W.Scott Thomas

/^^

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD

ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS.

A NEW

MANUAL OF METHOD

A. H. GARLICK, B.A.

(head master of the WOOLWICH P.T. CENTRE)

A NEIV EDITION, WITH APPENDIX

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON

NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY

1897

CDUCATION DEPT.

PREFACE.

Some years' experience in the teaching of School Method
has demonstrated that young students require much more
help in this subject than is offered in existing manuals, and
that the information contained should be offered in its most
serviceable form. In fact, " Centre " experience has shown
that no book is suitable unless it is c6mprehensive in its
range, practical in its nature, and modern in its methods.
There are books in the market meeting some of these
requirements, but none meeting them all. The subject is
very wide ; the time that can be allotted to it very small :
hence the book should be such as to do most of its own
teaching. For this reason all the subject matter has been
carefully methodised, and much of it thrown into teaching
form — the form which is most difficult to young teachers to
acquire, and the most useful in practice.

This work is based on the writer's teaching notes during
the past ten years ; and as it grew to meet the wants of his
own pupils for their recurring examinations, it is believed
that it will be found specially suitable for pupil teachers,
scholarship students, and students in training.

Every Examination Question in the book is selected from
the papers set at the various Queen's Scholarship and Pupil
Teachers' Examinations.

A. H. G.

Woolwich P.T. Centre,
1896.

58()Mj)(;

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

I
School Economy

Physiology and Exiucation

1. The Popular View ---.......

2. The Scientific View .........

Headaches and Faintness

1. Food Headaches

2. From Impure Atmosphere 2

3. From Mental Causes 2

4. From Physical Causes 2

Light 2

1. Direction of Light 2

2. Diffusion of Light 2

3. Artificial Light 3

Ventilation

Drill

1. Its Difficulties 3

2. Cubic Space ---- 2

3. Means of Ventilation 3

Warming --..^

The Thermometer 4

Qeaning 4

1. Its Objects 5

2. General Principles and Rules 5

The Playground 6

1. Physical Uses 6

2. Its Fittings 6

3. Its Moral Uses 6

4. The Teacher's Work 6

Furniture 7

The School Museum - 7

1. Special Objects 7

2. General Objects 7

3. Its Value 8

Galleries -8

Desks 9

1. Infant Departments 9

2. Other Departments - 9

Height and Dimensions 10

Best Position in the Desk 10

Schoolroom Decoration 10

1. WaUs - ... 10

2. Windows .--. --lo

3. Pictures 10

CONTENTS.

4- Maps - II

£. Diagrams -..-.-.----ii

6. Honour Board ....-.----ii

Examination Questions ----------ii

CHAPTER n.

Discipline - ■ 12

I. What it is 12

1. It must be based on Natural Principles - - - - - - 12

2. Its Aims must be good 12

II. Ways and Means ..-----.--12

1. Material Means ---13

2. Mental Means -----.-.--13

3. Moral Means ----.-13

4. Older Children as an Aid to Discipline 13

Order 14

Parental Co-operation -.---..---14

T. Correspondence 15

2. Visits -----15

3. School Entertainments 15

4. Local Residence 15

5. Local Affairs 15

6. Local Press 15

Auxiliary Means of Training 16

1. Recreation 16

2. Assistance 16

Punishment 16

1. Its Limits 16

2. Cases for no Punishment 17

3. The Amount of Punishment 17

4. Selection of Punishment 18

5. Kind.- of Punishment 18

(a) Blame 18

(3) Shame 18

Ic) Detention -18

(a) Pleasure 18

(e) Impositions 18

I/) Marks 18

m Corporal Punishment 18

(A) Expulsion -....18

6. Objectionable Forms of Punishment - 19

7. Corporal Punishment - - ' 19

Objections to Corporal Punishment ig

8. Yoimg Teachers and Corporal Punishment 19

Rewards 20

1. Principles underlying their Use ..--... 20

2. Rewards as Inducements to Work 20

3. School Rewards --.-. 21

(a) Place Taking 21

ij Decorations ... --....21

c) School Privileges - - - . - . .- -21

d) Prizes -..- 21

(e) Esteem, Praise 21

Good Manners - 21

Anger .......22

Obstinacy ---------_. .23

CONTENTS. ix

PAOB

I. Mistaken Obstinacy .--.-----23

1. Stupidity - 23

2. Physical Weakness 23

3. Fear 23

4. Treatment --.--.-.--23

II. Real Obstinacy 23

T. The Teacher 23

2. Fitful Obstinacy 23

3. Vicious Obstinacy ---- 33

4. Treatment 23

Crying 24

I. Stubborn and Domineering - - 24

3. Sorrow or Pain ....-.----24
Cruelty 24

1. Natural Tendency 24

2. Habit and Custom 25

3. History 25

4. Games 25

5. Animals ..--*- 25

6. Harshness ..-- 25

Kindness ---25

1. Its Scope -- 25

2. Its Cultivation -- 25

Cowardice .-.-------.-25

1. Frights 26

2. Ignorance ..--■. ---.•-26

3. Ill Health 26

4. Association -26

5. Moral Cowardice ---26

6. Heredity 26

Obedience 26

1. Slave Obedience 27

2. Military Obedience ---27

3. Cheerful Obedience -- --27

Inattention ---27

Conditions of Attention - .-27

1. The Will 27

2. Pleasurable -.-.-28

3. Physical Conditions .---..--28

4. Suitability of Work 28

5. Assistance 28

6. Obstacles 28

7. Punishment - - - .----- 28
Laziness ..---28

1. Constitutional Laziness 28

2, Habit I^aziness ..-.--..--28
Stupidity 29

1. When bestowed by the Parents 29

2. When bestowed by the Teacher 29

Truthfulness 29

I. Causes of Untruth - - 29

a. Treatment 30

Honesty 30

Tale-ielling 31

Copying 31

I. Its Sources .--- 31

a. Its Treatment 31

(a) Mechanical Means 31

X CONTENTS,

PAGE

(d) The Teacher 32

Unpunctuality -----.32

1. Its Causes .-----._.. .32

2. To Ensure Punctuality ---------32

Truancy 33

1. Its Causes 33

2. Its Treatment .---.33

Habit --34

1. Nature of Habit 34

2. The Training of Habit -- -.35

Character -...35

Its Cultivation - - - - - -35

Examination Questions - - - - - - - -- -37

CHAPTER III.

Classification - 38

1. Its Basis - 38

2. Bad Classification ---------.38

3. Infant Schools and Classification 39

4. Sub-division of Classes in Infant Schools 39

5. Shapes of Classes --------..40

6. Collective Lessons 41

7. Promotion 41

Home Lessons 42

Arguments for and against Home Lessons . . . . - 43

Hindrances to Progress ------_. .43

Time Tables -->-..44

1. Revised Instructions and Time Tables 44

2. General Directions -.-.--...44

3. Advantages of Time Tables 45

4. Distribution of Time 46

(a) In Infant Department -- 46

(i) In Upper Department --- 46

Examination Questions ^7

CHAPTER IV.

Notes of Lessons ...48

First Step 48

1. Class - ... - 48

2. Time 48

3- Aim 48

4. Introduction ----- ^g

Second Step ------ cq

Third Step -----.--....co

1. Matter ------ ^q

2. Matter in Order -------. ..rj

Fourth Step ; Matter not in Order ------ ..^i

Fifth Step ; Heads of Lessons ~ ....... r^

Sixth Step; B.B. Sketches 53

Seventh Step ; Apparatus -.-- C3

Final Step ; Complete Notes -- 54

Lessons criticised --•----.. ..C4

1. A Good Lesson ----.--...e4

2. A Bad Lesson -------. ..r^

CONTENTS. xi

PAGE

A Criticism Lesson • ' ' - 55

1. What it is -....^^

2. Its Subject Matter -.-__g^

3. Criticism -__2S

Criticism Form - --56

CHAPTER V.

Class Teaching -.. 57

The Teacher - 57

1. Mental Qualifications 57

2. Moral Qualifications -57

3. Physical Qualifications -58

The Diary 58

Exercise Books ........... ^g

Aids to Teaching 59

A. Examination of Classes 59

1. Methods 60

2. The Written Method 60

3. The Oral Method 60

4. The Double Method - - 60

B. Questioning -60

1. Conditions for Success 60

2. The Objects of Questioning 61

3. Places for Questioning ---61

4. Rules for Questioning 61

(a) Positive Rules - - - -61

(^) Negative Rules 61

5. Defective Questions ... - - 61

C. Answering - - - - 61

1. Answers; their Value - ........ (,2

2. Good Answers --- 62

3. deceived Answers 62

4. Rejected Answers . . - 62

D. Explanation 63

E. Description 63

F. Definition 64

Elxamination Questions - 65

CHAPTER VI.

Object Lessons 66

Suggestions - 67

Their Value - - - 68

1. Principal Uses 68

2. Minor Uses 68

The Training of the Senses 69

Schemes of Object Lessons 70

1. Plant Life 71

2. Animal Life 71

3. The Sky, the Air, the Surface of the Land and Water - - - 72

4. Object Lessons for Town Schools 73

5. Object Lessons for Country Schools 74

6. Object l^essons in the Science of Common Things - - - 74

7. Measuring, Weighing and Testing 75

Lesson on Sundew and Flesh-eating Plants 76

Notes of a Lesson on a Sponge 77

jExaminaiion Questions 78

xli CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

PAOE

Kindergarten .._..79

I. What it is

2. Its Advantages 79

(a) Intellectual Advantages 79

(d) Physical Advantages 79

Froebel's Gifts 79

1. Play 79

2. Song 80

3. Dance 80

4- Gifts 80

(a) First Gift - - 80

(l>) Second Gift 81

!d) Fourth Gift 8:1

e) Fifth Gift si

/) Sixth Gift 83

Q) Seventh Gift 84

Varied Occupations ---.85

Colour 86

1. Stages 86

2. How taught -_..86

3. Apparatus 87

4. General Principles - 87

Plan of a Lesson on a Secondary Colour 87

Form -- 87

1. Language 87

2. Size

3. Dimensions

4. Positions -------._ ..88

5- Curve 88

6. Surface --------_... 88

Drawing --_.88

First Stage go

Second Stage -.--.^-____8q

Third Stage go

Examination Questions 89

CHAPTER VIII.

Arithmetic ---91

Advantages of teaching Arithmetic 92

Notation ----90

1. The Numbers it0 9 - - - . .. > _ . -04

2. The Numbers from 10 to 20 - - - - - . - 94

3. Numbers above 20 ------_. .gr

4. The Notation of Hundreds , . . or

Number Pictures --.-.06

1. Requirements ------- -._q6

2. Apparatus ^7

3. Teaching ^^

4. Plan of Lessons ------. >..n8

5. To teach the Number 2 -----.. .98

6. Subsequent Lessons - oo

Simple Addition --... iqo

^' i!""^ 100

2. Tens joj

Simple Subtraction ------.... jqo

CONTENTS,

PAGE

1. First Lessons ---.. 102

2. The Method of Decomposition 102

3. The Method of Equal Additions - - 103

4. The Method of Complementary Addition 104

5. The Two Methods of Decomposition and Equal Additions com-

pared 105

The Multiplication Tables -----_-.. 105

1. Memory ..--_-___ . jq^

2. Teaching 106

Multiplication by One Figure ----.--- 107

Two Figures --- 108

,, Three Figures 108

,, Factors --_- 109

Short Methods no

Short Division -.-._. m

Division by Factors - - - - - - - - - -112

Divisibility of Numbers ---------- 113

Short Methods 114

Long Division 114

Compound Rules ------ 114

The Compound Rules criticised -116

Compound Subtraction - - - - - - - - - -116

Compound Multiplication - - - - - - - - -117

1. By One Figure 117

2. By Two Figures 118

3. Different Methods 118

4. Remarks on the Methods 119

Compound Division 119

1. Short Division - 120

2. Long Division 120

The Compound Tables 121

Reduction — How to Teach it 122

TheG.C.M. or H.C.F. 123

The L.C.M. 125

How to find the L.C.M. 126

Vulgar Fractions --- 127

Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers ------ 128

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions ------ 128

Multiplication of Fractions 129

1. To multiply a Vulgar Fraction by an Integer - - - 129

2. To multiply a Vulgar Fraction by a Vulgar Fraction - - 130

3. To prove the Multiplier and Multiplicand can be interchanged

without altering the I^oduct 131

4. Harder Examples 131

Division of Fractions -- 132

Mechanical Aids for teaching Fractions 132

1. The Allied-Colour Fraction Chart 132

2. Cowham's Fractions at a Glance ------ 133

Cancelling 134

Practice - 135

Simple Practice 135

Compound Practice 136

Ratio ; Notes of Lesson 136

Proportion ; Notes of Lesson - - 137

The Unitary Method of Proportion 138

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Methods - - - 138

Decimals 139

Notation and Numeration -_- 139

xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

Decimals, Finite and Infinite -------- 139

To determine the Limit of the Number of Repeating Figures in a

Non-terminating Decimal ------- 140

To change a- Pure Circulating Decimal into a Vulgar Fraction - - 141

To convert an Impure Circulator into a Vulgar Fraction - - - 141

The Simple Rules 141

Applications of Proportion 142

Square Root ; Notes of Ixsson ..-..--.- 143

Mental Arithmetic .-.-.. 145

Objects of Mental Arithmetic - 145

How to obtain these Objects -------- 145

Tots 145

1. Arnold's Revolving Tots - - - - - - -- 146

2. The Oxford Tot Frame --«.....- 146

Some Special Rules for Mental Arithmetic 146

Typical Problems for each Standard - - 149

Examination Questions 151

CHAPTER IX.

Reading - 153

Its Value ..--.- 1^3

General Principles 153

Age to commence the teaching of Reading - 155

Infant Reading and its Difficulties - - 1^6

To teach the Alphabet 157

1. Apparatus required ----..--, 1^7

2. Capital Letters --- 157

3. Plan of Lesson -----.._- - 1^3

4. Small Letters 158

Classification of Letters 1^3

First Lessons after the Alphabet 158

Card and Primer Stage 159

Methods of teaching Reading 160

1. The Alphabetic Method 160

2. ThePhonic Method .._ 161

3. The Phonetic Method 162

4. The Look-and-Say Method 163

5. The Syllabic Method 165

6. The Method of Phonic Analysis 165

7. The Combined Method 166

8. The English Method 167

Notes of a Reading Lesson 169

How to deal with Anomalous Difficulties in Reading .... 171

Qualities of Good Reading -. 171

1. Mechanical Qualities 171

la) Pronunciation 171

ll>) Enunciation ----..-.._ 171

(V) Pitch - 172

le) Modulation and Tone - 172

/) Pace 172

(g) Accent 172

2. Mental Qualities ------..._ 173

(a) Emphasis ---.--_.__ 173

(6) Phrasing _ 173

}c) Fluency --------.._ 173

(d) Intelligence ------._._ 173

{e) Expression ---- 1^3

CONTENTS. XV

PAGE

Silent Reading ^74

Simultaneous Reading ^74

Backward Readers ^76

Reading Books - - - - i77

1. Their Qualities ^77

2. Variety ^77

3. Reading Books in Class Subjects 178

(a) Where the Class Subjects are taught 178

{/>) Where the Subjects are not taught 178

Fairy Tales as Reading Matter i79

Recitation 180

1. Physical Qualities - - - 180

2. Mental Qualities ,.__-- 180

3. Advantages ^80

4. Pieces suitable for Recitation - - • •• - - - - 181
Examination Questions 182

CHAPTER X.

Spelling 184

Ways of teaching Spelling 184

X. The Reading Lesson 184

2. Lists of Words - . - 185

3. Transcription 185

4. Dictation 185

5. Formal Spelling Lessons 185

6. General Work 185

7. Composition .---• 185

8. Observation 185

9. Literature 185

10. Spelling Contests 185

Faults in the teaching of Spelling 186

Difficulties in Spelling 186

1. Higher Classes 186

2. Preparation for Class 187

3. Lower Classes 187

The Classification of Difficult Words 188

Rules for Spelling 189

Transcription 190

1. Its Functions ^9°

2. Its Conditions 190

3. Subject Matter 191

Dictation '9^

1. Its Function »9i

2. Subject Matter 191

3. Correction 191

(a) Individual Correction by Teacher 191

(d) Monitorial Correction 192

{c) Inter-Correction 192

(</) Self • Correction 192

4. Tlie Moral Side of Correction 192

Notes on a Dictation Lesson 193

1. Class Arrangement i93

2. Class Preparation ^93

3. Dictation i93

4. Correction ^93

5. Conclusion ^94

Examination Questions i94

xvi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XI.

PAGE

Writing i95

Position for Writing 196

1. Body - ... 196

2. Slates or Paper 196

3. Light 196

4. Ink 196

5. Holding the Pen 196

MULHAUSER'S METHOD I96

Principles of Construction i97

Analysis of Movements - .- 197

Analysis of letters ...--• 197

Method of Teaching -- 198

1. Mechanical Aids .--- 198

2. Instruction and Practice -- 199

3. Classification ----- 199

(a) Right Line Link Class 199

{d) Hook Class - - - 199

{d) Loop Class --- - 199

le) Crotchet Class - 199

(/) Complex Class 199

4. Criticism - 199

Questions on Mulhauser's System 200

Heights of Letters 201

Classification of Capital Letters 201

A Scheme of Writing for Infant Schools 203

1. Preparation 203

2. Plan of a Lesson 204

3. Order of Lessons 204

The Size of Writing - - - - 207

1. Small Hand 207

2. Large Hand --- 207

Copies 207

1. Set Copies 207

2. Engraved Headlines 208

3. Copy Slips 209

Tracing 209

1. Advantages 209

2. Teaching 209

3. Disadvantages 210

How to test Writing 210

Good Writing ----...-.-. 210

1. Its Characteristics 210

2. How Secured .-._ 210

Points to be noticed in Writing Lessons- 211

Chief Errors in Writing - - - 211

How to deal with them 211

Vertical Writing 212

Slates or Pap>er ?----------- 212

Manual Employments and Writing 213

Ruling of Slates ------ 214

Examination Questions - - - - - - - -- - 216

CHAPTER XII.

Geography - 217

Objects of Teaching Geography 217

I. Primary ----.-,._,, 217

CONTENTS. xvu

PAGE

la) Maps and Plans 217

(6) Trade and Commerce .-- 217

{d) Emigration 217

{e) Naval Power 217

2. Secondary .----- 217

General Principles ----------- 218

1. Illustration ----- 218

2. Intelligence .--- 218

3. Memory ..--- 218

4. Reasoning ----------- 219

5. Graduation ----------- 219

6. Realistic .....--- 219

First I^essons in Geography -....---- 219

Plans 220

1. Simple Plans ----- 220

(a) First Ideas 221

(6) Transition Objects 222

2. Plans to Scale 222

3. Plans of the School and District ------- 223

(a) Plan of Classroom 223

h) Plan of School 224

4. Maps and Plans 224

5. Difference between a Map and a Picture 227

How to teach the Points of the Compass 228

Shape and Size of the Earth 229

1. Shape 229

2. Size 229

Geographical Definitions 230

Lesson on Capes 230

Hills and Valleys 231

Mountams ; Notes of a Lesson -. 233

Origin of Mountains 235

1. Upheaval or Elevation 235

2. Depression 235

Rivers 236

The Build of a Country 236

How to teach Latitude and Longitude 237

A Lesson on Day and Night 241

Climate - ' 243

1. Meaning 243

2. Latitude 243

3. Elevation 244

4. Nature of the Soil 244

5. Proximity to the Sea 245

6. Rainfall 245

7. Prevailing Winds 245

8. Local Circumstances 245

A Lesson on Climate as influenced by Latitude - - - - 246

Notes of a Lesson on 1 tade Winds 248

A Lesson on Rain 250

Further Suggestions on the Teaching of Geography . . - - 252

Lessons on Towns 252

Lessons on Railways 253

Lessons on Articles of Commerce - - - - ' - - - 253

Lessons on Geographical Apparatus 254

The Globe 255

xviii CONTENTS.

PAGE

1. Its principal Uses - ..-. - - - - -- 255

2. Preparatory Lessons 255

The Comparative Method .-- 255

Examination Questions - -- - - -- - - - 256

CHAPTER XIII.

History - -.. - -- 258

Value of History ..-_. 258

The Objects of History -- - - -- - -- - 259

General Hints on ^he Teaching of History - 259

260
261
262
262
262
263

Difficulties in the Teaching of Histor
Faults in the Teaching of History
History Books

Stages in Teaching History -
1, Stories -
Biographies

3. Incidents ..-- 263

4. Periods - - - - - - -- -- - - 264

5. Constitutional History - - ----- - - 264

Lessons on Reigns ---------- 264

1. Their Use - 264

2. Method of Teaching - - ~ - 264

(a) The Chronological Method ------- 264

(d) The Epoch Method 265

(d) The Classification Method - _ 265

' {e) The Biographical Method ~ -' - - -_ -_ ?■ 266

(/) The Comparative Method - - - -" - - , - 266

Notes of Lessons on Biographies ',--. - 266

Lesson on Walpole - 267

Dates in History --- 268

The Ballad in History - 269

1. Its Uses - 269

2. Its Description ----- 270

3. The Choice of Ballads 270

ia) For the Lower Standards - - 270

(3) For the Higher Standards - - - . - - - - 271

Battles - - - ----- 271

Our Institutions - - - - - - 272

Notes of a Lesson on the Policeman - - ■-.". " " 273

Notes of a Lesson on the passing of a Bill through Parliament - - 274

Examination Questions - - --" 276

" ' CHAPTER XIV.

English - - - - - - - - - - - - - 277

The Uses of Grammar -- - - -- -■ ; - - 277

Difficulties in Teaching - - - - --'- - - - - 277

Order of Teaching the Parts of Speech - - - - - - - 278

How to Teach the Predicate -- - -'- -'.- -• - 280

How to Teach the Adjective - - - ...-- -- - 281

The Adverb - - - - - - ---",,-: " " " ' 282

Pronouns - -- - - - ----- - 283

How to Teach the Case of the Relative Pronoun - - - - - - 284

Moods of Verbs - - - ~ - 285

Lesson on the Subjunctive Mood - - - - - - - 285

Tense - - ' - - 286

A First Lesson on Tense ..,,,,- ^ - 287

CONTENTS. xix

PAGE

Prepositions 288

How to Teach the Preposition 289

Parsing -- • 289

Its Difficulties and how to deal with them 289

Simple Parsing 291

Intermediate Form - - - - - - - - -- 291

Advanced Form - - -- -- - - -,- 291

Analysis - -- - 292

A Graduated Scheme of Analysis - - 292

Notes of a Lesson on the Complex Sentence . . - . _ 292

Word Building - 294

1. How to Teach Word Building - - - - - - . 294

(a) Prefixes \xt-.-_/ - - - .- - - - - 294

h) Suffixes /^ative| _ _ _. _ _ _ _ _ ^^^

Ic) Latin Elements ---.--.-- 296

(d) Greek Elements - - - -- - - -- 296

2. Word Branching 296

3. Inductive Lessons -- - 297

Rules of Concord 297

Notes of a Lesson ._- 298

Punctuation - 299

1. Its Object 299

2. What it is 299

3. Method of Teaching 299

4. The Full Stop or Period 299

5. Other Stops 300

6. The Semicolon 300

■'7. The Comma ; Notes of a Lesson - .- - -" -" - . - 300

The Teaching of English Literature - - - - - - - 302

The Teaching of Composition 303

1. Its Requirements 303

2. Its Teaching 303

(a) Oral Composition 303

h) Written Composition 304

3. The Correction of Composition - 305

Examination Questions 306

CHAPTER XV.

Elementary Science - - 308

Advantages of studying Elementary Science ----.- 308

Practical Teaching .-.-■ 309

Methods of Teaching in Elementary Science 310

1. Observation 310

2. Experiment 310

3. Illustration 311

(a) Oral 311

1. Example 311

2. Analogy 312

Pictorial 312

{c) Material ..._ 312

Tests of their Value 312

4. Classification 313

5. Reasoning 314

[a) Inductive Reasoning -------- 314

\d) Deductive Reasoning -,,--.-. 31^

1.1

XX CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

PAGE

Music - 3^6

Its Value in Schools _.-- 316

Its Aim 317

Classification 3^7

The Two Notations compared 317

Voice Training 3^8

The Common Scale - 3^9

1. The Starting Point 3^9

2. Mental Effects 3^9

The Modulator 320

Early Lessons in Tune 320

How to arrange a School Music Class 321

Ear Training 321

1. Requirements for Success 322

2. Its Stages 322

(a) Imitation 322

{l>) Discrimination 322

{c) Dictation 322

3. Teaching 323

Time and Tune combined -, -- 324

Time 325

How to give the Idea of Time 325

To Teach Accent 326

The Time Chart 326

Plan of a Lesson on Time 326

Songs 327

A. Choice of School Songs 327

1. Suitable Songs 327

2. Qualities of a good School Song 327

B. How to Teach a School Song 328

1. For Young Classes 328

2. For Higher Classes 328

Part Singing 328

1, Its Advantages 328

2. Its Teaching 328

Singing Flat 329

How to teach Rounds 329

Defects in School Singing 33°

Proper Division of Time 33°

Qualifications of a Conductor 33°

Choir Efficiency 33^

Examination Questions ---------- 331

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

CHAPTER I.
SCHOOL ECONOMY.

Physiologry and Education. — Physiology appears in the Code
as a specific subject, and as an appreciable portion of Elementary
Science and Domestic Economy. These facts emphasise its im-
portance ; but the special object attempted here is to explain that
importance by showing the mutually-interdependent relations
which Education, Psychology, and Physiology bear to each other.

1. The Popular View. — The popular mind recognises the close connection
between Education and Physiology in the use of its maxims and metaphors ;
e.g., a sound mind in a sound body ; an angry man is said to have had his bile
stirred up ; a sad or morose individual is said to be melancholy {melan, black;
chole, bile) ; an irritable or bad-tempered person often throws the blame on his
liver or nerves ; a. vindictive creature is said to be sple7ietic ; mercy is associated
with the bowels (bowels of mercy), and the gentler emotions with the heart
(tender-hearted).

2. The Scientific View. — The body is an aggregate of organs. Fatigue the
Ixxly and the organs suffer. But certain organs are the physiological support
of the brain, hence the brain suffers.

Mental activity goes with physical activity ; but too much physical exercise
is unfavourable to mental work and mental development. Conversely, too
much mental activity impairs the bodily health, as it is seen in the case of brain-
workers who suffer from headaches, nervous disorders, indigestion, etc.

Memory, physiologically, is a series of new nervous growths, and these
nervous growths are supported by nutrition, which is a physiological process.
Memory is, furthermore, a plastic property of the mind, and this plasticity may
be injured by too little or too much work. But to increase this plasticity the
brain must be worked. All these facts show that if the teacher is to treat the
subject of Education scientifically and progressively, he must be well grounded
in the elementary principles and truths of Physiology, paying special attention
to that part — nutrition — which is the basis of support to all the organs of the
body.

Headaches and Faintness. — Headaches arise from various
causes, which may require separate treatment. They may arise
from diet, or from an impure atmosphere ; from mental causes*
from overwork, or from physical causes.

1. Food Headaches. — Luxury and overfeeding may be, but in elementary
Bcbools rarely are, causes of headaches. Over-indulgence is not very prevalent,

2 ' ■ ^ 'A NEW' MANJJAL OF METHOD.

b^vhitpfopertfljet .is a (r\iit.Cu.l sou'-cc Costiveness is one result, and this causes
an unSue quantity of blood to tiow to the head, which generates a headache.
Excessive use of aperient medicine, and hearty suppers, are other causes.
Digestive disorders cause sick headaches, and, generally, anything which
tends to interfere with the circulation must be avoided. As a remedy. Domestic
Economy lessons must be utilised to encourage the pupil to take plenty of exer-
cise ; to explain the nature and effects of stimulating food ; to avoid all foods
which make too much flesh, and to drink water only.

2. From Impure Atmosphere. — If there be too nmch CO2 in the air, giddi-
ness sets in. The pressure of the CO2 in the air retards the elimination of the
CO2 from the lungs, and general nutrition is impaired. A headache is then one
of the results. Coke fires give off CO, which displaces O from the red cor-
puscles, impoverishes the blood, and causes headaches. Sulphurous acid,
which is always in the air of towns, and near fires, is also bad. Organic putres-
cible matter which is breathed forth from the lungs, exhalations from sickly
boys, and the foetid smell arising from damp clothing all taint the air and pro-
duce headaches. Foul gases from bad drainage and damp basements, the dust
in the air, chalk dust and similar impurities, and an overheated temperature are
other causes. The remedy is to seek the cause, and if possible remove it. The
lessons on health should lead to prevention, but some of these causes will be
beyond the teacher's control. Pure air and a proper diet, however, always tend
to cure.

3. From Mental Causes. — The child may be overworked. The lessons may
be too exacting for the constitution of some. The excitement of examinations,
anxiety, worry, etc., will all produce headache at times. In such cases the
teacher should shorten the hours of study, recommend more exercise, and the
keeping of the body well nourished.

i. From Physical Causes. — These will include such things as tight lacing,
tight collars, tight boots, etc. , too little or too much muscular exercise, insomnia.
The quantity of sleep required depends very largely on the work and tempera-
ment of each individual. The sufferers should be advised to dress reasonably,
to regulate the quantity of exercise taken, and to indulge in a fair amount of
sleep.

ZiIGHT. — " Light goes with knowledge, and assists to develop

mental power."

1. Direction of Light.

(1) It must not come direct from the front. This is its worst direction.

(2) It should come from a point on either side, the le/il being the best,

especially for class rooms. All other windows in class rooms should
be regarded as supplementary, or for summer ventilation.

(3) Or, it should come from a point above the shoulder.

(4) Or, from behind,

(5) It must not enter from both sides of the room, unless the room is very

large. At the same time, no school should be lighted from one side
only, but the gable ends should be fully utilised for light.

2. Diffusion of Light.

^i) Light should be equally diffused throughout the room.

(2) The main light should be from the north, because it is steadier and

cooler.

(3) The light should be abundant, but all glare should be avoided. Hence

southern windows are not the best, although there should be one
southern window for cheerfulness.

(4) The colour of the walls should assist, and grey is best for this purpose.

All kinds of glazing which diminish the light and are troublesome to
keep in repair should be avoided.

(5) The sills of the main lighting windows should be placed about four feet

above the floor, and the tops of some should always reach nearly to,

SCHOOL ECONOMY. 3

the ceiling. In fact, the higher the windows rise to the ceiling, the
better for light and ventilation. A dim religious light may be good for
sentiment, but rt is bad for health. If the windows can be placed six
or seven feet above the ground, so much the better, for the diffusion
of light is better, and shadows are avoided.

(6) When windows are low, side lights are preferable, and the left side is

always the best.

(7) A domed roof is best for light, whilst flat skylights should be protected

by proper blinds.

(8) A large portion of each window should be made to open for ventilation

and cleaning.
3. Artificial Light. — Wall lights are bad, because the air soon becomes im-
paired. Cross lights are to be avoided, because they multiply shadows. Gas
is not a desirable form of lighting from a hygienic point of view, although the
incandescent gaslight system is a great advance in this form of lighting. The
electric light would be an improvement.

VENTHjATION. — The teacher should be acqu^nted with its

main principles.

1. Its Difficulties. — These arise from various causes,
(i) The different forms of building in use.

(2) The aspect of the rooms.

(3) The nature, size, and position of the surrounding objects.

(4) The difference of constitution, temperament, and health.

(5) From overcrowding.

It will be easily understood that what may be a good arrangement for one
building may fail to suit another. If the windows face the prevailing winds,
and these happen to be of an unfavourable nature, then further difficulties are
raised. High buildings, objectionable factories, etc., when near, are all serious
considerations. But perhaps the most important of all is the negligence of
many to use the means at their disposal for good ventilation.

2. Cubic Space. — Cubic space is but little guide in school statistics, for the
number of children a room can accommodate depends on several things which
do not enter into the usual considerations of these matters. Furthermore, the
age of the children is an important factor. The Department recommends the
following desk space : —

18 inches for each junior desk.

22 ,, senior ,,

18 ,, the gangway.

But on the point of health this is not satisfactory. We each breathe about
16 times a minute, or 960 times in an hour, and every breath helps to vitiate
the air. Elach adult destroys i6*6 cubic feet of air per hour, 100 times that
quantity per hour being required to keep the air pure. Remember that three
scholars equal two adults. Now, in pure air we have '04 of COg, and i per
cent will give a headache, whilst 4 p)er cent, would be fatal. When too much
CO2 is produced a foetid smell arises, and this is the result of overcrowding or
bad ventilation. Other evils are the raising of the temperature and the pro-
duction of draughts, and to obviate these evils the room should be flushed at
frequent intervals. This is the simplest method of ventilation, and often the
only one the teacher can employ.

3. Means of Ventilation.

(i) Doors and Windows. — All windows should be made to open top and
bottom ; a slight ojx'ning both top and bottom being effectual. Win-
dows are best for ventilation, and the window space should be at least
one-fifth of the wall space. A small swing window, as far from the
lighting windows as possible, and near the ceiling, is important.

(7) Gratings. — These can be used in connection with fireplaces and stoves.

(3) Shafts.— Shafts like the vertical shaft ventilators can be used. For the
admission of fresh air a Tobin ventilating shaft in the corner of the

,4 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

room is recommended. It should communicate below with the outer
air, and open about seven feet above the floor, so as to introduce a
current of air where no draught will be felt by the head.

(4) Ventilators. — The principal use of these is to prevent the collection

of stagnant air. There are many good kinds in the market, in-
cluding the cowl ventilator, Arnot's Balance Valve, and the Louvre
Ventilators.

(5) Fireplaces. — A wide open chimney is desirable in small rooms, but they

are unsatisfactory in large rooms. Ordinary closed stoves are bad.
There should be provision for the outlet of foul air at the highest point
of the room. This can be best done by building to each room a
separate air chimney, carried up in the same stack as the smoke flues.
An outlet should always be warmed in some manner, or it will frequently
act as a cold inlet. The exits for foul air should be greater than the
entrances for pure air.

WARMING. — The warming should be moderate, and evenly
distributed, so as to maintain a temperature of from 56° to 60° F.
When a corridor or lobby is warmed, the rooms are more easily
dealt with, and are less liable to cold draughts. Where schools
are wholly warmed by hot water, the principle of direct radiation
is recommended. In such cases open grates are occasionally
useful for extra warming, and their flues for ventilation always.
Stoves can only be allowed if they are provided with proper chim-
neys, and are found not to contaminate the air, or to render it too
dry.

The Thermometer. — The walls of a school should never be
allowed to cool down below 45° F. night or day. An equable and
suitable temperature is a great desideratum for warming. The
thermometer should not be hung near a fireplace or stove, nor in
the direction of any draught, nor in too close contact with gas. It
may be hung upon a wall as near the centre of the room as pos-
sible, provided it does not infringe any of the above suggestions.
It must be hung where it will give the best measure of the average
temperature of the room, and this will depend very largely upon
the plan or shape of the room, and its locality.

Cleaning. — The following suggestions apply to the school, and
not to the home : —

1. The school should be swept and dusted each day

2. The floor should be scrubbed every few weeks.

3. The windows should be cleaned as often as the weather and other cir-
cumstances make it necessary ; but in any case once a quarter.

4. Stoves and fireplaces should be cleaned weekly. When fires cease, the
stoves, etc., should be fresh painted.

5. The walls should be swept down once a month (oftener in some cases),
and the pictures, maps, and diagrams dusted. All framed pictures should be
washed Once or twice a year.

6. Every three to seven years, depending oji the neighbourhood and use of
the schoolrooms, the whole building should be painted inside and out.

SCHOOL ECONOMY. 5

DrilL — Drill is perhaps the chief recognised means of promot-
ing Physical Education in the school, whilst the encouragement
and carrying out of games is the chief means outside the school.
Both are essential to the maintenance of a good standard of
health.

I. Its Objects.— These may be briefly enumerated as follows :

1. To promote an improved blood circulation.

2. To take away from the muscular system a tendency to improper con-
traction,

3. To aid in the formation of proper habits of subjection.

4. To act as a check against absent-mindedness.

5. To promote a love of order.

6. To afford an easy and effectual mode of promoting habits of prompt
obedience.

7. To harden and develop the muscular system generally. To improve the
health by a projser action of all the organs.

A consideration of the above will show the two main functions of drill to be
a cleansing process and development. Its influence is very wide, for it makes
healthy subjects and law-abiding citizens. It quickens the actions, and the
mind sometimes, and so makes better men of business. It encourages habits
of neatness, promptness, cleanlmess, ready obedience, and order. It develops
a love of action, which finds vent in our national games, and so acts as a great
moral agent.

H. General Principles and Rules. — These are largely
gathered from observing children at play.

1. Movements should not be confined to arms alone. The various postures
into which children unconsciously throw themselves show the necessity of exer-
cise for every part of the body.

2. No one part of the body should be exercised too long. Children illus-
trate this law by their constant change of games.

3. Begin with easy movements first ; then follow with the more fatiguing
ones; i.e., the training should be gradual.

4. The lessons should be frequent and regular. A few minutes each day is
better than one long lesson per week. In fine weather use the playground ; in
bad weather, the largest room.

5. The children must be suitably dressed. Tight fitting garments are
injurious.

6. Respiration should be perfectly free during exercise; the chest well
expanded, the head erect. A child suddenly getting red in the face should be
told to breathe freely, as checked or impeded respiration is often the cause of
the raised colour.

7. Pallor is a sign that the exercise is too severe. Withdraw such children
immediately.

8. Each movement has a definite aim in the physical education of the body.
Teachers should strive to achieve this aim by insisting on precision and
steadiness of movement.

9. The children should stand at arm's length from each other.

10. Give a few seconds' rest between each movement.

11. The teacher should correctly perform each new movement before com-
manding it to the class.

12. Corrections should be short and clear. They should be made when
children are resting.

13. Elach movement should be repeated three or four times.

14. The " word of attention," which tells children what movement is to be
taken, should be given in a calm, descriptive manner.

15. The " word of execution" should be given in a sharp, decisive manner
as a rule.

6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

THE PIiAVGROUND.

I. Physical Uses. — A playground is the lung of a school. It
is as essential to a proper and efficient education as the school-
room itself. It is the workshop for the manufacture of the sound
body, as the schoolroom is for the sound mind. It offers relief
after mental work, and brings into play the overcramped muscles.
It is a healthy agency for the overflow of that abundant spon-
taneity of child life, which may become so troublesome to disci-
pline if not regulated.

II. Its Fittings. — A playground should be fitted with gymnas-
tic apparatus, like the giant-stride, parallel bars, etc., and a drmking
fountain. One portion should always be covered in to meet cases
of bad weather. Offices should be provided, and should meet all
requirements of cleanliness, decency, and accommodation. It
should be well detached from the street (in towns), by a high wall,
by position, or by both. If large, around its edges and near the
walls, a narrow strip might be devoted to the cultivation of shrubs,
flowers, etc. It should be asphalted if possible, and drained by
the placing of small sinks, and the slight sloping of the playground
towards them.

III. Its Moral Uses. — It brings brightness to the school life,
and helps to engender a love for school by making it popular. It
is a fine training ground for the emotions. Boys learn to disci-
pline themselves in their sport, to submit their wills to the will of
others. It is a great leveller and compensating force ; for the
dullard may be a physical adept. He wins in the playground that
respect which he cannot attain in the school ; for muscle is wor-
shipped as much as brain. The bully is checked, the timid and
shy get nerve and confidence by means of the playground's super-
vised play.

rv. The Teacher's Work. — Gymnastics shoul-d be encouraged
by the teacher, and, in the case of boys, a little instruction might
be given. Supervision should always be exercised. The presence
of the teacher will often tempt a boy to try something which other-
wise might be beyond his inclination. Games calculated to de-
velop their strength, to give muscular control, to aid the growth
of the will, such as our popular games, should be encouraged,
sometimes shared, and sometimes directed by the teacher. Many
now form and take an active interest in the cricket, football, and
swimming clubs of their scholars, and they do not find it unpro-
ductive labour.

SCHOOL ECONOMY. 7

FURM IT U HE. — Students are expected to know something
about the furnishing of a workman's home, and to offer sound
opinions on it. Their knowledge is also expected to extend to the
school furniture, hence this is thought a convenient place for dealing
with several of the more important articles found in a school, such
as the school museum, desks, galleries, and wall decorations.

The School Museum. — Every school should contain its
museum, which should be formed by the pupils and staff so far as
its contents are concerned, and should not be purchased. The
managers should supply the cupboard only. It should not be
turned into a lumber cupboard, or it will smother all interest in
itself. The objects of choice will vary somewhat with the district.
Regard should be paid to local requirements and local scenery.
These considerations will regulate the choice of the special objects
for the museum, whilst there will always be a number of objects
which may find a place, and these may be called the general
objects.

1. Special Objects. — These should be classified : —

(a) Animal Kingdom. — There should be specimens of local birds and their
eggs, of insects, fish, classified feathers, bills or beaks, feet, etc., of
birds, and so on.

{d) Vegetable Kingdom.— There should be a collection of wild flowers be-
longing to the district, properly pressed and classified. There should
also be carefully prepared specimens of the leaf, the flower, the fruit
of the trees, the ferns, the grasses, weeds, cereals of the district ; sea
weed (if near the sea).

{c) Mineral Kingdom. — There should be illustrations of the geological
formation of the district. Models of the district should be made and
contributed by the teachers or scholars. If the school is near the sea,
there should be typical stones and shells from the sea shore.

(d) Manufaoturei. — The local manufactures (if any) should be illustrated as

much as possible. The material used should be shown in its various
stages. Motiels of machines might be made, and models or specimens
of tools. If the town is a port, there should be models of the various
kinds of ships and boats, and the boys should be taught to distinguish
the craft by name (sloop, barque, etc. ) ; to know the flags of the chief
countries, and for this purpose a picture of flags should be placed in
the schoolroom. If a mining town, the same method should be pur-
sued with the mine.

(e) Antiquities. — There should be drawings, photographs, and specimens

illustrating the antiquities and historical associations of near places.

2. Oeneral Objects.

(a) Scientific Apparatus.— By this is meant apparatus for object lessons
and science lessons, and, where possible, this apparatus should be
made by the pupils.

(3) Commercial Specimens.- These would include specimens of the chief
exports and imports. Where these are objects of manufacture, they
shfiuld illustrate the whole process from the raw material to the finished
article. The specimens nmst be limited to the chief only, and they

8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

should be arranged in the order of their importance, i.e., our greatest
import, export, and manufacture should have their specimens respec-
tively occupying the chief places of their class.

{c) Common Objects. — These should be limited to the commonest specimens
of the three productive kingdoms — animal, vegetable, and mineral.
Specimens of the chief woods, the chief rocks, etc. , should be arranged
in the order of their importance. Object lesson materials, in so far as
they are not what are technically known as " Scientific," should also
find a place.

{d) Inventions. — It might also be made a receptacle for the inventive facul-
ties of the children, to encourage production according to the special
tastes and talents of the pupils, and for this purpose the selection need
not be wholly scientific.

3. Its Value.

(a) It is economical, because it supplies concrete or objective information to
the pupil with the least expenditure, generally, of time and trouble.

{b) It trains the attention by fixing it and bringing interest to its aid.

\c) It stimulates observation, and the habit of care which this involves reacts
on and influences all their other work.

[d) A love of nature is encouraged, and followed by widened sympathies

and enjoyments. In this way it may prove a stepping stone to a love
of knowledge, gained by the most productive and the most pleasurable
means.

[e) It affords scope for hand and eye training; for the cultivation of tJie

senses by the manufacture of models and apparatus.

(/) It is a fine disciplinary aid. The children love such work, and by asso-
ciation get to like their school, and to take a real pride and interest in it.

{g) It widens their vocabulary. The things observed and described call
into use exact and correct language, which improves their power of
composition.

Galleries. — Infant children receive many lessons upon gal-
leries, hence it is necessary that each should be properly con-
structed and properly placed. They are rarely found now anywhere
but in Infant Departments. They are conducive to noise very
often, and for that reason are not an unmixed blessing in the prin-
cipal rooms. If the room is large, and the galleries are placed as
far apart as possible, the noise is minimised ; but a separate class
room is the best place for a gallery. On galleries for older chil-
dren desks might be placed, and then the front desk could rest on
the floor. In fact, a gallery then differs very little from the desk-
fitted, stepped floors of the modern Board Schools.

The construction of the gallery will depend somewhat upon
where its place is, and its size also. In a class room it may be
larger than in a principal room. A gallery usually contains five
parallel seats, each rising above the other like steps. Each seat
is about 14 or 15 feet long, depending on the number of children
it is intended to seat. It should be so constructed as to allow the
youngest children seats at the bottom. The following dimensions
are recommended : —

SCHOOL ECONOMY. g

(i) The rise of the seat for the youngest child should not be greater than

7 inches.

(2) This should be increased each row by half an inch for the varying ages

and sizes of the children.

(3) There should be a gang-way up either side, allowing plenty of room for

either teacher or children to ascend or descend. Sometimes there is
one central gangway, but this is not so good as the other method.

(4) There should be a sloping back fitted to each seat for the infants, about

8 inches high.

(a) It is necessary for health.

(6) It leaves the child the free use of its arms. A higher one would not.

(5) Each step should be nearly 2 feet wide, and the seat should be so

placed as to leave at least a foot behind.

i6) The walls should be boarded near the gallery.
7) There should be a hand rail suited to the size of the children, and
placed on the exposed side of the gallery. If both sides are exposed,
then there should be a railing on either side.

Desks. I. Infant Departments. — Desks are used in these

departments for writing or for kindergarten. No desks are required

for the youngest.

The height varies from \j\ to 19 J inches; the seats, from lo^ to 11^ inches.
The back rests should be curved, and the centre of support should be about
7 inches above the seat. The top of the desk should be flat. It suits for
kindergarten, but not for writing, hence the tops should be adjustable so that
they could be made horizontal or angular as required.

H. Other Departments. — The London School Board issue
some general rules on this subject, as laid down by their medical
officer.

1. The seat should not be so high as to prevent the child rest-
ing its feet upon the floor, or on a footboard, and if the latter the
knees should not be elevated.

In those classes where the scholars change places, the height of the seat
should be capable of regulation in proportion to the height of the pupils.

2. Assuming a child to be sitting upright in his seat, and the
arms to be hanging freely down, the edge of the desk next the body
should be about an inch higher than the level of the elbows in the
boys, and from li to i| inches in the girls.

If the desk be higher than this, there is a tendency for the body to be
twisted, for one shoulder to be raised above the other, with the consequent risk
of lateral curvature of the spine.

3. A line dropped from the edge of the desk ought to strike the

edge of the seat, or at a point an inch or two within it.

This arrangement obliges the child to assume an upright position, which is
best both for the eyes and the spine.

4. No seat should be without a back, and the top of this should
be one inch lower than the edge of the desk for boys, and one inch
higher than the edge of the desk for girls.

16 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

In schools which are graded, great inequalities will be found in the size of
the scholars in each room, to meet which it would be desirable to provide three
sizes of desks. In schools of mixed ages there should be a large number of
sizes.

5. The desk must not be flat. It should slightly incline towards
the child.

6. The seat should not be flat, but saddle-shaped. Change of
position will be desirable.

7. The desks must be easy of access, yet compactly arranged.
The angle of vision for the teacher should not be more than 45°.

Height and Dimensions.

(i) The sloping part of the top should be not less than 12 inches in
width.

(2) The inclination should be about 2 inches, and the slope should be about

I in 10.

(3) The flat portion of the desk with the groove should be from 3 to 32

inches in width.

(4) The proper height allows the forearm of the seated child to rest horizon-

tally upon it without discomfort.

(a) Youngest children - - 20" to 25" to the middle of the slope.

(b) Intermediate children - 22" to 26"

The seat should be 164 inches high.

(5) The back rail should be not more than 7 inches for younger children,

and not more than 10 inches for the older ones.

(6) The minimum space for each child should be 20 inches, and 22 inches

would be better.

(7) The width of the gangway should be 18 inches at least.

(8) The seats should be 8 inches wide.

Best Position in the Desk.

(i) Sit erect.

(2) Keep the eyes in a parallel line with the surface of the desk.

(3) Keep the shoulders at equal heights.

(4) Keep the elbows close to the side, and not resting upon the desk.

(5) Weakly and delicate children should have a support for the whole of

the back.

Schoolroom Decoration.

1. IValls. — These should be clean, and painted a light French
grey or pale buff. The lower part should be of wood panelling,
or, better still, of dark glazed bricks, so as to form a dado.

2. "Windows. — There should be an abundance of window-
space. Nothing tends to brighten a room like this. The blinds
should be well-kept and clean, and the frameworks should be regu-
larly painted.

3. Pictures. — Pictures of foreign scenes are interesting and
instructive, especially those dealing with primitive forms of life, like
the African, the Indian, and the Esquimaux. A few good pictures,
copies of our best masters' works, might be added. Historic pic-

SCHOOL ECONOMY. tt

tures are very interesting to children, and are all the brighter for
being coloured. Pictures of trades, brightly coloured, are also
very instructive, and very interesting, whilst a few well-chosen
Scripture prints should always find a place,

4. Maps. — Picture maps are bright and instructive, preparing
the way for the ordinary maps. Of those hanging on the walls,
the ordinary ones should be bright-coloured, and should be re-
moved as soon as they become dilapidated or dirty. In such a
condition they are little good mentally, and positively bad morally.
A few blank maps should be included among the wall decorations.

5. Diagrams. — These will include geographical diagrams for
the teaching of definitions; astronomical diagrams for lessons on
the sun, moon, and stars ; botanical diagrams for botany lessons ;
mechanical diagrams for lessons on mechanics ; zoological, for
lessons on animals, and so on. The choice of these diagrams will
be regulated by the school curriculum.

6. Honour Board. — This should form a most appreciated
portion of the wall decorations of a school.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

1. — Write out some of the chief principles to be observed in the lighting and
ventilation of schoolrooms.

2. — What directions would you give for the daily and weekly cleaning of a school-
room ? What additional cleaning is needed at longer intervals ?

3. — What are the objects of school drill? Show that it has an influence upon the
character of children and their behaviour out of school.

4.— What do you consider to be the uses of a playground, and how would you en-
deavour to make it subservient to the discipline of a school ? To what extent (if any)
would you take a personal part in the children's play?

5.— What kind of desks would you like to find in any schoolroom in which you
might have to teach writing ? Give the ground of your preference

6. — What sort of objects would you desire to collect in a school museum, and how
would you classify them and use them ?

7.— Describe the proper height and size of desks: (i) for an infant school; and {2)
for a school of older children. Say how desks ought to be placed in reference to the
light.

8. — Give a list of the maps, pictures, diagrams, and apparatus which you think ought
to be provided in a well-furnished schoolroom.

9. — What sort of decoration is most appropriate in a schoolroom, and most likely to
make it bright and attractive to the scholars?

10.— What rules should be adopted by a teacher in order to keep the schoolroom per-
fectly healthy and clean ?

11. — Describe the best system you know of drill and physical exercise for youn<;
children (a) in the schoolroom ; (l>) or in the playground : and say what sort of apparatus
would be of the most service in such exercises.

12.— Describe the most healthful and useful exercises in drill which you have seen,
and say how you would conduct them.

This Chapter is continued in the Appendix.

CHAPTER II.

DISCIPLINE.

I. "What it is. — You know a tree by its fruit, and Discipline
is known by its results.

1. It must be based on Natural Principles. — It must recog-
nise the child's love of activity and curiosity, and it must under-
stand that these and similar impulses may lead the child to do
injurious things. It must recognise the weakness of a child's
intelligence, which cannot always detect the relation between
action and result. It must recognise that character is a growth,
and that discipline is the natural trainer and corrector of that
growth.

2. Its Aims must be G-ood. — It ought to produce pupils who
are not ashamed to confess ignorance by asking a question, and
who show a willingness to be taught by any one. Do the scholars
take pains with their work ? Do they love and seek their work ?
Is the discipline sufficient to restrain all the unruly impulses of
the children ? Is it maintained by love or by fear ? Does it make
a right use of punishments, recognise the inborn idleness of some
natures, and seek to remove it ? Does it cultivate the amicable
sentiments ? Does it check and regulate moral precocity, which
is always an expensive luxury? Does it make a proper use of the
discipline of consequences ? Is it consistent, and does it tend to
develop a self-governed being ? Is it in harmony with the child's
nature, and does it possess sufficient flexibility and versatility,
which are necessary from an analysis both of children and
self?

In so far as it fails in any of these objects, it fails to be good ;
hence it is not sufficient to say that discipline is the power exer-
cised by the teacher over the children, for that power may be bad.

II. Ways and Means. — Discipline must be obtained in one of
two ways — by personal influence or by force. " It is better to
gain it by force than not to gain it at all " (Fitch).

DISCIPLINE, 13

1. Material Means.

(a) Good physical surroundings are essential. Ill furnished, badly lighted,
badly ventilated, dirty, unattractive, or badly planned buildings,
limited or insufficient playgtound accommodation, difficult or incon-
venient means of entry and egress to school or classes— all such are
impediments to good discipline.

(d) The dress, manner, voice, and bearing of the teacher should be pleasing.
{c) A certain formality and dignity should be maintained. It aids the

influence of the teacher, and generates a certain amount of advisable
awe.
(d There should be a due alternation and remission of work. Suitable
changes and a fair amount of recreation are great aids.

2. Mental Means.

{a) All duties and offences should be expressed in simple, clear, and pre-
cise language. The rules should be few and well understood.

{d) Offences should be graduated, and for this purpose the teacher must
know the principles of punishment.

{c) There should be efficient organisation, classification, and thorough
supervision.

{d} The reasons for discipline should, as far as possible, be made intelli-
gible to the children. Knowledge breeds confidence, and tends to
obedience.

(e) The methods of teaching used should be carefully studied, so as to

produce the maximum gain at a minimum cost of temper and brain.

3. Moral Means.

(a) Panishraent. — A right use of punishment is very important. Never

chide hastily, but correct with gentleness and with evidence of pain.

Seek to encourage, rather than to degrade. Have as few restraints as

possible, and gradually shift the responsibility from the shoulders of

the staff to that of the scholars. "With the elder scholars there is

nothing like a feeling of responsibility for the production of a healthy

discipline, although, at the same time, it must be remembered that

this is not recommended for young children. Every teacher possesses

more or less tact, and the quality of his discipline will largely depend

upon what use he makes of this important talent.

By tact is meant a keen observation of what is going on, of everything within

the knowledge or experience of the teacher, and a readiness to convert these

extraneous incidents into immediate allies. Nor does it finish with a quick

and thorough observation. There must also be good and swift discrimina

tion for the exercise of sound j udgments.

{6) Government. — Avoid over-government. This is the antithesis of feeble

government, and is, perhaps, as much to be condemned. The teacher

must remember that authority exists for the benefit of the governed —

not for the governors. For this purpose the voluntary dispositions of

the children should be trusted as much as possible. A good class

opinion should be created, as well as a pride in the moral condition of

the school.

4. Older Children as an JUd to Discipline.

(i) By their own example they can aid, for imitation is the strongest faculty
in children. Admiration and esteem for the elder scholars is generally
manifested by the younger ones, and they always evince great pleasure
at recognition or notice by the elder ones.

(2) By supervision. The qualities mentioned should be turned to account
by the elder scholars to dd in the maintenance of discipline, both out
of and in school They can share the games of the younger ones, or
they can control them. They can act as monitors, assist in regulating
assembly or dismissal, and generally hold a light controlling hand
over their younger schoolfellows.

14 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

(3) By protection. They could and should aid to protect the property of
the school, the persons of the scholars, and the character and reputa-
tion of the school.

ORDER. — Order is the groundwork and essential of all method.
Just as order is said to be Heaven's first law, so should it be made
the first law of life, whether in school or out. Without it efficient
instruction is impossible. The best economy of time and force
demands a place for everything, and everything to be in its place.
There is a time for everything, hence there must be definiteness
and an absence of procrastination. Order involves the doing of
the right thing in the right way, time, and place by the right
person.

How to get it.— The teacher should demand order, and then
see that he gets it. He must have a perfect control over himself
and over the school. He must be quiet in voice and manner, and
his voice must be heard as rarely as possible for the efficient dis-
charge of his duties. He must be orderly in his habits, person,
and school arrangements. He must be quick of eye and ear, and
possess tact, if he is to be something better than a drill sergeant.
He must feel and show sympathy with the scholars in their work
and play. He must have just and intelligible rules, and these
must be uniformly enforced. He must avoid over-government, as
it is irritating and wasteful.

There must be regularity in the school movements, and a cer-
tain amount of uniformity. Industry must be enforced, and quiet-
ness must be ensured — not too much quietness, as it is unnatural to
child life, and bespeaks restraint rather than order. The busy hum
of an industrious school is no evidence of a lack of order. Orderly
methods of work should be demanded and taught, with neat and
well-arranged slate and paper work. The children should always
be arranged in an orderly manner. The appointment of monitors,
curators, etc., will conduce to order, and a good time-table will
assist. Finally, the teacher should see that there is good organi-
sation, classification^ and careful supervision, with good and com-
fortable physical surroundings, i.e.., a well-warmed, well-lighted,
well-ventilated, and well-furnished school.

parentaIj co-operation.

A great deal of importance should be attached to this, and it
will pay the teacher to get known among the parents of his pupils.
Circumstances may vary, and each teacher may probably be the
best judge as to the best means of doing this in his own particular

DISCIPLINE.

case. Nevertheless, a few suggestions are here offered for any
cases where they may be appHcable, and are wanted.

1. Correspondence. — A great deal may be done by a judicious
letter now and then for special cases ; but, as a general method, it
would be too expensive in time. It cannot, from staff limitations,
be used as a sole means ; yet it is a good ally to other means.

2. Visits. — These are very productive so far as they go,
whether paid or received ; but necessarily they cannot go very
far.

3. School Entertainments. — These may take the form of
concerts, entertainments, or prize distributions, and they are the
best means at the teacher's disposal for securing the object de-
sired. The parents generally like to attend such meetings, and in
this way they get to know the teacher, and to be known, in a
pleasant manner; both parents and children see the social side of
the teacher's character. Experience recommends this method.
It is a good investment for the teacher; for discipline becomes
easier, attendance better, and parental support more general.

4. Iiocal Residence. — To reside among or near the parents is
to place one's-self in a favourable position to become known and
appreciated. Unfortunately, in many of the large towns, it is
scarcely oossible for teachers to reside in the locality of their
schools.

5. Iiocal Affairs.— The teacher can interest himself in local
affairs. This will bring him under the notice of the parents; he
will be better known, and light goes with knowledge. He will be
better treated, better respected, better appreciated as ignorance
of him, and perhaps prejudice in some cases, slowly melt away
before a growing knowledge of his character. The multifarious
associations, classes, societies, etc., in most parishes, will give
him ample opportunity. The Vestries, Councils, and Corporations
will give him an opportunity sometimes of serving his fellow-
townsmen in a voluntary capacity, and of forming a powerful
circle of friends and supporters.

6. Ijocal Press. — Where possible, he should enlist the aid of
the local press, which is sure to be read by many of the parents.
Report the successes of the school ; its meetings, social and other-
wise; the performances of distinguished scholars. The interest
of the scholars and parents will be aroused, their sympathies en-
'isted, and their co-operation stimulated.

i6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

AUXII.IARV MEANS OF TRAINING.

Besides the usual course of school work, an excellent school
seeks by other means to be of service to the children who attend
It. Such means would embrace many expedients, among which
the following would be included : —

1. Recreation. — The establishment of Athletic Clubs, such
as football, cricket, and swimming, is now very general. A
Ramblers' Club affords pleasure and profit if the teacher knows
some Natural History. In each case the teacher should support
the club by his presence. The manly and useful qualities, so well
inculcated by our English games, when properly played, are
among the most valuable results of our educative system. Con-
certs have already been referred to. The establishment of a
School Library would supply another healthy and educative
source of recreation, and would help to form that love for sound
literature which is such a blessing in after life.

2. Assistance. — Thrift might be encouraged by the adoption
of Penny Banks. The teacher might also seek to cultivate influ-
ence with neighbouring employers, so as to help to place some of
the boys when leaving school. Other means of assisting will
probably present themselves. Locality may afford or deny advan-
tages of this sort, but where the teacher shows practically that he
is concerned about the future welfare of his scholars, his influence
will be none the less, and his success will be all the greater. In
the poorest districts, the practical interest shown by the teachers
in the penny, half-penny, and free dinners, and their appeals for
cast-off clothing, is splendid evidence of the missionary spirit
which many of them bring to bear upon their work.

PUNISHMENT.

I. Its Limits. — The subject of punishments is the most difficult
and the most vexed in school management. There is a great and
striking diversity of opinion on the subject. The teacher must
remember that all punishment is suffering, and, as such, is an evil.
Hence it should only be inflicted when necessary; and since it is
intended to supply a counteracting force, weak punishments may
be the worst of punishments. A pupil should never be punished
at the moment of offence ; never when he is not expecting it ; and
for serious cases ^always in private. The teacher should always
look for the motive, as it is that which has to be checked ; and
only punish when that motive is a, ba,d one. To punish judiciously

DISCIPLINE. 17

and profitably much experience is required. Young teachers have
not this experience, hence if they punish at all they should begin
with light punishments. Unjust punishments are injurious mor-
ally, mentally, and physically. They breed bad feeling between
teacher and class ; they check the activities of the child, and often
place the teacher in a dangerous and uncomfortable position.
Hence seek to limit them as much as possible.

H. Cases for no Punishment. — These, as laid down by
Bentham, are : —

1. Where It is Groundless.— These would include such cases as these : —

(a) Where there has been no real mischief.

\b) Where the mischief is overweighted by a greater benefit.

a. Where it is Inefficacious.— Such cases exist when : —

(a) The penalty has not come under the child's notice.

(b) Or, when he is unaware of the consequences of his act.
{c) Or, when he is not a free agent.

3. Where it is Unprofitable —This includes cases where the evil of the
punishment exceeds the evil of the offence ; or when it is likely to be useless
through a weak will. The teacher must know what these evils are to measure
them. Such evils of punishment would include : —

(a) Coercion or restraint.

{b) The uneasiness of apprehension.

(d) The suffering caused to sympathisers with the sufferers.

4. Where It Is Needless. — It is needless when the end can be obtained in
some other way ; as by instruction, persuasion, etc. Such cases would include
obstreperousness in boys, some forms of crying, and cases in which the disci-
pline of consequences avails.

m. The Amount of Punishment. — The amount of punishment
will be a varying quantity, but whether much or little, it should
always be such as will be most likely to deter from any repetition
of the offence. Some of these are worse than others, and demand
a greater punishment; eg.., truancy and untruth should be
punished more severely than simple truancy. The same punish-
ment for the same offence in all cases alike would be unfair,
for it makes no allowance for age, constitution, position in the
school, etc., and ignores the individuality of the child. Then the
less certain a punishment, or the longer it is delayed, the greater
it should be, for penalties that are uncertain or remote fail to
influence the child's mind. Sometimes a punishment may be
well suited in quality, but it only exists in one absolute quantity
Nevertheless, it may be advisable to employ it, although it may be
a little beyond the measure of the offence ; e.g., Expulsion, Dismissal
from Office, etc., and this may be thecase more particularly when the
punishment constitutes a moral lesson. In any case, if the punish-
ment is more likely to do harm than good, it should be omitted.

ig A NEW MANUAL oF METHOD.

TV. Selection of Punishment. — In selecting a punishment, so
far as is possible, the teacher should try to fit it to the offence.

If the punishment is well fitted to the offence, the child begins
to see that some offences carry more suffering than others, and so
soon learns that there are degrees of guilt. The selection having
been made the infliction of the punishment should be made as
impressive as possible in its application, so as to afford an example
to others. Again, where possible, the punishment should be so
selected as to tend to reform by weakening the seductive and by
strengthening the preserving motives, as in giving a habit of
industry to the idle. The punishment selected may sometimes
need to embrace and enforce compensation, as in making a child
pay for damage to school property, and in the making up of neglected
lessons. Then the punishment should be so chosen, where possible,
that it could be remitted in case of mistake. Punishments like
Corporal Punishment, Detention, etc., are inapplicable in such
cases, but Deprivation of Marks, Deposition from Office and other
like punishments would be available. But whatever the punish-
ment selected may be, it should be well within the child's under-
standing, and such as will gain the sympathy and support of the
school ; otherwise it is weak and badly chosen.

V. Kinds of Punishment.

1. Blame. — All forms of censure may be used, because they are a good
and ready method. But the teacher should be sparing of it. Righteous and
controlled indignation is a powerful weapon, which should be reserved for
special occasions.

2. Shame.— Appeals should be made to the sense of shame. It is powerful
with many, but not all. It depends for its value on the sensitiveness of the
pupil, and class opinion. It is not suited to great offences, and so generally is
uselul only for first offenders. Iteration weakens it.

3. Detention.— The stopping of play and loss of liberty are very irritating
to children. Hence detention should be used for great and habit offences like
riotous behaviour and un punctuality. Bain thinks it a bad form of punishment.

4. Pleasure. — The deprivation of some object of pleasure is a good form of
punishment where applicable. There is another application of this punishment
which is recommended by Locke. Take the offence itself and dose the offender
until he is salted with it.

5. Impositions. — Here the pain lies in the weariness produced. There is
also the irksomeness of confinement. They might be used for neglect of lessons,
for unpunctuality, and for disobedience. But there is a strong division of
opinion about their value. It is asserted, with some truth, that they create a
distaste for school work, and so while checking one evil they produce another.
By some they are even considered barbarous.

6. Maries. — The giving of bad marks may be useful, especially if it is pos-
sible to erase them by subsequent good conduct.

7. Corporai Punishment.— See Section VII.

8. Expulsion. — This should be a last resource. Its failing is that it is not
always available in an elementary school.

DISCIPLINE.

VI. Objectionable Forms of Punishment. — Such punish-
ments as a box on the ear, blows on the head or face, pulling the
hair, pinching the ears, rapping knuckles, standing on one leg,
crucifixion (standing with extended arms), impositions (according
to some people), should all be strictly avoided. The dark room and
the cupboard are barbarous and dangerous punishments. The fool's
cap, the label, or the sandwich boards degrade the pupil in the
estimation of his fellows, and often harden the culprit himself.

VH. Corporal Punishment.— This is the most vexing form of
this most vexed question of school management. Opinions on it
are so conflicting, that any pronounced opinion is sure to offend
some people. But our best educational authorities consider there
are times when it is necessary, and when it would be a mistake
not to use it.

Objections to Corporal Punishment.— John Locke gives the
following objections to its use : —

(1) There is in us a natural propensity to indulge in corporeal and present
pleasure. This wants rooting out. But corporal punishment strengthens
the propensity by appealing to it. A child who abstains from any act
through fear of corporal punishment only prefers a greater corporeal
pleasure, or avoids a greater corporeal pain.
{2) By association, it breeds aversion to that for which it is the teacher's

business to create a liking.
(3) It is a slavish discipline, and makes a slavish temper.
{4) It often— in severe cases— brings a worse and more dangerous disease,
by breaking ike mind. Instead of a disorderly boy you get a low-
spirited, moping boy.

VIII. Toung Teachers and Corporal Punishment. — Young
teachers should be restricted from the use of corporal punishment,
both for their own sake, and for the sake of their scholars.

For the Scholar's Sake.

1. The infliction of corporal punishment
is the most difficult and the most unpleasant
part of a teacher's work ; and, therefore, for
the sake of the scholars, it ought to be in-
flicted only by those presumably most fit to
do this delicate work.

2. Scholars are more ready to admit its
justice from an older or principal teacher.

3. There is apt to be in young teachers :
(a) More zeal than discretion ;

(6) More feeling than judgment ;

4. It tends to harden and demoralise, and
not to elevate.

5. It checks the will without disciplining
it. and so makes the scholar less fit for
work.

For the Teacher's Sake.

1. The work is so unpleasant that young
teachers should rather avoid than seek it.

2. Generally, it is against the opinion of
School Boards, the public, the parents, the
press, and the magistrates; and an antago-
nism to so many authorities, and its conse-
quent risks, is too big a price to pay for the
authority in question.

3. It breeds bad feeling between pupils
and teachers, and so discounts the efficiency
of the work.

4. It often breeds insubordination when
inflicted by a young teacher.

5. Punishment, for the most part, is nega-
tive in its effects. It weakens vital force,
and »o discounts work. It deters rather
than excites to activity.

20 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

REVTARDS.

1. Principles underlying their Use. — i. A child should do its
lessons and behave itself properly from a sense of duty ; but, un-
fortunately, the sense of duty is weak in a child, and has to be
cultivated. For the adequate accomplishment of our duty a moral
impulse is at least occasionally necessary. But a moral impulse
involves a moral sense, and here again we find children lacking.
The cultivation of a proper moral sense is the great aim of school
education on its moral side, and this is the work of years. Then,
as the motives are weak, some inducements to right conduct must
be held out to children : hence the necessity for rewards. The
natural appetite of a healthy child is for play, and as all work
cannot be made play, then rewards become necessary as an in-
ducement.

2. But the proper bestowal of rewards involves the exercise of
wisdom and justice. When to bestow them, why they are
bestowed, and the amount to be bestowed, are three problems
difficult to solve in some cases. Their moral effect must not be
wasted or lost. The ground on which they are given is all-impor-
tant. Effort and industry should be encouraged rather than intel-
lectual ability ; moral work, rather than mental merit.

3. Rewards should not be too freely bestowed in the early
stages of child life, for that is the period for developing the social
sentiments, and emulation or rivalry is an anti-social emotion.

II. Rewards as Inducements to "Work. — i. — They are an
incentive to work, because they appeal to the love of gain , the love
of approbation, the love of power, and kindred emotions. The risk
attached to them is that they are apt to be looked upon as an end
rather than as means.

2. They are a means of interesting the parents in the progress
of their children.

3. They incite to obedience, and so strengthen the formation of
good habits.

4. They often raise the successful pupils in their own and the
estimation of the other pupils. They thus breed respect, which
may be valued more than the reward itself.

5. They set up a pleasant and profitable association between
industry and the best form of rewards.

6. They make a powerful appeal to emulation ; and the desire of
surpassing others, of gaining distinction, of acquiring fame, is the
most powerful known stimulant to intellectual work.

DISCIPLINE. 21

7. Rewards bestow pleasure, and pleasure is one of the most
powerful of motives.

8. Rewards are positive in their effects ; punishments are nega-
tive : hence they are a better weapon than punishments.

TTT School Rewards.

1. Place Taking. — This appeals powerfully to emulation.

2. Decorations. — These are of a simple character,

3. School PrlYileges.— These include such things as the right to occupy
certain places, to fill certain oj^ces like that of monitors, curators, librarians
of the school library, the marking of certain forms of school work, etc.

4. Prizes.— These can take the form oi books, certificates^ medals, and scholar-
ships. Their effect varies. They often stimulate rivalry, which is an anti-social
feeling ; or they may call forth the best of the social emotions— love for parents,
respect or love for the teacher, and the consequent desire to give the loved or
respected ones pleasure by the gaining of a prize. They often have a wider
effect. There is the bitter feeling of disappointment in the less successful
scholars, which may harden into indifference and a subsequent lack of effort,
or there is the arousing of jealousies, envy, and a sense of injustice, A failure,
rightly utilised, should become a further stimulus to success.

5. Esteem, Praise. — These are very powerful incentives to the mind, but
they must be used judiciously to be effective. A pleasant association grows up
between right conduct and praise ; and later, the right conduct becomes a
habit, and sufficiently strong to exist independently of the association.

GOOD IklANNERS.

Good manners are a matter of breeding or habit, hence any
efforts in the direction of good manners must go through habit.
If home influences are antagonistic, the task is rendered more
difficult ; but this difficulty ought to stimulate to greater effort.

1. Imitation.— The imitative faculty is strong in children, hence the teacher
should always be well mannered before his pupils. He should see that they
are well mannered to him and to each other, and both should be well mannered
to visitors and officials, and in their private life. The better mannered boys
might be held up as an example to the rest. This could be done in many ways
without obtruding such pupils directly on the notice of their fellows.

8. Their Importance.— The teacher should make his class thoroughly
understand the importance he attaches to good manners. There is a tendency
toooftt;n to think too much of intellectual excellence, and to take excellence in
bearing as a matter of course. If the class once understands that the teacher
attaches as much importance to good manners as to good scholarship, the im-
provement will be rapid .nnd wide.

8. Rewards.— These should be given for conduct as well as for ability.
Good manners form a large element in conduct, and their cultivation will thus
be encouraged. Rewards should not only go to the clever. Remember that
education is moral as well as mental.

4. Good Company.— This is another opportunity for imitation. Take the
children mio good company whenever pKjssible. Let them mingle with and
see the manners of Ix'tter bred people than themselves.

6. Self Respect. — Inculcate a feeling of proper self-respect. Do not let
there be too much humility, or hypocrisy or bashfulness will be the result, and
both are ill-bred. But encourage such a feeling as will prevent any slight or
disrespect in their manner to any one. A person who respects himself usually
shows some respect to other people.

6. Caltivate their Dispositions.— Quickly and continuously cultivate their
dispositions, seeking to produce such a disposition as will make them very

22 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

reluctant to offend any one ; and then aid them to show that disposition in the
most agreeable way possible. In this way they will gradually become quiet
and rcHned in their general bearing. Especially will a well-bred person seek
to avoid makmg any one uneasy in conversation.

