or lower trade wind. (a) N.E. in N. hemisphere. {b) S.E. in S. hemisphere. The trade winds are deflected to the right in the N. hemi.sphere, and to the Ufi in the S. hemisphere. IV. Locality. I. In N. hemisphere. (a) Belt of equatorial calms about 400 geographical miles broad. (6) Region of N.E. trade winds. (1) In Atlantic 8° to ag" N. lat. (2) In Pacific 2" to Zi" N. lat. Teaching. II. 1. Illustrate by a reference to the use oi&fire in a room as a means of ventilation as well as warming. A further illustration might be found by a reference to the origin of land and sea breezes. To show that warm air expands and ascends do the air- bag experiment, and refer to the ascent of balloons. 2. Tell this, and illustrate as in III., I and 2. III. I and 2. Point out on the map the latitudes referred to. Then sketch the following illustration on the B.B. The air pressure at A is higher than at B, hence as air flows from the region of high pressure to that of low pressure, a current flows from A to B. This is the equatorial current, or upper trade wind, or counter, or return trade wind. From diagram show there must be a greater weignt of air over A than over F. Hence the movement from A to F. But the barometer at B soon stands higher than barometer at equator, because of the flow of air in this upper current. Hence the movement from B to the equator. This is the polar current or lower trade wind. If the earth wete stationary these two currents would flow constantly due N. and S. But the trade winds are E, winds. Why? (I) The earth rotates from W. to E., and the rate of rotation is greatest at the equator, and grows less as we approach the poles. (3) The air has consequently its maxi- mum rate of rotation from west to east at the equator. When this air enters regions of higher latitudes it reaches districts which are rotating less rapidly than itself, and which therefore lag behind it ; while the air, shoot- ing forward, appears as a wind blowing from W. to E. In this way the upper 250 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. LESSON ON TRADE WIliDS— continued. Information. 2. In S. hemisphere. (a) Belt of calms. {b) Region of S.E, trade winds. (i) In Atlantic 3° N. to 28° S. lat. (2) In Pacific 2° to 21° S. lat. The belt of equatorial calms is frequently the scene of the severest tempests, with heavy rainfalls and thunderstorms. Teaching. current in the N. hemisphere becomes a S.W. wind, and in the S. hemisphere a N.W. wind. The converse is the case with the polar current. This enters a region of quicker rotation from a region of slower rotation, and lags behind. It does not rotate so quickly as those parts of the earth near the equator, and is therefore perceived as an E. wind — N.E. or E. in the N. hemisphere ; S.E. in the S. hemisphere. IV. ifl and 2a. The S.E. and N.E. trade winds meet near the equator. Anticipated result.— They ought to unite and form a gentle wind blowing to theW. Actual result.— Both are suspended through the strong upward draught pro- duced by the rapid and extensive rarefaction at the equator. This produces the belt of equatorial calms about 400 geographical miles broad. lb and 26. Point these out on the map. Refer to storms of the belt of calms. A map should be sketched on the B.B. showing the directions of the trade winds, and the position of the belt of calms. A liESSON ON RATN. I. Principles Demonstrated and Explained. These should be taught by observation and experiment. 1. Evaporation. [a) Take two tin saucers of equal size with equal quantities of water. Apply heat to one and not to the other, or place one near the fire and the other in a cool place. The one supplied with most heat will lose its water first, which will evaporate, [b) Refer to school ink wells. The ink in them dries up; i.e., the ink evaporates, {c) Cold dry winds in the spring often bring chapped hands. The moisture of the hands is evaporated by the wind. The natives of Africa, in order to protect themselves from the too rapid perspiration occasioned by the simoom, cover themselves with fatty substances. {d) The drying of the clothes after washing can also be referred to. GEOGRAPHY. 251 2. Condensation. (a) Hold a s/afe in the steam issuing from a kettle spout. The slate becomes moist. Tfu vapour has been turned into water again— it has been con- densed. (b) Refer to a crowded room and the moisture on the windows. The mois- ture from the bodies given off in the form of vapour has been condensed by the cold glass. {c) Refer to a cold day. You can see people's " breath " ; i.e., the moisture contained in the breath is condensed as soon as it appears from the mouth or nostrils. 3. Application of these Truths. —These truths should then be applied to explain the formation of rain. The class should be able to tell the teacher that rain is formed by the evaporation and subsequent condensation of the water of the earth. 4. Why Does Rain Fall ? — The class will understand the influence of the sun and the formation of clouds from what has already been demonstrated. But why does rain fall ? Take two large glass jars and nearly fill them with water. Drop lumps of chalk in one and powdered chalk in the other. The heavy particles in (i) fall ; i.e., they sink quickly. The light particles in (2) float. Apply this fact to the particles of moisture in the air. The condensed and heavier particles fall as rain. The lighter particles remain floating in the air as vapour or clouds. Then when a cold wind or cold moun- tain top or slope further condenses the moisture in the air, it becomes loo heavy to remain in suspension, and so falls as rriin. II. The Rain Gauge. — Show one if possible, and explain its action. If not, explain from a sketch on the B.B. "M is a cylindrical vessel, closwl at the top by a funnel-shaped lid, in which there is a very small hole, through which the rain falls. At the bottom of the ves.sel is a glass tube (A), in which the water rises to the same height as inside the rain gauge, and is measured by a scale on the side as shown in the figure." 252 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. "The apparatus being placed in an exposed situation, if at the end of a month the height of the water in the tube is two inches, it shows that the water has attained this height in the vessel, and consequently that a layer of two inches in depth expresses the quantity of rain which this extent of surface has received." — Ganot's Physics. III. Rainfall. — This is measured by the rain gauge. The amount for each aay is registered, and the average taken for the year. This gives the annual rainfall. The average rainfall can be taken from the average of a number of years. A day is rainy when the rainfall is not less than -oi inch. To give some idea of the amount of rain that falls puf the following statistics on the B. B. I inch of rain on a square yard gives 4 "679 gallons, or 4774 lbs. I inch of rain on an acre gives 22,662 gallons, or loi tons. FURTHSR SUGGESTIONS ON THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY. As it is impossible w^ithin the limits of such a chapter as this to set out the methods for the teaching of the many subjects embraced under the term geography, a few further suggestions are made with a view to rendering assistance in the planning out of a few typical lessons. The skeleton of the lesson is provided ; the teacher's task will be to fill in the details, to think out his own experiments and illustrations, and to make any modifications in the general outline that special or local circumstances may require. Iiessons on Towns. — Only the most important or the most interesting should be dealt with. One of the worst errors of geography lessons and geography books is the overcrowding of names, and the names of towns generally figure largely in this overcrowding. Having chosen the subject of the lesson, the teacher should proceed to deal with it as follows : — 1. Locality. (a) Latitude. \b) Altitude. \c) Position — coast or inland ; river (if any). GEOGRAPHY. 253 2. CUmate. (a) Maximum and minimum temperature. (d) Range of temperature. 1. Daily range. 2. Annual range. Ic) Prevailing winds. (d) Rainfall. 3. Occupations. {a) Industries. id) Commerce. c) Agriculture (crops). ct} Minerals. 4. Population. \t} If W V??S?''°"- I Rate of increase or decrease. lo) At last census. j {c) Health ; death rate ; reasons for high or low rate. (d) Religion. (e) Social life ; houses ; dress ; amusements. 5. Communications. {a) Land. {d) Water. 1. Rail. I. Rivers. 2. Trams, etc. 2. Canals. 3. Roads. 3. Trade routes. 6. Government. — Whether a corporation or vestry, etc. The amount of local control (if any) possessed ; the methods of election, etc. Ziessons on Railways. — Show a map of the country chosen for the subject of the lesson, with its railway system well marked. The maps of the railway systems of one or two other countries should be put up also for the purpose of illustration, comparison, or contrast, and the systems should be carefully chosen with a view to this purpose. 1. Total mileage. Compare with other countries. 2. Number of trains, and rate of travelling. Compare district with district and country with country again. Get or give reasons for different rates. 3. Fares : workmen's. Parliamentary (explain). Express, etc. 4. Trade uses of railways. Preferential rates : their influence on trade. Light railways. Post-office work (Royal mail). 5. Pleasure uses of railways. *' Trips " or excursions. Mountain railways (Switzerland). 6. Method of accommodation : closed or open compartments ; corridor trains ; Pulman cars ; buffets; sleeping carriages. Com- pare English, American, and Continental. 7. The ticket system. Compare English with Continental. Electric railway system Cno tickets). ZiOMOiui on Artioles of Conuneroe. — Take coal as an example. 254 ^ NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. Distribution (coal fields to be marked on the map). 2. The extent of the coal industry. Compare with other countries. 3. Its uses. (a) Manufactures. {d) Locomotion. (c) Sea travelling. (d) Domestic uses. 4. Its substitutes : peat, wood, charcoal. 5. Exported to or imported from. Places to be named and pointed out. 6. Its influence on the trade and wealth of the country. 7. The factors determining its price. Lessons on Geographical Apparatus. — One of the chief characteristics of the present teaching of geography is the develop- ment of improved apparatus for realistic teaching. Globes, maps, and diagrams of all sorts are produced in abundance and in better quality than before ; but the greatest development has been in the production of instruments and models for the teaching of the physical branch of the subject ; and although the present price of many of these articles keeps them out of many schools, still the young teacher ought to keep himself posted in the latest im- provements of this kind. These pieces of apparatus are full of suggestions, and they may help to elucidate problems that have hitherto been unintelligible or obscure to the teacher, and they may further give him hints for the construction of cheap, simple, and self-made apparatus. Illustrated descriptions of these and of other pieces of apparatus should be collected — they are easily obtainable from the illustrated advertisements constantly appear- ing, and from the readily issued illustrated catalogues of the pub- lishers — and pasted in some note book kept for the purpose. Such a book would be neither the least valuable nor the least useful in the student's library. Such pieces of apparatus would include the Geodoscope, the Tellurian, the Orrery, Cunnington's apparatus for illustrating the causes of the seasons, the Selenotrope, the Terrestrial Time Globe, the Volvorb, Clayden's model of the Atlantic, Jessop's apparatus for illustrating the effects of the earth's revolution in her orbit, and the Planisphere. The Globe is here chosen, because it is within the knowledge and experience of all. GEOGRAPHY. 255 The Globe. L Its Principal Uses. (a) To show the shape of the earth ; its motions ; its inclina- tion ; its zones; meridians; latitude; longitude ; equator: ecliptic, etc. (6) To teach climate, the angle of the sun, and the proximity of masses of land and water. (c) The relative position of the various continents, countries, oceans, seas, etc. (d) To teach tides, day and night, seasons, sunrise, and sunset. (e) A globular magnet should be used for lessons on attraction and gravitation. (/) A relief globe should be used for teaching mountains, valleys, etc. 2. Preparatory Iiessons.— To enable a child to thoroughly understand the teaching of the globe, previous lessons should have been given on the curvature of the earth, on attraction, and on the inequalities of the earth's surface. (a) Simple Lessons on Attraction.— These lessons will help the children to understand how things adhere to the earth, (i) Cohesion can be taught by dipping a pencil in water. (2) Magnetic attraction can be shown by a few experiments. The children will thus learn that bodies have the power of attracting or drawing each other. (3) Extend these notions to explain gravity, as affecting larger bodies like the planets and stars. A globular magnet would be a great aid ; failing this use an ordinary magnet. (^) On the Curvature of the Earth. — The curvature of the ocean will be illustrated by a reference to the manner of appearing and disappearing of ships. This can be illustrated by a small toy ship and a very large globe. Do not attempt other proofs at present. (c) Lessons on the Inequalities of the Earth's Surface should be given. This would give the idea of mountains, hills and valleys. The Comparative Method. This is the method of teaching on which several of our school geographies are more or less based, and it may be used to advantage in some cases ; but the resemblances should be real, and similarity should always precede dissimilarity, for points of likeness are more important than points of di£Ference. The placing of the facts side by side fixes the attention by appealing to ouriosity and the oritioal faculty. When the comparisons take a graphic form the value of the method is enhanced. Contrast, a most valuable aid to memory, is the converse of comparison, and is very freely used. Illustrations follow, the first being taken from Meiklejohn's Geography, and the second from Gill's Student's Geography. 256 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. :. Mountain Lakes. (a) Very deep. (i) Have high and steep shores. {c) Are generally long and narrow. (d) Irregular in shape. {e) Picturesque scenery. Lakes in Plains. {a) Generally shallow. (d) Have low sloping shores. (c) Are often broad. {d) Regular and monotonous in shape {e) Tame scenery. 2. Wine productions in millions of gallons. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I, —What is the meaning of the distinction between physical, political, mathe- matical, and industrial geography? Say which of these should be first taught, and why. 2.— Describe fully the relative advantages of questioning children in geography ; (a) Out of sight of any map ; and {h) With a map before them on which there are no names of places ; and state the best way of combining these two methods of examination. 3. — Draw a map of the school premises, and of the roads or streets adjacent, with which you are most familiar ; and say what use you would make of such a map in teach- ing the elements of geography. GEOGRAPHY. 257 4. — Notes of a lesson on a cape; mountains: river Mississippi; climate; winds; snow and rain (I.) ; changes of the season ; islands ; rain ; formation and course of rivers; rivers. 5. —Draw a plan of the schoolroom, and show how it may be applied in the teaching of scale and proportion in map-drawing to scholars in the First Standard. 6. — Name in progressive order of teaching, the apparatus required for lessons in geography, and show how you would give a conception of scale and proportion in map- drawing to young children. 7. — State the chief points to be noticed in giving a lesson on " A River," with the order in which each point should be introduced to the class. Illustrate your answer by some English or Scotch river. 8.— Show that a map differs from a picture, and explain how you would supply the deficiencies to a class beginning to learn geography. 9. — Point out some of the means by which the attention of a class may be sustained through an oral lesson of thirty minutes' duration on geography, so that the dull or backward children may not be allowed to suffer. 10. — Name the principal uses of a globe in teaching geography, and state fully how you would employ it in giving a lesson on day and night. II.— By what illustrations would you give children their first ideas of mountains and rivers ; (a) from their own experience ; and (b) on the blackboard ? 12.— A complaint is frequently made that geography, as taught in schools, is con- fined to lists of capes, heights of mountains, etc. How far are such lists useful, and for what purpose ? Illustrate from your knowledge of British capes and mountains. 13. — How would you begin teaching geography to a class of young children ? Give the substance of a few of your first lessons. 14.— Draw a plan of the schoolroom with which you are most familiar, showing the position and relative sizes of desks and gallery. Explain the advantages or disadvan- tages of the arrangement. 15.— Describe the sort of apparatus and visible illustration which is likely to prove most helpful to a teacher in givmg the earliest lessons in geography. 16. — After explaining to a class the effect of mountain ranges on climate, show how you might lead the children to seek further proofs for themselves. 17.— In giving a lesson on a river, which is the better plan— to speak first of a par- ticular river which the children have seen, or to start with a definition and a general description ? Give reasons for your opinion. »7 258 CHAPTER XIII. HISTORY. Value of History. 1. It helps to reveal the past history of the country, and so gives an amount of valuable information. 2. It calls forth feelings oi patriotism. It stimulates the national pride, promotes a love of virtue, gives powerful object lessons against vice, and tends, rightly taught, to make good citizens. This ought to be its prime aim. 3. It arouses interest and curiosity, and so helps to form habits of concentration. This object is defeated when history lessons are crammed. 4. It furnishes plenty of work for the reasoning powers. The pupil learns to trace cause and effect ; to generalise ; and to make valuable inductions. He finds a cycle in historic events — that history repeats itself. He sees the power of the monarch grow less, and he learns why ; how one class rises and another falls ; and facts which throw a powerful light upon present tendencies, and give plenty of scope for thought. 5. Properly taught, and methodically studied, it may be made a good training for the memory, which it taxes severely. 6. Persons and events of the past are still on their trial before posterity. History presents evidence which is weighed and reasoned on ; conclusions are arrived at, and judgment is pro- nounced. It thus cultivates the critical faculty . 7. Our sympathies are often called into active play, and any- thing which strengthens and develops sympathy is a valuable aid to social progress. It also provides a legitimate safety-valve for the play of the malevolent affections. 8. It increases our capacity and opportunities for pleasure. By association the objects in our museums, our old buildings, our HISTORY. 259 battlefields, all possess an added interest and attraction from our knowledge of history. g. It helps to brush away national prejudice by giving us some knowledge of other nations. Bias against, and hatred and con- tempt for other nations, are often the result of ignorance. The Objects of History. " The history of mankind is the history of great men. To find out these, to clear the dirt from them, and to place them on their proper pedestals, is the function of the historian. He cannot have a nobler one." (Carlyle.) This is equally true of the teacher's function. "The object of history is to discover and make visible illustrious characters, and pay them ungrudging honour. His- tory teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions. That is the best condition of things which produces, not the largest amount of knowledge or wealth, but the men of noblest nature. Does history show that in proportion as men are left to their own wills they become happier, truer, braver, simpler, more reverent of good, more afraid of evil ? This is a high ideal, but it is one the historian should strive to reach, for the only true progress is moral progress." (Froude.) What is true of the historian is again true of the teacher. The progress of morality and the development of patriotism should always be the two chief objects sought in teaching. Bacon says it is the true object of history to represent the events themselves together with the counsels, and to leave the observations and conclusions thereupon to the liberty and faculty of every man's judgment. A Greek writer says history is philo- sophy teaching by example. " Now, what is the problem of teaching history ? It is (i.) to introduce several hundreds or thousands of persons, and several hundreds of events, to an age that knows nothing, except by the power of sympathetic or anticipative imagination, of men or of things; (ii.) to make each person introduced an individual and a real character ; (iii.) to show the connection of cause and effect between great events." (Meiklejohn.) General Hints on the Teachings of History. 1. The teacher should combine history and geography, so as to teach certain valuable lessons concerning territorial, political, and commercial history. 26o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 2. He should seek to bestow accuracy and skill in representing graphically the ideas gained from books. 3. He should teach the association of different subjects, and the knowledge that they are diverse parts of one whole. 4. He should show the connection between history and litera- ture. 5. The pupil should receive very definite general impressions of the progress of historical events. He should also learn a con- siderable number of historical facts, not necessarily for immediate use, but to serve as a point of resistance for gaining other such facts in future years. 6. The pupil should make some progress in learning how to use the material he has acquired. 7. " He should develop keenness of observation in regard to the political and social conditions in which he finds himself. These conditions of themselves are seldom of interest to the pupil, for it is physical rather than mental activity that appeals to him. But our Great Charter, such rebellions as those of Tyler and Cade, our poor law, etc., should lead to a knowledge of what the State does for its dependent classes. The study of the colonists' resistance to taxation that fires the boy's heart should lead to an interest in the principles of taxation in his own day and country. Every concrete illustration of the past should find its parallel or its abstract application in the present." (Miss Salmon.) Difficulties in the Teaching of History. 1. The subject is by no means an easy one, for it demands plenty of good sound reasoning and reading from the teacher. In the Baconian sense, the teacher must be essentially a " full " man. 2. The maintenance of a proper historical perspective is difficult. Events and persons want keeping in their proper places. The leading characters and their chief works need to be in the front of the picture plane. The unimportant, both in person and fact, should be omitted or put well back in the picture. 3. The teacher requires good descriptive powers to vitalise his characters and events. This will involve the possession of good vocal control, more or less dramatic ability, a readiness of illus- tration, and a skilful use of the forces of contrast and comparison. The imagination and the emotions also require skilful management. 4. There is a tendency to abuse the memory rather than to use HISTORY. 261 it. It is so easy for the teacher to give a chapter to be read up, and then to examine upon it. The memory is overworked, and very often matter thus acquired is neither digested nor retained. The memory is called into play extravagantly. If a chapter is to be read it should be read after a lesson on its subject matter had been given, and not before. 5. There is a further tendency to overwork. Too much is often demanded for the time at its disposal, and the result is disastrous. The work is neither properly taught nor digested. Even where the demands are apparently more reasonable, and a *' period" only is prescribed, we have that commendable craze for "thoroughness" showing itself in the examination questions, and which must of necessity involve more work. 6. It requires, for effective teaching, a great mental range on the part of the pupils. History is a strange mixture of the very simple and the very difficult. Parts fall easily within the com- prehension of young scholars; parts require much riper minds. Hence the lessons must be suitable; and the principle of selection involved is often very trying for the teacher. Faults in the Teaching of History. In stating the difficulties of teaching history, one naturally indicates some of its faults, for the two facts stand in the relation of cause and effect. 1. Too much is attempted; a mass of detail is crowded into book and lesson, only to the damage of both. This kills all interest. 2. The memory is unduly taxed ; training and education dis- appear, and cram becomes rampant. This kills good method. 3. The teaching is often unconsciously obscure. Allusions are made, and it is often assumed they are understood. Terms are given without being defined or explained. They may be understood by the teacher : they rarely are by the class. 4. All history lessons ought to be focussed on its two main objects —moral and patriotic. This is more frequently forgotten than remembered. The focus being wrongs the view cannot be right. 5. Unsuitable matter is chosen. Often, if it is suitable in quantity, it is unsuitable in kind or quality. 6. Often there is insujficient preparation. Preparation is absolutely essential, even if the teacher be a full reader and a 262 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. deep thinker. The obscurity attaching to many of the lessons is one of the results accruing from this too prevalent fault. History Books. — Professor Meiklejohn once asked in a lecture delivered by him on the teaching of history : What are the quali- ties we desire to find in a history book ? What would a common- sense person desire to find in a history that was to be used in schools, and that would be good for the growing mind ? He sug- gested three things :— 1. That the history should be interesting in itself; that it should attract and not repel its readers ; that it should be read for its own intrinsic interest, and not merely for duty. 2. That the history lent itself to good reading aloud; i.e., it should be written in a spirited, vigorous, and human style. 3. That it lent itself easily to reproduction ; i.e., that the facts and events stated and described in it were so plainly and clearly stated and described, that the young learner could easily state them over again in his own way. STAGES IN TEACHING HISTORY. I. Stories. — Begin with stories. Children love these, and if they are pleasantly rendered, there is soon a decided liking for them throughout the whole class. Do not seek to give too much information at first, but rather try to interest a.nd amuse. Let there be some human nature in your lessons, and let them deal with the ways, actions, and motives of men in an elementary fashion. 1. Attractive Stories. — The stories, then, must be attractive, and every teacher of history who has had an experience of a young class in the subject knows that there are certain stories or episodes which prove particularly attractive to the scholars; Such stories include — {a) Biographies. — Under this head will fall stories of Caractacus, Boadicea, Alfred, Becket, Rosamond, Wallace, the Black Prince, the young Princes of York, Wolsey, Lady Jane Grey, Mary Queen of Scots, the Seven Bishops, Raleigh, Drake, the Pilgrim Fathers, Cromwell, Marl- borough, Wellington, Nelson, the young Pretender, Robin Hood, Hereward, Prince Arthur, etc. (d) Rebellions, etc. — These will include such things as Wat Tyler's insurrec- tion. Jack Cade's rebellion, the rebellion of the Percies, the Gunpowder Plot, the Meal Tub Plot, Monmouth's rebellion, the rebellions of the Pretenders and the Chartists. (c) Battles. — These should embrace such events as the piratical raids of the Danes, the Battle of Hastings, the Crusade, Bannockburn, Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt, the Spanish Armada, Blenheim, Trafalgar, Waterloo, Balaclava, the Indian Mutiny, and the Zulu War. HISTORY. 263 (rf) Miscellaneous. — In this group could be placed such incidents as the meeting at Runnymede, the formation of the New Forest, the drown- ing of Prince William, the Field of the Cloth of Gold, the Great Plague of London, with its closely following Fire, the French Revolution, the First Exhibition , and so on. 2. The Reasons for their Attractiveness. — They are attrac- tive because of their emotional character. There is a solid tinge of sensationalism or romance in many of them ; and romance was ever attractive to the young. The imagination is indulged, and this indulgence introduces another element of pleasure. Pleasure is one of the most powerful of human motives. Whilst listening to these stories, there is a perfect indrinking of emotion, and our best psychological authorities consider this as essential for chil- dren as country walks, games, and treats. There is much of that which attracts in fiction and in the drama. These stories produce a certain amount of mental excitement, which is stimulating and enjoyable. The strength of this element can be easily understood when we reflect that the so-called pleasures of older people are often based on excitement. These historic actions appeal to our egoistic and social feelings, and so minister to our happiness. Admiration for courage, virtue, success ; anger, contempt, scorn ; pride of race, of conquest, patriotism in its strongest aspects, all these feelings are affected in turn, and contribute their share of attractiveness. The feeling of rivalry is stimulated only to be regulated and guided. The love of activity and power finds mental outlets in these stories. We fight with our heroes — on their side; we share their risks and triumphs, their love of approbation, and learn to love and respect them. We sympathise with those who suffer unjustly, and our sympathy runs warm into kindred cases in our own small circle. There is little or nothing educative in the first instance, for the pleasures of knowledge are yet too weak to avail ; but the foundation of a love for the subject is being laid in an attractive manner, a foundation upon which is to be built the after structure of a sound historical training. ZZ. Biographies. — The teacher will then pass on to biography in a fuller and more educative manner, and this stage would be suited to Standard IV. and upwards. Further remarks upon this branch will be found under the head of the " Biographical Method " in the section on " Lessons on Reigns " ; and still later under the head of '* Notes of Lessons on Biographies ". nx Inoidenta. — This will be an expansion of the ** Mis- 264 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. cellaneous " item under the head of "Stories". As in the pre- ceding case, the subjects will be handled more fully, losing none of their attractiveness, it is hoped, but requiring more thought, and furnishing more training and education. The incidents should be striking, instructive, and interesting. They would include such subjects as travels, battles, voyages, plagues, rebellions, famous Acts of Parliament, plots, etc. rV. Periods. — A period of history should next be taken — say the Tudor or Stuart period. But even here the teaching will be largely biographical. The period may be taught by one of the methods laid down in the " Lessons on Reigns". V. Constitutional History. — A " period " could be taken in each of the higher standards, but in the highest standards the elementary principles of our Constitution should be explained ; the constitution and functions of Parliament ; the social and religious state of the nation, and so on. In every stage biography will form a part of the teaching, for the lives of eminent men are the historic pegs around which hang the events of a period. IjEssons on reigns. I. Their Use. — Any such lessons as these should be given at a late period in the school course. If history has been well taught in a school, it will not have been through the " reigns " as a syllabus of lessons primarily. But as a means for summarising or for recapitulating, the reign can be used with some profit. It will test the pupil's memory and synthetical power to retain and pick out and group those portions of a series of lessons on the biographies. Constitution, literature, etc., of the people which belong to any particular reign. Few will be able to do this, as the test is too severe. Hence such lessons will afford an oppor- tunity to the teacher of presenting his facts — facts which for the most part should be already known, or at least familiar — in a new combination to the pupil. The name of the sovereign will serve as a useful centre, around which these events might be grouped. H. Method of Teaching-. — There are many methods laid down in the various text books in use, but perhaps the first given is the best. 1. The Chronological Method. — The reign should be pre- sented as a complete picture, the parts bearing each its due weight. The lesson then really reverts to a species of biography, in which the sovereign may or may not play a conspicuous part. HISTORY. 265 But all that has been said in favour of teaching history through biography can be repeated here, for it bears as much value. 2. The Epoch Method. — This is a better method for a range of history lessons than for a lesson on one reign. It lends clear- ness to the method, but it does not maintain interest like a narrative. The interest of pursuit is weaker, and the lesson suffers in comparison. The epochs for the reign of John would be something like the following : — (a) John's foreign policy. This would include the loss of Normandy and the murder of Arthur. 16) Church troubles, (^r) The Great Charter, and John's attempts to evade it. 3. The Parliamentary Method. — In this case the reign is taught through the medium of its Parliaments. The lessons can be made methodical, clear, and intelligent. Only the most important work of each Parliament should be given, as it is unwise to overload the mind with detail. The method has one great recommendation — it teaches the history of the people, which is history proper. But it is wearisome, scrappy, and often dry. It is very difficult to maintain interest by it, and the objection is a serious one. Of course, a very capable teacher can turn any legitimate method to profit, for he is the master of his method, and not the slave of it. But the remarks are true for the average teacher. Again, it does not lend itself to the early reigns of history, so that its application is limited. The reign of Charles I. is taken as an illustration. {a) First Parliament — Met 1625. Voted two subsidies of about j^i40,ooo for war expenses. Sat two months only. Why ? (fi) Second Parliament, — Met 1626. Why called ? (I) 'They voted inadequate RuppHes. " 'ith (3) They withdrew the king's prohibition, and let Bristol take his seat in the (2) With these grants they coupled the condition that they were to control and re;;ulate every part of the government which dispUascd them, kit House of Lords. (4) They voted that common fame was sufficient grour.d of accusation by the Commons. The other Parliaments could be similarly dealt with. Obviously, one reign may require many lessons, each of which will make some demand upon a knowledge of the Constitution and functions of each branch of Parliament. For this reason alone such a method could only be used in the highest classes of the school. 4. The ClaMlfication Method.— Here we have the events of a reign classified under such well-known heads as — 266 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. {a) Foreign policy. {/>) Home policy. {c) Science, art, literature. Or the history of the reigns may be classified under such heads as — la) The growth of constitutional liberty. {^) The power of the Church. (c) The growth of towns. (d) The growth of trade, manufactures, etc. (e) The growth of the navy. {/) The progress of colonisation. (g) The growth of education. This method is logical, clear, intelligent, interesting, and lends itself to the memory. It disputes the palm with the first method, and by many is preferred to it. 5, The Biog^i'aphical Method. — There is much to recommend this method. The events of a reign are the work of the great minds of that reign ; and the lives of a few eminent men will embrace and explain the cause, conduct, and results of those events. Such men exercise a greater influence on a nation than a monarch. Any striking or suggestive anecdotes will be very useful to illustrate and to add interest to the lesson. Another great recommendation is its unity of plan, and the individual becomes a nucleus for occasional instruction on many other subjects. 6, The Comparative Method. — Two periods are taken, and one is compared with the other. A present reign is compared with a past; the reigns of two queens might be compared ; the War of the Roses with the Civil Wars. The method is adapted to all branches of the subject. Two movements or classes might be compared : two individuals, two rebellions, or two great charters. The Lollards might be compared with the Puritans; Cade's rebellion with Tyler's ; Walpole with Gladstone ; or Pitt with Beaconsficld. The general principle of this method must be remembered — that points of likeness are more important than points of difference. Contrast may be considered a negative aspect of the same method. In such cases Walpole would be taken with Pitt, and so on. NOTES OF IiES30N3 ON BIOGRAPHIES. The notes should be divided into two columns, one of which will comprise all the information to be given, whilst the other should be labelled education, and should show what tra-nir.,;, apart from mere information, the teacher proposes to get out oi the lesson. Effect and cause should be pointed out, deductions and HISTORY. 267 inferences made, points of conduct observed and criticised, and a wise use made of contrast and comparison. The great thing to be aimed at in the " education " column is to select such points of character as are likely to be specially attractive to children, and if possible to fix them by suitable illustrations. The treat- ment must always depend upon the ability of the class. Properly treated, these lessons are very valuable both morally and in- tellectually. History lessons are often colourless and abstract, but in biography the personality of the hero is ever before them. The children put forth an effort of constructive imagination, form their hero, and follow him eagerly through the chief incidents of his life. The interest of pursuit is thus called into play, and the lessons become vivified and successful. The great danger of these lessons is overcrowding. The draw- ing up of the " information " column taxes the analytical power of the student, and makes serious demands upon his judgment. Experience has shown that pupil teachers often fail to distinguish the relative importance of the events with which they are dealing, and so lose the true sense of proportion in their treatment of the subject. For this reason it is advisable they should receive extra practice in dealing with lessons of this nature. A series of lessons on eminent men should be prepared. The difficulty of treatment then decreases with each life, which becomes an extra source of illustration, whilst points of conduct are better grasped by the increased opportunities of making comparisons and contrasts. The following notes on Walpole will require at least two lessons : — LESSON ON WALPOLE. Infomution. Education. L Early Uft. I. Treat this portion of the lesson briefly. but call attention to — I. Born, 1676. I. His success. He attains the highest 2. Entered Parliament for Castle office in the State. Why? Inference. Rising. 1700. 3. Councillor to George of Denmark. Because of his ability and energy. 2. His failures. 4. Secretary at War, (a) Guilty of breach of trust. 5. Chief hand in Sacheverell's im- (6) Guilty of notorious corruption. peachment. 3. His punishmctit. He was to be— (a) Committed to the Tower. 6. Paymaster of the Forces. 7. Disunion in Cabinet. He retires. (6) Expelled the House. 8. Resumes former office. Application. HiKh trust demands hi/rh 9. Prime Minister, 1721. principle; f;real power demands great honesty. 268 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. LESSON ON WAL.POLE— continued. Information. II. Prime Minister. 1. Personal Characteristics. (a) Neither a scholar nor a cultivated man ; knew next to nothing of history. (b) Good-natured man ; frank ; of great industry. A great sportsman. (c) Great tact and common sense ; a good business man. (d) No orator, but a good debater. Too fond of power ; overbearing manner. 2. His Statesmanship. (a) His Love of Peace. Unsuccessfully resisted the Spanish war. (i) "They are ringing their bells now; they will soon be wringing their hands." (2) " Madam, there are 50,000 men slain in Europe this year, and not one English- man." 1734. (3) " My politics are to keep free from all engagements as long as we can." (6) His Bribery. (i) Refer to venality of Commons. M.P.'s sold their votes. Electors were bought and sold. (2) No publicity on the votes given in Parliament. (3) Newspapers not allowed to publish members' speeches. (4) " Every man has his price." (5) The charge of bribery overstated. Only one case proved. 3. His Financial Policy. (a) His Excise Bill. Its object to stop smuggling. (i.) By establishing bonded warehouses. (ii.) By raising the revenue from inland dealers in the form of excise, instead of levying at the ports in the form of customs. Thrown out 1733. (b) His Free Trade Policy. The necessaries of life and the raw mate- rials of manufacture were to be free of all imposts, and that indirect taxation might be the means of freeing land from most of its burdens, if not from all of them. His opponents held that revenue should be drawn wholly from direct taxes on land. Education. Contrast or Compare him with other great men. These comparisons, etc., are naturally limited by what the teacher has done in previous lessons on biography. II. I. (a) These show his wenf a/ qualities. (b) These facts reveal his personal quali- ties. (c) These his parliamentary qualities. Briefly show the influence of these characteristics upon him as Prime Minister. 2. Describe his peace policy and show — (a) Its success. The country daily grew more wealthy ; taxes were light ; trade was flourishing. Quote his proud boast expressed { in II. 2. {a) (2). Point out that he under- I stood the truest interests of his country I better than any of his contemporaries. I (6) His foresight. The Spanish war ended disastrously. He maintained that a nation never gained anything by war. Point out that his opinion expressed in II. 2. (a) (i) became true, and justified his policy as expressed in II. 2. (a) (3), (c) His obstinacy. He took no interest in foreign policy. Show that this was one of the chief factors in his downfall. Compare with Mr. Gladstone. (6) Put these facts about his bribery be- fore the class. State the circumstances which led to it. (i) The fierce opposition he had to face. (2) The ease with which it could be done. (3) That it was an established practice. (4) His too great love of power. (5) The lack of publicity. Give the true history of the famous phrase (b) (4). The Opposition were storm- ing at him over this charge, when he re- torted : " All these men have their price ". " He durst do right, but he durst do wrong." An honest man. In an age of bribery he was beyond bribes himself, and died a poor man, heavily in debt. 3. (a) and (b) Show that this was impos- sible in his day, but that it has all been done since. Both in this and in his Free Trade policy he was in advance of his times. An- other testimony to his wonderful foresight and excellent biisiness'\capacity. Show that the justification of his policy is to be found in our day rather than in his own ; and that so firmly did he establish the national credit, that the public creditors began to contend who should be last paid. DATES IN HISTORir. Whilst warring justly against " cramming," we must not be led to disregard dates. Some knowledge of dates is absolutely HISTORY. 269 essential to an intelligent comprehension of history. They are supposed to bear the same relation to history that the multiplica- tion table bears to arithmetic. They are also called one of the eyes of history. But it is useless to learn dates unless the events associated with them are learned also. Talk of the event, explain and illustrate it, and the date will become an enclitic to the event. The dates are best learnt through the events ; not the events through the dates. Mnemonics are not recommended as a rule. Often they want interpreting and learning themselves. Sometimes the mnemonic is remembered whilst the key is lost, and, speaking generally, it is doubtful if much is gained by their use. The best mnemonics are interest and repetition. There must be plenty of repetition, and the dates repeated must be few and important ; but the repetition should follow, not precede, the events. Properly used, the dates may afford good training for the exercise of memory. The chronological system of Mr. David Nasmith, Q.C., is a specimen of a good mnemonic system, which is simple and in- genious. It has this to recommend it, that it is based on space relations, and so presents a picture to the eye. It is as follows : — Each decade is divided into nine squares, arranged in three rows of three each. These squares are surmounted by a top border, which always begins the decade ; i.e., contains the cyphers (o's). It will then be observed that the ones and the nines are at opposite corners, as are also the sevens and the threes, and that the five is always in the middle. It is claimed for this method that after a little practice the difficulty is not to remember but to forget. The event desired to be remembered should be entered under its proper date in the square. Pro- fessor Meiklejohn has paid it the great compliment of adopting it in his history. 'I' MWl PAT.T.ATI IN HX8TORT. Z. Its Uses. — Its chief uses in the teaching of history may be thus briefly enumerated : — 1880 I88I 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 i 1887 1 1888 1889 270 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. It adds interest to the study; for it presents history in its most attractive form. 2. From the association of rhyme, rhythm, and romance it becomes easier to remember than history taught in the ordinary form. 3. There is generally an intrinsic charm in a ballad from its quaintness or simplicity, or its subject. 4. A ballad answers one of the best purposes of history, for it develops and encourages patriotism — a love and pride in the country, its people, and their achievements. 5. It is an easy and favourable method for cultivating a love for poetry. 6. It cultivates the social affections — pity, admiration, and sympathy all being stirred. 7. It preserves words and forms, of which it would not be very easy to produce examples in other branches of literature. II. Its Description. — It will be necessary to make the children thoroughly understand what a ballad is, at least in' the higher classes. 1. What is it ? — Originally it was a short narrative poem, with something of both the lyric and the epic in it. In fact, it was a sort of minor epic reciting in verse, and was usually designed to be rehearsed in musical recitative, accom- panied by the harp. Before giving this description briefly explain the terms "lyric " and " epic ".. Probably " recitative " will also require explanation. 2. Its Subjects. — These were epic in their nature, and usually dealt with the adventures of lovers and the mysteries of fairyland. 3. Its Home. — It was chiefly used by the minstrels of the borders of England, Scotland, Scandinavia, and Spain. But the true home of the ballad in our country was the northern part of England and the southern part of Scotland. Point out these places on the map, and explain the term " minstrel ". i. Their Quality. — The Scotch are generally superior to the English, and the Scandinavian to all. The literary and dialectic (explain)- peculiarities of the Scotch were most probably copied from the Scandinavian bards, for they resemble each other both in form and language. 5. Their Popularity. — They were immensely popular with the people, who were the custodians and guardians of them. The Normans despised the nature of poetry, because they did not understand it, and so they were left entirely to the people, from whom they have retained their simple and popular character. Then they were recited by their beloved minstrels, dealt with sub- jects which were popular and fascinating, possessed certain peculiarities which were indicative of the people themselves, and were often set to dance music. m. The Choice of Ballads. A. For the Lower Standards. — The following principles should guide their selection : — 1. The subjects should be simple enough to interest the children. 2. The incidents should be such as would excite their sympathy. HISTORY. 271 3. The more painful sides of history should be omitted. 4. Explanation and sometimes abridgment will be necessary. Guided by the above principles, the following list will most probably be found suitable : — (a) The Mother's Book by C. M. Yonge. (b) The Battle of Evesham „ F. T. Palgrave. (c) Wickliffe's Bible „ G. White. (rf) The True History of Sir Richard Whittington - „ Author of John Halifax. (e) The Queen's Oak „ C. M. Yonge. (/) The Spanish .\rmada „ G. E. Maunsell. (g) Victoria's Promise „ C. J. Coleridge. B. For the Higher Standards.— There is not a large number to choose from, but the same principles should regulate their choice as for the lower standards. Copious notes, as a rule, will be necessary for Scottish ballads if chosen. (a) Boadicea by W. Cowper. (6) Alfred the Harper „ I. Sterling. (c) The Curfew Song of England „ Mrs. Hemans. {d) Robin Hood and Allan-a-dale Old ballad. («) Chevy Chase Old ballad. (/) Joan of Arc by F. T. Palgrave. (k) The Battle of Flodden „ T. Delaney. (A) The Death of Essex Old ballad. (»■) The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers - - - - by Mrs. Hemans. BA'X'X'IjES. I. Their Use in Teaching. — These incidents may be made in- structive if properly handled. The teacher must guard against the undue preponderance of the emotional element. The feelings of patriotisfti, admiration for courage and suffering, and all the finer traits of human nature which are supposed to be evoked by battles, should be allowed their due share of attention and exist- ence ; but the intellectual value must not be overlooked. It is suggested that some such treatment as the following should be adopted :— n. Instruction. — A brief description of the campaign should be given, leading up to the particular battle in question. This will arouse interest. They should then be told distinctly the parties engaged in this particular battle, and the names of the leaders on either side. A rough map should be drawn on the B.B. showing the relative positions of the contending forces. The battle should then be described in sufficient detail to give an accurate idea of the event, and to maintain the interest which has already been evoked. A careful use of any pictures on the subject could be made with advantage. ZZZ. Bducation. -The teacher should then try to make due profit out of it. For this purpose he should place the causes and jthe results before the pjass. 272 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. 1. Causes. — Why were the armies opposed ? Give the causes. Then show the many interests always tending for war — standing armies, mihtary and naval classes, the ambitions of sovereigns or politicians, portions of the press, inter- national greed and jealousy, contractors, aggressive commerce, feminine admiration for soldiers, the craving of the masses for change or excitement, and other causes. 