7. Good Literature. — Place good literature in their way. Let them read of
cultured and refined people ; imbibe cultured and refined thoughts ; and the
mellowing influence of such agencies, though probably slow in operation, will
certainly bear fruit by improving their manners.

ANGER.

I. Causes. — Anger may be aroused by any number of specific
causes, such as an injury, real or supposed ; unfair or capricious
treatment, unnatural restraints of discipline, physical pain, spite,
envy, or jealousy. But all these specific causes range themselves
easily under one generic head — the sense of injury.

II. Treatment.— Its treatment is difficult. The angry child
is both physically and mentally disturbed. If the anger is exces-
sive, the action of the heart is impeded, and the face turns pale.
The digestive and other functions naturally suffer from the with-
drawal of blood and nervous power. Or the excessive activity of
the system engendered by anger may cause the face tO' redden,
the veins to distend, and the action of the heart to quicken. This
rousing of activity is characteristic of rage, and the child is in a
very excitable condition altogether.

The child is equally disturbed mentally. There is a shock of
pain which discomposes the system ; a deep rankling pain, which
wants to retaliate ; a state of feeling, which turns the pain to joy
if the retaliation is successfully effected.

A little knowledge of this sort shows the teacher the difficulty
of his task. The child is in no fit state for argument or punish-
ment. The first effort must be to soothe the child, and to restore
him to something like a normal physical and mental condition.
This will depend largely upon the temperament of the child, and
the nature of the provocation. An unintended injury is easily
satisfied, but injury done designedly is not so easily removed.

(i) Bearing these facts in mind «/ a subsequent pei'iod, when anger has
decreased or disappeared, the teacher might make some effort to
strengthen the child against any similar outbreak. If any immediate
action is taken at all, it should take one of two forms : —
(i) The voluntary self-humiliation of the wrongdoer.

(2) A compulsory humiliation inflicted upon the wrongdoer. Bain assures us
that both of these are found to answer their end.

(2) Later on the teacher might point out the dreadful effects of anger. He

might show how it exhausts the energy; gives pain and annoyance to
others ; makes enemies ; and brings dishke and distrust. Angry
people are wisely shunned.

(3) He should appeal to the class to bear and forbear ; to avoid anything

likely to provoke to anger.

DISCIPLINE. 23

(4) He should seek to cultivate the rejlective powers of the child, and this

will give him a healthier view of the irritating causes.

(5) Where possible he should trust to the discipline of consequences, for

anger often brings its own punishment.

(6) Where it leads to acts oi deliberate cruelty it must be checked, even at

the expense of considerable severity.

(7) He should appeal to the child s will, and make him understand that he

should be the master, not the slave of his passions. He might also
gently remind him that public opinion considers anger to be short
madness.

(8) Perhaps the best method of all will be \.o cultivate the social feelings ;

to appeal to the higher side of the child's nature.

OBSTINACnr.

This is a fearful fault of temper in children, and one especially
hard to deal with. Its treatment should depend upon its cause,
and will often differ. Its detection is not always easy, for there
may be states of mind which may be mistaken for it. We will
first of all deal with those.

I. Mistaken Obstinacy

1. Stupidity. — This is often mistaken for obstinacy by inexperienced or
careless teachers. The natural obtuseness which keeps a child dumb when
questioned, the lack of intellect which handicaps him in the right interpretation
of work and rule, and often the consciousness of his own stupidity, are factors
giving a product which wears the garb of obstinacy.

2. Physical Weakness. — This may not allow a child the necessary strength
or energy for the proper performance of school duties. There is a shrinking
from the censure expected or received ; a sort of passive suffering, lacking the
necessary strength-fed courage. But it is not obstinacy. It is not a fault of
tempser, but of constitution.

3. Fear. — Here the pupil will be in an extreme state of misery and depres-
sion. All the activities are prostrated, and as a result the child will be afflicted
with exaggerated ideas in all matters associated with this emotion. Remember
the pain of fear is double, the present pain being augmented by a prospect of
future pain, increased by uncertainty. It is a most destructive feeling. It
wastes the energy of the child and scatters his thoughts, and consequently it is
a great hindrance to progress. Generally it paralyses effort, and this is mis-
taken for obstinacy.

Treatment. — In all these cases there is no voluntary resistance, but constitu-
tional defects, and punishment is unwise and unjust. The child does not
require correction, but assistance; not severity, but sympathetic patience.

n. Real Obstinacy. — This may originate in several ways.

1. The Teacher.— Harshness in manner and treatment ; a querulous nature
with its chronic fault-finding ; the sneer, sarcasm, or other mode of irritating
language; demanding too much of the pupil, and meeting failure with punish-
ment — all these are provocative of real obstinacy.

2. Fitfal Obstinacy.— Here the obstinacy is a fluctuating and uncertain
quantity. Its cause may be any of those specified, but its uncertainty is its
chief characteristic. Wounded vanity is often the guilty agent.

8. Vicious Obstinacy.— I'his is a bad fault of temper, and is generally
indicative of a low moral tone, or of a strong development of the anti-social
emotions. The pupil deliberately defies authority, makes himself a nuisance,
and often Ixxomes a force by the mere natiu-e of his objectionableness.

Treatment.

(a) Here the fault lies with the teacher, and the remedy also. Let him
improve himself, and the evil will disappear.

24 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

(d) In the second case an effort must be made to turn the sympathy of the
class against the boy. This being done, the boy is attacked in his
most vulnerable point. In extreme cases, separation from his school-
fellows or expulsion may be used.

{c) There is some division of opinion among our best authorities as to the
proper treatment in the tiiird case, but there are certain recommenda-
tions common to all.
(i) Do not let the boy think you mistrust him.

(2) The teacher must be firm, unruffled, and reasonable. No personal motive

mlist be present.

(3) Avoid a contest with the boy if possible, but if you enter upon it you must

win.

(4) Enlist the sympathies of his fellows against him.

(5) Most authorities consider this a fit case for corporal punishment, but only

use it in extreme cases. Separation and reflection may render it unneces-
sary.

(6) Victory must be followed by gravity and kindness

(7) Incorrigible cases must be expelled.

CRYING.— According to Locke, there are two kinds of
crying : —

1. Stubborn and Domineering. — This kind of crying is a striving for mas-
tery. Children want their own way, and as they have not the power to obtain
their desire, they will by their clamour and sobbing maintain their right to cry.
If you permit this kind of crying, you merely encourage the child's unreason-
able desires.

Try persuasion at first, or divert their attention, or give them a little good-
humoured banter. But the circumstances of the case and the child's temper
must be considered. If these fail, use severity ; for where a look or command
will not do it, corporal punishment must, for it is nothing but obstinacy. The
will must be bent, for there the fault lies. It may involve a contest, .and,
unless the crying is stopped, or its nature changed, then the whipping has been
useless. Hence each case must be guided by its own circumstances.

2. Sorrow or Pain. — This kind of crying can be easily distinguished from
the former. Crying is the first and natural way for children to declare their
sufferings or wants ; and this needs to be remembered, especially in infant
departments. But where it is passing into a habit it should be stopped.
Gentle means will suffice. Children should be taught to bear physical pain
or disappointment without crying. When they suffer little knocks and bruises
through heedlessness, it is not pity they want but caution. Locke even sug-
gests that we should bid them do it again. His great idea is to harden children.
He says they should have no tenderness but what rises from an ingenuous
shame and a quick sense of reputation.

CRUEIjTY'.

1. Natural Tendency. — There is a natural tendency in some children to
cruelty. The sympathies and affections of children are often but little de-
veloped in character, and where the contrary passions are unusually strong,
pure malevolence bestows intense pleasure. Cruelty may arise from thought-
lessness or ignorance, as when a boy tortures a fly ; but every teacher of any
experience knows that there are natures prone to voluntary cruelty. The
character is often illustrated in literature — the Quilp of Dickens being a well-
known instance. The anti-social feelings are strong in children, and cruelty is
a development arising from them. A child is fond of domineering. The
checking of this arouses antagonism. He resents injuries", real or supposed,
and shows his resentment by striking other children. Nor is cruelty confined
to physical pain only. We are early taught to hurt nobody by word or deed.
The tongue, and a line of conduct painful to those who love us, are other
familiar instances.

Cruel children may make cruel adults, hence cruelty should always be
checked. Neither teacher nor scholar can afford to be cruel, for cruelty is

DISCIPLINE. 25

hated with a fearful hatred. Children should be bred up in abhorrence of
cruelty, and taught that nothing should be spoiled or destroyed but for the sake
of something better.

2. Habit and Custom. — These often engender cruelty. Harsh laws, whether
in the home or school, do this. Many foolish parents whip their children for
everything. Some teachers are too prone to the use of the cane. The teacher,
by his own example, and by a kind and judicious rule, can do something to
check this.

3. History. — There is often a large element of fighting and killing in history.
Honour and renown fall more readily upon conquerors than upon others. The
press and literature of the country sometimes aid in the same way. As a check
to this the teacher should make a wise selection of reading matter, and his
history lessons might be regulated for the same purpose.

4. Games.— Some of our games which, rightly played and under a right
discipline, are checks to cruelty, may be, and olten are, abused instead of used.
They may become mere channels for cruelty. Games must be encouraged,
but the teacher must strive to regulate and discipline them.

5. Animals. — Cruelty often shows itself in the treatment of animals. A
few natural history lessons, given with kindness as an aim, would check this.
To cure cruelty is difficult, and often slow. Fighting, fagging, bullying, and
tyrannising are common school forms of it. A hatred for all forms must be
implanted. Sound principles of religion and morality will aid to check it, and
the teacher must practise kindness both in word and deed.

6. Harshness. — " As is the teacher such is the child," is a scholastic truism
within reasonable limits. The plastic nature of children is easily moulded for
good or evil. Perhaps the teacher's character is the greatest influence bearing
upon the children in this respect. It is useless to preach kindness and practise
harshness. If children are to grow up with happy and cheerful tempers, then
one important essential is that the teacher should be of a happy and cheerful
temp>erament. Harshness is often the attendant of impatience. But a teacher
must be patient, because the best results of his work are s^ow to show them-
selves. A bad temper is a source of perpetual irritation and misery in school.
" A boy compelled for 5^ hours a day to see the countenance and hear the
voice of a fretful, unkind, hard, or passionate man, is placed in a school of
vice" (Fitch).

KINDNESS.

1. Its Scope. — Kindness is another name for benevolence, and some autho-
rities assert that benevolence includes all the virtues. The ideal to aim at is to
love your neighbour as yourself. It includes an internal factor— the cultivation
of the affections in oneself; and an external factor — the promotion of happiness
in others.

2. Its CnltiTation. — The teacher must practise benevolence. He must do
deeds of kindness, for affection is shown in good actions. He must also teach
the children to show kindness to each other. His discipline must be gentle,
firm, considerate, and even generous. He must nevertheless be just before
being generous, for the sp>ecial function of kindness only begins where justice
ends. The pupil should also be taught that he owes slight services to his
fellows; i.e., he should be "obliging". Any little service which can be done
without inconvenience may be mutually demanded. Finally, he should culti-
vate sympathy, which is something more than general benevolence.

COVTARDICX:.

Cowardice is one of the results of fear, and it has in it an
element of meanness. It produces a general depression of tone;
and mental depression, however arising, is exaggerated distrust of
good and anticipation of evil. The susceptibility to fear in the

26 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

young, to a certain extent, may be a nervous property ; but the
teacher must remember that there are certain temperaments, like
the passive and susceptible, which are prone to it. Its cure should
be sought through its causes. An effort should be made to dis-
cover these and to remove them.

1. Frights. — Keep the children free from all kinds of frights. Bogey
stories, ghosts, etc. , should be abstained from by those who have to deal with
young children. A fright may leave a permanent injurious effect. Punish-
ments, especially when they are excessive or capricious, often produce frights.
Shutting children in cupboards, and locking them in dark rooms, are also
some causes of frights. Violent threats and outbursts of temper are others.
Avoid all.

2. Ignorance. — This is a fertile source of fear, and is very productive of
cowardice in weak minds. Knowledge is the remedy. Perhaps no grander
result is accruing from the general teaching of science than the disappearance
day by day of those bits of superstition which often terrified the people and fed
a feeling of cowardice. Uncertamty is a species of ignorance, and is thus
sometimes productive of fear or cowardice. Here the teacher should try to
work through its counteractive, and to cultivate a feeling of composure or cool-
ness in the presence of danger, real or fancied. The pupils should be taught
to get a measured estimate of the danger, and then to make a sufficient effort
to overcome it.

3. Ill-Health. — Cowardice may frequently arise from a weak body, and
here it might more justly be called something else. Such cases require kindness,
sympathy, and forbearance. The best remedies are beyond the teacher's reach,
for they include good or improved conditions of life. But a certain amount of
familiarity with, and a knowledge of the objects feared may be beneficial.

4. Association.— Cowardice may arise by association. To check or cure it,
form new associations of a stronger and conflicting character. Divert their
thoughts, and mix pleasant things with the diversion.

5. Moral Cowardice. — Here the moral sense is weak, and needs cultivation.
The higher emotions must be developed, and this will be a slow process.
There is a weakness of motive, both in duty and in prudence. The cure is to
give the child new motives. Withhold him from all strong temptations. It
often arises also from weak intellect. " Please, sir, I couldn't help it," is a
common excuse ; and here the pupil pleads his moral weakness in extenuation
of his offence. Some punishment must be given, so that he may act differently
when the same conditions again arise.

6. Heredity. — A family, like a nation, may be cowardly by nature. The
process of cure is perhaps the hardest and slowest of all.

OBEDIENCE.

There can be no school without government, and no govern-
ment without obedience. Obedience is a habit, and an important
one both lor the individual and the State. It is not easy in its
first stages with some children, as it involves the submission of
their own will to that of another. The child has to learn to con-
trol its own will, and this control is a resultant of several com-
ponents. It has to learn to respond to the word of command, to
imitate movements at sight, to act on a wish. There are several
kinds of obedience, the best of which is cheerful and willing. The
motives are the index of the kind.

DISCIPLINE. 27

1. Slave Obedience. — This is such obedience as a slave gives to a master;
a dog to a whip, a horse to a spur ; a child to the cane. The motive is weak,
for it generally springs from a hope of favours to come, or from fear of some
punishment. It manufactures a fair proportion of hypocrites.

2. Military Obedience.— This is the obedience of habit. There is no why
or wherefore offered. The obedience is demanded, and it has to be given. It
is a prompt species of obedience, brought about by a perfection of drill. Re-
petition fixes it There is no cruelty necessarily attached to it; no fear. It is
a matter of habit pure and simple, such as one sees in the army, navy, and cer-
tain schools. It is pleasing to look at because of its smartness, and is apt to
impress the martinet official favourably. It is always mechanical, and gene-
rally unsympathetic Its failing is that it leaves the character weak, and the
child is launched into the world subject to all the dangers which threaten a
weak will.

3. Cheerftil Obedience. — This implies respect on the part of the pupils for
the teacher, and it is obtained by a skilful use of natural principles. Affection
is called to aid, for a child obeys willingly where it loves. Then, in a kind
manner, it takes advantage of the sense of dependence in children, w hich arises
from their ignorance and weakness. These failings produce a disposition
to obey which the teacher skilfully uses. It also recognises the force of
sympathy. Children are very much like sheep in this respect, for one does
pretty much the same as all the others. Hence, a word of command, since it
appeals to the majority, appeals to all, and so we find the will freely submitted
to the authority of others without becoming weak. The will is in harmony
with right, and an association has been set up which shows that the obedience
springs from virtue, and not from habit only, or from fear. Authority is in-
voked, for the teacher is in loco parentis, and must prove himself as much the
friend of the scholar as the parent. The obedience is claimed on the ground
that it is right to yield it.

The personal equation is also a great aid. By this is meant an aggregate
of quaUties and habits (qualities mental and moral) possessed by the teacher,
and differing in quantity or quality, or both, in most teachers. It is a charac-
teristic attribute which obtains for some men the title of " born to command,"
and among teachers the reputation of being " a born teacher ".

A healthy school opinion is another great aid to cheerful obedience, and the
teacher should cultivate it. If the school rules are just, the children will
sympathise with them, and the co-Of)eration of the parents will be ensured.
The reputation of the school should be placed in the hands of the scholars, and
their pride and sense of responsibility will be thereby increased. Their respect
will thus be obtained, and prompt and cheerful obedience will be the result.
School games might also be made an auxiliary for this purpose. They afford
the teacher many excellent opportunities of establishing that relation between
him and the scholars which is so much desired. The efficacy of rewards and
punishments as tending towards the same end has already been shown.

ZNATTENTION.

Inattention is often the fault of the teacher, and especially of
young teachers. To fix and maintain the attention there are cer-
tain laws of the mind which must be obeyed, and any violation of
these laws is sure to be followed by more or less inattention.
There is no guiding the young without the power of concentration.

Conditions of Attention.

1. The Will, — The will is the chief influence, and the chief stimuli of the
will are pleasure and pain. But it must be remembered that the will itself is a
growth, so that the volunuiry attention of a child may not be great. Concen-
tration is weak in children.

28 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Pleasurable. — The teaching must be made pleasurable by the use of
natural methods and by a pleasing manner. Pleasure supports the cause that
brings it, and so the whole strength of the mind is ensured. Do not make the
pleasure too great, or it will defeat its own object. Novelty is an aid.

3. Physical Conditions. — See that the physical or material surroundings of
the children are comfortable ; that they are well sfrated, out of draughts, glare,
etc. Mental concentration can hardly be expected where there is physical dis-
comfort.

4. Suitability of Work. — The work should be suitable. It must be within
the compass of the children, and adapted to their growing powers and likings.
The lesson should make use of child activity, observation, and curiosity. With
older scholars the higher faculties should be worked,

8. Assistance. — A fair amount of assistance should always be given, and
the child's mind should not be kept bent too long upon the same subject.
You may force the attention, but it is wearying and unprofitable. There should
be proper changes of work. The physical should follow the mentft^l ; or the
mechanical might dovetail the mental. Singing, drill, and writing are good
changes following on the heavier lessons like arithmetic and grammar.

6. Obstacles. — Remove all distractions, such as sitting near an open window
overlooking a street, or the proximity of some class at a noisy lesson, interrup-
tions, outbursts of temper or disorder, and all kindred obstacles.

7. Punishment. — An injudicious use of punishment is a great hindrance to
the maintenance of real attention. The child is thrown into a strong and
antagonistic emotional state. In a depressed and subdued child the appear-
ance of attention is not worth much.

IjAZINESS.

Relatively, few people in this climate are lazv, for climatic
influences are against idleness. Public opinion condemns it, and
necessity conflicts with it. The supposedly idle work, and some
of them very hard. But laziness is used here in a limited sense.
It is the refusal to perform, or the ill-performed task, which is
called idleness. Of course, every teacher will meet with a few
exceptional cases, where the children are " bone " lazy, and often
some physical or constitutional cause will be found for this. The
treatment of laziness will vary with its origin,

I. Constitutional Laziness.

1. Health. — This may be the result of weak or delicate health, and in such
cases it should be kindly dealt with. The tasks are too much for the pupil,
and should be lightened,

2. Teacher. — It may spring from the teacher. Ignorance or indifference to
the elementary principles of child life will generate laziness. There must be a
natural application of the force which nature has supphed — child activity. If
the task set does not make much demand upon this activity, there is a tendency
to despise and reject it.

3. Natural Aptitudes. — The same may be said of the neglect of natural
aptitudes. They are strong in children, and need careful regulation. The
child will neglect the set task to indulge in his beloved pursuit. Watch him,
see what it is, and give him a surfeit of it. This is LocJce's recommendation.
Keep him hard at work on something, so as to form the habit of industry — the
something of his choice which has proved the disturbing factor. He will weary
of it, and return to his set task with relief.

H. Habit Laziness. — An indolent disposition is not always

the result of constitutional weakness. It may also be formed by

DISCIPLINE. 29

habit, and the habit must be checked before it passes beyond
treatment. It is easier to bend the pUant twig than the hardened
stem.

1. Kindness.— A little kind conversation may be sufficient. The boy may
respond to the interest thus kindly shown in him. The desire to please a kind
teacher may prove a stronger motive than the desire to idle. His self-regard
should also be appealed to. He should be made to understand that he is the
actual loser by his idleness, by pointing out his present and prospective losses.
The prospective losses are generally too distant in time to appeal to children,
but iheir conjunction may strengthen the appeal to his present losses.

2. Shame. — If kindness fails, then try a little good-natured banter. Let
there be no feeling or vindictiveness in your tone or manner, but let the child
understand that he has sunk in your estimation and that of the class.

3. Punishment.— This should be used with care, for it is fatal to success to
set up unpleasant associations. Neglected work may be done in playtime, or
impositions may be given where they can be done honestly, and without making
nmch demand upon the teacher's own time. Only in such cases as those in
which it assumes an obstinate form should corporal punishment be used, and it
may be said of punishment generally that it is often expensive and deceptive in
cases of idleness.

STUPIDITY.- This may be a gift from the parents or the

teacher.

1. When Bestowed by the Parents. — When nature is responsible there is
nothing for it but patience and kindness. The ordinary school curriculum
does not suit such children, nor should they be placed under it The London
School Board has humanely recognised this fact by providing a special curri-
culum and central classes for such children. The school and its work want to
be made especially attractive, and the teaching requires to be very largely com-
posed of kindergarten, hand and eye training, and simple object lessons.
Under no conditions should these children be forced, for the intellectual wealth
of a country lies in the cultivation of its ability, and not in the forcing of its
mediocrity.

2. When beatowed by the Teacher.— The child may be badly classified, and
this may breed stupidity from lack of apprehension. The teacher may be
unmethodical, or not properly acquainted with his subject. He may be careless
or inaccurate in describing or informing, or in the correction of exercises. Or
there may be a lack 0/ illustration and experiment. He may be harsh or cruel
in his manner, and so chill or freeze the eftorts of the timid, the weak, or the
shy. His questions may be badly framed, badly put, and put at the wrong
time, and there may be no skill in dealing with the answers given. And gene-
rally there may be too much ignorance of the elementary laws of the mind to
deal with its training efficiently.

TRUTHFTJItNESS.

This is a wide term, including as it does not only accuracy in
obtaining and stating facts, but sincerity, candour, ingenuousness,
uprightness, respect for the property of others and for their own ;
honesty in speech and time, as well as in money or goods. Lying
will sometimes supplant it, and it must be the constant effort of
the teacher to check the one and to cultivate the other. To
grapple with untruth, seek out its causes, and deal with them.

I. Causes of Untruth. — These may be various.

30 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. Cowardice (fear). — There may be a desire to evade some punishment, to
shirk some pain. It is a ready and apparently cheap cover for any fault.

2. Gain.— It may be to secure some gain, to favour some cheating transac-
tion, to remove some obstacle, to wm some contest.

3. Weakness. — It may spring from weakness, either physical, mental, or
moral. The physical weakling may fear physical pain; the moral weakling
may be the product of surrounding circumstances; the mental weakling is a
species of fool, and is generally to be pitied.

4. Vanity.— With older pupils it may arise from vanity. A lively and fertile
imagination is drawn upon for facts to establish the fame of the offender for
some point of excellence. There is such an overweening opinion of self, such
unbounded belief in one's own worth and capacity, that the fancied poten-
tialities of the individual are dished up as actual occurrences. But in such cases
memory is generally weaker than imagination, and these flights of fancy are
sure to stand self-revealed sooner or later.

5. Malevolence. — There may be a desire for revenge ; to hurt by word ; to
break the ninth commandment, so that they may break the eighth.

II. Treatment. — The teacher must look beyond the act itself,
and deal with the motive. He should aim to implant the principles
of honesty in the disposition, rather than to prohibit certain acts.
He should on the first occasion seem surprised, and gently reprove
with an appearance of sorrow. If this be insufficient, rebuke the
child, and show yourself very much displeased. There should be
a removal of confidence, which should only be gradually restored
after penitence has proved its genuineness by rigid truthfulness.
The penalties attaching to lying should be placed before the child.
People shun, distrust, and despise a liar. No one will knowingly
employ him, and no good people will Vv'illingly associate with him.
Shame and contempt can and should be shown if necessary. Lying
should always be spoken of with detestation, as a quality totally
inconsistent with the character of an honest man. The religious
aspect of the question must be pointed out and enforced — the
Bible is fertile in punishments following on this vice. The social
necessity for truth should be explained, to the older scholars at
least. The whole fabric of society and the credit of nations de-
pend upon the sentiment of truth. Finally, the teacher's own
example must be all that is demanded of the pupils, or they will
readily see that he is seeking to force a commodity upon them
which finds no favour with himself.

Honesty. — This is a wider term than truthfulness. It will
include all that is there expressed, and something more. It will
embrace the full teachings of the eighth and ninth commandments.
It forbids hands to pick or steal, or tongues to bear false witness.
It includes the right use of school property, the scholar's clothes,
books and playthings ; the right place in class ; the honest produc-
tion of work ; and it excludes all copying, prevarication, or hybrid

DISCIPLINE. 31

truths. It rejects the suppressio veri, the suggestio falsi, some forms
of diplomacy, much business " cleverness," and any transactions
where advantage overrides justice. Its treatment will be similar
to that adopted for truthfulness, with the addition that wherever
actual theft has occurred, compensation or restoration should be
insisted on where possible.

Tale-telling. — A clear distinction may be drawn between this
and untruthfulness. The motive is different. In the one case the
motive is bad, in the other it may or may not be good. The tale
may be truth— and something more. It is a vice in the clothing
of a virtue. There is an appearance of virtue in the apparent
desire to check some breach of discipline or morals: but this may
be subservient to the desire to inflict pain ; to seek revenge ; to
indulge in spite. Or it may include the element of toadyism ; the
desire to curry favour. This should be checked, but treated
tenderly. So far as it is a desire to please, the motive is good, but
weak. Divert it into healthier channels, and try to strengthen it.

COPYING.

I. Its Sources. — Children may copy because they do not know
how to do the work set them. This ignorance may or may not be
the fault of the teacher, but it will be his business to discover and
remove it. It may arise from idleness or indifference, and a reluc-
tance to make the requisite mental effort at the time of the test or
other exercise ; or there may have been persistent idleness, which
may have escaped the notice or may have been beyond the capa-
city of the teacher to deal with. Where inattention is the cause,
there is a sense of guilt. The child does not know that which
might be reasonably expected of him, fears the consequence of his
offence, and so falls a victim to this form of dishonesty. Nervous-
ness, or shyness, or physical weakness, may handicap a boy when
the explanation is being made to the class, or the information
given. The power of concentration may be too weak to meet the
demand involved by some lessons. Worse than all is the case in
which the trwral tone is bad, and of which copying is merely one
evidence.

U. Its Treatment.— The following are some of the means at

the teacher's disposal for the prevention of copying: —

1. Mechanical Meani.— Copying should be made practically impossible by
the arrangement of the classes and pupils. Where possible they should be
widely spaced, and sharp supnirvision should be maintained, and different
examples should be given to different pupils. Any facility for copying left

32 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

within the reach of a pupil, and especially a young pupil, is a piece of cruel
injustice. The moral sense of many children is not highly developed, and it
should be the teacher's function to see that no undue strain should be placed
upon it at this stage of its growth.

2. The Teacher. — The teacher himself may be a cause of copying. If the
child copies from ignorance, the cause may be insufficient help from the teacher ;
if from idleness, the teacher may be somewhat to blame for the growth and
strengthening of the habit ; if from inattention, the teacher may again be to
blame, for either his supervision is weak, or his methods of teaching may be
bad, or both causes may operate. Where nervousness or shyness are the agents,
no efforts may have been made to reduce or remove these inflictions. Where
the moral sense is weak, the teacher must see that there is nothing in his
observed life which may offer the least encouragement to deceit. The teacher
who cannot be uniformly trusted in the absence of his superior is soon measured
and estimated at his proper worth by the class ; and he must not be surprised
if some weak or vicious member of the class should copy him as well as his
neighbour's lessons.

3. Moral Means. — A sound moral tone is the best antidote to copying.
Cultivate this ; live up to it ; place the honour of the class in the hands of the
pupils themselves ; foster a pride in maintaining it ; give proper assistance in
every case ; make the most suitable arrangements to reduce the temptation ;
and then there will be but little fear of copying.

tJNPUNCTUALITY.

I. Its Causes. — These must be carefully ascertained, and dealt
with separately. The causes may be various, requiring different
treatment ; but the majority of cases will be traced to accident,
habit, indifference, or some form of temptation.

1. Accident. — Here it should be overlooked. If the accidents become too
numerous, it then, passes into carelessness, aud verges upon the second cause
—habit.

2. Habit.— This may arise from laziness, or dilatoriness, and in such cases
play should be stopped, and some task set whilst the others are at play. If the
habit persists, shame might be used ; and, as a last resource, corporal punish-
ment or expulsion should be tried, for then it has become sheer obstinacy, or
chronic disobedience.

3. Indifference.— Some children do not care whether they are punctual or
not, and in such cases the moral sense is generally weak. The evil effects of
this habit upon the child's future prospects might be pointed out. No one
will continue to employ an unpunctual person. If the indifference passes into
habit, in so far as it produces the same results it should be treated in the same
way.

4. Temptation.— The appearance of some local show, regatta, race, circus,
etc., or the influence of some evil companion, may cause occasional backslid-
ings. Do not punish such cases, but appeal to the boy's better nature. Urge
him to cultivate good habits and a stronger sense of duty. Show him that to
withstand such occasional temptations he will require some moral courage, and
urge him to show his better nature by making the effort.

II. To Ensure Punctuality.— The general means usually

adopted to ensure punctuality are as follows : —

1. Registration.- Give each child a red mark who is punctual, and each
late child a black mark. Apart from other considerations, a pride in scoring
the creditable red marks is sufficient stimulus for many. At the end of the
quarter a summary of attendances, punctual and unpunctual, should be sent
to the parents, and an appeal made for their co-operation.

DISCIPLINE. 33

2. Prizes, Rewards.— All the various forms of rewards may be brought into
use. A system of tangible rewards should be adopted. 95 per cent, of regular
and punctual attendances mip.ht entitle to a quarterly card. Two quarterly
cards might be exchanged for a prize (a book) ; whilst 100 per cent, of regular
and punctual attendances might entitle to a bronze medal. A continuation of
such excellent attendance and punctuality might entitle to a silver medal. This
is practically the system adopted by the London School Board. The practice
of awarding a card weekly for 10 punctual attendances may or may not be
adopted. Much can be said both for and against it.

3. Moral Means. — ( Both of these have been dealt with above under the
I. Punitive Means.— I head of " Causes ".

TRUANCY.
I. Its Causes.

1. Restraint.— School life is a great restraint to some children. They
naturally love their freedom, and view the school as an infringement of their
liberty. Freedom is a pleasurable release from restraint, and the pursuit of
pleasure is one of the strongest motives in humanity. Such children are acutely
sensible to the coercion of the school, especially when they are children of great
natural energy. The restraints of school discipline are prohibitions of pleasure.

2. Parents. — An ill-regulated, ill-disciplined, or immoral home will often
produce truants. Self-indulgent parents, with a weak sense of duty, and over-
indulgent parents, can hardly expect a sense of duty to be developed in their
children. The training of the will is neglected or misdirected. The result is
a tendency in their children to seek their own pleasures in their own way and
at their own time. Unrestrained at home, they will not willingly face the
restraint of a school. Nor is this the whole of the parental influence. Heredity
may be a factor in truancy. The love of roving, the hatred of discipline, may
be born in the child, and local circumstances may be unfortunate enough to
develop them.

3. Children.— The influence of child on child, the sharp over the dull, the
strong over the weak, the great over the small, may show itself in truancy.
The strong and dommeering boy, prone to truancy, is sure to be a centre of
truancy. The passionate boy, with strong appetites, the weak, the easy going,
the restless, the fickle, the lazy, the school haters, the rovers, the impulsive,
the self-pleasing, all may be led away by mutual influeuce, by a fine day, a
local show, or a local race.

I. Teacher.— An objectionable teacher produces truancy. Harshness,
cruelty, irritability, mjustice, carelessness, or incompetency may produce it.
Perhaps cruelty is as productive of truancy as any cause. A lack of sympathy
on the part of the teacher, the feeling that the boys position in the class is a
degrading one, or one to be derided, the constant wounding of the child's self-
love and self-esteem are all possible causes.

8. Managers. — The increasing demands of the Education Department are
making truancy from this source more and more impossible. But managers
who maintain schools in old, dull, ill-lighted. ill-venlilated, and often ill-placed
rooms, with a minimum staff, with the poorest and a minimum quantity of
apparatus, must not be surprised if some truancy is laid at iheit doors. Chil-
dren will not willingly seek such a gloomy, unhealthy life. Some will play the
truant first.

n. Its Treatment. — The treatment of truants is especially
difficult, but it is not a case for corporal punishment.

I. Pleasure.— The class of children who play truant from the feeling of
restraint associated with school must be attratted into the place. The building
should lie bright, roomy, airy, and well furnished. It should always be com
fortable and healthy whatever the weather. The time table should be based
on scientific principles ; there should be periods of play each session ; the

34 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

teaching should be made as attractive as possible ; and the recreative side of
the school work should be developed. The children will thus gradually see
that school is a happy place despite its restraints, and that to go to school is
not an infliction, but an advantage.

2. Impositions. — In other cases than the last, treat with increasing severity.
If the co-operation of the parent is obtained, and the parental influence is suffi-
cient, impositions can be given to be done at home. But this is rarely the case,
hence they must be done at school if they cannot be done at home. The staff
would have to stay behind in turns for this purpose.

Objections to this Method.

(i) Parents often want their children ; are often unsympathetic ; and sometimes
even hostile.

(2) It throws extra work upon the teachers.

(3) In large schools it interferes with the work of the school keepers very often.

(4) It breeds a hatred for school work.

3. Detention. — Simple detention with no imposition is preferable to im-
positions ; but it is open to the same objections prmcipally.

4. Fines.— Stop the play, and deprive of any other privileges prized by the
children of the school. This is only available fot beginners.

5. Home Treatment.— It is best to write or visit, or invite a visit from the
parent, and to place the whole matter in their hands. Show that truancy is an
offence as much against home authority as school authority— some think more
so. Have nothing to do with the punishment yourself, if you can help it. The
teacher's work will be to win the boy into the school, not to thrash him in ;
and at the same time to try and cultivate his moral sense.

6. Expulsion. — As a last resource this may be desirable and efficacious
where it can be done. It helps to awaken hostile and indifferent parents to a
proper sense of their duty.

7. Truant Schools.— These are only used for incorrigibles, and where they
are available expulsion becomes unnecessary. The disciplinary life of a truant
school for a period has been found the best treatment for bad cases yet devised.

HABIT. —The best way to discipline children is to help them
in the formation of good habits, for then the discipline will be a
lasting influence. For this purpose both the nature and training
of habit should be known.

I. Nature of Habit. — Alter a thing has been done a certain
number of times, there is a tendency to perform the action again
on the slightest stimulus. After many repetitions, the action
becomes very mechanical, and almost automatic. In this respect
it resembles instinctive or reflex action. As a rule, to perform an
act requires a stimulus, and there is desire or compulsion prompt-
ing to the action. As habit grows, desire or compulsion becomes
weaker, and a fixed disposition to act in the way specified is
formed. This shows two facts as essential.

1. The Psychological Fact.— By this is meant there is a fixed disposition to
perform the action, and that, too, without the promptings of desire.

2. The Physiological Fact.— This means that there is a modification of the
nerve structiires involved, and this depends largely upon nutrition. A well-
nourished child is a favourable subject to work upon.

The habit may be mental as well as physical. We are said to

have a habit of thought when we are subject to recurring mode^

DISCIPLINE. 35

of mental operation. Association is another element. Some
stimulus gives rise to some movement, and by association there is
a tendency for the one to recall the other.

H. The Training of Habit.— Its importance is obvious, for
habit is called second nature. We are creatures of habit, but we
ought not to be its slaves. The teachers function is to form good
habits. To do this he must induce his scholars to make an effort,
which must be sufficient to act as a motive force. Then there must
be plenty of repetition^ that the habit may grow and become mde-
pendent of the will. Child life is the best period for this training.
Example is necessary, as this brings into play the faculty for
imitation, and lends consistency to the growth. Then the response
to the stimulus must be prompt, for uncertainty and delay in
response show imperfect habit. This course of training must be
pursued until the child finds it produces discomfort to deny the
habit, or difficulty to alter or regulate it.

CHARACTER. — The cultivation of good habits is a great aid
to the formation of a good character, and this should be looked
upon as the ultimate goal of all discipline. The term has a wide
range of meaning, but in education it is generally used to denote
in a special way a good or virtuous disposition of the feelings and
of the will.

" A perfect moral character includes the familiar habits in-
volved in a wide pursuit of individual good, such as industry,
orderliness, temperance, the habitual control of the feelings, or
moderation, and the firm control of the thoughts involved in
reasonableness. It includes further the habits implied in a perfect
fulfilment of human duty, as obedience, courtesy, veracity, justice,
and beneficence." The essential ingredient is fixity of disposition in
right directions.

But a perfect character also shows itself in a habitual and half
mechanical pursuit of a number of detached ends or forms of
good ; it includes a disposition to reflect and deliberate when
occasion requires.

Its Cultivation.— A mere glance at the circumstances of early
life tells us that the actions of a child are determined and regu-
lated to a considerable extent by the wishes and commands of
others, i.e., the first stage is to teach the child obedience. Some
times It will be necessary to restrain or command, sometimes to
persuade, advise, or enlighten ; hence a study of character in each
child IS absolutely necessary.

36 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

The most powerful stimulus to goodness in others is goodness in
oneself. Any one who can resist the influence of this mutual good-
ness, showing itself in actions good to giver and receiver, is a fit
subject for the government of fear, and nothing else. But the good
and kind teacher will require to study character so as to be able
successfully to discriminate between the two classes. " Do unto
others as they do unto you," is as much as can be expected of
children in this direction; and the teacher who does not study
character will probably ask too much or too little, to the injury of
all concerned.

There must be an appeal to the feelings, for it is wrong to work
by fear or pain alone. No good character could be formed in that
way. The maxims of punishment must be grasped and applied
upon an individual study of character. In this way the disposi-
tions that lead to disorder and offence can be checked in the bud ;
and, indeed, until there has been time for such training to operate,
the mind should not be exposed to temptation. For this purpose
the social affections should be cultivated.

Activity should be recognised and utilised — not repressed. A
child of an active temperament should be kept busy; whilst less
demands should be made upon the weak and languid. Hence the
work, to be profitable, needs differentiation. So far as the large
classes of modern schools will permit, this principle of child life
should never be neglected. Character will only be good and
strong so long as it is built on the regulated forces of nature.

The temperament must be recognised and allowed for. The
sanguine, the boastful, the self-assured may need checking; whilst
the nervous, the timid, and the shy will need encouragement.
The worse faults of child nature must be treated with care, kind-
ness, and patience. The best results of the teacher's efforts will
often be slow to show themselves, for character is the growth of
years.

Variety is the spice of life, and this is remarkably true of child
life. Monotony must not be allowed to deaden the budding gems
of nobler thoughts and nobler aspirations which may be struggling
to show themselves. Sustained effort is difficult to children, and
it must ever be remembered that the moral side of child life often
demands mightier efforts than anything submitted in the school
curriculum.

DISCIPLINE. 37

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Why should young teachers be restricted from the use of corporal punishment,
(a) for the sake of their scholars? (b) for their own sake '

2. — Point out some ot the ways in which school discipline may be useful in producing
habits of ready obedience, and name some characteristic features of good discipline.

3. — Show that rewards may be usefully employed in stimulating children to work.
Name some rewards that may be connected with the daily work of the school.

4.— Show that clear distinction may be drawn between truthfulness and " telling
tales". How can older boys be employed in assisting to maintain the discipline of a
school ?

5.— Show that inattention in a class may proceed from the faults of a teacher, or
from causes other than faults in the children themselves.

6.— Show that harshness and untruthfulness in a teacher influence the character and
behaviour of children out of school.

7. — Show that copying, especially in arithmetic, may be the result of bad teaching
or of bad discipline. What precautions would you take to prevent the growth of such a
habit?

8.— Is it a sufficient definition of good discipline to say that " it is the power exer-
cised by the teacher over the children ' ? Give some distinguishing marks of good
discipline.

9. — Show that what is called stupidity in children may arise from faults on the part
of the teacher. Name some of the faults.

10. — Name some of the chief causes of truancy arising from faults in the teachers,
or parents, or children. What steps were taken in your school to acquaint parents with
irregularity of attendance ? How were truants punished '

II.— What is truthfulness? Name some ways in which a child may be untruthful
in act without saying a word.

12.— Were any special means used to secure the co-operation of the parents of the
children who attended your class ; and, if so. what was the result ?

13.— By what special means would you try to promote truthfulness and punctuality
among your scholars? State the motives which you would lay before your scholars as
incentives to the constant observance of truth and punctuality.

14. — Give your opinion as to the value of rewards and punishments; and state the
principle on which you think they ought to be administered.

15.— Mention any difficulties you may have met with in the effort to control the
children you had to teach, and state how those difficulties were o\ ercome.

16.— Illustrate from your practical experience, in a day school or elsewhere, the vital
importance of securing good order in a school.

17.— How were you accustomed to deal with dull, lazy, or obstinate children, and
what special means did you adopt for securing the attention of the children in your
division ?

18. — What methods have been adopted within your knowledge for correcting these
faults in children, inattention, untruthfulness, laziness, impertinence, sullenness, and
with what effect ?

19.— It is said in the " Instructions to Inspectors ' that, besides the usual course of
instruction, an excellent school " seeks by other means to be of service to the children
who attend it ". Can you name any such means, and say which of them are likely to be
most effective ?

20 —How far is it in the power of a teacher, by other means than school lessons, to
improve the habits, manners, and character of the children of a school ? Mention any
ways you know by which a teacher may exert useful influence in these respects.

21.— What is meant by good discipline? What are the means and ways of improv-
ing discipline ?

22. — What are the best expedients you know for quickening and securing the atten-
tion of a languid or disorderly class ?

23. — In some countries the teachers are absolutely forbidden to make use of corporal
punishment in any form. Say by what other means it is possible to maintain discipline
under such conditions.

24. — What is a criticism lesson ? Under the head of " discipline," what points would
you attend to in such a lesson ?

25.— In what ways may aucceu in class teaching be promoted by studying the
characters of children ?

TAis Chapter is continued in the Appendix.

CHAPTER III.

CLASSIFICATION.

I. Its Basis. — A school may be classified on a single or on a
plural basis. On a plural basis classification is a simple matter,
but on a single basis there is more difficulty In the former case
a pupil simply goes to the class in each subject for which he is
most suited, but in the latter case the following facts must be
borne in mind : —

1. Attainments differ.

2. Ability differs.

3. Age may, in special cases, have to be considered.

4. Special aptitudes and different rates of development in different children
have to be allowed for

Generally age and length of time in school will count for little or
nothing. Equal attainments are the only real basis on which
to proceed. —Most schools adopt the single basis, but perhaps it
IS best to have a dual classification based on Reading and Arith-
metic. Progress in these subjects is often very unequal, and so
it would generally be more profitable to teacher and scholar to
adopt the double basis. Where the single basis is adhered to,
Arithmetic should be the deciding test. Inequalities in other sub-
jects lend themselves more readily to class teaching than in
Arithmetic, because greater mental demands are made by it. The
industrious but dull pupil always labours with it ; the careless one
is always in trouble with it: whilst the inattentive fails at it
because it is synthetically progressive.

II. Bad Classification.— There are certain evils associated
with bad classification, so called ; but the term is almost a con-
tradiction, for classification is grouping according to real resem-
blances, and the real ones in school are ability and attainments.
Some of the most obvious evils are as follow : —

1. There is a waUe of time, for the pupils are not placed where they will
obtain the greatest profit.

2. The sympathy and respect of the clais are lessened, hence the teacher is
robbed of his legitimate means of evoking the intelligence and activity of his
pupils.

CLASSIFICATION. 39

3. It prevents the children having constant and suitable employment.

4. // injures discipline for the reasons already given.

5. It produces dissatisfaction among the parents, and injures the reputation
of the school.

6. It may ctius^ pecuniary loss to the school, both directly and indirectly.

7. It advertises the incapacity of the teacher.

m. Infant Schools and Classification. — The Infant School
contemplates in the lengthy variety, and character of its lessons the
training of scholars whose delicate frames require very careful
treatment. It is essential, then, that the length of the lesson
should not in any case exceed thirty minutes, and should be con-
fined in most cases to twenty minutes ; and that the lessons should
be varied in length according to the section of the school, so that
in the babies' room the actual work of the lesson should not be
more than a quarter of an hour.

Each lesson should also be followed by intervals of rest and
song; the subjects of the lessons should be varied, beginning in the
lowest section with familiar objects and animals, and interspersed
with songs and stories appropriate to the lesson ; the spontaneous
and co-operative activity of the scholars should form the object
and animate the spirit of each lesson.

Children will be classified according to ability, and not rigidly
according to age. As a rule, the right classification of the chil-
dren in an infant school will be found to correspond nearly with
their ages. The best basis is Reading, because, as a rale, this
will be found to agree broadly with age classification.

Age classification is unnatural, and should only be followed so
far as equal attainments are coincident with the average equal
age. Backward children admitted during the year, however,
should not be allowed to drift into the baby class. The discipline,
association, and instruction of this class would be most unsuitable
for elder children. They should form a special class, or otherwise
receive special treatment until they are fit to be drafted into one
or other of the existing classes.

It will now be observed by the student that the single basis of
classification in an upper department should be Arithmetic, and
in an infant school Reading.

IV. Sub-division of Classes in Infant Schools. — Where pos-
sible, sub-division should be followed in the following lessons :—

1. needlework.— Little fingers are not likely to thread and use a needle
properly, or with profit, without much supervision and showing. Individual
assistance will be largely required, and this will be impossible in large classes.

2. Writing— In the early lessons, it is very important that the position of

40 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the child and the manner of holding the pen or pencil should be well watched.
Habits are being formed which will be physical evils if not closely watched and
corrected. A smaller class is absolutely essential for this.

3. Reading. — The best practice in reading is individual practice. This is
impossible in a large class. For the formation of a good enunciation, a distinct
and clear articulation, the teacher must give the child much individual atten-
tion.

4. Drawing requires much assistance, and consequently a small class is
essential. If the proper and necessary assistance is not forthcoming in such
subjects, the child may form a dislike for it— a very undesirable result.

V. Shapes of Classes. — The shapes of the various classes
depend on : —

1. The number of children in the class.

2. The amount of space available.

3. The furniture and its arrangements.

4. The amount and nature of the staff.

A. Reading.

1. /n Desks. Children can sit or stand in their desks. This is not a good

arrangement, even if the floor be stepped ; for, if sitting, the pupils
lose the chance of a necessary change of position, and they are apt to
become indolent and inattentive. If standing, there is the tendency to
lounge against the desks, and to produce a slovenly and disorderly ap-
pearance in the class.

2. Drafts. These should be formed out of the desks.

{a) Semicircular Drafts. This method is pieferable to the desk method,
as it secures the desired change of position, brings the pupils more
directly under the observation and control of the teacher, and offers
less opportunity for the formation of bad habits.

{b) Parallel Drafts. The smaller children should be in the front row and
the taller boys behind. The teacher will then be able to stand in front
of the class, and have it completely within the range of his eye.

B. Aritlimetic.

The children can be arranged as in readino^, but only in drafts when working
on the slate, on the B.B. , or from dictation. Usually this lesson will
be given in the desks. If space permits the wide placing of the pupils,
this arrangement is very satisfactory. But space rarely does permit.
The class can then be examined or worked in two sections. It can be
taught in one. The system of alternate boys working different examples
tends to check copying, and to promote honesty, power, and indepen-
dence. These advantages perhaps more than counterbalance the extra
expenditure of time involved.

C. Geography.

Here the children can either be arranged in desks or on o. gallery, if the
school possesses one. The latter is the better arrangement, if the class
be a junior one, and is working from the map. If an upper class and
atlases are being used, the desks are the better.

The position of the teacher is important.

Reading. He should be in front of the class and to the centre. He should
stand back sufficiently to bring the front rows under his observation.

Geography. If pointing to the map, he should be to the right, where his
map should be placed. If the map be placed in front, he must either
point inaccurately, or leave his class without supervision for short
periods ; which, however, often prove long enough to encourage in-
attention and disorder. If atlases are being used, he should "be in
front.

CLA SSI PICA TION. 41

Irithmetic. Same position as for geography. The B. B. should be to the
right, so that the teacher can work and still keep the class somewhat
under supervicion. When the B.B. is in front, he quite turns his back
upon the class, and the class often shows that it is aware of the fact
If the boys are working examples, he should stand in front and care-
fully watch to check any idleness or copying.

VT. Collective Iiessons. — It is often desirable and convenient
to group classes tor some lessons, as it tends to economy in teach-
ing power, and sets free one or more teachers for correction, pre-
paration, or clerical work. In an infant school this grouping can
be well done on a gallery. In an upper department, it might be
done in the central hall, or in one of the larger rooms. There are
certain subjects which lend themselves easily to the collective
arrangement.

1. Singing.— Here sympathy of numbers will aid the physical and artistic
training given by the teaching of this subject. Melodies and simple part songs,
rounds and elementary sol-fa lessons can be better taught to a division than to
a class, for such grouping gives confidence to the timid and shy.

2. Recitation. — Repetition and explanation, with some pattern work, is the
programme here, and such instruction can be given to two classes as well as to
one.

3. Scripture Lessons. — The moral truths of Scripture are generally pre-
sented in some biblical story, which can be given in a manner quite within the
grasp of several classes, without forfeiting the natural attractions of a story to
children.

*. Information Lessons. — Common information lessons can be given to
many pupils at the same time, especially if the lesson is enlivened by a few
sketches, diagrams, pictures, or experiments.

8. Musical Drill. — The size of the division will be limited by space some-
times, but a certain amount of grouping for small schools is possible.

6. Ordinary Drill.- -After some preliminary lessons have been given, chil-
dren may be grouped for military or Swedish drill. The added numbers gene-
rally bring added interest and added pleasure. This will apply only to small
classes.

7. Kindergarten. — Some of the lessons admit of grouping (see chapter on
" Kindergarten ').

8. Class Subjects.— Their very name implies the possibility of grouping.
Grammar, geogiaphy, history, elementary science, domestic economy, may all
be grouped for instruction.

9. Elementary Subjects.— Mental arithmetic, and, in some cases, writing,
also lend themselves to this arrangement.

A change of place and attitude is an absolute physical neces-
sity. It affords a welcome relief to the sitting in desks, releasing
one set of muscles, and bringing into play another set. It is a
check to twisted shoulders, curvature of the spine, and injury to
the eyesight, all of which may be induced by careless and con-
tinuous service in the desks. For Singing it offers special physical
advantages, a standing position giving better play to the lungs.

VH. Promotion. — Promotion should be systematic and regu-
lar. Quarterly or half-yearly examinations should be held, and

4i A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the sharpest or best prepared drafted into higher classes. Other-
wise, bad effects are produced on the scholars.

1. They find time for mischief, for necessarily they must be idle part of

their time, or working fruitlessly.

2. They weary of their work, which becomes a sort of mental treadmill —

ever moving, never advancmg.

3. They frequently form a dislike for school altogether, and become more or

less irregular.

4. They interfere with their slower comrades.

5. They often i-etrograde themselves, for monotony stunts.

6. Their non-promotion is an injustice to all concerned ; to the child, who

has a right to as much, and to the best, instruction the school can
give ; to the parents, and to the country, who share that right.

7. School life is short, therefore //-^'^r^jj should be as fast as Nature will

permit.

HOME IiESSONS.

I. Subjects for Home Lessons. — The most appropriate sub-
jects are those which involve either : —

1. Reproduction of some portion of the day's work, as in geography, arith-
metic, grammar, or composition ; or

2. Preparation for the next day's work, like spelling, map drawing, memory
work (recitation, geographical facts, chronology in history, rules, tables, ex-
ceptions in grammar, etc. ).

H. Revision of Home Xiessons. — The time and methods of
revision will depend on the methods of instruction and the sub-
jects taught ; and, probably, in some schools, upon the staff
also, but it is assumed that all schools are staffed properly in these
suggestions.

Spelling would be part of the dictation lesson.

Arithmetic can be marked by monitors or young teachers during some
collective lesson. The chief errors can then be explained and corrected
on the B.B.

Grammar. Parsing and analysis can be corrected as in arithmetic, or, with
a good teacher, in the grammar lesson itself. Let boys change books,
the method or order of change being varied from time to time. The
teacher will parse and analyse the piece, the boys writing in the cor-
rections in black lead, coloured ink, or pencil. The number of errors
should then be neatly placed at the bottom of the exercise, and the
exercise should then be initialed by the boy who corrects it. This
checks all spite, carelessness, or collusion between boys; for the in'
accurately or dishonestly corrected exercise can always be traced.
This method also acts as a good disciplinary training to the boys, and
helps to fix their work. It ensures a maximum of attention, but it
should only be used with the elder scholars. Memory work can be
tested in the grammar lesson itself.

Geography can be tested during the geography lesaoxi ; maps by monitors
or pupil teachers during the collective lessons. The prevailing errors
should then be dealt with on the B. B. If the geography is an abstract,
it must be corrected out of school hours, or as in grammar.

Composition must be marked out of school hours, or by young teachers
during collective lessons. Correct the chief errors on the B.B., or, if
composition lessons figure on the time table, the home lessons could
be marked while the class is at composition.

Scripture should be tested in the Scripture lesson, or marked out of school
hours.

CLASSIFICATION. 43

Arguments for and against Home Iiessons.
For.

1. They cultivate self-reliance and industry.

2. W honestly done they are a true index of the child's own powers.

3. They make a favourable impression on some parents.

4. They supplement andyfx the learning of the child.

5. They set the master at liberty for higher work.

6 To a certam extent they keep children from the bad influences of the
street.

7. Under certain conditions the Education Department recommends them.
Their use should be "to illustrate and to fix in tlie memory lessons
which have already been explained m school, rather than to break new
ground or to call for a new mental effort. This purpose is served by
lessons of a simple and definite character — a sum, a short poetical
extract, a list of names or dates, a letter, an outline map, a parsing
exercise, such as maybe readily piepared in half an hour, and may
admit of very easy testing and correction on the following day. When
these conditions are fulfilled, ;he home task is found to have a very
valuable e ffect, not only in helping the progress of the scholar and in
encouragmg the habit of application, but also awakening on the part
of the parents an interest in the school work. ' (Revised instructions
to H.M. Inspectors).

Against.

I The school day is already too long for young children, some of our best
authorities say.

2. They conduce to over-pressure, and may be physically injurious.

3. They trequently a^n^Q friction between parent and children and teacher.

4. Public opinion is in part opposed to them

5. They may become injurious both mentally and morally by the formation

of bad habits through want of proper supervision.

6. There is little or no accommodation in many of the homes for the doing

of them.

7. Change of thought is necessary lor the healthy development of brain

power .\ child should not take the school home with him.

HINDRANCES TO PROGRESS.— These may have a twofold

1. From the Children. — Here again the causes may be various.

la) 6tuptdtly. See notes on stupidity.

\b) Poor Living. This may be partial only, local, or intermittent. But it
is a serious hindrance. The difficulty is now grappled with by the
institution of large agencies for cheap and free dinners. Thousands
of children are now fed at times in this way. This treatment has
proved its own value both physically, morally, and mentally.

{c) Clothing. Children are insufficiently clad, and consequently physically
uncomfortable, perhaps suffering. Appeal for old clothes in the local
press or in any direction where your appeal may be successful.

(</) Irregularity. This is the greatest hindrance to progress that teachers
have to grapple with. It arises from such a multiplicity of causes
that to attempt a detailed account of its treatment is impossible here.
The teacher's chief function in this matter is to make his school as
attractive as possible, to show a practical interest in his pupils by the
formation of and participation in cricket, swimming, and football
clubs; 10 report on all absences promptly; to develop the sense of
duty in his pupils as far as he is able ; and then to leave the rest to
the parents and the visitors.

44 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Teacher.

(a) Bad Classification. This is a fault of the teacher's. It can only be

removed by thought and the study of good models.

[b) Bad Methods of Teaching. Teacher must read and study, and then

practise better methods of instruction,
(t) Hat-sh Discipline. Harshness defeats its own ends. It may produce
quietness, but this deceives no expert. The vitality of the children is
. lowered, and therefore the capacity for work is diminished. Besides,
there are strong emotional disturbances set up which are very hostile.
See under the head of " Harshness " in the chapter on " Discipline ".

TIME TABIjES.

I. Revised Instructions and Time Tables. — Every time table
has to be approved on behalf of the Education Department by
H.M.I., who thereby certifies that it fulfils the requirements of
Section 7 of the Elementary Education Act of 1870. He will
expect the time table to show that a due proportion of time is
assigned in Infant Schools to manual exercises and recreative
employments, and in other schools to each of the subjects of
instruction, including any specific subject which the school pro-
fesses to teach. Nothing should be attempted which, having regard
to the proper classification of the scholars, and to the number and quali-
fications of the teachers, cannot be efficiently taught in the ordinary
school hours. Scholars are not to be improperly detained beyond
the prescribed time. The time table is also to be placed in a con-
spicuous position in the schoolroom, and it must be followed
throughout the school year.

H. General Directions. — The writing of a time table is very
difficult, because of the number of considerations to be studied.
No set or stereotyped time table is possible, because of the vary-
ingconditions of the different schools. All that can advisably be
attempted is the laying down of the chief principles and rules to
be observed in their formation.

1. Building. — Consider the number and size of the rooms in your depart-
ment, and the quantity and kind of furniture. A time table can be more easily
made for a school containing several class rooms than for one without them.
The supply of desks, galleries, etc., will determine the nature and order of the
lessons.

2. Staff. — The best disposal of a staff is important. Each teacher must be
placed where he can teach to the greatest profit. Manifestly a time table for a
school with assistant teachers will be different to one with pupil teachers or
monitors.

3. Class of School. — Whether boys', girls', infants', or mixed ; whether full
time or half time ; whether a poor class school or one placed in a good neigh-
bourhood ; whether small or large; whether backwaid or well taught.

4. Locality. — A town school v/iU require a different time table to a country
school ; a school in a manufacturing district, to one in a rural, marine, or mining
district.

CLASSIFICATION. 45

5. Time. — The number of hours in the school week ; the length of school
life; the amount of time to be given to each subject ; the length of each lesson
— all these have to be considered and regulated. No lesson should be more
than three-quarters of an hour, and the length of lesson should be graded to
suit the age and capacity of the children. More time will be required for the
Elementary Subjects than for the Class, and more for the Class than for the
Specific Subjects.

6. Laws of the Mind. — The lessons must be so arranged as to afford the
necessary mental rests. The lesson of much mental effort must be followed by
a mechanical lesson ; e.g., writing might follow grammar, or vice versa. Then
the most exhaustmg subjects should come in the morning, and they should be
the first lessons.

7. Classification. — The basis of classification adopted in the school must
be considered. Most primary schools are classified by the standards ; but where
this is not done, the school should be classed on a basis of arithmetic or reading.
The number of classes must fall within the limits of the staff, and the accom-
modation of the rooms.

8. Official Rules. — The Department lays down certain rules and limitations
with respect to time tables, and these must be considered. School Boards
sometimes order that so much time per week shall be given to certain subjects
{.e.g., religious knowledge, singing, drawing, manual instruction, etc.). Under
some School Boa'ds the nature of the time table is much influenced in this way.

9. Recreation.— The time table should show about ten minutes each atten-
dance for play. In the upper department, military, musical, or Swedish drill
will be taken, and this must appear in the time table.

10. Registration, etc.— The time devoted to this should always be shown.
If the registers are marked twice each attendance, once for the early and once
for the late pupils, both should appear on the time table. Assembly, religious
observances, and dismissal should also be shown.

11. Locomotion. — Physical relief must be arranged for. The classes will
require to remove from the desks to the drafts, or to the gallery or class room.
This must be so arranged as to cause a minimum amount of noise and distur-
bance.

12. Summaries. — Three tables or summaries should appear on each time
table :—

(a) A list of the subjects taught, and the total number of hours given to each

per week.
(fr) The number and quality of the staff, i.e., head teacher, assistants, and pupil

teachers,
(c) A small table showing when the model and criticism lessons are given.

m. AdvaAtages of Time Tables.

L To the Children. — They discipline work and teach the value
of method and punctuality. The children become habituated to
obedience to rules laid down by others, and this is a gain for the
State. The steady and regular habit of work enforced by the time
table is forming habits which will beneficially influence their
adult life.

2. To the Teacher. — His time is spent to the best advantage
under its guidance. The mental wear and tear is considerably
less. He knows his work for each hour, and soon falls into a
well-arranged and busy routine, which is a means to his happiness.
The children have their faculties worked to their best advantage,
and this is more productive both to teacher and those taught.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

TV. Distribution of Time.

1. In Infant Department. — This will depend upon the class.
Supposing the school hours to be twenty-five, we get something
like the following: —

1. Registration, religious observances, religious instruction, 4 ^ hours.

2. Recreation, zh hours.

3. Arithmetic, 3I hours.

4. Reading, 3^ hours.

5. Writing, 3 hours. *

6. Needlework, 2 hours 50 minutes.

7. Object Lessons, i hour 40 minutes.

8. Singing, I hour.

9. Spelling, i hour.

10. Kindergarten, i hour.

11. Drill, 50 minutes.

12. Recitation, 30 minutes.

This distribution of time would be approximate only m the babies'
class, as these little ones would have a Kindergarten lesson each
day, as well as an extra lesLon in Singing and Recitation on
Needlework days. The Arithmetic would be taken directly after
Religious Instruction, as the children are then most capable of
mental effort. The object lesson would therefore be given each
morning for the same reason. Singing, Needlework, Recitation,
and Kindergarten are the most suitable for the afternoon. The
fifty minutes for drill allows five minutes sharp exercise each
morning. This exercise immediately preceding the object lesson,
and for a lesson of twenty-five minutes' duration once a week.

But, speaking generally, the time will vary with the class and
subject. The following items were copied from one of the very
best infant schools in London, and they bear out the necessity for
variation : —

Sub:ect.

Classes.

' Kindergarten .-..--

Drawing

Object Lessons . . . .

^Singing

50'

55-

55'

55' 55'

I 20'

3 hrs.

I hr

^hr.

ihr

§hr

...

I hr

ihr

1 hr

I hr 1 I 50'

150'

325'

55'

xhr

125

I 25' 1 I 25'

I 55'

ajhrs

''-

III

VII.

Only a few subjects are quoted but they are sufficient to show the variation of
time required and practised-

2. In Upper Department. — Here the distribution of time will
vary so often that it is almost useless to suggest any scheme for

CLASSIFICATION. 47

imitation. The district of the school, the quality of the children,
the teaching staff, the building, the apparatus, etc., are all varying
factors, giving varying products. The young teacher is advised to
make a copy of the distribution of the time as shown on the school
time table, and to insert it for reference and illustration in his
note book or method book.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Notes of lesson on Home Le'isons.

2.— Give some of the subjects appropriate for home lessons, and give a sketch of a
week's home lessons for scholars in the Fourth Standard.

3. — Show that for some lessons infant classes should be smaller in number than
classes composed of older children, and that for other lessons one or more classes may
be grouped.

4.— What bad habits are produced by careless correction of exercises and by want of
attention to home lessons ?

5.- -Name some suitable subjects for home lessons, and state the most suitable
times and methods for their revision. What objections are sometimes raised to home
lebsons ?

6.— State fully the bad effects that are produced by retaining a clever child in one
class for a year without due promotion. How often should promotion be made ?

7.— In what different shapes may classes be arranged for Reading, Arithmetic, and
Geography lessons ? State which shape you consider best for each purpose, and why
you would employ that arrangement. What should be the position of the teacher in
regard to his class?

8.— What bad effects are produced by imperfect classification, both upon the more
and less advanced members of a class ?

9.— What were the chief hindrances in the way of the progress of the children you
used to teach, and how did you attempt to remove them ?

10. — Out of twenty-five hours a week in an infant school, or out of thirty hours in a
school of older children, what time should be devoted to each employment or subject of
instruction ? Give your reasons.

1 1.— What is the best classification of an infant school ? What exercises in number
would be suitable to each class ?

12.— On receiving new scholars in the school, what is the best way of deciding in
■which class to place them .' Give reasons for your answer.

CHAPTER IV.

NOTES OF LESSONS.

Young teachers are generally plunged into all the difficulties of
lesson sketches without training or graduation. An attempt is
here made to recognise their dii^culties, and to meet them with
systematic preparation. For this purpose the work is divided into
so many steps, each of which should be thoroughly mastered
before the next is attempted.

I. First Step. — The following facts should be thoroughly
grasped and learned before any attempt is made to write notes of
lessons : —

1. Class. — The attainments of children differ according to
their class, and so does their mental power very often ; hence,
matter, method, and language will often require different treat-
ment for different classes. The first step will be to decide to which
class the lesson is to be given. Then the average power and
attainments of such class should be gauged, and the notes drawn
up accordingly.

2. Time. — Next decide the length of the lesson, as the amount
to be taught and the methods to be adopted must depend on the
time allowed. Do not attempt too much, for little and well is
better than an indigestible mass. The time should vary with the
class, twenty to forty-five minutes being the extremes. Remember
the power of sustaining attention is of slow growth, and is very
limited in young children. A lesson which produces early or
undue weariness is a useless and even injurious one.

3. Aim. — The aim of the lesson should next be considered,
and the Special Aim (if any) is the one referred to. Every lesson
has a General Aim, which is always obvious ; e.g.^ to teach Reading
in a reading lesson, to learn the structure and functions of a lan-
guage in a grammar lesson ; and so on. This can be disregarded.
But the Special Aim has a further object. In a lesson on an
animal the teacher may try tQ §hQW adaptability to stryctyre \ in

NOTES ON LESSONS.

a Scripture lesson, to force home some moral truth ; in an object
lesson, to illustrate some natural law. When this special aim is
stated, the teacher must be careful to focus all his matter and
method upon it. It is the common goal of all the steps taken in
the lesson. Every point must be worked out under its influence,
and the entire lesson must receive its shape and bulk from it.
Early attempts at writing notes of lessons should, as a rule, be
limited to the general aim, and to elementary subjects or common
objects.

4. Introduction. — Too much time must not be spent in intro-
ducing the lesson. Often it will be sufficient to simply announce
the subject, and then to proceed with it at once. If the lesson is
one of a series on the same class of subjects, a little judicious
recapitulation of the previous one will serve to connect the two,
and to arouse some interest. Elaborate introductions worked out
at the expense of the time of the lesson itself, and with the laud-
able desire of arousing interest, often defeat their own ends. In-
terest will always be the product of the lesson itself, if it is properly
handled. The place of the introduction is important. Three
common errors are prevalent with respect to its position : —

(a) It is placed adove the notes with the class, time, aim, and apparatus.

h) It is placed in the matter column.

\c) It is written across both matter and method columns.

All these positions are objectionable, for the introduction is
essentially a part of the method of the lesson, and nothing else.
Consequently, it should be placed in the method column, e.g. : —

Matter.

I. Introduction. (As a rule merely write
the word here.)

Method.

Show your method of introduction here.

If the lesson should be one of a series, the introduction has
certain objects at which it aims, such as : —

la) To recall the most important facts and truths of the last lesson.

Id) To arouse the mental activity of the class by awakenmg interest.

Ic) To awaken their sympathy, and

{d) To enlist their co-operation by maintaining the continuity of the lessons.

-These will vary with the subjects

Bfethoda of Zntroduction.-

of the lessons.

(a) Reading— Say a few words about the subject matter of the lesson, or
about the author, and set the meaning of the chapter clearly before them.

50 ANEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

(d) Writing. — Pick out the common errors of the previous lesson ; place
them en the B. B. ; in each case show wherein the error lies ; give specimens of
correct writing, and contrast the two,

(d) Grammar. — Place sentences on the B. B. , embodying the results of the
last lesson, and suggestions for the present lesson.

(e) History.— Question on the previous lesson. Bring out the points that
bear upon or lead to the proposed lesson.

(/) Geography.— The method will vary here. Objects may have to be
shown, maps or diagrams used, models exhibited ; or questioning only may be
required. The subject of the lesson must decide m each case.

(<?■) Object Lessons. — Show the object itself, if possible ; if not, show a pic-
ture of it. Ask a few connecting questions with the previous lesson (if one of a
series), and begin at once.

n. Second Step. — A complete copy of notes of lessons on
some common object should now be placed before the pupil
teacher, and he should be asked to carefully study it. A lesson
on the Sponge will be found in the chapter on object lessons, and
that lesson will be found suitable for such a purpose. Certain
characteristics of the lesson should be pointed out, and the young
teacher should be asked to distinguish like characteristics in other
notes of lessons. He should observe that in the matter column
notes are given, and not descriptions ; and that the sequence of
teaching is observed in startmg with the known and proceeding to
the unknown. In the method column he should seek to recognise
the instrument or aid used by the teacher; whether it is observa-
tion, interrogation, illustration, experiment, or description. The
lesson referred to is a simple one, so that it may serve as a type
or study for all pupil teachers, irrespective of their school depart-
ments. This will involve some knowledge of these aids, and the
student is recommended to read them through. They will be
found in the chapter on class teaching. He will then be able to
perceive that such lessons are largely experimental, and at a later
period he will recognise that they are, like this one, inductive in
their method, which is the most educative form of teaching for
such lessons.

III. Third Step.

1. Matter. — This will be met with under different names in
different subjects. Sometimes it is called Matter, sometimes
Information, sometimes Principles and Examples (Grammar and
Arithmetic); but the term Matter will here be used in a generic
sense as including all. It should be terse and to the point, so as
readily to appeal to the eye ; and it should be written in one
column. Young beginners often find it difficult to distinguish

NOTES ON LESSONS. 51

matter from method, and some teachers recognise this difficulty
by throwing matter and method into one column. In fact, matter
and method often seem to interlace and overlap. Nevertheless, it
is strongly recommended that an effort be made to keep them
apart. Then the matter must be brought under proper Heads, and
in separate paragraphs or statements. The more important should
be distinguished from the less important by the size of the writing
and by the width of the margin. The matter should always be
written in the form of Notes, and not small essays ; in fact, it
should be strongly borne in mind that Notes of Lessons are to be
written, and not Essays of Lessons. This rule will exclude nearly
all questions and descriptions. Such important matter as Rules
of Arithmetic, Definitions in Grammar, and general principles
should be written in larger type, to indicate their importance. Nor
should the lesson be overcrowded with information ; for the
amount does not depend upon how much can be told, but rather
upon how much can be worked out in the allotted time. Hence
all irrelevant matter should be excluded ; and it is easier to do
this in the Notes than in the actual teaching itself. Finally, avoid
egotism ; it is unnecessary and unpleasant. " Now I'm going to
tell you," and such personal elements, are objectionable.

2. Blatter in Order. — The student should first be supplied with
the matter in the order for teaching. By practice and training he
will soon be able to put matter into the requisite order for himself;
but whilst this logical faculty for arrangement is being cultivated,
the teacher's assistance should be given by arranging the matter
for him. The matter (in order) of a lesson on some common
object having been given by the teacher, it is recommended that
the pupil write notes of a lesson from it. The lesson should then
be examined, corrected, and criticised by the teacher, and the
corrected lesson kept by the pupil for future reference and use.
The matter of other lessons should be similarly treated.

rv. Fourth Step. Matter not in Order. — A little extra work
should now be thrown upon the pupil. The matter is still found for
him, but it is not arranged in the necessary form for a lesson.
He should now attempt to make this arrangement himself, bring
it under its proper heads, and then complete the lesson, with help
if necessary. Text books and books of other kinds will afford
plenty of matter in a form suitable for this purpose. In fact, this
is generally the way in which matter is presented to the young

52 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

teacher for notes of lessons; and after passing successfully through
the previous steps, he should be in a better condition to deal with
this stage of the subject. In no case should too much be at-
tempted.

V. Fifth Step. Heads of Xiessons. — The student will now be
able to exercise some judgment in the selection of matter. He has
been supplied and drilled with matter in order, with matter not in
order, and with masses of matter to select from. He should now be
drilled in writing the heads of lessons, so as to train his analytic
powers over a wider range of subjects. He has learnt to select suit-
able matter, and to arrange it in proper order. The work is not
new to him, for in arranging matter in order he has practically
arranged it under heads ; but the power needs strengthening and
developing.

Having deiermined what he will teach, and how much of it he
will teach, he should make a careful analysis of the subject matter,
and arrange it in divisions and sub-divisions. The logical connec-
tions must be maintained, and the sequence of teaching must be
observed. This sequence is based on great principles, simple of
comprehension and easy of application, and it must not be
violated. It embraces the following principles : —

1. From the simple to the complex.

2. From the particular to the general.

3. From the concrete to the abstract.

4. From the indefinite to the definite.

5. From the empirical to the rational and scientific.

6. From the outline to the details

7. From the physical to the menta , and generally,

8. From the known to the unknown.

The last principle includes several of the former, but they are
stated in detail, so that the student may the more readily recognise them
and their applications.

There must not be too many heads, otherwise there is cross-
division and confusion. Then they must be marked by clear,
distinct, and broad lines. The power which, most presumably,
many students will have already acquired in mapping out a course
of thought in Composition Exercises, in analysing the subject
matter of their History, Descriptive Geography, Scripture, etc.,
will now be serviceable. There are many lessons scattered
through this book, and the student might copy their " Heads " in
turn, and try to write lessons from them. He should then choose
other subjects, and write heads under them. These should be
submitted to the head teacher and discussed, the necessary cor-

NOTES ON LESSONS.

rections being made in each case. The corrected "Heads"
should then be preserved for subsequent use.

VI. Sixth Step. B.B. Sketches. — A number of B.B. sketches
should now be supplied to the student, and these he should be
asked to expand into lessons. They are not necessarily the same
as the heads of the lessons; in fact, they are rarely so. No
" Notes" are complete without them, i.e., if the notes are meant
to be presented in a complete or examination form. The summary
may take one of two forms:—

1. An Analysis of the chief heads and sub-heads of the matter column.

2. A Statement of the chief facts of the lesson. Anything that is striking or
important should be brought out and placed at the end of the lesson, and
during the actual teaching it should find its way on to the B.B. This form is
the better one of the two, and it is what is generally meant by B.B. summary
or sketch.

The B.B. sketch is also a good indication of the teacher's
power of using the B.B. A few B.B. sketches (taken from Garlick
and Dexter's Object Lessons) are now given, and the student is re-
commended to expand them into complete lessons, and to get
them criticised by the head teacher.

1. Sand. Lesson for Standard I.

r Yellow — made up of gr-ins.
J Does not dissolve.
j Makes water purer.
\^ Sandstone is pressed sand.

2. Ice. Lesson for Standard H.

J Cold. Lighter than water.

\ Colourless. Takes up more room than water.

'^ Melts with heat

3. Popgun. Lesson for Standard IIL

/'Parts. I. Tube with loose cork.

I 2. Rod with cork attached.

"\ How it Acts. I. Pressing the rod presses the air in tube.

I 2. Air is elastic, and tries to occupy its former space.

V 3. In doing so the air pushes out the loose cork.

VH, Seventh Step. Apparatus. — A still further demand
might now be made. The apparatus for a lesson should be given,
and from this a lesson should be constructed showing what use
could be made of it. The apparatus used should always be stated
at the head of the lesson— both special and general apparatus. It
is one of the four guiding and explanatory items which should find
a place at the head of most notes of lessons, and the lesson should
be carefully thought out, and the apparatus jotted down, before the
" Notes" are attempted. Subjoined is an illustration of what is
meant : —

54 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON SOME FLOWER.

Class -

Standard IIL

Time -

Forty minutes.

A.m

To cultivate a love of flowers.

Apparatus -

B.B., coloured chalks, slates and pencils, specimens of
flowers, lenses, needles, pigskin, treacle, a glass vessel for

holding water.

Matter.

The matter should be commenced here.

Method.

The method should be commenced here.

Vm. Final Step. Complete Notes. — The pupil should now,
after some practice under the last head, be able to write complete
notes of lessons unaided. Of course, all notes will still be sub-
mitted to the head teacher for criticism ; but no special prepara-
tory aid as detailed in the various steps will be given. Should
any particular weakness be shown in writing these unaided notes,
a return should be made to the particular " step " for further aid
and practice.

Ijessons Criticised.

I. A Grood Iiesson. — The following tests have been laid
down : —

1. Are the main points told or discovered? As a rule they must not be
told.

{a) Is each point a problem to the class.?
(d) Is it clear before the class?
{/) Is its difficulty felt ?

(d) Is the process one of thought ?

(e) Is everything (that can be) pictured out ?

(/) Is every point illustrated by incident and analogy to make it still clearer
and to fit it firmly ?

2. Is there a right use of experiments and diagrams ?

3. Is there a sifting examination at the end of each point, and a recapitu-
lation of the lesson at its close?

4. Has too much been attempted?

5. Is there a proper use of the B.B. ?

6. Is there a well-defined purpose m view ?

7. Is the plan of the lesson simple, natural, and logical?

H. A Bad Lesson. — One of H.M.I.'s summarises bad lessons
as follows : —

1. The Echo Lesson. — Mere statements and questions.

2. The Lecture Lesson. — Exhausts children, and often sends them to sleep.

3. The Desultory Lesson, — A number of disconnected topics.

4. The Discursive Lesson. — A comet lesson.

5. The Personal Lesson. — The Inspector is lectured, instead of the class
being taught.

6. The Disproportionate Lesson,— Details crowd out the essential points.

NOTES ON LESSONS. 55

7. The Assumptive Lesson. — The teacher either disregards altogether the
previous knowledge of the children, or assumes greater knowledge than they
possess.

8. The Mechanical Lesson. — The questions do not exercise the intelligence.

9. The Irrational Lesson.— Attempts are made to elicit from children
matters of fact (heights, lengilis, etc.).

A Criticism Ijesson.

I. AVhat it is. — A criticism lesson is really a training
lesson for the young teacher. In it he puts forth his best
methods and powers. It is a special effort ; the summit of
a teacher's skill and nerve. It is a composite and difficult
production, requiring for its success a theoretical and practical
knowledge of teaching; the aid of a good, conscientious, and
skilful head teacher; a certain amount of knowledge of child
mind, character, and life. Furthermore, the personal equation
must always be a strong factor. There must be good disciplinary
powers, ready tact, and a warm and sympathetic nature, to beget
effort and attention. In the earlier days, perhaps even all through
a pupil teacher's engagement, it should follow Model Lessons given
by the head teacher or some well-qualified assistant. A model
for imitation is an aid worth more than all information gained by
reading and lecture ; and, above all, it bestows confidence.

H. Its Subject Matter. — Too often the subject matter is con-
fined to object lessons, because these offer special scope for prepa-
ration, experiment, illustration, and criticism. But criticism
lessons should embrace all the school subjects — especially the
standard and class subjects. These form the greater part of a
child's education, and the methods used in imparting them are
very important in their effects upon the young and plastic minds
of the scholars.

Zn. Criticism. — This should be two-sided ; it should expose
the weakness and commend the excellences. Pupil teachers are
rarely allowed to criticise, and there are several good reasons
against it, among which will be staff difficulties and the limited
knowledge and experience of the pupil teachers. But where possible
senior pupil teachers should be allowed to criticise their fellow
pupil teachers, subject to the after criticism of the head teacher.
There would then be an extra inducement to study methods, and
extra mental effort to follow a lesson critically. There would be
practice in Analysis as well as in Synthesis. At present the criti
cism lesson is often a purely synthetical exercise— the exercise in
writing the lesson ; but inter- criticism would call forth valuable

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

analytic effort, and for this reason it should not only be allowed,
but encouraged.

There are a few rules which should be attended to in criticising.
It is not advisable to overcrowd with instructions for criticism,
or confusion and mechanical routine may be the undesired result.
The power to criticise well and in detail will grow with experi-
ence and knowledge. The teacher will be able to extend his
criticism proportionately ; but all first efforts should be simple,
and directed towards the essential parts of a lesson. The good
should receive praise, the bad correction ; but, over and above
these two essentials of criticism, there are certain other things to
remember and to do.

1. If the criticism is destructive, it must also be constructive. Where

methods are condemned, better methods should be suggested.

2. Commendations must be reasonable, and the reasons for the praise should

be given.

3. Criticism should be short and pointed. There is no compulsion to deal

with every portion of a lesson. It is the strength and weakness that
require attention,

4. An aid in the shape of a criticism form should always be used. No

special form need be committed to memory. A form devised by the
student himself will be of more value educationally than any prepared
form copied from a text book. For such a form must of necessity be
stereotyped, and therefore not suited to all lessons. The form should
receive its shape from the lesson, not the lesson from the form; and
the latter is the tendency where stereotyped forms are used. Again,
the form should not be crowded with too much detail, or the criticiser
becomes a slave to it. The following form is not offered as a model
for all lessons. It is simply a graphic suggestion to the pupil teacher
or student to draw up his own.

CRITICISM FORM.

No.

Subject, etc.

Matter.

Method.

Subject

Class or Average Age -

Time - - - .

Apparatus

No.

Teacher.

Manner

(a) Voice

(b) Gesture -

(d) Temper, etc. -
Language

Questions - . .
Recapitulation
Experiment and Illustration
Blackboard

No.

Class

Attention
Interest -
Discipline
Intelligense

T/us Chapter is coniimied in the Appendix.

CHAPTER V
CLASS TEACHING.

The Teacher. — To organise and classify a school well, to educate
the scholars to the best advantage, the teacher must be well
equipped with suitable qualihCcttions, mental, moral, and physical.

I. Mental Qualifications. — Ihe teacher must be well-read,
with an ample knowledge ot the subjects embraced in the school
curriculum. He should prepare his lessons carefully, so that his
information may be accurate and precise. If he is to be success-
ful, he must be a permanent student, for the improvement of his
own mind, and to keep him in better sympathy with his class.
He must be natural in his language, and modest over his acquire-
ments. He should form good intellectual friendships, so that he
may rub shoulders with better minds than his own. This will
check the too prevahnt tendency to pedantry. Teaching requires
good descriptive powers, and these should be sedulously cultivated.
He must keep pace with the times by bringing his methods up to
date, and this can only be done by study and observation.

H. Moral Qualifications. — His character must be beyond
reproach. No one is more restlessly watched than a teacher ; no
one is more persistently copied ; hence he must guard his temper
so as to present a cheerful front to his class at all times. " A boy
compelled for six hours a day to see the countenance and hear the
voice of a fretful, unkind, hard, or passionate man is placed in a
school of vice." Cheerfulness is as essential as anything. Its
association with work is a valuable lesson to the children, for they
learn that work need not necessarily mean dulness. The teacher
must also be sympathetic. Sympathy is contagious and productive,
calling forth the respect and esteem of pupils and parents, and
making school a happy place. Especially must he form and teach
good habits^ and to do this successfully he must understand the
principles upon which habit depends — association, repetition, con-
centration, and nutrition. All motives that influence children for
their good must be called into requisition, and his own habits

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

must be shown to be guided by these principles and influenced by
these motives,

III, Physical Qualifications. — A teacher should be a fair
adept at some of our national games, so that he may maintain his
own health and share the games of his pupils. He should be
quick of eye and ear, so that it may be known that nothing will
escape his notice. His voice should be nicely pitched, pleasant
yet authoritative, and in discipline it should be used as little as
possible, for a noisy teacher makes a noisy class. His work should
also be characterised by energy and zeal, and a healthy body is
absolutely essential for this. Such conditions will beget like
qualities in his pupils, and bring immediate and future profit.

The Diary. — Each pupil teacher is recommended to keep a
diary, which should be the log book of his professional life. It
should duly show each subject, and the quantity of that subject
set for preparation ; it should contain columns for the marks or
remarks of the head teacher; it should record the successes and
failures (if any) of the year's tests and examinations.

Such a book would show at once the weak and strong points of
the year's course ; it would indicate the course of study in each
subject, and so lead to a careful mapping out of that self-set revi-
sion which every pupil teacher should practise, whether attending
"Centres" or not. The book would be an incentive to zeal,
would add interest, and would generate a legitimate pride in the
work. It would also be valuable for inspection and reference by
the head teacher, the managers, and H.M.I. It would give the
student that trainmg in self-reliance, forethought, and methodical
work which are the only guarantees for thoroughness and success.

A separate book should be kept for criticisms on the notes of
lessons. An ordinary exercise book could be ruled up for this
purpose, but a stiff-backed book is recommended for preference.
The ruling will depend upon the ambitions and chances of the
pupil teacher, but something like the following is suggested: —

Date.

Preparation

Marks or
Remarks.

Notes of
Lessons.

Criticism.

Examination
Successes.

^%T

French xxi.

History,
Charles II.
Arithmetic,
page 209 ;
Examples 6-12.
Euclid ii. 7.

These are to be
entered here
by the teach-
er (P.T.).

Sponge.

Enter the

Criticism

here.

Government
Examination

"Well".

Freehand, 1st

Class.

Advanced

Physiology, 2nd

Class.

CLASS TEACHING, 59

The remarks in the third column would be added after the
work had been returned by the head teacher. There would then
be no *' mistakes," or '* forgettings," or " misunderstandings,"
which are always more unfortunate for the pupil teachers than for
anybody else.

Exercise Books. — Exercise books are necessary for the fol-
lowing purposes : —

1. The reproduction of work learnt.

2. For the various mathematical, grammatical, composition, and other

exercises.

3. For note-taking, although a set of smaller and stiff-covered books is

recommended for this purpose.

4. For scrap work.

The first three should be kept for reference and revision.
Furthermore, H.M.I, can and does sometimes ask to see the com-
plete set for the year. Managers also sometimes require a sight
of them. A separate book should be kept for each subject, and
every lesson should be dated. The work should be neat, methodi-
cal, and easy of examination, so that every lesson becomes a
training for good teaching in school, and for good reproduction in
examinations.

Aids to Teaching. — The teacher having first decided what
he will teach, and having suitably arranged the matter he has
chosen, has next to consider the way in which this matter shall
be presented to his class. Having decided the what, he has now
to decide the how. Shall it be by experiment and observation, by
description, definition, or explanation ? Or shall it be by a selec-
tion from, or by adopting all these aids ? He has further to think
out his style of questioning, so that it may be suitable to the point
before the class, and he must also know how to make a proper
use of the answers given, to know which to accept and which to
reject. There must also be a wise use of examination for the
purposes of reproduction. All these items constitute the aids or
instruments used in teaching. They are the teacher's tools, and
if good work is to be produced the right tools must be used in the
right way.

A. Examination of Classes. — Examination is one of the
teacher's aids, and properly used, it may be made very valuable.
Probably most teachers have a system of periodical examinations
extending throughout the year. The results of these examinations
should be registered and compared from period to period. If the
tests given have been reasonable and just, the disappointments

6o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD^

revealed by an examination enable the teacher the better to guide
his work.

I. Methods. — Practically all methods are reducible to three.

1. By written tests.

2. By oral examination.

3. By both methods combined.

n. The Written Method. — Each system has its advantages
and disadvantages.

1. Advantages.

(a) The pupils are thrown entirely on ^hetr own resources. This is the

direct value of the method.
{b) It compels careful preparation and attention. This is its indirect

value,
{c) It cultivates composition. This can be varied by the monosyllabic or

phrase method.

2. Disadvantages.

{«) // requires good powers of composition, and this is a separate gift. Pupils
consciously weak in composition are apt to be discouraged. To
obviate this the teacher should make careful allowances in such cases.

{h) It takes up too much time.

{c) It may lead to speculation. A pupil may simply learn those portions
which look most likely to be set.

{d) It induces "brewing". Pupils try to hide their ignorance beneath a
foam of words.

m. The Oral Method.

1. Advantages.

{a) It is, or can be made, expeditious,
{b) It maintains more interest.

2. Disadvantages.

{a) Unless the teacher is alert, it enables the lazjy to shelter themselves
under the bright and industrious.

(b) There is a tendency to simultaneous answering, and the checking of this

takes time and sometimes brings discouragement.
{c) \\.\nCi\xces guessing.

TV. The Double Method.

{a) This method may be used sometimes with advantage. A short written

test, followed up by oral questioning, ought to enable any average

teacher to thoroughly examine his class.
(b) The value of this method is acknowledged by most University and other

examiners, who set papers for written tests, but retain the right of

vivd voce examination to follow.

B. Questioning. I. Conditions for Success. — Few parts of
a teacher's work offer such fine opportunities for showing his
professional calibre as questioning. Skilful questioning is not
easy, nor is it common — at least, among young teachers. This is
not to be wondered at, when we consider the mental demands it

CLASS TEACHING. 6i

makes. Very often there is little or no opportunity for the young
teacher to hear good models, and this is very essential for success
in most cases. Then there is also required good analytic and
classifying powers ; the ability to see and maintain a logical connec-
tion, and the power of description. Exercise strengthens faculty,
and practice makes perfect, and this latter requirement is within
the reach of all, although it is not enough of itself.

H. The Objects of Questioning. — Most of these are obvious.

1, To find out what the child knows. This is necessary before the teacher

can profitably give any further instruction ; and, furthermore, it is
necessary to test from time to time in a lesson what has been taught.

2. To keep the minds of the children active, and to maifitain attention. It

is necessary to know whether each child is mentally awake, whether he
is following the teacher, and whether he understands what is given
him. Otherwise the teacher would fail to discover the misconceptions
and difficulties of the pupils, and much of his teaching would be
wasted.

ZZZ. Places for Questioning.

1. At the beginning of the lesson.

2. At the end of the lesson.

3. At any point ox great division of the lesson.

4. And, generally, when there is any doubt that any portion of the class

has failed to grasp any point or fact in the lesson.

ZV. Rules for the Formation of Qood Questions.
1. Positive Rules.

fa) The language should be simple, clear, familiar, terse, and to the point,
b) The question should be suited to the capacity of the class ; that is, it should
not be so framed as to be beyond their mental grasp. Capacity em-
braces knowledge and natural ability; over-estimate neither if you wish
to succeed.

{c) The questions should follow in proper sequence ; that is, they should be
logically arranged.

(</) They should also be suited to the information 0/ the children ; that is,
they must not embody or demand knowledge not within the possession
of the children. A question may be quite within the ability of a class,
but out of their present knowledge.

(e) Never lose sight of the real function of questioning — to find out what

children do know : not what they do not know.

S. negative Rules.

!a) See that the repxitition of the question does not add to it.
b) Avoid leading questions, and do not let them suggest their own answers.
Make them demand a reasonable effort.

(f) The questions must not be ambiguous or vague.

\d) Avoid elliptical questions. They are noisy, and neither indicative of
sustained attention nor knowledge. Their use should only be tolerated
for a rapid interrogatory recapitulation.

V. Defective Questions. — Any breach of the above rules will
lead to defective questioning.

C. Answering. — The skilful manipulation of answers is an-

62 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

other mark of the gifted or experienced teacher, but much may be
done by the proper comprehension of a few primary principles.

I. Answers; their Value.^Answers are valuable in teach-
ing:—

1. Because they necessitate attention, and so help to form the valuable

\\^!Q\\.oi concentration.

2. They require thought., and so give training to the reason.

3. They necessarily exercise the memory.

4. They induce mental activity, and so sharpen the wits.

5. They measure the deg7-ee of success attained in the lesson.

6. They offer some amount of logical training both to teacher and class.

n. Good Answers. — Good answers are known by the follow-
ing marks : —

1. Thoughtfulness. — A good answer will always show thought, although it
may not be a ready answer.

2. Clearness of Expression.— The language used should be sufficient to
express the whole idea or statement. It should give all that is asked for, and
nothing more.

3. Correct Interpretation.— This will be a result of thoughtfulness and
natural ability. Pupils often fail to interpret a question correctly because they
allow themselves little or no time to grasp its point.

4. Good Arrangement. — This, like the previous quality, applies particularly
to written answers. If a question contains more than one point, each point
should be answered under a separate heading. Again, many answers admit of
clear, terse, methodical arrangement, and it is the pupil's business" to detect
and use these opportunities,

5. Economy. — There should be a proper economy of time, space, and lan-
guage in the answer. Pupils often give more than is asked for because they
cannot give enough of what is demanded. This is always unwise, and must
be discouraged.

m. Received Answers.

1. Good Answers. — These should be accepted and commended.

2. Honest Answers. — These may or may not be good, but if they indicate
honest effort they should always be accepted. Never reject an answer with the
slightest atom of truth or effort in it.

3. Partial Answers. — An answer need not necessarily be rejected because it
is not full, exact, or neat Encourage a free expression of thought if you wish
to train the mtelligence.

IV. Rejected Answers.

1. Flippant or Careless Answers. — These should be discouraged and re-
pressed. A little judicious exposure will be useful for this purpose. But never
snub or ridicule, however unsatisfactory the answer may be ; for educationally
the result is disastrous.

2. Hasty or Random Answers. — These should also be refused ; but at the
same time they should receive attention. The motive which made them hasty
or random must be sought, and the correction applied to that.

3. Incorrect Answers. — These may or may not be rejected. The teacher
must use his discretion. They will usually fall under one of the other heads,
and should be treated accordingly. The answer may show thought, although
incorrect ; it may show honest effort, although not what was expected or de-
sired ; and in either case it should be treated tenderly, so as to encourage
further effort.

i. Guesses. — Reject these, for they usually arise from idleness or inatten-
tion. They may arise from stupidity or ignorance, and in such a case will

CLASS TEACHING. 63

require kind treatment. But otherwise expose by further questioning, which
may bring a httle corn-ction to bear upon the offender.

5. Dishonest Answers.— These will sometunes be met with in written
answers. They may be copied from a neighbour, from a text booi<, from
smuggled notes, or in some kindred way. The answer may involve a repro-
duction of something previously done in an exercise book, and still there exis-
tent, and this may be slyly utilised. Reject all such answers, for they indicate
a weak or low moral tone, which is something far worse . than ignorance,
whether it arise from stupidity or inattention.

D, Explanation. — By explanation in teaching is meant the
process by which is cleared away from a word, phrase, or state-
ment all obscurity of meaning, so as to make it intelligible. The
meaning is made plain, or else it is not explanation. Then the
fact or idea must be stated in its simplest form, and this implies a
good command of language and (7 readiness of illustration which are
only obtained by plenty of good general reading. It is more than
the mere changing of one word or phrase for another, for the sub-
stituted phrase must be simpler and clearer.

In most lessons there is much to explain, and the teacher who
omits any necessary explanation is wasting his opportunities. He
must be watchful to detect and utilise all occasions for its use.
The parts of a lesson are often like the links of a chain — one
obscurity may spoil the whole lesson to some members of the
class.

A common defect in explanation is the added difficulty of the

explanation. The substituted word is often more difficult than

the original one, e.g. ; —

Glen, a dale,

Man, a living, organised being, having sensation, reason, and voluntary

motion.
Grimace, a distortion of the countenance expressive of affectation or some

strong emotion.

Perhaps it is hardly necessary to point out to teachers that
this is not explanation, but greater obscurity or confusion. The
language used must be within the grasp of the children's capacity,
and the method must be intelligible.

E. Description.— By description is meant the act of repre-
senting a thing by words or signs, or by both. It is the process
of forming a word-picture, and is sometimes called word-painting.
It tries to give an account of the nature, properties, or appearance
of a thing, so that the children may form a just conception of it.
It expands the work of a definition, is sometimes described as
'' picturing out,'* and is really another form of exposition. Good
descriptive power may be a gift, but more often it is a matter of

64 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

cultivation. But a good description involves a good mental pic-
ture of what is to be described, for the description ceases to be
good if anything essential is omitted ; and above all, the ideas and
the language which expresses them must be within the knowledge
or experience of the children.

Exposition is really a form of description, and it is used to clear
away obscurities from whatever cause they may arise. By expo-
sition the sense or meaning is laid open, and it may be called the
art of clearly conveying thoughts or ideas. As in other cases, the
language and ideas must be within the capacity of the children.

F. Definition. — When we define a word, we seek to determine
its common qualities or marks. We seek to lay bare the whole
meaning of the term. The definition can also be expressed in the
form of a proposition, in which case the term to be defined is the
subject, and the explanation the predicate, e.g. : —

Subject.

Predicate.

Man {the term)

is a food-cooking animal (explanation).

Contrast is an important part of definition ; for in defining any
term, such as government, it is contrasted with other forms of
government. Three terms are involved in definition, the meaning
of which the pupil must thoroughly grasp before attempting to
frame definitions. They are as follow : —

1. Genus. — Th's is that part of the definition which is common to the term
defined, and to the other terms with which it has been compared.

2. Species.— This 's the term which has to be defined.

8. Differentia. — This is the portion which distingfuishes the term defined
from the terms with which it has been compared.

The student will now understand what is meant when it is said

that Definition should be t)er Genus et Differentias. A term {Species)

has to be defined, which term (Species') is compared with a larger

class (Genus), and the differences (Differentiae) are pointed out. A

study of the examples given will show that in each case a Species

is defined ; that it proceeds through (1)er) the larger class (Genus)

and points out the differences (Differentias).

species. Genus. Differentias.
A house is a buildiner to dwell in.
A church ,, to worship in.

A barn
A school
A factorv
A bank
A theatre

to store ^rain in.

to teach in.

to manufacture goods in.

to deposit money in.

to see plays in.

CLASS TEACHING.

Rules of Definition.

authorities : —

-These are thus laid down by our best

it must state the

1. A definition must be per genus et differentias ; i.e.

essential attributes defined.

2. A definition must not contain the name defined,

3. The definition must be exactly equal to the species defined ; i.e. , it must

denote the species, the whole species, and nothing but the species.

4. It must not be expressed in obscure, figurative, or ambiguous language,

5. It must not be negative where it can be positive.

Experiment, Observation, Classification, and Reasoning, will
be found under the head of Elementary Science.

NOTE BOOKS.

Their Use.

1. They enable the pupil to take down
any detail given during the lesson. It is
not safe to trust the memory too much
owing to the amount of work thrown on it
and the conflict of interests; the strong
over-ride and crush out the weak.

2. They improve the method of the
class, which learns to copy the teacher.

3. They enable the pupil to get a number
of peg words down, which bind the lesson
and make its reproduction thorough.

By peg words are meant suggestive words
or phrases which are useful to hang facts
and statements upon in the memory.

4. They are a fine aid to concentration,
for the attention must be keenly maintained
to make " notes " of any value. This is one
of their best uses.

5. They thus aid the memory by fixing
the attention and by facilitating revision,

6. They are economical, for they are
calculated to save the purchase of other
books.

7. They may develop a power of analysis
and condensation if the pupil is trained
to reproduce the substance of a lesson in a
synoptic form.

8. They may increase the vocabulary
and power of composition of the pupils.

Their Abuse.

1. Mere dictation of notes is extrava-
gant and almost useless. Notes are only
valuable when the class has to reproduce
the lesson afterwards by the aid of their
own self-made notes.

2. Copying notes from a book is a waste
of time. The process is purely mechanical
and the thoughts of the author are merely
transferred from one book to another.

3. They are also destructive. " Men
seldom read again what they have com-
mitted to paper, nor remember what they
have so committed one iota the better for
their additional trouble. On the contrary,
I believe it has a direct tendency to destroy
the promptitude and tenacity of memory by
diminishing the vigour of present attention,
and by reducing the mind to depend on
future reference " (Sydney Smith).

Perhaps this statement goes too far.
Self-made notes, if well made, involve a
power of analysis and a readiness of re-
vision which many think have some value.

4. Copious note-taking is a waste of
time and distracting.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

X. — Say what is the use to a pupil teacher of keeping a diary of employments or
notes of the lessons he or she gives. If you have been accustomed to preserve such a
record, describe it.

2.— Sute what use you have made of note books and exercise books as a pupil
teacher, and how such books ought to be kept.

3. — What is the best method of examining a class? What kind of questioning
should be avoided ?

4.— On receiving new scholars in the school, what is the best way of deciding in
what class to place them ? Give reasons for your answer.

5. — " The answers given by children to questions are too often confined to single
words." Why should this be ob'ectcd to, and what means can be adopted to encourage
children to make complete statements and sentences of their own ?

6.— What are the advantages and dtsadvantages(if any) of encouraging tne scholars
to put their own questions at the end of a lesson ?

This Chapter is continued in the Appendix.

CHAPTER VI.

OBJECT LESSONS.

" It has been observed that in schools in which Object Teach-
ing has been introduced with most success, the teachers have
carefully distinguished between two kinds of instruction, which in
other schools are not seldom confused. These two kinds of
instruction are — (i) observation of the object itself; and (2) giving
information about the object. This distinction is of importance,
because the scope and method of the lesson differ according to its
nature. Object teaching leads the scholar to acquire knowledge
by observation and experiment ; and no instruction is properly so
called unless an object is presented to the learner so that the
addition to his knowledge may be made through the senses."

"Junior teachers have not unfrequently given lessons before
H.M. Inspectors which were wrongly described as object lessons,
because in dealing with the topic selected no suitable appeal was
made to the eye of the scholar. A lesson, for example, on the
elephant to children in village schools, who have no opportunity
of visiting either museums or zoological gardens, may convey
information and store the memory with interesting facts ; but it
does not cultivate the habit of obtaining knowledge directly and
at first hand, or develop the faculty of observation. However
well the lesson may be illustrated by diagrams, pictures, models,
or lantern slides, if the children have no opportunity of handling
or watching the actual object which is being dealt with, the teacher
will be giving an information lesson, rather than an object lesson.
It should be always remembered that in object lessons the im-
parting of information is secondary to the cultivation of the faculty
of observation."

" Object teaching should further be distinguished from instruc-
tion in natural science. It is elementary science onl}^ in so far as it
aids the child to observe some of the facts of nature upon which
natural science is founded ; but as it deals with such topics with-

OBJECT LESSONS. 67

out formal arrangement, it differs widely from the systematic
study of a particular science. The principles of scientific classifi-
cation, the continuous study of one group of natural phenomena,
the generalisation from facts and the search for natural laws,
belong to a later stage of mental discipline, which will be much
more effectual if it is being based upon the preliminary training of
the senses through sound object teaching. It is most important,
therefore, that if, for example, object lessons are given on plant
life, no attempt should be made to treat them as a continuous
introduction to the study of botany, or, if the lessons relate to
animal life, to the study of zoology. In object teaching the chief
interest in the lesson should centre in the object itself."

Suggestions.

1. The teacher should select only so many of the objects set forth in the

app>ended or other similar lists as can be dealt with in the year without
overburdening the scholars. Habits of observation are better culti-
vated by the thorough examination of a few objects than by the super-
ficial treatment of many.

2. No object should be chosen which the teacher cannot thoroughly illustrate

either by the object itself or by some adequate representation of the
object, or by both. All that is purely technical, whether in the mode
of study or the language and terminology, should be carefully avoided.

3. The children should be encouraged to bring with them to the lesson

illustrative specimens which they have collected or borrowed from
friends.

4. The children should be encouraged to make simple drawings illustrative

of their observations, wherever possible, and in certain cases to make
simple records on square-ruled paper. Clay modelling and other
manual occupations may be employed to test the accuracy of the im-
pressions which the children form, and to fix them in their minds.
Teachers should also frequently illustrate details of the lesson by B.B.
drawings. Children who are jaded in five minutes by a lecture will
be open-eyed and receptive for half an hour while the teacher draws
as well as talks.

5. Visits to museums and other institutions of educational value are now

recognised by the Code, and may advantageously be undertaken where
possible in connection with the object teaching. Occasional class
excursions out of school hours (or, if the instruction be in accordance
with Article 12 (/) of the Code, in school hours), under proper guid-
ance, will enable teachers both to provide suitable objects and to con-
firm previous impressions. It should be borne in mind that objects
when they are brought into the class room cannot be there studied
under their ordinary conditions, and therefore it is important by a
proper use of such expeditions to let the children see what part the
object plavs in its usual surroundings.

6. If the scholars are to learn intelligently from their object lessons, the

first requisite is trained attention. The right method of securing this
is to direct, in a conversational way, the attention of the children to
the different parts of the object in an orderly manner, and explain the
relation of each part to the whole. After the analysis or study of
separate detail, the object should again be treated as a whole. It
should not Ije left in fragments, but the division into parts should be
followed when possible by the reconstruction of them mto their original

68 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

unity. Through such teaching the vague and indefinite impressions
which the children receive from objects when they are first presented
to them are gradually converted into clear mental pictures.

7. "The attempt to teach children to be accurate m observation cannot be

separated from the need of making them accurate in description. After
the children have been trained to observe a fact, they should be prac-
tised in making a correct statement of it in a sentence of their own.
This oral answering in complete sentences will lead to correct use of
the English language, both in talking and writing, and will store the
mind with a useful vocabulary. In the higher standards, the children
will be able to write brief weekly compositions in which they may
express in a written form the ideas which they have acquired through
oral instruction.' — Circular 369.

8. The lesson should be previously well thought out. the subject matter

should be logically arranged ; the illustrations should be varied and
suitable; there should be a proper use of experiment ; the childish
love of activity should be used ; the personal qualities of the teacher
must include tact, sympathy, and patience, and his language and
questions must be suited to the capacity of the class ; the sequence of
teaching must be observed, and the method of teaching must h^ psycho-
logical ; i.e., the lessons should exercise the senses chiefly at first ; the
conceptive faculty next ; and the reasoning faculty last.

Their Value.

I. Principal Uses.

1. The first and most important is to teach the children to observe, com-

pare, and contrast.

2. To impart information.

3. To reinforce the other two by making the results of them the basis for

instruction in language, drawing, number, modelling, and other
handiwork.

n. Minor Uses.

1. Object teaching makes the lives of the children more happy and inter-

esting by opening up an easily accessible and attractive field for the
exercise of brain, hand, and eye.

2. It gives the children an opportunity of learning the simplest natural

facts, and directs their attention to external objects, making their
education less bookish.

3. " It develops a love of nature and an interest in living things, and corrects

the tendency which exists in many children to destructiveness and
thoughtless unkindness to animals, and shows the ignorance and
cruelty of such conduct. The value of the services which many
animals render to man should be dwelt upon, and the importance of
kindly treating them and preserving them should be pointed out." —
Circular 369.

4. Whilst training the intelligence generally, they especially afford a fine

medium for the training of the senses, and in so far as the first of the
principal uses does not include this, it should be counted in that cate-
gory. It also aids the teaching of the abstract by the concrete, and
arouses a healthy curiosity.

5. Object teaching has also a moral use. It helps to form good habits

which have a beneficial influence on the lives of the children when
school days are over. It helps to develop a higher moral tone, for
the beauties and marvels of nature, exemplified in everything around
them, must tend to produce feelings of wonder, reverence and grati-
tude to the Great Author of all.

OBJECT LESSONS. 6g

6. Object lessons encourage a tendency to self-reliance in children, and in
developing this tendency they do not seek so much to give information
as to help the children to get information for themselves. They not
only teach children to see things instead of merely looking at them, as
is pointed out under their principal uses, but they teach them to de-
compose the confused aggregate of impressions which things "at first
make up>on the mind • to get them to classify and to generalise and to
connect simple phenomena with their antecedents and consequents ;
exercise the reason ; and to do this in Nature's own way, by bringing
the learner as far as possible into direct contact with things, and satisfy
his own instinctive needs".

The Training^ of the Senses.

One of the primary objects of object teaching is the proper
training of the senses, especially of sight and touch, which are
pre-eminently the intellectual senses. The importance of sense
training is further recognised by the admission of hand and eye
training, kindergarten and its developments, drawing, clay model-
ling, and manual instruction into the school curriculum. All
these exercise the senses in a number of ways, and so supply the
materials of knowledge; for there can be neither a wide nor an
accurate knowledge of the world around us without the proper
exercise of the senses through material objects. This is the first and
most important element in the training of the senses.

Having presented proper materials in a suitable variety, the
teacher next teaches the children to observe objects as distinct
from mere sight sensations. Points which would escape the cur-
sory glance of most children are detected with the teacher's aid,
and an effort is made to stimulate curiosity and arouse interest. The
children are invited to handle the things for themselves and to
examine them. As much movement as is consonant with proper
discipline is also allowed the children, so as to bring the feeling of
muscular movement to the aid of sense impressions. The fixing
of associations of this kind are not only necessary but valuable.
The child's activity is thus utilised to the best advantage in allow-
ing him to use his hands and his eyes in investigating the things
supplied to him ; and it must ever be remembered that it is only
in this way that real sense knowledge is ever acquired ; that is,
in bringing the mind in contact with things immediately, and not
mediately, through the intervention of another mind, whether it
be the teacher's or that of any one else.

The objects presented should be graded and then placed in
juxtaposition for comparison and contrast. In teaching colour the
simple colours should be first examined, then the compound, and

70 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

finally, shades of the same colour. Striking differences should
always be first dealt with, the less obvious ones following in
accordance with their difficulty of discrimination. A child will
learn to distinguish the elm and the cedar more easily than the
oak and beech.

There must also be a certain amount of repetition to ensure
familiarity and easy identification. Without this no habit of close
examination can be formed, and no deep interest can be aroused.
We are rarely, if ever, deeply interested either in mere passing
objects, events, or acquaintances.

The method of the lessons must be such as to cultivate the
attention, and to train it to fix itself upon what is present. Con-
centration is a form of genius, and to secure this the training
must be such as to enable the child to turn its attention volun-
tarily to the object under consideration.

The play of the child should be utilised. This is the underlying
principle of all kindergarten instruction which recognises the fact
that a child never tires of a building box, whilst the clay modelling
of the school is only an educational application of the mud pie of
the gutter.

Observation should be utilised in every possible branch of
school work. Models, diagrams, pictures, and the various forms
of apparatus have all sprung into existence in recognition of this
fact. But there must be no hurry in any stage of the process, for
where there is no firm grounding of sense knowledge, all after
knowledge is limited. " Imagination will be hazy, thought loose
and inaccurate, where the preliminary stage of perception has
been hurried over."

SCHEMES OF OBJECT LESSONS

From Circular 369.

The following lessons deal with the ordinary phenomena of common life
and with objects familiar to the children. The teacher's choice is not confined
to these lists ; other objects will be accepted subject to the approval of the
Inspector. Any of the objects may be dealt with at the discretion of the teacher
in more than one lesson ; and although they may have been grouped for con-
venience of reference, it is not intended to prescribe any specified number of
them for a yearly course. With different treatment the same object may be
adapted to more than one standard. Some teachers may prefer to deal with
the same object in successive years, or to recur to it after a year's interval,
expanding the study to suit the growing powers of the scholars. To meet the
varying requirements of teachers it will be noticed that in some cases the names
of the objects have been merely enumerated, while in other cases a few sugges-
tions have been added as to the mode of treatment.

OBJECT LESSONS.

I. PLANT LIFE.

(a) The Stady of Plants as Growing
Things.

1. Grow an onion in a bottle of water,
and note appearance of root and stem.
Make a model in clay of the various stages
of growth at short intervals.

2. Grow mustard seed on damp flannel,
and note stages of growth.

3. Notice a few curious roots.

(1) The Carrot.— Cm off the top of one
and grow it in a saucer of water.
Contrast the root of a daisy (fibrous).

(2) Roots which ^i^aiA.— Strawberry or
strayberry.

(3) Violet Root.

(4) Contrast root of Iris and Solomon's
Seal in their modes of extension.

4. Stem. — Count the rings in a trunk that
has been felled. Rings, how produced : the
record of wet or dry seasons.

Climbing Stems. Ivy. — Train bindweed
up a stick, and note that it turns to
the right. If you unwind it and
force it the other way (to the left),
note how it resumes its old direction
again, holding the stick with one of
its leaf stalks to get a purchase for
the change.

5. Simple experiments to show effect of
light on (i) leaves, and (2) roots. Celery;
blanching.

6. Leaves of deciduous trees contrasted
with leaves of evergreens. Contrast leaves
of holly, ivy, and box with leaves of oak,
elm, and beech.

Note autumn tints. Collect and press
leaves of various colours in autumn.

7. Buds.— Leaf buds and flower buds.
Parts of a flower.

8. FrxiVs.— Different kinds.

(b) Blossoms, Fruits, Seeds, and
Leaves.
Parts 0/ a /lower,
o/ci '

Flowers of curious shape.

Pea blossom.
Insects and flowers.
Colours of flowers and insects.
Fruits. — How seeds are scattered.
Shooting seeds.
Flying seeds.

Curious flowers, e.g., primrose, compound
flower (daisy), water lily.
Leaves.—Sh&pe, veining, arrangement.
Flowers as supplying—
(i) Weather glass.

(2) Clock.

(3) Calendar.

A bunch of spring flowers (according to
time of year).

A bunch of summer flowers (according to
time of year).

A bunch of autumn flowers (according to
time of year).

Flowers and the soil. — Bog plants.

Riverside plants.

Plants that grow in running water.

Plants that grow in still water.

Meadow plants.

Plants of the heath and moor.

Plants of the hills.

Plants of the wood.

Plants of the sea coast and salt marshes.

Sundew and flesh-eating plants.

Ferns.

The Spores of Ferns. — Grow some spores
in a pan under glass and watch growth and
development of fern. Contrast with growth
of mustard from seed.

Mosses.

Lichens.

Funguses.

Simple experiments in manuring plants.

How plants help or hinder each other's
growth.

Pa rasites .— M istle toe .

Plants which help or injure man.

II. ANIMAL LIFE.

(a) The Cat (compare with dog).— Eyes,
rough, dry tongue, soft peds and sharp
claws, teeth, method of holding prey,
drinking, covering of fur, whiskers, tail.

The Cow (compare with sheep and goat).
—How she takes her food, teeth, chewing,
milk (cheese and butter), tail, hoofs, cover-
ing, ears, horns, nose.

The Ilorst (compare with donkey).—
Covering, teeth, hoofs, tail, mane.

The Rabbit (compare with hare). — Teeth,
legs, feet, claws, covering, tail, whiskers,
ears. eyes.

The Mouse (compare with rat and water
rat).— Teeth, paws, tail, whiskers, eyes,
ears.

A Fish.— How fitted to live iv water,
weight, shape, covering, tempe."ature,
movements.

A Plaice (compare with herring).— Flat,
eyes on one side of bead, gills, movements.

Animals which sleep in winter. — Exam-

files: Squirrel, dormouse, common snake,
rog, toad, snail, slug. Preparation made
for sleep.

(6) Mole.— Shape, snout, teeth, paws,
claws, eyes, ears, fur, food.

Hedgehog.— Covering of spines, how it
rolls itself into a ball and why, head, teeth,
food.

Common Snake (compare with viper).—
Shape, covering, teeth, now it moves, how
it swallows its prey.

Frog (compare with toad and newt). —
Movements, capture of prey, breathing,
winter quarters.

Garden Snail (compare with slug). — Shell,
mantle, head, horns, eyes, food, preparation
for winter sleep.

Earth Worm.— Shape, rings, locomotion,
food, usefulness.

spider (contrast with bee).— Shape, seg-

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

ments, legs, eyes, jaws, spinnerets, web,
breathing organs.

Tails and their uses. — Horse, cow, dog,
donkey, cat, monkey, harvest mouse.

Tongues and their uses. — Cat, dog, cow,
woodpecker, frogs.

Teeth and their uses. — Man, cat, cow,
horse, rabbit, snake, fangs of poisonous
snakes;

Hair, Fur, Wool and their uses. — Cat,
mole, dog, sheep, fox.

Beaks of Birds and their uses.— Duck,
fowl, parrot, sparrow, goat sucker, heron.

Feet of Birds and their uses. — Duck, fowl,
swift, owl, etc.

/ws<;c/s.— Examples: Bee, beetle, butter-
fly, cockroach, silkworm. Insect develop-
ment, legs, wings, segments, mouth, breath-
ing apparatus, ovipositors.

III. THE SKY, THE AIR, THE SURFACE OF THE LAND. AND WATER.

(a) The Sky.

Sunrise, Noon, and Sunset. — (Note the
object over which the sun is seen to rise
from month to month. Note sun's position
at noon, and its varying height above the
horizon.)

Shadow. — (Note, by aid of a spike erect
on a flat disc, the varying length of the
shadow at noon. Study the shadows of
objects, variation in sharpness and depth.)

Moon. — (Note the changes. Draw the
shape from week to week.)

A few of the Brightest Constellations. —
(Make diagrams on square ruled paper from
a study of the sky itself. Great Bear and
Pole Star, Lyre and Vega, Cassiopeia.)

Planets. — (Note any planet visible when
the lesson is given, Mark its position on
square ruled paper for a few weeks.)

Varying length of Day and Night.

(b) The Air.

Wind. — Varying direction, (Note and
keep record of the direction of the wind
from day to day.)

Warmer and colder winds ; rainy and dry
winds.

Moisture in the air shown by seaweed;
string (changing tension).

Wet cloth dries in the wind (water turns
to vapour).

Vapour turns to water. (Breathing on
slate. Clouds on hills. Evening mists.)

Clouds in the sky. Three chief kinds :
" Heaps," " beds," " feathers ",

Rain.— (Note size of drops. Raindrops
on dust form little balls. Note effect of
heavy rain in tearing up roads. Note the
channels so made, and the arrangement
of the sand and pebbles washed to a dis-
tance,)

Rainbow. — (Note the succession of col-
ours. Note position of the sun behind
observer and of the bow where the shower
of rain is falling. Note that height of arch
changes. When is it higher and when
lower?)

Rainbow colours on shells, film of tar,
etc., feathers of birds.

Dew. — (Note when formed. Cloudless
weather. On what does it lie thickest ?)

Hoarfrost.

Snow. — (Note size of flakes. Movement
of flakes in the air as they fall. Snowdrift.
Snow squeezed into ice.)

Hail. — (Note when it falls. Examine
hailstones. Is the hail accompanied by
thunder?)

Thunder and Lightning.

Level or Sloping. — Simple way of measur-
ing slope. Height of school and neighbour-
ing hilltops above sea level.

Flow of Water over the Land. — Neigh-
bouring stream or streams. Water part-
ings.

The river basin in which the school is
situated.

Construct a model fountain and make
simple observations on the pressure of
water. Milldam. A head of water. Notion
of falling water as a motor.

Soils. — Clay, sand, slate, granite, chalk,
quarries near school, gravel pits, clay pits,
brick works. (Note how the rocks lie, in
layers or in masses without structure.)

Stones in the brook, water-worn ; pebbles
on beach, rounded; pebbles in gravel pit,
often with sharp edges, perhaps ice-borne.

Difference between sand and mud.

Crumoling Rocks. — Effect of frost on
damp rocks.

Caves by the sea formed by the waves.
Caves inland formed by rain dissolving
limestone , stalactites. (A lesson for schools
in limestone regions or near rocky coasts.)

Building Stone. — Marble, slate, bath-
stone, sandstone, etc.

In marble, note shells, etc. Note plants
in coal.

Volcanic Rocks. — Lava, brimstone, pu-
mice stone, basalt or whinstone. (Accord-
ing to the nature of the district.)

Rock Salt. — Crystals of salt. Salt in sea
water. »Mineral in solution.

Hard and Soft Water.— Ra.\x\ water com-
pared with streams from chalk or lime-
stone. Leavings after evaporation. Fur
in kettles. Softening hard water.

(In certain districts) other minerals in
solution Sulphur wells, iron springs, medi-
cinal waters.

Mortar and Cement. — (Slake lime and
make mortar; note the heat, etc.)

Surface Soils. — Crumbled rocks. Water-
borne sand and mud. Vegetable mould
and earthworms.

Vegetation and Cultivation. — Forest,
moor and heath, heathers.

Hedgerow Trees. — Elms, ashes.

OBJECT LESSONS.

Trees of the Forest. — Oak, birch, beech.
Evergreen trees : Pines and firs.

Evergreen Plants and Shrubs. — Ivy,
holly, box. Contrast evergreen and de-
ciduous leaves. (Note changes at fall of
leaf. Autumn tints. Press specimens.)

Riverside Trees. — Willows, poplars, as-
p>ens.

Hill Pastures and Meadows.— Imf on the
downs and hay in the valleys.

Gardens and their contents. Garden
fruits and wild fruits. Garden flowers and
wild flowers.

id) Water.

Standing Water.— Ponds, pond life.

Springs and Running Water. — Clear
water looks shallower than it is. Simple
experiments in illustration.

Study of Flow of a Stream.— Where the
flow is quicker, (a) in the middle, (6) on one
side, outer and inner bend. Where the
bank is eaten away and where sand is
spread out. Varying bottom, deep pools,
shallows, sand banks. Confluence of tribu-
tary. Delta. Measure the speed at which
the water flows.

Study of Sea Shore. — Rocky and sandy
coasts. Soundings. The rise and fall of
the tide. Currents. Drifting sand. Effect
of frost on cliffs. Breakwaters. Layers of
soil and rock exposed down the side of a
cliff.

Measure with thermometer the tempera-
ture of (a) a spring; (6) a stream; (c) a
pond ; (d) the sea.

/«.— Study hardness, mode of fracture,
splitting blocks with a needle. Does it
smk or swim in water? Easy to make two
surfaces of ice freeze together. Simple
experiments with ice.

Watch and record behaviour of thermo-
meter plunged in melting ice.

Melt some ice caref ullyto find out whether

it takes up more or less room than the water
into which it changes. (Force a mass of ice
into a lump of clay, and let it melt there.)

Freeze some water in a bottle, and note
bursting of bottle. Bursting of pipes.

Notes on expansion and contraction of
substances illustrated by behaviour of water
at different temperatures. Preliminary
notion of thermometer.

Watch cold spring water being heated to
boiling point in transparent glass vessel
Note bubbles of air given off, and as the
water is heated bubbles of steam rise from
below. Observe force of compressed steam.
Preliminary notion of steam engine.

Dribble powdered alum into clear water.
Hang thread in the solution, and note the
formation of crystal. Alum and other
crystals.

Expose to the air crystals of (i) salt; (2)
soda. Note change. What difference?
What difference according to weather?
Expose to the air crystals of saltpetre, and
note result.

Dribble salt into clear water and note
that it dissolves, quicker at first, then slower.
At last no more is dissolved. Place a fresh
egg in saturated solution, and afterwards
transfer it to clear water.

One liquid is denser than another. Com-
pare water and mercury. Things which
float in mercury and sink in water.

Upward pressure of water on bodies
dropped into it. Why bodies sink or float.

Why steel ships float. Why cork floats.

'•' ■■ ; • ' ■ disf
water.

Simple experiments in displacement of

Simple experiments in pressure of water
and pressure of air. Siphon, squirt, pump,
diving bell.

Distillation of water. Filtration.

Water, a combination of two gases.
Oxygen and hydrogen. Simple experi-
j ments.

IV. OBJECT LESSONS FOR TOWN SCHOOLS,
(a) The water we drink.— Hov/ obtained

Some of the simpler properties of water.

River (or cana/).— According to circum-
stances.

Boats, barges, or ships, with which chil-
dren are familiar. — According to circum-
stances.

Other ships, e.g., Atlantic liners.

Bricks. — Their size, shape, and manu-
facture ; their size, etc., to be ascertained
by children's measurements.

Bricklayer's work. — Arrangement of
bricks in 14-inch wall and 9-inch wall,
shown with real bricks or with small
wooden ones ; mortar, etc.

Coa/.— Its simpler properties.

Coal. — How obtained.

Coal. — How transported and how used.

Coal gas.—\i may be made in the pres-
ence of the children.

Gas works and gas pipes.

Petroleum.— Hoy/ obtained; its simpler
properties and uses.

Lamps and their dangers.

Common stones used in building and road-
making.

Roadmaking and paving.

Quarries and quarrymen.

Railways. — General sketch.

Engines and carriages.

The work of railway men.

The park or public garden. — One or two
of its more conspicuous trees.

The park or public garden.— One or two
of its more conspicuous plants.

Comparison between calico and flannel.

Cotton and its manufacture,

Lancashire and tne cotton district. —
Mills.

Sheep clipping and rearing.

The West Riding of Yorkshire ; factories,
etc.

(6) Cart horse.

Donkey.

Sparrow.

Rat or mouse.

Cat.

Plants grown in schoolroom. — (Acorn in

A NEW MANUAL Oi? METHOD.

glass of water; mustard and cress; hya-
cinth in water or pot ; fern.)

Costermonger, and what he sells.

Some common fruit sold in streets or
shops, e.g., pears and apples, strawberries,
oranges, cocoanuts.

Things seen in a grocer's window, e.g.,
tea, sugar, coffee, currants, and raisins.

The baker and his work.

The milkman.

The addressing and posting of a letter.
The postman and Post Office.
The sweep and his work.
Dangers from fire, and how they may be
avoided.

The fireman and fire engines.
'Bus or tram drivers.
The policeman.

V. OBJECT LESSONS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS.

(a) The farmyard. — Its buildings and
their contents. Animals kept on a farm
and their uses. Necessity for cleanliness,
kindness, and suitable food.

The dairy and its contents. — Butter and
cheese making.
Bees. — Bee keeping.

Spring. — Spring flowers. Work in the
fields in spring. The cuckoo and swallow.
Record date of arrival.

Summer. — Different kinds of leaves and
fruit. Work in the fields in summer.
Autumn. — Work in the fields.
A mill and the work of a miller.
Winter. — Frost, ice, snow.
BtVds.— Singing birds, as the thrush and
nightingale. Birds of prey, as the hawk.
Swimmmg and wading birds, as the duck
and heron.

Wild animals. — The fox, the hare, and
rabbit.

Minerals.— h. mine. Three useful mine-
rals.

The lessons on the seasons should cor-
respond with the actual seasons of the
year, and the different operations explained
should be taken while each is in progress.

Leaves of trees may be dried by simply
placing them between sheets of paper and
pressing them. Their shapes may be used
for the children to draw round on paper,
which can afterwards be pricked and then
sewn round.

' The waking of Nature ;
the lengthening daylight
in the morning and even-
ing; the coming warm
weather; birds singing,
building their nests, lay-
ing their eggs ; the trees
and hedges changing ;
buds and leaves; the
^bloom on fruit trees.
The local wild flowers of spring. — The
daisy, primrose, bluebell.
Summer time.
The local wild flowers of summer.

(b) springtime.

A utumn.

The local wild flowers of autumn.

Winter. — The repose of nature.

The land. — Woodland, meadowland,
ploughland, moorland.

The sky.

A bird.— Covering, wings, beak, feet,
motion, nests, eggs, food.

Local birds. — Thrush or blackbird, lark,
robin, rooks.

Birds which come for the summer.

Birds which come for the winter.

Local wild animals.— Rahhit, hare, fox,
hedgehog.

A nimals on a farm.

Our village.

The carrier's cart.

The cottage garden.

The stream or river.— Its banks ; the birds
and animals that live near it.

A fish.

A plant.

The weather and wind.

The soil. — Sunshine, air, rain, frost,
manure.

The farmer's tools. — The plough, drill,
reaping machine.

The crops, — Grass, corn, root crops.

Wheat.

The potato.

Trees. — Oak, elm, apple, evergreen trees.

A n insect.

The spider and his web.

The butterfly, — Colours, beauty, history.

Bees

The farmer's pests.

The farmer's friends.

A pond.

A frog.

A ramble in a wood, and what may be
seen there.

The railway.

Market day in the neighbouring town

A newspaper.

VL OBJECT LESSONS IN THE SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.

{a) Water, — How carried : jugs, bottles,
barrels, spouts, funnels. Wells. Things
that float ; things that sink.

Solids, — Hard and soft, in the room and
in clothing. Files, hammer and nails,
buttons.

Powders, — Flour.
Passes.— Paste, clay, putty.
Things porous. — Bread, sponge.
Things that melt. — Butter, tallow, sealing
wax, ice, snow.

Water. — Drying clothes, breathing on

OBJECT LESSONS.

slates, frost on pane, the boiling of the
kettle, the pot boiling over.

Things that dissolve.—Sug&r, salt.

Air. — Bubbles, pouring water through
funnel into empty bottle. A burning candle.
Fans, blowing feathers, paper windmills.

Forms of strength. — The floor, joists, and
boards. Wooden bridges. Steps and
stairs.

Things that stretch. — Elastic bands.

Things that bend.— Bow and arrows, cord
ropes.

Machines.— Tops, roller for pastry, for
garden, perambulator.

.Wor«m«n/s.— Walking, running, leaping,
creeping, crawling.

Musical toys — Harmonicon, bell.

(b) Water. — Pipes, taps, the fountain,
canals, rafts, boats, anchors.

Solids. — Teeth, nails, and claws, sand
paper, pins, needles, awl, gimlet, hook and
eye.

Powders. — Chalk, pencil.

Pastes.— Mud in streets, brickmaking.

Things porous.— Brick., chalk, springs of
water.

Things that mt//.— Candlemaking, icicles.

VV<i/«r.— Manufacture of salt from brine.
Raindrops, hail, spray, water dust, the
cloud.

Things that </tsio/i»e.— Manufacture of
sugar.

^ir.— The chimney, draughts, waves and

breakers, winged seeds, shuttlecock, arrow,
and kite.

Forms of strength. — The ceiling, the arch,
ladders.

Things that stretch.— A football.

Things that bend.— C&it springs, paper
clips, spider's web.

Machities. — Hoop, fly-wheel of sewing
machine, mangle, waggon, bicycle.

Movements. — Swimming.

Musical toys. — Musical box, drum.

Solids. — Hinges, tires, and axles. The
grindstone. Screws and screw-drivers

Powders. — Black lead.

Pas^w.— Pottery.

Things porous. — Blotting paper, towels,
wick, earth.

Things that melt. — Lead, iron.

Water. — Salt lakes. Distillation of water.
Clouds and rain.

Things that dissolve. — Crystals, hard
water, varnishes.

A »>.— The pop-gun, the fire engine, winds,
a sailing ship.

Forms of strength. — The roof, railway
bridges, cranes.

Things that bend. — Clock spring, chains.

Mac/imes.— The loom, threshing machine,
rolling iron rails, coining.

M ovements.— Flying.

Musical toys. — Tin whistle, sounds from
stretched cord.

VII. MEASURING, WEIGHING, AND TESTING.

A two-foot rule.

Measurements (in inches only). Of length
— first by eye, then with rule. Easy mea-
surements of a square— first by eye, then
with rule.

Easy measurements of rectangles.

The wire-gauge.

Callipers.

Scales and weights. — Weighing of com-
mon objects— first by hand, then with
scales ; weight in ounces only.

Weighing letters.

Plumb line.

Spirit level.

5<«am.— Observations on boiling water;
condensation of steam, etc.

A/ercMry.- Weight of; cf. drop of mer-
cury and drop of water ; eff'ect of heat on
mercury.

Alcohol.— Effect of heat on it; its evapo-
ration.

Thermometer. — Manufacture, uses, read-
ings in ice, in boiling water, under the
tongue, in schoolroom.

A candle.— Us composition, the wick.

Candle under bell-jar over water ; candle
in narrow-necked bottle.

Chalk. — Where found ; its origin.

Chalk. — Its treatment with acid.

Chalk. — Its reduction to quicklime with
blow-pipe ; lime water.

Sugar heated in test tube ; wood heated
in test tube

Sulphur heated in test tube; lead heated
in test tube.

Magnet and iron filings.

The compass.

Two illustrative lessons now follow selected from these
schemes. That on the Sundew illustrates the special form
of nutrition of some plants, and should follow lessons which
have dealt with the general form. The lesson is drawn to
suit a higher standard, whilst that on the Sponge is for a young
class.

76 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

LESSON ON SUNDEW AND FLESH-EATING PLANTS.

Information.

I. Introduction.

1. Elements necessary to plant nutrition .
C, H.O.N, etc.

2. Uses — C, O, and H, essential constit-
uents of organic compounds; e.g., starch,
sugar. N used in making proteid matter
(protoplasm).

3. Origin. — C from COo in atmosphere.
Others from the soil. H and O in the form
of water, etc. N in the form of nitrates
and ammonia salts.

II. I. Some plants have no chlorophyll
(as fungi), and so cannot assimilate. They
must look for their food stuff ready made,
and are either parasites or they feed on
decaying animal or vegetable matter.

2. Other plants grow in marshy soils or
in running water soils from which the essen-
tial N salts have been washed away. These
again have to look for other sources for
their food, and are mainly insectivorous.
They employ various devices for allurmg
and catching insects.

III. Sundew.

1. Distribution.— Three British species,
the round-leaved being most common
Found in most sphagnum bogs, and so is
most frequent in the north, but also occurs
frequently around London

2. Description.— LxtWeroot: smallrosette
of 8-10 leaves of reddish tint and spoon
shaped; numerous glandular hairs, the lar-
gest round the margin. Flowers lipped and
of a purple colour.

3. Food.— (a) In a non-irritant condition
the tentacles are extended outwards, and in
a horizontal position. They are tipped
with a shining secretion which sparkles in
the sunlight, and so serves to attract insects.

(b) Fly settles on leaf, and is held by the
secretion. The glandular hairs slowly bend
over so as to enclose it, and in about ten
minutes the fly dies. In a few hours all the
hairs are bent over in such a way that the
glands he exactly on the body, even if the
fly be on the margin of the leaf. In 10-20
hours the leaf itself has curved over so as
to enclose the fly. The secretion now
poured out becomes acid, and contains a
ferment allied to pepsin The nitrogenous
matter in the body of the insect is thus ex-
tracted and absorbed by the leaf

Results.— (1) Movement of the glandular
hairs and of margin.
(2) Chemical action.

lY. Butterwort.— Another of our native
carnivorous plants. Bears a rosette of
about 10 leaves; long, tongue-shaped,
yellowish, and covered with a shiny sub
stance. Flies are held by this till the leal
rolls on to the midrib so as to enclose them

Y. Yenus Fly Trap.— Closely allied to
our Sundew Occurs on marshy moors of
the two Carolinas, Lamina of leal divided

Teaching Hints,

Apparatus.— A plant or two of sundew
growing in a saucer of water under a bell
lar, pressed dried leaf of Venus fly-trap in
the two positions ; a solution of the ferment
obtained from leaves of sundew, butterwort,
etc., or. in absence of this, a little pepsin
to show its action on fibrin, etc

I. All these facts to be elicited by ques-
tions recapitulating previous lessons,

II. Show a species of fungi Ask how
they know it does not assimilate. No
chlorophyll

Take two glass vessels containing water.
In the one place some ammonium chloride,
and in the other some saltpetre. Stir, and
they dissolve rapidly

Show plant in saucer of water under bell
jar

in. I. Tell this.

2 All this will be learned from their ob-
servation of the specimen plant.

3 (a) Show the specimen grown in the

school • it will be in a non-irritant
condition.
(b) The change in the position of the
hairs can be observed

One leaf ought to have been fed the pre-
vious day. and its position could then be
compared with the others. Then test the
two leaves with litmus paper.

This Jerment can be extracted from the
leaves by means of glycerine, and it will
then digest fibrin This should be com-
pared with the action of pepsin on food in
the stomach (The action of pepsin on a
bit of meat can easily be shown in illustra-
tion.)

It will be seen that the stimulus produces
the results opposite.

The plant can be cultivated easily enough
in a saucer under a bell jar. and will pro-
duce seeds ■ but these are neither so many,
nor give rise to such vigorous seedlings,
as if the parent plant be fed on meat or
flies

IV. Show specimen if possible, if not,
picture of one These facts will then be
learned from observation

The acid from the ferment is m an irri-
tant condition and will curdle milk.

Y. Show a specimen, and have these
facts learned from observation.

Touch the bristles not gently, and note
result. The two halves of leaf come to-
gether with great rapidity and the stiff
outgrowths fold over and interlock like
fingers, thus preventing escape

YI. A vibit to Kew or kindred places will
be necessary to see this plant

Show a picture (good ones are done by
the publishers), and let as much of the in-
formation as possible be learned from an
examination of the picture

What is the function of the downward

OBJECT LESSONS. 77

LESSON ON SUNDEW AND FLESH EATING PLANTS— continued.

Information.

into two deeply segmented halves, con-
nected by the midrib On the upper sur
face of the leaf are half a dozen bristles
On the edges of the leaves are some stiff
outgrowths

YL Pitcher Plant.— Found in Mada
gascar and Ceylon ; a climbing plant. At
the ends of the tendrils are pitcher-like
growths and these pitchers are protected
with lids They have various devices for
alluring insects such as honey glands In
some species the interior of the pitcher is
so smooth that the insect cannot get loot
hold, and so falls into the liquid at the bot
tom. In other species there are a number
of hairs pointing downwards When an
insect falls in, copious secretions are poured
forth

Teaching Hints.

hairs?— They prevent the insect getting
out.

What is the effect of the secretions? —
They convert the fly into a kind of soup
which is absorbed by the plant.

Recapitulate.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON A SPONGE.

7tw<r— Thirty minutes C/ass— Standard I

A pptnalus— Sponge, saucer and water, india rubber, piece of flannel, piece of
calico, a stone and a lens

Attn — To show the suitability of a sponge for its uses.

Matter

I. Introduction.

II. Its Uses.

1. For home purposes: —

(a) To wash our faces.

(b) For sponge baths.

2. For school purposes: —
(a) To clean slates.

{b) To clean swing slate or
B.B.

III. Properties.

1. Light.

2. Soft.

3. Compressible.

4. Very elastic.

5. Porous.

6. Absorbent.

7. Tough.

Method.

I Show a piece of sponge. Ask chil-
dren to name it.

II All this information should be ob-
tained from the children —

1. (a) ) By qtiesttomng, and by appealing
{b) yiothtiT experience. All this should
(c) ) bedone\n a conversational method

2. Show a small slate sponge and a lar^e
one for the swing slate or B.B. Ask chil-
dren to name their uses.

III. I and 2. Let the class handle it ; it is
sojl. Let them weigh it in their hands it
is light. Again, let the children take a
stone in one hand and the sponge in the
other, the sponge is very light. Place it
in the saucer ol water ; it floats Why?
Because it is light. Rub it against the
face ; It is pleasant Why? Because it is
soft : hence suitable Jor washing. Is the
stone suitable? No; because hard and
painful to the skin

Let the class look at the sponge. It

ull of holes. Tell the class (if

necessary) that these are called pores,

6 ) and the sponge is said to be porous.
Place It in the saucer of water. It sucks up
the water Where is the water? In the
holes Compare with a piece of y/a»nr/ and
a piece of calico. Both are porous, but not
to the same extent. Refer to the pores 0/
the skin. Place a magnifying glass over
their hands and call attention to the pores.

iiniui to

3 ) Let

4 (is li

5 (nece

6 ) and 1

78 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON A SPQ-NGE— continued.

Matter.

Method

IV. Natural History.

An animal substance found
in the sea and in fresh water.
Men get it by diving deep into
the sea. Some of the commoner
kinds are dredged from the
bottom of the sea. Some are
hard like flints, and are there-
fore of no use.

Take the sponge out of the water ; squeeze
it ; call attention to its size. Open the
hand. It resumes its former size again,
hence it is like India rubber ; elastic. Illus-
trate with a piece of India rubber. Then
note we can squeeze out the dirty water,
and it is thenready to take up fresh clean
water, hence it is suitable for washing.

y. Let the class pull it. It does not tear
easily. Show a piece of leather, and let
the class pull that. It is tough. Yet we
do not wash with leather because it is hard
and not porous enough. Then anything
suitable for washing must be porous, soft,
and elastic.

IV. Tell this. Show picture in illustra-
tion. Explain " dredged ". Refer to the
Thames dredgers. Show a hard specimen
if possible. Ask why useless.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Make a list of twenty lessons on familiar animals, and explain the order in
which you have arranged them.

2. — Name the qualities you would select in giving an object lesson to infants on
" steel," and state the experiments or illustrations by which you would elicit the ideas,
before giving the names of the qualities.

3. — Detail the apparatus required for lessons on a coal mine and on the seasons, and
draw the diagrams required for the latter.

4. — Point out some of the uses of object lessons in infant schools, and illustrate your
answers by short notes of a lesson on the " whale " or on " iron ".

5. — Write out brief notes of a lesson on " glass," and explain your purpose in
teaching the names of its qualities.

6. — Make out a list of lessons on " common things," illustrative of the pressure of
the atmosphere, and give brief heads of one of such lessons.

7. — What is the advantage to young children of having lessons on such subjects as
a spider, wool, sugar ? Enumerate the qualities or peculiarities in each case to which
you would specially direct their attention.

8.— In giving an object lesson, what is the aim of the teacher in using terms denot-
ing the qualities of the object ? What is meant by vulgar and pedantic language ?

9. — What sort of lessons do you understand to be intended by " phenomena of
nature and of common life " ? Make a list of twelve such lessons adapted for children in
the First Standard.

10.— What sort of a sketch should appear on the B.B. at the end of a collective
lesson on one of these subjects; (a) Iron; (b) Corn; (c) The Ocean; and what is the
best use to make of such a sketch when it is written ?

II.— Show what is the proper use of the B.B. as an aid to recapitulation. Give a
specimen of the sketch which should appear on the board at the end of an object
lesson.

12. — Sketch out a course of lessons on common objects, or on the phenomena of
daily life, suitable for children in Standards I., II., and III.

13.— What is an object lesson? Show that mere sight is not necessarily know-
ledge.

This Chapter is continued in the Appendix.

CHAPTER VII.

KINDERGARTEN.

I. What it is, — Kindergarten is an educative system of play-
productive play — with a purpose. There is little direct instruction
in it, but the children are amused, interested, and taught to observe,
think, and manipulate through the medium of toys (gifts) and
play (occupations). It strives to develop every faculty a child
possesses ; to develop power, rather than to store knowledge ; to
enable the child to educate itself, and to generate the desire to do
this.

H. Its Advantages.— It possesses advantages belonging to
each branch of education — intellectual, physical, and moral.

1. Intellectual Advantages. — It aims to utilise a child's
natural promptings, to produce accuracy as a habit, to cultivate
observation, to teach the child to think, to make it skilful, and to
produce pleasure through a right use of its budding intellectual
powers.

2. Physical Advantages. — The rhythmical movements, the
dancing, the singing, and the games, are all physically beneficial.
The child's natural love of activity, curiosity, and play is noted
and utilised. The health is improved, and consequently the mind
is strengthened. The limbs are exercised and developed, whilst
the eye and the ear are brought into disciplined use.

3. Moral Advantages. — Lessons of care, neatness, accuracy,
order, love of work, kindness, truthfulness, obedience, and the
beautiful, both in nature and in human conduct, are all inculcated.
Furthermore, it is the proper nursery of that improved objective
teaching which is now so materially leavening our educational
system by increased Object Lessons, by Drawing, by various
forms of Manual Instruction, and by Technical Education.

Froebel's Gifts. I. Play.— These were a species oi plaything
-out of which the children constructed various objects by way of

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

instructive amusement. The games were accompanied by songs
and dancing, both of which are valuable adjuncts to the system.
The gifts were really sedentary games enlightened by dance and
song, and his motto was : " Let us live for our children ".

H. Song.— These were peculiarly suited to child life. They
dealt with incidents of child life, or incidents of the material
world around them which came within the comprehension of
child life. Some little story was embodied of the pet animal
kingdom, or kindred things, and mimicry or work of some kind
generally accompanied the song.

m. Dance. — These movements were a great improvement
upon the ordinary stiff semi-military movements of school drill.
Various actions were performed as in musical drill. A great
variety of attitudes were required, and so the body was made
lithe and strong. The aesthetic and disciplinary effects of the
movements were also very important, as the children got good
ideas of regularity and harmony.

IV. GKfts. — There are seven of these due to Froebel, but the
system has been largely expanded and developed by others.

/. First Gift. The Ball.

{a) Materials. — It consists of a number of balls (worsted) all of the same size
and of different colours. To each ball a string is attached, by which the ball
may be suspended. The colours are usually half primary and half secondary.

{l>) Aim.

eye

1. To train the
colours.

2. To exercise the limbs in
various ways.

3. To teach directions right
and left.

4. To teach properties gene-
rally (hard, soft, etc.).

The ball or sphere is chosen
for the first gift on account
of its simplicity of form ;
there are no angles and no
differing dimensions. The
impression made by a
sphere is a single one and
the view is always the
same.

{c) The Game. — Various
movements are made with the
ball. It is raised and lowered;
moved to the right and then to
the left ; passed from one hand
to the other ; frcjin (jiic child to the other. The rate of movement also varies,
being sometimes quick and sometimes slow, according to the word of com->
mand. These orders must be smartly, neatly, an4 §ir;iultaneously executed.

KINDERGARTEN.

(d) Its Advantages.

1. The four mentioned under the head of Aim.

2. Fellowship. — The children act together, and so develop a sense of fellow-

ship.

3. Pleasurable Association. — The teacher is gentle, and enforces gentleness

from the children. This sets up an association between play and work,
between teacher and class, which is pleasurable.

4. Selfishness Repressed. — The class has to act together. No child does

what it likes, although it may like what it does. The training of the
game is for all, not for one. Class sympathy is invoked, emulation is
stimulated, but there is no competition for prizes.

5. Temper. — Children like working together. The solitary task is rarely

liked by a young child, and impotent effort is both discouraging and
souring. Class action avoids this.

2. Second Gift.

(a) Materials. — This gift consists of the sphere, the cylinder, and the cube.
Id) Aim.

1. To teach form.

2. To aid the child's natural power of observation, and to help him to dis-

cover for himself the similarity and dissimilarity existing between
different objects.

^^r.-s:i|gp

i8>4

3. To give the use of right terms.

{c) The Game. — The sides,
corners, edges, etc. , (^f the cube
are pointed out, explained, and
counted. The sphere, cylinder,
and cube are contrasted in
shape, and so a difference in
their pro p>erties is ded.'.ced. The
children are asked to note that
the cube and the cylinder vary
according to the point from
which they are viewed. As each
property is distinguished, the
proper terms are given and fixed
in the minds of the children.

(d) Advantages.

1. The ' ' gift " passes from

the simple jjerception of
the sphere to the per-
ception and recognition
of differences ; ^.,
sides, lines, surfaces,
circumferences, etc.

2. It gives a large amount of actual instruction in the accepted meaning of

the word.

3. The facts and relations on which geometrical truths are founded are now

made familiar.

4. A good mental training is given.

(i) The habit of accurate observation is encouraged.

(2) Reasoning from one fact to another is demanded.

(3) The perception of necessary relations is taught.

5. Third Gift.

{a) Material. — A cube consisting of eight smaller cubes, and generally
called the /"'trst Building Box. For the use of the children there is a wooden
box containing the eight smaller cubes, each of one inch side. Those for the
use of the teacher should be larger.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD,

(b) Aim.