2. War. — Why war ? Ask for better methods of settling disputes. Discuss briefly their degree of practicability. Show that war has been the custom for ages in such cases. Point to modern cases of arbitration. Elicit and regulate opinion on the value and morality of war versus arbitration. Why is war more general than arbitration ? (a) Because of necessity. In most cases, at present, other methods are im- practicable. (6) Custom. This has already been referred to. (c) Literature often encourages it, from the Bible down to the local newspaper, (rf) Refer generally to the " interests " mentioned in (i). 3. Results. — Some of these, like death, sickness, poverty, loss of trade, and increase of taxation, can easily be obtained from the class, especially if previous lessons on any battles have been given. The other, specific and historic ?-esults, both di7-ect, as embodied in t7'eaties, and indirect, as arising out of the treaties [e.g. , the bitter feeling engendered between countries, as between France and Germany), should be told and impressed on the children. OUR INSTITUTIONS. Few teachers are free from the cramping effect of codes and set syllabuses ; perhaps, still fewer from examinations. Where these things exist, the teacher who wishes to preserve his official exist- ence will always be largely guided in his teaching by them. But where the teacher is a free agent, he may adopt the living method of teaching, which is the best educationally and the most interesting. He starts with a contemporaneous fact — a building, a personage, an institution — and traces this fact back to its very source. This method adheres to the sequence of teaching by starting with the known and proceeding to the unknown. It vitalises the teaching by placing concrete objects before the class as a starting point, and it brings a living interest to bear upon the work. Such lessons would deal with : — 1. Our Institutions. — These would include Parliament, our Courts of Justice, our Fire Brigade, Local Bodies (Vestry, Corpora- tion, School Boards, Asylum Boards, Charity Commissioners, etc.), our Army, Navy, Militia, and Volunteers. 2. Our Historic Buildings. — These would include such places as the Tower of London, our Cathedrals, the Houses of Parlia- ment, our famous Castles, Universities, Palaces, Museums, Picture Galleries, etc. 3. Historic Personages. — See under the various remarks in this chapter about Biography. 4. Our Towns. — Their Qrq\yth, Tra,de, Development, etc. HISTORY. 273 5. Inventions. — These would embrace such things as the Rail- way, Steamboat, Photography, the various Electrical Inventions, etc. 6. Education. — As carried out by the School, Church, Press, Literature, the Stage, and our social institutions. Such lessons must necessarily be largely descriptive, so that the teacher will need to cultivate his powers of word-painting. They are primarily lessons for imparting information, but their moral and intellectual sides need not be absent. Above all, they are calculated to make the pupils take a budding interest in the facts which surround them, and to develop a spirit of inquiry, and a power of social and political observation. They are essentially the type of lesson necessary to impress upon the schoolboy what will be his rights and responsibilities when he becomes a citizen. An illustrative lesson on the Policeman and another on an Act of Parliament follow. NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE POLICEMAN. Information. h What he is. A man appointed to preserve order and apprehend offenders. A member of an organised force maintain- ing order and eniorcmg the laws. IL His Power. He can— 1. Suppress unlicensed theatres. 2. Suppress illegal sport, like cock fight- ing, prize fighting, etc. 3. Suppress gaming houses. 4. Superintend places of public resort. 5. Regulate traffic. 6. Regulate public processions. 7. He can arrest on his own authority, and without a warrant, any person whom he may see committing certain specific acts of annoyance in a public thoroughfare. Terras Explained. Warrant. A document or order author- ising an officer to seize an offender and bring him to justice. Treason. The offence of attempting to overthrow or betray the government of the State to which the offender owes allegiance. Conspiring against the lives of the royal family, certain of the royal councillors and not. Education. 1. This can be found out by questioning. Correct where necessary. The teacher will probably get some novel attributes assigned to the policeman. II. I. Refer to local theatre. It must have a licence, otherwise police would close it. Tell who grants this licence. 2. Point out the brutal nature of these sports. Show how public opinion has im- proved on the point since the davs when these sports were under the special patron- age of the upper classes. J. This is a recurring incident. Read a suitable account from the newspapers. Question on the policy and morality of gammg. 4. Elicit by questioning and by references to their own experience the necessity for this. Rowdyism, drunkenness, etc., apt to break out at times. 5. This will be within the knowledge of all children who live in busy towns. 6. Refer to the London processions; Lord Mayor's show ; Mayday processions ; political processions to Trafalgar Square and Hyde Park. Some forbidden ; others Why? Object, time, nature, place, judges ; counterfeiting the royal seal, signet, have to be considered. or com. Felony. An offence which occasions a total loss of either lands or goods, or both, at the common law, and to which capital or other punishment may be added accord- ing to the degree of guilt. Misdemeanour. A lesa offence than a felony or a crime. 18 7. Explain warrant, treason, felony, miS' demeanour. If the class it a lower one simplify these meanings. A warrant necessary for an arrest for a misdemeanour. Explain briefly the ^aver nature of the two first offences. Police sometimes arrest men for fighting, and sometimes not. Why ? Show that the power to arrest is for the purpoae of 274 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE POLlCEMAli— continued. Information. III. His Qualifications. I". Unblemished character. 2. Intelligence. This is tested by ex- amination. 3. Physically sound, of standard height and chest development. 4. Well drilled and instructed in his duties. He is then appointed to a beat. lY. His History. 1. Previous to Sir Robert Peel's time characters of the worst and lowest descrip- tion often served. He purified and reorgan- ised them in 1829. 2. Early in the queen's reign a county constabulary was formed. 3. Peace and order were previously main- tained by the high sheriffs of the counties, their deputies, and the constables appointed by the parishes. 4. In England, from the time of the Anglo-Saxon kings, an organisation, partly voluntary in its character, existed for the repression of crime, the arrest of criminals, and the maintenance of good order. 5. In Rome, in the time of Augustus, police became a special institution. 6. Traces of police organisation found in ancient Egypt and the Mosaic Law. Education. preserving the peace, and not for punish- ment, therefore they cannot arrest unless they catch red-handed. III. Show the necessity for these qualities. 1. In London the poHce have millions of people, and property worth millions of money, under their care. Night duty would afford special facilities for a dishonest man. 2. They are peripatetic inquiry officers, have to advise, coax, etc., and often to give evidence in a court of law. 3. The work is fatiguing; hours long; risks from weather, street rows, burglars, etc., very great at times. Explain beat. A Second Lesson had better be de- voted to his History. IV. Since Peel's time the police have been a splendid agency for the purposes for which they were created. This part of the lesson will be descriptive. The teacher should show how each step from their first beginnings has been an im- provement. The voluntary agency failed, hence the formation of a constabulary. Show the necessity for some protective force at all periods of our history. Compare them with the military and quasi-military nature of foreign policemen. To a higher class the derivation of the word might be given. It should be pointed out that many of our laws and institutions are based on those of Rome (ancient). Use as many pictorial illustrations as possible, and arouse sym- pathy with policemen by dwelling on the trying nature of their work. NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE PASSING OF A BILL THROUGH PARLIAMENT. Information. L Origin. A bill generally takes its origin among the people— 1. To meet some popular demand. 2. To remove some injustice. 3. To get some right recognised and granted. After discussion and education by the press and on the platform, it is formulated in the shape of a bill. II. First Reading. The bill is formally introduced to the House, and read without any discussion. It is then ordered to be printed and circu- lated among the members for their study and consideration. Teaching. I. The teacher first points out the con- ception and the stages of growth of public opinion on the question. (a) By the press or platform, or both. (b) By public and private discussion first, then by platform and press. (c) Then some M.P. formulates these demands, and introduces them to the House in the form of a bill. (d) The bill is almost invariably "backed," i.e., backed up or sup- ported by the names of certain other M.P.'s written on its back. II. Why not discussed the first time ? 1. The form of the bill is new to the great majority of the members. 2. Hence it would be unfair to discuss it before the members had prepared them- HISTORY. 275 LESSON ON THE PASSING OF A BILL THROUGH PARLIAMENT— con^inw^rf. Information. III. Second Reading. A date is then fixed by the Government for its second reading. The bill is keenly debated as a rule at this stage ; and if it E asses the second reading, virtually the bill as succeeded so far as] the " House " is concerned in which it was first introduced. lY. Committee Stage. The House now resolves itself into a Committee for further discussion and pro- bable modification of the bill ; to expand or contract its scope ; to alter it in some of its details. The alterations desired are effected by what are called amendments. An amendment is a motion put before the House by a member, in which motion he seeks to alter or amend some detail or principle of the bill. Y. Third Reading. Having passed through the Committee stage, the amended bill is generally read •nd voted a third time without any debate. YI. The Other House. The bill is then sent to the other House to go through the same stages as in the first House. The two Houses are — (1) The House of Commons. (2) The House of Lords. It may be defeated in the second House on its second reading, when it fails to be- come an act and dies as a bill. Or it may be further amended in Committee in the second House. It generally is. Money bills cannot originate in the Lords. This is the only limitation to the free introduction of bills into either House. This practically makes the House of Com- mons the more powerful of the two. YII. Royal Assent. The bill is then sent to the sovereign for assent. This is now never refused. In days gone b)| it was not always so; but royal opposition proved an expensive and dangerous luxury, so that the assent of the sovereign may now be considered merely formal. Havmg received the royal assent, the bill now blossoms into an Act of Par- liament, and becomes a law binding on all. Teaching. selves to support or oppose it. The class will readily understand these two state- ments. III. Get the. class to observe the follow- ing facts : — 1. The bill is now discussed because the members have had ample time to study its provisions. 2. It is not, as a rule, further opposed, (a) Because its discussion has generally been exhaustive. (6) Further opposition would be a waste of public time (obstruction) ; for the same arguments would be repeated, to meet with the same result. IV. Make the class understand that al- though the bill has passed its second read- ing, and the general principle of the bill has been accepted by a majority, yet the altera- tion of some of its details may be much desired, and so it may be keenly contested by a portion of the members. Explain Committee. Now a member may speak several times to the bill ; whereas, in the other stages, the strict laws of debate arc adhered to, and a member may only speak once. Explain amendment, and ^ive illustrations. The report stage is omitted for a later period. (i) It is less important. (2) It is difficult to define. V. The reason for this was pointed out in II. 2. VI. Supposing the bill to have originated in the House of Commons (most bills do), then it would go to the House of Lords. Question out the wisdom or policy of this. Explain as follows :— The Commons represent the people. The Lords the aristocracy. Both are existing parts of the country. Both have special interests to conserve. If either alone made laws, the interests of the one body might suffer at the expense of the other. Eacn House is then a check upon the selfishness or injustice of the other. Explain to the class the power of the burse. The Government of a countiy is a business, and no business can go on without money. VII. Note the three elements comprised in the word Parliament: (i) Sovereign; (a) Lords; (3) Commons. Let them fur- ther note what would be the result if either element possessed the sole power. (1) If the sovereign— then our govern- ment would be an absolute monarchy. (2) If the Lords— an aristocracy, (j) If Commons — a democracy. Show that it is the blending of these three elements that constitutes the glory of the English limited monarchy. Two lessons will probably be necessary to dcel with this sabject. 276 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. I. — Notes of Lesson on the passing of an Act of Parliament ; Joan of Arc ; Cardinal Wolsey ; some battle in English history ; chief topic of the reign of one of the kings of England. 2.— Show the use of ballad poetry in the teaching of history, and illustrate your statement by some historical ballad. 3.— Write out the chief topics to be selected for a lesson on the reign of one of the kings of England. ^.—What plan would you follow in giving a description of some famous battle ? Illustrate your answer by the battle of Flodden or Waterloo. g._Select points in the character of Lady Jane Grey, or Robert Bruce, or Nelson, that would be specially attractive to children, and write out some anecdote by which you would illustrate each point. 6.— Write out those dates of events in English history during the seventeenth cen- tury which you consider worthy of being committed to memory by children, and give reasons for your selection. 7. — Name some stories from English history that you have found to be most attractive to young children, and explain simply the causes of their attractiveness. 8. — It is sometimes said that one of the best ways of teaching history is by means of biography. Explain this. Name five or six persons whose biography would throw great light on the history of the eighteenth century, and give a slight sketch of one such biography. 9. — In giving a lesson on the Duke of Wellington, show what use you would make of comparison, and contrast with any other character in history. 10. — In teaching history, say what use, if any, you would make of chronological tables. Is it better to learn the date before or after the pupil knows something of an event, and becomes interested in it ? Give your reasons. This chapter is continued in the Appendix. 277 CHAPTER XIV. ENGLISH. The TTses of Orammar. — It must be remembered that grammar is not absolutely essential, although it is very desirable ; for we could, and many of us do, go on speaking and writing our own language more or less correctly without ever having received a grammar lesson. But there are certain advantages arising from its use, which may be briefly stated as follows : — 1. It helps the pupil to sjjeak his own language correctly. 2. It is an aid to composition ^ so far as readiness, ease, and accuracy are concerned. The vocabulary is extended. 3. In learning a language it is economical, for it " abridges labour by generalising everything that can be generalised ". 4. It is the logic of the elementary school. Bain disputes this, but the opinion still remains. The higher faculties are called into play, for it makes the pupils familiar with the meaning, the structure, the grammatical and logical relations, and the right use of words. 5. Trench's Study on Words shows us also how very useful and interesting the history of many words may be, and what a great light they may throw upon the history of the people. In fact, many words are " sidelights '' to history. XNffioulties in Teaching. — " The difficulties of grammar are the difficulties of all science — generalities couched in technical language." The difficulties arising out of language itself are great, for children in elementary schools rarely hear good English outside the school. Their vocabulary is very limited, and there is little or no power of arrangement in the formation of their sentences. Nor are the mental difficulties any less. It requires greater mental power than most school subjects. Bain considers it harder than arithmetic, and says it is probably on a par with the beginnings of algebra and geometry. It is a double acquisition^ for there is the union of language with thought. The mind is divided between the two, and this is a difficulty. Some of its stages require great power of concentration^ and this is a thing <)f slow growth. Hence it is not advisable to begin teaching the subject too early. In the primary schools it begins with the 278 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. earliest standard, where the tender age of the children handicaps them severely in the study of such a subject. Finally there is a great deal of drudgery in the acquirement of derivation, classification, and the rules of syntax. A skilful teacher may gild the drudging pill, but it has to be taken, and drudgery is not a strong point with many. ORDER OF TEACHING THE PARTS OF SPEECH. The parts of speech should be taught in the following order for the reasons given in each case : — I. Noun. 2. Verb. 3. Adjective. 4. Adverb. 5. Pronoun. 6. Conjunction. 7. Preposition. 8. Interjection. Noun and Verb. — Every sentence is composed of two essential parts — the subject and predicate. In their simplest forms these are nouns and verbs ; hence the noun (as the subject) and the verb (as the predicate) should be taught first. A few preliminary lessons might be given separately on the noun, but the verb is always better taught with the assistance of the noun. The teacher will have little difficulty in getting the class to pick out concrete nouns, for the material objects which they mark surround the children on every side. The objects can be shown, their names given, and the definition of a noun thus may be ob- tained from the class. Perhaps it is hardly necessary to remind the teacher that the name of the object is the noun, and not the object itself. But more difficulty is experienced with abstract nouns. These are best taught in conjunction with adjectives and other parts of speech from which they are derived. But adjectives are not required till the Third Standard, whilst nouns appear in the curriculum for the First Standard. Still the teacher may avail himself of these aiding words without giving their technical names. The concrete nouns can also be utilised in the building up of simple sentences, which is the best and proper way of teaching this subject. Thus : — 1. Take a common concrete noun — man. 2. Affix qualities to this word with the assistance of the class ; e.g: : — g'ood man dear book strong man large book kind man pretty book 3. Then derive the abstract noun by questioning. The questioning is neces- sarily vague, but it is suggestive and sufficient. A good man is one who has? — goodness. A strong man is one who has i— strength. A kind man is one who has ? — kindness^ ENGLISH. 279 4. Then tell the class that these -words— goodness, strtngth, and kindness— are abstract nouns, or nouns simply. A number of exercises dealt with in this way will help appreciably to remove any difficulty surrounding the recognition of abstract nouns. The pointing out of verbs is not required until Standard II., but the teacher is advised to do all his teaching through the sentence, and very simple analysis, so that it will be found advisable to deal with the verb in Standard I. Specimen lessons follow later on, on the verb, the simple predicate, and the adjective, which the young teacher is advised to study and use. The Adjective. — We only know things by their qualities ; hence next to knowing the sign of the thing itself, it is necessary to know the words which express those qualities. There is no recognised distinction between things until we begin to enumerate their attributes, and adjectives are the words which specify these attri- butes. Adjectives of quality should be taught first, then quantity, and possessives and demonstratives last. The Adverb. — The adverb modifies and extends the meaning of the verb, an adjective, or another adverb. As we have recog- nised the necessity for the early introduction of adjectives, because they mark the necessary distinctions between things, so it is now equally necessary to introduce adverbs to modify the actions expressed by the verbs, and to distinguish the infinite variety of ways in which an action done or suffered may be modified. The Pronoun. — These words might now be introduced, as they are largely used to avoid the unpleasant repetition of the nouns. They are not a necessity, but rather a luxury, hence they give way to the more essential words taught before them. The per- sonal pronouns should be taught first, whilst the demonstratives and possessives should be taught by comparison and contrast with the demonstrative and possessive adjectives through the medium of sentences. The Coi^unotion. — It is, perhaps, best to take the conjunction next, as it enables us to consider compound and complex sentences, and so opens a wider range of sentences, which can now be joined together, and the various relations expressed between these sentences can be learned. The Prepoaition.— This should* come after the conjunction, because it does not lift us out of the simple sentence. It shows relations between words only, and is therefore placed after the conjunction, which performs the larger task of showing the rela- tion between groups of words called sentences. 28o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. The Interjection. — These words are emotional luxuries — mere expletives, and can with reason, ease, and profit be relegated to the proper position of all luxuries — last. HOW TO TEACH THE PREDICATE. It has already been pointed out that the best way to teach grammar, whether it be the picking out of nouns or verbs, is best done through the medium of the sentence. For this purpose it will be necessary to give a lesson on the predicate early in the course. One step should be thoroughly mastered before the next division of the lesson is touched, and for this purpose plenty of exercises will be required at each step. In this way the notes might be used for three lessons, each lesson being confined to one division of the notes, whilst the two latter lessons should come later on. Definitions and Examples. I.lThe Monosyllabic Predicate. Examples — 1. Boys jump. 2. Dogs bark, 3. Birds fly. FIRST DEFINITION. A predicate consists of a word which tells you what the subject does. II. Passive Predicate. Examples — 1. He was struck. 2. The floor has been scrubbed. 3. The bells were rung. 4. The table is cleared. SECOND DEFINITION. A predicate may consist of one or more words which express the action done by the subject, or suffered by the subject. Teaching. I. Write these sentences on the B.B. I. Of what are we talking here ? Boys. 2 and 3. Elicit dogs and birds in the same manner. These words — boys, dogs, and birds — are called the subjects of our speech. Now, what do you say of each ? 1. Boys — jump 1 Let the class note that 2. Dogs — bark j-all these words express 3. Birds— fly ) actions, and that you say, assert, or predicate (explain further, if necessary) actions of each of the subjects. Now analyse the above sentences on the B.B., and let the class suggest others for further analysis. The scholars should then be able to give a first definition of predicate. II. I. Let the class pick out the subjects in each sentence. Then the predicates. Help if necessary, and elicit by observation that— (a) The predicate in each sentence con- sists of two or more words. (6) It is in the passive voice ; i.e., it suffers the action instead of doing it. A little skilful questioning based on comparison and contrast of the active and passive voices will probably be necessary for this step. 2. The class should then orally analyse the sentences on the B.B. as before. 3. They should then be asked to suggest other examples for analysis. 4. They then should be again asked for a definition, and they should be able to give something like the improved form in the second definition. III. Write these examples on the B.B. as before. ENGLISH. Definitions and Examples. III. Verb «' to be " with AcUectlve. Examples — 1. I am foolish. 2. Thou art wise. 3. He is strong. 