1. To teach number ; to give the idea of whole and part.

2. To develop constructive power.

3. To teach lessons of symmetry.

ZZa

adding them, and taking them away, and so discovers the practical truths of
the elementary rules. The things are then named, and some short formulae
may be given. The child is encouraged to put its observations into words. A
series of lessons can be given, and various objects may be constructed, such as
a table, bench, door, window, steps, castle, clock, chair, etc. The lesson is
aided by any anecdote, or any facts of natural history which the objects may sug-
gest. Then after each sei lesson, the children should be allowed to build
according to their own fancy.

(d) Advantages.

1. Utility.— Objects of everyday use are manufactured, and so the children

become familiar with their structure and uses.

2. Beauty.— The bricks are all symmetrically laid, and the completion of

each object gives a sense of order and regularity.

Mental. — Fresh observations, the perception of similarities and differ-
ences, analogies and contrasts, are made.

Interest. — The arousing of the child's interest is very obvious. Heart
and soul is put into the work, and a pleasant and valuable association
is set up between work and school.

Originality. — This is called forth and st.mulated. The child is allowed
to act independently, and this gives scope for original constructive
efforts. The delight and value of such work are considerable.

KINDERGARTEN.

4. Fourth Gift.

{a) Material.— A cube which is divided into eight oblong bricks. It is
called the Second Building Box. Length = twice the breadth. Breadth =
twice the thickness.

[b) Aim.

1. To advance upon former lessons, and to give more exercises in building

and pattern forming.

2. To give the child the power of selecting the right side.

(f) Game. — This is much like the last. The child is still amused with its
instructive and constructive play. The children first build from the teacher's
dictation, and then from their own ideas.

(</) Advantages. — It begins a new series of observations of lines and pic-
tures. The third and fourth gifts may be very usefully combined, and a number
of advanced and constructive tigures can be built. It is recommended that this
combination be made before passing over to gift five

5. Fifth Gift.

[a] Material. — Third Building Box. It consists of a large cube divided
into twenty-one whole, six half, and twelve quarter cubes.

{b) Aim. — This gift is really an extension of the third gift. Its aim is to add
the study of oblique lines, obtuse and acute angles, to the former lessons.

(d) Advantages. — Owing to the more complex nature of the gift, all the
advantages of the third gift are enhanced.

6. Sixth Gift.

(a) MaUrlal.— This is the Fourth Building Box. There is a large cube,
which is divided into eighteen whole and nine small oblong bricks.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

{l>) Aim. — To develop more building exercises and symmetrical forms.

(d) Advantages. — The advantages of the fourth gift will be increased and
extended, since the combinations practised are more complex and advanced.

7. Seventh Gift.

(a) Material. — This consists of planes of polished wood in two colours.
There are five boxes, each of which contains a certain quantity of surface
objects, e.g. : —

A contains 64 squares.

B ,, 64 right-angled isosceles triangles.

C ,, 54 equilateral triangles.

D , , 64 right-angled scalene triangles.

E , , 64 obtuse-angled triangles.

[b) Aim.— Bretsch says the seventh gift has immense capabilities. What
they are will appear in the details that follow. Unfortunately, " much of its
force and value has been lost for want of systematic form and sequence in the
tablets ". It is designed to extend the child's knowledge of form and colour
by introducing new combinations

{c) Game. — Here there is a series of well-graded games.

1. The Square Tablet. — This is a type of four-sided figures. It is given

first because it is the simplest of all four-sided figures. The square is
the type of all quadrilateral figures.

2. Equilateral Tablet. — This is presented next because it is to triangles

what the square is to quadrilaterals.

3. Isosceles Tablet. — Take a " square" and divide it from corner to corner,

We get an isosceles triangle.

KINDERGARTEN.

4. Scalene Tablet. — Draw a line bisecting one angle of the equilateral

triangle, fold the triangle on this line, and we get the scalene triangle.

5. Obtuse Tablet — Place two scalene triangles base to base, and we get

the obtuse tablet or triangle. Thus in the seventh gift there are hve
forms, and these are capable of unlimited combinations.

(d) Application. — Their application is chiefly artistic and mathematical.

I. The Square. — This educates the eye to judge correctly of two very im-
portant angles, 90° and 45°, and both of which are of immense importance
to the artisan, draughtsman, and to designers. This can be seen from
the fact that it gives us the T-square, and it forms part of each of the
" set " squares.

>
>

ml'

2. Eqnilateral Triangle. — This has three angles of (xP, and six of them

just fill a circle.

3. Scalene Triangle. — This has angles of 90°, 60°, and 30°. The children

must be made subsequently to understand that these are not the angles
for all scalene triangles. These angles give us another of our " set"
squares, and the triangle is very useful in drawing the hexagon^ as the
45° is useful in drawing the octagon.
A child then knows all the chief angles of design and manufacture — 90°,
45°, 60°, and 30°.

The above constitute the seven gifts of Froebel's system ; but
the gifts have been largely expanded of late years, so that now we
have stick laying, stick plaiting or interlacing, wood and cork
work, rings, drawing, perforating, embroidery, sewing, paper
cutting, paper folding, cardboard work, modelling, and others.
Each of these is intrinsically very interesting, and each has its
special educational value.

Varied Occupations. — A little misapprehension sometimes
exists in the minds of young teachers as to what are varied occu-
pations. The following is an official list: —

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Ages Three to Five.

Ages Five to Seven.

I. Games with music.

2. Games without music (guessing

2. Games without music.

games, etc.).

(a) Guessing Games, etc.

3. Recitations (nursery rhymes).

(b) Taking messages.

4. Picture lessons (learning to answer in

3. Picture lessons.

complete sentences as to what they can see

4. Object lessons.

in a picture).

5. Story lessons.

5. Paper folding.

(a) Stories from history.

(6) Grimm's Household Tales.

6. Mosaic with coloured tablets.

7. Drawing.

6. Recitations.

8. Matching colours (picking out the

7. Paper folding.

same shades of wool from a heap of rem-

8. Mosaic with coloured paper; use of

nants).

gum.

g. Plaiting paper.

9. Drawing ; brush drawing.

10. Working patterns with needle and

10. Plaiting paper.

worsted.

II. Ruling simple geometrical forms.

11. Threading beads in twos, threes, etc.

12. Measuring and estimating length.

12. Arranging shells in twos, threes, etc.

13. Weighing; estimating weight.

13. Arranging " pictures of number " with

14. Setting a table.

cubes.

(a) Carrying a glass of water without

14. Word building.

spilling it.
(6) Moving cups without breaking
them.
15. Modelling in clay.

16. Basket work.

17. Cutting out patterns and shapes with

scissors.

18. Word building.

19. Number pictures, with cubes, beads,

etc.

Colour. — All knowledge commences through the senses by
sense impressions ; hence these lessons should begin at the
threshold of school life. Colour should be taught before form,
because —

T. It is more attractive to children.

2. It is a refreshing change from other work.

3. It is more simple than form. The recognition of colour is a simple

sensation, whilst the recognition of form involves more than a simple
sensation.

Z. Stages. — There should be three stages.

1. To Distinguish Colours. — This should be confined to the three primary
colours, red, blue, yellow, and should be the work of the babies.

2. To Match and Distinguish two shades of the same colour. — The shades
selected should be widely apart.

3. To Harmonise Colours. — To fill in two or three shades between two
extremes.

H. How Taught. — These lessons can be given in various
ways : —

1. By Contrast and Harmony. — The colours can be put one against the
other in such a way as to illustrate both these principles.

2. By Reference. — Flowers, articles of clothing, etc., can be referred to.
Worsted balls, ribbons, beads, niq.rbles, hair, eyes, chalks, etc., alsOr

KINDERGARTEN. 87

3. By Kindergarten Gifts. — Several of the gifts lend themselves to this pur-
pose, whilst colour sheets, pictures, and ravelling may all be utilised. Tablet
laying, perforating, embroidery and sewing, paper cutting and paper folding,
weaving, or paper plaiting, etc., all assist.

m. Apparatus. — This will depend on the nature and method

of teaching employed, but the following are recommended:—

1. A sheet of coloured squares showing —

(a) Black and white.
(6) Primary colours.

(d) Common shades of different colours.

2. Loose cards coloured in the same way.

3. Coloured wools and textile fabrics.

4. Coloured pictures.

5. A set of small drawing models painted in different colours.

rv. Oeneral Principles. Plan of a I^esson on a Secondary
Colour.

1. Experiment and Observation.

{a) .\fix the two primary colours which form it, e.g. : —

Red and blue mixed give purple.
Red and yellow „ orange.
Blue and yellow „ green.

Do not tell the children what will happen. Let them observe carefully, so
that they may see the result for themselves. This will ensure interest
and attention.

(b) Use Si prism. Decompose light by the aid of a prism, and throw the
colours on the wall. Of course, a suitable day is wanted.

2. Judgment.

(a) Get the children to select a shade between two other shades, to point

out a lighter or darker shade than the one pointed out by the teacher.
{b) As a further exercise, they could have a number of colours submitted to

them in a convenient way, which they should be asked to contrast.

The shades in the clothing of their class mates would afford other

illustrations.
{c) As the colours are learned, the children should be required to match the

loose cards from the coloured squares, or vice versa,
{d) They should then be asked to name familiar objects of colour under

observation.
S. Harmony. — To teach harmony, accustom the eye of the child to good
instances of it. Avoid inharmonious combinations in all lessons, and, if pos-
sible, in the colour of the school walls.

Form. — Lessons on form are better instruments for education

than lessons on colour; but they are harder, and therefore follow

colour. There is much in child school life that can aid the teacher

in these lessons, such as kindergarten occupations, slates, pencils,

some of the school furniture, the B.B., and books.

1, Langaage. — The teacher must be careful of his phraseology. Technical
terms should be avoided. The child wants to learn the objects, not the names
without the objects. For this purpose simple descriptive language should
supersede technicalities until a later lesson, since a child may be able to recall
an object, but fail to recall its difficult name.

2. Size.— Size should be taught first. Children readily perceive the different
bulks of different bodies. Most answers will only be approximately right, and

88 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the difficulty increases with difference of form and equality of bulk. The objects
should be placed before the children, compared with some common standard,
and their judgment should be invited and corrected where necessary.

3. Dimensions. — This would naturally lead on to the teaching of dimen-
sions. Objects of similar shape are larger or smaller than each other, accord-
ing as they are longer or shorter, broader or narrower, etc., and so the terms
long and short, bj-oad and narj-ow, high and low, thick and thin, deep and
shallow, are learjied. School objects will furnish plenty of material for this,
whilst variety can be obtained by references to outside materials and buildings.
In most cases — all where possible — the children should actually measure the
objects themselves, for which purpose fiat wooden rulers should be supplied to
them. The synonymity of height and depth should be illustrated.

4. Positions. — Lines may be drawn on the B.B. in one position, in two, and
in three— the upright, the lying down or level, and the slanting. These can
then be mixed and the class tested. The children can be asked to put their
books or pencils, etc. , in the various positions. They can then draw the lines
on their slates to the teacher's dictation. Drawing can also be done from
imitation on the B.B,, the teacher gradually building letters like I, H, T, L,
E, F, embracing perpendicular and horizontal lines (uprights and levels), whilst
X, W, V, M, N, Z, introduce the slanting line.

5. Curve. — The curve will follow. It is already a familiar shape to the
children. Balls, marbles, apples, oranges, coins, crockery, wheels, clocks,
watches, etc. , are known, and can be utilised as illustrations.

The capital letters like C, G, J, O, Q, B, R, D, S, can be introduced, and
their elements analysed. The children might then try to copy them. Some
teachers recommend the petals of flowers for the teaching of form and colour,
but there are difficulties which make their use doubtful, at least for form, for
young children. The supply of flowers would be one, the varied forms of the
petals another, the difficulty for young children of folding out the petals to
their true shape another ; but, where practicable, the exercise could be made
very interesting.

6. Surface. — This could now be taught from the observation of flat and
spherical bodies.

Drawing. — This is one of the most interesting and most
instructive of the many gifts of the kindergarten method. Its
connection with writing has already been pointed out, but it pos-
sesses other advantages over and above this. It is the first step
to design.^ and the improvement of design is very necessary for the
maintenance of some of our manufactures. It is an essential to
many occupations ; it encourages and develops observation^ culti-
vates the graphic memory., exercises the imagination in the construc-
tion of design, cultivates the perceptive faculty , and gives a delicacy
of manipulation which is very valuable. Furthermore, description
appears in its most successful form in drawing, for the most gifted
writer cannot present a scene like a picture, which always appeals
to the understanding and the emotions more rapidly and more
successfully than any word description. It develops the cssthetic
emotion by raising the tastes of the people. Good works of art
may and often do become objects of enjoyment where the drawing
faculty has been cultivated, whilst habits of care, neatness, and
accuracy are produced which must react upon the general character.

KINDERGARTEN.

Apparatus.— Graduated slaie cards should be used in the earliest classes,
squared paper iov the higher classes, and the whole work should be based on
Froebel's system. Where Mulhauser's system of writing is taught, the squares
are a training for the use cf the rhomboids. A chequered B.B. will be neces-
sary for demonstration. The work might be divided into three stages.

1. First Stage.— Squared slates and paper are recommended for the follow-
ing reasons: —

(<2) To guide the childs hand.
\b) To give the first ideas of length and proportion.

Tliis stage deals only with the length and direction of straight lines and
common angles. The exercises should be graded thus : —
(fl) Level (horizontal) lines.
(6) Upright (perpendicular) lines,
(c) Slanting (oblique) lines.

Common simple terms should be used first, the technical names being given
afterwards. Alternate lines are then drawn through two spaces, and the per-
f>endicular and horizontal are brought near to each other for comparison.
Oblique lines are similarly treated, and the process is continued until the lines
run through five squares. The common angles could then be taught. They
could be spxjken of as small corners {cuute), large corners {obtuse)., and («/)-right
comers.

2, Second Stage. — In this stage, the lines are grouped to form figures in
various positions. The figures are geometrical, like the right-angled triangle,
the square, and combinations of these ; e,^., two right-angled triangles may give
a square ; a series of squares of graded sizes joined together give steps ; and so
on. The children thus get their first idea of design by learning the analysis and
synthesis of common geometrical figures. This method of teaching offers large
scof)e for figure building, and is very interesting to children.

8. Third Stage. — Further combinations are made in this stage. Larger and
more complicated figures are given, and simple, pretty, straight-lined designs
are sometimes the result. The children might also be left to their own ingenuity
now and then to devise designs of their own. The system also lends itself
readily to dictated and memory drawing.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I.— Give the heads of a lesson on the three principal colours, and say what objects,
pictures, or apparatus you would need to make such a lesson interesting and useful.

2. — Describe the best system you know for teaching form and colour.

3. — Explain the terms kindergarten, Froebel's gifts, and state fully the educational
use of the second and fourth gifts.

4.— Detail some of the geometrical projjcrties that may be taught to young children
by folding square or rectangular pieces of paper, and give illustrative diagrams.

^. — Give examples of kindergarten exercises that may be used to stimulate invention
and imitation in young children.

6.— Enumerate Froebel's seven gifts, and show the progressive nature of their
lessons.

7. — For what purposes are lessons on form and colour given to infants ? Name the
order in which the principal plane figores should be taught.

8.— Describe tne earliest lessons in drawing which would be given in an infant
school.

go A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

9.— Of all the different employments now used in infant schools, besides the learning
of reading, writing, and arithmetic, which do you consider most useful and interesting,
and why ?

10.— The Code requires that " appropriate occupations shall be provided for children
in an infant school, besides instructions in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in
common objects ". What are the best of these " occupations," and what educative pur-
pose do they serve ?

II. — In what order would you use the kindergarten "gifts" in an infant school?
How should the lessons be conducted so as best to exercise the intelligence and observa-
tion of the children ?

12.— Notes 0/ Lessons. The square and its properties (I.).

13.—" It should be borne in mind that it is of little service to adopt the ' gifts' and
mechanical occupations of the kindergarten, unless they are so used as to furnish real
training in accuracy of hand and eye, in intelligence and in obedience." Explain and
illustrate this passage, and show how a teacher can best give effect to its recommen-
dation.

14. — Describe a good lesson on colour adapted for an infant class, and say what
illustrations you would get together before giving such a lesson.

15. — Say how you could, either by paper folding or by simple drawing, make the
properties of a square visible to young children, and explain what are the uses of such a
lesson.

16.— Taking a square of paper, what simple ideas of form can you impress on a class
by folding a paper so as to make a single crease in it ?

T/ns Chapter is continued in the Atpendix.

CHAPTER VIII.

ARITHMETIC.

In the Revised Instructions issued to Her Majesty's Inspectors,
it is stated that many experienced teachers believe that the true
progression in Arithmetic is not to be found in advancing from
addition and subtraction to multiplication and division, with the
large numbers often given in sums; but in graduated exercises
beginning with small numbers and exhausting all their combina-
tions. Such teachers will take, for example, the number twenty,
and, after helping the scholars to count cubes or other objects,
will dissect the number, find out in how many ways it is made up,
learn its fractions and aliquot parts, apply it to money, length, hours,
and minutes, and perform all the arithmetical processes, both orally
and in writing, which can be dealt with within that limit, higher
numbers and more elaborate exercises in notation being reserved
to a later stage. Whether this course be followed or not, the
reasons of arithmetical processes should be properly explained and
understood, for this is a department of school work which has
been much overlooked. There is in an elementary school course
scarcely any more effective discipline in thinking than is to be
obtained from an investigation of the principles which underlie
the rules of Arithmetic. When children obtain answers to sums
and problems by mere mechanical routine, without knowing why
they use the rule, or when, on receiving a question or a problem,
they ask, " What rule is it in ? " they cannot be said to have been
well instructed in Arithmetic.

It must be remembered that Arithmetic is both an art and a
science, the former being all-important for practice and the latter
for training. The science deals with the properties and principles
of numbers, discovers their truths, and hands them over to the
art which applies them. Each has its value ; but when Arithmetic
is all art, as it often has been in some schools, it then becomes a
mere imitative or mechanical process, and quite useless as a

92 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

means of training — its highest value. It will thus be obvious that
for the efficient handling of the subject it must, like Grammar, be
taught inductively and applied deductively. Every new rule or
truth should be taught by this inductive method; nor should the
rule be applied to the working of examples until the reasoning
underlying those truths is perfectly clear to the class.

Good teaching will seek to reduce the labour involved in the
work to a minimum ; to supply easy and short rules, clear and
intelligent methods, sufficient and suitable explanations, backed
by well-chosen examples. The newer and abbreviated methods
will enable the teacher to get rid of cumbrous operations, which
breed fatigue and disgust for the subject. Assistance will be so
given as to encourage self-eff'ort ; the methods of teaching adopted
will strengthen concentration, which is all-essential in Arithmetic ;
and it will insist upon the work being set out in a neat, legible,
and clear style, whilst numerous suitable exercises will ensure
rapid and accurate computations and solutions.

ADVANTAGES OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC.

1. Reasoning. — It is a fine aid towards building up the
.reasoning powers, being both inductive and deductive in its teach-
ing. A small number of fundamental propositions is laid down,
consisting of such definitions as " Two is one and one," " Three
is one and two " ; or such axioms as " The sums of equals are
equal," or " The differences of equals are equal," and from these
propositions are derived a large number of truths and applications
of truths. Arithmetic makes the mind precise and accurate in
its statements and judgments, and gives an orderly turn to it. By
its aid the pupil learns to distinguish between the essential and
the non-essential, and, generally, it supplies him with some neces-
sary materials and training for scientific reasoning; and, finally,
as it deals largely with abstract numbers, it assists considerably
in developing the power of abstraction.

2. Truth. — It is an enemy to fallacies. Under its influence
the pupil learns to accept nothing without a clear reason capable
of demonstration. Some urge, however, that a too exclusive
devotion to the wider subject of mathematics gives a wrong bias
of mind respecting truth generally ; and although what is true of
mathematics is largely true of arithmetic, nevertheless there is
no fear of falling into this misfortune in an elementary school.
We learn from Mill the reasons why the primary truths of mathe-

ARITHMETIC.

matics seem to have a greater certainty than other inductive
truths : —

{a) Their Universality. — They are true of everything, everywhere, and at
every time.

(3) Their Extreme Familiarity. — The perception of their truth only requires
the simple act of looking at objects in the proper position, and often
only thinking of them in such a position. Hence exemplifications of
their truth are incessantly presented to us.

(c) The Absence of any Analogies to Suggest a Different Law. — This is
very important. If everything in the universe always maintained a
condition of absolute rest, we might find as much difficulty in conceiv-
ing the possibility of the sun falling from the sky as we now have of
conceiving that two straight lines can enclose a space.

{d) They are Never Counteracted, being independent of causes.

3, Attention. — It is a fine aid to concentration, depending for
its success upon the undivided attention of the pupil.

4, Emotional Efifects. — It is generally popular with children,
especially with those who can master its difficulties readily.
There is a consciousness oi power following success, an intensified
interest of pursuit, a rebound of intellectual pleasure over some prob-
lem solved. Its many devices for solution arouse wonder, and
the capacity to deal with its problems gives a healthy self-esteem.

5, Its Pratctical Uses. — These are so obvious as to scarcely
need mention. Apart from the training and discipline supplied on
the inductive side, it forms a necessary qualification for everyday
life, and especially for the shopkeeper, the merchant, the clerk,
the engineer, surveyor, astronomer, accountant, and many other
callings.

NOTATION. — The teaching of notation to very young chil-
dren requires much care and skill, for it involves the difficult
transition from the concrete to the abstract. Such concrete
objects as kindergarten sticks, cubes, the ball frame, lines or dots
upon the B.B., picture numbers or money, are now invariably
used, so that this branch of school work is taught on more
scientific methods than formerly. Constant reference is made to
the apparatus, and, where possible, the children are allowed to
manipulate the objects themselves ; and although the very large
classes in many of our modern schools make this manipulation a
serious consideration both as to time, expense, and discipline,
still it is based upon a principle of child life, and should be adopted
even in the face of difficulties. The arithmetic then affords train-
ing for both hand and eye, and both kindergarten sticks and pic-
ture numbers afford opportunities for this kind of teaching. For
this reason, where such things are available, and one kind at least

94 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

ought to be available in every school containing young children,
it is recommended that the lessons be given with their aid.

The Numbers from 1 to 9. — Taught with kindergarten sticks.
Several lessons will be necessary. The skill of the teacher is the
deciding factor rather than any fixed division of lessons.

First Lessons. — Have 5 sticks distributed to each child. At a subsequent
lesson tlie whole 9 could be given out.

1. {a) The teacher holds up one stick, and says one stick, the children re-

peating while hfting up one stick each. The number name is thus
associated with the object.

{b) Now show one cube, one finger, one marble, etc. In each case the
children repeat one cube, one finger, or one marble. The object is to
accumulate instances.

(c) Now place a dot or a line upon the B. B. The children again say ' ' one
dot " or " one line". They should be asked to make a dot or a line
upon their slates. Then put the figure one ( i ) on the B. B. Let them
make it upon their slates. Tell them that it represents i stick, i cube,
I marble, etc. Impress upon them the fact that i always means i
something. The object is to get them to recognise the written symbol
for I.

2. Hold up a second stick in the other hand. The children recognise it as

one stick, and say so. They notice that you have one in each hand.
They then take up another stick themselves, imitating you. Transfer
both sticks to one hand, the children again copying. Now tell them
that one stick and one stick make two sticks, the children repeating as
before. Now make another dot or line upon the B.B., beside the first
one. How many dots now ? Repeat with other objects. Then niake
a figure 2 on the B. B. , let the children copy on their slates, and again
make them understand that this figure stands for two something —
sticks, cubes, balls, etc. Then exercise the class in picking out two
things about the room.

3. Proceed in the same way with the other numbers, remembering that as

the numbers increase in value fewer should be taken for one lesson,
because a greater variety of simple arithmetic exercises may be worked
from them.

4. Make use of the sticks to perform simple exercises in the simple rules ;

e.g. , let children take up 3 sticks in one hand and 2 in the other. Then
transfer them to one hand. Count them — thus 2 and 3 make 5. Such
exercises as 4 + i, 3 + 2, 2 + 2, 2 + i, etc., could be worked in the
same way ; or 5 - 4, 4 - 2, 3 - i. There are 2 twos in 4, 5 ones in 5,
5 ones make .15, and so on.

Numbers from lO to 20, — Still taught by kindergarten sticks,
but now each child will require two bound bundles of sticks, each
bundle containing ten, and ten separate individual sticks also.
This will be a big demand where the classes run to sixty, but it
should be met if possible. The bundles should be strongly bound.

1. To Teach 10. — The teacher picks up 10 sticks one at a time, the children
imitating and naming as the groups increase up to 9. When the tenth stick is
reached give them the new name ten. Let them show their 10 sticks and name
them. Vary the instances again, and let the children count and name in each
case. Now write the symbol 10 on the B.B., let them write it on their slates,
and make them understand that this represents ten somethings. Plenty of
exercise of the kind specified now should be given.

ARITHMETIC 95

1. To Teach 11 and 12, etc.

(a) Let the children take up a bundle of sticks each, and count the number
of sticks in each bundle — 10. TAen one bundle is equal to ten single
sticks. Take up a bundle in one hand and a single stick in the other.
Class imitate. Transfer both to one hard. How many sticks has
each one now? 10 and i. Tell them 10 and i make eleven. Let
them repeat the name. Its notation presents afresh difficulty. Make
a large figure 1 on the B. B. , and tell them that stands for i bundle, or
10 sticks in i bundle. Then make a small i beside it to represent the
individual slick, thus, 1 1. Let them copy the symbol on their slates,
and tell them that the figures stand for 11. The name is thus fixed to
the symbol. Vary the instances again, showing 1 1 cubes, or 1 1 marbles,
etc. , and let them name the number in each case. A proper arrange-
ment of the cubes, dots, balls, etc. , will greatly assist in the formation
of a right conception, thus —

Ball Frame

Din

10 Cubes ICube • • •

]| Cubes .10 Dots I Dot. l JO Beads^ I Bead.

IIDots W •• Beads

{b) The same method could be adopted for the teaching of 12, and now the
teacher will be able to illustrate with a shilling and 12 pennies or
with a sixpence and 12 halfpennies. All the numbers up to 19 could
be thus treated, the teacher remembering to follow out the various
steps in each case as detailed in the lessons given above. For the
present the symbols might still be represented with a large figure for
the tens, and a small one for the units, thus, li, I2, I3, I4, I5, and so
on. But subsequently the teacher must reduce the tens figure to the
same size as the units, and associate its greater value with its position.
If coloured chalks are used in the first case to mark the tens figure, the
symbols will be still more intelligible to the children. The teaching of
20 ought to present no difficulty to the teacher now
numbers above 20.— The process is practically the same, an^ there ought
to be no further difficulty in dealing with this branch of the subject. As the
numbers proceed, the children should be exercised in building up the numbers
with the sticks, and afterwards in decomposing them. This will afford capital
practice both in synthesis and analysis of numbers, which is so necessary to the
right understanding of some of the after processes in arithmetic. When the
children are familiar with the new names for the symbols 30, 40, etc., the con-
nection between them and the numbers between 12 and 20 might be contrasted
and explained thus : —

three (3) and K\\\xteen (13) and thir/y (30).
four (4) ,, four/^^«(i4) ,, for/y (40).
five (5) ,, f\Ueen (15) ,, fif/y (50).

The Notation of Hundred*. — The class already knows up to
99.

1. Hew names.— With kindergarten sticks show that ten tens make 100.
Give the new name, write its symbols on the B.B., let class copy on their slates
and repeat the name. In a similar way, let them learn to recognise when
written on the B.B. and on their slates 200, 300, etc., up to 900. There will be
no difficulty with this step.

T
7

96 ^ NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Decomposition. — Now have the numbers decomposed. The class are
already famihar with the process with numbers of two figures, thus : —

100 = 10 tens and no units ; or i hundred o tens o units.
200 = 20 tens and no units ; or 2 hundreds o tens o units.

3. Notation. — Call attention to the fact that we simply name what is present,
and say nothing of what is absent. We do not say one hundred no tens and no
units, but simply one hundred, or two hundred, etc. Rule three parallel
columns on the B.B., and head them units (U), tens (T), and
hundreds (H), and see that the class understands them.

4. Furtlier Decomposition.— Give further practice in decom-
position —

70 = 7 tens.
300 = 30 tens or 3 hundreds.

Ill = II tens and i unit ; or i hundred i ten i unit.
326 = 32 tens and 6 units ; or 3 hundreds 2 tens 6 units.
Now ask in which column 70 should be placed. Its de-
composition helps them to recognise it as 7 tens, and so to
place the 7 in the tens column ; 300 would be 3 placed in the
hundreds column ; 9 would be placed in the first column, and so on.

8. The Cypher. — Now introduce the cypher. Hitherto we have not heeded
it in the notation exercises of this stage.

[a) In the Units. — Take 420 as an example. Have the number analysed
into 4 himdreds and 2 tens. The absence of units is expressed by a
cypher or nought (o). Compare 10 and 20. The 20 they already know
" how to write, and the position of the hundreds (4) is now easily fixed
for them. Give other examples, as 340, 670, 280.
{b) In the Tens. — As in 709. Analyse again into 7 hundreds and 9 units.
The absent tens a7'e expressed by a cypher (o). Then we write 7 in the
hundreds column and 9 in the units. In the middle column (tens)
there is a cypher (o) to indicate the absence of tens. Give other ex-
amples. Diagrammatic aids may be given by varying the size of the
figures according to their place values; e.g., 249- The chief value of
such a system is that it accustoms children to associate increasing
values with figures as they proceed to the left. The notation of thou-
sands can be dealt with in the same way. Perhaps it is hardly neces-
sary to remind students that this method of teaching notation teaches
numeration at the same time.

NUMBER PICTURES. — The use of number pictures is
recommended by the Department in Circular 322 for use in all
classes, and a scheme has been elaborated for teaching the num-
bers up to twenty by means of these number pictures.* There is
no doubt about their value educationally, and they constitute one
of the best applications of kindergarten yet made. The work is
made very attractive and suitable, and the old mechanical faults
common to the teaching of this branch of arithmetic are destroyed
by it. Children, rightly taught by these tablets, would soon love
arithmetic, and would take their first steps under really scientific
principles. There is no better method of teaching this stage of
the work than by those sheets and tablets.

Requirements. — To make their use effective the author lays
down certain requirements.

*fiand and Eye Arithmetic for Infants, Blackie & Soa

ARITHMETIC. 97

1. The number pictures should be bright and attractive.

2. The value of each of the numbers i to 10 at least (preferably i to 20)

should be impressed on the memory by a distinct mental picture.

3. The difference in the value of numbers should at once be apparent to the
. eve.

4. In each picture number the concrete and the abstract should be com-

bined.

5. The number pictures should allow all the component parts of the number

to be vividly shown, both in the concrete and in the abstract, as a
result.

(a) The truth of the equality of each pair of components with the number itself
is self-evident to the eye.

(b) The picture of each pair of components is so vividly impressed upon the
mind, through the eye, that the mention of one component immediately
recalls the other.

6. The number picture should represent pictorial ly our system of notation.

7. The number pictures should be of such a character that they can be

reproduced with ease by the children.

8. The number picture should, if possible, illustrate pictorially the processes

of the four simple rules.

Apparatus.

1. The YlYld Arithmetic Sheets for Number Laying.— These are for the

teacher's use, and are adapted for class teaching. They include four large sheets
on rollers, and on them each number from i to 20 is represented by a distinct
picture in bright attractive colours. It is claimed that the value of each number
is impressed on the mind in three ways : —

(a) By the number o' unit squares which compose the concrete representation
of the number.

(6) By the size of the figure itself, each figure being drawn to scale.

2. Ylvid Tablets. — These are supplied to the children, and correspond to
the colours on the sheets, which enable them to build an exact representation of
each picture number.

3. Other Apparatus.— So far as can be gathered from the first few lessons,
there would also be required : —

(a) Slates ruled in squares to suit the tablets.
(6) Blackboard ruled to match the slates.

(d) Pencils. Three for each child.
(«) Apples. To teach fractions.

Teaching. — Special stress is laid on the following instruc-
tions : —

1. The »w<f^/ pictiu-e should be made thoroughly secure before attempting

to teach the components.

2. The components should first be taught as pictures, and when these are

thoroughly known, this knowledge should be applied to other concrete
objects.

3. Hasten slowly. The knowledge of one number must be thorough and

accurate before the next is attempted.

4. The children must perform with the tablets the operation required to find

the answer.

5. An incorrect answer is never to be passed over. The child should always

be required to find the correct answer for itself by means of the sheets
or tablets, under the guidance of the teacher.

6. The sheets should be kept constantly in front of the class, and every

spare moment should be utilised in questions dealing with some number
already taught.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Flan of Ziessons. — To teach the numbers from i to 20,
twenty-three lessons are required, the seventh and thirteenth
being recapitulatory lessons ; and the first lesson being on
counting objects from one to five to familiarise them with the idea
of number, and the names they have to use subsequently. The
steps in each lesson from the third onwards comprise certain
well-arranged steps which are similar, though not always identi-
cal, in all the lessons. Let us take the third lesson, on the
number 2, as an illustration. The steps involved are : —

[a) First teach picture 2.

[b) Then figure 2.

{c) Then the components,
(i) As pictures.

(2) Application of the pictures to other objects.

(3) Fractions.

{d) Exercises without squares. Sheets may be used.
To Teach the Number 2.

1. Picture 2.

■ {a) The children pick out a brown '^picture-one" and place

2 ''''figure-one" on it.

(3) Another brown ''picture-one" is chosen, and placed by
_ imitation end on to the other.

{c) It is seen to be larger than picture-one, and a new name is
given. The children, on invitation, count the two squares.
I It is then called picture-two.

[d) Brown picture-two is picked out on the sheets.

2. Figure 2.

[a] The teacher points io figure-two on the sheets, and invites the class to

find a figure from the cardboard figures like it.
{b) Figure-two is named and placed on picture-two.

[c) The process is repeated with red and blue tablets.

[d) Children draw picture-two on their slates and make figure-two on it, the

teacher guiding.

3. The Components 1 + 1.

{a) As Pictures. The model picture-two should lie on the desk in front of
each child.

. A red and blue picture-one are placed end

1^^^ on end, and the class is invited to name

1 the picture iormed— picture-two.

2. A question elicits that picture-one and picture-
one make picture-two.

3. Picture-two is picked out on the sheets.

4. The class is asked how many picture-ones
make pictu7-e-two.

5. They are then asked how many times picture-one can be taken away

from picture-two. The answer is given and the operation performed by
the children.

6. The children then build with the sheets for other picture-twos.

7. They then build from memory without the sheets.

{b) Application of the Pictures to Other Objects.— The children must point
to the pictures corresponding to the number of ob'ects spoken of, as,
soon as they are mentioned. Thus they —

ARITHMETIC.

1. Learn that the pictures are of general application.

2. Obtain the required result with absolute certainty.

3. Deepen the mental picture of the components of the number each time

they are referred to.

Objects are named and simple operations performed without the
tablets, but with the aid of the sheets. They then work from memory
agam. The exercises should be very simple, and of course limited to 2.

{c) Fractions. The Half.

1. An apple is cut in two equal parts. Each part is called a half.

2. Brown picture-two is made. Picture-one is taken away, and the class is

invited to say how much is taken away — one half.

3. They are then asked what picture forms a tiaXi oi picture-two^picture-one.

4. How n\3.ny picture-ones are there in picture-two ?— two pictures, etc.

5. How many halves make the whole?— two halves, etc. Remember the

answers are always to be in complete sentences.

4. Exercises without Squares.— Sheets may be used.

Subsequent Ijessons. — These are very like the lesson on the
number 2. The only other thing to notice is the representation
of the number pictures themselves, and the various ways in which
they are shown. It must be remembered that different colours
represent the different components, and that as each square is
used, the children should say aloud what picture it completes. A
few illustrations of the various ways the numbers may be repre-
sented are now given.

4 3t ii I

£m

■

When the twenty three lessons have been given, the teacher
18 advised to gather together all the parts of the different multi-
plicatwn tables which have been taught, arrange them in order in

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the usual form, and then carefully commit them to memory. The
meaning of the tables will have been made so clear during the
lessons that it is asserted the children will have little difficulty in
learning the remaining parts after constructing them for them-

selves, and applying them intelligently in the solving of little
problems. It is also claimed that all the principles involved in
dealing with numbers up to loo have been taught.

SIMPLE ADDITION.

I. Units. — To teach simple addition of units, any of the
material objects used in the lessons on notation may be utilised.
If the teaching in those lessons has been successful, the children
ought already to be able to add units up to loo. The teacher's
work will then be limited to the method adopted of setting out
the work, and to making this intelligible to the children. Where
neither picture numbers nor kindergarten sticks nor equivalent
aids have been used, the teacher might use the ball frame and the
B.B.

Dictate the number 5, count 5 beads on the ball frame, and write the
figure 5 upon the B.B. Proceed in the same way with the other
numbers.

In each case the counting is to be done first in the concrete with the
beads, then in the abstract with the figures on the B. B.

The work is to be done step-wise, thus : —

ARITHMETIC.^

101

3 beads and 4 beads make 7 beads '''. 3 kn9 4 make 7.
7 beads and 2 beads make 9 b^ads ."^^ r^nd 2 make 9.' , > ,
9 beads and 5 beads make 14 beacjsy. 9 and 5 hiake ip , ,' i .'
The teacher then draws a line beneath {he '3' ihd writes dovv^n thfe 14.
The class might then go through the same process, beginning with the
top figure. The children will see that the same answer is obtained.
The work might then be varied with kindergarten cubes, thus : —

3 Cubes

end

4 Cubes

mahe 7 Cubes

lI V i Vi'iV i ®

7 Cubes

and 2 Cubes make

C l ^ 1 1 1 ^ 1 ^1 ■ ! 'I ^1 ^ 1

9 Cubes * so on.

The advantage of the cubes is that the growth of the addition is made
clear step by step. As in the previous case the B. B. should be used.
By thus varying the objects, the certainty and accuracy of the truths
involved are impressed upon the child, who thus learns that whatever
the object used may be, 4 and 3 always make 7. The transition to the
abstract is also rendered easier.
6. All the concrete objects should now be removed, and the work done
mentally. Other examples should follow to give the necessary practice
for accuracy.

ZI. Tens. — The preparatory lessons on notation, or the use of

picture numbers and the arithmetic problems involved, ought still

to be sufficient to make this next step fairly easy to the children.

" Carrying " is an added difficulty in this case. The numerical

box and the B.B. might be used for this lesson.

1. Show the box and explain the

use of its compartments. Let Py" ^^r^ ■«;--

the class thoroughly under- n^^^V \^ V ^sj^^

stand that all the units will be

placed in the compartments

under the U, and all the tens

in the compartments labelled

T. The hundreds can be left

till the next lesson.

2. Practise the class in the de-

composition of numbers on

the B.B. Thus:—
29 is equal to 20 and 9, i.t. , to 2

tens and 9 units
13 is equal to 10 and 3, i.e., to i

ten and 3 units.
72 is equal to 70 and 2, i.e., to 7

tens and 2 units.

lo tens make 100. Hence we have 100 and 14, which is written
114.

3. Set the above sum on the B.B., and decompose the first number 29

as shown. The class will readily understand you then when you place
a sticks under the tens (T), and 9 sticks under the units (U). Proceed
with the other numbers in the same way. The bottom compartments
can be used as answer compartments.

~T\^

~7\

io\

i^v\

1C2 A NEV/ MANUAL OF METHOD.

4. Commence with the units compartments. Take the 9 sticks out of the
_ , tcp compaitmen^ ?Hd place them in the next below Let the class

coanf all "the sticks in it —12, Then 9 sticks and 3 sticks make 12
■ ' ' sticks. Next take the 12 sticks out and place them in the next below,
and again let class count all the sticks within that compartment — 14.
Then 12 sticks and 2 sticks make 14 sticks.

5. Then turn to the B B., and let the work be done there in the abstract,

thus : 9 and 3 are 12, 12 and 2 are 14.

6. Proceed in the same way with the tens compartments.

7. Then explain as shown under the diagram, and the total is found to be

114.

8. Now turn to the B.B. Cast the units column upwards, T U

beginning with the 2. The total is 14 again. Decom-

pose this into i ten and 4 units. Tell the class to place 2 9
the 4 units under the units column, and then add the 113
ten to the tens column ; thus 1 + 7 + 1 + 2 = 11. Tell 7 2

them to write down the ii beside the 4, and they will

perceive that the answer IS again 114. The reason for so 11 4
doing ought now to he well understood by the class.

9. As a confirmatory step compare the two methods of expressing the

number 114, and let the class see that they both produce the same
result.

Thus 10 tens and 14 units = 100 and 14 = 1 14.
II tens and 4 units =110 and 4 = 114.

10. Further exercises should be dealt with in the same way, the sticks

and the box being eventually withdrawn, and the whole work done
in the abstract with the figures only. "Hundreds" can be taught
in the same way.

SIMPIiB SUBTRACTION.

I. First Ijessons. — It is assumed that the children can per-
form easy examples in subtraction from the practice already
received with the kindergarten sticks, picture numbers, cubes,
beads, and ball irame. It is also assumed that they are familiar
with the method of representing these simple exercises on the
B.B. and on their slates, for both were used through these earlier
lessons. The teacher's work should then commence where the
last lessons finished.

Preparatory Exercises.— These should involve neither borrowing nor de-
composing. In every case the figures in the bottom line should be less than
those above it in the top line. The children ought to be able to do these
exercises mentally. Thus • —

18 27 35 19 17 12 78 91
13 16 21 8 4 10 53 60

^11141113^2531

H, The Method of Decomposition. — Take 17 from 45.
(a) Use the ball frame or kindergarten sticks Show that —

45 = 4 tens and 5 units =40+5 =45

= 3 tens and 15 units \ = 30 + 15! = 45)
17 = I ten and 7 units/ = 10 + 7 f -- 17/

Difference = 2 tens and 8 units = 20 + 8 =28

ARITHMETIC. 103

(b) Now work the process on the B.B. ; e.g., take 344 from 721. De-
composing each number, we have —

721 = 7 hundreds and 2 tens and i unit =700+ 20+ i =721
= 6 hundreds and 12 tens and i unit =600+120+ i =721
= 6 hundreds and 11 tens and 11 units^ =600+ 110+ ii\ =721)

344 = 3 hundreds and 4 tens and 4 units/ = 300+ 40+ 4^=344/

DifiPnce = 3 hundreds and 7 tens and 7 units =300+ 70+7 =377

[c) Work other examples on the B.B,, supplementing, illustrating, explain-
ing, and correcting where necessary. Let class then work exercises
on their slates.

m. The Method of Equal Additions.

1. Preparatory Exercises. — The object of these will be to reveal to the class
the fundamental axiom on which this method is based. Use the ball frame
or kindergarten sticks, and proceed as follows : —

9-4 = 5-

(9 + 3) - (4 + 3) = 12 - 7 = 5

(9 + 6) - (4 + 6) = 15 ^ lo = 5

(9 + 8) - (4 + 8) = 17 - 12 = 5
From these and similar examples the class will infer that if the same
quantity be sodded to two unequal numbers their difference will remain un-
altered.

2. Application of this Truth to Other Examples.— Ask for the difference
between 17 and 45—28 by the last method. But the answer will remain
unaltered if I add the same number to both of these quantities, e.g. : —

45 + 10 = 4 tens and 15 units = 40 + 15 = 55
17 + 10 = 2 tens and 7 units = 20 + 7 = 27

Difference = 2 tens and 8 units = 20 + 8 = 28

The children may experience some difficulty in grasping the reason of
this, the special point of difficulty bemg that the additions, although equal,
are made to the units in the one case and to the tens in the other. Explain
that this is merely a matter of convenience to make the work easier, and
illustrate as follows: —

{a) Original numbers 45) The children are to note that the 7 cannot

17 /be taken from the 5.
{6) Add 10 to each quantity—

45 + 10 = 55 1 Children still to note that the 7 cannot be taken
17 + 10 = 27 /from the 5.
{c) Now decompose the numbers. Children to note that the 7 now can
be taken from 15.

55 = 4 tens and 15 units.
27 = 2 tens and 7 units.
S. Exercises.— Now let exercises be worked on the B.B., and extend the
process to 3 figures; e.ig., take 354 from 543.

543 = 5 hundreds 14 tens (10 tens added) 13 units (10 added) = 653
354 = 4 hundreds (loo added) 6 tens (i ten added) 4 units = 464

Diflfercncc= i hundred 8 tens 9 units -— 189

The class should now be invited to test the additions. There has been
added —

To the top line - - 10 tens and 10 units = 100 +10=110

To the bottom line - i hundred and i ten = 100 + 10 = 110

i.e.. Equal Additions are made In each case.

104 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

TV, The Method of Complementary Addition. — This method

is much the same as what is known as "proving" subtraction, and

it is claimed for it that it is easy and does away with one of the

simple rules (subtraction), reducing the simple rules to three

instead of four ; i.e., to addition, multiplication, and division. The

practice which the children have already received in the analysis

and synthesis of numbers, in decomposing them and in building

them up, will assist materially in making these complementary

additions. There are two difficulties to which the teacher will

require to call attention : —

(a) The case when borrowing is required in ordinary subtraction.
(d) The case of cyphers.

1. Easy Examples. — First give some preparatory exercises : —

7 + g = i6. Here the complement of g is 7, and the complement
of 7 is g, because g + 7 = 16 and 7 + g = 16.
Other and similar examples might be given.

Examples should then be set which are easy for the same reason that
they are easy in either of the other methods, viz., that each figure in the
top line is greater than the figure placed beneath it.

6842g 3 + (6) = g; i + (i)=2; 2 + 2 = 4; 7 + 1=8; 1+5 = 6.
17213 )

51216 )

2. Harder Examples. — This includes cases where any bottom figure is
greater than any top figure placed above it. If the children are to under-
stand the reason of the process they employ, the method becomes

2632 by no means so easy as is asserted. An analysis of the example

1756^ given will show that some of the difficulties of both the other

J- methods are involved. Still there is no doubt that the method

•876J is easy and quick in practice.

units 6 + (6) = 12 = 2 units + i ten.

tens 5 + (7) + (i) = 13 = 3 tens + i hundred,
hundreds 7 + (8) + (i) = 16 = 6 hundred + i thousand,
thousands i + (o) + (i) = 2.

3. The Cypher. — An examination of an example will show that the cypher
must always be looked upon as 10, e.^. : —

30og 7 + (2) = g ; 3 + (7) = 10 = o tens and i hundred.

1537I 5 + (4) + (i) = 10 = o hundreds and i thousand.

\ i + (i) + (i)= 3.

1472 J

It will be observed that the complemental figure, and the figure to be
canied, is expressed in brackets in these explanations. If such a method
were adopted, it would probably be better expressed as follows : —

6842g 2632 30og

17213 1756 1537

51216 876 1472

ARITHMETIC.

TWO METHODS COMPARED.

105

Decomposition.

Fqual Additions.

1. It applies and extends the power of
decomposing numbers already acquired by
children.

2. By many the method is alleged to be
simpler, and the reason of the process is
more readily grasped because no new prin-
ciple is involved.

3. It is not so largely used as the other
method.

4. By many teachers it is not considered
so safe as the method of equal additions.

5. Though easier in principle, it is harder
in practice, through the mental process of
decomposition involved.

6. It is the slower method for work pro-
bably.

7. The occurrence of cyphers increases
the difficulty of the work.

1. It introduces and applies one of the
fundamental axioms of mathematics — that
if the same quantity be added to two num-
bers their difference remains unaltered.

2. It is more difficult of comprehension
because the equal additions are made to
different denominations. Some teachers
hold a conflicting opinion to this.

3. It is the general method in practice,

4. Many consider it the safer method,
because there is no difference in the pro-
cess, although there may be in the examples.

5. Though more difficult of apprehension
it is easier in practice. " Borrowing" and
"paying-back" is a modification of this
methud.

6. It is the quicker method for work.

7. The occurrence of cyphers does not
increase its difficulty.

THE MUXiTTPIjICATION TABIjES.

I. Memory.— The period from the sixth to the tenth years is
the best time for memory work, and it is called the plastic period
of the mind. Repetition is necessary for permanence of impres-
sion, and the art of teaching the multiplication tables is to lessen
the number of repetitions for their retention. The work is ex-
hausting, hence there should be suitable rests and sequences.

The time for memory work is important. Early morning is
favourable, because the total energy of the pupils is then at its
greatest. The last hour of morning^ school is suitable, because
the strength of the pupils is then at its best. Cold weather is
conducive to vigorous mental work, because the vigour of the body
is always greater at these periods.

Some natures require prompting or stimulating, hence it may
be necessary to subject some pupils to some form of pain, but
the association is an unfortunate one, and should be avoided if
possible. With the great majority it will always be sufficient to
present the work in such a form as will arouse the greatest amount
of interest.

The formation of memory depends upon the formation of
good habits of acquisition, e.g.y comparison, contrast, and classi-
fication through the detection of similarity and difference. The
method of questionings adopted by the teacher may also be made
to aid memory very muclv

io6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

n. Teaching^. — The tables may be grouped into two classes :
those which are easy, and those which are more difficult of acqui-
sition.

1. Sasy Tables. — These include the tables for two, three,
four, five, ten, and eleven.

{a) Two Times and Three Times. — Let the children make up these tables
for themselves. Thus 2x3 = 6 can be verified by the child, who
can count 3 twice or 2 thrice, and so find the total ; and so with
the other numbers. If the picture numbers have been used, many
of the easier products will be already known. The leaps here be-
tween product and product are very small, and the mind is gene-
rally agile enough to make them. They also enter more largely
into the conversation of the children in their everyday life ; e.^. :
" I'm twice as big as you; " "He has three times as many marbles
as John".

(d) Four Times. — This is easy for the same reasons, though increasing in
difficulty over 2 and 3.

[c) Five Times. — This is very easy from the alternate recurrence of the

5 and the o.

[d) Ten Times.— This table also is very easy from the invariable recur-

rence of the o, and from the similarity of figures in the product and

the multiplicand, e.^. : —
10 X 8 = 80 j

10 X 5 = 50 > The attention should be called to all these mnemonics.
10 X II = no )

[e) Eleven Times. — This is easy until the century is passed, from the re-

duplication of the figures in the product each time. e.g. : —

II times 3 are 33.

II ,, 4 M 44-

II .. 5 M 55, etc. . . ,.

After the century they are harder because this reduplication disappears.
The teacher may use devices for fixing, but as there are but three items
to learn, a little vigorous repetition would .soon fix these. In learning
tables a certam amount of rote work is absolutely necessary, and must
be faced.

2. Hard Tables. — These include the tables for six, seven,
eight, nine, and twelve.

(a) Six Times.— Seven-twelfths of this table are already known, e.g. :—
6 X 1=6 and is the same as
6 X 2 = 12 ,,
6 X 3 = 18
6 X 4 = 24
6 X 5 = 30
6 X 10 = 60 ,,
6 X II = 66 ,,
Now divide the remaining products into two classes : —
(i) 6 X 6 = 36. (2) 6x7 = 42.

6 X 8 = 48. 6 X 9 = 54.

6 X 12 = 72.
In the first class, point to the typed coincidences, and give plenty of
repetition to both. It may also be advisable to decompose the second
class, and to show that 6 groups of 7 = 7 groups of 6, and to let the
class count the product in each case, thus —

6 =

12.

6 =

18.

6 =

24.

6 =

30.

6 =

60.

6 =

66.

ARITHMETIC. 16^

42.

6 groups of 7. 7 groups of 6

{^) Seven Times. — Eight-twelfths or two-thirds of this table are already
known. Set out the known portion on the B.B. ; e.^., 7 times i, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 10, and 11. The reduction of the work will be an incentive to
learn the other third. These are —

7 X 7 =-- 49 ; 7 X 8 = 56 ; 7 X 9 = 63 ; 7 X 12 = 84.

Mnemonics may be used ; 49 may be represented m the form of a
square ; the numbers may be decomposed ; specialities may be notified
as in the case of 7 x 9 = 63, where the sum of the digits in the product
(6 -f 3) = 9 (the multiplier). But for so small a number of products
repetition is the best method
{c) Eight Times.— Proceed as in "6 times ' and "7 times". Only three
products have to be learned —

8 X 8 = 64 ; 8 X 9 = 72 ; 8 x 12 = 96.
All the rest are known. 64 may be demonstrated like 49 ; in the case of

8 X 9 = 72 we again have 7-1-2 = 9.
But repetition is still the best method.
(cfj Nine Time*.— There are only two products to learn —

9 X 9 = 81, and this can be demonstrated like 49 and 64.
9 X 12 = 108. Repetition would soon fix this.
Then the whole table might be set out on the B. B. . and the memory
assisted by the following mnemonics : —

(i) Note the descending order of the units ; e.g.,
9, 8,7,6,5,4, 3, 2, 1,0, 9, 8.

(2) The ascending order of the tens ; e.g., i, 2, 3,
4. 5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

(3) The number of tens in the product is always
one less than in the multiplier ; e.g., 9x2
= 18, 9 X 3 = 27.

(4) The sum of the digits in the product in each
case (except 9 x 1 1 ) is always 9 ; e.g., i8 =
1-1-8 = 9; 27 = 2 + 7 = 9; 36 = 34-6 = 9.

{e) Twelve Times. — There is now only one product to learn in this table.
All else is already known. As this product 12 x 12 = 144 is a perfect
square, it can c.isily be fixed in the memory. Plenty of mental arith-
metic, and recurring doses of repetition, will be found most efficacious
for permanence of impression.

Multiplication by One Figure.

1. Preparation. — The multiplication table should be known,
and some mental arithmetic on the table chosen should be given.

2. Method of Teaching.

(a) Show that multiplication is only a shortened form of addition, e.j^. : —
6x4 = 6 + 6-f6 + 6 = 4+4-h4 + 4 + 4-f-4 = 24.

9 X

1 =

9 X

2 =

9 X

.3 =

9 X

4 =

9 X

5 =

9 X

6 =

9 X

z =

9 X

8 =

9 X

9 =

9 X

10 =

9 X

II =

9 X

12 =

108

io8

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

{d) Take an easy example ; e.^:
and set out thus . —

(I)

4000 X 4 = 16000

300 X 4 = 1200

50 X 4 = 200

2x4= 8

4352 X 4. Decompose the multiplicand,

(2) 4000 + 300 + 50 + 2
4

16000 + 1200 + 200 + 8

4352 X 4 = 17408
{c) Then set out the sum on the B. B. in the ordinary form, and explain the
"carrying," which the class will now be able to understand. To make
the transition easier, and quite intelligible, one extra step might be
introduced thus : —

Final Form.
4352
4

16 thous.

17 thous.

12 hun. or
iT + 2H

4 hund.

20 tens or
2H

tens

8 units.
8 units.
8 units.

17408

Multiplication by Two Figures.

The class can multiply by one figure, and the same method
enables them to multiply by numbers up to 12 ; hence they can
multiply by 10. Take as an example 4872 x 67.

1. Analyse the multiplier into 60 + 7. We require 60 times 4872 and 7

times 4872, and if we add the two answers together we shall have 67
times 4872.

2. Exercise with multipliers having a cypher in the units ; e.g: , 20, 30, 40,

etc. The class already know how to multiply by 10, and an analysis
of the product will show that with all such multipliers we multiply by
the tens figure and add a cypher to our answer. The reason is that
20 = 2 X 10, and so on.

3. Set the work on the B. B. as follows : —

4872 X 7 = 34104
4872 X 60 = 292320

4872 X 67 = 326424

4. Then set the work out in the ordinary form, and show that the bracketed

cypher may be omitted without altering the value.

Final Form.
4872 4872

67 67

34104 = 7 X 4872
29232(0) = 60 X 4872

34104
29232

326424

326424 = 67 X 4872
Multiplication by Three Fig^urea.

I. Some preparatory work will be required to explain and accustom the
class to two cyphers in the multiplier in such quantities as 200, 300,

ARITHMETIC. log

400, etc. The class will soon understand why they add two cyphers
in the answer. They can already multiply intelligently by such
quantities as 20, 30, 40, etc. And decomposition will readily show
that 200 = 20 X 10 ; 300 = 30 X 10 ; and in each case both these
factors are within the multiplying capacity of the class. Some
exercises should be given to test the soundness of their knowledge
of this process ; e.g. , 6429 x 200 ; 7835 x 400, etc.

2. Take as an example 6843 ^ 234.

3. Decompose the multiplier into 200 + 30 + 4.

4. Proceed as follows: —

6843 X 200 = 1368600
6843 X 30 = 205290
6843 X 4 = 27372

6843 X 234 = 1601262

5. Combine the three into the ordinary form, putting the value of each product

by its side, and again explaining and demonstrating that the bracketed
cyphers may be omitted without altering the value of the answer.

Final Form.
6843 6843

234 234

27372 = 4 X 6843 27372

20529(0) = 30 X 6843 20529

i3686(o)(o) = 200 X 6843 13686

1601262 = 234 X 6843 1601262

Multiplication by Tactors.— Multiplication by factors is
useful as introducing a little variety into the work, and in the case
of the products of two factors there may be some economy in
time ; but there is rarely any advantage practically in dealing
with factors beyond this limit. There is the advantage of the
extra training in the analysis of numbers, but there is rarely any
economy in dealing with such a quantity as 216 by factors, unless
the pupil is very ready at such analysis. Whilst he is searching
out the factors 6 x 4 x g, he would already have partly made his
calculation by the ordinary method. There is no difficulty in
demonstrating this method intelligently to the class. The. multi-
plier is factored, and the value of each product is written against
it. Take as examples 3456 x 28 and 7891 x 216.

Factor the multipliers 7x4 = 28 19x4x6 = 216.
3456 7891

7 9

24192 = 7 X 3456 71019 = 9 X 7891

4 4

96768 = 28 (4 X 7) X 3456 284076 = 36 (4 X 9) X 7891

1704456 = 216 (6 X 4 X 9) X 7891

lo A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Short Methods.

1. With such numbers as loi, 201. 301, etc., it will be noticed that the

units are unity and there are no tens.

Take 68754 x 201 as an example.
68754 Put down the first two figures (54), and multiply the
201 first figure (4) by 2, adding in the third figure back

(7), and so on.

13819554
This example should be set out on the B, B. , and worked by the ordinary
method, and the two compared. The reason for the process will
then be obvious.

2. With such numbers as 11 10 or 11 14, it will be noticed that each digit

is unity except the first.

Take as examples 56173 x mo and 56173 x 11 14.

(a) 56173 Put down a cypher for the units in the first ex-

II 10 ample. In the second multiply by 4, and then

in each case add in at each multiplication as many

62352030 back figures as there are "ones " in the multiplier ;
e.g., the carried figure is in brackets.

(b) (000)56173 (a) o ; 3 ; 3 + 7 = 10 (o and carry i) ; 3 + 7 + i +

1114 (i) = 12 (2 and carry i) ; 7 + i + 6 + (i) = 15

■ (5 and carry i) ; i + 6 + 5 + (i) = 13 (3 and carry

62576722 i) ; 6 + 5 + (i) = 12 (2 and carry i) ; 5 + (i) = 6.
[d) The second case is a little more difficult, and it will save errors if
the student imagines there to be as many cyphers prefixed to the
multiplicand as there are ones in the multiplier.
(4x3) = (1)2 I (4 X 5) + (3) + 6 + I + 7 = (3)7

(4 X 7) + (i) 4- 3 = (3)2 I (4 X o) + (3) 4- 5 4- 6 4- I = (1)5

(4 X 1)4- (3) 4-74-3 ={1)7 I (4 X o) 4- (1)4-04-5 4- 6 = (1)2

(4 X 6) 4- (i) -f I 4- 7 4- 3 = (3)6 I (4 X o) 4- (i) 4- o -t- o 4- 5 = 6

3. With multipliers composed wholly or mostly of nines, e.g:, 9, 999, 96,

993, etc., it will be noted that the numbers are always near some
multiple of 10. The method is an application of the mathematical
truth that if the same quantity be added and subtracted from a
number you do not alter its value. Take as examples 3475 x
9 ; 999 ; 96. Deal with the multipliers thus : —

9 = 10 - I ; 999 = 1000 - I ; 96 = 100 - 4.
34750 = 10 times 3475 3475000 = 1000 times 3475

3475 = I M 3475 3475 = i m

31275 = g „ 3475 3471525 = 999

347500 = 100 times 3475
13900 = 4 „ „

333600= 96 „
4. With multipliers composed of multiples of 5.

25. Add two cyphers and divide by 4 for ^^ = 25.
125. „ three „ „ 8 „ i-V-^ = 125.

625. „ four „ „ 16 „ J-o^V-^ = 625.

Obviously such examples as these must be left until division is learned.
Some may have to be postponed until fractions and decimals are
known, e.g. :—

ARITHMETIC. ill

12^. Add two cyphers and divide by 8 for -V- = H^ =12^

i6i. „ „ „ 6 „ ^<^ = H^ = i6§

ii-i. „ „ „ 9 „ 11^ = ^^= iri

9-09. .. „ „ II „ 9/^ = V/ = ¥/

SHORT DIVISION. — The preparatory exercises introducing
Short Division will have been thoroughly mastered during the
earlier lessons on addition, notation, etc., with the kindergarten
sticks or picture numbers, or other concrete aids. Each term as
it is introduced should be explained.

I. Its Connection with Multiplication.— The process is the
inverse of multiplication, and depends on the recollection of what
has been learned in multiplication.

Multiplication. Division.

2x8 = 16 16-^2 = 8

3X4= 12 12-^3 = 4

7x6 = 42 42-r7=6

Let the class examine and compare these on the B. B. Lead them to see
that there are—

8 groups of 2 in 16 or 2 groups of 8 in 16.
4 ,, 3 in 12 or 3 ,, 4 in 12.

6 ,, 7 in 42 or 7 ,, 6 in 42.

H. Methods of Expression. — Give these next, both symbolic

and verbal.

Verbal Methods.

(a) Divide 16 by 2.

\b) How many 2*s are there in 16?

\c) Divide 2 into 16.

All these calculations can be made with concrete objects first and then
mentally. Other examples should be given.

m. Its Connection with Subtraction. — The teacher should

now connect division with subtraction, by showing that it is a

shortened form of subtraction. Thus, on the ball frame show

that—

15 -r 5 = 3, or there are 3 groups ot 5 in 15.
15 -5-5-5 = 0; i.e., 3 groups of 5 have been subtracted
from 15 and nothing is left, hence 15
is composed of three fives, or 5 into
15 goes 3. Show this step by step.
15 - 5 = 10 ; first position ; 5 taken away and 10 left.
10 - 5 = 5 ; second position ; 5 taken away and 5 left.
5 - 5 = o ; third position ; another 5 is taken away and o left.
Similar examples should then be worked mentally.

rv. Short Division with a Remainder. —Demonstrate with
^concrete objects.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Division.
II ^ 2 = 5 + I
or 2)11 9-2 = 7! The number of groups of

2 is 5 and the remain-
5 + 1 5-2 = 3| der is i.

i.e., there are 5 groups of 2 in
II and I unit is left.

Give other examples for practice, still working first in the concrete and
then in the abstract, e.g. : —

ig -^ 3 = 6 + I Call attention to the remainder in each case. It

23 -f 4 = 5 + 3 is always less than the divisor. The class will

45 4- 6 = 7 + 3 now see clearly that the divisor is not always con-

14 -r 4 = 3 + 2 tained an even number of times in the dividend.

By this stage the class should have discovered that a number may be
divided up into equal groups exactly, or into equal groups with some
quantity less than one of the groups remaining over. The process
of finding these groups is called division. The quantity contained
in one group is called the divisor. The number to be divided into
■ groups is called the dividend. The number of groups into which
it is divided is called the quotient. What is left over (if any) is
called the remainder.

V. Harder Examples. —Take as an example 5729 -f- 7.

Decompose the dividend 5729 so far as possible into multiples of 7; i.e.,
into quantities containing an equal number of 7's without a remain-
der, thus : —

5729 = 5600 + 70 + 59 then

7)5600 + 70 + 59

800 + 10 + 8 and 3 over.
Which is expressed shortly thus : —
7)5729

818 + 3

The children will now be prepared to receive the rule as generally given,
and to understand the processes which that rule embodies.

VI. Division by Factors. — Take as an example 349 + 42.
Decompose both divisor and dividend.

42 = 6 X 7 ; and 349 = 300 + 48 + 1
Then we have 6)300 + 48 + 1

50+8 and I remainder.
i.e., 6)349

58 + 1 i.e., 58 groups of 6 and i unit as remainder.
Now decompose 58 into 56 + 2
Then 7)56 + 2

8 and 2 remainder, i.e., 7)58

8 + ^

ARITHMETIC. 113

The whole process is then shown as
r6)349

4. 1

7)58 4- 1 = 58 groups of 6 and i unit left.

8 + 2 = 8 groups of 42 and 2 sixes left

For total remainder we have —

2 groups of 6 = 12
and I unit = i

.'. Total remainder = 13
Which is found thus 2x6 + 1
Answer 8 + 13 over.

Rule. — Factor the divisor, and divide the dividend by the first
factor ; then divide its quotient by the next factor. Finally multiply
the last remainder and the first divisor, and add in the other remainder
{if any), and this will give the correct remainder

Divisibility of Numbers. — A number is divisible by —

1. Two, if its units digit is measured by 2. The reason is obvious.

2. Three, if the sum of its digits is measured by 3. This will be explained
under the divisibility for 9, as 3 is a factor of 9, and a number divisible by 9 is
thus divisible by 3.

8. Four, if the units and tens divide by 4, for 100 is divisible by 4.
(. Five, if the units digit is 5 or o, for all products of 5 end in 5 or o.

5. Six, if the number is divisible by 2 and 3, for 2 x 3 = 6.

6. Seven, a test of divisibility is known for 7, but it is best done by trial.

7. Eight, if the number expressed by its 3 lowest digits is measured by 8,
for 1000 is divisible by 8.

8. Mine, if the sum of its digits is measured by 9. Take 57978 as an example.

Decompose 57978 into 50000 + 7000 + goo + 70+8.

Now 50000 = 9 X 5555 + 5^ It will be observed that the

and 7000 = 9 X 777 + 7 I quantity is made up of

and 900 = 9 X 99 + 9 r factors 0/ g + remainders

and 70 = 9 X 7 + 7 I which are the same as the

and 8 = + 8 J digits in the number.

9. Ten, if the number has a cypher in the units. The reason is obvious.

10. Eleven, if the difference between the sums of the digits in alternate places
is o, or is measured by ii. For any number as 6743 is composed of —

3 = + 3*\ It will be observed that the number

40 = 4X XII-4I is composed of factors 0/ 11 +

700 = 7x gxii+7j or- remainders which are the

6000 = 6 X 91 X II - 6J same as the digits of the number.

It will also be noticed that the
signs run alternately
Take another example : 20603.

Sum of the odd places = 3 + 6 + 2 = 11.
„ „ even places = + =0.
Divide each by 11 and you get the same remainder (o). Hence a nuniber
is divided by 11 when the sum of the odd figures and the sum of the
even figures each divided by 11 leaves the same remainder.

114 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Short Methods. — Where practicable, the teacher should teach
such short methods as the following : —

1. To divide by 625. Multiply by i6 in i line and mark off 4 places

16 I

For = T— .

loooo 625

2. To divide by '625. Multiply by 16 and mark off i place.

^ 16 1000

IiONGr DIVISION. — Work an easy example by both methods,

and let the class thus discover the reason why the process is

called long. They will readily observe that there is less work

done mentally by this method, hence its name.

Take as an example 6863 -^ 9.

Short Division. Long Division.

9)6300 + 540 +18 + 5 9)6863(700 + 60 + 2

6300 = 9 X 700

700 +60+2 and 5 over.

563 subtracting

Which is written thus : — 540 = 9 x 60

9)6863

23 subtracting

762 + 5 18 = 9 X 2

5 subtracting
Which is written thus :
The class will see that the decomposition is the 9)6863(762

same in each case, and that the principle ruling the 63

dcco7nposition is to get numbers which are multiples

of the divisor, and that this is done in each case ex- 56

cept the last. The rule could then be given, and 54

other examples worked, gradually increasing in dififi-

culty. The decomposition should be pointed out in 23

each case. It will always be found to be the sub- 18

trahend. The work should then be set out in the

ordinary way. 5

If there is any lack of comprehension, the process might be further illus-
trated as follows : —
6863 There are two points to notice.

= 700 -f 563 remainder (i) Each remainder becomes a

9 new dividend until the last

563 is too small ; i.e., until the

= 60 4- 23 remainder remainder is less than the

9 divisor.

23 (2) That the answer is composed

= 2 -f 5 remainder of the sum of the quotients

9 -f- the last remainder.

COMPOUND RUIiES.

Meaning' of Term. — By this phrase we understand calcu-
lations made in money and the various weights and measures. In
the simple rules we have to deal with quantities formed on om

ARITHMETIC.

regular denomination with a fixed relative value, which is regular
and dependent on the position of the digits expressing those
numbers. Thus in the number in, each figure to the left is ten
times the value of the figure to its right. It can be expressed
thus : —

III = ICO + lO + I

= (lo X id) + (id X i) + I

= (lOO X i) + (lo X i) + I

And this is always the case, although it is not always so obvious ;

e.g., take the number 384, which can be thus decomposed : —

384 = 300 + 80 + 4

= (3 X 100) + (8 X 10) + {4x1)

= (3 X 10 X 10) + (8 X 10 X i) + (4 X i)

= ID times 10 times 3 + 10 times i times 8 + 1 times 4.

But this is not the case in the compound rules. We make calcu-
lations to different bases or denominations ; e.g., pounds, shillings,
pence, farthings ; tons, cwts, etc. The principle is always the
same practically; the " carrying" only differs. It will then be
noticed that there is a combination of the simple and of some-
thing else. This combination is called compound, and the rules dealing
with such combinations compound rules.

Explanation of Signs. — Pounds {£), shillings (s), pence {d)^
should be explained to the class. They are all derived from Latin
words, which were the names of certain coins used by the Romans ;
and in each case the first letter of the Latin name is used as the
symbol. The words might be written on the B.B., but the class
need not yet be asked to learn them. It will be sufficient for the
present to illustrate their origin. The words are Libra, ^olidus,
Denarius, Quadrans (farthings used to be represented by Q.).
Tract the other symbols similarly, as they are wanted (cwts., qrs.,
lbs., etc.). The tables and their symbols should be gradually
introduced, only the most common given, and examples should be
based upon them. It will be necessary to point out that farthings
are now expressed as parts of a penny, thus : —

\ = one-fourth of a penny = i farthing.

\ = one-half of a penny = i halfpenny.

I =■ three. fourths of a penny = 3 farthings.
How Taug^ht. — The compound rules should be taught by
Comparison and Contrast with the Simple Rules. The two may be
connected, and by carefully framed examples the class may be
led to discover the rules for compound addition for themselves.
But first of all the necessary tables should have been learned,

ii6

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

and plenty of mental exercises should be given on them,
following example on B.B. : —

£ s. d.

3 4 2i,

5 9 72

6 8 35

Set the

/•

'' 1

—

2 + O

17 8 10 ,

1+8 I + 10
{a) Make a simple addition of each column, and let the class add them.
{b) The "compound" element comes in in two ways: —

1. In the conversion of the total in each case ; e.g. , 22 pence become i

shilling and 10 pence.

2. In the carrying ; 22 pence do not give 2 and carry 2 as in simple

addition, but the 10 pence are placed under the pence column and
the I shilling is carried to the shillings column.
The difference will thus be seen to be one of denomination. In the simple
the sum is divided by 10 always ; in the compound by 20, 12, or 4, or other
numbers depending on the table? used. The reason for leaving the farthings
blank should be pointed out. I'he principle is the same for compound sub-
traction.

The Compound Rules Criticised.

1. 7 hey are cumbrous and difficult to learn,

2. They are extravagant in time and energy.

3. The Metric System, if adopted in its entirety, would render their exist-

ence unnecessary, and would make the work simpler, swifter, and more
economical.

4. They militate against our trade on the authority of good judges. Foreigfn

nations, in some cases, are showing some reluctance to be bothered
with trade transactions involving a knowledge of our cumbrous system.
Nevertheless, there are senous objections to changing the system, although
it would be better if a national effort were made to overcome these.
The change would be a shock to custom, to habit, and to business. It
would also be very expensive, for the coinage would have to be recast.
There is also the reluctance of adults to be bothered with the learning
of any new system.

COMPOUND SITBTRACTION'.

I. Recapitulate simple subtraction as applied separately to pounds, shillings,
Dence, and farthings, thus : —

£ s. d. f.

1684 384 261 813

1297 19^ 199 724

Give easy examples of compound subtraction, e.g. : —

£ s. d. £ s. d.

18 19 10^ 728 16 8i

4 13 5i 613 8 3j

Such examples as these present no difficulty, and are understood at once.

ARITHMETIC.

117

3. Follow with more difficult examples in which " borrowing ' is necessary.
The result can be obtained —

(a) By the method of decomposition,
(t) By the method of equal additions,
(f) By the method of complementary addition.

By Decomposition.

£ s. d.

1983 14 4|
694 16 8|

£ s. d.

1982 33 I5t

694 16 8|

1288 17 7^

Equal Additions.

£ ^' ^•
1983 14 4J

694 16 8f

Complementary Addition.

£ s. d.

1983 14 4|:

£ 5- ^•
= 1983 34 i6|
= 695 17 9|

1288 17 7^

694 16 8|
1288 17 7^ = the complementary addition made.

4. Introduce examples with missing denominations. The process is the
same as before. Take as an example £ig os. ^d. - £7 8s. ^kd.

£ s. d,

19 O 4
7 8 5i

II II lof

Decomposition. Equal Additions. Compl. Addition.

£ s. d.
18 19 i5t
7 8 5^

11 II io|

£ s- d.
19 20 16J
8 9 6i

II II io|

£ ^. d.
19 o 4

7 8 5j
II II 10^

COMPOUND MUIiTIPIiICATZON.

By One Figure.

1. The class should have previously learned the pence and shillings tables,
and should have received plenty of exercises in mental arithmetic
preparatory to compound multiplication. Assuming this to have
been done, the pupils should then be ready mentally to proceed as
follows : —

Take as an example ;^i8 135. y^d. x 5.

£ s. d.

;Ci8 X 5 = ;^9o = £90 = 90 o o

13J. X 5 = 655. = 350 = 350

7rf. X 5 = 35(/. = o 211 =0 211

f X 5 = 15/'.= 0031=0031

^18 135. 7|rf. X 5

£9^ 85. 2^,

/•

118 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Set out the example on the B.B., and work it by the ordinary method.
The class will readily understand the reason of the rule from the
analysis given in the previous step. They will see
that the principle is the same as in simple multipU-
cation, but that the denominations vary. In simple
multiplication it is always 10 ; in compound it
varies, being 10 for the pounds, because 10 is the
basis ; 20 for the shillings, because 20J. = ;i^i ; 12
for the pence, because \2.d. = is. ; and being 4 for
the farthings, because 4 farthings = \d.

The class thus discovers what the practice is, viz. , to reduce each denomination
to the next higher denomination, e.g. —

farthings to pence (d)
pence to shillings (s)
shillings to pounds (£).

3. Plenty of exercises should be given for practice.
By Two Figures.

Take as an example ^4. i^s. 6^d. x 49.

I. Take the same digits 41362 and multiply as in simple multiplication —
41362 49 decomposed = 40 + 9

372258 = 9 X 41362

165448 = 40 X 41362

2026738 = 49 X 41362

2. Now factor or decompose 49 in other ways and compare them —
49 = 40 + 9 = (4 X 10) + 9

10 X £4 13s. 6^d.

(4 X 10) X £4 135. ^d.
9 X £4 13s. 6^d.

49 X £4 13^- ^d.

3. Lead the class to grasp intelligently the following facts : —

(fl) Factor or decompose the multiplier-

(b) Multiply each factor in its proper position.

(d) Never place a cypher in the farthing product— in the example given it would
convert the ^d. into 50^. if a cypher were added to indicate the absence of
farthings.

(£) The principle is the same both in simple and compound, but the denomina-
tion is different.

Different Methods. — There are several methods of working
multiplication — (i) By factors ; (2) By decomposition ; (3) Without
factors or decomposition ; (4) By special method ; (5) B^ practice.

4 I

s. d.
3 6ix
10

15 5
4

187
42

I 8
I io|

225.^

3 6|

ARITHMETIC.

1 19

Here the first four methods only will be considered. The same
example should be worked by each method on the B.B., the
teacher explaining each step as he introduces it ; but this should
not be done too soon, as it brings obscurity instead of clearness.

By Factors.

6ix
7

9i =
7

(7 X 7).

7 times top line.
229 3 6J = 7 X 7 times top line.

Special Method.

£ s. d.

4 13 6^ X (50 - i).

5
5

233

17
13

I
6i

= 10 times top line.

5x10 times top line.
6^ = I times top line.

229 3

6^ = (50 - I) =

= 49 lines.

rect Method.

£ s. d.

farthings.

pence.

shillings.

pounds.

4 13 6^ X 49

229 3 6i

4)98

294

147

196

24i

12)318

637

229

26-6

20)663

33*3

The method by decomposition has already been demonstrated.

Remarks on the Methods.

1. It is claimed that the direct method ensures greater accuracy, but it is

long and tedious in the setting out. It dispenses with the necessity for
learning the compound tables, but what it may gain m accuracy it un-
doubtedly loses in time.

2. The special method is the best. Special methods usually are when

available. The multiplication of 10 is easier than that of 7, while to
subtract the top line is easier than to multiply by 9 and add.

3. Next to the special method factoring should be used where possible.

4. The method of decomposition is the one usually employed, txicause it

lends itself to all cases.

5. Eventually all methods should be taught,

(a) The mental training is better. It helps to break the unintelligent rule of
thumb work, now rapidly becoming a thing of the past in our schools. It
develops more mental resource by more fully revealing the truths contained,

{b) It cultivates perception, and so gives greater practical skill. The child is
taught to see readily the several methods of solution available.

(d) It adds interest from the variety of treatment,

COMPOUNI> DIVISION.— Compound division is the arith-
metic process by which we find how many times one compound

I20 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

quantity is contained in another, or by which, as nearly as pos-
sible, we divide a given compound quantity into a given number
of equal parts. As in simple division, the process may be either
" short " or " long," but the principle involved is the same in each case,
and is merely an adaptation of the simple rule. The divisor may
be either an abstract quantity as 492 ; or a concrete quantity like
£14. 13s. 7^d. The teacher must deal with abstract divisors first.

Wlien the Divisor is an Abstract Number.
Short Division. — Take as an example £g 18s. ^^d, 4- 4, and
explain the work as follows : —

£ s. d.
4 )9 18 3^
2 9 6f + 2

= ;£'2 + ;^i over, or 20s. over.

£9

5. 18 4- 20 _ __

4 ~ 4

d. 3 + 24 ^ 27

4 4

95. + 25. over, or i^d. over.
6d. + sd. over, or 12/. over.

i + 2f. over.

The teacher should then expect the class to discover the rule, and to get a
thorough grasp of the following truths : —

(a) £9 contain 2 groups of £4 and £1 over, or 20s.

\b) i8s. and the 20s. over give 38s., which contain 9 groups of 45. and 2S. over,

or 24d.
(c) id. and 24^. give 2^cL., which contain 6 groups of 4^. and 3(i. or 12/. over.
\d) \ or 2/, and izf. give 14/., which contain 3 groups (2) of 4, and 2/. over.

The rule might then be stated by the class in some such words as these : —
Find how many times the divisor (4) is contained in the highest de-
nomination {£g) of the dividend, and place the result in the quotient under
that denomination ; then reduce the remainder {£i) to the next lower de-
nomination {shillings), and add them to the shillings in the dividend
(18 + 20); then find how many times the divisor (4) is contained in 38s.,
and place the result in the quotient under the shillings; and proceed
similarly with the remaining terms of the dividend.

Iiong Division. — Long division presents no new principle. As
in simple division, the principle is the same as in short division,
but less work is done mentally, and more is set out on the paper.
The example given above might be worked by long division, and
the two processes compared. The teacher should aim at neat
methods of setting out the work. The second method given here
is neater than the first.

ARITHMETIC.

II)

£ s. d. £

4)9 i8 3i(2
8

5.
9

d.
6i

(2)

£ 5. ^. £ s. d.
4)9 18 3i(2 9 6|
8

I
20

•r
20

4)38(95.
36

2
12

4)27(6rf.
24

27
24

3
4

4)14(1 14

12 12

The Compound Tables. — Their common uses may be briefly
enunciated as follows : —

1. Money. — For buying and selling. Wages, interest, discount, rent, etc.,
are really cases of buying and selling.

2. Avoirdupois. — Coals, bread, potatoes, butter, cheese, and many other
articles of domestic and everyday life are bought by avoirdupois ; in the trades,
tons of iron, stone, minerals, etc., are bought and sold; in the manufactures,
for the measurement of force, of cargoes, loads, and our own weight ; the weight
of the atmosphere, and in an infinity of ways, this table is in constant use.

8. Llqnld. — This will include ale and beer measure and wine measure. But
beyond barrels and gallons it is scarcely necessary to go. Milk, beer, porter,
etc. , are bought by the masses in small quantities — the half pint, the pint —
rarely in quarts, gallons, or barrels. Stout is usually sold by the bottle, wine
by the bottle also ; spirits in small quantities and by the bottle. Non-intoxi-
cating drinks are usually sold in bottles, while water is generally measured by
gallons.

I. Lon^ Measare. — For measuring distance, great or small ; e.j^. , a man
walks so many miles ; a ship steams or sails so many knots ; one runs so many
yards in so many seconds, etc. It is largely used in mathematical geography
and in astronomy, in all sorts of trades, in shopping, in estimating our own
height, etc.

5. Sqaare Measure. — This table is required for boys only. It is used for
surveying land, for the sale of carpets, oil cloths, ordinary cloths, calicoes and
stuffs ; for the wood trades, like the lumber trade, carpentry, and cabinet making ;
for the measurement of surfaces, whether land or water, and for many other
purposes which will be within the experience or knowledge of the children.

6. Cabic Measure — For the estimation of bulk, volumes, gases, solid
bodies, etc.

7. Time Measure.— The clock, watch, and chronometer sufficiently indicate
the use of this table. Time is sometimes a measurement of space to be covered,
as in trains and boats ; of wages to be paid, as with workmen ; of day and
night ; of weeks, months, years, centuries, cycles of time etc. It is also used
in longitude.

122

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

8. Capacity. — Some vegetables and fruits fall under this table. We speak
of a bushel of potatoes, a sieve of apples, a peck of peas, a gallon of apples, etc.

9. Troy and Apothecaries. — These are not common tables, and should only
be taught under special circumstances.

In teaching the compound rules under weights and measures,

the same methods should be adopted as in the case of compound

money rules. The principles will be the same ; the tables with

their varying denominations will furnish the only difference.

REDUCTION— HOW TO TEACH IT.

Truths, Rules, Definitions

Teaching.

I. Truths.

1. Quantities can be and are
expressed in terms of the same
unit.

2. Quantities can be changed
from one denomination to an-
other.

II. Definition.

When we convert or change a
quantity from one denomination
to another, we are said to reduce
it, and the process is called Re-
duction.

III. Descending Reduction.

In these cases the change is
made from a unit of higher value
to one of lower value.

1. Simple Quantities.

Reduce £5 to farthings.

£5
20

100 shillings in ;^5.
12

1200 pence in £$.
4

4800 farthings in £^.

£^ = 4800 farthings.

2. Mixed Quantities.
Quantities are often expressed

as a mixture of several denomi-
nations, e.g.i ;^i8 I2S. 4^d. Here

1. I. Show a sum of money composed of
the same coins, e.g., 5s. in 5 separate shil-
lings ; or IS. in 12 pennies ; or 6d. in 12 half-
pennies. The quantity or sum of money in
each case is expressed in terms of the same
unit.

2. Show a shilling and 12 pennies. We
can speak of it as a shilling or 12 pence.
Show a penny and 4 farthings. We can
speak of it as a penny or 4 farthings. In
each case the detiomination or name is
changed.

II. The class should now give a defini-
tion of reduction. If they fail to do it vary
and increase the examples until they suc-
ceed.

They must notice carefully that the
values of these quantities are not altered
by the reduction. The value remains the
same ; the names only are altered.

III. The great thing in reduction is to see
that the scholars know the value of each
denomination as they reach it. To ensure
this the teacher should always insist on the
denominational name being written against
each step in the reduction.

1. The process might be fully explained
thus : —

First Step.

£1 = 20s.

Then ^^5 = 5 x 205. = 1005.
Second Step.

15. = I2d.

Then 1005. = 100 x i2d. =
1200^.
Third Step.

id. = 4/:

Then 1200^/. = 1200 x 4/. =
4800 farthings.

Educe " descending " thus : —

A shilling is less than £1; a penny is less
than a shilling; a farthing is less than a
penny. Hence the unit becomes less, or
descends in value each step, and the process
is therefore called descending reduction.

2. Reduce £iS 12s. ^^d. to farthings.

ARITHMETIC.
REDUCTION-HOW TO TEACH IT— continued.

123

Truths, Rules, Definitions.

Teaching.

we have four denominations-
pounds, shillings, pence, far-
things.

Reduce

;{"i8 I2S. 4|rf. to farthings.
20

372 shillings in ;^i8 12s. ^^d.
12

4468 pence in ;^i8 12s. 4^^/.
4

17874 farthings in ;^i8 12s. ^^d.
Rales for Mixed Quantities.

1. Reduce the highest denomi-
nation {£) to the next lower
(shillings), and add in the odd
shillings (12).

2. Then reduce this total num-
ber of shillings (372) to the next
lower denomination (pence), and
add in the odd pence (4).

3. Then reduce the total num-
ber of pence (4468) to the next
lower denomination (farthings),
and add in the odd farthings (2).

The total number of farthings
is the answer.
lY. Ascending Redaction.

1. Of simple cases; e.g.: —
Reduce 17874 farthings to

pounds {£).

2. Of mixed cases; e.g.: —
Reduce 2698 hrs. 12 mins. 50

sees, to weeks.

First Form.

(a) £1 = 205.

.-. ^18 = 18 X 20 = 3605.
Add the odd 125.

Total = 3725.
t.e., £18 125. = 3725.

(b) IS. = 12 pence.

.'. 3725. = 372 X 12d. — 4464^.
Add in the odd pence 4

Total = 4468^.
i.e., ;£"i8 125. 4<f., or 3725. and ^d.

= 4468^.
(c) id. = 4 farthings.

.'. 4468^/.= 4468 X 4/.= 17872/.

Add in the odd farthings 2

Total = 17874/".

I.e.,

£18 125. 4^^

= 17874 farths.

Second Form.

The

links between

the respective de-

nominations can then be shown thus : —

£ s.

18 12

4i^.

360 +

12 = 372s
12

4464 -1- 4

= 4468d.
4

17872-^2=17874/.

Third Form.

This will be the ordinary form as shown
opposite.

The teacher should now vary the ex-
amples by working cases in weights and
measures. They will observe that the
principle is the same in all cases, the de-
nominations only varying.

The class should then be able to state the
rules for mixed reduction.

IV. Pursue the same principle as in
descending reducton. The only difference
is one of process— the substitution of divi-
sion for multiplication.

TEDE G-.CM. OR THS H.O.F.— This process is known as find-
ing the Greatest Common Measure or the Highest Common Factor of

124 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

two or more numbers. The children should be familiarised with
both terms, but perhaps the second one is preferable. The con-
nection between the two terms should be shown.

1. Take as an example the H.C.F. of i68 and 280.

168 = 3 X 7 X 8 .'. 3 is a factor of 168
and 7

and 8 „ „
280 = 5 X 7 X 8 .-. 5 „ „ 280
and 7 „ „ „
and 8 „ „ „
Now 7 is found in both .*. it is a common factor of both,
and 8 „ „ „ „ „ „ „ „
.•.7x8 or 56 is a common factor of both.

Then we have 3 factors common to both, 7, 8, and 56. For the quantities
can be expressed —

as 5 x 7 X 8 = 280 or as 5 X 56 = 280

and as 3 X 7 X 8 = i68 or as 3 x 56 = 168.

Of these 3 common factors 56 is the greatest or highest . •. 56 is the H. C. F.
of 168 and 280.

2. Now work the sum by the ordinary process, explaining the rule as you go.

168)280(1

168 The rule is to divide the smaller

number into the larger, and let the

112)168(1 divisor of one step become the

112 dividend of the next, until there is

no remainder. The last divisor

56)112(2 then becomes the H.C.F.

112

3. Then illustrate the truth of the process in the following way, which is
recommended for its simplicity and its graphic nature, the usual methods of
explanation being a little too difficult for some of the children.

56 X 3)56 X 5(1 By this method the pupil sees the

56 X 3 reason of the process, and notices

• that 56 is a common measure of

56 X 2)56 X 3(1 the two numbers; for it is a com-

56 X 2 mon factor of every divisor, divi-

dend, and subtrahend in the opera-

56 X 1)56 X 2(2 tion. It is therefore common to

56 X 2 both, and as it has been shown to

be the greatest factor, it is there-
fore the Highest Common Factor of 168 and 280.

4. The Usual Reason for the Process might be given later on as follows :
Take any two numbers, as 35 and 112, and factor them.

35 = 7 X 5; 112 = 7 X 16.

Then 7 is a common factor of 35 and 112 ;
And 7 is also a factor of their sum, i.e., of 35 + 112, or 147,
And 7 is also a factor of their difference, i.e., of 112 - 35, or jj.
Also 7 is a factor of 6 x 35, or any other multiple of 35.
And 7 is a factor of 8 x 112, or any other multiple of 112.
From a study of these truths the class ought to be able to enunciate the
following propositiQrj i —

ARITHMETIC.

A Common Factor of any two numbers is also a factor of their sutn, of their
difference, and of any multiple of either of them.

The reason for the process will be found to depend on this proposition. For
take the two original numbers i68 and 280.
Any number which measures 280 and 168 also measures their difference, 112.
It is also a measure of the difference of 168 and 112, i.c , 56.
It therefore measures any multiple of 56, as i x 56.
And therefore since 56 is a factor of itself and of 112, it is also a factor of 168 and

280.
Also 56 is the Highest Common Factor of the given numbers, for it has been

shown that any number which is a factor of 168 and 280 is also a. factor of

56, and since 56 is the highest factor of itself, it is the Highest Common Factor

of 168 and 280.

5. As soon as possible the teacher should accustom the class to set their
work out by the short method, as it is much neater and better training.
The work is shown in parallel columns, more of it being done mentally,
the answer to each subtraction only being shown.

168 I 280
56 I 112 56 being the H.C.F

IiEAST COMMON MUI^TIFUS.

I. Prime Factors. — First show the class how to reduce any
given number to its prime factors, as a knowledge of this is
necessary for the proper understanding of the process by which
the L.C.M. is found. Take 7560 as an example.

(a) The class will notice that the factors must 7 7560

1080
360
120

7x3x3x3x2x2x2x5= 7560.

XL A Multiple.— Next lead the class to discover what is
meant by a multiple. Take any three numbers, as 56, 108, and
360, and deal with them thus : —

7 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 56 (a) The class is to note that in

3x2x2x3x3 = 108 each case we have found

2x2x3x3x2x5 = 360 the prime factors of each

number.
{b) That 56 is a multiple of 7, and 2, and 2, and 2.
That 108 is a multiple 013, 2, 2, 3, and 3.
That 360 is a multiple of 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, and 5.
The term multiple should then be compared with the term product, with
which they are already familiar.

ZZL A Common Multiple. — Take the prime factors of the
3 quantities and multiply together all their prime factors, e.g. —

be prime, i.e., they are divisible by no o
other number.

(b) The prime factors consist of all the ^

divisors and the last quotient. 3

the given numt)er, ^.^. — 2

126 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

(7X2X2X2)x(3X2X2X3X3)x(2X2X3X3X2X5) =

2177280.

Then 2177280 is a multiple of 56, for it contains the prime factors of 56
It is also a multiple of 108, for it contains the prime factors of 108.
It is also a multiple of 360, for it contains the prime factors of 360.
It is therefore a multiple common to them all, i.e., it is a common multiple
of them all.

IV. The Ijeast Common Multiple.

(7 X 2 X 2 X 2) is a mM/^i/'/^ of 56, because it contains (7x2x2x2)
the prime factors of 56.

And (7 X 2 X 2 X 2) X (3 X 3 X 3) is a multiple of 108, because it con-
tains (3x2x2x3x3) the prime factors of 108. It is also a multiple
of 56, because it contains (7x2x2x2) the prime factors of 56. It is
therefore a common multiple of 56 and 108.

Again (7 x 2 x 2 x 2) x (3 x 3 x 3) x (5) is a multiple of 360.
because it contains (2x2x3x3x2x5) the prime factors of 360. It
is also a multiple of 108, for it contains (3x2x2x3x3) the prime
factors of 108 ; it is also a multiple of 56, for it contains (7x2x2x2)
the prime factors of 56. It is therefore a common multiple of 360,
108, and 56. It is also the least common multiple, because the least
number possible of prime factors is taken to produce it. Therefore
7X2X2X2X3X3X3X 5 or 7560 is the least common multiple oi ^6,
108, and 360.

How to Find the Ij.G.M. — Take as an example 2, 4, 6, 7,
21, 32.

Now 4 = 2x2; hence 2 is a factor of 4, and 4 is a multiple of 2.
And32 = 4x8; „ 4 „ 32, ,,32 „ 4.

And2i =7x3; „ 7 „ 21, „ 21 „ 7.

From which it is evident that if on-e number contains another number an
exact number of times, the ?iu7nber which contains the other is a multiple
of that other. Hence we may leave out of consideration all those num-
bers which are factors of other numbers.

Now it has been shown that 2 is a factor of 4,
and that 4 „ 32,

and that 7 ,, 21,

.*. the numbers 2, 4, and 7 may at once be struck out, thus : —

'ZXW 6, X, 21, 32

^, 21, 16
And L.C.M. = 2 x 21 x 16 = 672.

Next 2 is a common measure of 6 and 32, hence divide them by 2.
Next 3 is a factor of 21, and can therefore be struck out.
There is no factor beyond unity common to 21 and 16, hence the L.C.M.
will be the product of the divisors into the remaining quotients (21, 16).
i.e., L.C.M. = 2 X 21 X 16 = 672.

Another Method. — Reduce 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, and 32 to their prime
factors.

ARITHMETIC. 127

2=2 7=7

4 = 2x2 21 = 3x7

6 = 2x3 32 = 2x2x2x2x2

Then L.C.M. of 2 is 2.

And ,, 4 and 2 is 2 x 2.

„ ,, 6 and 4 and 2 is 3 x 2 x 2.

,, ,, 7 and 6 and 4 and 2 is 7x3x2x2.

,, ,, 21 and 7 and 6 and 4 and 2 is 7x3x2x2.

„ ,, 32 and 21 and 7 and 6 and 4 and 2is2X2X2X2X

2x7x3 = 672.

The first method is the safer one, and a harder example worked by that
method is here given.

Find L.C.M. of 12, 16, 18, 28, 32, 40, 42.
2 I 12, \% 18, 28, 32, 40, 42 16 is contained in 32.

2 I 6 9, 14, 16, 20, 21

2 I ^, 9, \, 8, 10, 21 3 and 7 are contained in 21.

4, 5, 21

3, 4, 5, 21

L.C.M, = 2x2x2x3x3x4x5x21 = 10080.

VUIjG-AR fractions. — The practice adopted in many
Arithmetics of postponing the teaching of fractions until after the
compound rules have been mastered is hardly to be recommended.
Where a child has mastered the four simple rules there is no
reason why he should not at once proceed to learn frac-
tions, both decimal and vulgar. The work involved is at least as
easy as that involved in the working of the compound rules, and
probably easier. When all those rules usually found intervening
between simple division and fractions are learned, they can then
be treated with more accuracy in practice and more profit to the
mind. There will be no rejecting of fractions of a penny, and less
restriction on the kind t>f example set for solution.

The idea of a fraction is easily given to children, and requires
no elaborate teaching. Two apples might be taken, one of which
might be cut into four equal parts, and the other into four unequal
parts. To the equal parts we give the name of fractions, and to
the unequal parts fragments. The class thus gets a clear idea of
the fundamental attribute of a fraction, viz., equality of division.
There remains the word " vulgar" to explain as meaning "com-
mon," and the class will then understand that they are dealing
with common fractions. The concrete illustrations can be multi-
plied and varied, if necessary.

X28

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers.

1. First explain and demonstrate the meaning of the terms Nume-

rator and Denominator.

2. Then make the significance of a fraction clear by comparing the

sign of division with a fraction; e.g., -r and |. It will be seen
that the dots are mere symbols representing any integers, or that
the Numerator and Denominator take the places of the two dots.

3. Change -V- into a mixed number. The class will understand that

there is a unit which is divided into 5 equal parts, and that 13
such parts are taken to form the fraction. Obviously there is
more than one unit in the fraction.

4. Demonstrate with kindergarten cubes.

ESQ

53;

Show a unit to the class. It contams 5 equal cubes or parts. Take
13 such cubes and build up units from them. There are 2 units
and 3 cubes left ; i.e., 1 units and f of a unit, which may be ex-
pressed as 2 + f» ^"<i ^^ expressed thus— 2f • This is called a
mixed number, because it is a mixture of whole numbers and a
fraction.

The converse method can be similarly demonstrated.

By Diagram. — Draw a rectangle and divide it into 13 equal parts.

A C D E

;

AC = I unit = 5 parts.
CD = I unit = 5 parts.
.'. AD = 2 units = 10 parts.
And DE = f units.
.-. AE = 2f units.
But AE = 13 parts, or ^ units.

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions.

Vulgar Fractions can only be added or subtracted when expressed in terms
of the same denomination. The meaning of this must be demonstrated
to the class. Take following examples :—

Add I and |. Subtract \ from f .

I. Take 12 kindergarten cubes of equal size and build these up into a unit.
Divide these into 3 equal parts, as A, B, and C. Then separate 2 of

inn^rn'rivn ^^^

these parts as in fig. 2. The class will perceive that there are 2 parts
out of 3, or 8 parts out of 12 ;

i.e., there are \ or y%.

ARITHMETIC.

129

2. Now take 12 similar cubes and divide them into 4 equal parts^ as D, E
F, and G. Now separate 3 of these parts, as in fig. 4. The class will

o vnrnrnrn ^iv i ivm

perceive that here 3 parts out of the 4 have been removed, or 9 parts
out of 12 ;

i.e.^ there are J or y\.

3. Addition. — I^t the class count the cubes. There are 8 in one group and

9 in the other ; or

8 + 9 = 17.
i.e., S + I = A + A = H = it + T'lf = I + Tir = ItV

4. Subtraction. — There are 9 cubes in one and 8 cubes in the other group.

Then f - § = t\ - A = tV.

5. Now explain the ordinary arithmetic process. The class will understand

the principle of the work with the teacher's help. If not, repeat with
cubes and supplement with diagram.
Draw a line AB, and divide it into 4 equal parts. Draw AD at right angles
to AB, and divide it into 3 equal parts of the same length as the parts
in AB. Complete the parallelogram.
Then AEFB = § or ^^,
And KGCB = i ox ^%.
Adding we have§ + |,or A + A = H = lA-

Subtracting we have | - §.
i.e., KGCB - AEFB = I - S = A " tV = A-

6. By Money. — Deal with a shilling. Divide

one shilling into 3 groups of ^d. each,
and another shilling into 4 groups of 3^.
each.
Then ^ + ^ = Sd. + gd. = lyd. = is. sd.

Multiplication of Fractions.

I. To Multiply a Vulgar Fraction by an Integer. — Take

I X 4 as an example.

1. By Addition.— f X4 = § + | + | + | = iV> = 2| = 2^.

2. By Diagram.— Take f x 3 as an example.
Use coloured chalks to mark the various divisions.

As the new numerator will contain 15 units, 15 divisions will be required.
The pupil will soon understand this.

D G

A M

E B

D N

Let fig. ABCD = unity, i.e., it will contain 7 divisions.
Then AMN D = f of a unit

and AEFD = 5 x AMND = f of a unit
also 3 X AEFD = 3 x f = AKLD = V-
8. By Money.— Use a guinea as the unit and take the same example.
Then ^ of a guinea = 3 shillings
and ^ „ „ = 5 X 3 = 15 shillings
and 3 X ^ ,, „ = 3 X 15 = 45 shillings

= 2 guineas + 3 shillings = 2f = y.

I30

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

i. Other Methods.

{a) Four apples may be taken and cut into 8 equal parts each, 5 of

these parts being taken in each case..
{b) Small cubes may be used. Eight would form a figure which would

represent unity, and 5 parts could be taken from each.

The work could thus be set on the B.B., taking | x 4 as an example.

4 = 20

4 = 20 eighths

iX4

5 X
and 5 eighths x

i.e., I X 4 = ^1^ = -V- = 2| = 2i.
Or again, 5 eighths x 4 = 20 eighths, or 5 halves
i.e., I X 4 = ^i^ = f = 2^.

N.B. — When possible divide the denominator for choice, since the product
will then be expressed in its lowest terms

Rule Deduced. — To multiply a vulgar fraction by an integer^

either multiply the numerator or divide the denominator by that integer.

n. To Multiply a Vulgar Fraction by a Vulgar Fraction. —

Take f of | as an example.

1. By Diagram. — In constructing the figure let the pupils notice that the
2 denominators must be multiplied together to determine the number of little
squares necessary, i.e. , they represent a rectangle 6 by 4.

Draw AB and divide it into 6 equal parts. Draw AD at right angles to
AB and equal to 4 of these equal parts. Complete the rectangle ABCD.
Through each of the points of division draw lines p>arallel to AB and AD. Then
let ABCD = unity.

ThenAEFB =|ofABCD
and AELK = ^ of AEFB = i of f
and AEGH = f of AEFB = f off.
Then AEGH is the figure required.

But AEGH contains 15 squares,
and the total number of squares is
24, .-. AEGH is -^1 of the whole,
i-e., f X f ^ i|.

2. By Money.

Take | of | of ;£■! as an example.
v#

f of£i = 3x5 = 155.
and I of f = ^ of 15 = 2s. 6d.
and f of f = 5 X 2s. 6d. = 12s. 6d.
i.e., I X f = if = f of £1 = I2S. 6d.

3. Generally.

To find I off, the f must be divided into 4 equal parts, and 3 of these
parts must be taken.

Then each part is j; ^--i, and 3 such parts = ^-^-^ x 3 = f-^-| = ^.

But I of f is the same as f of |, for it means that | must be divided
into 6 parts, and therefore each part is :j^^, and 5 such parts = f^| = i|.

Rule Deduced. — To multiply by a vulgar fraction, multiply by
Us numerator and divide the product by its denominator ; or to multiply

ARITHMETIC.

131

a fraction by a fraction^ multiply the numerators for a new numerator
and the denominators for a new denominator.

in. To Prove Multiplier and Multiplicand can be Inter-
changed "Without Altering the Product. — To show that
multiplicand x multiplier = multiplier x multiplicand.
i.e., § X f = I X §.
Do this by diagram, for the diagrams are useful to show the pupils how the
product of 2 or more fractions may be smaller than either of the factors.
This is otherwise a hard matter for the young mind to grasp, as it is
apparently contrary to all their previous experience.
Let ABCD = the unit
thenAEFB = f of ABCD
andAEGH = 2 of AEFB

= |of^ of ABCD (i.)

H B

D K C

Again let ABCD be the unit
then ADKH = | of ABCD
andAEGH = iJ of ADKH

= jof Jof ABCD (ii.)

Hence comparing (i.) and (ii.) we see that J x ^ = ^ x J, for both
equal ^^ ; i.e., the multiplier and multiplicand can both be interchanged
without altering the product. A E B

ZV. Harder Ibuunples.—

Show that i(i-i) = 3»r by a
diagram (scholarship).

Note.— As the denominator of tli
product is 24 that number of squar<
will be required.

Let ABCD = unity = Ji

then each square = ij*^

Now AEFD -- 8 squares = ^ = |

and AGHE = 6 squares = A; = J

IIMIHI

1 :'■:

1 -ii

132 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Then AEFD - AEHG = GDFH = 2 squares and the 4 of 2 squares
= I square (KHFL) .-. ^ (AEFD - AEHG) = KHFL = ^ ; i.e.,

^ (i - i) = ^v.

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS.

Take as an example f -^ f . Here we have to find a quotient which,
when multiplied by f , shall give the product f .

Then f of this quotient = f
therefore ^ ,, ,, = 4 -f 6 or ^^^

and therefore this quotient = ^^^ x 7 or ^'^^
but i^l = ^xi
therefore | ^ f = | x |.
That is, to divide one fraction by another invert the divisor and mul-
tiply the dividend by the fraction thus inverted ; or multiply the fraction
by the reciprocal of the divisor.

MECHANICAIi AIDS FOR TEACHING FRACTIONS.—

There are several of these upon the market now, and the enter-
prise of different publishers keeps adding to their number. They
are usually advertised with illustrations and explanations, and
where the pupils cannot obtain the real thing, they are advised so
far as it is possible to obtain specimens of these explanatory
advertisements and to paste them in a book kept for that purpose.
Two only are mentioned here as being typical, viz., The Allied-
Colour Fraction Chart, and Cowhanv's Fractions at a Glance.

The Allied-Colour Fraction Chart. — This chart illustrates
the elementary principles of fractions and their relations to other
fractions by means of related colours. The chart consists of
twelve bars printed in various colours, each being distinctly
marked from unity up to twelfths respectively. It is claimed for
it that it is invaluable in teaching mental arithmetic, and that it
is a valuable addition to the various efforts made to represent
graphically to the eye the comparative values of different simple
fractions. By means of this attractive, brightly-coloured chart,
it is asserted that the task is rendered much easier and more
pleasant. The bars are all the same size, and by using similar
colours it is seen that halves, fourths, sixths, eighths, tenths, and
twelfths are relations ; that three-sixths equal half, or five-tenths,
or six-twelfths. In the same way thirds, sixths, ninths, and
twelfths are shown to be akin to each other ; so are fifths and
tenths ; while sevenths and elevenths and unity have colours to
themselves. The chart is 30 x 21^ inches, is well mounted and
varnished, and is distinct enough to be seen across a large
schoolroom. The following is a reduced copy of it : —

ARITHMETIC, 133

I Colour almost black.

I All red.

All yellow.

I Obtained by dividing
J i into halves, .-. col

col-
oured the same — red.

i I i I I I i I i I All blue.

Obtained by divid-
ing each third into

-r- j Y j Y i 1 \ halves, .-. coloured

y I g II g I g I t I the same as i^ on the

right and § on thft
left, i.e., red on left
and yellow on right.'

flflflllflfl^l All

green.

I I I I I II I I ^ I ^ I ^ I Obtained by divid-

= ' ing J mto halves, .-.

coloured the same— r
red.

ilililililililMi j pbtairied by divid-

mg J mto thirds, ,*,

coloured the same as
^ — yellow.

tV I tV I ^^F I iV I tV II tV I tV I A I iS I tV I Obtained by dividing

each ^ mto halves, .*.

coloured same as ^
on the right (blue),
and ion the left (red).

tV I tV I tV I A I iV I A- flV I tV hV I ?T I A J A separate colour.

tVItVIMtV!tVIAIIiVItVIMiVIA

t I Obtained by divid-
-IX_ ' ing each § into
halves, .". coloured
the same as j\ on the
right (yellow), and J
on the left (red).

Cowham's Fractions at a Olanoe. — This is a chart or dia-
gram designed to make the rules of fractions both intelligible and
interesting in a simple and effective manner. Special features are
claimed for it, which are thus enumerated : —

1. A clear notion of the meaning of a *' fraction " is given.

2. By moving the T square along the chart all the rules of fractions can be

explain^.

3. Much valuable knowledge is obtained by simple inspection of the chart

by the scholars.

134

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

4. Full directions for use are printed on each chart.

5. The reasons for the rules of fractions may be illustrated and understood.

The chart can be used for teaching the meaning of numerator and
denominator, the comparison of fractions, the measuring of the common
denominator of any series of fractions, addition, subtraction, multiplica-

9'i

Illllllllllllll

7
8

!■•

tion, division, the difference between a vulgar and a decimal fraction,
and the reduction of a vulgar to a decimal fraction. As a specimen of
the way to use the chart an example in multiplication is chosen, viz..

The edge of the T square lies against |. By looking along the fourth slip
you cannot see what the half of | is, but | is seen to coincide with f ,
and the ^ of f may be read off { j).

CANCEIXING.

In teaching cancelling commence with the recapitulation of
the following rule : If we multiply the numerator and denominator
of a simple fraction by the same number the value of the fraction is
unaltered, e.g. —

6 = f X f = H ; again ^i| = Hl^§ = l^f

The converse of this rule is also true. If we divide the
numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same quantity, suppos-
ing both to be divisible by that quantity, the value of the fraction is
unaltered, e.g. —

il = \ltl = h ^'-^M f is equal to H-

ARITHMETIC.

135

Illustrate by diagram. /V B

ABCD = VVof AEFB,
= ^2^ofAEFB,
= 1 ofAEFB,

Cancelling out the 2's and 3's in the first Q
fraction, and the 2's in the second we have

FRACTTC£.

I. Name.— Make the class understand
the reason for the name. It is so called
because it is the practice of people in
business to make their calculations by this
way rather than by multiplication.

H. Method of Work.— The calcula-
tions are done by the addition of aliquot
parts (i.e., fractional parts). The value of
a unit of one denomination is always
given.

The teacher must explain aliquot (how
many), and drill well in aliquot parts before ^ ^

any attempt is made to deal with examples. At first it will be
best to confine the attention to the aliquot parts of the money
tables, because the children will be more familiar with them.

TTT, Blinds. — There are two kinds, simple and compound.

1. Simple.— The given number is expressed in the same denomination as the
unit whose value is given ; e.^., 220 articles at 15J. 6^(i. each article. The unit
whose value is given is one article, and the number is expressed in articles (220).
The class should name what the unit is, and then decompose the 155. 6^rf. into
loj. + y. +6d. + i^d. Then the

Cost of 220 articles at 105. each = J the cost at ;;^i each = ;^iio o o
55. „ = i „ I05. „ = 55 o o

6d. „ =tV „ 55. „ = 5 10 o

y- „ =A » 6d. „ = 092

155. 6it/.

£170 19 2

The class should notice that aliquot or fractional parts were found for los.,
y., 6d., and J</., and that these results were added together. The work nii^ht
then be set out in the ordinary form and compared step by step with the
explanatory work just done.

;^22o 00 = cost at £1 each.

I05. = i of ;^I =
55. = J of I05. =

6rf. = tS of 5*. =

\d, := t^ of 6rf. =

110

55
5 10
9

=
=
=
2 =

„ lOS.

5*-
„ 6rf.
.. \d.

Ix-jo 19

155. t\d.

136

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

The work should next be compared with multiplication, and shown to be
shorter as a rule. Several examples should be worked on the B. B. by both
methods so as to reveal the fact to the class ; <?.^. , work the following example
on the B.B. by both methods, and the truth will be at once apparent : 456
articles at £2 los. each.

2. Compound. — Here we find the value of a compound quantity when the
value of a unit of one denomination is given ; e.g., rent of 15 ac. 3 ro. 36 po. at
_^9 4s. 6d. per acre.

Now the ahquot parts will be

either 2 ids. = ^ ac.

I rd. = ^ of 2 ids.

20 pis. = I of a rd.

ID pis. = J of 20 pis.

5 pis. = I of 10 pis.

I pi. = i of 5 pis.

From a study of these lead the class to notice that aliquot parts can often
be taken in more ways than one. With experience the pupils learn to select
the most suitable.

When the unit whose value is given is not that of the highest denomination,
it is best to alter either the price or the form of the quantity that it may be so ;
e.g., 2 tons 4 cwts. 3 qrs. 25 lbs. @ 23J. per cwt. This can be done in
several ways : —

(a) By reducing the denomination of the area, i.e., by expressing it as 44 cwts.

3 qrs. 25 lbs. _

(6) By expressing the price as £23 per ton, because if it be 23s. per cwt. it will

be £22 per ton.
(c) And we may find the value at 23s. per ton, and multiply the answer by 20.

Work the example on the B. B. iy all three methods and compare them.

or 2 rds.

= ^ of an ac.

ltd.

= i of 2 rds.

20 pis.

= i^ofard.

8 pis.

= iofard.

8 pis.

= 4 of a rd.

RATIO.

Truths and Examples.

I. Introduction.

II. Develop the Idea of Ratio.

1. By Honey.

(fl) \d. is the half of irf.
\h) 15. is the ^V of £i-
{c) 55. isiof;^!.
{d) id. is yV of IS.

2. By Diagram.

III. Methods of Expressing Ratio.

1. By fractions, as |.

2. By words, as 3 is to 9.

3. By symbols, as 3 : 9 (units),

or as I : 3 (area).

lY. Its Characteristics.

I. It points out the relation be-
tween the numerator and the de-
nominator of a fraction.

Teaching.

1. Question on the aliquot parts in
practice, and upon the relation of the
numerator to the denominator in fractions.

II. 1. Elicit by questioning. By further
questioning obtain that—
(a) id. is twice as much as Jrf.
yb) £1 is twenty times as much as is.
(c) £1 is four times as much as 5s.
{d) IS. is twelve times as much as id.

2. Draw 2 rectangles on the B.B., and
let one be 3 times the area of the other.
Show the difference by measurement before
the class. Divide the rectangles into equal
units. Then the class will observe that B

is 3 times the size of A ; or that A is J the

ARITHMETIC.

RATIO— continued.

137

Truths and Examples.

2. It points out relative sizes or
magnitudes.

3. It only compares quantities of
the same kind.

Y. Definition.

Ratio is the relation which one
quantity bears to another with
respect to magnitude.

YI. Truths of Ratio.

Antecedent _ 3 _ ,
^' Consequent ~ ^ ~ S"

Consequent
^* Antecedent ~ » "" 3-

Antecedent
3- ^^''' = C^i^x^t

Antecedent

4. Consequent = R^tio *

5. Antecedent = Ratio x Conse-
quent.

Teaching.

size of B ; or that g-= J ; or A has 3 squares

• A_ ,
and B 9; i.e., g "" ^•

III. Show the class these methods on
the B.B., and let them test their knowledge
by expressing the ratio in II., i. The class
should notice that ratio is found by dividing
and not subtracting.

IV. I. Illustrate by reference to III., i.

2. Illustrate by reference to the diagrams.

3. Deduce by questioning. Ask class to
compare 3 boots and 4 houses,

7 marbles and 3 elephants, etc.
The third characteristic will then be
obvious to the children.

V. The class should now be prepared to
give the definitions of ratio, which should
be written on the B.B. and learnt. They
should then be asked to give a number of
ratios, expressing them m three different
ways. This will test the accuracy of their
knowledge, e.g.—

§, or 2 is to 3, or 2 : 3

I, or 4 is to 5, or 4:5, etc.

VI. Give the names Antecedent and
Consequent, with their meanings.

Demonstrate these truths on the B.B.
by the application of some of the ratios
given by the class.

Lead the class to discover that when any
two of the three terms are given or known,
the other can always be found.

Recapitulate.

PROPORTION.

Truths and Examples.

Teaching.

I. Introduction.

II. Develop the Idea of Proportion.

5 : 10 15 : 30

7 : 21 3:9

8 : 40 20 : 100

III. Methods of Expression.

5 : 10 as 15 : 30 or ,V = iJ

7 : 21 as 3 : 9 or /,• = f

8 : 40 as 20 : 100 or ^ = ^^^

or 5 : 10 : : 15 : 30.
lY. Definition.

Proportion is an equality of ratios.
V. Truths of Proportion.
1. Technicalities.

The two end terms are called the

I. Recapitulate rapidly the chief points
and truths of the lesson on ratio.

II. Demonstrate the equality of ratios
on the B.B.

j^j = .J I Therefore the ratio of 6j is equal
J^ = ^ I to the ratio of »g ; i.e., there is
an eauality of ratios. Illustrate
and confirm with the other examples.

III. Show this upon the B.B., and call
attention to the final form.

The teacher should then give a number
of equal ratios, and the class should express
them in the form of a proportion. The
class should afterwards supply their own
examples.

iV. The pupils should now be able to
give this definition. If they fail the work
must be repeated with further explanation.

V. I. First give the technicalities and

I3«

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

VROPORTION— continued.

Truths and Examples.

extremes, and the two inner terms
the means ; e.g. : —
Extreme : Mean : Mean : Extreme,
or 5 : lo : : 15 : 30.

2. Truths.

product of means
(a) Either extreme - other extreme. *
_ product of extremes
other mean

(6) Either mean —

3. Illustrations.

10 X 15

(«) 5 = ^^~

5 X 30

ro X 15
30=—^

5 X 30

15 =

{b) 10 =

VI. Applications of its Truths to the
Rule of Three.

Problem : Given any 3 of the 4
terms of a proportion, to find the
4th.
Example.

If 4 books cost 24s. what will 100

books cost at the same price ?

^ , 24 X 100

Reqd. cost = = 600 sh.

The complete proportion be-
comes —
4 books : 100 books : : 24s. : 6oos.

Other Examples.

A few other examples should be
written here, some of which should
be given by the teacher, and some
by the class.

Teaching.

illustrate as opposite on the B.B. Elicit
by questions that the terms are named from
their position.

2 and 3. These truths should not be told,
but discovered by the use of the B.B. First
the proportion should be again stated as in
V. I. on the B.B. Then the illustrations
should be taken seriatim, and the result
should come as a surprise to the class ; e.g. :

10 (mean) X 15 (mean)
5 (extreme) = 30 (extreme) = 5-

The other cases should be dealt with on
the B.B. in a similar way. The figures
could then be rubbed out, the terms left
standing, and the truths will stand revealed
to the class, who should now be asked to
reproduce them with illustrations on their
slates from memory.

VI. The class will be able to do this from
what they know of the truths of proportion.

Point out that 3 terms are given, and that
it is required to find the 4th. Ask the class
to express the ratios.

4 books 24s.

First ratio j"— b^;^ = Req. No. of^Sh.
second ratio. Or 4 books : 100 books : :
24s. : Req. No. of S.

Apply V. 2, and we get —

produrt of means

Either extreme = other extreme '

then req. No. of s. (one extreme) =

100 (mean) x 24 (mean)

4 (other extreme)

i.e., req. No. of s.
4 books

100 X 24

= 600S.

100 books

600S.

or 4 : 100 : : 24 : 600. •

The "Unitary Method of Proportion. — The process here is
much more simple and requires no explanation of ratio or propor-
tion. We seek to find- what is wanted from what is given by
passing through a unit common to both; e.g., If 6 books cost 12s.,
what will 9 books cost at the same price ?

Given that 6 books cost 12s.,

Then i book {common unit) costs ^-j^ = 25.,

.-. 9 books cost 9 X 2 = 18.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Methods.
1. The Proportion Method.

{a) It takes up and expands an Arithmetic principle which the children have
already recognised in Practice and Fractions.

ARITHMETIC. 139

(d) It offers a fine exercise for training the reasoning faculty.

I. By demanding that they shall see the relationship existing between terms

when differently grouped.
a. By requiring them to formulate the truths expressed ; e.g., the product of the
extremes is equal to the product of the means.
{c) It leads to guessing, and has a tendency to become purely mechanical, the
truths embodied in it either being forgotten, or never properly understood.
{(/) It requires more time than the other method.
2. The Unitary Method.

(a) Its great recommendation is its simplicity of principle.
(d) It dispenses with the necessity for distinguishing between Simple and
Compound Proportion.

Compound Proportion, are often misstated.

(d) There is more intelligence accompanying its work, for its truths are

easily grasped and remembered ; and it does not so readily become
mechanical.

(e) Generally it is more expeditious.

(/) It is usually the method preferred by examiners.

DECIMALS.

1. Notation and Numeration. — In teaching the notation of
decimals, comparison should be made with the ordinary system of
notation. So far as the whole numbers are concerned, the
systems will be seen to be alike ; the difference presents itself
with the introduction of the decimal fractions.

In the ordinary system of notation any figure in the units place retains its
intrinsic value, whilst every figure to the left of the units place acquires a local
value ; i.e., a value dependent on its position. This value becomes ien times
greater for every place it is moved to the left. Our ordinary system of notation
IS thus seen to have 10 for its basis. The teacher's work now is to show that
the value of every digit in a system of decimal fractions becomes ten titnes less
for every place it is moved to the right. This should be illustrated on the
B.B. by suitable examples, and the type of example lending itself most readily
to a lucid explanation is one composed entirely of the same digits; e.g.,
4444444 4-

Decomposing this number we have —

4000 + 400 + 40 + 4 • 4 + '04 + '004 + '0004.

000 = 4 X 1000

•4 = 4 X tV = tV

400 = 4 X 100

•04 = 4 X T^D = ^U

40 = 4 X ID

•004 = 4 X T^o = TnjW

4 = 4x1

•0004 = 4 X TTjJ^^ = xTT^^^

The teacher should now tell the class the respective names of the two

portions constituting the decimal quantity. From this illustration it will

Integral Decimal ^^ ^^^" ^^^ '^^ numbers to the left of the

itxfi • ±±A decimal point are called integral (whole

4444 4444 numbers), and the part to the right of the

point decimal (fractions). The class should now be able to see that

a decimal fraction is one whose unexpressed denominator is either ten or

some power of ten. Plenty of other examples should be given.

2. Z>eoimals, Finite and Infinite.

(a) To Convert a Decimal to a Vulgar Fraction.— Before dealing with
finite or infinite, or as they are sometimes called terminating and non-terminat-
ing decimals, it will be necessary to show the class how to convert a decimal
to a vulgar fraction.

r40: A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Take 69-426 as an example.
69*426

After this and other examples have been worked and explained upon the
B.B., the class might then be asked to state the rule : —

Write down the given number, omitting the decimal point, for the
numerator, and for the denominator write unity {1) followed by as many
cyphers as there are decimal places in the given number. If there be no
integral portion apply the rule to the decimal portion only, and reduce to
its lowest terms ; e.^. —

Reduce '0685 to a vulgar fraction.

•0685 = xll7 + ToViT + T^UtT = X%%U = -sV/tT-

The reverse process should then be shown, i.e., to convert a vulgar fraction
to a decimal, and the two processes should be compared.

{3) Terminating and Non-terminating Decimals.— Work a series of
examples on the B.B. , and let the class discover this for themselves. They will
then find that it is not possible to express every vulgar fraction as a decimal.
They will discover that a vulgar fraction must have 10 or some power or factor
of 10 for its denominator before it can be exactly expressed by a decimal.
Take as examples ■^, j\, f, ^f, |, ■^%.
TTJ = -4 TT = -272727 ...

il = f = -6 ^ = -571428571428 . . .

t\ = -3125 f = -88888 . . .

Those to the left terminate ; those to the right do not. Now ask the class
to examine the denominators of all these fractions, by reducing them to their
prime factors.

ID = 5x2 II is a prime number

5 = 5x1 7 m..

16 = 2x2x2x2 9 = 3x3

It will be observed that the denominators of all the fractions which give
terminating decimals contain the factors 2 or 5 or both, and these are the
factors of 10. The denominators of the fractions which give non-terminating
decimals contain neither 2 nor 5 as factors ; hence the rule : —

If the denominator of the given vulgar fraction in its lowest terms be
a multiple of the factors 2 or 5 only, the fraction can be expressed as an
exact or terminating decimal ; otherwise it cannot.

But though a given vulgar fraction may not be exactly expressed as a
decimal, nevertheless we can express it to any degree of accuracy we please
short of absolute accuracy. The accuracy may be so great as to be sufficient
for all practical purposes; i.e., it may be practically accurate, although
theoretically inaccurate.

Take f as an example.
I is greater than -8 but less than -g ; error less than ^V-
•88 „ -9; „ A-

.. '888 „ -9; ,, -2^^.

.. '8888 ,, -9; ,, ^1-.

The error is thus seen to grow less and less, and by taking a proper number
of figures in the decimal part, f can be thu.-^ represented to any required degree
of accuracy.

To Determine the Iiimit of the Number of Repeating^
Figures in a Non-terminating Decimal. — Take f as an example
to illustrate this.

ARITHMETIC.

141

The divisor is 7, and it will be observed that the number of figures
recurring is 6, which is the limit, or greatest number possible for this

divisor, for since every remainder must be
Reduce ^ to a decimal less than the divisor the only possible

7 )600000 remainders are 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, i, ando. But

•857142 the cypher cannot be a remainder, else

the decimal would not recur. There are,
therefore, only 6 remainders possible, and, therefore, there cannot be
more than 6 figures— there may be less — in the recurring period.

The teacher should give other examples to show that the recurring
figures are not necessarily always one less in number than the divisor,
e.g., f = -8. Here the recurring figure is one only; with y\, which
= "2% the recurring figures are two ; but in any case they can never he
more than one less than the divisor.

To Change a Pure Circulating Decimal into a Vulgar
Fraction. — The method is as follows : —

Change -701 to a vulgar fraction.

1. '701 X 1000 = 701 -701 = 701 + '701.

Why multiply by 1000? Because there are 3 decimal places, and the object is
to convert them into whole numbers (integers). Let the class note that
1000 gives 3 cyphers for 3 decimal places,
loooo ,, 4 ,, II 4 II II and so on.

2. Now take 701 from each side and we get

•701 X 999 = 701.

3. Next divide each side by 999, and we then get 701 =$5^.

4. The class should then state the rule : —

The numerator of the vulgar fraction is the number formed by the
digits in the recurring period ; the denominator is the number formed by
repeating the digit 9 as many times as there are digits in the circulating
period.

To Convert an Impure Circulator into a Vulgar Fraction.

Convert -45906 into a vulgar fraction.
•45906 X looooo = 45906906906, etc.
•45906 X 100 = 45^906906, etc.
•45906 X 99900 = 45861.
•45906 = 45861 .

99900
There are four steps. . .

1. Multiply by looooo to convert '45906 into whole numbers.

2. Multiply 45906 by 100 to convert the non-recurrers into whole numbers.

3. Then subtract both sides.

4. Then divide each side by 99900.

The pupils should then be able to give the rule : —

The numerator is formed by subtracting the non-recurrers from the
whole quantity ; the denominator is formed by writing gfor every figure
that recurs and a cypher for every figure that docs not recur.

The IKmple Rules. — It is not anticipated that the young

teacher will now find any difficulty in explaining intelligently the

simple rules of decimals to a class, especially in the case of addi-

142 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

tion and subtraction. Multiplication should be handled with
equal ease, and in all three cases the proofs should be given by
vulgar fractions. There are now a number of good arithmetics in
the market, and any one of these will probably give all the assist-
ance that may be required for the efficient teaching of these
rules. A little more difficulty may be felt in the case of division ;
but even here the rule, however stated, always depends upon the
same principle as that of ordinary simple division. The only
difficulty is in fixing the position of the decimal point in the
quotient ; but whatever method of working is adopted, the teacher
should make the class thoroughly grasp the fact that there must
always be as many decimal places in the divisor and quotient together
as there are in the dividend alone.

Applications of Proportion. — Many of the higher rules of
arithmetic are really applications of proportion, and this is especi-
ally true of interest, percentages, averages, and stocks. A number
of technical terms are of necessity introduced ; but the principle of
the work is more or less the same in all of them. These techni-
calities must be carefully introduced, well explained, and freely
illustrated by commercial examples. No attempts should be made
to "draw" or "educe" these terms. They are matters for in-
struction, rather than training. The solving of the examples
themselves will afford plenty of opportunity for the educative side
of the work, and the teacher will find his best results there. There
is little difficulty in giving clear conceptions of such terms as
interest, discount, amount, principal, rate {i.e., rate per cent, per
annum, unless otherwise stated), commission, brokerage, etc. ; but
there is always more difficulty in dealing with stocks, and the
teacher must be prepared to devote plenty of time to this subject.
This difficulty arises partly from the magnitude, or breadth rather,
of the applications of stocks. The stock may be government
stock, as distinct from commercial or business stock. To solve
all cases dealing with government stock, a full and proper know-
ledge of bonds, the national debt, the public funds, annuities,
loans, consols and such jargon as the 3 per cents, the 4 per
cents, etc., is required. Then the capital of public com-
panies like our great banks, chartered companies, railways, gas,
mines, shipping, etc., which issue stock or raise their funds
by the sale of stock requires some explanation. These are
generally offered in shares, and are generally bought and sold
through the agency of stockbrokers, who require a commission
which they call brokerage. The stock may be at par, at a dis-

ARITHMETIC.

143

count, or at a premium, and so on. It will thus be seen that the
child has to practically acquire a special vocabulary to understand
the very terms in which his arithmetic problems are couched,
before he can deal with the difficulties of the actual problems
themselves. These names are often mere abstractions to the
children for a time, and in the early stages it is advisable to sub-
stitute the names of concrete objects where possible to aid them
to a clear conception of the process.

SQUARE ROOT. '

Truths and Examples.

I. Explanation of Term.

{Numbers, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10.
Squares, i, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
64, 81, 100.
{Numbers, i, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
64, 81, 100.
Square roots, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10.

A. Definitions and Trutlis.

1. The Square of a number is the
product of the number multiplied
by itself.

2. The Square Root of a given
number is a number which, multi-
plied by itself, will produce the
required number,

3. The square of the square root
of a number is the number itself.

4. A number ending with 2, 3, 7,
or 8 cannot be the square of any
number.

5. The square of any number
consists of twice as many figures,
or twice as many, less one, as there
are in the given number, e.g. —

20'^ = 20 X 20 = 400
8i2 = 81 X 81 = 6561
300* = 300 X 300 = 90000
910* = gio X 910 = 828100.

B. The Symbol of Squ&^e Root —
s/o' J'-

Examples:

n/_4 = 2; ^9_=3;
Vi6 = 4; ^25 = 5.

Teaching.

I. Place the integers from i to 10 on the
B.B. Let the class multiply each number
by itself, and place the products under the
given numbers. The products are called
squares.

Now illustrate by diagrams. For this
purpose take the integers 3 and 4 and con-
struct squares. Let the class count the

(

3 £

— 1
3

)

number of small squares in each of the
larger ones. They will notice that—
(0 3 X 3 = 9; 4 X 4 = 16.

(2) AB X AC = ABDC (the square).

(3) That 9 is the square of 3.

(4) That 3 is the square root of 9.

Deal in same way with the square EFGH.

A. I. The class should now work the ex-
amples given opposite, and others suggested
by the teacher.

2. They should then be able to give the
definition of square and square root.

3. Thev should have observed the truth
contained in the third statement.

4. They should next have their attention
called to the unit figure of each of the
numbers called squares. They are i, 4, 9,
6, 5, o. The integers missing are 2, 3, 7,
and 8 ; hence the truth of statement 4.

5. (a) Call attention to the numbers and
squares on the B.B. The class discovers
that the square of a number of one figure
consists of either one figure or two figures.

(b) Affix a cypher to the integer 2 : it be-
comes 20. Let class square 20; it equals
400. Then they should observe from this
and other examples that if one cypher (o)
is affixed to the number, two (00) must be

144

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.
SQUARE B.OOT— continued.

Truths and Examples.

e.g.—

I- J = 1/ = { )i
2. ^4= ^4 = (4)*-
3- («) J (256 - 16 + 64) or
(b) V256 - 16 + 64.

II. Worked Examples.

Find the square root of 529, 6241.

III. Reasons for Process.

7529 = 2
529 =

20+3

500 + 29
400 + 120 + 9
500 + 29 (20 + 3
400

100 + 29 \ or
120 + 9 J
120 + 9

20 + 3
20 + 3

20 X 3 + 3''=
o2 + 20 X 3

202 +

= 4<
= 5^

2 X 20 X 3 + 3-

30 + 120 + 9
50 + 29.

3. Proposition.

If from the square of a number
we subtract the square of one part of
it, the remainder is a product of two
factors : one factor is twice that part
increased by the other part, and the
other factor is the other part.

Teaching.

affixed to the square (400). Hence the
square of a number of 2 figures consists oj
3 or ^fi'f^nres.

(c) Similarly 2 cyphers (00) affixed to the
number gives 4 cyphers (0000) to its square.
Let the class verijy this by trial. Hence the
square of a number of ^jigures consists of
either 5 or 6 figures. The class could now
deduce the general truth of 5.

B. I. Tell the class that the root of _a
number is denoted by the symbol ^
placed before it, the nature of the root being
explained by the placing of a small figure
in the top part of the angle. The real sign
will be ^ , but it is customary to omit
the index figure.

2. Show that it may also be represented
by a fractional index ; e.g. : —

J 4 = 4'

3. Tell the class that compound quanti-
ties—

(a)_May be represented by the root sign
( ^ ) placed before a bracket containing
the quantities; or

(b) By a vinculum covering the quantities.

II. The system of pointing and the
method of working should now be ex-
plained on the B.B. The examples oppo-
site, or similar ones, might be used for this
purpose.

III. I. Decompose 529 on the B.B. : —
(a) Into 500 + 29 ; (b) Into 400 + 120 + 9.
Set the work out on the B.B. as in i,

and the class will see the elements of which
the process is composed.

2. Present the same truths conversely as
in 2. Decompose 23 into (20 + 3), and
multiply the decomposed number by itself
The product is seen to be equal to 529.

3. Lead the class to see that the extrac-
tion of the square root depends upon the
truth contained in proposition 3. Demon-
strate as follows on the B.B. : —

(23)2 = (20 + 3) (20 + 3).

= (20 X 20) + (20 X 3) +

(3 X 20) + (3 X 3).
= 20* + 2 X 20 X 3 + 3^.

= 202 + (2 X 20 + 3) X 3.

.-. (23)2 - (20)2 = (2 X 20 + 3) X 3.
i.e., (23)2 = 529 V
and (20)- = 400/

Subtracting= 129 = (2 x 20 + 3) x 3.
Examples. Plenty of carefully graded
examples should now be given, commencing
with easy numbers like 256. Every example
will probably reveal some weakness or mis-
apprehension somewhere in the class, and
this must be met by further explanation.
The cypher should be introduced when
cypherless numbers are successfullyhandled.

ARITHMETIC, 145

MENTAIj aiuthiviettc.

I. Objects of Mental Arithmetic.

1. To ensure rapidity and accuracy in arithmetic.

2. To develop dexterity in the manipulation of quantities.

3. To train the mind for the arithmetic of the next standard.

4. To recapitulate rapidly and frequently the work of the
lower standards.

5. To form the habit of mental activity.

H. How to obtain these Objects.

1. Do not confine your questions to "scores" and "dozens,"
but give plenty of " tots " embracing practice in all the ordinary
processes of arithmetic.

2. Let your examples be varied.

3. Let them deal both with the abstract and the concrete.

4. Give exercises in the fractional parts of money, and the
commonest weights and measures.

5. Let the questions be practical. The dimensions of the
schoolroom, the playground, and the desks. The weights of a few
familiar objects should be accurately known and recorded, and
occasionally referred to as standards of measurement.

m. Tots. — A footnote to Schedule L in the Code requires the
inspector to demand of scholars of the Fourth Standard and
upwards the addition of columns of pounds, shillings, and pence
within a specified time, in order to show readiness and accuracy.
*' Occasionally a long column of figures may be written in the
sight of the scholars, and they may be required to name in quick
succession the results of each addition as the inspector or teacher
points to the several figures in any order. Oral practice should
be given in all the ordinary processes of arithmetic, and it should
be so varied as to furnish as many different forms of exercise as
possible." It will thus be seen that a great deal of importance is
attached to practice in such calculations as are now known as
" tots" and for this purpose, where possible, it is best to use a tot
frame. Where the teacher has to write every " tot," a large
amount of time is unnecessarily expended ; and so far as such
things lie in the teacher's power, efforts should be made to avoid
this. Nor should these exercises be postponed till the Fourth
Standard ; they should begin in the First, and might find a place
in the higher classes of the infant school. The nature of the

146

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

" tot" can DC suited to the capacity and requirements of the chil-
dren. Tot cards are published and may be used, but the tot
frame is undoubtedly the best aid for this work.

1. Arnold's ReYolving Tots. — This
piece of apparatus consists of a re-
volving sheet of figures, which can
be covered so far as is desired by
a revolving curtain. Both sheet and
curtain are worked by screws at the
top right-hand corner of the frame.
It is obvious that an immense variety
of e.xaniples can be supplied by the
proper regulation of the sheet and
curtain, and that that ready practice
desired can easily be obtained. The
immense variety of combinations
possible prevents the tots ever be-
coming " known," so that every fresh
adjustment will always demand a
fresh calculation.

2. The Oxford Tot Frame.— This
tot frame is also specially suited to
the requirements of the new Code.
It consists of 16 reversible tablets,
with figures on either side. The
tablets are reversed very easily and
very quickly, so that an infinite variety
of examples can be supplied. The
figures are painted white, and are
I J inches in size, so that it is suitable
for work with large classes. It is
specially designed to rest on any
easel, and it contains a very good
feature in its B. B. space at the bottom
for the answer.

Provision is also made at the side
for the keeping of a pointer, so that
it is always ready to hand. A simpler
frame is provided for younger classes,
and a double frame for classes work-
ing in two sections. Answers may
be obtained from the firm selling
these for this frame, but not for the
simpler one. The tots can be
lengthened or shortened by simply
pointing to their limit, 4, 5, 6, or 7
rows, as the case may be, and variety
is obtained by reversing one or more
tablets.

IV. Some Special Rules for Mental Arithmetic.

1. So much a Day, how much a Year.

(a) Learn following table : —

id. per day = ;£"i 10 5 per year,
frf. „ = I 2 9|
id. „ = o 15 2^ ,,
\d. ,,=077^

ARITHMETIC. 147

(d) Multiply the shillings and pence per day by 5, add 7s. j^d. for every
farthing, and then for every penny reckon £i}i ; e.g., 6s. ^^i. a day, how much
a year

£ s. d.

1. Add 155. 2}^d. for the ^d. per day = o 15 2^

2. Multiply 65. 4^. by 5 = i 11 8

3. Add £1^ for every penny (76^.) =114 o o

£116 6 lo^

2. To reduce cwts. qrs. lbs. to lbs. — Rule. To the number represented by
the cwts. and lbs. add 12 times the number of cwts., and add 28 for every
quarter, e.g. : —

Reduce 32 cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lbs. to lbs.

(a) Number represented by cwts. and lbs. = 3224

(b) Add 12 times the number of cwts (12 x 32) = 384
{c) Add 2 X 28 for 2 qrs. = 56

3664 lbs.

3. Interest at 3 per cent., e.g., £6^g ly. od. at 5 per cent.

(a) Call the pounds shillings and divide by 20 = ;^34 g o
\b) 15s. is \ of £1 .'. call it J of a shilling = o o g

£34 9 9

4. Interest at 2j per cent.— Proceed as for 5 per cent., and divide your
answer by 2

B. Interest at ftj per cent., e.g., ^^960 i6s. Sd. at 6^ per cent.

Divide the amount by 16, because 6^ is ^ of 100.

£960 16 8 ■

^ =;C6o I o^.

Rates which are easy factors of 100 can be similarly dealt with.

6. Interest for an Aliquot Part of a Year.— This will include such quan-
tities as 73 days, 219 days, etc. Note that the days are generally some easy
factor of 365, Proceed as in 5 per cent, or 4 per cent., or the stated per-
centage, and then divide by the required fraction ; e.g. : —

;^348 155, od. for 73 days at 5 per cent,
(fl) 348 shillings - - - = £17 8 o
(b) 151. = £1 ; call it jj. - = 009

{d) Divide by i (i/^) --=£399

7. To find Interest at any Rate, e.g., £mS ^y. od. at 4 per cent.
Multiply by double the given rate, point off the last figure in the ^'s, and call
them shillings {i.e., all except the last figure).

(«) ^345 15*. cxf. X 8 . . . . = 2^66 o o

j6) Point oflF last figure of 2766 = 2765. . =: 'x, 16 o

ic) The 6 pomted off is j%s., which equals yid.
(d) Adding {b), {c) we get £13 16s. od. + -j^d. = £13 165. y\d.

148 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

8. To find the Mean Proportional, e.g. , as 3 : :\; : : j; : 12. I^ule. Mul-
tiply extremes and take the square root.

3 X 12 = 36
n/36 = 6
Hence 3 : 6 : : 6 : 12.
Again. Find the mean proportional of 363 and 243.
(a) Factor the numbers 3 x 121 and 3 x 81.
{b) Rearrange in squares 121 x 81 x g and multiply.
{c) Take square roots 11x9x3.
\d) Multiply for product 297.
Hence 363 : 297 : : 297 : 343.

9. Practice.

{a) Aliquot Parts.

1. 4864 articles at 125. 6d. = £4864 x f (125. 6d. being | of £1).

4864 X 10
For convenience multiply by 2 = -^ = ;;^3040.

i.e., Add a cypher and divide by 16.

2. For 2s. ^\d., e.g., 264 articles at 25. jhd.

25. j\d. — 25. bd. + ijrf.
25. 6d = £^ and i\d. =^ J5.
Hence J x £264 = ;£"33 05. od.
And I x 2645. == ;^ I 135. od.

£34 135. od.

3. For g^d. Divide the amount or number by 16, and call your
answer shillings, then multiply by 13 ; e.g., 562 articles at g^d.
Divide by 16 = 562 -f 16 = 35^5. — 355. i^d.
And 355. i^d. X 13 = 4565. j^d. .- ;^22 165. y^d.
Reason for process — gf = ^^- = -\^^ =: --jr"^.

{d) To Multiply by such Amounts as give easy Numerators or Denomi-
nators.

Take £^3 65. Sd. x 562 as an examole.
£33 65. Sd. = 33^ = J-t^.
••• £33 65. Sd. X 562 = ^^ X 562 = ^^§^ = ;Ci8733 65. Sd.

10. Decimals. — To reduce one amount to the decimal of another, e.g.,
Reduce 6s. gd. to the decimal of £4. ly. gd.

(a) Find the factors of the smaller sum 65. gd. = Sid. =9x9.

(b) Divide the given sum by either of the factors (9 x 9) which is
contained in it. (In this case both are.)

Then £4 135. gd. -j- 9 = 105. ^d.

It will be observed that a common factor (9) is cancelled out of each quan-
tity, and the remaining factors 9 and los. $d. constitute the fraction which is
reduced to a decimal.

11. To Square Numbers.

(a) To Square a Special Number. - The numbers are just below or just
above an exact number of hundreds, like 495 or 906.

ARITHMETIC. 2^

(495)' = (495 + 5) (495 - 5) + 5'-

= (500 X 490) + 25 = 245025.

To those who know Algebra the reason for the rule is easily understood.
For jr2 - v2 = {x + y){x - y),

Then 'x"^ = {x ^- y) [x - y) + y^.
Note that such a number is taken as will just raise or reduce the given
number to an exact number of hundreds ; e.^., 5 is added and subtracted in the
first case ; whilst 6 is subtracted and added in the second case.

{f>) Having given a Number to find the Square of the next Highest
Number.— This may be otherwise expressed as finding the square of a number
just above or just below an exact number of tens ; e.g., 41.
Decomposing 41 = (40 + i),

And (41)2 = {40 + i)2 = (40)2 + 2.40.1 + 12
= i6oo X 80 + I
= 1681
Reason for rule {x ■\- i)"^ = x^ + 2x ■¥ 1
And {x - i)2 = 4-2 - 2;r + I

(cr) To Square any Number mentally, say 36.

1. Add the unit figure to the whole number ; 36 + 6 «= 42.

2. Multiply the 42 by the tens figure (3) ; 42 x 3 = 126.

3. Add a cypher to the right {i.e., multiply by 10) ; 1260.

4. Add the units figure squared (6-) ; 1260 + 36 = 1296.

12. To find True Discount.

(a) At 5 % divide by 21
26

(6) » 4 %
{c) „ 10%
{d) „ 2^%

{d) „ 2^% „ 41

for ip

= 21.

= 26.

102i
2i

= II.

= 41.

lOi

= lOI,

and

so on.

Examples.

1. ;(^35o 7s. io\d. due in i year at 5%.

Then ^350 -js. lo^d. + 21 = £16 135. S^rf.

2. ;^433 145. 3^. due in i year at 4%.

Then £433 145. ^d. + 26 = £16 135. y^d.

If for a certain Number of Years.— To find the fraction multiply the time
(in years) by the rate. This gives the numerator. For a denominator add the
numerator to 100.

Find True Discount on ^^4120 8j. -jd. due 9 months hence at 4 per cent.
Rate = 1x4 = 3.
Then the fraction is y^,.
And ;^4i2o 85. "jd. X ygj = ;^40 05. irf. x 3 = £i2oos. 3c/.

V. T3rpical Problems for each Standard.

Standard I.

1. How many must he added to 42 to make 72 ?

2. A man is 6 feet high. How many inches is that ?

3- A man spends 6s. in penny stamps. How many docs he get?

4. Apples are 6 a penny. How many for a shilling ?

5. Of what number is 36 the half?

6. Three 24's are the same as how many 8's ?

150 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Standard II.

1. A boy has los. How much will he have left after spending 6s. ii^d. ?

2. How many more tens are there in 130 than in 100 ?

. 3. I have 10s. lod., and give 100 boys i penny each ; how much money do
I keep

4. How many halfpenny oranges can be bought for is. i\d. ?

5. To 50 add 8 six times over.

6. 5 lbs. of bacon at iid. a lb.

Standard III.

1. How many lbs. of butter at js. id. per lb. can be bought for 2.6s. ?

2. How many more are 11 eights than 7 twelves ?

3. A milkman has 3J galls, of milk. How many half pints can he sell ?

4. How many children could take away 7 each from 63 ?

5. The circumference of a wheel is 12 feet. How many times will it go
round in a mile ?

6. Eggs are 10 a shilling. How many for a guinea and a half?

7. A man was born in 1831, How old is he now ?

8. dd. an hour for 8 hours a day. For 6 days, how much ?

9. A joint of meat weighs 9J lbs. What did it cost at \od. a lb. ?
10. Divisor 25 ; quotient 8 ; remainder 6. What is the dividend ?

Standard IV.

1. Suppose tea at 2s. 8d. a lb. How many oz, could be bought for los. ?

2. A man steps 2 feet. In how many steps will he walk a furlong and back
again ?

3. A servant girl gets ^13 a year wages. How much is that a week?

4. A man drinks ^ pint of beer at dinner and J pint at supper. How long
would it take him at that rate to empty a 9-gallon cask ?