4. We are young. FINAL DEFINITION. The predicate is the word (or words) in a sentence w^hich expresses what is affirmed of the subject. Teaching. (a) First get the class to recognise that am, art, is, and are, are all parts of the verb to be. (b) Next demonstrate by questioning the " incompkte " notion conveyed by the verb ; e.g., I am — what ? Thou art — what ? The class will thus be led to see that the verb to be cannot form a predicate of itself, but re- quires another word, or other words, to complete it. (c) Then let the class parse the com- pleting words. They are all ad- jectives. (d) Next elicit from a, b, and c, that a predicate may consist of the verb to be and an adjective. (e) The sentences should then be ana- lysed as before on the B.B. (/) The class should suggest other ex- amples for analysis. ig) They should then be invited to give the final definition, which shouldf be written on their slates and learnt. HOW TO TEACH THE ADJECTIVE. As laid down in the Code, the adjective is not required till Standard III., but it is advisable to teach it before then if grammar is taught at all. Let it ever be remembered that grammar should be taught through the sentence, and in con- junction with composition, so that the presence of the adjective becomes almost a necessity. To keep children picking out nouns for a year, and then nouns and verbs for another year before in- troducing the adjective, is neither educational nor profitable. The function of the adjective can easily be deduced by a choice of suitable sentences, and provisional and improving definitions can be given as the lesson goes on. These definitions must always be given by the children, and not by the teacher. The functions having been discovered, the class might then be led on to classify the words into adjectives of quality or quantity, etc. Composition exercises might then follow, and in the end the class ought to be able to give a definition which should be final and general. This method of teaching is illustrated below, but the notes there given may be used for one or for several lessons, the latter being the more probable arrangement. The first lesson might end with the first definition, when a number of exercises might be worked orally, and afterwards on paper or slates. 282 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. Definitions and Examples. I. Introduction. List of Nouns : — Boy Courage Desk School II. Function of Adjectives. Phrases : — 1. Bright boy, 2. Real courage. 3. Foggy London. 4. Dual desk. 5. Board school. 6. Young teacher. 7. Many apples. London Teacher, etc. 8. Six chairs. 9. This book. 10. The truth. FIRST DEFINITION. An adjective is a word wliich helps us to distinguish one class of persons or things from another. III. Classification of Adjectives. 1. Quality. Bright, real, foggy, board, young. 2. Quantity. Dual, many, six. 3. Demonstrative. This, the. Other Examples : — 1. Quality. Good, bad, nice, nasty. 2. Quantity. All, any, some, none. 3. Demonstrative. That, these, those. lY. Composition Exercises. 1. The bright boy took the prize. 2. Real courage is to be praised. 3. Foggy London is a mighty city, etc. Y. FINAL DEFINITION. An adjective is a word used with a noun to denote some distinguishing attribute of quality or quantity, or relation belonging to the object or thing for which the noun stands. Teaching. I. Ask for some nouns, or let the class name some of the common objects around them. Something like what is opposite will be given. Write them on the B.B. XL Deal with these nouns as follows : — I. Boy. By questioning elicit that the term is general or common. If we wish to specialise or distinguish the boy in any way, it is necessary to say something more about him ; e.g., tall boy, or short boy, or bright boy, etc. Lead the class to see the principle of selection, grouping or classifica- tion involved ; e.g. : — The bright boy implies others not bright „ tall „ „ „ „ tall „ short „ „ ,, „ short. We have observed the boy and noted a special quality — not of the word " boy," but of the boy himself. Deal with the other examples in the same way. The distinguishing word in each case is called an adjective. The class should now give a preliminary definition of an adjective. III. Educe by further questioning and explanation (if necessary) that some of the adjectives indicate — 1. Quality. They tell the kind of boy, etc. 2. Quantity. These all deal with number. 3. Demonstrative. Give this word and explain that it means " to point out ". Write the three classes on the B.B., and place each word in its right class. Ask class for other examples. IV. Add these examples. Let the class affix a noun in each case, and then make a complete sentence of each example. This will be a good composition exercise. V. The class should now be invited to give a final definition. This must be gradually worked into the desired form by the teacher's aid, if necessary. Further explanation and more examples may be required, but the class must give the defini- tion. N.B. — The attribution to the pronoun is left for a subsequent lesson. THE ADVERB. The method laid down for the teaching of the adverb is much the same in principle as that for the teaching of the adjective. The teacher's first task will be to develop the idea of the adverb in connection with suitable sentences. It should be developed with verbs first, as the modifying of verbs is its primary function. For this purpose simple sentences should be written on the B.B., and they should then be expanded by the addition of adverbs. From these expanded sentences i\\Q functions of the words should ENGLISH. 283 be deduced, and their classification made. A first definition should then be given. Its use with adjectives and other adverbs could next be taken, after which the class ought to be able to give the final definition. Plenty oi exercises should accompany each stage. A lesson in illustration follows. Definitions and Examples. Develop the Idea. 1. With Verbs. A. Suitable Sentences. (a) You go. (6) He sings. (c) She paints. (d) They ride. (e) Are you sick ? (/) You are well. B. Expanded Sentences. (a) You go there. (6) He sings wtll. (c) She paints much. (d) They ride often. (e) Are you siclc ? No. (/) Are you well ? Yes. C. Classification. (a) There— place. (b) Well— manner. (c) Much — degree (quantity). id) Often— time. (e) No — negation. (/) Yes — affirmation. FIRST DEFINITION. An adverb is a word added to a verb to show place, manner, degree, time, negation, or affirmation. 2. With Adjectives and Adverbs. Sentences. (a) He is very good. (b) She is most kind. (c) How divinely good ! He did it so quickly, (e) He ran remarkably fast. FINAL DEFINITION. An adverb Is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, a. ExercisAS. Several exercises should be written here. Teaching. 1. (a) Write these sentences on the B.B. Let class analyse them, pointing out the subject and predicate in each case. (6) Ask the class to add words to each of the sentences in (a). " Objects " and " ad- verbs " will be principally given. Select the adverbs, and at present disregard the ob- jects. Something like the additions oppo- site will be given. (c) Obtain the fundamental meanings of each of these words by suitable questions. (i) Where is he to go ? There, in that place. Hence the word denotes place. (2) How does he sing ? Well. The word denotes the way or tnanner or quality of his singing. (3) When does he ride ? Often. So get time, or when. (4) Educe negation, affirmation, and de- gree by similar methods. Other examples should be given by the teacher; then by the class. In each case the class should be asked to specify the relation expressed by the word. The class should then give this defini- tion, write it on their slates, and learn it. 2. Write these sentences on the B.B,, and proceed as in i. (a) Let class underline the adverbs in each sentence. (b) Class next to point out the words to which the adverbs are added or which they modify. (Explain this phrase.) (n. The class should then be able to give the provisional defini- tion opposite. III. 1. Write sentence i on the B.B. Class to note that— (a) The action is present, but (6) The idea of time is not definite. it may mean, I am working at this moment; or that I am in the habit of working, although I may not be at work St this present moment. Hence the id*a of time is indefinite, and the word work marks present indefinite time or tense. 2 Write 2 on B B. It shows that the Sentence. Tense. 1. I worlt. 2. I am working. 3. I have worlied. 4. I have been working. Indefinite. Imperfect. Perfect. Perfect continooas. action (a) is present, (6) is unfinished or imperfect. Hence it is caUed the present imperfect tense. 3. Write 3 on the B.B. This sentence shows tiiat the action is complete or perfect 288 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. HOW TO TEACH TENSE— continued. Definitions and Examples. FURTHER DEFINITIONS. 1. The Present Indefinite Tense indicates that the action is pre- sent, but its precise moment indefinite. 2. The Present Imperfect Tense shows that the action is not finished. c{ ThP Present Perfect Tense shows ^f^ ¥^ ^^.^" S°\"S °" ",P \° *^P /'y«e«^ ; 3. ineFresenti'eriectiensebnows ] ^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^.j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ jg that at the present time the: now over, it is complete ; Teaching. at the present time. Have worked is there- fore in the present perfect tense. This tense is generally difficult to chil- dren. Point out to them that though the action is finished, we only spake of it as being finished at present. 4. Treat this sentence in the same way. It shows that the action has been going on, and is now finished. This tense again is difficult. Try to make the class understand that the action— action is finished. 4. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense shows that the action has been going on, and is now finished. (c) that I have been working for some time, i.e., that the action was continuous. The class will then see why it is known as the present perfect continuous tense. Have these definitions committed to memory, and give plenty of exercises for practice. PREPOSITIONS. There are certain well-marked principles which characterise most of the lessons given in accidence, and which perhaps it will be wise to emphasise once more by collecting and enumerating. Every lesson in this chapter is shaped and guided by those prin- ciples, and they should be firmly fixed in the memory. They may be described as follows : — 1. The teacher's first task is to develop the idea of the subject of the lesson through the medium of the sentence. 2. Definitions should always be the work of the class. Furthermore, they should be synthetic or provisional, being given at the different divisions of the lesson, and growing finally into the complete statement. 3. Plenty of exercises should be afforded in illustration of the truths or principles the teacher is seeking to establish. 4. The functions and characteristics of each particular subject should also be developed through the medium of the sentence. 5. After the various rules, truths, and principles have been dis- covered by the class from matter supplied by the teacher, they should be committed to memory — not before. The following lesson on Prepositions is based on these prin- ciples, and it would be a good exercise for the young teacher if an attempt was made to write notes of lesson on Conjunctions in the same way. ENGLISH. How to Teach the Preposition. 289 Definitions, Exercises, etc. I. Develop the Idea. 1. The book is on the desk. 2. The boy is in the school. 3. Love in a cottage. 4. The tree was struck by light- ning. FIRST DEFINITION. A preposition is a word whicli ex- presses some relation between two nouns. II. Derivation. Pre — before ; positus — placed. The preposition is placed before the noun. Exceptions. 1. Whom was this done by ? 2. What was he after ? 3. What did you do that for ? SECOND DEFINITION. k preposition is a word placed be- fore a noun (or pronoun), and which expresses some relation between that noun and another. III. Government. 1. The mouse is in the cage. 2. The cat is under the table. 3. He killed the man with a sword. Prepositions govern nouns in the objective case. lY. Classification. 1. Place. (a) Rest in — at, by, in, out. (b) Motion — to, from, into. 2. Time. (a) Duration — pending, during. lb) Past — since, from. Ic) Present — at, in. (d) Future— \.\\\, unto. 8. Caasallty. (a) Motive — from, for. I (b) A gent or instrument — by, with. ' FINAL DEFINITION. Prepositions are words placed be- fore nouns or pronouns to show some relation of plac«, timet or oauiality. Teaching. I. Show a book. Class to name it. Point to a desk. Class to name this. No connection or relation between them ob- vious to the class at present. Now place the book on the desk. Any connection or relation between them now? The word on expresses this relation. Strengthen the idea by shifting the position of the book. 1. Place the book tinder the desk. 2. Place the book far from the desk. 3. Place the book near the desk. In each case the class is to point out the relation between the book and the desk. Then they might point out the word in each case expressing the relations between the various nouns in sentences 2, 3, and 4. II. Give the derivation of the word. By reference to the examples, show that the word is placed before the noun or pro- noun. Ask for any exceptions, and give them if necessary. The exceptions are not bad grammar, but bad composition. Have them given in an improved form; e.g., By whom, etc. HI. Write these sentences on the B.B., and let the class pick out all the nouns. In the first sentence ask for the case of " mouse " and " cage ". Ca^e is objective by "in". Similarly, table ts objective by " under " ; sword is objective by " with ". Then Prepositions govern in the ob- jective case. IV. Write on the B.B. the following sentences :— Place. 1. He sits in the chair ; t.e., he rests in the chair. 2. This hangs out of the window; !.<., rests out of the window. 3. He is at school now ; i.e., he rests or remains at school. Motion. Write on the B.B.— I. He goes ^0 London. Motion— on it. III. Ttiis use should l>e taught as in I. I. (a) Dictate this sentence without punctuation. (6) Write it on the B.B. and punctuate it. Then let pupils read it. Some will pause at each noun, some not. Call attention to this fact. (r) The teacher should then read it with cadence and pauses. (eals to experience to verify or condemn his conclusions. Now there are three steps in this process of deductive reasoning. (a) There is the general truth which is obtained by inductive reasoning ijrnduction). U)\ There is the arguing as to their effects in other cases [deduction). \c) There is the process of verification by experience. e.g.. All mammals suckle their young {induction). The whale suckles its young. . •. The whale is a mammal {deduction). And experience corroborates this. The essential process, as in induction, is detecting similarity or assimilation. We bring a particular case (the whale) under the general rule or principle (suckling), and we do this because we recognise similarity between the particular case and the cases included under the general rule. Deductive reasoning is the great feature of scientific knowledge. The more deductive a science becomes, the more perfect it becomes, as in the case of mathematics. Most of the great scientific discoveries are the result of deductive reasoning. The composition of light, the barometer, the thermometer, gravitation, the undulatory theory of sound, and the conservation of energy, are some of these discoveries. The teacher will have plenty of opportunity for using deductive reasoning in the teaching of elementary science ; for such simple facts as the cracking of a glass by hot water, fanning when hot, etc., could be explained by this method. 3i6 CHAPTER XVI. MUSIC. ITS VAIiUX: IN SCHOOLS. 1. Pleasure. — The primary objects of school music should be for pastime and pleasure. It is perhaps the most exceptional as well as the cheapest of human pleasures. It is undoubtedly a substantive contribution to the enjoyment of life. " Of all the fine arts, the most available, universal, and influential is music " (Bain). 2. Physical Advantages. — It opens the lungs and aids cir- culation. It is stimulating in drill and marching. 3. Discipline. — The consensus of will, when all unite in some beautiful song, is of great value to discipline. The scholar be- comes a unit in a body more or less large, where he has to submit entirely to the rule and guidance of the conductor. 4. Ethical Advantages. — Some forms of music educe the moral virtues and the nobler characteristics of the mind. A musical strain exerts, ofttimes, an immense power over the mind to animate, to encourage, to soothe, and to control. Some, however, deny that it has any permanent moral influence. There are, moreover, certain quasi-spiritual relations in singing which we do not yet understand fully. 5. Patriotism. — "One of the chief means of diffusing through the people natural sentiments, is afforded by school songs, which embody and express the hopes of industry, and the comforts and contentment of household life ; and, preserving for the peasant the traditions of his country's triumphs, inspire in him confidence in her greatness and strength. The national legend, frequently embodied in songs, is the peasants' chief source of that national feeling which other ranks derive from a more extensive acquaint- ance with history. The songs of any people may be regarded as MUSIC. 317 important means of forming an industrious, brave, loyal, and religious working class." ITS AIM. — The aims of school music are largely suggested by its value, and the items of value have just been enumerated. But more particularly its aims may be briefly enumerated as follows : — 1. To teach to sing by ear and note. To train the ear and voice so as to give power to appreciate and perform music. 2. To enable a pupil to leave school capable of reading and understanding popular music, both sacred and secular. 3. To train in sacred music for public worship. 4. Music is an innocent recreation. An early taste for music may exert a beneficial influence upon the choice and character of the amusements of the people. 5. To cultivate patriotism, industry, loyalty, and religion, C L A SSI F ICATTON'. — This will vary in different schools, and must depend on — 1. The size of the school. 2. The arrangement of the rooms. 3. The number of the qualified teachers upon the staff. 4. The length of the school life. For ordinary schools four divisions are suggested ; but for smaller schools fewer divisions will be necessary, and the work must be graded to suit. This grading will be a fluctuating quantity, and will largely depend upon the organising ability of the teacher. Division I. for Infants. „ II. ,, Standards I. and II. III. „ „ III. and IV. „ IV. „ „ V. and upwards. In smaller schools with fewer divisions less should be attempted than in larger schools. The range of instruction must be re- stricted, or more work is thrown upon teachers and scholars just where circumstances are least favourable for any increase of burdens. The Two Notations Compared. Tooic Sol-Fab. 1. " It combines scientific accuracy with modes of expression the most direct and simple." 2. It is quicker and easier, and therefore more suited to children. 3. It is the notation generally aaed in our primary schools. Old Notation. 1. It is scientific, fcrophic. and tinivenal, whilst tonic sol-fah is local. 2. It is suited to instrumental music Tonic sol-fah is not used, except in rare cases, for this purpose. 3. It is the recognised music language of the civilised world. 3i8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. THE TWO NOTATIONS COMPARED— coM^mwed. Tonic Sol-Fah. 4. Its time names and its system of spacing by continuation lines make the teaching of time easier and more thorough. 5. Modulator advantages : — (a) Difficulties can be presented singly. (b) Attention can be paid to particular difficulties. Old Notation. 4. It is the medium of expression used by the world's greatest masters, and their works are written and preserved in it. 5. " It can claim all the modulator ad- vantages of the other notation, and some- thing more ; for having once conquered the modulator, the end is attained ; whilst the (c) Attention of a whole class can be | tonic sol-fah disciple has to attack the old obtained. j notation without a modulator to assist him." (d) Mental effects can be illustrated. j 6. In old notation the staff is really the 6. It is a splendid aid to the old notation, ^ modulator, and on it are pictorially repre- and a stepping stone j sented musical intervals, whilst in tonic 7. The perpendicular modulator is an ! sol-fah the modulator is at right angles to advantage, because it pictorially represents the notation. the higher and lower notes of the scale. 7. Most students who continue their musical studies ultimately revert to it. VOICE TRAININa. 1. Tone. — The teacher should aim to get a soft, clear, round, sweet, and yet full quality of tone. The voices should blend. Generally, individual voices should not be dis- tinguishable at a short distance. For this purpose it is best to cultivate a medium strength of tone, or the singing w^ill inevitably be flat. With moder- ately soft singing it is also often fiat, hence the range and key should be suit- able. The range should be small at first, and should be gradually extended. Each note should be brightly and clearly attacked, and there should be no sliding or slurring allov^^ed. Cultivate downwards. It is urged by eminent authorities that " in this way the sweetness of soft high notes can be best imparted to the whole voice; whereas, if the upward moving exercises are always used, the tendency is to use the thicker and heavier tone on the high notes ". Hence the teacher will train in scale exercises from doh' to doh, and not conversely, as a rule. 2. Breath. — The breath should be thrown well forward upon the front palate, and immediately behind the roots of the upper teeth. Breathing exercises without singing are very essential, as either too little or too much impairs the quality of the singing. There should be exercises in inspiration, expiration, and retention or holding of the breath. This should be done at the teacher's dictation. The pupils should keep their mouths shut in these exercises. Odd minutes may be used in this way, and when standing the class should be trained to take a series of breaths without moving the shoulders. The inspiration should be deep ; the expiration slow and gradual. Pupils should never breathe in the middle of a word, or between words closely con- nected in sense, or anywhere where it is likely to spoil the continuity of the words, or the flow of music. 3. Articulation. — The articulation should be clear and distinct. Bad articulation is one of the greatest faults of singers, especially amateurs. It is often impossible to recognise many of the words sung, and others are only recognised by the aid of the context. The sense of the words must be properly rendered by distinct articulation and proper expression. The reading lessons MUSIC. 319 can be turned to account here, for a satisfactory spoken articulation is a good stepping stone to a musical one. The shape of the mouth, and the proper rendering of the vowels, will be the chief points requiring attention. Certain vowels, like a (father), a (fate), oa (woad), and 00 are " forward" vowels, and should be sung well forward in the mouth; e is difficult, and requires a clear parting of the lips. 4. Practice. — Voice exercises should be given. The practices should not be too long. Little and often is best. For musical purposes children's voices soon tire. The aim of the practices will be to produce a good quality and to maintain it. For this purpose it will be again necessary to remind the teacher that the exercises should be carefully chosen as to range and key, and graded to suit the varying vocal endowments of the children. 5. Posture. — The attitude of the children must receive close and constant attention. There can be no good production if associated with unnatural or unsuitable methods. The children should stand to sing; upright, with heads erect, shoulders well back, and the chest well forward. These positions must be easy and natural. It is a good practice to go through a little chest drill before beginning the singing. Practices like some of those used in dumb-bell exercises are best ; these get the shoulders back and expand the chest. They must be taken moderately, or the breath will be impaired in some cases. THE COMMON SCAZiK I. The Starting Point. — Explain the meaning of scale, and illustrate from both notations. Then choose any tone. This is the starting point ; the key tone or tonic. Call it doh. Make the class understand that of themselves different notes possess no peculiar property or tone character — nothing more than variation in pitch. But thoroughly impress a given sound on the ear, and all others will bear a proper relation to, and will circle round it. The note to be impressed is the tonic. The other notes of the scale then take up certain definite relations to it. This will be illustrated by the mental effects of the notes of the scale. XL Mental Si£Pects. — These must be gradually felt by the class. Contrast and plenty of repetition will be the aids to apply. 1. Teach the fifth (sok). The class notes its efTect, but the teacher need not yet name it. Practise in various kevs. 2. Teach the third («/). Proceed as with the fifth. 3. Then combine exercises on the fonir, the /if/h and the /Aird in different keys; 1.^., practise the class in the (wn chord (d-m-s). The notes ha.Tnonise. There is tonic sympathy, and the chord gives conclusive satisfaction. 4. The tonic should then Ije taken with the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh notes of the scale. The class now feels the effects of tonic contrast The notes do not harmonise, but dissonatc. Each interval creates a want. 5. The class should now be ready to contrast and name the mental effects of the soUe. Each in its turn should be contrasted with the tonic and with the others. The teacher will then be able gradimlly to fill in the effects against each note as he writes it on the B. B. , thus :— DOH^ — Strong or firm tone (octave). TE — Piercmg or sensitive tone. 320 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. LAH — Sad or weeping tone. SOH— Grand or bright tone. FAH — Desolate or awe-inspiring tone. ME — Steady or calm tone. RAY — Rousing or hopeful tone. DOH — Strong or firm tone. The children do not grasp these differences at once. Plenty of repetition and illustration will be required. Subsequently the teacher will show that all these effects are modified by pitch, harmony, quality of tone, and rate of movement. These differences or modifications must be practically demonstrated, and then the attention of the class must be fixed by the application of contrast. TTTR MODUIiATOR. The modulator should not be used until the major scale is impressed on the ear. This scale and its mental effects will be taught by ear. Every lesson then contains some modulator practice. The teacher should point the modulator, and the class should sing without pattern after the initial lessons. The pupils should be taught to sustain each note as long as the pointer is kept upon it. The wall charts and sheets should be used for exercises. The key tone should always be pitched well within the range of the class voices, and the melody should be sung in tune. The intervals should be carefully graded according to the requirements of each division. There should be no random pointing by the teacher. The class should sometimes sing in sections, and the teacher will then be able to discover where the weakness and strength of his class respectively lie. Sol-fah-ing should always be followed by laa-ing, and in later lessons the pupils should sing to lah always, only falling back on the sol-fah names for corrections. Transitions should be carefully intro- duced, the removes appearing in their proper order. Early Iiessons in Tune. 1. Explain pitch and key tone. 2. Pattern Singing and Class Imitation. The teacher gives some pattern singing ; the class listens, and then repeats the tones sung by the teacher. The teacher should not sing wii/i the pupils, but proceed as follows : — (a) The teacher sings a tone to lah. The class imitates. The teacher tells them that is their key tone. (b) The teacher sings this tone and the fifth {soh). The class imitates. 