5. 6 telegraph wires extend 5 miles each. What is the wire worth at id.
per yard ?

6. A wall is 20 yds. by 6 feet. What will it cost to whitewash at ^d. a square
foot?

7. A ton of coals costs 25J. What is that a cwt. ?

8. Potatoes are 3 lbs. for 2d. How many lbs. can be bought for 5^-. ?

9. 64 + 29 - 12 -f 9.

Standard Y.

1. How many quarters are there in 3^ wholes ?.

2. What part of a sovereign is Bs. 4^."?

3. What number is the same part of 50 as 5 is of 6 ?

4. I buy tea at 2s. a lb. What would ^ of | lb. cost ?

5. Which is the greater, f of 7 or ^ of 5 ?

6. I buy a cart for ;^2o. I want to gain 10 per cent. For what must I sell it ?

7. How many men in 10 days will do the same amount of work as 5 men
in 15 days ?

8. A man owes ;i^iSo. He becomes bankrupt, and can only pay 2s. 6d. in
the /^. How much money has he ?

Standards YI. and YII.

1. How many times is J contained in 3^ ?

2. S. 1. on ;^35o for 2 years at 5 per cent.

3. Express '05 of f as a vulgar fraction.

4. Reduce 25 threepenny pieces to the fraction of /^2.

5. A man pays ;,^8oo for a house. The ground rent is /^y ; the lease is 80
years. What does the house cost him ?

6. A man buys a bicycle for ^18, and gets 20 per cent, discount for cash.
What does he pay for it ?

7. A man works on commission at 3J per cent. He receives ;^3ii. How
much money does he collect ?

ARITHMETIC. 151

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Explain fully, as to a class of beginners, the method of long division, and work
out the following question so as to show the meaning and value of each figure in the
answer : Divide £23782 los. 6d. by 17.

2. — Describe the best system you know for teaching numeration and notation.

3. — Make four sums — two in direct and two in inverse proportion — and show how
you would explain to a class the working of one of them.

4. — Write out four simple problems in arithmetic, such as would be suitable in the
Fourth Standard, for testing the intelligence with which the scholars had learned the
rules.

5. — The new Code requires an exercise in rapid addition. Make out a column of
figures suited for this exercise, and say how you would best secure quickness and
accuracy in performing it.

6.— Show by means of illustrations how you would explain to a class of scholars the
reason of one of these processes :—

(a) Finding the common denominator of three or more fractions.
(6) Reducing miles to half inches.

7. — Say how you would explain to beginners the rule for subtraction, and illustrate
your answer by this example : tto6 - 527.

8.— Take the following sum in long division: £72185 13s. 2d. ■— 163, and work it so
as to show fully the value of each separate figure in the answer, and of each remainder.

9. — In giving lessons on counting to very young children, say what apparatus you
would find useful, and how you would make such lessons effective if you had no
apparatus.

10. — Give as many forms of mental exercise as you can contrive on the number 24.

II. — Explain what is the proper use of a ball frame or counting frame in teaching
arithmetic. Suppose you had no such apparatus, explain how you might teach counting
by any of the objects in the schoolroom.

12. — Notes of Lessons on multiplication of fractions, reduction of money, ratio, short
division, multiplication of money, numeration and notation, long division, numeration,
fractions, first lesson on practice, simple subtraction, rule of three by the method of
unity.

13. — State how you would explain to a scholar in the Third Standard the value of
the full remainder obtained in the division of 349 by 42, when the division is performed
by the factors 6 and 7 respectively.

14. — Distinguish the teaching of the rule of three by the method of unity and by
proportion, and compare their advantages.

15. — Write out a rule for converting a pure circulating decimal into a vulgar frac-
tion, and work an easy example in such a way as to show the reason of the rule.

16. — Write out two or three problems in mental arithmetic requiring the application
of three at least of the compound rules.

17. — Make and explain diagrams to illustrate the following: —

18. — Work at full length an example in compound practice which will prove your
process in this instance to be shorter than the ordinary method of compound multipli-
cation.

i^. — In teaching subtraction two methods are commonly employed, viz., of equal
additions and of decomposition. State and explain the method which you have been
accustomed to employ, and set down a graduated series of sums leading up from the
easiest to the most difficult process in subtraction.

20.— What is the meaning of the term " compound rules " ? Why are they so called ?

21. — To what common uses may the avoirdupois, liquid, and square measure tables
be applied ? Give examples of such mental problems as you would employ in each of
these tables for Fourth Standard children.

22. — Write down the rules for working mentally the following sums: prices of
dozens, of scores, multiplying by 99, and dividing by 60.

23.— A class can multiply by numbers up to 9. What intermediate steps of
reasoning and practice are needed that they may be able to multiply intelligently by
such a number as 67 ? Give more difficult examples of each step.

24. — By what illustrations on the B.B. would you prove to children that —

25.— Name those tables of weights and measures that should be first taught to
children. Justify your selection by the uses to which the selected tables are applied.

26.— Suggest some different methods for multiplying £3 iis. o^t/. by 99. Show
which you consider to be the shortest or simplest way. Would you think it advisable to
teach young children more than one method ? Give vour reasons.

27. — A class of infants understand the notation of numbers up to (but not including)
10. How would vou proceed to teacn them the notation of numbers between 10 and
ao? Say especially what illustrations you would use.

152 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

28.— In learning the multiplication table, which products do children commonly find
most difficulty in committing to memory? Account for some of the most difficult
cases.

29. — What immediate steps are needed in leading a class which can multiply by
7 to" multiplication by 777 ?

30-— Hovv would you commence teaching arithmetic in an infant school, and how
far do you think children under seven may be expected to go in learning arithmetic ?

. 31.'— Give some examples of suitable exercises in mental arithmetic adapted for
scholars of the First and Fifth Standards respectively.

32.— Of the two methods of explaining subtraction— (i) equal additions; (2) decom-
p'osition— which do you prefer, and why ? Illustrate your answer by an example fully
worked out.

33.— Make four sums such as would be properly suited to test the proficiency of a
scholar in the Fifth Standard ; and give a few examples also of the sort of questions in
mental arithmetic which such a scholar should be able to answer.

34.— What objects should be kept in view in the teaching of mental arithmetic ?
Say how these objects may be best attained, and give some examples of good oral
exercises suitable to the Second Standard.

35.— Show how you would explain to a class of beginners the reason of any one of
the following processes in arithmetic : {a) ascending reduction ; (6) subtraction of frac-
tions ; {c) cancelling.

36.— Multiply 74086 by 900, and explain, as to a class, the process of working, and the
separate value of each line of figures.

37-— State a;nd explain, as to a class, the rule for the multiplication of a whole
number by a fraction.

38.— Describe some varied exercises in mental arithmetic suitable for scholars
either—

' (fl) In an Infant Class ; or
(6) In the Fourth Standard.

39. — What useful purpose is served by analysing a sum in arithmetic, and showing
the separate value of each figure ? Illustrate your answer by working the following
question in long division : —

: ■ 537682 -f 37.

40. — Explain, as to a class of scholars, the rule for cancelling in either fractions or
proportion, and give some examples.

41.— Name some of the most effective visible and tangible illustrations for use in
teaching either (a) Notation, or (6) Practice.

42. — Make some mental exercises on money suited for the First and Second Stan-
dards, and let them be as varied in form as possible.

43. — Explain how you would make young children familiar with the right use and
value of the figures i to 7 as the notation for 17.

44. — What are the shortest processes of working mentally the following sums:
57 X 25 ; 3 doz. articles at 7jrf. each ; 85 x 99 ?

45. — Describe your method of teaching infants between six and seven years of age to
carry in addition, and say by what sort of visible illustration you could be helped to make
the rule intelligible to such a class,

46. — Give exan.ples of questions in mental arithmetic, suited to children of the Third
Standard, which shall illustrate all the rules taught to children of that Standard, and
shall prepare them for the work of the Fourth.

. 47. — Show by what sort of visible objects and illustrations you could make the rule
for the addition effractions intelligible to a class of beginners,

48.— Give some examples of exercises in mental arithmetic suitable for the highest
class in a school, and show by what means rapidity and accuracy can be best secured in
conducting such exercises.

49. — Give some hints for making oral exercises in arithmetic interesting.

50.— Explain any way you know of making clear to the eye the process called
multiplying 5- by i.

51, — Take the number 30 and say how many forms of mental exercise you could
devise with that number for a class of children in Standard I,, so as to give them some
early acquaintance with concrete and fractional, as well as simple arithmetic.

52. — Frame three sets of arithmetical questions suited for scholars in the Fourth
Standard, so as to test knowledge of the reasons of rules as well as the power of applying
them,

.53. — Say what sort of pictorial or other visible illustration you would use in teaching
the elements of arithmetic to very young children, and show what use you would make
pf such illustration.

This Chapter is continued in the Atpendix.

153

CHAPTER IX.
READING.

Its Value.

No branch of school education is more valuable than reading,
and none is more important. Its uses and applications are so
numerous and far-reaching that its value becomes self-evident.
Nearly every branch of school work is affected by it, and educa-
tion goes on by means of it as long as life lasts. It is a great aid
to mental and moral culture ; it records and lays bare the progress
of the world, and it is the great enemy of ignorance and supersti-
tion, which often are the forerunners of sin and suffering. It adds
immensely to the pleasures of mankind, and may be made a
healthy form of mental recreation. Books are largely the vehicles
for information, and now-a-days without our newspapers we are
" out of the world ". Bacon says that where there is little reading
there is need for much cunning ; the former is within the reach
of all now, the latter is the attribute of the few. The ability to
read also prepares us for our great field of literature, with all its
attendant advantages. The mind, like the body, needs exercise,
and some of the most suitable and enjoyable forms of mental
exercise are to be found in reading.

General Principles.

The teacher must remember the nature and extreme difficulty
of the work he is attempting ; and there are certain broad prin-
ciples or general rules, the remembrance and application of
which will tend to minimise these difficulties. There is no royal
road to reading, but there are certain well-formed tracks along
which the way is shorter and the work easier.

1. nature of the Acqaisition.— Reading is a triple task; there are the idea
in the mind, the spoken words, and the symbols representing those words.
That is, there are the idea, the sound, and the symbol If the idea is translated
by sounds we get spoken language ; if by written or printed symbols, we get
reading. The first combination is already formed when children enter school,

154 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

for they have within certain limits learned to express their ideas by sounds
(words). The teacher's work is to form the combination between the words
and the symbols, i.e. , between the sounds and the characters which represent
them. This is a long and difficult task, requiring skill, method, and patience,
which the teacher must always be prepared to give.

2. The Sequence in Teaching. —As in all other subjects of instruction the
sequence in teaching must be observed. The teacher must proceed from the
known to the unknown, and from the simple to the complex.

{a) From the Known to the Unknown. A beginning must be made with
words, and not with letters. Children already know many words as
sounds and the meanings attached to them, as their use of them shows ;
but probably they know little or nothing of letters, hence to begin any
system of reading with letters is to violate one of the cardinal prin-
ciples of all teaching. It is the violation of this principle that consti-
tutes one of the great blots in the synthetic methods (alphabetic and
phonic methods).

(b) From ike Siinple to the Complex. This is specially important, but it

seems in some measure to conflict with the preceding principle as far
as reading is concerned. If we always started with the known we
should have to begin with the most familiar or the oft-recurring words.
But these are generally the words of most irregular notation, and
therefore, in one respect at least, the most complex to children.
Several times it is pointed out in this chapter that our system of
spelling is most anomalous and defective, and the introduction of
these anomalies at this early stage would give a series of shocks to the
child, and destroy its confidence. So far as possible, its faith in law
and regularity must be maintained ; but if reading is to proceed from
the known to the unknown, these anomalous words must soon be pre-
sented to the child with their attendant difficulties. It is wise to point
out this difficulty, but it is largely dependent on the method used, as
will be subsequently seen. So long as the Look-and-Say (analytic)
method is used, it is absent or minimised ; and it only makes its
appearance to any appreciable degree with the introduction of the
synthetic methods ; and the lesson to be learned is not to be too
anxious to introduce the synthetic method to any great degree in the
early lessons on reading. Even when it is introduced, there are plenty
of short, easy words of regular notation which lend themselves to
synthetic treatment.

[c) The Artistic Element. There is yet another reason why reading

should begin with words rather than letters. Written or printed words
are forms, and form, which is a matter for the eye, should be mastered
as a whole. The parts may give no idea of the whole ; the whole may
give ideas of the parts.

3. Interest. — The teacher must study to maintain interest ; and to do this he
must seek to create a love for the subject, The subject matter of the lessons
must be suitable, and intrinsically interesting. (For further information under
this head the student is referred to the sections on Reading Books and Fairy Tales. )
The teacher's manner must be pleasant and winning, his methods must be sound
and scientific, based upon knowledge of child life and child mind. The lessons
must be graduated, and a skilful use should be made of those useful aids,
comparison and contrast. As soon as possible the scholars' assistance in the
detection and correction of errors should be enlisted, and they should be made
to feel that they are sharing the work and responsibility with the teacher. Ex-
planations should be introduced in a suitable manner, and at suitable times, and
there should be no interruptions or distractions either physical or mental. There
should be no glare of light, no noise, no uncomfortable seats ; nor should ill-
placed spelling or explanation be given by the teacher, nor bad discipline toler-
ated from the class.

i. Assistance. — The amount of assistance rendered should vary. In the

READING. 155

earlier lessons much help will be required, for in school work teaching should
precede learning. The B. B, can be freely used, words can be classified and
syllabified, plenty of pattern work can be given for imitation, and writing can
be made to assist. But as the scholars become older more work should then
be thrown upon them. Help will still be required, but it will be for other aspects
of the subject, so as to produce expressive reading.

5. Correction. — When giving the class practice in reading the teacher should
listen with closed book. He will thus be in a better position to correct all kinds
of errors, whether of word saying, of articulation, enunciation, or expression.
Good reading places the listener in as good a position as the reader, and unless
the teacher feels himself to be in that position, he knows that there is something
needing correction. These corrections should always be made in a nice way, or
there may be set up an unpleasant association which will handicap all sub-
sequent efforts in these lessons.

6. Amount. — The amount attempted must always depend upon such factors
as the following : —

(a) The nature and extent of local provincialisms.

\b) The intelligence of the children, and the extent ot the curriculum.
These should be interdependent. In a " slum " school or in a village
school the same amount can hardly be expected as in the more favoured
districts.
\c) The length of time the children stay at school, and the degree of regu-
larity attained.
{d) The amount and quality of the staj.

There will always be favoured children, with special aptitude for reading.
This fact is within the experience of every teacher. But the gifted must not be
chosen as a standard for the others. The average ability and the average oppor-
tunities of the class should be gauged, and the quantity of the work should be
apportioned accordingly. A little well done is better than a dabbling with much.

Age to Commence the Teaching of Reading^.

There is a general opinion among experts that no instruction
should be attempted in the elements of reading, writing, and
arithmetic until the age of five ; and this fact receives official
sanction, for children are not compelled to attend school before
that age. But this opinion is not shared by many of the ablest
infant school teachers in the country. " On the contrary, it is
often found in practice that piecing little words and sentences
together with a movable or picture alphabet, imitating the forms
of letters and figures with paper patterns or pencils, and counting
the objects around them are occupations not more laborious, and
certainly not less interesting, than many of the exercises of the
kindergarten. Moreover, it is found that by the judicious admix-
ture of exercises on simple words and on numbers, with other
infantine employments, little children frequently overcome some
of the earlier difficulties of reading and writing almost uncon-
sciously, and before they are aware that they are difficulties. . . .
Having regard to the short period of school life among the chil-
dren of the labouring class, and to the indispensable importance
of the three elementary subjects, it must always be held to be part

156 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

of the office of the preparatory or infant class to provide the
rudiments of instruction in these subjects."

Infant Reading and its I>ifficulties.

I. "Work of the Infant Stage.— This should be threefold :—

1. To teach the letters and their powers.

2. To teach the combination of the letters into small or easy
words.

3. To teach the combination of little words into simple sen-
tences.

H. Difficulties.

1, Physical. — These fall easily under four heads,

(a) Distinct Articulation. The vocal organs of young children are some-
times but poorly developed, and others are defective. The distinct arti-
culation necessary for pure pronunciation is the result of careful culture
and growth. The imitative faculty must be freely used. The shape of
the mouth and the position of the tongue should be frequently shown,
and much patience should be exercised towards the dull and stupid.
Common errors should be met with systematic vocal drill, and exercises
should be formed by the teacher for class practice. These should take
the form of short sentences ; e.g. —

Vocal Difficulty. Exercises.

th : The raoth&c and izthzx went v^'xth them.
r: He rode round the broad road on a brown horse.

\b) Voice Modulation. Too often the reading of young children is a series
of jerky monotones. There is no cadence of voice to indicate the sense
of the passage. This can only be met by plenty of pattern work and
by imitation. A little explanatory conversation on the subject matter
of the lesson may sometimes add intelligence to the reading, which
may show itself in an improved vocal delivery, but, as a rule, the other
methods will have to be relied on.

[c] Weak Attention. The power of concentration is very small in children.

Sustained attention is physically exhausting, so that only reasonable
demands should be made upon them. Concentration is a slow growth ;
hence there should be short lessons and suitable changes. Interest is a
great factor in attention, and the teacher must seek all legitimate devices
to arouse and maintain it. By-and-by habit begins to assert itself,
and attention follows as a matter of custom and association.

(d) Constitutional Difficulties. There may be a weak constitution, a timid

nature, bashfulness, shyness, all of which may result from physical
causes. Laziness may be another result.

2. Mental.

(a) Association. There is a threefold association to set up (see General
Principles). This association requires time and some ingenuity to do
it intelligently.

{b) Intelligence. Intelligent reading should be expected of children. They
read childish books dealing with the common experiences and incidents
of child life, and therefore their reading ought to indicate understand-
ing of the subject matter. The words require grouping or phrasing
according to the sense; i.e., the reading should be notional. It is a
difficulty which receives increasing attention as the difficulty attached
to word-naming (recognising and saymg the words) grows less. It is
ignored in the earliest lessons. In the later lessons it is of primary
importance, and practically monopolises the teacher's attention.

READING. 157

(c) Defective Alphabet. Most childish difficulties arise from this source.
'1 here are 42 elementary sounds in our language, and only 26 letters
to express them. Furthermore, some of these letters are redundant,
some are silent, and some sounds are represented in several ways. A
child having learned ^.o, no, and so is staggered to find the o different in
to and do. There is a breach of expectation, a shock to childish confi-
dence, which breeds timidity and distrust of all future phonetic
attempts.
3. Moral. — A child may be wilfully inattentive, through some fault of temper

like obstinacy or sullenness ; or from laziness, and laziness in healthy people is

not far removed from imperfect morality.

To Teach the Alphabet.

Whatever method of teaching is adopted, the alphabet will
have to be learned sooner or later, but do not begin with it. Begin
with small words, as already instructed, and for the reasons
already given. If the teacher wishes to concentrate the work, he
could adopt some such system as " Livesey's Object and Word
Method". Eight common objects, or pictures of them, could be
shown, the words printed on the B.B., or some other apparatus
like the word-building frame could be used, and these words could
be dealt with until all the letters are known. The words given
are caw, hox., jug, feZy drum, quill, whip, and key, but the teacher
could form other words for himself if necessary.

I. Apparatus Required. — Some or all of the following should
be used : —

(a) B.B., chalk and duster.
{dj Cards of letters ; one capital, and one small,
t) Kindergarten sticks.

d) Picture letters.

e) Word-building frames and solid letters.
/) Slates suitably ruled, and pencils for drawing the letters.

n. Capital Zjetters. — These should be taught first, and this
may be done in several ways.

1. By Simple Recognition.

la) In their order. This is the worst method.

\b) By grouping according to their element si This may be a good method

for leaching the writing of the letters, but it has no special claims for

reading.

a. By Memory Aids. —These will include :—

(a) Picture cards ; e.g., A is the archer, etc. This is the principle oi asso-
ciation.

b\ Kindergarten sticks. This is slow, but sure and interesting.

c) Letter box or word-building frame. The principle is the same in either
case, and the teaching should arouse curiosity and maintain interest.

(rf) The B.B. may be used alone, or in conjunction with one or more of the
other aids. The letters should be printed one at a time on the B. E

}.1

158 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

m. Flan of Iiesson.

1. Take a group of easily constructed letters — I, X, Y, T, L, H, etc.

2. The letter I should be taken first as the simplest and easiest. Print it on

the B. B. Name it. The children must repeat the name whilst looking
at it.

3. Next take the card of capital letters. Class to point out the I.

4. Then let the children pick it out from the box of letters.

5. The same letter might then be picked out from the picture cards.

6. Now let all the children make an I with kindei-garten stick.

7. Take another letter (T) and proceed in same way.

8. The two letters can then be formed into a word, IT.

9. The remaining letters could be taught in same way, and where possible

little words should be formed and learned.
10. Later on the children should W7'ite the letters on their slates —
(a) From a copy.
{b) From dictation.

rv. Small Ijetters.

1. Teach those first which are most like the capitals ; e.g., c, o, x, z, Y, W, s.

2. Group those likely to be confused and compare and contrast them ; e.g.,

b, d; p, q; m, n, u, v.

3. When the small letters have been learned, place them side by side with

the large ones, and let the children compare and contrast them. Then
mix them and let the class name them picked out at random.

Classification of Iietters.

1. Capitals. — In classifying the capital letters for the purpose of teaching
the alphabet the teacher must remember that sight is to be studied more than
sound, as reading is a matter for the eye. So far as possible, the groupings
should have some common element, for in comparing letters points of similarity
are more important than points of difference. Hence the form of the letters
should be the basis of classification adopted.

Class I. Common element, straight li?te, I, L, T, H, F, E,

, , 2. , , elements, straight and oblique lines. A, Y, W, X, Z, N, M, K, Y.

,, 3. ,, element, ^z^rz*^, C, G, 0, Q, D, U, S, J.
,, 4. ,, e\Qmeni, cuj-ve and st?-aight line, 'Pf'Rf'R.

2. Small Letters. — These do not lend themselves- so readily to classification
by form. Nevertheless it is the proper and best classification for the reasons
g^ven above.

Class I. Common element, right line, 1, 1, t.

,, 2. ,, oblique line, y, w, k, y, z.

,,3. ,, right line with hook, m, n, u, r, h, f, j.

,> 4- M curve, c, e, x, o, g, a, s.

, , 5. , , right line with curve, b, d, q, p.

First Iiessons after the Alphabet.

Object. — The object is to teach the powers of the consonants and woj-ds of two
letters. It is assumed that the class knows the alphabet and the powers of the
vowels.

Apparatus. — B.B., chalk and duster; card with words of two letters; letter
box and kindergarten sticks.

Lesson.

1. Print a vowel (say A) on the B. B. Class to name it.

2. Place some consonants, one by one, before it, as ba, da, fa, la, pa, etc.

Class to watch the teacher's mouth while he slowly pronounces each
syllable, afterwards repeating each syllable after him.

READING. 159

3. Now let the children take the same consonants with another vowel (E),

A new set of syllables is produced, as be, de, fe, le, pe, etc. The
teacher goes through the same steps as before, the class carefully
noticing his mouth.

4. Then let the teacher contrast the two series, placing them side by side,

and having them ref)eated alternately ; e.g., ba, be, da, de, etc. A
few combinations like this will be enough for one lesson. Do not
weary the children so as to breed a dislike for the work.

5. Then to fi.x the syllables let them form them with their kindergarten

sticks, and repeat them when formed. They should next form the
same syllables from the letter box, going through the same process.

6. As a final exercise the syllables might be repeated first simultaneously

and then individually.

Card and Primer Stag^e.

Object. — To teach words of "^ or ^ letters, or even more letters when the
words are common ; also to teach the powers of the letters in combination.

Apparatus.

1. A set of cards containing easy words of 3 or 4 letters.

2. A very easy primer containing not more than 40 pages. The book is to

be printed in large type ; the words of more than one syllable are to
be divided, and the book should be well illustrated. A child' s first
acquaintance with a book must be a pleasant memory.

3. Use the cards at first ; then sometimes cards and sometimes books ; then

books alone.

Lesson.

I. The earlier cards might be arranged on the Phonic Method. The teacher
could name the first sound, the class could repeat it simultaneously,
then several pupils individually ; e.g. , -at, b-at, c-at, h-at, p-at, etc. ,
the teacher prefixing the consonants.

a. Then double consonants might be prefixed — sb-at, sc-at, sh-at, sp-at,
etc. The children again to repeat after the teacher.

3. A few other combinations might be treated in the same way. In each

case the teacher must test by sample.

4. A farrf should then be taken containing short sentences embodying the

words thus taught, and these words should be read by the class. If
there are no suitable cards the sentences should be written on the B. B.
Too much word building is wearisome in one lesson : it is reading that
interests the children.

5. When all the words of a sentence are known the sentence may be

read with expression by the teacher, the children copying. There will
probably be need to exaggerate the emphasis for young children, for
they rarely reach the standard set them.

6. Any difficult words should be written on the B. B. during the lesson, and

spelt and learnt orally within reasonable limits, for it is not advisable
to have too much interruption in a reading lesson.

7. A few lessons of this kind will enable the children to use the cards and

primers very soon. With these the teacher should read single words,
the class repeating after him until a sentence is known This should
then be re-read by the teacher for proper expression, the class imitating,
and several scholars following individually. Each sentence can be
mastered in this wav.

8. The paragraphs should be recapitulated in the same manner as sentences.

This will supply the very essential element of connected reading, which
is a pleasurable acquisition to most children.

9. Finally the whole chapter should be thus recapitulated. The teacher will

now be able to read the chapter in sentences, paying great attention to
enunciation and expression.

i6o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

METHODS OF TEACHING READING.

The difficulty and importance of reading as a subject of in-
struction are shown by the methodised attempts that have been
made to improve its teaching. There are a number of methods
in use, and, as usual, where interest or necessity has called forth
many efforts, there is the usual conflict of opinion as to the rela-
tive merits of the various systems in use. Each of the best
known systems is here dealt with briefly. The salient points are
noticed and followed with a criticism in each case. The best
known of the methods are the following : —

1. The Alphabetic Method.

2. The Phonic Method.

3. The Phonetic Method.

4. The Method of Phonic Analysis.

5. The Look and Say Method.

6. The Syllabic Method.

7. The Combined Method.

8. The English Method.

Some of these are analytic, some synthetic, whilst some are
more or less a combination of the two. But whatever method
may be used, there are certain general principles or processes of
instruction, which must more or less regulate all methods. There
must always be : —

1. Preparation by the teacher.

2. Pattern work by the teacher.

3. Imitation by the class.

4. Correction of errors.

5. Plenty of practice (individual practice is the best).

6. Examination.

THE AIiPHABETIC METHOD.

Description.

It is called the Alphabetic Method because it associates the
sound of a word with its sign through the medium of the series of
its letter names taken either collectively or syllabically. Printed
words are placed before the child, and its attention is directed to
each letter in succession. The teacher names it distinctly, and
the child pronounces it after him. In this way the scholar is
expected to learn the alphabet first. The method may be briefly
described thus : —

1. The alphabet is learned as already pointed out.

2. The vowels are then associated with each consonant in turn ; e.^. :—

READING.

i6i

at, et, it, ot, ut,

ab, eb, ib, ob, ub,

ac, ec, ic, oc, uc, and so on.

3. Then a consonant is affixed ; e.g. : —

bat, bet, bot, bit, but,
dab, dib, deb, dob, dub, etc.

4. The short vowels are then lengthened by the addition of e ; e.g.

bete, bite, bote, bute.
It is a word building synthetic method.

bate,

Advantages.

1. It is claimed that it is a
method for teaching reading and
spelling together^ and the reading
through the spelling : but this is
hardly true. The converse is
the case,

2. There is a saving of labour,
the work requisite for learning
the one being made available
for learning the other.

3. It has the sanction of long
usage, but is now rapidly becom-
ing obsolete.

4. It appears to he the natural
method to begin elements, and to
proceed to combinations ; i.e.,
from the simple to the complex.

5. The sounds of the letters
composing words when uttered
in quick succession sometimes
suggest the sound of the word
itself.

Disadvantages.

1. This combination of teaching reading
and spelling together is awkward and un-
natural. In many irregular words the spell-
ing is a hindrance to acquiring the word
sound.

2. The saving of time is illusory, for one
subject interferes with the other ; and the
introduction of awkward and useless spell-
ing combinations is a waste of time.

3. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye,
and therefore this method inverts the proper
relation of these subjects ; for reading gives
natural facilities for learning spelling,
whereas by this method those facilities are
lost, because the attention is distracted frt)m
the reading to the spelling.

4. Our alphabet is very imperfect, hence
any method of teaching reading based upon
it must necessarily be imperfect also.

5. It encourages indolence, for frequent
repetitions of the letters of a word will at
length suggest the word itself, and conse-
quently the learner does not put forth the
necessary degree of attention for mastering
words.

6. It is contrary to the actual method of
acquiring spoken language. In talking a
child learns words first.

7. The method is tedious, and very often
produces a dislike for reading.

8. It is wrong in principle. It applies
synthesis to the mastery of form by the eye ;
whereas form must first be learnt as a
whole.

THE PHONIC METHOD.

Description.

The Phonic or Sound Method associates the sound of the
word with the letter sounds composing it. The powers of the
letters or sounds are associated with their shapes. The child
then constructs the sound of the word for himself. The method
professes to teach each sound, and to have it separately uttered
before pronouncing the word. In the first lessons plenty of drill
in the phonic alphabet is given. It is a synthetic method, and
practically it has three stages ; —

[62

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. The analysis of the sound of a word into its component sounds.

2. The power to recognise the picture (letter) of the sound, and to articulate it.

3. The application to new cases.

Taking any common word as an illustration, the process might
be as follows : —

1. Take the word bat, and try to give the sound of each letter in it, thus

be-a-tg.

2. Then pronounce the word bat. Get the pupils to notice the sound of

your lips, and their position, whilst saying b ; then say be. The
children notice the difference at once, and can then imitate these sounds.

3. The reverse pjocess is then pursued. The entire word is sounded, and

the children are required to give the sounds of the letters.

4. A picture (b) of the sound is then shown. The usual devices must then

be used for fixing the picture and the sound.

5. Lip work or silent spelling then follows. The children watch the

teacher's mouth, and recognise the letters from the shape of the lips.
The same process in its entirety should be adopted for other letters.

6. The sound of two or more letters in combination like a-te is next

taught.

7. Other letters with which the children are familiar could then be pre-

fixed, and the words sounded; e.g., (b)at, (c)at, (p)at. This is an
exercise in word building or vocabularies.

8. The last step should be the combination of the words learned into easy

narrative.

Advantages.

1. If adopted in its purity it would greatly
facilitate the process of learning to read.
It is asserted that it extends the words of
regular notation to 75 per cent, of the whole,
leaving 25 per cent, only for the Look-and-
Say Method.

2. It is a good method for obtaining good
articulation, and accurate and careful enun-
ciation.

3. Theoretically the method is sound, the
pronunciation of a whole being taught by
the prounciation of the parts.

4. It teaches reading and spelling to-
gether.

5. It enables children to apply their
knowledge to fresh cases.

6. Some teachers have made it very effec-
tive ; and more or less it forms part of the
methods used by most teachers.

Disadvantages.

1. A purely phonic method is possible
only where the number of letters and
elementary sounds correspond. But in
English the letters are only five-eighths of
the elementary sounds.

2. The same letter ought always to repre-
sent the same sound, but one letter often
represents two or more sounds.

3. Some sounds are represented by more
than one letter.

4. Some letters are silent.

5. " It is nothing but a variety of the
Alphabetic Method with other names to the
letters."

6. It is wrong in principle, as it applies
synthesis to the mastery of form by the eye.

7. The system is too elaborate and too
complex for rough usage.

8. It requires special preparation, and
therefore cannot very well be entrusted to
a young teacher.

9. The attempt to give the powers of the
labials, dentals, and liquids, has a tendency
to induce stammering.

THK PHONETIC METHOD.

Description.

This is a method designed to meet some of the difficulties of
the Phonic Method. The principle of the method is that the rapid

READING. 163

utterance of the sounds of the letters of a word will give the sound
of the word itself. Each of the ordinary letters has a single
sound, and then the rest of the elementary sounds of the language
are provided for by variations of the letters in use. These varia-
tions are expressed by means of diacritical signs ; e.g., the letter a
has four sounds, which are thus expressed : —

No mark

a as in cat.

fare.

))

car.

call.

This arrangement extends the alphabet to 65 symbols, 32 of
which are vowels, and 33 consonants. The distinction between
some of the symbols is very fine, and it requires care to dis-
tinguish them. Type arrangements help. Silent letters are printed
in italics, as dum6, ^nife ; while whispered consonants are done
in light type^ as (s)ing, (s)ound. The diphthongs are expressed
by means of diagraphs^ as b-oa-t. The sounds of this extended
alphabet are given first, and the word sound is then supposed to
follow, and the nearer the alphabet comes to perfection the truer
this is. After the lessons have been given in the extended alpha-
bet, they are then repeated in the ordinary alphabet

Criticltm. — The advantages of this method are much the same as those of
the Phonic Method, but it only removes some of the disadvantages of that
method to make room for others. The first four difficulties disappear with the
extended alphabet, but the others remain, and are reinforced by the following
additions : —

1. The new letters make it look like a strange language.

2. It destroys the face history of words and their origin.

3. Special books are required.

4. There are two alphabets to learn, and one of them a very long one, with

very fine differences. Hence the work becomes wearying, tends to
confusion, and proves a hindrance rather than a help to acquiring the
art of reading, for in some cases two forms for the same word have to
be learnt.

5. It does not remove the difficulties of our alphabet ; it only postpones

them.

THE liOOK-AND-SAT METHOD.
Description.

This is a method of reading without spelling. Each word is
taught as a whole, and its sound is associated with it as a whole.
The learning of the alphabet is no part of the plan, although it
gets to be known by the children. The method may be briefly
illustrated as follows : —

164

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. The teacher takes a reading sheet containing short sentences. He points

to a word, pronounces it, and the class repeats it after him. A
sentejice is thus read.

2. He then requires the class to read the same sentence simultaneously as

he points to the words.

3. Then some child is selected to read it.

4. The teacher might then point to the same words in other parts of the

sheet, and ask the children to name them.

5. The children next begin to notice differences in apparent similarities, e.g:,

felt and left ; saw and was ; on and no. Up to this point the child
has only noticed form as a whole. Now the analytic process begins,
and he recognises some of the elements.

6. The children might next be introduced to books. They should always

point to each word as it is read. As they improve in their reading
this becomes less important, and eventually it may be dropped
altogether.

Advantages.

Disadvantages.

1. The word is mastered by the eye.
Children talk words when they enter
school; now they learn to recognise pic-
tures of words. The child has something
to start with, and so starts with some ad-
vantage.

2. It enables the child not only to recog-
nise the word in the sign, but to acquire
practical acquaintance with the powers of
letters and syllables, for it associates
sound, sign, and idea, in a natural way.

3. It is suitable to the circumstances of
common schools.

(a) It meets the best requirements of
class instruction by stimulating attention
and self-respect. A child learns to read
quicker by this method than by any other,
and it brings interest because the child is
dealing with words which it knows.

(6) It requires no special preparation,3in6.
so can be entrusted to a young teacher.

(c) It impresses by frequent repetition.
Many words can be learned by no other
method, and these are the most common in
child vocabularies.

4. "It gives more practice in sounding
letters in combination, hence the necessary
mental generalisations for acquiring the
powers of letters and syllables are more
readily acquired."

5. It is the method which forms the basis
of the methods adopted by most teachers.
Few, perhaps none, use it in its purity, but
many approximate to it.

1. It is a Chinese method. This is an
unjust and an untrue criticism, for although
each word symbol is learned independently,
yet when the word is known as a whole it
is analysed into its elements. In Chinese
no such analysis is possible. This objec-
tion is wrong in another point ; it assumes
that the method gives no power to master
new words.

2. A habit of guessing will be formed in
the earlier lessons, unless great care is
exercised.

3. It may produce carelessness — words of
similar form are sometimes confounded —
indistinct articulation and bad enunciation.

4. It resiukesstipplementing by the Phonic
Method and by transcription. Some assert
that the power to apply the knowledge of
reading to new words is not so rapidly de-
veloped as by the Phonic Method. This
may be true for words of regular notation,
but it is hardly true of the less regular
words, which, be it remembered, are
numerous and common.

5. Unless the teacher exercises great
watchfulness, its moral effects are bad.
Pupils pretend to read or point, and so
attempt to deceive the teacher.

6. It may breed laziness. The idle or in-
different will seek to shelter themselves
under the chorus of class voices.

7. It may in some measure demoralise the
teacher without zeal. The chorus of sound
is supposed evidence of work, and he is
content to rest to the hum of the voices.
But this objection can only apply to simul-
taneous reading, and then it is true of all
methods.

8. Spelling is likely to suffer if the method
is not supplemented.

READING. 165

^HE SYTiTiABTC METHOD.

This is only a modified form of the Look-and-Say Method.
The principle is practically the same, for words are still learned
as a whole for monosyllables. The variation occurs with words
of more than one syllable. Briefly, the method may be sum-
marised as follows : —

1. Words of one syllable are first mastered on the Look-and-Say Method.

2. The method then proceeds to words of 7nore than one syllable, the words

being carefully graduated.

3. These words are then broken up into syllables, words of regular notation

being first taken.

4. The children are then taught each syllable on the Look-and-Say plan.

5. The complete word is then sounded.

6. The syllables are always classified, the commonest being taken first.

THE METHOD OF PHONIC ANAL7SIS
Description.

This method is based upon the comparison of sounds, and, as
its name implies, is a combination of the Phonic and Look-and-
Say Methods. The idea is to use the Look-and-Say as a basis,
then to combine the two, and, finally, for all words of regular
notation, to use the Phonic Method. It is an attempt to combine
the best points of the two most popular methods.

1. The first lessons are on the Look-and-Say Method for the acquirement of

monosyllables and short irregular words of common use.

2. Next, words are analysed where they conveniently admit of it ; e.g., and

= an-d, pad = p-ad, bad = b-ad.

3. The completing sound (initial or final) is done by the Phonic Method ; e.g.,

h-am,J-am, s-am, r-am.

(a) Vocal. The process is as follows -.—The word am is slowly spoken, and the
children are invited to watch the teacher's mouth at the time, noting the
use of the vocal organs. Then the class utters the word. Repetition is
given until a child learns how a particular sound is produced.

(6) Symbol. The word ts next written on the B.B., ana the initial or final letter
is placed apart as above. The word is then slowly pronounced again, first
the syllable, then the whole sound. The children are then told that the
separated letter is the sign for the completing sound.

4. When a number of words have been learnt in this way they are compared.

This comparison is an important element in the method, for the powers
of the consonants are taught by means of it ; e.g. , (c)an, (f)an, (m)aii,
|p)an, (b)an, (t)an, (r)an, (d)aii.

5. When the children have progressed thus far phonic drill and comparison

are used for the acquisition of new words.

6. Words are carefully classified, the more irregular being introduced

gradually.

7. Sentence reading follows each new acquisition and embraces any of

the words already learned

8. In the final stages the Phonic Method is used only.

i66

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Advantages.

1. It is a good spelling method. The
combination of the Look-and-Say and the
Phonic is a good one.

2. It gives a certain amount of power to
recognise fresh words by directing the
attention to the structure of words.

3. It conduces to good enunciation, arti-
culation, and pronunciation by teaching the
powers of the letters.

4. It is less Chinese than the Look-and-
Say, and less absurd than the Phonic.

Disadvantages.

1. It is weak or wrong in principle, for it
fixes the attention more on the parts than
the whole.

2. It is not suited to the circumstances of
many schools, for it would require very
careful preparation, and could not well be
entrusted to a young teacher.

3. Special sets of reading books would be
required to suit the plan. A series of
progressive, carefully graduated lessons
would be required.

4. As in the Phonic Method, the attempt
to give the powers of the letters might
induce stammering in some cases.

THE COMBINED ItlETHOD.

The Combined Method, as its name impHes, is a composition
formed by contributions from all the other methods. Probably
in no two schools is it alike, for the constituents are mixed by
different teachers in different proportions. But whatever may be
the relative proportions of the contributing methods, it is by

times find it described as the Eclectic Method. Anything that is
good in the other methods is appropriated, and, as far as possible,
incorporated in this. The Look-and-Say forms the basis, but the
word building and spelling of the A Iphabetic, the powers of the letters
and the word building of the Phonic, the syllabic treatment of words
of the Syllabic, and the analysis and comparison of the Phono-
Analytic are all used. Another great feature of the method is its
elasticity. The teacher is at liberty to use any portion of any
method at any particular moment, when it may be applied with
most advantage. Probably most teachers knowingly or unknow-
ingly use this method. It has already been pointed out that it
may present any number of combinations, one of which is given
as a sample. But the "personal equation" will always be an
important factor in such a method as this.

1. The alphabet may be taught as in the Alphabetic Method by some of the

many pleasant devices now in use.

2. Easy words could then be taught on the Look-and-Say plan.

3. The powers of the consonants could then be taught as in the Phono-

Analytic Method.

4. Reading lessons on the Look-and-Say plan could still go on, but they

should be varied and supplemented by lessons on word building as in
the Phonic Method.

5. Specially difficult words could be written on the B. B. , analysed as in the

Syllabic Method, and spelled as in the Alphabetic Method,

READING. 167

6. Simultaneous reading could be practised on the Look-and-Say plan from

the pattern work of the teacher.

7. Plenty of individual practice should be given, and the necessary correc-

tions should be made in any method most suitable.

THE engt.tsh: method.

Description.

This is a method of teaching reading which has been elaborated
by Messrs. Sonnenschein and Meiklejohn. It is a word-building
plan, and an attempt to analyse and classify the fundamental
combinations of the language. It is called the English Method.

The plan consists of four courses.

I. The Nursery Book or Two Letter Word Sheets. This book contains 17
lessons carefully graded, and the progressive nature of the lessons can be
graphically represented thus : —

Lesson.

Consisting of

^ a,i.
a, 1, o, go, BO.
a, i, o, go, so, ho, lo, no.
a, i, 0, go, BO, ho, lo, no, ox, on, of, or, and so on.

II. The First or AT Course. This consists of short vowels with single con-
sonants. It "consists entirely of A, E, I, O, U, with the addition to them of
one letter in each lesson. The child is intended to learn one letter in each
lesson — not its name, but its function or use. Capitals are introduced in the
order of their difficulty, thus I or S is easier than P ; P than G ; and so on."
" The child should write or print on his slate the practice, the lesson, and as
many of the sentences as there is time for with neatness and clearness."

Flan of a Iiesson for First Course.

1. Practice. — The book is divided into sections, of which there are 23. Each
section begins with a practice, which contains all the vowel combinations used
in that section. The practice is read off on the Look-and-Say Method, both
horizontally and perpendicularly, till the pupils know every syllable. The first
practice is given in illustration.

at et It ot nt

et at ot nt it

it at at et ot

ot it ut at et

at ot et it at

9. Lesson. — The Usson then follows, in which these syllables are combined
with a consonant b, hence we get lists of words and syllables such as bat, bet,
bit, bot, bat. Lists are made as in the practice, and they are first read across,
then down, till known. The teacher then points at words here and there.

8. Exercise. — An exercise then follows of short sentences composed of
words of two or three letters, like

it is on the bat ;
it is a bit of the bat.
I^essons and exercises then follow each other to the end of the section,
towards which the exercises become more numerous.

«. Second Practice.— /"Aw introduces a fresh combination. Another con-
sonant is chosen, and the same method is pursued.

i68

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

III. The Second or ANT Course. This course consists of short vowels with
double consonants. It is the first course, with the addition of a second con-
sonant.

Lesson and exercise now follow each other, but the lesson is divided into two
parts.

{a) Syllables are given to practise until fully known.

\b) These syllables are combined instantaneously into words of two syllables.
The Bridge. — There is a bridge between this course and the next. A series
of words and syllables is given, and the pupil has to say which are words and
which not ; e.g. : —

at et ot ad

lat ret lot lad

flat pret plot clad and so on.

The bridge is not introduced until the later lessons.

IV. The Third Course. This consists of long vowels. It is the first course
again, " but with the vowels lengthened, and the learner will at once find that
this comes about by the addition of a final e ".

Sto)'ies then follow written without the help of any words with double
vowels. Practice, lesson, and exercise follow each other as before.

V. The Fourth Course contains all the double vowels in the language with
apparent anomalies, and some words that cannot be classified.

The whole method may be graphically illustrated as follows : —
A, E, I, O, U.
I

With I Consonant, With 2 Consonants, Lengthened,

or ^ — s or ' — N or

The First Course. The Second Course. Third Course,
ist Bridge. 2nd Bridge.

The English Language

(as represented by words and letters).

Doubled,

Fourth Course.

Advantages.

1. It is synthetic.

2. It is well graded. The lessons are
progressive and systematic. Difficulties
are carefully bridged.

3. It introduces plenty of recapitulation.

4. It enables the pupil to see the sym-
metry and regularity of the English lan-
guage as a whole.

5. It soon gives the pupils a feeling of
mastery and a sensation of progress.

6. Children trained on this system have
always been thoroughly good spellers. They
spell by principle and law.

7. It is thorough and comprehensive. By
the arithmetical process of permutations
and combinations every actual and possible
syllable in the English language is intro-
duced, and accepted or rejected as is con-
sidered right in each individual case.

Disadvantages.

1. It is unnatural. Children should learn
to read as they learn to talk. Words are
not difficult for reading purposes altogether,
either from the fewness or from the number
of their letters, but from their degree of
familiarity or otherwise to the children.

2. Like all synthetic methods it is wrong
in principle. See Alphabetic Method, Dis-
advantages, 8.

3. It is dull and uninteresting, ^ It is
difficult to conceive any love for a subject
hanging round such a bag of dry bones.
Children trained «nder this system, who
have developed a love for reading, must
have acquired that feeling from the personal
qualities of the teacher or themselves.

4. It may make good spellers, but this is
a reading system and not a spelling one.

5. Speaking generally, it is a well-classified
edition of the Phonic System, and has
many of its disadvantages.

6. It is not popular. Relatively few
teachers know it, and fewer practise it,
although it has aheady attained its
majority.

READING, 169

NOTES OF A READING liESSON.

I. Preparation

1. Language.

The chapter should be read through and marked.

1. To show the amount read by each child.

2. To mark emphasis and accent where necessary

3. To prepare a hst of difficult words for learning.

4. To mark words producing provincialisms.

5. With a young class to prepare a list of words likely to be confused, e.g., saw

and was, or mispronounced.

2. Subject Matter.

1. Explanation of allusions (if any).

2. To prepare a few illustrations (if necessary).

3. To be able to give a brief explanation of the whole chapter.

As a rule the mechanical difficulties will be the chief with a young class, but
generally the difficulties will depend upon —
(i) The attendance.

(2) The ability and zeal of the teacher.

(3) The subject matter read.

(4) The arrangement of the time table.

XL Sample of Subject Matter. — In writing notes for a reading
lesson it will only be necessary to take a portion of the subject
matter to show how you would deal with it.

" Who is this that cometh from the south, thinly clad in a light transparent
garment ? Her breath is hot and sultry; she seeks the refreshment of the
cool shade; she seeks the crystal brook to bathe her languid limbs. The
tanned haymakers welcome her coming, and the sheep shearer who clips the
fleeces of his flock with his sounding shears."

m. Introduction.

1. The class must be prop)erly arranged. This will depend upon the nature

of rooms and the space at the disposal of the teacher. Where possible

the class should always stand for reading —
(a) In semicircular drafts for small classes.
(6) In parallel rows, the shortest children being in front, for larger classes.

In many of our large modern schools the children have to take their reading
lesson in the desks.

2. Arrangements should be made for the proper and orderly passing of the

books.

3. The position of each child should be comfortable and orderly.

4. There should be a few minutes' conversation on the subject matter to

ensure understanding.

5. New words and difficult words should be written on the B.B., and

rapidly learned. There need be no explanation at this stage.

IV. The I«es8on.— There are two chief objects which must be
kept in view in giving the lesson.

I. To extend the pupil's knowledge of language by enlarging his stock of

words, and making them plain to him.
a. To enable him to grasp the ideas in his book, so as to get intelligent

reading.

A. Mechanical Difficulties.

1. Pattern Reading. — The teacher will pattern read for imitation by the
class. This may be done by sentences, by several sentences, or by the class.
Tbe wanu and abilities of the classes must decide bow. After the primary

I70 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

pattern reading of the teacher, secondary pattern -work may be given by some of
the better scholars. Where the class possesses some very good readers, much
of the primary pattern work should be thrown on them.

2. Imitation by Scliolars. — The scholars will then imitate the pattern set
them. This again may be varied. It may take the form of —

(a) Individual imitation.

(6) Sectional imitation. This is a useful practice, as it arouses emulation.

3. Practice : Simultaneous and Individual. — Plenty of time should be
allowed in the lesson for practice in reading unpatterned portions. A portion
might be read individually, and then simultaneously. The object should be to
give as much practice as possible.

B. Difficulties of Iiang^uag^e. — The amount and quality of the
explanation will depend upon the class. As a rule, too much
should not be attempted, but no dogmatic directions can be given.
The anticipated difficulties should be underlined in the teacher's
book.

Words and Phrases for Explanation (in sample).

[a] Who is this, etc. Personification of the S. W, wind. Explain that the

whole piece is personification (if necessary explain personification).

Describe the characteristics of the S. wind to the class, and show the

appropriate nature of the various descriptions.
[V) Clad in a bright, etc. Referring to the clear sky which generally accom-
panies this wind.
{c) Hot and sultry breath. A reference to the warmth of this wind.

Breath is wind. The simile is good, for a hot breath would indicate a

condition of bodily languor.
{d) Crystal brook. Show a crystal, and let the class see how it sparkles.

The brook sparkles in the sun like a crystal.
{e) Languid limbs. A reference to the fatiguing effects of the S. wind.

C. Difficulties of Style.

1. Punctuation. The teacher must insist upon the punctuation marks

receiving proper attention and proper interpretation. Plenty of cor-
rection, pattern work, and explanation will be required.

2. Emphasis should be placed on this, hot, sultjy, tanned haymakers and

sheep sheai-ers. Where necessary accent must receive attention.

3. Intelligence. Where children do not understand what they are reading,

style must necessarily be bad. The efficient explanation of IV. (b)
will facilitate the necessary understanding.

4. Voice. The voice should be nicely pitched with varied cadence. There

must be no artificiality, and the pace must not be too fast. Enuncia-
tion and articulation must be pttre and distinct.

D. Discipline.

1. Some points of discipline have already been mentioned under the head

of introduction. These include the position of the scholars, the distri-
bution and collection of books, the arrangement of the class.

2. The teacher' s position should allow every child to fall within his range of

vision,

3. The room should be physically comfortable. Noise, glare, and distractions

of every kind should be removed.

4. Each child should have a book. There should be no " looking over ",

5. Children should not always read in tu7-n. When inattention is

detected or suspected, the offender should immediately be called upon
to read.

READING.

171

HOVr TO DEAIi WITH ANOMAIiOUS DrFFICUIiTTES
TK READING.

These may be illustrated by some such passage as the follow-
ing extract (1879): —

" He would take no pains to teach any boy who could not at least write
what boys of eight years old can write ".

Like Sounds and Unlike Spellings.

1. Would.— Proorf, hood, good, could;
compare and contrast, and note the silent I.

2. Pains. — Panes, canes, reigns, deigns,
veins, reins. Compare and contrast again.

3. Teach.— The ea sound needs attention
here. Compare it with reach, preach, tea,
sea ; and contrast with screech, breech, teeth,
see.

4. Any. — Compare with many and con-
trast with penny. Call attention to the
sounds of a and e.

5. Who, What.— Teacher to pattern the
correct sound ; class to imitate it. Phonic
drill should be given on other combinations
like-

which where while

when whither whether

whilst whom wheel

white why whose

The pronunciation of who might then be

compared with do and coo ; what might be

contrasted with pot, lot, got.

6. Write.- Compare with rite, mite,
spite, kite, and contrast with right, height,
fight, sleight.

7. EiAt.— Compare with ate, hate, late,
plate, slate, skate, mate, pate, bate, rate,
date, fate.

Like Spellings and Unlike Sounds.

I. Would.— BoHW(er), mould. Here the
syllabic combinations are alike, but the
sounds are different.

2. Pains. — Mountain, capfatn. Contrast
with pains, and compare pains with dis-
dain, main/am, again.

3. Teach. — This word presents no diffi-
culties under this head.

4. Any. — Contrast with litany, Bethany.

5. Who, What. — Who might be com-
pared with whom and contrasted with
whorl. What will present no difficulties
under this head.

6. Write.— No difficulty under this head.
Practically ite is an invariable sound.

7. Eight.— Contrast with sleight and
height.

In all these cases contrast and comparison should be brought into play, and
the similarities and differences should be placed side by side on the B.B. The
words should be spelled, written on slates or paper, learned, explained where
necessary, and then dictated. Sentences should then be given containing them,
and these should be dictated and read. The class should then be given
sentence composition on these words.

QTJAliTnXIS OF GOOD ItEADINO.

These may roughly be divided into two classes — mechanical
and mental. The two classes are not mutually exclusive, but the
difference is sufficient to afford a basis for classification.

Z. MeohamoaL

1. Pronunciation. — Correct pronuncmtion defends upon the proper sound-
ing of the vowels, for there can be no purity of^ utterance unless they receive
their right quantities and powers. Many of our provincialisms are due to
incorrect pronunciation of vowels.

a. Enunciation.— The aspirate, the th, the r, the final t are difficulties.
Various other combinations will suggest themselves, and the student is advised
to compose a list for himself. As good pronunciation depends on vowels, so

172 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

good enunciation depends upon the correct sounding of the consonants. Where
any pronounced and general defect exists vocal drill should be regularly given
for its cure.

3. Articulation. — By articulation is meant the proper Jilting of one syllable
on to another. The derivation of the word (Lat., artus, a joint) reveals its
meaning. It has a threefold reference : —

(a) The proper formation of elementary sounds.

(b) The formation of these sounds into distinct syllables.

Bad articulation is often due to faulty enunciation. Children are slovenly, too
quick, careless, and inattentive at times; w^hereas " in just articulation the words are
not hurried over nor melted together ; they are neither abridged nor prolonged ;
they are not swallowed nor are they shot from the mouth; neither are they
trailed, and then suffered to drop unfinished ; but they are delivered from the
lips, as beautiful coins are issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed,
neatly struck by the proper organs — distinct, sharp, perfectly finished ".

4. Pitch. — School children often read too loud, and their voices are just as
often pitched too high. There can be no invariable standard for all ; but the
pitch generally should be that which permits of an easy, audible, unfatiguing
production.

5. Modulation and Tone. — By modulation is meant variation in the pitch of
the voice, so as to produce what is sometimes called cadence or tone. The rising
and falling inflection gives that change of intonation which makes a voice pleasant
to listen to, and facilitates attention. The tone requires to be pleasant and dis-
tinct, but not boisterous or noisy. Where there is no modulation, for the listener
there is probably little comfort, and for the reader probably less understanding.
These two qualities of reading are difficult to deal with. They are more often
gifts than acquirements, and any drilling in them often produces a stilted and
artificial style.

6. Pace. — The subject matter will always determine the pace. The voice
should give a fair translation of the sentiments it is uttering, or the emotions it
is revealing. But it should never be fast unless the reader is blessed with a clear
and audible production. Drawling is the other extreme, and it is just as bad.
Obviously pace is a varying quantity, and may have to change many times in
the same chapter.

7. Accent. — This is a superior force of voice or of articulative effort upon
some particular syllable of a word distinguishing it from the others. Some-
times it means more than this when it signifies a peculiar or characteristic modu-
lation or modification of the voice, as when we say a person speaks with a good
accent. In poetry it also indicates a slight stress upon a tone to mark its posi-
tion in the measure. In such cases the accent is regular, and marks the flow
of the rhythm.

In GilVs School Management a much wider function is claimed for accent.
There it is stated that " accent is a stress or bounding of the voice, followed by
a slight pause, which groups in pronunciation those words that are so closely
combined in sense as to convey but one notion, and to separate which would be
to destroy the sense. It also draws attention to that word on which the notion
to be conveyed depends. By means of accent phrases are read, not as a succes-
sion of words, but as a series of notions, which are in this way made distinct.
In fact, accent is the expedient by which every distinct notion is separated and
distinguished in reading. In some cases, two phrases are so intimately joined
in sense as to form but one compound notion ; and at such times two accents
are heard, a primary and a secondary — the primary being placed on the word
that limits the phrase, or renders it more specific." If all this can be justly
claimed as the work of accent, then it would have to be classed as a mental
rather than a mechanical quality.

READING. 173

EL MentaL

1. Emphasis. — By this is meant fh^ stress of utterance or force of voice given
to the words or parts of statements intended to be specially impressed on the
listener. It often removes the accent from its natural or customary position to
some other word in the sentence. Its chief effect is to indicate a contrast, e.g. : —

This is the house that Jack built — this and no other.
This is the house that Jack built — as contr^ted with other buildings.
This is the house that Jack built — as contrasted with other builders.
This is the house that Jack built — as contrasted with others he may

have bought, etc.

It requires good analytic power, and it is this that makes it a mental attri-
bute of reading ; for a proper analysis means a clear understanding. There is
a variety of ways of expressing it. The voice may be raised and intensified, or
lowered and softened ; there may be a sudden change of voice, the use of the
pause, or even gesture may be utilised.

2. Phrasing. — This involves a proper understanding and translation of
pimctuation, and something more. Words have to be group>ed into notions,
and the various relations of these groups of words have to be vocally indicated.
Like emphasis, this makes substantial demands on the intelligence, and requires
good analytic power.

8. Fluency. — Ccr\si\n mechanical conditions are essential for fluency. The
typ)e must be good, the light abundant without glare, good eyesight, and a
comfortable position. The words have to be readily recognised and easily
uttered. There must be no physical defects, such as stammering, or faults of
habit, such as slurring, stumbling, and miscalling. The eye has to run on in
advance of the voice, and the mind has to instantaneously interpret the sense.
The words must come naturally. Fluent reading must not be confounded with
rapid reading. Reading may be rapid, but incorrect and unintelligent. It
may be a mere patter or stilted, and in none of these cases is it fluent. Plenty
of practice will be required.

1. Intelligence. — If the reading is to be good the child must understand
what it reads, hence all the methods of teaching any of the school subjects should
be intelligent. Especially in reading lessons will suitable matter have to be
chosen, and suitable explanations given where necessary. Exposition lessons
are particularly serviceable for this purpose. If the reading does not put the
listener in as good a position as the reader, the reading can hardly be called in-
telligent. All the qualities of good reading are essential constituents of intelli-
gent reading, and the absence of any one is a defect.

S. Expression. — This is the highest quality of good reading. It embraces
intelligent reading and something more, for reading may be intelligent without
being expressive. The reader enters into the spirit of the author, and gives it
efficient interpretation. The beauties of the language are presented so as to
appeal to the audience. For its successful production it requires a very sympa-
thetic nature : a nature that can feel the sentiments and emotions revealed with
sufficient reality to give them vitality. It is most difficult to secure; but so far
as it can be imparted, it may be done through the aid of suitable subject matter,
good pattern work, the cultivation of the vocal powers of the class, by plenty of
practice for fluency, by the cultivation of the heart as well as the head, by ex-
planation, and by recitation. Perhaps the recitation of sympathetic pieces will
be the best means, but dialogues, extracts from Shakespeare's plays, and kindred
pieces, will also be serviceable.

From this list of the qualities of good reading the young teacher will easily
be able to enumerate the chief faults of reading. He has only to present the
converse of each quality, such as bad pronunciation, imperfect articulation, etc.,
and the short description appended under each head will enable him to recog-
nise the fault and to suggest its cure.

174 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD

shiSnt bjsading.

Silent reading may be practised sometimes, but always under
supervision, and only in the higher classes, where draft and simul-
taneous reading are less suitable than in the lower classes. A
portion of reading may be mapped out, and the class allowed to
read it, but some oral questioning should follow. A little preparatory
explanation, skilfully and pertinently given, would arouse interest
and make the exercise more successful. The practice has its advan-
tages. The children are taught to cultivate a love for reading in
this way, and this love may show itself in home reading through
the medium of the school or circulating library. The process is
pleasurable, for they read with little or no restriction ; they are
continuously occupied ; they learn to rely on themselves for
grasping the point and meaning of the subject matter; they are
not harassed by the many points of discipline incidental to an
oral reading lesson ; they read with greater physical comfort ;
they read more than by the oral method ; and they become better
spellers.

SIMULTANEOUS HEiADING.

I. Description. — The method and quantity will vary according
to the class. Roughly speaking, there are three stages : (a)
Words ; (b) Phrases ; (c) Sentences.

1. Words. — The teacher reads a word ; the class pronounces
it slowly after him, the enunciation being slow and distinct in
each case. This process is followed to the end of the sentence.
Repetition will probably be necessary. Then the sentence can
be read by a few boys individually. A few sentences may be
treated in this way, and they will be sufficient for one lesson.

2. Phrases. — Here a few words are first read by the teacher,
and then repeated by the class, who point to the words as they
are read. So far as possible, the teacher will make the phrases
notional, and for this purpose the number of words will vary. A
short chapter can be treated in this way, and each chapter should
be mastered as follows : —

(a) The teacher reads z. phrase ; the class reads the next phrase. This pro-
ceeds to the completion oi \h&Jirst period.
{b) The teacher then pattern reads the sentence. The class copies simul-
taneously.
ic) A few scholars might then be asked to read the sentence individually,
d) A whole paragraph could then be recapitulated by individual reading.
e) The whole chapter could be thus treated, paragraph by paragraph.

READING.

175

(/) For variety and emulation the class might then be divided into two
sections, each section reading set portions alternately and simul-
taneously.

[£) The final step should be to read the whole chapter individually.

3. Sentences. — The pupils are now ready for sentences from
their training in the last method. This is the best method : —

emphasis and expression.
{b) The children follow simultaneously, copying the pattern of the teacher.

The whole lesson can be treated in this way.

fc) Sectional emulative simultaneous reading should follow.
d) Individual reading again should be the final stage.

H. "When ITsed. — In the early stages the practice is useless
unless the child is following with its eye what it is saying with its
voice. This makes pointing a necessity, otherwise the child will
repeat from memory, or catch up what the other scholars are
repeating. For these reasons it should be used with some modera-
tion in the earliest classes. As soon as the eye can recognise
words, then it may be used more generally. It will be used most
in the lower classes of the upper departments and in the upper
classes of the infant departments. In the higher classes it has
its uses, and in the large classes of modern primary schools these
uses are important ; but the more individual reading a teacher
can give to his pupils, the better for the pupils.

Advantages.

1. It increases the quantity of reading
for the class.

2. It increases the command over the
organs of voice, and so facilitates y?Menc>.

3. It improves pronunciation, enunciation,
and articulation if carefully taught. Each
has to go the same pace, and each is
encouraged under cover of his class-fellows'
voices to greater vocal effort.

4. The pitch of the voice is regulated,
and modulation is learned, whilst common
faults of intonation are cured.

p. It improves the pace of the reading,
stimulating the slow and checking the fast.

6. It modifies individual mannerisms.

7. It improves the intelligence in some
cases, especially when dove-tailed with
individual reading. From the pattern
reading of the teacher, and from the ex-
ample and influence of the better readers,
more expression is given, and the sense of
the subject matter is better grasped.

Disadvantages.

1. It is uncertain whether the
reader follows with his eye the
words he repeats after the
teacher.

2. Children, from too much
repetition, get to repeat from
memory, and it has often been
found that they can proceed with
the lesson without the aid of the
book.

3. It may, in the. hands of a
poor, lazy, or careless teacher,
encourage idleness, and even
deception.

4. Unless taught with care it
may produce inaccuracy and in-
distinctness, and accentuate the
vocal faults it is well fitted to cure.

176 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD

BACK'WARD HEADERS.

The treatment of backward readers is a difficulty common to
all schools. They require special attention, and should receive it
both during, before, and after the lesson. The treatment will
depend upon the cause, which may be the result of inaptitude or
general dulness.

I. Inaptitude. — The poor reading may be simply a special
case of inaptitude through bad or neglected teaching, or through
relative dislike, owing to a strong preference for other subjects.
Where special aptitudes exist, the teacher should take advantage
of these to improve the reading. A pupil may excel at some
other subject, although he may read and spell badly. The treat-
ment is easy here. Time can well be spared from the strong
subject for the weak one, and thus more practice will be obtained.
The difficulties lie chiefly with word naming.

H. General Dulness. — Special treatment will be required in
these cases.

1. Before the Lesson.

{a) The backward scholars can be taught some of the more difficult words,
which can be written on the B.B. and learnt. The words should be
briefly explained where necessary, as they then become intelligent pic-
tures to the children. The better readers could be employed at some
other subject.

(b) A list of the hardest or strangest words could have been given them the

night before to learn, the teacher having previously pronounced each
word carefully with the class.

{c) V^hex^ parental co-operation is assured, the boys might be permitted to
take home the reading book for the purpose of reading the chapter
through. Where home help is forthcoming this assistance would be
valuable. But, as a rule, this can only be done in better-class schools
— generally where it is least wanted — and even there it will be found
expensive, and at times not over thorough.

[d) Transcription, dictation, or composition may be used before the reading
lesson, to make them familiar with the the chief mechanical difficulties.

2. During the Lesson.

[a] Bad readers should be well under the teacher's eye, so that he may super-
vise them well ; and he should see that they point and follow carefully
all that is read.

{J}) A good reader, as a rule, should follow the pattern reading of the
teacher. It breeds confidence in the boys, for the gpilf between boy and
boy is less than that between teacher and boy. A backward reader
should then follow. He should read the piece through twice — thrice,
if necessary — but he must read it perfectly before he finishes.

simultaneously after the teacher, and then simultaneously without the
teacher, to be followed by one or two individual readers,

3. After the Lesson.

{a) As word naming is the chief difficulty of the backward readers the

READING. 177

teacher might pursue the same course as before the lesson. His list of
words will now have decreased, and a few minutes ought now to be
sufficient.

\b) Where home work is taken, the class might be asked to reproduce the
substance of the chapter as an exercise in composition, or the composi-
tion might be done in school.

(r) A dictation lesson might be given embodying the chief difficult words
which ought to have been previously prepared and learned.

(</) The class might do some transcription from the more difficult portions
of the chapter, and learn the words as they write them.

Remember, it is unwise, as a rule, to place an older scholar in a lower class,
however backward he may be. His feelings are hurt ; he is probably thrown
into a strong emotional state, which is most unfavourable to intellectual
progress ; and a hatred for the subject will be engendered, because his
sympathies and tastes are probably not those of his class-fellows.

HEADINO BOOKS.

I. Their Qualities. — Great care should be exercised in the
choice of reading books, as they bear largely upon the character
of the reading of the school. A book should never be rejected
because it contains a few more pages than another, or a larger
proportion of harder words. Such books are not always the most
difficult to read or to teach. No book should be selected which
does not embrace all the following principles : —

1. It must be well printed and attractive, and calculated to give pleasure.

2. It should impart some knowledge, and it should not be too childish or

silly. A book can be humorous without either of these attributes.

3. It should be written in English, and not in the gibberish found in some

early reading books.

4. It must be able to maintain interest. To do this consecutive stories are

perhaps the best for young scholars. Curiosity and the interest of
pursuit are great in this respect in young children. Short and scrappy
pieces should be avoided, as they kill interest. The so-called " Educa-
tive " books are rarely a success as reading books, and if information
be given at all it must be suitable in style.

5. The book must be progressive. Every lesson should contain a few new

words, slightly increasing in difficulty.

6. The subject matter should aim to cultivate the affections and moral

feelings, without obtruding the moral of the story. The moral can be
wrapjjed up in the story, and so become more effective.

ZI. Vaxiety. — There should always be more than one set of
reading books to a class, as the pleasure of reading is destroyed
by the monotony resulting from a limited supply. The affections
and moral feelings are deadened by the endless repetition of the
same lesson, which thus becomes a mere mechanical exercise,
and nauseates the pupils. But little knowledge can be imparted,
and no love of reading can be implanted, or good spelling outside
such books be expected, or much intelligence be displayed, where
the reading matter is foolishly too limited. It has been demon-
strated repeatedly that those schools read best which do not con-

178 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

vert the minimum laid down in the Code into a maximum.
Remember that one of the great aims of the teaching is to im-
plant a love for the subject in the pupils, which is best attained
by plenty and variety in the reading books.

III. Reading Books in Class Subjects.

1. "Where the Class Subjects are Taught. — Geographical,
historical, and elementary science reading books are valuable
instruments of instruction in these subjects. The books should
be used in all standards above the second. It is optional whether
they are used in the first two standards ; but where the books are
suitable it is desirable. The best reading books for the higher
standards are those which —

(i) Are descriptive and explanatory.

(2) Are suitably illustrated.

(3) Contain sufficient, varied, and interesting matter.

It is not necessary that the lessons in the reading book should
cover the whole area of the course of instruction adopted for the
class subject. It is presumed that the teaching in such a subject
will be mainly oral.

The chief ws^s of the reading book are : —

1. To give greater definiteness to the teaching.

2. To make thorough recapitulation easier and more effective.

3. To invest the subject with new interest.

— (Revised instructions to H,M. Inspectors.)

2. "Where the Subjects are not Taught. — Here the books

will require to be chosen with great care, and they should possess

all the following characteristics : —

[a] The subject matter must be varied and suitable to each standard.

\b) The matter must be interesting ; suggestive rather than exhaustive.

\c) The facts and ideas should be expressed in language suited to the

abilities of the children.
{d) The book should be well and suitably illustrated.
(d?) The lessons should be suitable in length.
( f) The book should be written on some definite plan ; e.g., simple stories

for an early standard ; biographies for another, and so on.
{g) Technical terms should be avoided in all but the highest standards ; and

English equivalents should be found for them.
{h) The teaching, so far as set forth in the subject matter, should be

objective and experimental, and a proper use should be made of maps,

pictures, charts, and diagrams.
(?) There should be no cram elements about the book. Long lists of

names, tables, and tabulations should be omitted. It must always be

remembered that the books are reading books.
(/) Difficult words and ideas should be dealt with as in an ordinary reading

lesson.

If these suggestions are practically heeded, the books will be
found a valuable adjunct to the school education. The aim should

READING. 179

be to quicKen the intelligence by a revelation of the interest of
common things, places, and the incidents of everyday life. If the
reading be attractive, a taste for further reading will have been
given, and this is far more valuable than mere information which
a tenacious memory may retain from the books. The spirit of
inquiry, the thirst for knowledge, the widening of the interest, and
consequently tne increase in the pleasurable and useful poten-
tialities of the pupils, will be a result which, although probably
small in evidence, ought yet to gratify the teacher as the best
success that can attend his efforts.

Fairy Tales as Reading Matter.

Should these fairy tales form part of the literature of our
school children ? There is a conflict of opinion on the subject ;
and arguments pro and con have been advanced, but the weight of
argument seems to be in their favour.

I. Tor.

1. Pleasure. — They are undoubted sources of pleasure, and largely help to
increase the sum total of child happiness, for they carry children into regions
where pure and unadulterated happiness is supreme. They also afford a stock of
fleasant memories.

2. Education. — They breed a lave for reading, and for this reason are worthy
of retention. They also cultivate the imagination.

8. Morality. — They are emotional in their effects, and exercise an influence
on the hearts and dispositions of the children. Every good fairy tale has an
ethical purport. It helps to solve the problems of life by exciting sympathy
with the good and disgust with the bad. Whatever (if anything) can be said
against the fairy tale in this respect, can be said at least with equal force
against the novel, the romance, and the stage. In fact, it is an attractive way
of leaching virtue without unduly obtruding the moral on the children.

*. Faith. — They teach the children to believe in friendly, though invisible,
forces. The " guardian angel " becomes almost a reality to them, and a mental
attitude is formed favourable to the reception of great religious truths, which
rest on faith as their foundation.

6. Hope. —They help the young soul with its hopes and its desires to expand,
and to aim at a high ideal. They lead to a hope for a happiness unknown
in real life, but which nevertheless exists, because it is experienced under the
spell of a fairy tale.

XL Against.

1. Imagination.— They are said to pervert and harm the imagination,
being the creatures of unbridled imaginations themselves. The difficulty in
training the imagination is to regulate it whilst stimulating its growth.

2. Unreality.— They give children false ideas of real life, and so unfit them
for lh«-ir struggle with a matter-of-fact world. They breed folly in weak
minds, and awaken longings which can never be gratified, and so produce a
state of chronic unrest.

8. Biaa. The wicked uncle, the unkind stepmother, and the well-specified
characters of fairy life, often transmit a strong bias against their supposed
prototypes in real life.

i8o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

i. Superfluous. — We now have a rich literature, actually and potentially, and
whatever might have been said in their favour in early days is of much less
value now.

5. Superstition. — They appeared in a more ignorant and a more super-
stitious age than the present. They were written for a superstitious people,
and were based on superstition, and are therefore very unsuitable for the present
enlightened age.

RECITATION.

Recitation is a great aid to a good vocal delivery and intelli-
gent reading. Here the mechanical difficulties are at a minimum,
and almost the whole attention can be concentrated on the intelli-
gent rendering of the passage. Really good reading is not the
gift of the many, for it makes considerable physical and mental
demands upon pupils. Those demands can be partly met, with
the assistance of other aids, by good practice in recitation, which
assists in developing the requisite qualities.