3. Key Cliange and Self-Effort. The teacher gives anoiker key tone. The class sings it and tries to give the sok. The teacher practises this interval by frequently changing the key. The dominant range (s to 8^) must be systematically studied, because the mental effects of the scale tones are somewhat modified by the prominence given to the fifth of the key. The class must not be practised too exclusively in low keys, because, then, children often fail when asked to sing in a higher key. MUSIC. 321 4. Introduce the Mediant. The teacher sings tm. Then there is pattern singing, imitation, self-effort, and practice in various keys; e.g., d, m, s, m, s, d, s, m, s, d. 5. Introduce the Octave. The exercises can now be increased in variety. 6. Manual Signs. These should be used. They introduce variety, help the mental effects by association, often save time, and demand close attention. In Division II. no leaps should be made to or from the second, fourth, sixth and seventh notes; z.e., tonic contrasts should be avoided. In Division III. any intervals may be given, hence the teacher should become proficient in the ready product'on of manual signs. HOTV TO ARRANaS A SCHOOZi MUSIC CIjASS. For systematic instruction in singing, Mr. John Evans makes some very practical suggestions. He recommends that you should sort your pupils, to make it possible for all to learn r'uickly and pleasantly ; i.e., you should arrange your pupils according to their natural musical ability. He further recom- mends that you should place the most promising at the back of the class, and the least promising m front near the teacher, and he points out certain advantages for this arrangement. 1. The teacher gets the result he wants with less friction and labour. 2. It give^ the teacher the opportunit} of rewarding those that make most progress by giving them a place wiii the selected voices. 3. Pure intonation, which is the chief thn.g to be worked for, will be ob- tained more quickly and easily. 4. It affords great help in voice training, as the best voices serve as model.'' for the others, and give the tone required, esp)ecially in c!rsses where the teachers cannot pattern the tone they want. 5. It materially helps to cure Jlat singing, for the flat singers are placed in front, where the other singers hear less of them. How to Find the most Promising Voices. 1. Vox Standards I. and II. the teacher stands in front of the class and calls on ten or twelve to listen to him whilst he sings the following phrase: — Key G. m, d, s, 1, s. 2. The children imitate, and the sweeter and purer voices are easily detected and placed. 3. Then try the whole class in the same way. 4. In Standard III., instead of testing by imitation, a suitable exercise should be written on the B. B. ; or the teacher may dictate a phrase. 5. The altos should be tested by themselves. SAR TRAININa. No branch of school music is so difficult to teach as this, for the subject is inherently difficult. But any lack of endowment on the part of the pupils can be more or less successfully met by carefully 'graded teaching; and some useful suggestions for this purpose were set forth in one of the early numbers of the School Music Review, the chief points of which are embodied in the following hints : — 21 322 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. I. Requirements for Success. 1. Capacity. — The teacher must be capable. He must have a cultivated ear himself, and, unless he has an instrument, he must be able to smg in tune. His enunciation rnust also be good, his vowel pronunciation being correct. 2. Time. — Some part of each lesson must be set aside for training the ear. About one-fifth is generally recommended. 3. Gradation. — The exercises must be carefully prepared and graded. i. Variety. — The exercises should also be varied. 5. Suitability. — They must be adapted to the ability of the class. 6. Classification. — The pupils should be classified, because ability varies, and the classification should be carried on to the limits of the staff. A good classification acts as a powerful stimulus. n. Its Stages. — There are practically three stages. A. Imitation. 1. If possible, a musical instrument should be used, at least as a change. The voice may be used later if the teacher is thoroughly capable, but he should begin with the instrument for the following reasons : — (fl) It is safer. (6) It is easier. (c) Tile pitcii can be varied. (d) It prevents the class getting too used to one voice. (e) It removes the vowel difficulty. 2. The imitation proceeds as follows : — The teacher sings a few notes. The class imitates. The teacher /aas the same notes. The class again imitates. The teacher then graduates his exercises somewhat as follows, and this introduces the second stage — discrimination. B. Discrimination. 1. The pupils tell — {a} Any arrangement of a three-tone key chord, as U, S, PI, or C, G, E, (6) The same, without the first note bemg told. (c) Any arrangement of a four-tone key chord, as d, S, PI, d', or C, G, E, C', the first note being told. (d) The same, without any note being told. (e) Alternatives. The teacher sings. s, t, d' i s, 1, s G, B, CI I G, A, G And then asks which he sings; i.e., the class discriminates. (/) Any three tones commencmg on some tone of the key or doh chord. 2. There must be plenty of practice to /aa. Do not begm too soon. Wait till the pupils can command a fair amount of ability in sight singing, whilst using the sol fah syllabus. Otherwise there is guessing, or a following of a few leaders Again, do not trust too much to the value of collective laa-ing. for the weak are too much at the mercy of the strong. Individual work must supplement. C. Dictation. —The three stages, imitation, discrimination, and dictation, will now proceed together, affording mutual assistance. Collective laaing exercises will still be necessary, but they must be well graded, and not too abundant as they are fatiguing. Manual si,^ns should be used in all the stages, lor in addition to introducing variety, they fix the attention and strengthen the power of concentration ; they have been already shown to have a valuable con- nection with the mental effects, and they act as a fine substitute for the modulator, and so train for sight singing at the same time. P'urthermore, they are an aid to discipline, as they allow the teacher to exercise greater vigilance over the class, and they make the work more thorough by enabling the teacher to detect the lazy, timid, and indifferent. MUSIC. 323 m. Teaching. 1. Give laa-ing Exercises. — Some such scheme as the following is sug- gested : — {a) The teacher sol-fahs easy phrases, and the class repeats, singing to lah, (d) The teacher dictates short easy phrases, and the class sings them (i) to sol-fah syllables, {2) to lah. (c) The teacher dictates and directs. The class sings up or down the scale, repeating one tone or omitting as diiected. {eat the first stated tone. {e) The class sings a phrase. The teacher sol-fahs another phrase, and the class tries to repeat the first phrase. (/) The teacher writes a timeless exercise on the B. B. , pxjints to it very slowly, making a pause of a second or two between each two tones ; and the class has to think of the next tone before it is pointed to — a very valuable collective exercise. (g) The class sings to /ah a very short easy phrase, and it then makes varied additions to the phrase as dictated by the teacher, 2. Give easy Ear Exercises. — In giving these, and in testing, observe the following rules : — [a) Sing each ear test twice before proceeding to the next. (d) Change the key, so that no two consecutive tests are in the same key. (c) Sing the doA chord to /aA slowly before each test ; and again in the same key before the second test. 3. Mental Effects of Scale Tones. —When a fair power of observation is gained, the peculiar effect tones of the scale have upon one another can be used. The mental effect of a tone is roughly the sum of its relations to all the other tones of the scale. Verbal explanahon is not much good ; mottat effects must be felt, not understood. They must be repeatedly and pointedly demonstrated, and then the sol-fah syllable truly t)ecomes the name of a tone, the name of a sensation. Close attention is necessary. To get this let the whole class sing the chord, and then let one of the class sing the tone. 4. Graduation. — Give a graduated course of moderate difficulty. The teacher will write something like the following on the B.B., and the class will have to discover what tones are sung at the blanks. Fewer tones should be given as the class progresses. I 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 d ■ r 1 s d c D A 6. Accumnlatin^ BxerolsM.— These cultivate a keen observation and a good memory for tune. I a) The teacher sings a short and perfectly easy phrase; <■./., d, r, m. I b) The class answt-rs correctly. c) The teachei sings the same phrase and adds two notes, I d) The class again answers correctly. e) The teacher then adds two more notes, never adding until the previous phrase is correctly recognised, e. Written Exercises.— These are very valuable exercises. Slates or paper can be used, but paper is best for obvious reasons. The teacher writes 324 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. down a number of tones to be used in each line, numbers, and properly spaces them. (He should explain the whole plan of the exercise.) If the test occupies, say, four lines, like a a hymn tune, two or three notes should be given in each line. I 2 3 4 5 6 First Line d C fah F Second Line ... - r D d C r D Third Line 1 A s G m E Fourth Line . , - . s G m E r D d C TIME AND TUNE! COMBINED. Exercises combining time and tune are now required in the higher divisions, but it is not wise to wait till those divisions are reached before any attempt is made to combine the two in teach- ing. Children must be taught to read at sight, if their knowledge is to become power. The work must be graded and well arranged, so that the difficulties may be gradually approached. 1. Grade your Exercises. — The School Music Review recommends : — [a) Choose those containing easy intervals. Exercises with repeated notes are generally easy, because they allow the attention to be largely directed to the time. [h) Intervals in the key chord or doh chord are easy. \c) Passages that creep from note to note, as it were, are easy when com- pared with passages containing free leaps. {d) Short contmuations are generally difficult. The rhythm may be difficult quite apart from the intervals. {e) Rests, preceded by a continuation, often give trouble. The following are given as illustrative examples: — Key F. (a) (6) I / Id : d.d 1 d KeyG. • 1 d : s ! n ;n s • : S| d.Si If :n.r Id KeyG. : — • { t, : f 1 r : f, r.l 'lU, :s Id : — s .s s : — n.d I s f.r II s.d :n.Si { d.n : S|.s l.r :f.l,|r.f :1, MUSIC. 323 KeyC. ^'^ lid :r ln.f: |l :s |s.f:n In f.s I l.s . d' } lit :l.t|d :- KeyG. ^^^ {Id :-.dir :-.r In : - .d | d :s KeyF. W (In :-|f :r |r :- I-: |s :-|-:f } (In :- I - : I r : - I d : - It will be observed that two exercises are given under ^. These show that it is not always the mere width of a leap that determines the difficulty ; the par- ticular members of the scale employed must be considered. The first passage is quite easy, whilst the second, although usmg much the same interval move- ment, is very much more difficult. 2. Preparatory Exercises. (a) Choose your exercise carefully. (d) Time it to the /ime names. {c) Time it to /ah. {d) Sing it to the sol-fah names. \e) Sing it to lah. (/) Sing it, with time and tune combined, to the sol-fah names. (g) Sing it, with time and tune combined, to lah. (A) If there are any words, sing to the vwrds. \i) Finally, sing with due regard for the expression marks. 8. Si^t Exercises.— Here the piece should be laa-edio time and tune at once, and then sung to the words with due expression. 4. Pinal Stage.— The piece should be taken straight off, with proper attention to the conductor. ITiis is a difficult accomplishment, involving a rapidly shifting attention, and marking a high state of perfection. It is the final goal of all school musical effort, and must not be sought too hurriedly. Every previous step will require complete mastery before any efforts of this nature are attempted. TIME. Bow to €KTe the Idea of Time. — Appeal to the common experience of the children. They walk or run the same distance in unequal times; one cart goes faster than another; one train slower than another; and so lead the children to see that one sound follows another sometimes at regular intervals, sometimes at irregular intervals. Demonstrate this before the class. It will be observed that sometimes the sounds are quick; sometimes slow. Show this on some musical instrument, on some common 32& A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. object, or by the voice. If the sounds follow each other in an orderly succession the effect is called time. To Teach Accent. — Teach by talking and singing. 1. Talking. — The value of accent can easily be made apparent by ordinary speech. Repeat some verbal phrase in a monotone Then repeat the same phrase in ordinary conversational style. The difference will be obvious to the children. That difference is made by accent. Illustrate further by single words. The accented syllable should be slightly exaggerated. Verbal illus- trations should be given and asked for, and from these it will be noticed that in every word there is at least 07ie strong accent ; e.g. . — beau'-ti-ful equals strong, weak, medium. di-ges'-tion , , weak, strong, weak. good'-ness ,, strong, weak. 2. Singing. — Now sing a simple phrase in a monotone, making the notes of equal length and strength. Then repeat the phrase again with its proper accents. The difference will again be obvious, and it is again caused by accent. Now ask the class to say what accent is. They will tell you that some words are louder than others, or that one is more abrupt than the other. Illustra- tions should then be given from the tonic sol-fah or old notation — whichever may be taught in the school. The Time Chart. — The teacher is not advised to introduce the chart en masse to the pupils. He will find it better td print that portion which he wishes to use upon the B.B. The whole chart is distracting to the attention of the ordinary scholar, and apt to intimidate the dull and weak. The lessons should be in- troduced as required, and little passages written on the B.B. to illustrate them. The lessons should fall at least into six classes, some of which will be introduced to the higher divisions only. The classes should be arranged as follows : — Class I. Wholes and halves. „ 2. Quarters. „ 3. Thirds. Flan of a I«esson on Time. 1. Commence with two-pulse measures. The class will listen to the teacher, who will taa a simple passage. 2. The class then imitates, the teacher beating time. 3. The class should then be divided into two divisions, and each division should taa alternate measures, still keeping the swing of the time. 4. The exercise should then be practised at varying rates of time. 5. The accent should be marked in each measure. 6. The exercise should then be laa-ed. This exercise is not important in simple measures, but it is more important when there is a variety of time names introduced. 7. Continuation lines and half-pulses might then be introduced, and exercises given upon them. 8. The quarter-pulse should not be introduced for some time, in fact not until the children reach a higher music class in large schools. 9. The other measures should be gradually introduced, but no harder time divisions than quarter-pulses should at present be included. 10. Harder time divisions (thirds, etc.) should be relegated to later lessons and more advanced classes. Class 4. Sixths. „ 5. Eighths. ,, 6. Ninths. MUSIC. 327 Things to Remember in Teaching Time. 1. With the help of the time chart, time should be studied separately from tune — at first. 2. The teacher has to set up an association between syllable and rhythm. 3. The teacher should pattern and point on the time chart. 4. The pupils should imitate. 5. Then pupils and teacher should taa-tai alternately^ measure for measure at first, and lon^^er passages afterwards. This gives " swing". 6. The rate should be varied. 7. The class should sing 7vithout the teacher pointing. 8. Exercises should then be written on the B. B., or sung from books. 9. Finally, the passages should be laa-ed. Rhythm. — To teach this suitable examples should be given, in which the rhythm may be made obvious. Each time e.\ercise should be taa-tai-ed on various tune forms. The method suggested is : — 1. The teacher prepares some suitable time exercises, and sol-fahs or sings one of them. 2. The teacher now points the same exercise on the modulator, but taa-tais. 3. The pupils imitate. The object is to show the sameness of the rhythm and the difference in the tune. The time names show the sameness of the rhythm, and the modulator the difference in the time. 4. The pupils should then sing the same exercises from their books, or charts, or from the B. B. SONGS. A. Choice of School Songs. — School songs should be chosen with some care, and with proper consideration for the nature of the music and the words. I. Suitable Songs. — These will embrace : — 1. Those which express natural sentiments. 2. Those which express the hopes of industry. 3. Songs dealing with the comfort and contentment of household life. 4. Patriotic songs— such as preserve the traditions of the country's triumphs, and inspire the pupils with confidence in its greatness and strength. These will include some war songs, and the national songs ; but the teacher must guard against anything like the glorification of war. 5. Songs embodying the national legends. 6. Songs dealing with chivalry, braverv, and loyalty. 7. Humorous songs. The humour should be wholesome and intelligible. These songs are very popular with the children. 8. Songs dealing with our national games. 9. Simple descriptive songs, like those dealing with the seasons. XL QuAliiies of a Oood School Song. 1. The iinging vcwisx be sweet and in tunc. 3. The compass of the song should be suitable. 3. The vnrds should be such as the children can understand. 4. The articulation must be clear, and the enunciation easily intelligible. 5. The time must be exact. 6. There must be suitable expression. 7. The Quality of the tone should be pleasing. 8. The breath must be properly managed. 9. Thcpoiition of the singet must lie healthy and suitable. 10. The phrasing must be good 328 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. B. How to Teach a School Song. I. For Voung Classes. 1. The words must first be learnt. One verse will be sufficient to begin with. 2. The tune or melody should then be learnt by imitation, phrase by phrase. An instrument should be used for this purpose where one is available. Otherwise, the teacher must vocalise the song. 3. The rest of the words should then be taught. 4. Plenty of practice, pattern work, and correction should follow. H. For Higher Classes. 1. Preparation.— Dictate the melody, or write it on the B.B., or distribute books containing it. Neither is yet to be used. 2. Modulator.— Point the melody on the modulator. The class should sol-fah it, and afterwards laa it. 3. Time. — The class should then time the melody to the time names from the B. B. or otherwise, and then laa it in proper time. 4. Melody. — They should next sing the melody from their books or from the B. B. as the case may be. The melody should be thus repeated until it is known from memory. 8. Memory. — Then let the class point the tune from memory, on a modulator written on their slates. 6. Ear. — Give ear tests from and based upon the melody. 7. Words. — Have the words dictated, learnt, and explained where necessary. 8. Song. — The melody should then be sung to the words, the teacher striv- ing to obtain the qualities enumerated above. Fart Singning. — This need not be confined to any one division. 1. Its Advantages. (a) It awakens a strong interest in singing. \b) It introduces variety. \c) It cultivates the sense of musical harmony, and so increases the feeling of pleasure derived from vocal music. {d) It cultivates the taste for a pure and cheap form of amusement. ((f) It is an important aid to ear and voice training. 2. Its Teaching. (accs for forty-eight stamps, folded to a convenient size, and printed on much stouter paper, not requiring the protection of an envelope. The name of the schfK»l. with a space for the name of the scholar, will be printed on the forms. S.Ii.—Tht UM of the form with spaces for forty-eight stamps will be of advantage to the Post Office, inasmuch as h will tend to lessen the unavoidable expense of dealing with frequent deposits of amounts under four shiiltnfts. If required, a credit strnrk of stamps can l)c obtained by furnishing a letter of indemnity signed by two householders. A form for the purpose is provided by the Savings Bank Department. On the day appointed for the receipt of the pence saved, the manager or teacher will exchange them for stamps, and soe the stamps affixed to the forms, which the children will take home as e\idence to the parents of the money 348 APPENDIX. having been paid in, the forms being then either kept by the parents or returned to the school until the next depositing day. When the school is within a reasonable distance of a Post Office, and the number of depositors and the amount to be deposited are sufficient to justify the cost, a Post Office clerk will attend at the school at certain intervals, say monthly or quarterly, according to arrangement, to receive the completed stamp forms as deposits in the Post Office Savings Bank. Where the school is situated in a remote district, or in cases where the transactions are not numerous, the following arrangements have been made to assist the managers and teachers in bringing the deposits to account, viz. : — (i) In order to open an account in the name of a child over seven years of age in the Post Office Savings Bank, a form of declaration (S.B., No. 8) should be filled up and signed by such child, the signature being attested in accordance with the instructions printed on the back of the form. The declaration should be presented at a Post Office Savings Bank with the completed stamp forms by some one connected with the school, and a deposit book would then be issued in the child's name and handed to the applicant. When the child is under seven years of age. a form of declaration (S.B., No. 8 b) should be filled up and signed on behalf of the child, and presented at the Post Office in like manner. A supply of declaration forms can be obtained at any Post Office Savings Bank. (2) If it is inconvenient for any one connected with the school to attend periodic- ally at a Post Office in order to open accounts for the children, arrangements will be made for the manager or teacher to send the completed stamp deposit forms, together with the declarations, in a registered letter envelope to the Post Office. Special envelopes will be provided by the Department for the purpose, and the postage and registration fee will not be charged. The deposit books, when issued, will be forwarded by post to the manager or teacher. The completed stamp deposit forms could be -deposited in accounts already opened by forwarding the deposit books with the stamp deposit forms. CLASS TEACHING. Chief Defects in Teaching. — Mr. Sharp, H.M. Senior Inspector, has stated that the chief excellence of modern teaching is the careful and intelligent direction of the steps of reasoning, and that the chief defects are a want of force and local colour. He defined local colour to tiican especially illustrations from the daily life and surroundings of the scholars, whatever the subject might be — whether literature, science, or words. He then goes on to say that years ago, except a few individuals who had been fortunate enough to fall in with an enlightened teacher, children had, to a great extent, been brought up on stereotyped methods from which the essence of the spirit of the first wise teacher who had ori- ginated them under entirely different circumstances had long departed. Students of the History of Education could often trace the gradual fading away of colour and force in some of the methods of bygone days which might have been arrested by the consideration that all such methods needed to be varied in their application to modern times. This was rapidly going on now. The spirit was often absent and the mere husk left. Years ago, people were brought up in the belief that the committing to memory unintelligible rules of Syntax and long lists of vocables was the correct way of approaching the Divine gift of language. Probably at the time of the revival of learning, when grammars and dictionaries were scarce, no better way could be devised than this cheap method of supplying the raw material of language. But, no doubt, in those early APPENDIX. 349 days the rules were copiously illustrated by the living voice of the wise enthusiast who revived the dead languages in Europe with abundance of force and local colour, and in Scotch schools many a joke was cracked in good Latin. Unfortunately this method of teaching had been continued after the need for it had ceased — the spirit had departed, and with it went all the force and colour that came from the natural living illustrations. Arithmetic was degraded in the same way to a mere bundle of rules, which had lost all connection with the principles of the science, and which had for their chief end the teaching of small commercial trans- actions. Commercial arithmetic was an excellent subject and was now as much in danger of being depreciated as it was before of being over-exalted. Commercial arithmetic should be a leading subject for boys and girls of thirteen or fourteen years of age, but not before they had been so well grounded in the rules of arithmetic as to enable them to discover new rules and to invest them with local interest and colour gathered from experience. He had endeavoured in three girls' schools to ascertain whether they had a clear idea, gathered from the ordinary transactions of life within their reach, of the meaning of the terms above par, below par, and similar phrases which they glibly used in calculations of small investments. In one of these schools the teacher, the girls, and himself agreed to set up a small business, form themselves into a meeting, and take shares. The children then began to take an interest in the success of the undertaking, and thus a real meaning was given to the mysterious terms above par and below par. Again, on one occasion he had found a class reciting that charming piece of Longfellow, The Children's Hour, repeating it correctly and with a good knowledge of the vocabulary, but with scarcely any interest. But when permitted to dramatise the piece, to act the parts of the three girls named in the poem, their interest was fully aroused. Yet again, in a class of older girls he had heard a graphic lesson on the most famous buildings in Edinburgh, but it required the interest of human life. The teacher, at his request, had given a short history of the growth of Edinburgh. She had showed the early savage tribes clustering for shelter with their cattle on the Castle Rock, the citizens' wall, and the means of defence in the fortified town ; the peaceful men of later date overflowing the narrow boundaries, and then the buildings fell into their natural order, each the result of the wants of the different ages, and thus the touch of human interest was given. Hence, one great feature in the study of methods of teaching should be the kindling of the spirit of human life and thought, to give a living interest to the teacher's words and a force and colour to the lesson. Self-Help or Self-Aotivity. — This is another of those points which have been suggested by H.M. Chief Inspector as fitting subjects for dis- cussion between inspectors and teachers. An important problem for teachers to solve is how far a particular lesson might have contributed to a habit of self-help or self-activity. Did the teacher help the scholars in points which he might have found out for himself and thus have weakened his power of acquiring knowledge ? It should be one of the chief objects to see that they did not help the scholars too much. It must strike every one when they considered how very small a proportion of the wcll- taught boys and girls who left the schools had acquired the habit of self- help and a desire to increase their knowledge through a continuation class or a higher polytechnic. This question was mixed up in most schools with that of the proper 23 350 APPENDIX. treatment of an upper class in which, perhaps, three standards, as they used to be called, were taught together. What was the best way to teach a class of Standards VI. and VII. combined .^ It could hardly be expected that a scholar in the Seventh Standard should continue at school to be obliged to listen to the same elaboration of the terms of simple gram- matical analysis to which he had been accustomed two years before. This itigrained system of keeping the children in leading strings ran throughout the whole national system, from the infant who had to dance or play to order and the boy and girl who must have the whole, or nearly the whole, of his mental food chewed and digested for him, to the pupil teacher who sat down at half-past six every evening and rose at ten or half-past, having only just completed his daily task like the mill horse which tramped his monotonous round, and the student of the training college who might lose the Saturday half-holiday if the full tale of bricks had not been delivered. It amounted to a positive gain to a small class of the Seventh Stan- dard scholars if, instead of being dragged into all the lessons of the Sixth Standard, they were allowed to study by themselves, and ask for help only when they needed it. Surely, therefore, it was an excellent subject for consideration how the habit of self-activity or self-help might be created, without which any real acquisition of knowledge became well-nigh impossible. A tail of backward scholars might always be expected to every class, but whereas it used to be a tail of uniform size, a tail of despair in more senses than one, it was now a natural tail gradually tapering off according to natural ability. In the periodical examination the class should not be judged by the tail ; in assessing the work of a class, a group of papers should be taken from the upper part of the class and another group from the middle, but none from the lowest, and for two reasons, (i) they were no real criterion of the teaching ; (2) each of these papers should be care- fully considered with a view to ascertaining the individual character, for the causes of failure would be found to be different in nearly every one of the lowest members of the class. Probably one of the best means at the teacher's disposal, with the older scholars at least, is the giving of home lessons, but as their value is a disputed point it will be just as well not to rely on them solely (see Classification, page 43). Silent Reading, independent working in Arithmetic from books or cards, the use of text books or class reading books for the purpose of individual pre- paration or revision, original composition, and other school subjects may all be utilised. But the greatest aid will be to import that " kindling of the spirit of human life and thought, to give a living interest to the teacher's words, and a force and colour to the lesson". The habit of work has to be formed, and to do this successfully the teacher must understand both the nature and training of habit (see page 34). The child's activities must be constantly utilised and glided, and a fair share of work should always be thrown upon him. The school curriculum now admits of plenty of opportunity for forming pleasant associations with work, and it must be the teacher's aim to see that this asso- ciation is so strong that there will be no desire to break it when school days are over. • APPENDIX. 351 OBJECT LESSONS. THE METHOD OF WKITIN'O THEM. Object Lessons may be written in a variety of forms, and indeed such variety will always be desirable, as it would be neither wise nor profitable to treat every object in the same stereotyped way. Generally, the Matter and Method Form prevails, as both practice and facility favour it. But students and teachers are advised to adopt the Training- or Logical Form where the nature of the subject matter will permit it. The following advantages are claimed for it : — 1. It enables the teacher to show more clearly the logical arrangement which ought to characterise these lessons. 2. It enables him to give more prominence to the training aimed at, and to strongly mark the inductiye nature of the lesson. 3. More prominence can be given to those experiments and that correct use of observation on which the value of these lessons depends. 4. It draws attention to the " results" of these experiments and observa- tions, and registers them in the language of the children themselves. 5. It shows the teacher's method of ensuring the active 00-operation of the class and of arousing interest. 6. It reveals " the association of one lesson with another through some one leading idea or ideas"; e.g., Drawing, Composition, Kindergarten, Suitable occupations are all utilised and associated. In most lessons the notes will be written in three parallel columns, the nature of which will be obvious from the study of the subjoined specimen lesson. The method lends itself readily to lessons on Common Objects, to some lessons, with a little modification, on Animals, but to fewer lessons on Plants. Such Physical Geography Lessons as those on Clouds, Rain, Dew, a River, etc., also do not adapt themselves easily to it. Speaking generally, the form is best suited to Experi- mental Lessons, where Experiment is the chief teaching aid employed, and where, as a consequence, Cause and Effect can be easily shown. Now in lessons on Animals, although plenty of scope is afforded for Observation, and some scope for Experiment, there is but little oppor- tunity of illustrating Cause and Effect, hence a slight modification is required. The first column is headed Observation and Experiment ; the second, as a rule. Results ; the third, Inferences. The modification required here is the substitution of Remarks for Results, not only for the reason just mentioned, but also because every lesson on an Animal involves the imparting of some information (which should be tersely placed in the Remarks column) to help out the Observations made, and to lead to the Inferences desired. The chief mental profit to be got out of a lesson on a Plant is the cultivation of the power of observation ; the chief moral eain is the implanting of a love of nature. Here again, Experiment, and Cause and Effect are not the chief aids employed, because they are often not avail- able. But what is lost in Experiment is probably gained in increased Observation, in the outdoor preparatory work required for some of these lessons, and in their good emotional value. The full form may some- times be used, as in a lesson on How Plants Grow, or on How Seeds Grow ; sometimes the middle column is advantageously omitted, as in a lesson on Plants as Growing Things, or on Vegetation and Cultivation ; sometimes the form is inapplicable, as in a lesson on the Veins of Leaves. The Inferences should always be written in larger type than the rest of the lesson, or they should be underlined, or distmguished in some way 352 APPENDIX. to indicate their importance. For each step in the lesson each inference respectively constitutes the goal which the class is trying to reach under the guidance of the teacher. A specimen lesson (taken from Garlick and Dexter's Object Lessons) is now given : — IRON. Thingfs Required. — Nails, hammer, poker ; pieces of iron and wood of equal size; water; iron rod and piece of glass tubing about same diameter ; heavy weights ; iron and lead tubing of about same diameter ; fire, sheet iron, iron wire, piece of rusty iron, lead, iron spoon, magnet, penny, shilling, iron filings, sand. Observations and Experiments. Results. Inferences. I. (a) Let child hold piece of iron and wood of same size. (b) Drop each into water. Iron harder to hold up than wood. Iron sinks ; wood floats. Iron is heavy. 2. (a) Let child scratch wood with iron nail. (b) Drive nail into piece of wood ; pull nail out and examine. Wood easily scratch- ed. Nail not altered, but hole has been made in wood. Iron is hard. 3. Rest iron and glass rods on two supports ; hang heavy weights on parts of rod between the two supports. Glass rod breaks ; iron rod does not break. Iron is strong. 4. (a) Get child to try to bend iron and lead tubing. (b) Put poker in fire till end is red hot ; press hot poker sideways on hearth. Lead tubing bends; iron tubing does not bend. Poker easily bent. Iron does not bend when cold but bends when hot. 5. (a) Get child to strike piece of iron wire with hammer. (b) Make wire red hot ; strike it with hammer. (c) Show specimens of sheet iron and iron wire. No effect is produced on iron. The iron wire is flattened. Iron can be ham- mered out when hot, but not when cold. It can also be made into. wire. 6. Melt lead in iron spoon. Lead melts; spoon does not. Iron does not melt easily. 7. Show piece of iron that has been exposed to air for a long time. Iron is covered with brown scales. Air rusts iron. 8. (a) Try to pick up nail, penny, shilling, lead, etc., with a magnet. (6) Separate iron filings from sand by means of a magnet. Magnet only picks up the iron. Iron is the only common thing a magnet will pick up. Oral Composition to follow. APPENDIX. 353 B.B. Sketch: — Iron Is Heavy, hard, strong. Can be bent and hammered out into sheets. Can be drawn out into wire. Does not melt easily. Rusts in air. Is picked up by magnet. KINDERGARTEN. INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS.— The Department is desirous of giving further encouragement to the employment of Kindergarten methods. The circumstances of infant schools have altered considerably in the last few years ; the numbers in the lower classes having increased, a full four years' attendance at the infant school will be the rule and not the exception. The improvement also shown in passing the Standards at an earlier age than formerly gives to infant schools greater liberty and leisure in developing natural methods of education. As regards the Elementary Subjects, the conditions of the Code are fully satisfied if the scholars over seven can pass, as a rule, in the First Standard ; nothing more should be attempted in these subjects in the infant schools, except in the few cases in which scholars are allowed to be retained for the work of the Second Standard. The scholars in the lower classes of infant schools may, therefore, be relieved from any premature preparation for those subjects on methods ill-suited to their tender age. Two leading principles should be regarded as a sound basis for the education of early childhood : — 1. The recognition of the child's ipontaneous activity, and the stimulation of this activity in certain well-defined directions by the teachers. 2. The harmonious and complete development of the whole of a child's faculties. The teacher should pay especial regard to the love of movement, which can alone secure healthy physical conditions ; to the observant use of the organs of sense, especially those of sight and touch ; and to that eager desire of questioning which intelligent children exhibit. All these should be encouraged under due limita- tions, and should be developed simultaneously, so that each stage of development may be complete in itself. It has been strongly urged that sufficient attention has not been paid in the past to these principles ; indeed, it is so often found that the A'lii- dergarten Occupations are treated as mere toys or amusing pastimes, because they are attractive for children, and the intellectual character of the •' Gifts of Froebel " is disregarded, whereas the main object of these lessons is to stimulate intelligent individual effort. The attention of teachers should be directed to the chief consideration which underlies true methods of infant teaching, vis., the association of one lesson with another through some one leading idea or ideas. The reading lessons, occupations, and object lessons may all be usefully combined for one purpose ; e.g., if the teacher wishes to impress on her class some knowledge of a domestic animal, she may usefully combine the object lesson /or general study of its structure ; the reading lesson /or a know- ledge of its habits and character ; some occupation, such as pricking the 354 APPENDIX. outline, to impress an exact knowledge of its form ; a song or simple story hearing on its association with human life ; so that familiarity with ani- mals, especially with domestic animals, and a kind treatment of them may be fostered. On the other hand, teachers should guard against the mere repetition of the same exercises and lessons; the progressive character of the whole scheme of instruction should be constantly kept in view ; and each exercise should lead up to something beyond itself. Pictures acad. flowers have been wisely introduced of late in greater abund- ance into infant schools and have added much to their cheerfulness and attractiveness. Thev should be frequently taken down into the class and made the subject of conversation. It is not enough that the children should be taught to observe these things and to answer questions upon them. They should be encouraged in every way to give expression in their own words to what they know, what they want to know, and what they think. It will be found that the Elementary Subjects when taught on right methods can be treated with greater variety ; reading becomes a Kindergarten lesson through pictures and word building; writing becomes a variety of Kindergarten drawing ; elementary exercises in number are associated with many of the Kindergarten occupations. It is the experience of many good teachers that by the adoption of such methods it is found to be unnecessary before the sixth year is passed to employ books for Reading, except occasionally for a change of occupation, or perform any exercise in Writing except the elements of letters, or to do any formal Arithmetic work on slates. It may reasonably be hoped that the observance of these suggestions will materially improve the work of the younger children in infant schools and classes by relieving the teacher from that useless subdivision in the elementary subjects which has been hitherto generally employed, and by rendering the instruction less formal, but more varied and attractive. — {Circular 322.) SXTITAHLE OCCUPATIONS. Kindergarten occupations have for some time been used in our infant schools, and manual instruction has also been given to the elder boys in many schools for older children, while the elder girls have similarly been taught cookery and laundry work ; but the scholars in the first, second, and third standards have, as a rule, had hitherto no manual training, except in so far as it has been supplied in the forms of needle-work and drawing. Manual instruction is a valuable part of school training, and my Lords desire to encourage managers of public elementary schools to introduce, where circumstances permit, a suitable course of manual occupations for the three lowest standards. Kindergarten occupations as used in the infant school are not suit- able for the children in schools for older scholars. The mat-weaving, stick-laying, embroidery, tablet-laying, and building with bricks or cubes, which serve to give young children ideas of form and number, as well as to train hand and eye, seem trivial to the ordinary child of nine or ten years of age. On the other hand, few of the common workman's tools can with safety be put into the hands of ordinary children under the age of eleven. An Occupation ought to satisfy several conditions, APPENDIX. 355 (a) It must be educative, and should especially stimulate independent effort and inventiveness. Any work that provides a real training for hand and eye is in a true sense educative, but the most valuable work of all li that which imports a knowledge of form, colour, and the properties of materials, at the same time that it fosters manual dexterity. {b) It should admit of being dealt with in a progressive course. \c) It must be attractive to the children, and afford a welcome relief to other studies. (d) It must not involve the use of needlessly expensive materials. {e) It must be capable of being practised in an ordinary schoolroom , 7vith- out risk of harm to children or damage to furniture. (/) It must, in cases where the classes are as large as the Code permits, be so simple that it does not require an undue amount of individual attention. Large classes should, where possible, be subdivided for these occupations. (g) It should avoid a long series of preparatory exercises apart from finished results, and the finished article should be one that is attractive to a child. At the same time the construction of articles for sale is undesirable. The manual occupations satisfying these conditions which have been most commonly adopted as specially suitable for the First, Second, and Third Standards are: — 1. Modelling in clay. 2. Mofleliing in cartridge or cardboard paper. 3. Cutting out in paper or other material. 4. Drawing and colouring designs (some original), 5. Brush drawing from the object and from recent iinpressions. Other equally useful occupations may, no doubt, be devised, and any occupation that is proposed, if it is likely to prove satisfactory, will be readily accepted by the Department. It appears that the various manual occupations which have hitherto been introduced for the lower standards because of their suitability resolve themselves into exercises in the studies of (i) form, (2) colour, (3) mea- surement, which should be, where possible, connected with other subjects of instruction. For acquiring a knowledge of form the most effective occupation is Clay Modelling. It demands accurate observation of the object which is chosen as a model, and the accuracy of the observation will largely depend upon previous instruction as to the build or growth of the object in its natural state. Sometimes a lesson on Modelling has followed one on Natural History or Science ; sometimes the children, after an Object lesson upon the formation of a fruit or the germination of a seed, have modelled the object, thus at once testing the correctness of their impres- sion and driving it home. Clay Modelling has been used to illustrate the Geography lessons ; for example, the children construct a model of the river basin in which they live ; and, again, illustration has been found for the History lesson in constructing a model of some neighbouring encamp- ment, whether square or circular, Roman or British. As a knowledge of form depends ubon a close observation of light and shade, a lesson in modelling greatly furthers instruction in drawing. Clay Modelling, how- ever, lacks the charm of colour. Colour may be studied in the following ways : When care is taken to provide a variety of tasteful shades of coloured paper, it is possible to combine the drawing, cutting out, and mounting of a number of good 356 APPENDIX. designs, many of which may be, in respect both of pattern and arrange- ment of colour, the original work of the children themselves. The draw- ing may be done partly by aid of rulers and templates, and partly free- hand. The use of templates makes it possible to stamp on the mind certain beautiful curves at an earlier age than children can draw them freehand. This kind of exercise has been very fully developed by some of the officers under the London School Board. The advantages of it are that it promotes accuracy and good taste in colour and design, and also a sense of harmony and proportion. The defect of it is that the manipula- tion is somewhat monotonous ^ and that it does not lead to mtich increase of knowledge of varied objects. Brushwork demands a clear perception of form and some know- ledge of natural objects and cultivates delicacy of touch, hut it does not train the sttident to great accuracy or cidtivate the sense of colour. Children, however, can express their impression of a flower, as for instance a bluebell and its leaves, much more easily by the brush only than by the pencil, and if their observation has been very inexact, the error becomes obvious when they try to draw their impression. As an exercise in accurate measurement, Cartridge Paper or Card- board Modelling leaves little to be desired. This work is an excellent training in exact measurement and in cutting true to measure, and it fur- nishes an elementary notion of construction. The manipulation, however, in this exercise also is somewhat monotonous. This kind of work lends itself readily to the illustration of instruction in simple geometry. The beginner may learn to cut out in cardboard (or more readily still in stout drawing-paper) simple plane geometrical figures, and after a time he may proceed to simple geometrical solids. The cube, the cone, the cylinder, the wedge, the prism and the pyramid can all be drawn, cut out, and put together without much difficulty. The manufacture of various useful articles, such as blotting-books, frames, trays, and the like, can be com- bined with the formation of geometrical figures. As no one of the branches of manual occupation is complete when taken by itself, the most satisfactory results will follow where it is found possible to make them supplement each other. Lastly, very great care is necessary in leading the pupils to acquire correct method in handling brushes, tools, and all the imple- ments required. Another point which demands attention is that of the general posture of children during their lessons. Where much stooping is necessary, the work should be occasionally interrupted and a short extension drill given. Unhealthy and cramped postures should be avoided. Whilst fairly accurate work should be aimed at, beware of expecting very fine work requiring minute finish, or any work which is likely to strain the eyesight of young children. — [Departmottal Circular.) INFANT SCHOOIi GAMES.— See pages 79 and 80, Play and Dance. 1. Physical Advantages. — -Children seem to live for play. They delight in bodily activity, and their active instincts find constant outlet in movement. Their happy, unregulated play, although zvithout definite aim, is an important element in their development. Their young and ever- growing bodies find further growth and development through their games. The muscles are developed and improved, the circulation is quickened, effete matter is carried off, health is improved, and every organ of the body is rapidly nourished. In the training of children, whether physically or otherwise, the best principle to go on is natural growth, and this is APPENDIX. 357 only learnt by careful observation and study of children. Children are too young to share the gymnastic training of their elders, but organ- ised and regulated games offer an efficient substitute, and are better calculated to make their young bodies and limbs supple and active. By their aid an immense amount of hand and eve training is imparted through the pleasurable medium of play. The love of power and the pride of success are fostered by their consciousness of skill. The games, rightly treated, are an expansion of the educative effects of the occupations, for the same notions are given and the same associations are formed, although in a different form. The same educational method runs through all alike. 