I. Physical Qualities.

{a) Confidence. — Many pupils are afraid of their own voices when reciting,
or they are ignorant of their own capabilities. Recitation removes the
one and reveals the other where it exists. From reciting in chorus the
pupil gains sufficient confidence to recite alone.

{3) Yocal Delivery. — A thorough control of the vocal organs is required
for good recitation, and practice will help to give this. Clearness,
distinctness, well-pitched tone, with good articulation and varying
cadence, are absolutely essential qualities of the voice for creditable
work of this kind.

(c) Strength. — Exercise strengthens faculty. A weak, piping voice, a bull-
throated larynx— both are obstacles. The one needs strength to
develop it, the other practice to restrain it. Varying demands are
often made upon the physical capabilities in rendering recitation in the
higher classes ; the range may vary, from the impassioned utterance to
the gentlest whisper.

H. Mental Qualities.

(a) Intelligence.— The pupil may be drilled to repeat certain sounds at a
certain pitch, but if there is no intelligence the audience is soon aware
of the fact. The pupil must understand what he is saying, and he
must give expression to that understanding by voice (and gesture some-
times).

{^) Soul.— It is a fine means for cultivating the soul or finer feelings. It is
an antidote to that metallic vocalism which chills. Teach the pupils to
enter into the feelings, the sentiments of the piece, and to translate
those feelings into their voices. All this can be done by recitation, for
the amount is limited, and there is time for plenty of explanation,
pattern work, and repetition. The correct rendering of the piece by
the teacher throws a flood of light upon the sentiments expressed in
the extract.

HI. Advantages.— These are not confined to reading only.
{a) It improves the taste by forming acquaintance with the choice portions
of some of our choice authors.

READING.

i8i

(i)

It cultivates the imagination, for poetry is a g^eat field for imagination.

The power of picturing what has never been seen but only described

is of the utmost value to education.

As the fancy often requires restraining it must be guided, and this is one of the

methods of doing it. In other cases it requires stimulating ; but in all

cases the natural laws of its operation must be followed. For this purpose

the pieces selected for recitation should be graded.

It widens the scholar's mind by giving him new thoughts.

It improves the power of composition by giving him the best models

for imitation, and by storing specimens in his memory.
It has already been shown to improve the style of the reading.

ZV. Pieces Suitable for Recitation.

Title of Piece.

The Loss of the Royal George
The Soldier's Dream
The Death of the Flowers
I Remember, I Remember
The Voice of Spring
The Child's First Grief -

Author's
Name.

Cowper.

Campbell*

Bryant.

Hood.

Howitt.

Hemans.

No. of
Lines.

The Shepherd in Winter
Casablanca - - -
Dickens in Camp -
Bruce and the Spider
Lord Ullin's Daughter -
Hector and Andromache

Scott.

Hemans.

Bret Harte.

Cook.

Campbell.

Pope.

The Cloud ...
We are Seven - - -
Ode to the North-East Wind
Lucy Gray - - -
The Battle of Blenheim -
Ye Mariners of England

Shelley.

Wordsworth.

C. Kingsley.

Wordsworth.

Southey.

Campbell.

Brave Lord Willoughby -

The Night before Waterloo

To a Skylark -

The Wreck of the Hesperus

The Shipwreck

The Slave's Dream

The Battle of Agincourt - - - -

Horatius

On the Receipt of my Mother's Picture
Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
Nanhaugbt the Deacon - - -

Old Ballad.

Byron.

Shelley.

Longfellow.

Byron.

Longfellow.

Drayton.

Macaulay.

Cowper.

Gray.

Whittier.

1 20
103
121
100
128
107

L- Allegro- - - -
II Penseroao . . -
Mark Antony's Speech -
Brutus and Cassius
Hubert and Arthur -
Henry VIII.— Fall of Wolsey

Milton.

Shakespeare.

15a
176
136
151
130
J54

i82 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — What is meant by simultaneous reading? How should it be conducted, and
what is the use of it ?

2. — What is meant by tone, accent, emphasis, and expression in reading? Say why
they need special attention, and how you can best deal with them.

3. — Say what sort of reading lessons you have found most interesting to young chil-
dren, and describe the way in which you would try to secure distinct articulation.

4. — Name a few words which are specially difficult for young children to read
owing to the presence of silent letters.

5. — What is meant by distinct articulation in reading? Name any words which
present special difficulty to learners, and mention any form of exercise that is most
useful in correcting faulty articulation.

6. — Explain the use which a teacher should make of simultaneous and of pattern
reading, and say what objection (if any) there is to an excessive use of either method.

7. — In teaching the elements of reading to young children, say whether it is better
to begin with little words and afterwards call attention to the letters, or to begin with
the alphabet and afterwards make up simple words. Give your reasons.

8. — Give explanations (brief) of any difficulties in the following passage, proposed as
a reading lesson to scholars in the Second Standard : —

'* Who is this that cometh from the south, thinly clad in a light transparent
garment? Her breath is hot and sultry; she seeks the refreshment of the
cool shade ; she seeks the crystal brook to bathe her languid limbs. The
tanned hay-makers welcome her coming, and the sheep-shearer, who clips the
fleeces of his flock with his sounding shears."

9. — What are the chief difficulties to be encountered in teaching infants to read ?
Detail the apparatus required for children below seven years of age.

10. — Detail some of the advantages and disadvantages of teaching reading by the
alphabetic method.

II— Write out some sentences containing five or six words which would present
difficulties to each of the three lowest standards, and explain the progressive character
of your method.

12. — What preparation should be made by a young pupil teacher before giving a
reading lesson to a lower class, both as regards the language and the matter of the
lesson ?

13. — In the following sentence explain the peculiar difficulties presented by the
words in italics in the early stages of reading : —

" He would take no pains to teach any boy who could not at least write what
boys of eight years old can write ".

14. — What especial care would you bestow upon the less advanced readers in your
class before, during, or after a reading lesson ? How can home lessons be utilised for
teaching reading ?

15. — What should be the next steps in reading after a child has mastered the forms
of the letters and powers of the vowels ? Give examples of a few such lessons.

16. — Explain how the reading of dialogue and recitation may be employed to remedy
want of intelligence in reading. For what reasons should- more than one set of reading
books be employed in each class ?

17. — Which subjects of instruction can be best taught by reading books, and which
by oral lessons ? Give reasons in each case for your classification.

18. — Name some of the qualities of good reading.

19. — What special help should be given to an older child backward in reading, to
obviate his being placed in a class of younger children ? What harm would it do a
child to be so placed ?

20. — Give some rules which you intend to follow for securing (i) distinct articula-
tion ; (2) intelligent expression in reading.

21.— What are the commonest faults which you have found in the reading of chil-
dren ? How would you correct these faults ?

22. — It is sometimes complained that children do not read well because their reading
lessons are constantly interrupted by the oral spelling of the more difficult words. Do
you consider such interruption necessary, and, if not, how may good spelling be attained
without it ?

23. — Explain what may be done by the help of reading books to impart geographical
and historical information in schools in which geography and history are not taken as
class subjects.

24. — Name some poetical pieces or extracts suited for recitation in any three of the
classes, either in an infant school or in a school of older children, and say what is the
use of memory exercises of this kind.

25. — What is meant by style and expression in reading, and how can they best be
taught ?

26. — What is the best way of arranging a class for a reading lesson so as to secure
(fl) distinctness of utterance, and {b) readiness on the part of the scholars to observe and
correct mistakes ?

READING. 183

27. — It is said that some children know their reading books almost by heart, and
that when examined they are only reciting, not reading. How could you detect this
fault, and by what means could you guard against it ?

28. — What is the use of pattern reading in teaching a class to read ? Mention any
common faults which a good teacher should avoid in giving such lessons.

29. — Explain what is the best use to make of a box of movable letters in an infant
class.

30. — Describe a plan followed in your school in beginning to teach the youngest
children to read.

31.— Point out the silent letters in " light," " height," " which," " colour," " tremble ".

32. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of simultaneous reading, and when
and how should the practice be adopted ?

33. — What are the chief points to be kept in view in teaching the art of reading?
Name the advantages, if any, of exercises in silent reading in school.

TAis Chapter is continued in the Appendix.

184

CHAPTER X.

SPELLING.

Spelling is one of the most difficult branches of school educa-
tion. Children learn to spell correctly with difficulty, and forget
what they have learnt with ease ; they spend years in acquiring,
and little more than weeks in forgetting. Some never spell cor-
rectly at all ; and absolutely correct spelling is anything but a
general accomplishment, even among educated people. The
subject is one mass of anomalies, and the national waste in acquir-
ing such a system is beyond computation. In company with our
cumbrous system of compound rules in arithmetic, it handicaps
our youth heavily in the educational race, and prevents very
valuable time being spent in a much more productive manner.
Attempts have been made to introduce systems of phonetic spell-
ing, but with no success at present. The spread of phonography
or shorthand may yet have a big influence in modifying our
spelling into something easier, especially if it should ever become
generally taught. The objections to change rest on mighty bases
which will require much to move them. The habits of the people,
their reluctance to face the labour of a change, the opposition of
the printing trade, the great loss of capital involved, and the de-
struction of the historic evidence contained on the faces of the
words themselves, will always be obstacles to change, however
desirable some may think it. In a language so arbitrary as ours,
spelling must always be a difficulty, hence the teacher needs to
study the best ways and means of teaching the subject.

"Ways of Teaching- Spelling-.

1. The Reading Lesson.

(c) Spelling is a matter for the eye. Reading gives plenty of practice to the
eye, and the recurrence of word pictures fixes them in the memory
through the eye.

(b) Formal spelling forms a part of many reading lessons. The eye, the
ear, and the voice all unite to fix word impressions.

SPELLING. 185

2. Lists of Words. — These are sometimes given as home work. The
words are generally selected from the school reading books, and this method
has practically supplanted the use of the old spelling book. The meaning
should always be given, as it brings intelligence and interest to bear on the
work. The old sp)elling books were often published with meanings, but as ex-
planation was the exception probably, and not the rule, the meanings were of
little use, often being mere synonyms or being expressed in language as
obscure or meaningless as the word itself. The words should be grouped (and
this could be done in several ways), which would bring variety — another
essential for interest ; e.g. : —

1. Like combinations and unlike sounds) Trrprniiar

2. Like sounds and unlike combinations ) °^ '

3. Like sounds and like combinations — Regular or phonetic.
As an example, take the words rough, should, which, many.

Rough. — This word is made the basis for grouping a large number of words,
to which the principles of comparison and contrast are applied ; e.g. : —
Rough is compared with Tough, ruff, puff, buff, stuff, etc.
„ contrasted ,, Cough, off, north, broth, etc.

,, Dough, although, low, know, etc.
,, Bough, plough, sough, cow, etc.
,, Through, hew, knew, hue, Jew, etc.
Should is compared with Could, would, wood, hood, good, etc.

contrasted ,, Boulder, moulder, ghoul, soul, etc.
Which is compared Wwh Witch, rich, ditch, hitch, pitch, etc.

contrasted ,, Greenwich, Woolwich.
Many is compared with Any, penny, jenny, fenny.
,, contrasted ,, Company, manifold, manly.

3. Transcription. — See notes on Transcription.

4. Dictation. — See notes on Dictation.

5. Formal Spelling Lessons. — These are still given in some schools. They
are profitable, for they admit oi graded systematic teaching. Generally, however,
they are preliminaries to some other lesson like reading or dictation. The
teacher's chief task for success is to make such lessons interesting, and this must
be done by classification, suitable explanation, mark giving or place taking, and
by a bright, sympathetic manner in questioning.

6. General Work. — Spelling enters into most of the general work of the
school. It is a chronic difficulty, and requires continuous teaching and practice.
Whenever and wherever a spelling error occurs, as a rule, then and there it
should be corrected.

7. Composition. — This affords a good test of spelling, which is generally
worse in composition than in other lessons. The divided attention demanded
by the subject probably accounts for this. Word building is a good exercise,
both for sp>elling, composition, and grammar. A sample syllabic combination
can be taken, and words can be built from it ; e.g. : —

•at c-at so-at sc-at-ter scat-ter-ed

-at p-at sp-at sp-at-n sp-at-u-la

not -with -stand -Ing

nev -er -the -less, and so on.

8. Observation. — Childish curiosity and activity show themselves in the
reading of miscellaneous matter like shop names and advertisements. Encourage
it, for it is a good aid.

9. Literature. — Easy story books, fables, and childish literature generally
are more or less now within the reach of most children, and the reading of these
aids spelling. School libraries assist older scholars, but they make no provision
for younger scholars.

10. Spelling Contests.— These were in great fashion as ".Spelling Bees" a
few years since ; and although they have dropped out of public favour, there is
no reason why they should not be maintained in the school. They stimulate
emulation and effort, and that desire for success which can only be obtained by
constant preparation.

i86 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Faults in the Teaching of Spelling^.

1. The ear and the tongue are appealed to rather than the eye. Both should

be used, but there should be observation as well as repetition. The
deaf and dumb generally spell correctly, and this is some evidence as
to the value of the eye. Then the visual or pictorial memory is stronger
in most people than the verbal, hence the eye should be used more than
the tongue and the ear. Spelling is essentially a matter for the eye,
for, after all, it is nothing more nor less than the mastery of form ; but
the tongue and the ear can be brought in as aids to strengthen the
associative links.

2. Lists of disconnected isolated words are given to be learnt, w^hereas they

should be chosen from lessons done or to be done.

3. The number of syllables is generally the only basis of classification. This

is not scientific. The words should be grouped, and plenty of use
made of contrast and comparison.

4. The meanings of words should always be g^ven, not in set definitions,

but in suitable explanation, so that each word may as far as possible
become notional to the class. The meanings, when required, are too
often overlooked or neglected.

5. Dictation should always be prepared in the lower classes, so that the right

form may be first learned, and then there will be nothing to unlearn.
Teachers are often too anxious to test by dictation before they have
prepared by spelling or transcription.

6. More use should be made of composition exercises. It has already been

pointed out that spelling is often worse in composition than in other
spelling exercises, and it generally reveals many of the special weak-
nesses of each pupil. The teacher then knows where to concentrate
his work.

7. There should be lessons in word building. It is a good phonetic and

synthetic exercise, and it gives confidence to the children, and so helps
to check that demoralisation which often attacks young scholars when
they are undergoing repeated shocks of spelling anomalies.

8. There is often an absence of incidental aids like phrase spelling, classified

spellings, and spelling bees. All of these have their use and their
value, and they should not be neglected.

9. Spellings are sometimes taught at the wrong time, although such times

must be very rare. But to obtrude the spelling of a word when the
class is deeply interested in some experiment, illustration, or descrip-
tion, is to attempt the right thing at the wrong time.

Difficulties in Spelling.

Our anomalous and defective alphabet is the chief source of
these difficulties. Mr. Gill in his School Method emphasises this
fact by showing that ten selected letters have thirty-eight sounds,
and furthermore that seventeen sounds have ninety-eight different
ways of representing them. These are the difficulties of be-
ginners.

I. ^gher Classes. — The thorough and successful teacher
will always make sufficient preparation for all lessons where pre-
paration is necessary ; and so in spelling preparatory observations
should be made as to its difficulties before proceeding to write
from dictation. The words must not only be learnt, but the
difficulties as they exist in each word must be pointed out and

SPELLING, 187

compared with similar syllables and similar sounds. These diffi-
culties, from their very nature, need frequent rather than prolonged
attention. Spelling is a memory exercise, so that there must be
repetition, concentration, and interest, for without these memory
is weak. To make a spelling lesson interesting requires some
skill and preparation. Furthermore, the class should thoroughly
understand the piece ; hence, where necessary, words should be
explained. The following fragment might be taken as an ex-
ample : —

H. Preparation for Class.

A. Subject Matter. — " The watery dykes display luxuriant
verdure; bulrushes and water/lags have attained their freshness;
willows are rich with foliage in sylvan nooks ; agreeably hidden in
a leafy arbour you may catch glimpses of the retiring denizens of
the more secluded labyrinths of the forests" (1883).

1. Have the piece read simultaneously, and then by several scholars indi-

vidually, either from the B. B. or books.

2. Underline the difficult words after having written the piece on the B. B.

The piece should have been, previous to the lesson, already written on
theB.B.

3. ti aw group the words as far as possible, and deal with them both as to

spelling and meaning seriatim.

B. "Words.

1. Watery, agreeably, leafy. Note the y sound in each word, -y, -ly, -y.

Compare with -ie, -ey, -ee, -ea, -i (foliage). Explain the words, and
then have them learnt.

2. Luxuriant) bulrushes, secluded. Call attention to the different sounds

of the -u. Explain words, and have them learnt. Previously a speci-
men or picture of a bulrush might have been shown. Bui (syllable)
should be compared with bull (a complete word). Se might be com-
pared with sea, see, -cei.

3. Sylvan, dykes, labyrinth. Note the y sound again, and contrast with

I. Explain the words, and have them learnt. Sketch or show a
picture of a dyke. Derivations may be given in many cases to an
advanced class, especially if they throw any light upon the history of
the words and their changes of meanings.

4. Attained. Compare pain, gain, Cain, lain, drain, stain, etc.

Contrast mane, pane, rein, reign, deign, bane, etc.

5. Denizens. A phonetic word. Explain the meaning, and have the

spelling learnt.

6. The words might now be rapidly recapitulated in their spelling, and the

class will then be ready for the dictation or reading.

m. Zjower Claases. — With younger children the method
pursued should be somewhat different. Take the following piece
for children in the Second Standard : —

A. Subject Matter.— "The tiger's tongue is so rough that if it
were to lick your hand it would cause blood to flow ; its colour is a

1 88

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

light tawny brown with beautiful black stripes ; its feet are cushioned,
and it has whiskers to help it feel its way" (1880).

B. Words.

1. Tiger's. Here the apostrophe is the difficulty. Show that it denotes

possession; convert to "the tongue of the tiger"; note that it is
singular, and contrast with the plural form (tigers').

2. Tongue. The letters ue are silent ; the o has a u sound, hence the word

is pronounced tung: Compare with rung; sung, hung, bung, dun^.

3. Rough. The most tiresome syllable in the English language. See

' ' Ways of Teaching Spelling ".

4. Would. Compare with could and should— s\Qxi'i I; and contrast with

wood, hood, good.

5. Blood. The -00 has the sound oi a {= blM). Contrast with hood, wood,

good ; and compare with mud, stud, spud.

6. Flow and brown. Note the difference of the -ow sound in the two words.

Compare /low with know, sow, stow, throw, etc., and brown with cow,
row, now.

7. Colour. Silent u. Compare with parlour, governour, labour ; explain

that these words are now sometimes spelt without the u, as in color,
labor.

8. Tawny. Compare tawn-y with lawn, pawn, dawn, and contrast with

torn, corn, morn, ior-lorn.

9. Beautiful. Explain beau, and have it spelled. Point out the difference

in spelling hetween/ull (word) and/ul (suffix).

10. Cushioned. Its length, strangeness, the t, and the pronunciation would

constitute its difficulties here. The first part of the word could be
compared with push, and contrasted with lush and rt^sh. But the
meaning having been given, repetition and writing will be the best
means of learning this word.

11. Whiskers. The O.E. wh {hw) is the difficulty here probably. The

regular observance of the proper pronunciation of who, which, what,
when, where, and why would make this difficulty easy.

12. Finally the words should be v^ritten on the B. B. ; the class should be

allowed to learn them, and subsequently they should be dictated in the
piece of composition to which they belong. The errors (if any) should
then be dealt with and learned.

The Classification of Difficult "Words.

The Teachers' Monthly in the November number of 1893 con-
tained the following list of 200 words (which were adjudged the
best of a number of lists submitted) as being typical of the errors
that are most likely to occur in the dictation exercises of Standard
III. The list was furnished by Mr. Mitchell, Schoolhouse, Ferry-
side, Carmarthenshire, and the classification is a very good one.

I. Tendency to omiiXeitvc^,

beginning
safety

beaMtiful

wooUen

address

shep/ierd

king-dom

slip/)ery

compel/ed

agreeable

success

swimming

biggest

hottest

except

carriage

ascend

generaUy

opposite

immediate

marnage

descend

stre/ching

possess

whiteness

travel/er

disap/>oint

foMrth

tem/)tation

quarrel/ing

account

government

forgetHng

likeness

forgiveness

dif/icult

addition

thinner

safely

redder

convenient

occasion

daisies

particwlar

occurred

pleasant

useful

surprised

accustom

sup/jose

af/ord

jealous

reaUy

get«ng

dessert

SPELLING

•

II. Tendency to insert letters not required

burOied

untilO

tigOress

welOcome

linOen

wis()dom

wcx>d()en

al()most

pasOtime

necOessary

subOtractioi.

hundOreds

umbOrellaO

grieOvous

deliOver

quarrelOsome

obligOing

imOage

perOil

ful()fil()

welOfare

misOtaken

imOagine

tresOpass

skilOfuK)

alOways

travelO

exOercise

shinOing

preOsently

drownOed

truOly

alOready

bal()ance

us()ing

III. Tendency to mistake von>eit.

bMStness

grammar

separate

divide

pursue

governor

cotton

standard

visible

surface

purchase

doctor

sj'stem

scholar

persuade
figures

senstble

basm

leisure

destroy

sailor

sugar

manners

different

regular

IV. Tendency to mistalie consonants.

nephew

medicine

clothes

picture

pro/it
prophet

monarcA

duchess

conceal

expense

ancAor

accident

grocer

physic

i practise
( practice

certainly

chimney

ra^or

Y. Tendency to reverse order (ei, ie, oi).

believe

pieces

receive

violent

mischtVf

reUrve

siege

conceive

violet

grief
fiery

niece

seize

thieves

friendship

series

YI. Silent letters.

knowledge

neighbour

y^nitting

cu/> board

solemn

ploughing

unu;holesome

scenery

Arnocking

autumn

ulet

dimming

rou^Aly
wrouF/tt
n&ughty

doubtfully

column

foreign
indeeted

answer

kiln

tombstone

sovereign

althoug'fe

dough

YII. Miscellaneous.

J current
J currant

( course
( coarse

(whether

'rowed
■ rode
^road

advise

< weather

advice

fatigue

view

( wether

error

plateau

colonel

scythe

stomach

patience

tight

wreck

desOert

valleys

189

Rules for Spelling^.

If the teacher should decide to give formal spelling lessons in
school, or to supply lists of words for home work, h might make
use of the rules of spelling which have been ably formed by Pro-
fessor Meiklejohn in his new spelling book. In such cases the
rule should first be learned inductively. Plenty of examples should
be given, and from these the rule should be discovered and given.
Then the lists of words might be committed to memory. But
there are two primary objections to such lessons. Spelling is
usually learned as a preparation for some other lesson, and the
choice of words will necessarily be limited by the subject matter
of that lesson. This would necessitate the introduction of a
number of strange (to the lesson) words for the purpose of dis-
covering the rule, or the rules will only be capable of partial
application ; and, secondly, the numder of exceptions is so large
as to make the total result sometimes confusing. Perhaps the

igo A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Dest way to solve the difficulty would be to have a number of
formal spelling lessons, and then in such cases as preparation for
dictation, or in the correction of spelling errors, each case could
be brought under its own rule at once. That is, for the correction
of errors, the rule should be applied deductively. One or two
rules are given here as types, but the student could form others
for himself, or he could get a copy of the book referred to, where
he will find all that he wants.

1. When the vowels ei and ie have the sound of ee, ei follows c, but ie all

other consonants.

When e and i, or i and e are sounded like the e in me.
After all consonants but c the i must go before the e.

Exceptions : Jinancier, plebeian, seize, weird.

If the diphthong has any other sound than ee, the order of the letters is
always ei.

2. A final y is changed into i when a syllable is added, unless —

(a) The affix begins with i, as ing, ish, ist.

(b) The y is preceded by a vowel.

Exceptions : dryness, shyness, etc. ; shyly, daily, gaiety, gaily, laid, plaid,
said, slain.

3. The final ^ of a word is retained when a syllable beginning with a

consonant is added, but dropped if the affix begins with a vowel.
Exceptions: abridgment, acknowledgment, argument, awful, duly, judgment,
lodgment, truly, wholly, woful, etc.

Transcription.
I. Its Functions.

1. To Teach Spelling. This is its primary function, and it does it in a

natural way — through the eye. If followed by spelling orally and dic-
tation, the words become permanently fixed.

2. Practice in Writing. Care and attention can be given to the writing,

although this is a subordinate object of the lesson.

3. Style. If the pieces are well chosen, some of the pupils may be gradually

leavened with the style of the author ; but if is feared that, as a rule,
the exercise becomes too mechanical to have much influence of that
kind.

4. Grammar. The frequent transcription of correct forms of speech tends

to the use of correct language, and this, too, in an easy way.

5. Punctuation. What has b^en said of grammar is equally true of

punctuation, which is always a difficulty with scholars.

6. Discipline. It engenders habits of carefulness, for it demands minute

inspection for accuracy, and for this reason it is not an easy exercise.
Furthermore, the sentiments expressed in the subject matter, and
slowly transcribed by the pupil, have better opportunities (from their
brevity, and the comparative leisure offered for their comprehension) of
fixing themselves in the minds of the scholars.

n. Its Conditions.

1. The subject matter must be understood by the children.

2. All errors must be carefully corrected, and the corrections icarned.

3. The time for the lesson will vary. In the lower classes it should follow a

reading lesson, in which the subject matter has been read and explained.
In the higher classes it can be used with more freedom. Its best use
will be as a preparation for dictation.

SPELLING. 191

TTT Subject Matter. — In the early stages, the pieces will be
chosen principally with a view to the maximum advantages in
spelling, and with a due regard to the handwriting. But when the
handwriting is well formed, the teacher can then select passages
without any particular attention to the writing. He can then
concentrate the attention on the —

1. Difficulties of orthography or derivation ; or upon the

2. Difficulties of style ; or upon the

3. Difficulties of grammar

In such cases the lesson will be something more than a mere aid
to spelling ; it will become an instrument of culture, by elevating
the style or the thoughts, or by enriching the expressive vocabu-
lary of the pupils.

Dictation.

I. Its Function. — This is one of the methods of teaching
spelling and composition. It teaches spelling indirectly and
composition directly. The chief aim of a dictation lesson should
be to prevent, not to correct mistakes. For this reason it is
necessary that it should usually be preceded by some kind of
preparation, so that its real office becomes a testing rather than
a teaching one.

H. Subject Matter.

1. Suitability. The subject matter must be suitable to the capacities of

the children. The thoughts and language should be within the grasp
of their comprehension, and the limit should be kept within a little
explanation from the teacher.

2. Preparation. It must be prepared in most cases. For young pupils to

write unseens is to learn to write mistakes. Unseens are tests only,
and our difficult system of spelling makes preparation absolutely
essential.

3. Qaantity. Long pieces may be a test of physical endurance, or of

juvenile hard- headed ness ; but they can scarcely claim to be safe tests
either of knowledge or intelligence, for the strain is too great for some
pupils. It is not the quantity dictated, but the amount corrected
which has the educational value. The amount will grow with the
growing power of retaining phrases in the mind.

4. Teacher. The teacher must dictate the words once only. The dis-

ciplinary effect of this is great. He should previously read the passage
through in a clear, deliberate voice, especially if the piece is a test.
But he must never forget that distinct speech is no substitute for pre-
paration.

m. Correction. — The methods of correction will generally

depend upon the quantity and quality of the staff. There are four

principal methods in use.

1. Indivldaal Correction by the Teacher.— This is the best method, but
certain objections are alleged against it.

192 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

{a) It is too expensive in time to be done in school hours.
(d) It is unjust to expect a teacher to do it ouf of school hours as a rule.
Such methods of correction should be the exception and not the rule.

2. Monitorial Correction. — In some schools monitors or curators are
selected to examine the work. It is an office of trust and responsibility, and
so becomes an aid to diligence and progress. But this, like all other methods,
is open to objections.

{a) It is unfair to the monitors. It is a wearying task ; and unless special

arrangements are made for the adequate instruction of the monitors,

they lose their own lessons.
{(5) If the monitors are paid this objection disappears, but even then there is

a very poor return for so much fagging work.
{c) It involves implicit trust in the monitors. The monitor, remembering

his tender years, may prove unreliable from some cause or other.
[d) The monitor, from fatigue, or indifference, or a weak sense of duty, may

correct carelessly.
{e) Monitorial correction may breed ill-feeling in the class.

3. Inter-Correction. — This is the method usually adopted. The children
change slates or books, and correct each other's work. They are thus revising
the lesson and correcting at the same time. The method is open to serious
objections

(a) It tends to collusion between scholars to mark work dishonestly.

\b) It gives opportunities for the display of petty spite, malice, revenge, etc. ,

in the incorrect marking of exercises.
(c) It leads to disputes, bad feeling, and disorder. Children are prepared

to dispute the marking of a fellow-pupil.

4. Self-Correction. — This method allows the class to correct their own
work at the dictation of the teacher. It is the same process of correction as
3, with the exception that each pupil marks his own books. Its objections
are: —

[a) It places too great a strain upon the moral strength of ^ some of the
pupils. There are more moral weaklings than either physical or mental
ones, and it is unwise and unjust to set many a moral task beyond
their moral strength.

{b) The primary object of correction is usually defeated — the throwing up
boldly of all errors. There is too much self-tenderness with this
method. Errors are either passed over, or else marked so faintly or so
minutely as almost to escape attention.

rv. The Moral Side of Correction. — All correction should be
done with the greatest care, and in a reasonable period of time.
Books should rarely be kept more than a day or two. The care-
less correction of errors produces a whole crop of evils, some
of the chief of which are as follows : —

1. A habit of carelessness is bred in the pupils. They become untidy in

their methods, their lessons, and sometimes in their habits generally.

2. Deceit is engendered. The pupil is induced to cheat, because there is less

probability of detection.

3. It would cause laziness and probably indifference, for where a lack of

care, and by inference a lack of interest are shown by the teacher, the
infection will soon spread to the scholars and develop into laziness.

4. It increases the difficulties of school work. The pupil will cease to

respect the teacher, and so discipline and teaching will become harder.
This may lead to Increased severity or increased carelessness on the
part of the teacher.

5. The tone of the school will deteriorate. A careless teacher puts himself

on an inclined plane, and the rate of his descent increases. In-

SPELLING. 193

difference, untidiness, laziness, cheating, untruthfulness, loss of
respect, all may arise from the careless correction of work.

6. It is unjust to the pupils. Each error is like a signpost guiding the

direction of the teaching, for errors indicate the individual wants of the
pupils. If these errors are carelessly treated, the child is deprived of
that attention and training which it has a right to expect, and which it
is just as rightly expected the teacher will give him.

7. It is wasteful, for much time, interest, power, and zeal are lost.

NOTES ON A DICTATION IjESSON.

[Chiss — Standard III. Time — ^o minutes.)
I. Class Arrang^ement.

1. Arrange the class as widely apart as the desk space will allow.

2. See that the ink wells have been properly filled.

3. Have the dictation books and pens given out.

This is best done by placing the required number at the end of each row,
and by having them passed upon the sign or command of the teacher.

Dictation books should be used — not pieces of paper. The book then
becomes a register of progress both in handwHting and spelling. WTien filled,
these books should be preserved by the teacher, for they allow him to collect
and classify all the commonest spelling errors of the class, and so to arrange
his future lessons to meet these recurring errors. He should not burden his
lessons with words of rare occurrence.

n. Class Preparation.

1. The piece may have been previously prepared either —
(a) In the Reading Lesson.

1^) In the Transcription Lesson.
\c\ In a Spelling Lesson.
\d) In Special Class Work.
\e) In Composition Exercises,
(/) In Home Work.

2. If not, write the following words on the B.B., and have them learnt : —
Curfew, Tolls, Knell, Ijnving, Lea, Ploughman, Weary, Glimmtringy

Landscape, Drowsy, etc.
Have them spelt simultaneously and then individually.

3. Or have the piece previously written upon the B.B., underline the most

difficult words, and turn the B. B. to the class so that the words may
be learned. This is a good method, as the teacher cannot successfully
anticipate the difficulties of every boy, whilst this method allows each
boy to run through and select his own difficulties.

T¥T Dictation. —Read the passage through slowly and dis-
tinctly onu; then dictate in phrases, samples of which are marked

below : —

ZV. CorrecHoB.

I. Change books; vary the method, sometimes with the boy in front,
sometimes with the one behind ; to the ri^ht to the left ; the end boy
on the right hand of each row to pass hw book to the left-hand boy
of his row, and then return to his place. Then pass the rest of the
books one place to the right.

194 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. (a) Spell the passage through distinctly, and have each misspelt word

marked through in each book. The total number of errors should be
put at the end of the exercise. If the word is underlined it allows
more chance of alteration and consequent dispute. Marking through
prevents this.

{b) Or let them correct from their reading books, if the piece be taken from
a reading book. In this case the right number of books should have
been previously placed at the end of each row, and when the books
have been exchanged, upon the sign of the teacher the books should
be passed and the page announced.

{c) Or it can be corrected by having the piece previously written on the B.B.
Everything is then ready (see No. 3 under Class Preparation).

3. Books to be changed back to their owners.

4. Now write the most difficult words on the B.B. Methods (b) and {c) avoid

this waste of time.

5. Have the errors carefully written under the exercise, learned, and

repeated to the teacher, who is moving quietly about the class hearing
mistakes spelt, inspecting books, and marking the exercises. If the
class is very large, one or two of the best pupils might be called upon
to assist.

V. Conclusion. — The dictation books and reading books (if
used) to be passed to the ends of the desks ; the pens also should
be passed unless required for the next lesson.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Name eight words in the spelling of which young children often make mistakes,
and explain by what sort of exercises such mistakes may be corrected or avoided.

2. — Take the following v/ords, and give a list of others which might be grouped with
them for a spelling lesson : rough, should, which, many, taught.

3. — What preparatory observations as to difficulties of spelling should be made before
proceeding to write from dictation the following passage ? —

" The watery dykes display luxuriant verdure ; bulrushes and water-flags have

attained their freshness ; willows are rich with foliage in sylvan nooks ;

agreeably hidden in a leafy arbour you may catch glimpses of the retiring

denizens of the more secluded labyrinths of the forests ".

4. — Distinguish the uses of dictation and transcription lessons for children lately

transferred from an infant school.

5. — Show that some words would present special difficulties of spelling in the follow-
ing passage, dictated to children who had not passed the Second Standard : —

" The tiger's tongue is so rough, that if it were to lick your hand it would cause
blood to flow ; its colour is a light tawny brown, with beautiful black stripes ;
its feet are cushioned, and it has whiskers to help it feel its way".
6. — Before giving out a passage for dictation, what preparation is needed to prevent
possible misspellings ?

7. — Describe the various methods used to teach spelling in your school. Did you
rely chiefly on the eye or on the ear in teaching spelling ?

8. — Give some (not more than six) of the commonest misspellings of children in the
First Standard, and account for each natural confusion in spelling. How did you correct
written exercises in spelling ?

9. — How have you been accustomed to give a dictation lesson ? How was the exer-
cise corrected ? What expedients were adopted to prevent copying ?

10. — How would you conduct a dictation lesson to the Third Standard ? How should
the mistakes be corrected ?

II. — Mention any twelve words, the spelling of which presents special difficulty to
young learners ; and say by what sort of exercises you can best help such learners to
spell them correctly.

12. — What points would you chiefly keep in view in giving a dictation lesson ?
13.— Name some of the commonest faults of young assistants in teaching spelling.
How much of a spelling exercise should be oral, and how much should be written ?

195

CHAPTER XI.

WRITING.

Writing is important and valuable both for its practical worth
and its aid to training. It is a recognised and essential means of
communication in private life. It bridges distance, and brings
the absent within the range of conversation. Its business im-
portance is too obvious to need comment. Professionally it may
generally be taken to indicate the character of the school and its
work. It appeals easily and readily to the parents as an index of
the progress of their children ; a just pride is bred, which reacts
favourably on the school reputation, and consequently upon its
attendance. Nor is its literary value less. Before the invention
of printing all books were written, and they still have to be
written, although they are given to the world in a printed form.
But the literature of a country is dependent upon writing for its
existence and growth. Shorthand is a form of writmg with a new
set of symbols. Nevertheless, it is writing, and a very important
development of it too. Its importance is recognised by the Code
and our schools in a practical way; and for journalism, office
work, and secretarial duties, it is now almost absolutely essential
Nor are the training advantages of writing to be overlooked.
Without being what is understood as an intellectual subject, it
nevertheless affords some training, both mental and moral. The
careful and successful writer is taught to observe form and pro-
portion closely, to note those small details which give quality and
style to the writing. The memory is exercised in the earlier stages
in remembering the items observed, although little memory
training can be claimed for what is almost purely an imitative
exercise. There is more training for the attention if the lessons
are properly supervised and carried on, whilst the judgment is
cultivated by the study of spacing, slopes, and proportion. The
aitistic value of writing must also be recognised, for it is a

196 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

correlative to drawing, and it develops the sense of beauty and
proportion.

Writing is not without its moral advantages. It induces
habits of neatness, care, and accuracy, which help to leaven the
whole character.

Position for "Writing. — As writing is a mechanical acquire-
ment very largely, it is essential that the physical side of the
subject should receive proper attention, so that no habits in-
jurious to health may be formed. This will include the considera-
tion of such things as the position of the body, the place of the
slate or paper, light, the position of the ink, and the holding of
the pen.

1. Body. — The body must be kept in an easy position, upright, and not
leaning against the edge of the desk, but nearly as possible parallel with it.
There should be no leaning either one way or the other, otherwise the weight of
the body will not be evenly distributed on the seat. The pupil should not be
allowed to bend over the work, nor to rest the head upon the left hand. (See
notes on " Desks ".)

2. Slates, etc. — The slate, copy-book, or paper should be parallel with the
desk, but placed slightly to the right, so that the handle of the pen should point
over the right shoulder.

3. Light. — If possible, this should fall from the left. (See notes on ' ' Light ". )
i. Ink. — This should be placed slightly to the right, so as not to necessitate

a change of position.
S. Holding the Pen.
{a) The pen will be held between the first two fingers on the one side, and

the thumb on the other.
{d) The two fingers and the thumb should all be bent^— the thumb most so.
{c) The forefinger should rest upon the top of the pen.
Id) The hand should rest upon the last two fingers.
[e) The pen should be held lightly, and should point towards the shoulder.

Both sides should be equally pressed, but not clutched.
(/) The pen should not be held too near the nib. If too near, the action

is cramped, the writing often stiff, and the work more often dirty.
(g) The arm should rest on the desk a little below the elbow.
(^) The hand should not be supported by the wrist, or rapidity and quality

will suffer.

MUIiKAUSER'S METHOD.

Mulhauser belonged to Geneva, and he prepared his system of
writing at the request of the French Government. It was intro-
duced into this country in 1840 by the Committee of Council on
Education. He lays down certain essentials for good writing,
which refer to the seat, the body, and the pen. The child was to
be well seated, with its body in a healthy position, and the pen
was to be properly held. His theory was that writing was to be
an instructive as well as an imitative art. Experience has shown
that the method, despite its complexity, is a good one.

WRITING. 197

Principles of Construction.

1. The elements and the letters themselves were to be taught in the order

of their simplicity.

2. The pupil was to be furnished with a standard by which he could deter-

mine for himself the height, the breadth, the inclination, and the points
of combination of the letters. This was to be done by his celebrated
system of rhomboids.

3. Such instruction was to be given in the course of the lesson as would make

the exercise an intelligent and interesting one.

Analysis of Movements. -Analysis is the teacher's work,
synthesis the child's. Writing is effected by movements of
the hand and arm. Analysing these movements, he found there
were four of the hand — up, down, right, and left ; and that the
movement of the arm was lateral to the right, and that by it the
symmetry, uniformity, and parallelism of the writing was to be
maintained.

Analysis of Zietters. — These are resolved into elements.
Some say that there are but four ; e.g. : —

{a) The right line down and up, as /

(l>) The carve down and up, as I J ;

(d) The crotchet, as in the ^.

But perhaps it will be better to divide them into eight
elements.

(a) Right Line. This has four different heights, and it is the first principal
element.

(1) One height, as in i.

(2) One and a half heights, as in t.

(3) Two heights, as in h.

(4) Two and a half heights, as in p.

(*) Link. This is the first connective element. It forms the latter part of

the letters i, e, t, m, n, etc.
{£:) Hook, This is the second connective element. It forms the first part of

the letters n, m, v, y, etc.
(</) Curve. This is the second principal elnnciu. It is found in the letters

o, c, and e.
ie) Loop. This is the third principal element ; found in e, y, g.
(/) Crotchet. This is the fourth principal element, as in t'he'latter parts of

r, V, b, w.
{j^') Bwr. As in the /.
(h) Dot As in the /' and they.

igS

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Method of Teaching^.

1. Mechanical Aids. — As one aim of the system is to enable the pupil to
n I M determine the proportion, inclination, and joinings of the elements and
'^'■'.''w'iM letters by a definite standard, he is furnished with books ruled into
spaces the width and half the height of the letter O.
[{a) Terms.

^ height = the vertical distance between two lines.
One space = the lateral , , , , , ,

One height = the vertical , , , , three lines.

{d) Letter Spacing.

1 space = the width of e, c, q, etc.

2 spaces = ,, ,, u, a, h, p.

3 spaces = the width of n.

4 spaces — ,, ,, m.

4 lines = i^ heights.

5 lines = 2.

wmt

But when n and m come together, they will be found to occupy not 7 but
6 spaces. That is, there is a difficulty when a hook follows a link.
The two occupy a space and a half— not two spaces, as might be

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 /^^Jl 1

/ (^J 1 1

supposed. Similarly, a half space is lost when <: or ^ is followed by
hook.

WRITING.

199

2. Instruction and Practice.

(a) The teacher writes on the B. B. and names each element.

(i) The teacher then writes letters and words on the B. B. , the elements of

which are dictated by the children.
(c) Then the children write elements and letters from the teacher's dictation.

3. Classification. — Thoroughness was insisted on. No child was allowed
to leave anything until it had mastered it. The course consisted in giving
elements, then letters, then words.

(a) Right Line Link Class. —The first lessons should be confined to this class,
which includes the elements of the letters /, u, /, /.

(d) Hoolc Class. — The elements involved now are right line + link
This will embrace the letters n, m, h, p.

hook.

[c) The Curve Class.* — The curve is next introduced, and the elements

involved are right line + link + hook + curve. Any letters containing

these elements only can now be introduced.
{d) The Loop Class. — The loop is the next element. The elements now

involved are the right line + link + hook + curve + loop. This admits

the letters y.,^. andjj'. In each case the heights and spacings of the

letters should be noticed.
(^) The Crotchet Class. — The crotctut is next introduced. The elements

now are right line + link + hook + curve + loop 4- crotchet. The

letters b,f, r, v, w can now be introduced.
(/) The Complex Class. — The letters of this class do not fall readily into

any of the preceding classes, and they have little in common. Each

should be practised until its shape is quite familiar. This class includes

the letters k, s, and z.

4. Criticism. -The method is well graded, commencing with
the simplest elements and progressing to the most difficult letters.
The rhomboids are a great aid for parallelism of slope, and they
offer some assistance in spacing, as well as securing uniformity
and proportion. But if a too free use of the rhomboids be made
they become a hindrance. They are always more or less confusing,
and often discouraging. The method is uninteresting in its earlier

* The following classes are illustrated on the next page.

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

stages, just when interest requires to be strong. The child is
kept making strokes and pot hooks till it wearies of the whole
thing. The variation of rules for the spacing of different com-
binations of letters is very perplexing to young pupils, and the
whole method generally is too technical for speedy progress.
Nevertheless, the system has stood the test of experience, and
proved itself a good one, and up to the present no better system,
on the whole, has yet arisen to take its place. The Education
Department show their appreciation of it by frequently setting
questions upon it in their examinations, and the young student is
advised to study it thoroughly from some such book as Cowham's
Mulhauser's Manual of Writing.

Questions on Mulhauser's System.

I, Arrange the following words in order according to the difficulty of writing
they present to beginners, and give your reasons: man, mat, mamma, fnask,
mast, men, meat, mend, 7nane, most, mind (1877).

Now, to answer a question like this turn to Mulhauser's classes. Analyse
the words here given into their elements, noting which class they fall into.
Arrange them in their classes on this basis, and that will be the arrangement
required. Your reasons will be the reasons for Mulhauser s classes; e.g. :—

WRITING.

20 1

man ; elements involved are right line, link, hook, double curve. Classes i,

2, and 3.
mat; ,, ,, right line, link, bar, double curve. Classes i

and 3.
mamma; ,, ,, right line, link, hook, double curve. Classes i,

2, and 3.
mask; ,, ,, right line, link, and two complex letters.

Classes 1,3, and 6.
men ; ,, ,, loop, curve, link, hook, right line. Classes i,

2, 3, and 4.
meat; ,, ,, loop, curve, link, double curve, right line, bar.

Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4.
mend; ,, ,, loop, curve, link, hook, right line, double

curve. Classes i, 2, 3, and 4.
mane; ,, ,, double curve, right line, link, hook, loop,

curve. Classes i, 2, 3, and 4.
most; ,, ,, double curve, i crotchet, complex, right line,

Hnk, bar. Classes i, 3, 5, and 6.
mind; ,, ,, right line, link, hook, double curve. Classes i,

2, and 3.
The letter m, i.e., the initial m, has not been considered in these analyses, as
it figures in every word, and therefore cannot influence the diflliculty of one
against the other. Where the elements are the same the length of the word
becomes a factor, and the combinations ; e.^. , the elements of mind and mamma
are the same, but mind is considered easier than mamma because it is shorter.
Tested in this way, the words present themselves in the following order of
difficulty : mat, man, mind, mamma, men, meat, mend, mane, most, mask.

2. Show clearly tlie ekmenfarv component purls 0/ the written letters, a, h,g,
»i,^(i876).

Turn to Mulhauser's classes, and analyse the letters into their elements,
thus:—

a = double curve, right line, link {01 6).

h = right line, two heights (/), hook (9), right line (/), link (6).
g = double curve (0), right line, two heights down (/), loop (J),
i link (/).

(hook (9), right line (/).
do. , do.

do., do., link (6).

d - double curve {0), right line, two heights (/), link (6).

Heights of Zietters. — The heights of the letters should be com-
mitted to memory. The pupil should also practise himself in
spacing the letters in different combinations, e.g., cru, mn.

a, e, e, i, m, n, o, r, •, u, v, w, x.

b, d, h, k, 1, q.
tfJ)P>y»z. (Two heights are now inoregeneial.)

One height

One height and a half

Two heights

Two heights and a half

Three heights

= f .

CLASSIFICATION Or CAFTTAIi LETTERS.

Capital letters should be classified accordinj^ to their similarity
of form, and should be taught for writing in the groups thus
formed. Any system of ruling by which the forms and proportions
of letters are duly shown, and which produces a bold and legible

202 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

style, may be accounted a good one. But whatever system of

ruling is adopted, generally speaking, each capital letter should

be twice the height of a small letter, and this is true of all letters

except J, Y, G and Z ; these are ^ higher. Mulhauser's system

does not deal with capitals.

Group I. TAe common element is the down stroke of the I. The base of the
letters should not be made too small, as they then look top heavy and inartistic.
A common fault is to make the left-hand portions of the P, B, and R too small.

II.

III.

The right-hand loop of the P is often too large, whilst the up curve of the / is
often written as a down curve. The 7" is the easiest letter, and should be taught
first. The others should follow in this order : F, /, 5, Z., P, B, R.

Group II. The common element is the down stroke with the hook head.
These letters are difficult, and require plenty of practice.

Group III. The common element here is the upward curve, which forms
the first part of each letter. In the M and the A^ the teacher must see that the
up curves are parallel. The neglect of this rule causes the production of some
very distorted looking letters.

Group lY. The cm-ve is the common element of this class. The letters
will require plenty of practice to give that free sweep of the pen which is so
requisite for the proper production of letters containing curves such as these.
* The Z should be in this group.

WRITING.

203

Group Y. The curve again is the common element, but it is the reverse
curv^. In this group the curve falls to the right ; in Group IV. it goes to the
left. It is a down curve in each letter except D, where it is an up curve. D is
a difficult letter, and will require plenty of practice.

If the capitals are to be practised with rhomboids then copy books suitably
ruled (B.B. also) must be supplied.

A SCHEME OF -WTUTTNO FOR INFANT SCHOOLS.

Writing can commence in the earliest classes of an infant
school, for it makes little or no demand on the brain. It is an
art which recognises the child's love of activity by encouraging its
imitative faculty. Locke, in his system of writing, recommends
that writing should begin when the child can read ; but there is no
necessity to wait so long. Instruction in the two subjects may go
on together ; and if any preference in time is to be given to either,
then it must be to writing, as being the easier and more pleasing
exercise.

X. Preparation. — There are certain preliminaries requiring
the teacher's attention for the successful working of any scheme.
With young children like these, the holding of the pencil, the

204

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

position of the body, the length and pointing of the pencil, the
slates, and B.B. will all need attention. The pencils should be
pointed, and of reasonable length. Short pencils should be for-
bidden, as they lead to a cramped style. The slates should be
ruled on one side in rhomboids, and the B.B. should be ruled to
match the slates.

With young children like these, the formation oi good habits is
equally im.portant with the formation of a good style of writing.
For this reason there should be some preliminary drill leading up
to the writing lesson. The slates and pencils should be orderly
passed, the holding of the pencil should be shown and imitated,
and the healthy position of the children should be insisted on.

II. Plan of a Ijesson.

1. Copy setting. The teacher writes on the B.B. the element or letter

which the children have to imitate, the children watching carefully.

2. Imitation. The children then imitate on their slates.

3. Position. Meantime the teacher is noting the position of each child, and

the way it is holding its pencil.

4. Examination. Every step must be seen by the teacher. The individual

efforts of the children invariably call for fresh explanation and further
demonstration on the B. B.

5. Repetition. The teacher goes through the same process with the next

portion of the lesson, and so on until the lesson is complete.

6. Revision. The whole lesson should be revised.

m. Order of Iiessons.

1. Early Lessons. — These should be confined —

(a) To the simplest elements of the letters. The first lessons should be de-
voted to the right line, and this should be practised at various heights.

ZTVT^

'/////'/ /\

'/////////////

/////

' / / ///// / / ,

///////////////

/////

/////// / / / /

////.

////////

The B.B. and one side of the slates should be ruled with rhomboids,
and the earliest efforts should be limited to i height. Then \\ heights,
and finally 2 heights. A right line of 2 heights requires more muscular
control than at i height, hence a beginning should be made with
I height. These lessons will simply form another example of their
earliest drawing efforts, which will be limited to straight lines drawn
with similar aids. When a fair degree of proficiency is attained on the
lines, the class should receive lessons and practice in writing the same
element between the lines.

WRITING.

205

(f>) The Link should be taken next, as it is the simplest extension of the right
line for the purposes of writing. Here, again, the same order should
be pujsued, both as to heights and lines and spaces. The teacher might
then »mbine these elements into a word — til — thus giving the first
lesson in Joins, and bringing more interest to bear on the work. The
addition of the bar in the letter / will present no difficulty.

(c) The Hook.— This is another simple combination with the right line. The
same steps should be followed as in the previous cases. The element

should be practised separately, first on /ings, then in spaces, and then
with theyW»j. The letters a, n, and m could then be mtroduced, and
combinations made of these three elements into words such as in, tin,
nit, til, mil, etc. The letters p and h can now be introduced, the
number of words thus being again increased. These lessons ought to
be sufficient for the baby room and for the class above, but the division
of a scheme must of necessity depend upon the number of classes in the

2o6

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

school. But if the school be small or the staff weak, too little should
be attempted at the bottom, rather than too much at the top. Assuming
there are six classes in the school, and a baby room, the next lesson
should commence with Class V.
2. Class Y. — The remaining elements should now be introduced, viz., the
curve, single (() and double (0), the loop, both up and down
and the crotchet (A'). They should be introduced in the order . .

named, and each element should pass through the same stages \ "^
of treatment as in the previous cases. Combinations should ^

be introduced as each element is mastered, so that interest may not flag.
Later on the complex letters s, x, z, k should be given one at the time, and
finally the class should be writing small words. The writing should be § of
an inch.

3. Glass lY. — The work of this class should be a simple expansion of the
work in Class V. Longer words should be introduced, and more difficult com-
binations. The writing should still be § of an inch in height. If the rhomboids
are retained, the height of the rhomboids must determine the size of the writing ;
but, if possilDle, the rhomboids should be ruled | of an inch in height.

4. Class III. — The capital letters should now be introduced in the order
previously laid down for their classification. Their height should be | of an
inch, or twice the size of the other letters. For capitals the rhomboids are per-
plexing at first, but patience will overcome this difficulty. Slates should still be
used, but if paper is adopted then the children should have the assistance of
tracing, which could be done by the teacher with black lead, and should be
apportioned to the individual wants of each child. Copies should be set on the
B.B. , and the construction, height, and proportion of each letter, as well as the
joins, should be repeatedly demonstrated. The formation of a good style at
this plastic age is very important. Heights should not yet be looped.

5. Class II. — The work should now be on paper, although there is a division
of opinion on the subject. The work will consist of a recapitulation of the steps
already taken on slates. The climax will be to produce the same degree of work
and excellence on paper that is produced in Class IIL on slates. Tracing will
still be used with the same restrictions as in the previous Standard, and the
teacher is recommended to pattern-write, whenever opportunity presents itself,
in the books or on the paper of each child. Nothing stimulates effort and tends
to produce a good style and a uniform " hand " like this. If the work is still
confined to slates, a greater degree of excellence should be expected, and double
heights (except d, of course) should be looped.

6. Class I. — The same standard of writing should be reached here as is
expected in Standard I.

WRITING. 207

THE SIZE OF 'WniTTN'G.

I. Small Hand. — The introduction of small hand should not
be deferred too long. Writing, in school life, obtains much of its
value as an aid to other departments of instruction, and it is not
well to let such a force lie idle longer than necessary, despite its
difficulties.

1. Difficulties. — The chief difficulties are mechanical. A finer command of
the muscles of the hand and arm is required ; the judgment requires more
development, for neither proportions nor space are so obvious as in large or
text hand. As a result it makes more demand on the eye, hence more cultiva-
tion is needed for the proper appreciation of the forms and proportions of the
letters, and greater care and exactness are required for regularity and uniformity.

2. How learned. — Small hand may be learned best by a careful gradation
of the size of the ^^Titing. When children leave an infant school their writing is
generally large or half text. In the upper departments a First Standard should
write half text, i.e., the writing should be about § of an inch in size. A large
small hand might be adopted for Standard II., and a legitimate small hand
might reasonably be exjjected in Standard III.

The copy books and exercise books should be double ruled up to the
Third Standard. This mechanical aid, supplemented by ordinary care and
teaching, with pattern-writing now and then in the books of the pupils, and
with demonstrations of the most apparent errors on the B. B. , ought to secure
good small hand.

H. Ijarge Hand. — There is a good deal of vagueness as to
what is meant by large hand. It is synonymous with text and
half text, and practically means that the small letters are to
be i of an inch in height. The object to be kept in view is
command of the pen and freedom of hand. It increases and
develop* the power gained over the hand, and should therefore
be practised sometimes in the higher classes. Apart from this it
has a good business value, and therefore should be maintained.
Its advantages are the antithesis of the difficulties of small hand.
It also provides a desirable change from the small hand, appeals
more to the artistic sense, and helps to maintain a good style.

Copies.— There are three methods in use.

I. Set Ck>pies. — Blank books are used by many teachers who
set their own copies ; and where this system is possible, it is
considered by many to be the best, for the following reasons: —

1. The pupil is encouraged to do what he knows his teacher has done. The

value of the copy is increased if the child can see the teacher set the
copy under similar conditions to those under which he has to write it
afterwards.

2. Writing is an imitative process, and the imitative faculty is more

encouraged than by any other process.

3. Set copies are an aid to discipline. Children appreciate good writing

more rapidly than excellence in any other subject. The teacher who
writes fine copy-heads wins the admiration of the class.

4. They can be readily varied to suit the varying progress of the different

scholars.

2o8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Objections. — There are certain objections urged against this system by the
advocates of the next, whether the copy-heads are written in the books or the
copy is set from the B. B. In most schools with their large classes the B.B.
copies must of necessity be the form the set copies take, as there would not be
time for individual copy setting. As a matter of fact, the objections are
practically levelled against the B.B. copies, because few teachers have the time
to practise the other method. Mr. Jackson makes the following objections : —

1. B.B. copies are inferior and defective, and inferior copies produce

defective writing. The teacher requires to write a good hand to teach
properly from B.B. copies ; but many teachers cannot write well, and
therefore for many teachers the system is not an efficient one.

2. B.B. copies are irregular and varying. Change of class or Standard,

or change of teacher, will change not only the style of writing but the
mode or method of instruction also.

3. B.B. copies are often ungi-aded or badly graded. This weakness is

likely to be found in rural and very large schools. It is asserted that
it is not possible to obtain properly graded copies from haphazard
sentences extemporised for the occasion. The teacher's labours will
thus be heavily handicapped and the progress proportionately retarded.

4. B.B. copies are so transient. Efficient correction is simply an impossi-

bility, more particularly in large classes. After the writing lesson of
the day, correction by comparison is out of the question.

5. The promiscuous character of these copies seriously militates against their

adoption. The copies are neither consecutive, well arranged, nor
educative very often.

6. Individual grading is impossible with B.B. copies, and this is one of the

most serious flaws of the system ; 40 to 60 boys, however classified,
must require distinct and separate treatment, and they cannot get it
from B.B. copies.

7. B.B. copies waste time — the time the teacher takes in setting the copy, the

time the quick, the gifted, and the facile lose in going the same pace as
the slowest members of the class.

8. B.B. copies are more difficult. It is much easier \.o facsimile the same

size, than to reduce znd facsimile. It is easier to imitate a copy, on paper
than a copy on a B.B. often many feet distant from the paper.

9. B.B. copies make no provision for shortsighted children, and this may

prove another serious objection.

10. 'J 'hey tnake no provision for absentees. This becomes a particular case

of the sixth objection. If a child has been absent for some time, it has
to do the same work as those whose instruction and practice have
never stopped.

11. Generally, the use of blank books is an attempt to elevate an art by the

removal of its highest and most perfect models, and by the substitution
of inferior standards.

n. Engraved Headlines. — This is the copy-book system, with
its printed or engraved copies. It is the system generally in use,
and the large classes of our town modern schools make it almost
a necessity. It is an easy plan, and saves the teacher's time, but
it is not considered a good plan by some until the child has
mastered the ordinary difficulties of writing ; and an abuse of the
system has been responsible for a good deal of bad writing.
These headlines are one of tne results of the pupil teacher
system, and an able and conscientious pupil teacher could give
good writing lessons with their aid.

WRITING. 209

The engraved headlines can be placed two or three on a page,
and they are, as a rule, well graduated and often educative.
Mechanical aids, where necessary, are given, and to the extent
thought desirable. If each page contains several copies, there is
some guarantee that the pupils will imitate their copies. But
unless the books are inspected every two or three lines, or unless
the teacher is passing continuously from boy to boy during the
writing lesson, the copies will often be unnoticed by the pupils,
and bad habits and bad writing are very often the result. A study
of the objections to B.B. copies would suggest the advantages
alleged by some teachers to be possessed by engraved head-
lines.

TTT Copy Slips. — Undoubtedly this is the worst method, and
fortunately it is rapidly disappearing. The following are the ob-
jections usually put forward against them : —

1. Pupils wTite first line from imitation, and then very often take no further

notice of their copy slip. Close supervision is the only way to check
this.

2. The copy slips soon become dirty and ragged, and their moral influence

is then bad for the school.

3. However expeditiously they may be distributed, there must always be an

unnecessary expenditure of time over the process. The little thought
required to fix and select a properly graded copy may become a serious
item in the total, especially if the class is a large one.
But used by a skilful and careful teacher, in conjunction with the B. B. ,
they may be of some use. The system allows good gradation, and the
copy slips may be moved down the book so as to have the copy always
immediately above the pupil's writing.

TRACING.

Z. Advantages. — Tracing in writing is some aid to a beginner.
The muscles are trained, the style of writing is more or less fixed,
the proportions of letters are given, the spacing is regulated, the
joins and uniformity of thickness are taught, the eye and the
judgment are simultaneously cultivated with the muscles, and the
class all acquire the same *' hand".

TT Teaching.— The chief thing for the teacher to decide is
how much tracing can be allowed with the greatest profit. Writing
is an imitative art, and is commenced when the imitative faculty
js strong in children, and the muscles are plastic. But it is
doubtful whether it teaches much in the way of imitation. It is
good hand training ; it is not so certain that it is good eye training.
The children often trace or mark over the letters mechanically,
with little or no thought of form.

2IO A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

All new elements should be traced as they are introduced; and
they should be introduced as laid down in the " System of Writing
for Infant Schools ". The amount of tracing requisite really
depends upon the individual capacity of each child; but as the
teacher will be compelled to adopt a series of copy books, as a
rule, he should seek a series which grades the tracing best. Some
such graduation as follows should be expected : —

1. The element is introduced, and there will be a copy or two of tracing.

2. Then follow copies in which the tracing is intermitted with independent

e^ort, the intervals for the latter gradually becoming less.

3. Then will follow a copy or two of independent effort.

4. The next element should then be introduced, and the same order should

be observed.

5. Combination exercises should then be given.

6. This order will be continued until a letter or letters can be made. The

tracing should still be graded, but the quantity should be reduced.

7. Tracing will not be needed beyond the "letter" stage. When a pupil

can make " letters '' he should be thrown on his own resources, so far
as tracing is concerned.

m. Disadvantag^es.

1. Unless carefully watched and regulated, tracing may make the children

dependent, careless, and lazy.

2. If the teacher uses blank books, or gives tracing assistance in any books,

he must be a good writer, or the class will repeat his deficiencies.

3. The printed copies for tracing, with their copperplate perfection, often

discourage the scholar, who thinks such excellence unattainable.
Hence the teacher must often supply the trace in black lead.

4. It allows the pupils, unless closely watched, to begin their letters any-

where, and so to generate bad habits in writing.

HOW TO TEST "WRITING.

1. The down strokes of right lines must be of uniform thickness.

2. The strokes must not be rough.

3. The letters must be well proportioned.

4. The links and hooks must be neither too thick nor too fine.

5. The curves must be properly formed.

6. The letters must be properly joined.

7. The letters must preserve their parallelism.

8. The form of the letters must be accurate.

9. The letters must be carefully spaced.

10. The composition, transcription, and dictation exercise should bear out

the style and character of the copy setting.

GOOD vmmNG.

I. Its Characteristics.— These are legibility, grace or sym-
metry, ease and rapidity.

n. How Secured.

I. Legibility. — Legibility in writing ought to be as important as distinctness
in articulation. This is the first and most essential attribute of writing, and if

WRITING. 211

necessary everything else should give way to it. If the writing is to be legible
the letters must be simple, for flourishes spoil legibility. The letters should be
round or oval, according to the style used, but never pointed, as in the angular
Italian " ladies' " hand. Good writing is always legible, and the upright hand
is probably more legible than the sloping. The heights and thickness of the
letters must be attended to, for uniformity aids legibility. The letters and words
should also be correctly spaced, and the joins carefully made.

2. Grace. — By grace or symmetry of style we mean that the forms of the
letters should be pleasing to the eye. Many of the elements of legibility are
also elements of beauty, especially parallelism, finish, and uniformity.

3. Ease and Rapidity. — These are the result mainly of a good style and
plenty of practice. The p>osition of the body, the manner of holding the pen,
the style of writing adopted, the kind of training the pupil has received in this
subject, the absence of flourishes, and personal endowment are all factors
requiring attention. The pupil should not be allowed to take the pen off the
paper, as a rule, whilst writing a word, or the writing may be neither free nor
flowing. Under no circumstances must legibility be sacrificed to pace.

Points to be Noticed in "Writing Iiessons. (Fearon.)

1. The difference between examination and teaching. Is every child taught

to write, or is the teacher merely satisfied with examining how he
writes?

2. Let the child begin to handle the pen as soon as possible ; i.e., as soon

as he has progressed far enough in the use of the pencil.

3. Is the work of the classes systematically corrected, so as to regulate pace

as well as to test the results ?

4. Can the teacher write well on the B. B. ?

5. Can he give collective instruction in writing ?

With respect to number 4 the Department has expressed an opinion on
this subject. It says : " The capacity to teach handwriting is an essen-
tial qualification of any teacher ; but a teacher who is himself a bad
writer can never, by the most skilful teaching, entirely destroy the bad
eff"ect of his own example ".

CHISSF Z31XIORS HX W KITING-. — The Education Depart-
ment itself has laid down the most noticeable errors in writing.
Accordinj; to its own memorandum issued on the subject, these
are : —

1. *' Want of uniformity in the thickness of the straight lines.

2. Roughness of stroke.

3. Letters too tall or too short.

4. Links and hooks too thick or too fine.

5. Curves wrongly formed.

6. Letters not properly formed ; " and to these might be added :—

7. Unsuitable slope. It is sometimes too great, sometimes not parallel,

sometimes too acute, sometimes too olHuse. From 90" to 60" is the
best angle.

8. "Writing as taught in schools is apt to be too small and indistinct.

Pupils should be taught to write a firm, round, legible hand."

Bow to Deal with Them.

1. There should be demonstration on the P. IV. ;iih1 explanation of style,
rules, etc., followed by pattern writing in ilie books of the chief
offenders against uniformity of thickness.

212 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Pattern writing is the best remedy for this.

3. The sizes of the letters should be given, and their relative sizes demon-

strated on the B. B. , which should be ruled to match the style of ruling
on the slates. The errors should be placed side by side on the B.B.
with the corrected copy.

4. These elements should be analysed on the B. B. , and the correction should

then proceed as in number 3. Analysis, comparison, and pattern
writing should follow each other.

5. Correct the position of the body, and see that the pen is held properly.

The curves are often badly made through physical faults. They are
often wrongly formed through bad teaching, no teaching, bad super-
vision, and an abuse of rhomboids.

6. The same remarks are equally true here. Both faults have the same

origin, and require the same treatment. The incorrect and the
correct should be pointed out on the B. B. side by side ; the letters
should be analysed, and slowly formed in the presence of the class.
Plenty of practice should then be given, supported by close supervision,

7. Use rhomboids, and give plenty of practice.

8. The remedy is obvious.

Vertical Writing. — The advocates of this system offer the
following arguments in support of it : —

1. It is the most scientific, hygienic, consistent, and comprehensive. Three

of these claims are debatable, but there is no doubt about the other.
This system is undoubtedly more healthy than the sloping style. The
body is straight and the shoulders are level. The two arms are placed
equally, and the result is no twisting of the back, and no risk of
curvature of the spine. Obliquity of vision is also guarded against, for
the eyes are at equal distances from the writing. The writing, being
upright, makes less strain on the eyes, for they are accustomed to the
upright style in printing. It is also claimed for it that it prevents
writers' cramp, and adapts itself equally to both hands.

2. It is the most simple and natural.

3. It is the easiest to teach, learn, and write.

4. It is the most rapid, legible, fluent, and elegant.

It is undoubtedly the most rapid, for the strokes being shorter must take
less time in making. Its approximation to printing, so far as direction
is concerned, and its rounder base make it the most legible.

5. It is the most educative and the most carefully graded.

6. It is free from all empirical disfigurements, for it has simple capitals and

short loops.

7. It secures the greatest freedom in junction.

8. It presents a minimum of shading in the down strokes.

Slates or Paper?

Should young children begin to write on slates or on paper ?
There is some diversity of opinion, but there is not much diversity
in practice on the subject. The following arguments are
used : —

WRITING.

213

Slates.

1. Slates are more economical. It is al-
most too expensive to furnish every child
continuously with paper in every school, and
paper writing requires more teaching and
more supervision.

2. Slates are more conducive to order
than paper, unless the school is remarkably
well staffed. They are sooner given out,
and more easily managed.

3. Progress is more rapid with slates
than with pap)er — at first ; and, as writing
helps spelling, composition, transcription,
and dictation, there is better progress made
in these subjects. Again, the pencil is
easier to manipulate than the pen, and this
brings slate writing under the general
principle that difficulties should be ap-
proached one at a time.

4. The Code begins with slates.

5. Slates often involve the use of stumps
of pencil, and they are therefore risky
training.

6. The ease with which errors can be cor-
rected makes children careless.

7. The cUaninf; of slates is generally
filthy and dangerous.

Paper.

1. Paper is more instructive. Experi-
ence shows that the ability to write well on
slates does not necessarily mean ability to
write well on paper; whereas, generally,
the children who can write well on paper
can write well on slates.

2. Paper is best for discipline. Habits
of care, accuracy, neatness, and beauty are
more likely to be engendered by paper.

3. Some, however, dispute this. They
maintain that to begin on paper is the
quickest and most projitable -way, and that
slate writing is often a hindrance to writing
well on paper, from the formation of bad
habits. Children can begin on paper with
black lead pencils. This is a compromise
between paper and slates ; but with young
children the breaking of the pencil points
is a serious consideration.

Judgment. A weighing of this evidence
shows that —

Theoretically it is best to begin on paper,
for children gain greater ability, are better
trained morally, and avoid hindrances.

Practically. Experience shows that it is
best to begin on siates. It is more econo-
mical, more orderly, and more profitable for
a time.

Manual Employmenta and Writing^.

The connection between these two things is educationally
very important; for as writing is essentially a matter for both
hand and eye, and as the one great object of all manual employ-
ments is to train both hand and eye, the connection stands
revealed at once. This truth is obvious from an examination of
the qualities required for writing. The eye has to learn to
distinguish the shades of outline, heights, and distances, which
vary absolutely and relatively, and to appreciate the different
grades of beauty in the various forms of curve employed. The
child must learn to perceive a shape before he can imitate it.
Then comes manual training. The discipline of the muscles,
regulated by the judgment of the eye, and both demanding much
practice, shows writing to be essentially a matter of hand and eye
training.

Now, the problem is, which of the many exercises embraced
under the terms Kindergarten or Manual Training give this
required training in the sense demanded by writing, remembering
that the problem applies to Infant School children ?

The Kindergarten method of learning to write shows that

214

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

several " occupations " contribute to this training, for this method
consists of four steps, each of which is a means for manual
training.

1. Clay Modelling. — The hand is first trained upon moulding objects in clay.

2. Paper Cutting. — The cutting out of paper figures follows.

3. Drawing. — These exercises gradually lead up to elementary drawing.

4. Writing. — The children then commence writing lessons.

It will be noticed that drawing is the final step preparatory to
writing itself; and if drawing be reckoned among such employ-
ments, it undoubtedly assists more than anything, for writing is
but another form of drawing. This is obvious from a comparison
of the elements involved.

Writing.

The right line.
The link.
The hook.
The crotchet.
The curve.
The bar.

Writing is a combination of
these.

Drawing.

Perpendicular line.
Horizontal line.

Oblique lines.

Various forms of the curve, including

the O (circle).
Drawing is a combination of these.

Ruling of Slates.

Slates may be ruled in several dijBferent ways, all of which
have something to be said in their favour. One important
method, the rhomboidal, has already been pointed out and illus-
trated, but other methods are now more frequently used. To say
nothing of the trouble or expense of ruling, just where the rhom-
boids are most useful, there they are most confusing. Young
children get muddled and discouraged with the many lines of this
method and its many technicalities.

Generally, the style of ruling adopted will depend upon the
class. The younger the class, up to a certain limit, the more help
they want.

For Infants. — As a rule four lines are used in ruling the slates, but five are an
improvement. When four only are used no line is given for joins, and children
require as much help there as anywhere. The object is to avoid confusing the
children whilst helping them, and this is easily done by a judicious mixture of
faint and thick lines. A specimen of the proposed ruling follows. Between
each complete set of lines as here shown a space of y\ of an inch should be
left.

WRITING.

215

I of an inch space.

A
A

For Standard I. — l^ess help should now be given, and only sets of three
lines should be used, one for heights and one for the ordinary letters. The size
of the writing should be reduced, and the spacings between sets of lines should
be less. This ruling will suit Standard I. also in an Infant School, or any
class approximating to the work of Standard I. The line for the joins may or
may not be retained, but where possible it ought to be omitted. If retained
this gives two alternative forms for threefold ruling ; one as in the specimen
given below, and the other consisting of the two thick lines, with a centre faint
one for the joins. The one system fixes the heights and depths of long letters,
the other the joins : and as there are many more joins than heights the method
of joins is probably the better.

\ of an inch.

(. wym/ m

^7 r/7^77j

^JTTTF.

For Standard II.— The ruling should now simply be two liiics, at such a
distance as gives what is called a large small hand. Such ruling is found in
some of the blank copy books, and is generally spoken of as double lines. A
specimen follows : —

2i6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Other Standards. — These should be left to the ordinary one-line ruling, as
seen in copy books and exercise books. If any assistance is required in correct-
ing faults and giving practice to prevent their recurrence, Mulhauser's rhomboids
might be used. But they should be dropped as soon as the correction is fixed.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Write as a large hand copy the words " Geometrical Drawing," and point out
which of the letters are likely to present special difficulties to a young scholar, and what
rules should be observed in forming such letters.