2. Mental Advantages. — The forms of play are innumerable, but to the observant teacher something is to be learnt from all. Nothing gives such a true revelation of child character as child play, and no branch of child life affords better opportunities to the teacher for profitable work. Children dearly love to be noticed by older people and to share their games with them, if only they are assured of their sympathy. Then comes the teacher's opportunity. Organised games must have rules, and these rules can be laid down and enforced on a pleasant basis. Custom, age, position, strength, and higher authority all assist. The child shares in a well-ordered game, and so gradually is brought under the influence of new ideas and feelings. In this way he receives his first " social " ideas. He learns to subordinate himself to the common needs and the common good. He receives a pleasant object lesson which helps him unconsciously to grasp the fact that he is only a unit of the whole body. He learns to combine willingly and regularly with others, and this is all done in a practical way. The child could not learn the same truths verbally, for they would be beyond his comprehen- sion, and so, in an easy and acceptable way, knowledge is given, and an invaluable association is set up. " The associations that are to govern life must have small beginnings if we would root them early, and they must be rooted early if we would root them deep." It is easier to bend the pliant twig than the stubborn stem. The little child has only to learn ; the neglected child has much to unlearn. ZMFAMT SCHOOZi SOMOS.— See pages 80 and 316. Whilst the ordinary school song, among other things, is useful as a recreative and restful change between other lessons, the infant school song, with its Kindergarten attributes, is something more. The child's love of activity and mimicry is fully and wisely indulged. The wordi of the song draw attention to scenery, to objects well known to him, to natural phenomena, to common animals, to human labour, and to various kinds of people. His interest in life is thus widened, his sympathies cultivated, and his taste is improved. Pleasant associations are thus formed between work, order, government, and pleasure, which are to bear more or less desirable fruit in the future. Many songs of this kind are now published — action songs — and probably every infant school teacher is more or less familiar with some of them. Selection of 8on|^ and Oames.— No attempt is made at selec- tion in either case here. The field of choice is so wide that there can be no difficulty in the matter. Every school will have its own selection made, and the pupil teacher will be able to see that selection put into practical use. But the following suggestions are thrown out as being useful, probably, for examination purposes. (a) Action Songs.— A list of about half a dozen should be mide. 358 APPENDIX. learned, and taught to the children by the young teacher if possible. If not, the teaching and rendering of them should be carefully watched and noted, the actions studied, and the general characteristics remembered. The list, with the actions intelligently written out, should then be entered in a note book for future use. (b) Indoor G-ames for Infants. — Game and song are most often combined. If there is any distinction worth making in such cases, it is that in the songs the singing is the dominant factor, while in the games play is supreme. The student is advised to pursue the same course as with the action songs. Such "Movement Plays" as may be found in several well-known books will be very suitable, and about half a dozen should be prepared in the same careful way as the songs. (c) Playground Games for Infants.— In suitable weather many of the " Movement Plays " lend themselves admirably to out-door work, and a further list, more specially suitable for this purpose, should be prepared as in the previous cases. In addition, any local or popular game should not be despised. Any form of play which lends itself to organisation and is liked by the children should be utilised. What these games may be each district will best decide for itself, but here again a careful description of a few should be written out and preserved with a view to examination necessities. {d) Playground Games for older Scholars. — These might in- clude Drill (see page 5), and some oi om popular games (see page 6, The Teacher^s Work). Both cricket and Association /oo^ftaZ/ could be played with a small, soft ball. Shuttlecock and battledore, skipping, and even hop- scotch (in asphalted playgrounds) could be played by the girls, while such old games as French tag, the tnnlberry bjish, and oranges and lemons would bring variety. The tug-of-war needs little outlay, is a good game for boys, and is even played in some girls' and infant schools. Tennis requires capital and can only be played by a few of the elder ones at a time, while few playgrounds attached to elementary schools are fitted for such public school games as fives or rackets — the more's the pity. Leap- frog is popular with some boys, but physical weaklings should be ex- cluded. Jumping is not often possible in the playgrounds of town schools, but may be practised where the surface of the playground safely admits of it. Foot racing is possible in many playgrounds, and the teacher might encourage it among the "sound" boys by carefully framing handicaps, and occasionally offering a small prize of some sort. Many other games will readily suggest themselves, but whatever they may be, before adopt- ing them, the teacher should see that they are not only pleasurable, but beneficial and educative. For these reasons, any game involving the element of gambling, cruelty, or destructiveness should be avoided. Teaching. — See page 328, How to Teach a School Song for Young Classes. In addition to what is said there, it must be noted that the actions will be learned hy pattern work, action by action, on the part of the teacher, and by imitation on the part of the children. Too much should not be attempted in one lesson, but the quantity must always depend upon such factors as the amount of time available, the ability and energy of the teacher, the nature of the song, and the grade of the class. In teaching a new game, there should first be a simple description with practical illustrations so far as these may be given by the teacher himself. A few of the most apt children should then be instructed, guided, and prac- tised in the game in the presence of the rest of the class, who will be directed to watch attentively. When these children are efficient, the teacher APPENDIX. 359 then has so many assistants to distribute at different points, and another batch of children should be introduced, but no more than are fairly manage- able by the teacher and his young staff. The idea is to ayoid confusion or failure. The game must be presented in its best light to win the ap- proval of the children, and no association of muddle or silliness must cling to it. Children are keen but hasty critics of games. Unless the game goes smartly and well, they will give an unfavourable judgment at once, which the teacher may find a difficulty in removing. When the number of children knowing the game is sufficient to provide all necessary assist- ance, then the whole class, and in a similar way, finally the whole school, may come under active instruction and participation. ARITHMETIC. NOTATION. Young children can be made to understand our system of Notation so far as its base and composition are concerned. They can be taught the meaning of ** Local Value " as distinct from •' Intrinsic" or ** Absolute Value". They can learn that the base of our system is lo, and they can be shown how that base works into the composition of numbers. They may even easily comprehend Index Notation and the number of figures required to express our decimal or denary system. But when it comes to bases greater or smaller than lo, and to the demonstration of the advan- tages of the ten-base over any other, it will be better to postpone the necessary explanation to a later Standard. These things are the better understood when Scales of Notation are known, and although the actual working of the few simple examples required for the purpose in hand is probably within the grasp of the average young scholar, still the reason for that method of working would be better appreciated by a more mature mind. 1. Iiocal Value. — First get the children to understand what is meant by this term, and proceed as follows : — Write down any number — 22302— on the B.B. Class to note that the figure 2 appears 3 times. Beginning from the right — The meaning of the Ji/st 2 is 2 unt/s ; ,, ,, fourth 2 is 2 thousands ; fifth 2 is 2 ten thousands. The class then infers that, in consequence of a change of position, a figure may have a change of value, /.« ., the place or locality of a figure fixes its value, and this is called its Local Value. 2. Zntrinsio or Absolute Value.— But the figure 2 always repre- sents 2 somethings, whatever its position may be, and it never represents anything else but i somethings, i.e., from this point of view its value is a quality of itself, and is tmchangeable. This is called its Intrinsic or Absolute Value. 3. Index Notation.— With the aid of the B.B. get class to note :— 10 = 10 X I = 10*. 100 = lo X 10 = lo*. 1000 = 10 X 10 X 10 — lo*. loooo = 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 a lO*, and so on. From an examination of these and other cases, if necessary, the class 36o APPENDIX. should be able to tell the teacher that the little figure in each case points out how many times lo is multiplied by itself to produce either of the given numbers. The name of the little figure can then be given them, and the suitability of its name for the work it does can be illustrated by a reference to the pointing or index finger, and to the place and functions of the index of a book. The class will now be in a position to comprehend the Index Nota- tion of any given number, and to see how that number is built up, e.g. : — 22302 = 20000 + 2000 + 300 + 2. — 2 X loooo + 2 X 1000 + 3 X 100 + 2. r= 2 X lo"^ + 2 X lo^ + 3 X lo^ + 2. The number 10 which is seen to be a factor of every product or num- ber except the first (2) is called the base or radix or root of the Scale of Notation. 4. Number of Figures Required. — Get the class to note that we only have the following figures: — I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; i.e., for a system of notation whose base is 10 we require 9 different figures, or, counting the cypher (o), we require 10 symbols. But any other figure might have been chosen as a base, as 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, etc., and then the scale would not have been Decimal or Denary, but For 2 it would be called Binary ; . . 3 . . , , Ternary ; , , 4 , , , , Quaternary ; and so on. Suppose the base to be 7 instead of 10. Then only 6 figures and a cypher will be required, which fact should be stated by the class and not by the teacher. The system of Notation will be the same until we reach 7, when it differs. In this scale 7 would be represented by the figures 10, A comparison may help the class to understand this : — Scale of 10. Scale of 7. 1 would still be i 2 „ 2 6 „ 6 but 7 would now be represented as 10, i.e., one 7 + 0. 8 ,, „ II „ one 7 + 1. 9 „ „ 12 „ one 7 + 2. 14 ,, ,, 20 ,, two 7's + o. It will thus be seen that no more than the 6 figures and the cypher are required. Similarly : — A scale of 2 would require i figure only ; ..3 ,. 2 M 4 ,. 3 ., ..20 ,, 19 ,, i.e. , the number of figures required for the notation of any scale is always i less than the number indicated by the base, or, counting the cypher as a figure, the number is always the same as that represented by the base. 5. Bases greater than lO. — If a base greater than 10 were chosen, then obviously new figures would be required. Suppose the base was 15. The figures would be the same as in the Decimal Scale as far as g, but new symbols would be wanted for 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. Let these symbols be respectively a, b, c, d, e, then the notation would be thus shown : — APPENDIX. 361 Scale of 10 I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 Scale ofi5!i23456789 a b c d e xo And 15 in the scale of 10 would become 10 in the scale of 15 ; 16 ,, ,, ,, II ,, 17 .. II 11 12 ,, ,, 25 .. 11 ,. la ., 26 ,, ,, ,. i^ ,, ,, 29 ,, I, ,, \e 30 ,. ., I, 20 40 ,, ,, ,, 2a i.e., 14 figures and the cypher would be required for a scale of 18. 6. Scales of Notation. — The class should next be taught how to convert numbers from one scale to another, e.g. : — Transform ^26g'8/rom the common scale to the radix 7. The class will readily perceive that so far as the mere work is concerned it is purely a matter of division, and that the remainders constitute the digits for the number in the new scale. It will be seen that 42698 in the scale of 10 = 235325 in the scale of 7. Two points will require special attention here : — (a) That more figures are required to express the same quantity in a lower scale; i.e., 6 figures are required in the scale of 7 as against 5 in the scale of 10. {b) That 235325 does not mean two hundred and thirty-five thousand three hundred and twenty- five, but forty-two thousand six hundred and ninety-eight in the scale of 7. Reason for the Rule. — Let a, 6, c, d, etc., represent the digits to be used in expressing the quantity in the nev^^ scale, a being the first digit to the right (the units). (i) Decompose the number in each scale so that the construction of the number may be clear in each case : — Scale of 10. 42698 = 40000 + 2000 + 600 -t- 90 + 8. = 4 X loooo -I- 2 X 1000 -h 6 X 100 -h 9 X 10 + 8. = 4 X 10* + 2 X lo* -f- 6 X lo* -h 9 X 10 -h 8. S cale of 7. 235325 = 33614 + 7203 + 1715 + 147 + 14 + 5. = 2 X 16807 + 3 X 2401 + 5 X 343 + 3 X 49 + 2 X 7 + 5. = 2X7»-j-3X7* + 5X7»-f-3 x72 + 2X7-f-5. (2) The class will then see that the number can be expressed thus— the letters taking the place of the digits : — (/ ^ 7*) + («r X 7^) + (<; X f) + (c X 7«) + (6 X 7) + a. (3) Next do the division and compare it step by step with the worked example. 7I42698 7 1 6099-1-5 7 1 871 + 2 7 1 124 -f- 3 7 1 17 + 5 7I2-I-3 + 2 /x7» + *x7< + oyB at the comers. •01 metr« ■I .. 1" •> lo- „ loo- lOOO* „ APPENDIX. 2. Class-room Work. Supply the children with proper drawing apparatus. This work is to be done by the class — to scale. The scale chosen will depend upon the size of the slates or drawing-paper supplied to the children. The teacher should work with the children, to a larger scale, on the B.B. (a) Draw any straight line of suitable length. Let this represent lo metres. Complete a square with this line as a side. This represents the Are. (d) Divide 2 adjacent sides into 10 equal parts each, and through the points of intersection draw lines parallel to each side respectively. {c) Count the squares. There are 100, and each one presents a square metre. {d) Then any one of these small squares is ^hu P^rt of the whole square. Hence it may be called a Centiare square or a square centiare. ie) Note there is ?io deciare. Class to give reason. /) Teach the hectare in the same way, and let the class note that there are no decares. Reason again to be given by class. {g) Compare and illustrate with formation of English Square Measure. 3. Compile the Table. To be done by class again. By the use of similar diagrams the other measurements can be shown to be related to each other. The multiple is seen to be, not 10, but 10' or 100. I centiare = i square metre. 100 centisiTes — i are. 100 ares = i hectare. 4. Examples. (a) Similar examples should again be given to show the facility with which this system is worked. {d) In working examples the terms decare and deciare may be met with. Tell the class that they represent 10 ares or ^Jq are respectively. V. Cubic Measure. 1. Get 12 slender sticks or pieces of wire each i metre long, and construct a large skeleton Kindergarten tube. It will be better still if done in cardboard, as the element of solidity will then be apparent. This is the unit, and is called a stere. 2. Draw a diagram on the B.B. to represent a cube with a lo-milli- metre side. Draw parallel lines through each of the millimetre divisions. Use coloured chalks or shade alternate lines of cubes so as the better to bring out the idea of layers of cubes. 3. Let the class count the top layer — 100. 4. Then let them count the number of layers — 10 with 100 cubes in each. 5. Then ask for the total number of little cubes — 1000, i.^., 10 x 10 x 10, or 10^. 6. Compare with the EngHsh Measure, e.g., 1728 c. ins. is 12 X 12 X 12, or 12^. 7. Build up the table : — 1000 cubic wi//imetres = i cubic centim&Xxe. 1000 „ centimetres — i „ dea'metre. 1000 „ dea'metres =1 ,, metre = i stere. 8. Tell the class that higher denominations than the stere are seldom used. APPENDIX. 365 Zbcaxnples. Work similar examples again in both systems on the B.B. and side by side. Class to note : — 1. To reduce from any given denomination to next lower denomination multiply by 1000. 2. To reduce from any given denomination to the next higher divide by 1000. 3. That all the work involved can be done by simply moving the decimal point 3 places to the right or left. VL Capacity. Proceed as in Cubic Measure : — 1. Make a cardboard cube with a one-decimetre side. The inside volume of this cube equals a litre, which is the unit. 2. Show a vessel (decanter, jug, etc.) which is a litre measure. Then show an English quart measure. 3. Fill the litre vessel with water ; transfer to quart measure. Class observes that the litre is somewhat less than a quart. 4- Construct table as in Cubic Measure. 1000 cubic centimctTts = i cubic decimttrt = i litre. 1000 litres = I kilolitre (about 220 English gallons). VH. Weight. 1. Make a small cardboard cube with 1 centimetre side (inside measure). Tell the class that a measure of that size is filled with distilled water at 39° F., and that the weight of water contained is called a gramme (the unit). 2. Explain the reason for the use of distilled water (to be free from im- purities which might cause the weight to vary), and of the fixed temperature (temperature at which water reaches its greatest density). 3. Pass round a gramme weight (there should be one in the school museum) for the class to judge of its relative weight. 4. Build up the table. Roughly a gramme equals -^^-oi. Avoirdupois. 1000 grammes = i kilogramme (about 2^ lbs.). 1000 Kilogrammes = i tonneau (not quite an English ton). 5. Work examples, compare the systems, and give the class exercises as in the other tables. VZZZ. Money. 1. Show a franc. This is the unit. 2. Weigh it before the class, if possible ; if not, tell them that it weighs 5 grammes. 3. Tell also that -^ of it is silver and -^ alloy. 4. Tell that 10 decimt* = 1 franc f "*'°^ »P«cimen corns . and that only fk«nos and centimes are considered in keeping The decime is the French penny. The French halfpenny is called a sou, and in the everyday life of the people one hears much more of sous than decimes. 5. The same kind of practical work should follow as in the previotts cases. JX. Mkntm mad General Prinoiplee. From what has now been briefly explained, the young teacher will be able to summarise the following general principles and hints to guide the teaching of this subject : — 24 366 APPENDIX. 1. The increase of values or quantities proceeds by multiples of lo, and their diminution by loths, i.e., it is an application of the decimal system. 2. All the Tables centre round one common unit — the metre, e.g. : — Name of Table. Unit. Connection with Common Unit. Length Square Measure Cubic Measure Capacity Weight Money Metre Are Stere Litre Gramme Franc ICO square metres. I cubic metre. I cubic decimetre. I cubic centimetre. 5 grammes — 5 cubic centimetres. 3. The metre being given, it should be practically demonstrated how each other table is derived from it. 4. The association between the name and the measurement should be well fixed, the name being learned from the measurement, and not con- versely. 5. The multiplying force of the prefixes used should be allowed to grow upon the class before either derivation or explanation is utilised. 6. The scholars should build up their own tables from the practical demonstrations which they see and share. 7. The great aid of comparison and contrast should be freely used to firmly fix the association between the terms used in the two systems. 8. Similar examples from the French and English systems should be worked side by side on the B.B. to show the superior simplicity and facility of the Metric System. g. Exercises should be given to test the correctness of the knowledge of the class, and these exercises should receive vitality, force, and local colour by assuming the form of local business and shopping transactions. READING. The Type-Word Method. — This is an analytic-synthetic type- word system of reading combined with the Phonic Method. It is an Australian system, and is in use in the primary schools of South Australia. The ^^ Adelaide '" illustrated primers which embody the system are published by the Education Department of that colony, which thus stamps the method with oiificial approval. I. In the beginning the following limitations are imposed : — . 1. Only such words as are names of real objects are used. 2. The children must be familiar with these words. 3. The objects must be such that a conversation can be held about them. 4. The objects must also be such that a simple drawing can readily be made of them. 5. The letters forming the name of the object must be such as can be regularly and distinctly sounded. IL A set of movable letters are used in connection with the scheme. These movable letters are now introduced in their order, and the word is set up by means of a word builder. III. Exercises follow. APPENDIX. 367 1. The sounds are made for the letters shown, 2. The children are always told to associate a certain sound with a certain letter. The method deals with a whole word, takes it to pieces, notes the sounds, and connects these again to form the word. The analytic-syn- thetic nature of the method is thus revealed. By its supporters it is claimed to be a natural method, because it teaches the children to associ- ate the sounds with the letters and written symbols, but not the names of them. 3. After mastering a few such type words as fnap, cap, hat, and fan, all of which have been carefully selected, fresh combinations with the eight sounds of a, c,f, h, m, p, t (to be set up on the stand in this order), are made. This step is a very important one, and at first the teacher must proceed very slowly and exercise all patience. As soon as the children can^ unaided, connect the sounds which make the new word, a great deal has been achieved. Young teachers are too often tempted to tell the first word, but this is wrong. The children should be allowed to find it out. 4. The Look-and-Say Method is used for words of irregular notation. These words are taught as wholes, and no attempt should be made to analyse them. 5. To ensure still greater interest in the lesson, the pupils have tluir own sets of loose letters, which they keep in little boxes or bags. At first, only those letters are used with which they have become acquainted.. This practice recognises and utilises the child's love of activity. 6. The next step is the writing of the type word. A fair attempt at the written characters on their ruled slates is all that can be expected at first. 7. The last step is to place a simple outline drawing of the object along- side the word. This seldom fails to Ix; imitated. IV. The words to be taught by the Phonic Method are done in large type ; the words on the Look-and-Say Method in small type, hence the name by which the method is known. V. There is no doubt that this is one of the best applications of the Phonic Method that have yet been made, and a conscientious adherence to it would do much to remove some of the disadvantages under which that method is alleged to labour, e.g., it has been asserted that no case of stammering has resulted from it within known experience. It has the further advantage of utilising a child's love of activity; of introducing the Kindergarten element ; of basing instruction on concrete objects ; and of utilising drawing and writing as aids. In fact, it recognises the chief consideration which underlies true methods of infant teaching, viz., the association of one lesson with another through some one leading idea. HISTORY. The msiorio NovaL — What use, if any, should be made of Historic Novels in the teaching of History? When we review the ordinary practice associated with the teaching of History in our schools, their use seems to be naturally complementary. They are, consciously or unconsciously, led up to by the scholar's train- ing. The History Lessons may or may not be supplemented by the use 368 APPENDIX. of the History Book, but they are generally aided by the use oi Historical Reading Books with their interesting stories and biographies, and so the scholars are insensibly led up to the Historic Novel. Let it be granted then that every school library should contain a selection of such books carefully chosen by the head teacher or some other efficient and respon- sible person. Perhaps their recreative element is their strongest recommendation, and in this capacity they are a fine preventive or antidote to the "' penny dreadful " or the " shilling shocker ". One of the primary aims -of every Reading Lesson is to implant a love of reading, and it should be ■equally one of the aims of every History Lesson to appropriate some portion -of that created taste for the reading of History. But with young people ^all transitions should be easy, and the Historic Novel offers that golden ibridge by which the desired transition may be made, and the taste for more substantial efforts effected with riper years. Like most other novels, the book contains a plot and so presents all the interest of pursuit. It may embody all the delights of romance and those characteristics of the best modern fiction which appeal to the universal sympathies of our nature. Such books may thus satisfy that craving for the marvellous -which is an attribute of all classes from the mansion to the cottage. Furthermore, there will sometimes be found a most successful mixture of the historical and the familiar, the junction of stirring and romantic ele- ments with that popular humour which gives to the story the largeness and variety of life itself. The instructive element contained in them is another recommenda- tion, and that instruction is received under the most favourable conditions. The work is approached willingly, and is thoroughly enjoyed. The inter- £st which the teacher is taxed to create and maintain in some other branches of school work is here ready-made for him in rich abundance, and none the less so because the pupil is rid of all those disciplinary restrictions which are essential to a class lesson. Nor does the fact that the characters, events, and descriptions are often fictitious detract appre- ciably from this, for they are often accurately suggestive or true in kind. Historic facts may be dressed up with such intense personal reality as to -give the book an air of authentic narrative, an example of which may be ■seen in Defoe'' s Memoirs of a Cavalier, or the same author's Journal of the Great Plague of London. They often give those true pictures of the everyday life and manners of the past which limited time and other obstacles very often keep out of the school lesson. Nor is the literary merit of the book wasted. The appreciation of this may be beyond the average capacity of the class, but the subtle influence of good models of style will show itself sooner or later to the lasting advantage of the reader. It is true that the diet is a mixed one, compounded of fact and fiction, and it is equally true that authors often fill up the rents of time with matter of their own invention. But this is hardly a weakness, and it is certainly not an unpardonable offence. For it all aims at the same goal as the teacher in seeking to implant a love for the subject among the people. Good historic novels tend to elevate the tone of the people, and this influence is brought to bear in this case at the most plastic and impression- able period of life. As civilisation gradually subdues the violent passions and impulses of society, the historic novel, among others, is more and more called into use to give an even and detailed development, not only of incident, but also of sentiment. Such books may present heroes whose APPENDIX. 36^ courage, sentiments of honour, chivalry, and delicacy must have a good ethical effect upon their readers. In the case of children, the moral influence of the book, like its literary influence, may not show immediate fruit. Children are too young to take delight in the delicate light and shade and the knowledge of human sentiments and passions they display, but they are going through a process of unconscious cultivation on these points also, and their passions are earnestly enlisted on the side of virtue. Furthermore, many of them are characterised by good sense and a clear moral aim. They may also embody social speculations and aspirations which may help to form the habit of serious reflection, and they will furnish instances of genuine feeling, together with life-like impersonations of manly and womanly character in all ranks. A few historic novels are now named, but with no intention of limit- ing the teacher's choice. Most teachers will be able to vary, increase, or improve the list. They are merely offered as some sort of a suggestive aid to the younger teachers whose range of reading is naturally assumed to be somewhat narrower than that of their older colleagues. Name of Book. Author. Period. Harold Lytton Harold Hereward the Wake Kingsley E. S. Holt William I. Lady Sybils Choice Crusades Betrothed Scott „ Talisman ^j ,^ Ivanhoe ]^ Richard I. The Days of Bruce Grace Aguilar Edward II. The Constable of the Tower Ainsworth Edward III. White Company Conan Doyle ., Mistress .Margery E. S. Holt Lollards | Red and White .. Wars of the Roses Last of the Barons Lytton „ Armourer's Apprentices C. Yonge Henry VII. or VIII. Windsor Castle Ainsworth Henry VIII. Henry VIH. , „ For the Master's Sake E. S. Holt Queen Mary Cardinal Pole Ainsworth „ Westward Ho Kingsley Elizabeth Monastery and the Abbot Scott Mary, Queen of Scots Kenilworth Elizabeth Sister Rose (St. Barth.) E. S. Holt „ Unknown to History C. Yonge „ Fortunes of Nigel Scott James I. Guy Fawkes Ainsworth „ Spanish Match The Caged Lion ,, C. Yonge „ Ovtngdean Grange Ainsworth Charles I. Legend of Montrose Woodstock Scott Civil War Edna Lyall Civil War and Commonwealth In the Golden Days Charles II. Peveril of the Peak Scott It Old St. Paul's Ainsworth Plague of London Defoe „ Miclb Clarke Conan Doyle James II. James 11. Preston Fight Ainsworth „ George I. Barnaby Kudge Dickens Cordon Riou The Romance of War James Grant Peninsular War ■iorlM iB XnflUh History: th«ir Pr«pMra*imi and D«- — Where History it taught as a Class Subject, the work of the 370 APPENDIX. first three years is practically confined to the relating of stories fi-om English History. Plenty of scope is left to the teacher in the choice of the incidents, and a number of stories are mentioned as suitable. The teacher is at liberty to adopt a new set of stories for each year, or he may adopt the Concentric Method and deal with the same stories with ex- pr.nding fulness each year. Fresh stories bring fresh interest, but, rightly handled, the Concentric Method will bring added interest. The one method widens the interests and sympathies, the other intensifies them ; the one gives breadth, the other depth ; hence, ever remembering that one of the teacher's chief aims is to implant a love for the subject, either method, in the hands of a skilful teacher, can be made very profitable. But the teacher is not going to be a successful narrator without pre- paration and training. To make such lessons a success, they must be delivered extempore, or with no greater aid than a few " peg " notes. For young teachers, with limited powers and attainments, it will be especially desirable that they should audibly rehearse the lesson during the time devoted to its preparation. If they are not prepared to take this necessary trouble, they are strongly advised to leave the lessons alone, for a stum- bling, halting, or timid delivery is most likely to destroy the primary object for which such lessons are given. Assuming the teacher to be well prepared with the subject matter, his manner and style of delivery will next need attention. I'he " personal equation " enters strongly here, and handicaps him favourably or other- wise. It is probably no exaggeration to say that a certain amount of dramatic ability is essential for success. A mechanical drone in a slightly changing monotone is nothing more nor less than a soporific to young children, and must never be indulged in by the teacher on any account. A noisy delivery deadens with its din, to say nothing of the harm it does the teacher himself. It is true that all are not gifted alike in that bright and vivid style of narration so necessary to this type of lesson, yet, the greater the need, the greater the effort demanded, and that effort must be made. The teacher must enter into the situation of his hero, take on his emotions, and fairly interpret them to the class, and this will entail the cultivation of a sympathetic nature and good vocal control. The aid of gesture and the vivifying " historic present ^^ should not be forgotten, for they enable the teacher to bring his hero or his incidents from the dim obscurity of the past into the vitalising atmosphere of the present. Language will be the next difficulty. The vocabulary and style which suit the boy of seven will not fit the child of eleven. In young children there is a common desire to cast off the baby element at the earliest possible moment, and nothing is more likely to chill the interest of the class than language which innocently snubs their self-esteem. On the other hand, there must be no shooting above their heads in the desire to spare their hearts. Perhaps the best course to follow will be to consult some of the best of the Historical Readers in use in the schools, and to study the styles of language used there for each standard, and, speaking generally, it will be wise if the bulk of the preparation is done from such books for lessons of this kind. When preparing the lesson the choice of the subject matter may some- times present difficulties. Voting teachers err on the side of too much rather than too little. They are too anxious to make their lessons exhaustive rather than suggestive and instructive. Where good Historical Readers are available this difficulty disappears. But where aids of this kind are not available, such incidents should be chosen as are most likely to interest APPENDIX. 371 the class, and to unobtrusively suggest some moral lesson. Accuracy is desirable, but not absolutely essential in the earlier lessons, and, conse- quently, the teacher may make some use of the stories interwoven in our ballads and legends (see page 296). The material and artistic element in the lesson should not be neglected. Toys, models, historic relics, maps, pictures, etc., should all be pressed into the service of the lesson where opportunity offers. Visits to museums, public and historic buildings (such as old castles, walls, gates, churches, etc.), should be made, and, generally, every suitable and obtainable objective aid should be utilised. The Teachings of Social Questions.— The teaching of the social life of the people opens up a wide field of work, but so far as these hints are concerned, they are limited to such subjects as Clothing, Food, Dwell- ings, and Amasements. The question of clothing only will be dealt with here, but the other subjects might be treated in a similar way. Clothing. — Questions like this, properly handled, may be made to throw a flood of light on the social life of the people, and that, too, in a way which is not only practical and interesting, but which permits some exercise of the reasoning powers, brings out in vivid contrast the condition of the people of to-day, and gives a good object lesson in that content- ment which is an important factor in the abiding peace and prosperity of any country. To make these points effective it will be necessary, not only to describe the dress of " society," but that of the poorer classes also. The dress of the labouring class in the " good old times " of song and novel will be more interesting to the children of their successors than that of any other class, and more profitable for making those comparisons which ought to be a feature of all these lessons. The dress of the period should be accurately described with the aid of suitable pictures or drawings of sufficient size to be seen by the class. These drawings might be prepared before the lesson, but the teacher is wasting a good opportunity for arousing and maintaining interest if they are not executed on the B.B. during the lesson. Each article could be rapidly sketched as described, and it is worth the teacher's while to prac- tise B.B. drawing for this and similar lessons. If a museum should be near which contains the necessary specimens, the children should be taken to see them. Similarly, any local collection of pictures containing the necessary illustrations should be visited. This is the more necessary, because B.B. sketching alone, although most desirable for individual gar- ments, gives little or no idea of the general appearance of the dress as a whole. But under any condition, the lesson should be either objective or pictorial, or both. A lesson of this nature which is purely descriptive is doomed to failure, Jwwever skilful the teacher may be at word painting. The materials supplied to the children for their efforts of con.struciivc imagination would be mere abstractions to them, and the completed effort, if it could be known, would probably be inaccurate in every case. Hence, such lessons, to be successful, must be objective and pictorially illustrated. Comparison and contrast might then be brought into play. Each article might be compared or contrasted with its modern substitute or modification, the points of likeness or unlikeness indicated, and the necessary inferences made as to the greater or less degree of the suita- bility of modern dress to climate and the altered conditions of life. The lesson would thus receive a practical application, which should bring something more than mental profit only. 37? . APPENDIX. In preparing such lessons, the teacher will have to formulate a series of questions which will make the mental demands desired, and lead up to the practical results pointed out ; e.g., the following are suggestive rather than exhaustive : — 1. Did it keep the body at a nearly uniform temperature, and that tempera- . ture a suitable one ? Did it allow free play to the powers of the skin — perspiration, absorption, and feeling? Was it woollen, cotton, silk, linen, etc. ? With the poor people, did it change for the seasons, and if so, to what extent? Was it adapted to the body? Did it allow the body the full exercise of all its motions? The answers to such questions, among other things, would reveal, not so much the knowledge of the time as to the scientific principles which should regulate clothing, but how far these principles were applied. 2. Was it showy, extravagant, or neat in its style? Did politics or creed have any modifyiftg injiuence f Was there any marked difference in its style or texture between the different grades of society, and if so, how far was the quality of the dress considered a measure of social standing? Was the difference in this respect more or less marked then than now, and if so, why? Were there any laws regulating dress, and if so, why ? Give the average wage of the artisan and labouring classes, and, if possible, the cost of living, including food, shelter, and clothing. The class will then be in a position to infer the capacity of the poor to clothe themselves, and their consequent comfort or discomfort in winter. The answers to such questions, aided by the information suggested, would in some degree reveal the measure of the taste of the people, and the degree of luxury indulged in by them. In neither case would it be a sole test ; but in each a valuable and suggestive one. Here again, contrast and comparison with the present should be utilised. 3. Was it varied, and if so, for what purpose? The answer to such a question would again give much information on the social life and .habits of the people, and a rich field of observation would be opened out by a comparison or contrast with the varied dress of the present day. Nor should the changed dress of the army and navy, the reasons for such changes, and their relative degrees of suitability be overlooked. Obviously, the teacher will not be able to crowd all these points into one lesson. A selection, both in kind and quantity, must be made and thoroughly dealt with. A few points, well described, illustrated pictori- ally, and well worked out with objective aids, will be far better than trying to crowd in a mass of detail which only breeds weariness or gives mental indigestion. It is necessary to emphasise this point, for it is this overcrowd- ing of the subject matter which experience shows to be the most common faxilt of y&ung teachers. ENGLISH. What is Word Building ?— Word building is a system of teach- ing by means of a course of progressive lessons leading up from the formation of simple sounds to the composition of words by means of affixes and sufBxes, and may be considered to consist of two distinct divisions : — I, The building up of a single syllable., by assigning to it that combination of letters which usage has determined to be the conventional representa- APPENDIX. 373 tion of its sound, which is the true inductive method of teaching spell- ing. 2. The combination of one or more of such syllables, of which a root word (i.e. , a word which cannot be reduced to a simpler form) is composed, with suffixes and affixes, such as the formation of nouns from adjectives, as heavy, heaviness ; thus giving a training in the use of language. The former process by itself would lead to correct spelling in the languages of countries which possess comparatively few cases of excep- tional spelling. But the imperfections and the inconsistencies of our English alphabet in representing many of the commonest sounds are so numerous that it might almost be said that in English we virtually possess two separate languages, a spoken language and a written language, the one appealing to the ear, the other to the eye. It is not possible, consequently, to separate the spelling of anoma- lous "wrords entirely from word building^, because a purely phonetic method of spelling English words cannot be used ; therefore, after dealing with a group of words connected by a common spelling of the same sound and so reducing a considerable number of English words to cer- tain visible and intelligible principles, the teaching should embrace the spelling of some few exceptional words of common use which convey the same sound by a different combination of letters, though such instruction lies quite outside the progressive course of lessons on word building. It should be clearly understood that such lessons are subordinate to the word building, and should not be considered as a real test of a good series of word-building lessons. In selecting the exceptions to be taught, it would be wise to select such anomalous words as are in common use. A clear distinction may be helpfully drawn between the methods of teaching groups of regular words formed by word building and exceptions to the rules. In teaching, the former shoiild be spoken before they are ^vritten on the blackboard to connect more firmly the sound with its ordinary combination of letters ; the latter should be written on the blackboard before they are spoken, so that the teacher may be able to disconnect the same combination from its ordinary pronunciation. The Word- Building Lessons in infant schools may be usefully restricted to the simple phonic teaching of the more common of the different sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet. It should be possible in infant schools to teach simple combinations which might include, for example, all the simpler closed syllables, while relegating to the schools for older scholars such difficult varieties of sound as are conveyed, for instance, by the three sounds of the combination " ch " in chin, charade, and chasm. But the chief part of the word building will, in the upper schools, consist of the combination of root words with suffixes and affixes, which might be progressive in difficulty, rising from such simple forms as the more common terminations of nouns and adjectives and the suffixes denoting gender to the formation of adverbs from adjectives or preposi- tions, or other difficult combinations. There is no better exercise of the inductive method of reasoning, nor one more intelligible and interesting to young children, than verbal anaWsis, i.e., the exact inves- tigation ofthe several parts of familiar words. The addition, for example, ofthe suffixes en, er, est, ly, ish, and ness to the word sweet, and the use of words so found in short sentences, will lead the scholars by simple in- duction from these and other similar words to determine for themselves the exact meaning of each suffix. Any course of Word Building should embody the following rules :— 374 APPENDIX. 1. The classes of words proposed to be taught should be plainly set out in progressive order, i.e., words that can be taught both through the eye and the ear. 2, The ano7nalotiS zuoj-ds, or words which form exceptions to these rules, which can be taught by the eye only, should be also set out in lists and limited to words in common use. Some freedom may be permitted as regards different modes of spell- ing the same word, as inflexion and inflection, bylaw and byelaw, judg- ment and judgement. The Relative Value of English Grrammar. — Should English Grammar be discontinued as a class subject, either wholly or partially, and if so, how could Composition be best taught ? Probably, we are the only nation in which the national language and literature are not absolutely prescribed as one of the first, if not the first subject to be taught in public (primary) schools, and we are bound to secure good English Com- position, even if we discard the more refined technicalities of English Grammar. Some think that Grammar should be taught in the lower part of the school only. The question then arises, how best to secure a sufficient acquaintance with the technical structure of simple sentences, supposing that the more advanced technical teaching of parsing in the higher classes is dispensed with ? The opposite question also arises, viz. : if the study of grammar be deferred to the later years of school life, how is it possible for the lower classes to acquire such an acquaintance with correct forms of English sentences without the introduction of technical terms, so as to secure a foundation on which to build the higher structure of more com- plicated sentences ? {H.M. Chief Senior Inspector, Mr. Sharp.) I. Its Retention in the School Curriculum. — The object here aimed at is not to pronounce a judgment on this question, but to lay cer- tain points and opinions before young teachers for their consideration. 1. Its Training Value. [a) Although the capacity of thought is inborn in every human being, nevertheless language is indispensable for the development of the higher activity of intellect in the child, hence it is a fair inference that " a more commanding knowledge of it than habit alone can give must be deemed a necessity of education, and particularly of all education which pretends to cultivate the mind ". {b) It is one of the best, perhaps the very best, aids a scholar has to ab- stract thinking. The point for the teacher to decide is whether he can afford to dispense with this aid to the mental training of his scholars. What substitutes are available? A course of Euclid, and a tracing of the rules of Arithmetic and Algebra to first principles furnish the same kind of training, but two of these subjects, in primary schools at least, fall only to the few, whilst Graimnar falls to the many. If it becomes a question of substitution, Euclid and Algebra could hardly be com- menced at so early an age as Grammar, so that, whether it resolved itself into substitution or elimination, there would seem to be a loss of mental training so far as abstract thinking is concerned. {c) It is a great aid to the cultivation of taste. It has been well asserted that some training in language is necessary, and that no other lan- guage is of such importance as a subject o<" school study, for no other language has the same fulness of meaning for us, or the same power of evoking feeling, as our own. Hence, its study seems necessary to cultivate the appreciation of what is best in our literature. {d) It has already been asserted (see page 277) that it is the logic of the elementary school. Mr. Morell says that " the importance of train- APPENDIX. 375 ing the mind to accurate logical thinking can hardly be over-estimated, for although the logical faculty is not the highest faculty of the mind, yet it is, of all others, the most practical ; that, namely, which is the most directly necessary for the occupations and duties of daily life. . . . The best preparation I believe to be a thorough, well-grounded knowledge oi grammar, for all language is really Ixised upon a kind of natural or intuitive logic, and to understand the structure of language aright enables us to follow the workings of the understanding as it has embodied itself in this symbolic form." 2. Its Practical Value. i^a) See page 277, The Uses 0/ Grammar, i, 2, 3 and 5. {d) Mr. Currie says : ' ' The study of grammar has an important bearing on the pupil's practical acquisition of language. For since all its rules are drawn from language as actually used, it is necessary that correct examples should bo submitted to his observation, and that he should try the language which he meets with by the rules which he learns. Grammar thus furnishes him with a criterion for Judging of the correctness of expressions, by which, on the one hand, his imita- tion of those which are correct is more confident, intelli*?ent, and rapid, and, on the other, he is fortified against the influence of incorrect ex- amples." {c) Locke says a gentleman ought to study grammar amongst the other helps of speaking well, but it must be the grammar of his own tongue. H. Its Partial Removal from the School Curriculum. 1. See page 277, Z)(]^rtt///« /« Teaching Grammar. 2. Professor Bain says : " Many persons are beginning to see the mistake of commencing grammar with children of eight or nine years of age. Experience must have impressed teachers with the futility of the attempt. Simplifications of various kinds have lx;en tried, tasy ways of presenting the subject have been suggested to commence with, the difficulties being postponed. Unfortunately for such attempts, the difficulties lie at the threshold, and cannot be evaded without render- ing the entire subject a nullity. The Parts of Sfx'ech cannot be understood at all unless they are understood fully." 3. Herbert Spencer says : " From the substitution of principles for rules and the necessarily co-ordinate practice of leaving abstractions untaught till the mind has t)een familiarised with the facts from which ihe^ are extracted has resulted the postponement of some once early studies to a late period. This is exemplified in the abandonment of that In- tensely stupid custom, the teaching of grammar to children. 4. M. Marcel s.nys : " It may. without hi-sitation, Ik- aninncd tli.it grammar Is not the stepping stone, but the finishing instrument ". 5. Mr. Wyse argues : "Grammar and Syntax are a collection of laws and rules. Rules arc gathered from practice : they are the results of induc- tion to which we come by long observation and comparison of facts. It is, in fine, the science, the philosophy of language. In following the process of nature, neither individuals nor nations ev