2. — Arrange the letters of the alphabet in the order of their difficulty for the teaching
of writing ; and show how you would group together the easiest of them, for lessons to
young beginners.

3. — Show how you would group the capital letters in the English alphabet for teaching.

4. — Show what kind of ruling on the slates and copy books of the younger children
is best suited to teach the proper forms and proportions of letters. Give illustrations.

5. — Write six capital letters in such a way as to show the proper forms and pro-
portions of their parts, and say how you would give a lesson on them.

6. — Write the words " Geographical Analysis" in text hand, and give rules for the
length of the letters p, h, /, and y.

7. — Explain fully the principles of Mulhauser's method of teaching writing; and
write the word " trustfulness " according to that method.

8. — Describe the proper position of the body for writing, the right way of holding
the pen, and the best way of setting copies for advanced classes.

9. — What elements are common to the written letters p, q, h, g, d, y ? In what
order, and in what combinations, would you teach these elements to infants ?

10. — What are the chief difficulties to be encountered by a child beginning small
hand copies ? How would you deal with them ?

II.— Arrange the following words in order according to the difficulty of writing they
present to beginners, and give your reasons : man, mat, mamma, mask, mast, men, meat,
mend, mane, most, mind.

12. — Show clearly the elementary component parts of the written letters a, h, g, m, d.

13. — How would you teach children to write (a) on slates, or (b) on paper ? What
are the important points to be attended to in teaching children to write ?

14. — Show how you would group or classify the letters of the alphabet for teaching
the elements of writing to very young children. Explain by an illustration what use can
be made of the system of threefold ruling on slate or copy book.

15. — Say what use you think it right to make of "tracing" in teaching writing.
Write in large hand the five capital letters B, K, Q, M, W, and point out the commoner
faults made by learners in forming them.

16. — Draw up a course to be followed in the teaching of handwriting to each of the
classes of an infant school, giving examples of the size and style of the letters you would
adopt.

17. — Which do you prefer in teaching writing — engraved copies, or copies set by the
teacher on the B.B. ? Give reasons for your preference, and write, as illustrations of the
true forms and proportions of letters, four capital letters and tour small letters such as
should be grouped together for the purpose of teaching.

18. — Classify the capital letters according to the similarity of their forms, and the
order in which you would teach them. Give specimens of any six capital letters, carefully
written, so as to illustrate their proportions and the rules for their formation.

19. — What are the advantages of teachmg large hand before small or running hand,
and how far is it desirable to continue large hand practice in the upper classes ? Give a
model copy in each hand.

20. — Give some simple rules showing the best way of conducting a class lesson in
writing.

21. — Describe the best way of ruling slates so as to help young scholars to under-
stand the forms and proportions of letters. Give an example.

22. — Describe the way of teaching the children to hold their pencils properly. What
are the common mistakes to be guarded against ?

23. — In writing in copy books there is a great tendency to repeat the same mistake
down a whole page. What is the best method of correcting this ?

24. — What is the use of tracing in the earlier copy book exercises, and what are the
objections, if any, to the practice ?

25. — Write the word "striding" in small letters, and point out the mistakes in it
which you would watch for.

26. — What use could you make of a threefold ruling of the lines on a child's slate and
on the teacher's B.B., in order to show more clearly the forms and proportions of letters
and the mode of joining them?

27. — Which of the manual employments of an infant school is most useful as a help
in the teaching of writing ? Explain and illustrate your answer.

217

CHAPTER XII.
GEOGRAPHY.

OBJECTS OF TEACEONa GEOCUtAPHT.

I. Primary. — The practical value attached to a knowledge of
the subject must always be considered its primary object, and
the chief practical objects are as follow : —

1. Maps and Plans. — The pupil is taught to grasp the mean-
ing and use of these, and as they figure appreciably in the every-
day life of the people, a right understanding of them is important.

2. Trade and Commerce. — England is the greatest manu-
facturing and commercial nation of the world. If this supremacy
is to be maintained, the productive districts and the chief
markets, actual and potential, should be known. The quickest,
safest, and cheapest trade routes ; the national tastes and require-
ments of foreign customers ; the sources of our food supply, and
many kindred questions also become of vital importance.

3. Ziiterature. — Much of our literature, and especially news-
papers, assumes a fair amount of geographical knowledge, hence
this subject should be taught for the intelligent comprehension of
modern literature.

4. Emigration. — England is said to be over-populated, and
fields for emigration are essential to relieve the surplus popula-
tion, and to carry out the advisable and beneficent planting of the
earth by the English people.

5. Naval Power. — England is the greatest naval and maritime
power in the world. From this point of view alone the necessity
for geographical knowledge is obvious.

ZZ. Seoondary. — Rightly taught, the subject is interesting,
instructive, pleasant, and intellectual. It affords excellent oppor-
tunities for intellectual training ; observation, imagination,
memory, and reasoning all being cultivated by its teaching.
These subjects are dealt with more fully under the next heading.

2i8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

GENERAIi FRINCIFIjSS.

If the subject is to be presented to the pupils in an interesting
and scientific manner, if the interest is to be maintained, and if
the dull and backward children are not to be left in the rear, then
there are certain general principles which it will be necessary to
observe in its teaching.

1. Illustration. — The subject must be profusely illustrated,
for this arouses interest and gives life to the lesson. The B.B.
should be freely used, and sketches in coloured chalks introduced
where necessary. Maps and diagrams of all sorts, apparatus and
models, are essential. Objects of manufactures, export and import,
should be exhibited. Even reading, poetry, and anecdotes may
be utilised for this purpose. Treatment of this sort will tend to
destroy the still paramount idea among children, that geography
is a dry subject.

2. Intelligence. —One of the great faults of modern geography
lessons is the undue use of the memory involved. Memory will
always be necessary, but the higher faculties of the mind should
be called into play. The reasoning powers of the pupils should be
taxed. Observation should be stimulated by careful attention to
the local physical and political facts. So far as possible, the
locality of the school should be made to furnish the illustrations,
the instances, and sometimes even the lessons themselves. The
pupils will then see things more fully, and with more interest.
They will form the habit of noticing things in the best sense of the
word. Then, in good lessons, there is plenty of scope for the
proper development of the imagination, and for this purpose ideas
rather than words must be given. Graphic description must be
cultivated by the teacher, so that the mental image created by the
child may approximate to the real thing described. The mental
effort required to form a picture of an Indian forest, or a mine, is
greatly aided by good verbal description, pictures, and sketches.
There should also be continuity in the teaching. Isolated facts
have little interest for children, so that each fact should be pre-
sented in relation to other facts.

3. Memory. — The abuse of geography chiefly rests here. The
memory is often overworked, to the neglect of the other faculties
involved. The object of the teacher is to get the biggest return
for the smallest outlay of memory. Too often there is mere rote
work, without any, or with but little intelligence, as in the learning

GEOGRAPHY. 219

of strings of bays, capes, or counties. To avoid this we must
arouse interest by natural associations. Classifications must be made
on the basis of real resemblances. A free use of comparison and
contrast^ which present the positive and negative side of the com-
parative method, should be made, and the assistance of drawing
and pictures should be enlisted ; for drawing is a fine aid to the
graphic memory, whilst pictures appeal to the pictorial memory,
which is good in most children.

Instances oi natural association would be the joining of certain
bays with certain ports ; coal fields with m.anufactures ; produc-
tions with industries. The etymology of the names of places may
be given in the higher classes, and some choice may be exercised
in the presentation of facts. This choice of facts should be regu-
lated by the following rules : —

(a) All statistics should be given in comparison with some well-known stan-
dard ; e.g. , all areas might be compared with that of England.
{d) General statistics should be given in round numbers.
{c) Special statistics in exact figures.

4. Reasoning. — Classifications, generalisations, and discoveries
have to be made ; cause and effect traced ; and the general truths
of the subject demonstrated and grasped.

6. Graduation. — The first lessons should be very simple, and
there should be a careful graduation of subsequent lessons.
Familiar terms should be used where possible, rather than
technical ones, which could and should be introduced later; e.g.,
" neck " for " isthmus," " feeder " for "tributary," etc. Then the
lessons should be short, so that they may be thorough, and they
should show a unity of plan. There is always a temptation to
digress, and this should be resisted.

6. Realistic. —The teaching should be realistic. The children
should be encouraged to observe local features, and to describe
them orally to the teacher. The child's knowledge and experience
should be used, for this knowledge will form the basis for efforts
of constructive imagination when proceeding to the unknown. By
the aid of models, toys, apparatus, and specimens, the real things, or
substantial approximations to them, can be shown. Children can
see in this way real miniature mountains, real rivers, real capes, etc.

FIRST IJE8SONS IN OSOORAPB7.

The first lessons in geography should be given as a series of
object lessons connected with familiar things, and freely illustrated
by pictures. The children will then commence — as they should —

220 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

with the concrete, for the elementary notions that form the basis
of all true geographical teaching must be gained through the
senses, and the subsequent transition to the abstract will then be
made with greater ease and success. The more simple objects
should be taken first, such as earthenware, iron, wood, tin,
coal and chalk. The children should not only see the articles
but also handle them, and so all their ideas will thus be accurate
and sound. Furthermore, let them name any of the uses of these
objects, and this will show to them the reason why men take so
much trouble to get them. Receive and utilise every answer that
is in the least pertinent. The places from which they are obtained
might be described with the aid of pictures, and the distance of
each place could be given by estimating the time it would take a
person to walk there. The manner of bringing them — train, road,
river, or ship — could then be pointed out.

Such a course as this will necessarily involve lessons and
explanations of the various geographical definitions, and these
could be taught realistically.

The productions of our own land should next receive attention
— animal, vegetable, and mineral. These could subsequently be
compared with the productions of other countries, the better known
being taken first. These lessons on other lands will require
efforts of imagination, which will thus get material supplied for
fresh constructive efforts.

Finally, the lessons might embrace the people, their trades
and occupations, their customs, their food, clothing, habits, etc. ;
and these again in their turn should be compared with those of
other countries.

PIiANS.

I. Simple Plans. — The teacher's first task is to give the
children an accurate idea of what is meant by a plan. For this
purpose a number of simple and suitable familiar objects should
be used for demonstration. The lesson will require some such
graduation as follows, commencing with the dot or point, and
finishing with some simple geometric solid or common object. It
is not advisable at this stage to bother about scale. It will be
sufficient for the present to simply preserve a general proportion,
the children aiding by suggesting as much as possible the draw-
ing of the lines.

A plan is properly the representation of anything drawn on a

GEOGRAPHY.

plane, and in a special sense it is the representation of a
horizontal section of anything. The teacher's task is to convey
this information in simple language and by suitable demonstration.
On no account should such a definition be given to the class ; but
explanation and demonstration by the teacher should be followed
by a simple description from the class. It is advised that an attempt
be made to develop the idea by some such method as follows : —

1. First Ideas.

(a) The children take their slates and pencils. Each one is instructed to
make a dot on his slate, the teacher doing likewise. The teacher then
brings his eye in a direct line over the dot on his slate, and invites the
class to do likewise. They are then asked to describe what they see —
a dof. That is called the plan of a dot.

(d) The teacher next takes a knitting needle or something similar. It is held
in a horizontal position, and is brought in a direct

line beneath the eyes of several of the boys. They .

are again invited to describe what they see — a A B

straight line (B). That is called the plan of the
knitting needle. The teacher draws the plan on the B. B. , and directs
the class to draw a similar plan on their slates. The needle is then
held vertically, and the same process is followed. This time they see
only a point or dot. That is the plan of the needle in a vertical
position (A).

(r) A square piece of paper or cardboard is next taken. The same method
is adopted. The square is first held
horizontally in a direct line beneath
the eye ; the class is invited to name
what they see ; the plan is then drawn
on the B.B. by the teacher, and the
class are instructed to draw the plan
(A) on their slates. The figure (A) is
called the plan of the square. The square is next held in a vertical
position ; the same steps are gone through, and the plan is recognised
as the figure (B).

(</) Other figures should be treated in a similar way, great care being taken
to see that they are carefully graded, and that the one more or less
naturally suggests or leads to the other. Where the figure has two
views, or two simple plans, each should be dealt with. The order
recommended is as follows : —

I P

Cube

Square Pnsi

^ o o o

SpHc*

Cylinder

! A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Transition Objects.

{e) The class will now be ready to proceed to the iai/e and the j^oor.
Hitherto the objects have been smaller than the B.B. Now they are
probably as large in one case, and certainly larger in the other. There
has been no drawing to scale up to the present, only a rough proportion
being observed. The table and the floor form an easy and suitable
transition from smaller to larger plans ; from simple to more complex
objects ; from scaleless drawings to drawings to scale.

H. Plans to Scale.

{a) Draw a plan of the school fad/e. To the children it is obviously too

large to be drawn full size. It must be drawn smaller than its real

size. Hence arises the necessity for sca/e. But the teacher is advised

^„ to avoid the word at present. We can

*■ "^ ' draw it half, or one-quarter, or one-twelfth

its real size. Let a couple of boys come
out and measure the table— one its length
and the other its breadth. Supposing the
dimensions to be 3 feet by 2 feet, and it
is decided to draw it one-twelfth its real
size ; some members of the class will be
able to tell you that there are twelve
inches in a foot (if not, tell them), and
that therefore every foot will be drawn in
the plan as one inch. Hence the drawing
will be 3 inches by 2. Draw the plan on the B.B. ; then serve out
flat geometric rulers, and tell eacA memder of the class to d?-aw the plan
on his slate. The teacher should then test the plans by sample and
correct where necessary.
{b)\ The class will now be ready for the word scale. Tell them that such a
drawing is said to be made to scale, and that in this case the scale is
said to be one inch to the foot. Now explain, demonstrate, question,
and exercise the class until they can grasp such representations of
scales as follow : —

« 1 1 1 1

•=»

Bl 1 1 1 II 1

<»

CI 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Scales of Feet

Draw the scale A upon the B.B. Tell the class it represents three feet.
Measure it — it is 3 inches. Then every inch represents i foot, and the
scale is said to be i inch to the foot.

Next draw the scale B on the B.B. Tell the class it represents 6 feet.
Measure it — it is 3 inches, or 6 half-inches. Then every half-inch
represents a foot, and the scale is said to be a half inch to the foot.
Deal with C in the same way, which will be found to be one quarter of
an inch to the foot.

The class should now be exercised on their slates in drawing easy scales to
the teacher's dictation, every exercise being demonstrated on the B.B.
and then corrected by the teacher.

{c) They are now ready for the next step, viz. , to draw a plan of the school-
room floor. Measure up the floor. Suppose its dimensions to be 40

GEOGRAPHY.

223

feet by 24 feet. Let the class suggest the scale. If unsuitable scales
are suggested, correct and explain their unsuitability. Take one quarter
of an inch to the foot as your scale. Then ask the class to give you
the length of the lines— 10 inches by 6 inches. Correct and explain all
errors. Then draw the plan on the B. B., and afterwards let class
draw it on their slates. Suitable exercises should follow this step, as
in other cases, and such exercises should be varied.

(i) The dimensions should vary with the same scale.

(2) The scale should vary with the same dimensions.

(3) Both scale and dimensions should vary.

HL Plans of the School and District. — The class should now
be ready to draw with intelligence those plans laid down for them
in the Code. The order to be observed naturally suggests itself,
and should be adhered to, viz. : —

1. Plan of the classroom.

2. Plan of the school.

3. Plan of the school district.

1. Plan of the Classroom.— It will be advisable in every case for the teacher
to make a plan of his (or her) own classroom. The room and its furniture
should be measiu-ed up in the presence of the class ; the dimensions should be
dictated to the class as they are made, to be written on their slates, and then
the plan should be drawn on the B.B., the dimensions being given by the

v^^^WM^^<fmr^^^^^^<y^^^<'^i>^^<t'^'<^ •

i^xa

children. The children should then be directed to copy the plan on their slates,
learning the dimensions at the same time. They should also be taught to affix
a lettered description. It is perhaps unnecessary to remind the teacher that
omaleness and superfluous detail should \yc omitted. The plan must be simple,
so as to bring it within the understanding and slender artistic capacity of the
children. The size of the room will fix the scale.

Lettered description —

W equal Walls.
E ,, Doors.
S F ,, Stepped Floor.
C ,, Cupboard.
T .. Table.

G equal Windows.

F ,. Floor.

D „ I'hial desks.

V ,, Tobin ventilator.

224

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. Plan of the School. — This can be dealt with in exactly the same way
as the plan of the classroom. There is more work, but the process is exactly

PLAYGROUND.

SCALE 37F'-T0 INCH

the same. The drawing should be neatly done, roughly to scale, and the
points of the compass should be inserted to denote the aspect of the school.

3. Plan of the School District. —The process is still the same, with two
exceptions : —

{a) The scale is only approximate, and is roughly guessed very often,

ly^aiier &• Boutalisc.

although there is no reason why it should be so. The teacher could
make a drawing to scale from some copy, and then dictate the
dimensions.
[b) The scale has to be very small because of the wider area covered, and
the cardinal directions of the various roads and streets have to be
known and shown.

rV. Maps and Plans. — Perhaps the chief object in teaching

GEOGRAPHY.

225

plans is to give the scholars an intelligent idea of the map. In
this sense all these lessons on plans are preparatory lessons to
map drawing. The connection between the two must be pointed
out and used, and subsequently their differences demonstrated.
Lead gradually up to the more difficult conception of a map, and
for this purpose proceed as follows : —

1. Draw a Plan of Some Simple Objects.— Lay the B.B. on the school table
and draw the plan on it in this position — say of the pencil box, or a slate or ink-
stand ; or, better still, draw the plans of all of them. Then place the B.B. on
the easel. The children see the point at once. The B. B. should really lie in a

horizontal position. Why does it not? Then the vertical position on the
easel is a mere matter of convenience, to enable all the class to see more easily
and more effectually.

2. Draw a Plan of a Flat Geographical Model.— Get some clay and some
water. Spread out a thin surface of clay in a shallow trough. Mark out the
course of a river and a lake in the clay, and pour a little water into them.
Again lay your B. B. on the table or on the floor, and draw the plan of the

226

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

model. As this will be the first irregular object submitted to them for its plan
to be drawn, a little more assistance may be required. Then, as before, raise
the B. B. on the easel, and let the children compare the object with its plan.
Represent the river by a line only, as in that form they are found on the map.

3. Draw a Plan of Some Mountains. — Make models of several mountains
upon the table, in sand or clay. Place the B.B. on the table or floor again.
Let several of the scholars come out, look straight down on the model, and then
say what they see. A little more illustration may be necessary here. Give as

m ■•-^B.^

much as is required. Then draw the plan, and raise the B. B. on the easel. The
model and the plan should then be compared by the class. The teacher should
now sketch the methods adopted to represent mountains in maps, and should
then ask the class to point out some mountain on a school map which could be
placed in front of the class. They might also be asked to point out any lakes or
rivers on the map.

4. Combined Plan. — A^model might now be rapidly made showing moun-

tains, river, and lake. This should be explained in the same way as the other
plans.

5. Insert the Points of the Compass.— The points of the compass— N., S.,
E., and W. — should now be fixed upon the plan. For this purpose the B.B.
should be placed on the table or floor with the top of the B.B. pointing the same

GEOGRAPHY.

227

way as the N. point of the compass. This can easily be done, as the compass
points are usually painted upon the ceiling of the schoolroom. If not, fix the
S. point first, and proceed as directed in the lesson upon the points of the com-
pass.

8. Lines. — These might now be taught and explained. A plan of the table
could be drawn again, and lines at regular intervals could be drawn on the
table both lengthwise and crosswise. Their use could then be indicated. Num-
ber them. Let the class imagine that the table represents an ocean. The lines
help to define a position, and to locate it. Apply this illustration to maps. Be
careful to explain that the lines are mere matters of convenience, that they exist
on the maps and globes only, and are not found on the earth itself. A blank
map might next te taken, and lines drawn upon it, and their use will be obvious.
7. Scale of Miles. — The class will easily understand now that maps are
drawn to scale. The scale of miles affixed to every map might now be pointed
out, and some useful exercises given.

{a) The teacher to find out the scale to which the map is shown. Suppose
the line showing scale of miles to be three inches long, and to repre-
sent 6 miles. The class will at once see that the scale is half an inch to
the mile.
(3) The teacher might take some well-known towns and measure their dis-
tance from London. Assuming the scale to be one quarter of an inch
to the mile, the teacher measures the distance between the two places
and finds it forty inches. The distance is then 160 miles.

V. Di£Perence between a Map and a Picture.

228

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Map.

1. A map is a plan.

2. A map has not the same effects of light
and shade as a picture.

3. A map shows a view from one particu-
lar position — from above.

4. A map has imaginary lines, such as
latitude, longitude, etc.

5. Roughly speaking, a map appeals to
the eye only.

Picture.

1. A picture is an elevation.

2. Both may or may not have colour,
but the picture excels in the other respects.

3. A picture shows things and places as
they appear to the eye in general positions.

4. A picture has no such lines.

5. A picture appeals to the eye and to the
emotions. Both map and picture may ap-
peal to the taste, but the picture will do so
to a greater degree.

HOW TO TEACH THE POINTS OF THE COMPASS.

1. Fix the South. — Wait for a suitable day, and then turn to
tne sun at mid-day. Explain south as meaning the sun quarter,
and from this find all the other cardinal points in the following
order : N., E., and W. Do not start with the N.

2. Fix the Directions in the Schoolroom. — Mark them, with
their initials, on the floor or walls. In London Board schools
they are painted on the ceiling. In Glasgow they are fixed by
means of brass bars inserted in the granolite at the school
threshold.

3. North. — Show how the top of the map is N. To do this
lay the B.B. on the floor, and mark there the true directions thus
found. Then place the B.B. on an easel, and show how N. comes
to be at the top, but explain that N. does not mean up higher
than the rest ; that the existing arrangement is merely one of
convenience.

4. Other Points. — Explain the principle of naming the other

points. Describe each by means
of the two bounding it ; e.g.,
N.E. means some spot between
the N. and the E. It is both N.
and E., and is therefore said
to be N.E. So with the other
points, N.W., S.W., and S.E.
Then proceed to finer differences
such as W.N.W. ; i.e., between
W. and N.W. In this way
work out all the points of the
compass.

5. Compass. — The compass itself should now be introduced

GEOGRAPHY. 229

to the class. Explain the word compass by showing that its
points compass the circle, and the earth is circular in shape. The
class will then see why its points are called points of the compass.
Deviation and the magnetic qualities of the compass should
form a later lesson. A " model " compass might be built by the
teacher in front of the class, and with a little preparation and
ingenuity each child might also make one at the same time.

SHAPE AMD SIZE OF THE EARTH.

t Its Shape.— This has to be taught to children in Standard
II., but its position in the syllabus is a mistake. Children are
not as a rule capable of making the necessary inferences from the
only facts or illustrations that can be presented to them. The
following proofs are usually given : —

1. The disappearance of ships beneath the horizon.

2. The earth's shadow on the moon.

3. The shape of the sun and the moon.

4. The circular shape of the horizon.

5. A greater altitude means a greater horizon.

6. Going " round " the world.

The railway proof is omitted as being beyond the average
child, and more or less this is true of some of the other proofs.
Pictures or sketches should be shown in illustration of each proof.

H. Its Size. — The size of the earth is never much more than a
mere abstraction to the young children of Standard II., whatever
the teacher may do in the way of objective teaching. The esti-
mation of size is defective in most people, and in children
especially so. The information imparted will embrace the size of
the circumference, the two diameters, the total area, the area of the
land, and the area of the water. The earth might also be roughly
compared with the size of the sun and moon. But time will be the
chief aid to the teacher, and the best impressions of any large
area will be gained by stating the time it would take the class to
walk over it. The size of the various objects in the room should
be estimated and measured if necessary. The estimates could
then proceed to the school, the street, the town, and so on, lead-
ing finally up to the size of the earth. As soon as you get
beyond the town or the village, you transgress the bounds of
their experience ; hence any reference to county, country, or con-
tinent is not recommended. It is a mere attempt to measure one
abstraction by another. If railway journeys are used as the
standard, they are the experience of the few, and are rarely

230

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

coincident. Then follows the necessary correction to the staple
test of walking, and an extra and superfluous difiiculty is thus
added. In estimating these mighty distances, the deepest and
most intelligent impression is made by an illustration or ex-
perience within the knowledge and grasp of all.

GEOGRAFHICAIi DEFINITIONS.

So far as possible, these should be taught objectively. A free use
should be made oi models, which should be the work of the teacher
or some member of the class. Pictures and diagrams, of which
there are now plenty in the market, should be brought in to
assist. In every case the teacher is advised to commence the
lesson with an effort to develop the idea of the particular land or
water division to be defined, and to furnish plenty of examples so
that the definition when it comes should be the work of the class
itself The completeness and accuracy of the definition or
description given by the children will be the measure of the
teacher's success. Any errors should lead to a recapitulation of
that portion of the lesson which is responsible, and such recapitu-
lations should be given until the class shows a sound and accurate
idea of the subject of the lesson. A lesson on Capes follows as a
typical illustration of the method of giving these lessons, and the
adoption of some such style of teaching will enable the young
teacher to remove that dull, mechanical, rote aspect which has
been so characteristic of these lessons in the past.

LESSON ON CAPES.

Information.

I. Develop the Idea of a Cape.
Definition.

A cape is a piece of land sticking
out into the sea,

II. Kinds of Capes.

Capes are known by different
names, according to the forms which
they assume.

1. Cape.

2. Bill.

3. Naze or nose.

Teaching.

I. By the aid of the shallow dish, some
clay and some water, demonstrate the idea
of a cape. Then show a picture of a cape.

Then ask the class to give a definition
of a cape.

GEOGRAPHY.
LESSON ON CAFES— contintud.

231

Information.

4. Head.

5. Foreland.

6. Point.

7. Promontory.

Examples of Capes.

1. Heads — Flamborough, Spurn.

2. Ness — Naze, Foulness, Dunge-
ness.

3. Foreland — N. and S. Fore-
lands.

4. Bill— Selsea, Portland.

5. Point — Hartland, Start, Lizard.

6. Capes — Wrath, Clear.

III. Formation.

1. By waves, which wear away
the land from high to low water
mark.

2. The soft rocks wear quickly;
the hard rocks slowly. Hence we
get bays where the rocks are soft,
and capes where they are hard.

3. By the action of the atmo-
sphere. The air has a wearing effect
upon stones.

Teaching.

II. The teacher should take some clay
and rapidly make rough small models of—

I and 4. A head or cape {caput, a head).

2. Of a bird's bill.

3. A naze, ness (or nose).

These should all be affixed to the edge of
the mass of clay, which should be placed in
the trough or dish, and water poured around
the clay.

5. Another bit of clay should now be
affixed before or in front of the mass of
clay. This will illustrate a foreland.

6. A point can be easily illustrated.

7. In another place a high cape might be
built of small stones. The idea ot prominent
should then be developed by contrast, and
the name promontory given.

The class should be led to observe that
all the names embody one common idea — of
projecting or sticking out like a head does
from a body, a nose from a face, etc. The
teacher should then take a map and point
out these capes upon the map. He should
then enlarge them on the B.B., using
coloured chalks to mark the land and water,
and calling attention to the suitability of
the names.

III. Teach experimentally.

1. Heap up some sand in the dish or
trough. Take a funnel and fill it with
water. Let the water run on to the sand.
The class to note and state the result.
The sand, being soft stone, wears or washes
away.

2. Repeat the experiment with stones.
The class to note that apparently there is
no wearing away.

3. Refer to any old local building. If the
locality has none, refer to a well-known
one. Show a picture of it if possible. The
stone of the building is worn. Compare
with a new building, which is seen to be
not worn. Tell them that the air has worn
away the old building. In years to come,
depending upon the Icind of stone, it will
wear away what is now the new building.
Illustrate by a reference to the respective
conditions of the morur in an ola brick
house and a new one.

TTTT.Ti^ AUTD VAliliETS.

These should be taught together, for each is the natural
complement of the other. They should be taught objectively.
For this purpose a clay model of some well-known or suitable
district should be made, such as the Downs of Kent and Surrey.
The map should afterwards be brought into use, and well-known
ranges of hills, with their adjacent valleys, should be pointed out

232 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

and briefly described. In making out the notes of lessons on
such a subject, the model should be sketched and the map
drawn.

The common experience of the children, as based on observa-
tion, should be utilised. Every shower of rain affords material
for the teacher. The wearing effect of the rain upon the roads
can be pointed out, or rather drawn from the children. A little
suggestive questioning will suffice. Rain water is tolerably pure ;
but the streamlets running from the roads into the gutters
are dirty or muddy. The children will see at once that the
rain is thus wearing away the road. A reference to the
usually worn condition of ground beneath a water tap, a pump,
or a spout will illustrate the same thing. A reference might
also be made to the beds and channels of rivers, although,
so far as the Code is concerned, perhaps this reference would
be a little too premature. On such concrete examples as
these the imagination might fairly be set to work to conceive
the vaster and mightier effects as displayed in the formation of
valleys. The connection between hills and valleys will thus be
demonstrated.

Other forces assist. The rain and the river have their
auxiliaries. The frost hardens, cracks, and loosens the surface
material, and sometimes acts in mightier ways still. Snow is
another agent. As frozen rain, it does much the same work as
rain in swelling the volume of our rivers and lakes ; in wearing
away our roads ; and in mountainous districts bringing down
masses of earth and rock sometimes in its avalanches. In its
frozen and condensed form, layer upon layer accumulating
through centuries, it forms the glacier, which is a mighty manu-
facturer of valleys. The tides, with their persistent wash of the.
ebb and flow, are another denuding agency.

Land is sometimes elevated by internal forces. This is a
positive force in the formation of hills, and instances of raised
districts {e.g., sea beaches) should be given.

The transition from hills to mountains is easy and natural.
After hills and valleys are thoroughly understood, lessons on
mountains should be given. These lessons may be given from
different standpoints, but one method is suggested in the following
sketch : —

GEOGRAPHY.
MOUNTAINS.

233

Information.

Teaching.

I. Description. I. The class will be able to say what a

A large mass of earth and rock \ mountain is from their lessons on hills and

? , 1 1 r i from their general knowledge. Something

rising above the common level ot , Hte what is opposite will be given. The

the earth or adjacent land ; an j teacher should work up the answers of the

elevated mass higher than a hill. ! class into some such form as that given.

° II. Explain "Range, and compare with

The names are interchange-
Pennine Chain or Pennine

II. Arrangement.

1. Range.

2. Chain.

3. Group.

4. Isolated Heights.

" Chain ".

able ;

Range. Point out other ranges on the map

— Devonian, Cambrian.

Show a clay model of range, or, failing
that, sketch a range on the B.B.

3. Point to the Cumbrian group, and con-

ExampUs.

1. Cambrian Range.

2. Pennine Chain.

3. Cumbrian Group.

4. Wrekin.

III. Uses.

I. Health.

(«) Supply pure and bracing air.

(6) Protect from injurious winds.

{c) Influence temperature.

\d) Induce exercise.

will see that the arrangement of the moun-
tains settles or determines the class name.

4. Point to the " Wrekin " in Shropshire.
Tell class mountains are rarely isolated ex
detached.

III. Question these facts out:—

1. (a) Ask for holiday haunts— Seaside,
Switzerland, etc. People go to Switzerland
for good air, good scenerv, etc. Question
out, if possible ; if not, tell class :—

(i) Air is pure and bracing on mountains,
because of its altitude.

(2) Because far removed from manufac-
tures.

(6) and (<r) Point out Cheltenham and Bath

234

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.
MOUNTAINS— continued.

Information.

ral.

2. Wealth.

(a) Animal, vegetable, and mine-

(b) Supply water power.
3. Watersheds.

Teaching.

on the map. Show the hills around. Tell
of the higher temperature. Ask or tell of
the prevailing winds. Class will see that
the hills keep off the bad winds.

(d) Give a little information about moun-
taineering.

2. A reference to some well-known dis-

A watershed is elevated land
separating two or more river
basins.

4. Political uses (for higher class).

(a) For defence.

{b) Form natural boundaries.

trict will easily illustrate this. The nature
and general use of each class of productions
will be readily drawn from the class.

3. Take a blank map of England and
sketch in the Pennine Watershed. Explain
shed. (Refer to the parting of the hair.)

4. (a) A reference to the N.W. frontier in
India ; to the Alps ; to the Pyrenees will
illustrate this.

(6) Pyrenees a good example.

A later or more advanced lesson on mountains might deal with
their origin. The subject matter of such a lesson would be most
profitably given to a higher class, as the mental demands made
are considerably greater than in the previous lesson ; and
probably at least two lessons would be required to deal with the
subject satisfactorily, but this will depend upon the skill of the

GEOGRAPHY. 235

teacher. The subject might be dealt with in some such way as
follows : —

Origin of Mountains.

1. Upheaval or Elevation. — At successive epochs the earth's

crust has been broken up and elevated, whilst various igneous

rocks, the most superficial of which is probably granite, were lifted

up and forced into the cracks of the disturbed crust. To enforce

this fact upon the class, the teacher should bring the following

proofs of elevation under its notice : —

ia) The existence of rocks above the sea level, which were once below it.
(3) The shells of shellfish, etc., attached to rocks now above the high water

mark.
(c) The beds of old channels getting higher till they at last appear above the

surface of the water.

id) Raised sea beaches, sometimes several hundred feet above the sea level.
e) Buildings once close to the shore now miles inland.

The teacher should take a map and point to places where

evidences of elevation are to be seen, such as —

la) The Essex beach.

\d) The south-west of England.

U) South of South America.

(d) The shores of the Mediterranean.

(e) The shores of the Red Sea.

2. Depression. — The following evidence should be submitted : —

ia) The encroachment of the sea upon the land.
i) The sinking of rocks once above the surface.
c) The gradual deepening of channels.
U) The formation and existence of barrier reefs and atolls.
(e) Submerged forests.

The teacher should then point out that these movements of

elevation and subsidence seem to be most active in those districts

where volcanic and earthquake phenomena are most frequently

observed, and that the great moving force is the heat stored up in

the earth's interior.

The teacher should again turn to the map and point to the depressed dis-
trict in the south of Scandinavia ; to the submerged buildings along
the coast of South Greenland ; and to the submerged forests around
our own shores. He might also tell the class that the coast of South
America, along the mouth of the Amazon, and in the south-east
portion of the continent, is now being slowly submerged. In point-
ing out these districts of elevation and depression, he might call
attention to the fact that they are often earthquake and volcanic dis-
tricts. A sketch of a volcano should be made upon the B. B. , and its
internal heat, the subterranean interformation of steam, and the tre-
mendous force it exerts, should be explained. Such facts will make
the points intelligible to the class.

The effect oi denudation, both sub-aerial and marine, might be

236 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

pointed out, whilst the work of the various agents like the sun,
cold, frost, the atmosphere, rain, rivers, and the sea should be
explained.

mVERS.

The chief points to be noticed in giving a lesson on rivers are
here enumerated, but it is not suggested that every lesson should
contain all the information specified. The time allowed and the
class must be the chief determining factors. The points should
always be introduced in the order recommended, so as to preserve
the proper sequence in teaching — from the more known to the
less known. Children may see a river day by day, and may also
see its various uses exemplified. They probably know little or
nothing about its formation, and therefore this should generally
come last. We will take the Thames as an example.

1. Uses. — It is a great commercial highway ; ships laden with goods from
all parts of the world pass up and down it continually. Many trades are
carried on along its banks, whilst with its steamboats it affords a pleasant
means of communication between one place and another. It contributes to the
■water supply of the people, for some companies draw largely from it ; whilst
the fish caught at its mouth and in its upper courses increase Xhtfood supply.
In its prettier parts it is even used as a residential place, for many house boats
are now found upon it. It also affords opportunities for swimming, rowing,
sailing, punting, and fishing, while pleasure parties by steam boats or rowing
boats swarm upon it. These facts show its recreative use to be one of the most
important.

2. Course. — Follow the course from its source to its mouth, and take the
opportunity to teach right and left banks, shore, bed, channel, tributary,
mouth, course, basin, estuary, chief towns, bridges, tunnels, and chief ferries.

3. Formation. — Describe the circulation of water on the globe — evapora-
tion, condensation, atmospheric phenomena (rain, snow, etc.), the percolation of
rain, and the formation of springs. For other rivers it may be necessary to
describe the formation of a glacier, and to show that some rivers take their rise
from them.

THE BITTLD OF A COI7NTRV.

In teaching the "build" of a country, first make the class
thoroughly understand that the term means the " make," "form,"
or " physical construction " of a country. It will thus practically
embrace the physical features of that country ; e.g.^ extent,
length of coast line, chief capes and bays, rivers, mountains,
lakes and plains. The ordinary method of teaching this branch
of the work is bad. Lists of capes, bays, islands, rivers, etc.,
taught as mere strings of names, with an utter absence of
objective and realistic teaching, are worse than useless. Abstract
numbers to express extent are very often meaningless. Some
district should be taken as a standard, and other countries com-

GEOGRAPHY. 237

pared with it. The coast line should be taught by a series of
descriptive voyages with the aid of the map and B.B. sketches.
Mountains might be compared with some well known or neigh-
bouring hill. Pictorial illustrations, where possible, should be
brought into requisition. Boating parties could traverse the
rivers if the imagination of the class is properly appealed to, and
stimulated by the descriptive powers of the teacher. Mountains
could be climbed in the same way, and the views thus revealed
described. The narrative element thus introduced would remove
the dulness of the usual lesson. On such a method as this a num-
ber of geographical problems would naturally suggest themselves,
and would aid the training of the faculties of observation and
reasoning. For instance, the influence of " build " upon the
health, tastes, sentiments, and industries of the country could be
deduced. A mountainous people are of an independent nature,
and generally religious. Why ? The capacity to deal with
questions of this sort would be cultivated and developed by the
methods suggested. Each item in the *' build " would thus
become a central objective fact, around which could be grouped
a number of vital incidents in the life of the nation. Such
work, it is true, will require more thought and preparation than
usual, but the outlay will be found a productive one for all
concerned.

HOW TO TXIACH liATTTUDX: AND X.ONam7I>IL

1. Show their Necessity. — Take a
suitable ball. Make a mark A upon
it, and then ask the children to locate
the mark. They cannot. Let the ball
represent the earth, and suppose this
spot to be placed in some ocean or
desert. They cannot locate it because they
have no starting point to fix its relative
position.

a. Find a Starting^ Point.— For this
purpose it will be necessary to fix the
polar points and to draw an equator. Proceed as follows : —

(a) Plx the Polar Points. Take a piece of wire of suitable length and run
it through the centre of the ball. Then make the ball revolve on this
line, which is called an axU. Refer to the axis of a cart wheel as an
illustration. The ends of this line are called poles. A pole means a

Fio. I.

238

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

pivot, and the class will see the appropriateness of the name. The
children can fix the spot A now by reference to its distance from either
pole. But it can be fixed more precisely than that.

N.Pole

N.Pore

S.Pole

Fig. 2.

(3) Draw an Equator. Compare the word "equal " with equator, and tell
the class the line is so called because it divides the earth into two equal
parts. The point A can now be better located. Its distance from the
equator can be given as well as its distance from the poles. Measure
its distance above the equator. This distance is called latitude.

3. Iiatitude. — The class can now define latitude as distance
from the Equator north or south. Draw a line through the point

N.Pole

A parallel to the equator. This
is called a parallel of latitude.

There can be any number of them,
as BC, DE, etc. Any spot we
may wish to locate will have one
of these parallels of latitude drawn
through it, so as to fix its distance
from the equator. The lines go
right round the earth parallel with
the equator, and all places on the
b.Hole same line have the same latitude.

Fig. 4. 4. Degn^ees. — The earth is 25,000

miles round the equator, which is divided into 360 parts. Each
part is called a degree. Make the class quite understand that
this is an arbitrary number, and it might have been 100, 500, or
anything else. It was chosen because it is divisible by all
numbers from i to 12 except 7 and 11. This fact should be told.
A little problem then might be given asking how many miles
there are in a degree at the equator, e.g.^ 25,000 -f 360 = 69*39
miles. Then let the class compare the parallels of latitude with

GEOGRAPHY.

239

the equator — they decrease as they reach the poles; but as

every circle on the globe is divided into 360°, the number of

miles in a degn^ee on a parallel of latitude

varies with its position. At London, the

number of miles in a degree on London's

parallel of latitude is about 6g'io; at the

poles about 68*69.

Take a globe, point out the parallels of latitude
and their decreasing size towards the poles, and so
demonstrate these facts practically. Where a globe
is not available use a sphere from the drawing models
or an ordinary ball.

Fig. 5.

5. Ijongitude. — Ask the class to tell you how far east or west
the spot A is. They cannot, because they again have no starting
place. Suppose we fix on some place
as a starting point — say Greenwich.
The choice again is an arbitrary one.
Now we can say how far east or west A
is from Greenwich. If G be the posi-
tion of Greenwich, draw a line round
the ball passing through the two poles
and the point G. This line is called a
meridian, because all places along it
have midday at the same time. Draw a
diagram on the B.B. illustrating this. All the places a, b, r, rf, e,
along the meridian N.S. have midday at the same time. Meridian,
means midday

line. Now we can say
that the point A is so
far 'measure distance)
west of Greenwich.
This line through Green-
wich is called the first
meridian^ because it is
the point fixed upon to
start from. The class
should now give a de-
finition of longitude.

6. Meridian liinec— Mark points along the equator at equal
distances (Fig. 6). Through these points and the poles draw
circles. The children should be invited to notice that they are

Fig. 7.

240

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

not parallel, hence there are no parallels of longitude. The circles

are called meridians for the reason given. These meridians are

also divided into 360°, but as they are all the same size, a deg^ree

on a meridian of longitude always contains the same number

of miles.

7. How to find Latitude and Iion^tude. — The position of A

will be fixed by drawing through it —

|\J [a) A parallel of latitude BAG.

{b) A meridian of longitude NAS.

The intersection of these
two lines at A locates it. The
spot A is so many degrees W.
longitude, and so many degrees
N. latitude. But when a ship
is at sea, it is not possible to
measure this distance, as chil-
dren usually understand the
word measure. Explain the
method adopted as follows : —
{a) Iiatitude. — This is fixed by the relative position of the
polar star by night, and by the altitude of the sun by day.

1. By Night. Tell the class that the pole star is always the same number of

degrees above the horizon as the observer is removed from the equator,
so that the height of the pole star gives the latitude of the observer.
Now, the height of the pole star can be measured. (Reserve the
method how for another lesson.) If a person travelled 10° northward,
the polar star would appear to rise 10°.

2. By Day. The measurement is most often made by day, and then the

altitude or height of the sun is used instead of the pole star.

(6) Iiongitude. — All ships carry chronometers. These keep
accurate Greenwich (the starting place) time. Suppose the
height of the sun shows it to be 10 a.m. where the ship is, when
it is 3 p.m. by the chronometer. A distance of 15° is allowed for
each hour, because 360° -f 24 hours = 15° for each hour. Then
the longitude is 15° for every hour's difference in the two times ;
i.e., it is 5 X 15° = 75° W. longitude. The longitude is W., because
the time by the sun is in advance of the time by the chronometer.
Again, suppose the sun to show it to be 4 p.m. and the
chronometer 10 a.m. Then the longitude 6 x 15° = go° E.,
because the time by the sun is after the time by the chronometer.
Give plenty of examples, and do not forget to tell the class that
all these lines are imaginary.

GEOGRAPHY.

24t

A subsequent lesson should be given showing the method of
taking observations in greater detail.

A liESSON ON DAY AND NIGHT.

Perhaps there is no more frequently recurring lesson in the
whole range of school geographical teaching than the above. It
figures frequently in examination papers, and finds a place in
nearly every scheme of lessons in geography. These two facts
are a practical way of emphasising its importance. Furthermore,
the lesson is not an easy one for young teachers, hence it has
been thought advisable to give it in detail.

Matter and MateriaL

I. LIGHT AND DARK.

Demonstrate this with a globe and
a candle lamp.
Globe to represent Candle to represent

the earth.

the sun.

Method.

1. I. The class should observe that half
the globe is lighted, and half not lighted ;
i.e., in the dark.

2. Turn the globe into other positions,
and let the boys observe that the result is
the same — one half in the light and one
half in the dark.

' The earth turns round on its axis
once in 24 hours, one half being
turned towards the sun (day) and
one half being turned away from the
sun {night).

II. BUNRISE AND SUNSET.

The interval of light gives us day.

The interval of darkness gives us
night.

Sunset, sunrise, midday, mid-
night, are other points in the course
of the daily motion of the earth.

3. Next mark any spot on the surface of
the globe. Now revolve the globe slowly
until that spot takes up its original position.
They will then see that every spot is for
half its course in the light and for half
its course in the dark.

The light part equals day.

The dark part equals night.

II. Mark any spot A on the dark side of
the earth. Then slowly revolve the globe
round its axis, calling attention to the posi-
tion of the mark—

1. When it is just quitting the dark part
to come into the light— fcrea* o/day, dawn,
sunrise.

2. When it is halfway round the light
portion; i.e., when it is right opposite to
the candle — noon (explain), midday.

3. When it is just quitting the light for
the dark— SKfM*/.

242

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Matter and Material.

III. MOVEMENTS.

1. Apparent Movements.

The sun seems to rise every
morning, travel across the heavens
from east to west, and then set.
This seems to cause day and
night.

2. Real Movements.

The earth turns round on its axis
once every 24 hours, and causes the
sun to appear to move.

lY. VARIATIONS IN DAY AND
NIGHT.

1. In the summer the days are
long and the nights are short.

2. In the winter the nights are
long and the days are short.

3. In spring and autumn the days
and nights are more equal in
length.

Method.

4. When it is halfway round the dark
part; i.e., farthest away from the sun—
midnight.

The course of the sun from sunrise to
sunset gives us day; from sunset to sun-
rise, night,

III. I. Refer to a railway train ; the trees,
etc., seem to be running away from the
passengers.

2. If two trains are in a station, and one
is moving out whilst the other is stationary,
a person looking out of the window of a car-
riage of the stationary train on the side
towards the moving train, will fancy his
train is moving and the other not.

3. In rising in a balloon, the earth seems
to sink away from you.

These are all apparent motions. The real
motion is understood in each case. Apply
this to the earth, which turns round on its
own axis, and thus causes the sun to appear
to move.

IV. Reference has hitherto been made to
the days and nights as though they were
always of equal length — twelve hours. This
is incorrect, and the information given
opposite, which expresses the real case, can
easily be obtained by questioning.

The explanation of the phenomena ex-
pressed in IV. (i, 2, and 3) is as follows : —
By observation the class should notice —
I. The Arctic Circle rotates entirely in
the dark, hence it is winter at the North
Pole, and constant night. It is beyond the
direct Hght and heat of the sun.

The earth's axis is inclined to its
orbit at 23^^°, and this will explain
the difference in the lengths of the
days and nights at —

Explain orbit, and draw a diagram illus-
trating.

2. The Antarctic is the reverse, being
wholly within the light and heat of the sun.
Hence it is summer in the southern hemi-
sphere.

GEOGRAPHY.

243

Matter and Material.

1. Different latitudes at the same
time.

2. The same latitudes at different
times.

In summer any given place is
turned more directly towards the
sun's rays ; in the winter it is
turned more directly away from the
sun's rays.

Twilight might be deferred to an-
other lesson.

N.B. — The student might afterwards

ftrepare a lesson on the seasons on similar
ines.

Method.

3. The farther we proceed from the North
Pole to the Equator, the nearer we ap-
proach the sphere of light, until, at the
Equator, we have the days and nights equal
again. The result will be that the days
lengthen as we get nearer the Equator.

4. Now proceed from the Equator to the
Antarctic Circle, and the region of light
increases ; i.e., the amount of light is more
and longer, giving us longer days.

5. The class should again be asked to
notice that it is winter in the northern
hemisphere, and that on any given parallel
of latitude (say Cancer) more of that parallel
is in the dark than in the light ; and this is
true of all parallels until we reach the
Equator ; i.e., the nights are long and the
days short in the winter.

6. In the southern hemisphere it is
summer. There the greater portion of any
given parallel is in the light (day) ; i.e., the
days are longer in summer and the nights
shorter.

Hence the days and nights vary in length
at different latitudes at the same time.

To prove they vary in the same latitude
at different times, take any town (London).
Appeal to the experience of the class. Days
and nights do vary at different times. Why ?
Because the position of London with re-
spect to the sun is different in the summer
and winter.

This might be illustrated by a B.B. dia-
gram.

This lesson might be well illustrated
with the tellurian or the terrestrial time
globe, if they should be accessible.

GZJni!A.TIL

L Meaning^. — In dealing with climate the teacher should com-
mence by giving the class a clear and accurate idea of what the
term now embraces. For this purpose he should invite definitions
or descriptions from the class, and seek to gather up all the
correct items into one statement. He might assist by giving
the derivation (klima) and its meaning. He might point out
that the word really means a slope or inclination, and that the
inclination referred to is the obliquity of the sun's rays. But
the term embraces more than this, including as it does not only
the temperature of a district, but its meteorological conditions
generally.

a. Zifttltad*.— (a) The effect of the sun's rays is greatest where
they fall perpendicularly on the surface of the earth, and diminishes
as their obliquity increases.

244 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

(b) The surface covered by the oblique rays is greater than that
covered by the perpendicular rays.

(c) There is more absorption in the oblique rays, because the
sun has to traverse more air particles, and as a result more is
absorbed. Both these facts are clearly demonstrated in Fig. i of
the lesson on climate which follows.

(d) The slope is important ; to the south it is warmer than to
the north. This is true of all latitudes.

These are the main points which the teacher will have to put
before the class to give a clear conception of the influence of lati-
tude on climate.

3. Elevation. — What is the influence of elevation ? The
teacher must point out that the higher we ascend the colder it
becomes. Thus altitude has the same effect as latitude. But there
are modifying circumstances, and the teacher must be careful to
point them out. He must make the class understand that the
actual temperature of the air depends not so much upon the direct rays
of the sun as upon the radiation from the heated surface of the earth.
He must be supplied with suitable illustrations showing that the
mountains may keep off hot or cold winds ; they may chill the
winds with their snow caps ; they may bring down the rain by
condensing the moisture in the atmosphere ; they may lie across,
or in a line with the rain-bearing wind. These facts make the
rainfall an important factor in climate. The addition of the snow
chills, hence the nature of the surface is important ; and, as they
influence or intercept winds, the prevailing winds are of conse-
quence ; whilst it has already been shown that the direction of
their slopes is a contributing element. Let us consider some of
these influences in greater detail.

4. The Nature of the Soil. — The teacher will need to bring
the following facts under the notice of his class : —

[a) A sandy desert, a tract of luxuriant vegetation, an expanse of water

radiate heat in very different degrees. The desert raises the tempera-
ture of the air much ; the vv^ater little. These facts should be illus-
trated by a reference to the great heat of well-know^n deserts, and to their
extremes of temperature sometimes. A reference to summer visits to the
seaside, and a possible reference to land and sea breezes, w^ould emphasise
the more equable temperature of water as compared with land,

[b) A newly ploughed field both absorbs and radiates heat much more

rapidly than a grass field.

[c) But good absorbers are good radiators. Hence the desert cools

quickly ; water does not. Why ?

1. Heat is diffused through a larger mass owing to the depth to which solar

radiation penetrates.

2. Owing to vertical and horizontal currents to great depths.

GEOGRAPHY. 245

5. Proximity to the Sea. — We have maritime climates and
continental climates, the temperature of the former being more
equable. A few statistics might be quoted in proof of this ; e.g.,
the climate of England might be compared with that of Canada or
Russia, the comparison being restricted to parts lying in the same
latitude. Again, oceanic currents, both hot and cold, are great in-
fluences, and the Gulf Stream and the North Polar current might
be given in illustration. The amount of the evaporation is in-
fluenced by the proximity of the sea, and this leads us on
naturally to the rainfall.

6. Rainfall. — The points here to be noticed are : —

(a) Coast countries have more rain than inland countries.
Id) Mountain regions are wetter than the plains.
(c) The tropics have more rain than other zones.

Examples in illustration should be given in each case.

7. Prevailing VTinds. — Atmospheric currents exercise a greater
influence upon climate than oceanic currents. Illustrate by a
reference to our own prevailing winds- our warm S.W. and our
cold E. winds. Explain the cause m each case.

8. Ziocal Circumstances. — All the influences enumerated may
be more or less modified by local circumstances, but the teacher
will not experience much difficulty with some of these, as they are
almost self-explanatory. Such facts as the following are included : —

I a) The amount of snowfall.

I d) Bogs and marshes cool the air, and generate fogs.

ic) Clay soils retain the moisture, and have the same effects as marshes.

I d) The relative duration of summer and winter.

I e) Some kinds of marshes abound in malarious and other exhalations un-
favourable to health.

(/) Large tracts of forests often produce the same results.

{g) The clearing, drainage, and cultivation of land generally have favour-
able effects on climate. On the other hand, a too complete removal
of forests may prevent the deposition of moisture to such an extent as
to cause droughts (W. I. Isles) or even floods (valley of Po).

The teacher should be prepared to furnish examples in illus-
tration of every one of these phenomena.

g. Finally the class might have the distinction between weather
and climate pointed out. Weather is daily ; climate embraces an
average effect extending over many years.

In the teaching of climate too much must not be crowded into
one lesson. The subject is far too wide for that. It will be suffi-
cient if two or three headings are taken up and dealt with
thoroughly in each lesson, as in the subjoined instance, which
deals only with latitude.

246 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

A LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY LATITUDE.

Information.

Teaching.

Latitude.

This determines the amount of
heat received from the sun.

I. Places nearer the equator are
warmer than those more remote.

It is assumed that the class knows the
meaning of the word climate as it is
generally used.

Facts I, 2, 3, and 4 can be elicited by
questioning. They could be explained by
means of the following diagrams, which
should be drawn upon the B.B. : —

SUN

Fig. I.

2. The day is warmer than the
night.

3. Summer is warmer than winter.

4. Mid-day is warmer than morn-
ing or evening.

A. Temperature.

By this term is meant the different
degrees of heat and cold.

(a) Annual range. This is cal-
culated on the average of the vary-
ing temperature of the different
seasons spread over several years.

{b) Daily range. By this is meant
the difference between the tempera-
ture of day and night.

B. Places having the same lati-
tude may have different climates,
e.g. :—

Let A and B represent different bundles
of equal rays ; bb is longer than aa, hence
an equal amount of heat is spread over a
greater space. See Fig. 5 also.

Let the light portion represent day and
the shaded portion night. The light

Place.

Edinboro
Moscow

Lati-
tude.

56°
56°

Average I Average
Summer ' Winter
Tempera- Tempera-
ture, ture.

57°
64

Range.

Fig. 2.

portion is turned towards the sun, the dark
portion away from the sun. As the Earth
turns round upon its axis once in every
twenty-four hours, and as each half is
alternately exposed to the sun for twelve
hours (day), and turned away from the sun
twelve hours (night), the difference in

GEOGRAPHY. 247

LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY LATITUDE— con/tMi«rd.

Information.

Teaching.

C. If the earth were entirely
covered with water, or consisted
entirely of land, then the climate of
any part would be determined by
its latitude, and therefore all places
having the same latitude would
have the same climate.

temperature between day and night will
be obvious.

Tell the children that the sun is never so
high in the sky during the winter as it is in
the summer. Appeal to their experience,
and ask if any of them have ever noticed this
fact. Then sketch Fig. 3 in illustration.
Fig. 4 will explain the reason of this, and
should be carefully prepared by the teacher
for this purpose.

Fig. 3.

Greenwich

^'^H

WINTER

Fig. 4.

SUMMER

D. Case of the Equator.
The days and nights are equal
all the year, hence —

1. The heat received by day, and
that lost by radiation at night, are
practically constant. j

2. As a result there is no marked I
difference between summer and |
winter temperature.

3. Hence there is no range of|
temperature.

At sunrise and sunset the sun is near the
horizon, and a pencil of rays {aa) is spread
over a much greater space than an equal
pencil (66) at noon. At sunrise and sunset
there is also greater thickness of atmo-
sphere for the heat rays to pass through,
and consequently more absorption of heat
by the atmosphere.

A. Writ? A, a, b upon the B.B., and
have them learnt by the class.

B. Then explain and illustrate them by
a reference to table B. Write this Ubie
on the B.B. Have a map of Europe put
up before the class, and let the places be

248

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

LESSON ON CLIMATE AS INFLUENCED BY L AT IT\J-DE— continued.

BcMidday

Horizon

Fig. 5.

Information.

E. 1. Insular Climate.

(a) The range is small.

{b) The climate is temperate be-
cause water surfaces tend to equalise
temperatures.

2. Continental Climate.

A climate of extremes and great
range of temperature.

Teaching.

pointed out. The parallel of latitude should
be traced from Edinburgh to Moscow to
show that their latitudes are the same.

C and D. Explain these.

E. Elucidate E by a reference to B.

NOTES OF A USSSON ON TRADE WINDS.

In the teaching of winds three lessons stand out as of para-
mount importance — land and sea breezes, trade winds, and
monsoons. As considerations of space prevent the giving of these
three lessons in detail, one only, that on trade winds, is given as
a type of the method to be adopted. The student should practise
himself in writing similar notes on the other two.

Information.

I. Introduction.

I. Air, when unequally heated,
forms currents, because heated air
expands and ascends, and the
colder air flows in to take its place.

Teaching,

I. This lesson should be one of a series.
Lessons on winds generally, and one on land
and sea breezes, should have preceded it.

The teacher should briefly recapitulate
the truths taught in those lessons.

The class will discover, before the lesson
finishes, some similarity between this lesson
and the lesson on land and sea breezes.

GEOGRAPHY.
LESSON ON TRADE WINDS— continued.

249

Information.

2. Land and sea breezes are due
to the varying temperature of the
air.

II. Origin.

1. The air at the equator, being
the most heated, ascends, and begins
to move towards the higher latitudes,
and in the direction of the poles.

2. At about 30^ (N. or S.) this
current of air reaches the surface
of the earth, and since it has left
the air at the equator more rarefied,
part of it, mingled with the air from
the poles, returns to the equator,
while part continues its course to
the poles.

III. Direction.

1. The equatorial current or upper
trade wind.

(a) S.W. in N. hemisphere.
(6) N.W. in S. hemisphere.

2. The polar current or lower
trade wind.

(a) N.E. in N. hemisphere.
{b) S.E. in S. hemisphere.

The trade winds are deflected to
the right in the N. hemi.sphere, and
to the Ufi in the S. hemisphere.

IV. Locality.

I. In N. hemisphere.
(a) Belt of equatorial calms about
400 geographical miles broad.
(6) Region of N.E. trade winds.

(1) In Atlantic 8° to ag" N. lat.

(2) In Pacific 2" to Zi" N. lat.

Teaching.

II. 1. Illustrate by a reference to the use
oi&fire in a room as a means of ventilation
as well as warming. A further illustration
might be found by a reference to the origin
of land and sea breezes. To show that
warm air expands and ascends do the air-
bag experiment, and refer to the ascent of
balloons.

2. Tell this, and illustrate as in III.,
I and 2.

III. I and 2. Point out on the map the
latitudes referred to. Then sketch the
following illustration on the B.B.

The air pressure at A is higher than at
B, hence as air flows from the region of
high pressure to that of low pressure, a
current flows from A to B. This is the
equatorial current, or upper trade wind, or
counter, or return trade wind.

From diagram show there must be a
greater weignt of air over A than over F.
Hence the movement from A to F.

But the barometer at B soon stands
higher than barometer at equator, because
of the flow of air in this upper current.
Hence the movement from B to the equator.
This is the polar current or lower trade
wind.

If the earth wete stationary these two
currents would flow constantly due N. and
S. But the trade winds are E, winds.
Why?

(I) The earth rotates from W. to E.,
and the rate of rotation is greatest
at the equator, and grows less as
we approach the poles.
(3) The air has consequently its maxi-
mum rate of rotation from west to
east at the equator.
When this air enters regions of higher
latitudes it reaches districts which are
rotating less rapidly than itself, and which
therefore lag behind it ; while the air, shoot-
ing forward, appears as a wind blowing
from W. to E. In this way the upper

250

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.
LESSON ON TRADE WIliDS— continued.

Information.

2. In S. hemisphere.

(a) Belt of calms.

{b) Region of S.E, trade winds.

(i) In Atlantic 3° N. to 28° S. lat.
(2) In Pacific 2° to 21° S. lat.

The belt of equatorial calms is

frequently the scene of the severest

tempests, with heavy rainfalls and

thunderstorms.

Teaching.

current in the N. hemisphere becomes a
S.W. wind, and in the S. hemisphere a
N.W. wind.

The converse is the case with the polar
current. This enters a region of quicker
rotation from a region of slower rotation,
and lags behind. It does not rotate so
quickly as those parts of the earth near the
equator, and is therefore perceived as an
E. wind — N.E. or E. in the N. hemisphere ;
S.E. in the S. hemisphere.

IV. ifl and 2a. The S.E. and N.E. trade
winds meet near the equator.

Anticipated result.— They ought to
unite and form a gentle wind blowing to
theW.

Actual result.— Both are suspended
through the strong upward draught pro-
duced by the rapid and extensive rarefaction
at the equator. This produces the belt of
equatorial calms about 400 geographical
miles broad.

lb and 26. Point these out on the map.
Refer to storms of the belt of calms.

A map should be sketched on the B.B.
showing the directions of the trade winds,
and the position of the belt of calms.

A liESSON ON RATN.

I. Principles Demonstrated and Explained.

These should be taught by observation and experiment.

1. Evaporation.

[a) Take two tin saucers of equal size with equal quantities of water. Apply
heat to one and not to the other, or place one near the fire and the

other in a cool place. The one supplied with most heat will lose its

water first, which will evaporate,
[b) Refer to school ink wells. The ink in them dries up; i.e., the ink

evaporates,
{c) Cold dry winds in the spring often bring chapped hands. The moisture

of the hands is evaporated by the wind. The natives of Africa, in order

to protect themselves from the too rapid perspiration occasioned by the

simoom, cover themselves with fatty substances.
{d) The drying of the clothes after washing can also be referred to.

GEOGRAPHY.

251

2. Condensation.

(a) Hold a s/afe in the steam issuing from a kettle spout. The slate becomes
moist. Tfu vapour has been turned into water again— it has been con-
densed.

(b) Refer to a crowded room and the moisture on the windows. The mois-
ture from the bodies given off in the form of vapour has been condensed
by the cold glass.

{c) Refer to a cold day. You can see people's " breath " ; i.e., the moisture
contained in the breath is condensed as soon as it appears from the
mouth or nostrils.

3. Application of these Truths. —These truths should then be applied to
explain the formation of rain. The class should be able to tell the teacher that
rain is formed by the evaporation and subsequent condensation of the water
of the earth.

4. Why Does Rain Fall ? — The class will understand the influence of the
sun and the formation of clouds from what has already been demonstrated. But
why does rain fall ?

Take two large glass jars and nearly fill them with water. Drop lumps of
chalk in one and powdered chalk in the other. The heavy particles in
(i) fall ; i.e., they sink quickly. The light particles in (2) float.

Apply this fact to the particles of moisture in the air. The condensed and
heavier particles fall as rain. The lighter particles remain floating
in the air as vapour or clouds. Then when a cold wind or cold moun-
tain top or slope further condenses the moisture in the air, it becomes
loo heavy to remain in suspension, and so falls as rriin.
II. The Rain Gauge. — Show one if possible, and explain its action. If not,
explain from a sketch on the B.B. "M is a cylindrical vessel, closwl at the
top by a funnel-shaped lid, in which there is a very small hole, through which
the rain falls. At the bottom of the ves.sel is a glass tube (A), in which the
water rises to the same height as inside the rain gauge, and is measured by a
scale on the side as shown in the figure."

252

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

"The apparatus being placed in an exposed situation, if at the end of a
month the height of the water in the tube is two inches, it shows that the water
has attained this height in the vessel, and consequently that a layer of two

inches in depth expresses the quantity of rain which this extent of surface has
received." — Ganot's Physics.

III. Rainfall. — This is measured by the rain gauge. The amount for each
aay is registered, and the average taken for the year. This gives the annual
rainfall. The average rainfall can be taken from the average of a number of
years. A day is rainy when the rainfall is not less than -oi inch.

To give some idea of the amount of rain that falls puf the following
statistics on the B. B.

I inch of rain on a square yard gives 4 "679 gallons, or 4774 lbs.

I inch of rain on an acre gives 22,662 gallons, or loi tons.

FURTHSR SUGGESTIONS ON THE TEACHING OF
GEOGRAPHY.

As it is impossible w^ithin the limits of such a chapter as this
to set out the methods for the teaching of the many subjects
embraced under the term geography, a few further suggestions
are made with a view to rendering assistance in the planning out
of a few typical lessons. The skeleton of the lesson is provided ;
the teacher's task will be to fill in the details, to think out his own
experiments and illustrations, and to make any modifications in
the general outline that special or local circumstances may
require.

Iiessons on Towns. — Only the most important or the most
interesting should be dealt with. One of the worst errors of
geography lessons and geography books is the overcrowding of
names, and the names of towns generally figure largely in this
overcrowding. Having chosen the subject of the lesson, the
teacher should proceed to deal with it as follows : —

1. Locality.

(a) Latitude.
\b) Altitude.
\c) Position — coast or inland ; river (if any).

GEOGRAPHY. 253

2. CUmate.

(a) Maximum and minimum temperature.
(d) Range of temperature.

1. Daily range.

2. Annual range.
Ic) Prevailing winds.
(d) Rainfall.

3. Occupations.

{a) Industries.

id) Commerce.
c) Agriculture (crops).
ct} Minerals.

4. Population.

\t} If W V??S?''°"- I Rate of increase or decrease.
lo) At last census. j

{c) Health ; death rate ; reasons for high or low rate.

(d) Religion.

(e) Social life ; houses ; dress ; amusements.

5. Communications.

{a) Land. {d) Water.

1. Rail. I. Rivers.

2. Trams, etc. 2. Canals.

3. Roads. 3. Trade routes.

6. Government. — Whether a corporation or vestry, etc. The amount of

local control (if any) possessed ; the methods of election, etc.

Ziessons on Railways. — Show a map of the country chosen
for the subject of the lesson, with its railway system well marked.
The maps of the railway systems of one or two other countries
should be put up also for the purpose of illustration, comparison,
or contrast, and the systems should be carefully chosen with a
view to this purpose.

1. Total mileage. Compare with other countries.

2. Number of trains, and rate of travelling. Compare district
with district and country with country again. Get or give reasons
for different rates.

3. Fares : workmen's. Parliamentary (explain). Express, etc.

4. Trade uses of railways. Preferential rates : their influence
on trade. Light railways. Post-office work (Royal mail).

5. Pleasure uses of railways. *' Trips " or excursions.
Mountain railways (Switzerland).

6. Method of accommodation : closed or open compartments ;
corridor trains ; Pulman cars ; buffets; sleeping carriages. Com-
pare English, American, and Continental.

7. The ticket system. Compare English with Continental.
Electric railway system Cno tickets).

ZiOMOiui on Artioles of Conuneroe. — Take coal as an example.

254 ^ NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. Distribution (coal fields to be marked on the map).

2. The extent of the coal industry. Compare with other
countries.

3. Its uses.

(a) Manufactures.
{d) Locomotion.

(d) Domestic uses.

4. Its substitutes : peat, wood, charcoal.

5. Exported to or imported from. Places to be named and
pointed out.

6. Its influence on the trade and wealth of the country.

7. The factors determining its price.

Lessons on Geographical Apparatus. — One of the chief
characteristics of the present teaching of geography is the develop-
ment of improved apparatus for realistic teaching. Globes,
maps, and diagrams of all sorts are produced in abundance and in
better quality than before ; but the greatest development has been
in the production of instruments and models for the teaching of
the physical branch of the subject ; and although the present price
of many of these articles keeps them out of many schools, still the
young teacher ought to keep himself posted in the latest im-
provements of this kind. These pieces of apparatus are full of
suggestions, and they may help to elucidate problems that have
hitherto been unintelligible or obscure to the teacher, and they
may further give him hints for the construction of cheap, simple,
and self-made apparatus. Illustrated descriptions of these and of
other pieces of apparatus should be collected — they are easily
obtainable from the illustrated advertisements constantly appear-
ing, and from the readily issued illustrated catalogues of the pub-
lishers — and pasted in some note book kept for the purpose.
Such a book would be neither the least valuable nor the least
useful in the student's library. Such pieces of apparatus would
include the Geodoscope, the Tellurian, the Orrery, Cunnington's
apparatus for illustrating the causes of the seasons, the Selenotrope,
the Terrestrial Time Globe, the Volvorb, Clayden's model of the
Atlantic, Jessop's apparatus for illustrating the effects of the
earth's revolution in her orbit, and the Planisphere. The Globe is
here chosen, because it is within the knowledge and experience
of all.

GEOGRAPHY. 255

The Globe.

L Its Principal Uses.

(a) To show the shape of the earth ; its motions ; its inclina-
tion ; its zones; meridians; latitude; longitude ; equator: ecliptic,
etc.

(6) To teach climate, the angle of the sun, and the proximity
of masses of land and water.

(d) To teach tides, day and night, seasons, sunrise, and sunset.

(e) A globular magnet should be used for lessons on attraction
and gravitation.

(/) A relief globe should be used for teaching mountains,
valleys, etc.

2. Preparatory Iiessons.— To enable a child to thoroughly

understand the teaching of the globe, previous lessons should

have been given on the curvature of the earth, on attraction, and

on the inequalities of the earth's surface.

(a) Simple Lessons on Attraction.— These lessons will help the children
to understand how things adhere to the earth,
(i) Cohesion can be taught by dipping a pencil in water.

(2) Magnetic attraction can be shown by a few experiments. The children will

thus learn that bodies have the power of attracting or drawing each other.

(3) Extend these notions to explain gravity, as affecting larger bodies like the

planets and stars. A globular magnet would be a great aid ; failing this
use an ordinary magnet.
(^) On the Curvature of the Earth. — The curvature of the ocean will be
illustrated by a reference to the manner of appearing and disappearing
of ships. This can be illustrated by a small toy ship and a very large
globe. Do not attempt other proofs at present.
(c) Lessons on the Inequalities of the Earth's Surface should be given.
This would give the idea of mountains, hills and valleys.

The Comparative Method.

This is the method of teaching on which several of our school
geographies are more or less based, and it may be used to
advantage in some cases ; but the resemblances should be real,
and similarity should always precede dissimilarity, for points of
likeness are more important than points of di£Ference. The
placing of the facts side by side fixes the attention by appealing
to ouriosity and the oritioal faculty. When the comparisons take
a graphic form the value of the method is enhanced. Contrast,
a most valuable aid to memory, is the converse of comparison,
and is very freely used. Illustrations follow, the first being taken
from Meiklejohn's Geography, and the second from Gill's Student's
Geography.

256

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

:. Mountain Lakes.

(a) Very deep.

(i) Have high and steep shores.
{c) Are generally long and narrow.
(d) Irregular in shape.
{e) Picturesque scenery.

Lakes in Plains.

{a) Generally shallow.

(d) Have low sloping shores.

{d) Regular and monotonous in shape

{e) Tame scenery.

2. Wine productions in millions of gallons.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I, —What is the meaning of the distinction between physical, political, mathe-
matical, and industrial geography? Say which of these should be first taught, and
why.

2.— Describe fully the relative advantages of questioning children in geography ; (a)
Out of sight of any map ; and {h) With a map before them on which there are no names
of places ; and state the best way of combining these two methods of examination.

3. — Draw a map of the school premises, and of the roads or streets adjacent, with
which you are most familiar ; and say what use you would make of such a map in teach-
ing the elements of geography.

GEOGRAPHY.

257

4. — Notes of a lesson on a cape; mountains: river Mississippi; climate; winds;
snow and rain (I.) ; changes of the season ; islands ; rain ; formation and course of
rivers; rivers.

5. —Draw a plan of the schoolroom, and show how it may be applied in the teaching
of scale and proportion in map-drawing to scholars in the First Standard.

6. — Name in progressive order of teaching, the apparatus required for lessons in
geography, and show how you would give a conception of scale and proportion in map-
drawing to young children.

7. — State the chief points to be noticed in giving a lesson on " A River," with the
order in which each point should be introduced to the class. Illustrate your answer by
some English or Scotch river.

8.— Show that a map differs from a picture, and explain how you would supply the
deficiencies to a class beginning to learn geography.

9. — Point out some of the means by which the attention of a class may be sustained
through an oral lesson of thirty minutes' duration on geography, so that the dull or
backward children may not be allowed to suffer.

10. — Name the principal uses of a globe in teaching geography, and state fully how
you would employ it in giving a lesson on day and night.

II.— By what illustrations would you give children their first ideas of mountains and
rivers ; (a) from their own experience ; and (b) on the blackboard ?

12.— A complaint is frequently made that geography, as taught in schools, is con-
fined to lists of capes, heights of mountains, etc. How far are such lists useful, and for
what purpose ? Illustrate from your knowledge of British capes and mountains.

13. — How would you begin teaching geography to a class of young children ? Give
the substance of a few of your first lessons.

14.— Draw a plan of the schoolroom with which you are most familiar, showing the
position and relative sizes of desks and gallery. Explain the advantages or disadvan-
tages of the arrangement.

15.— Describe the sort of apparatus and visible illustration which is likely to prove
most helpful to a teacher in givmg the earliest lessons in geography.

16. — After explaining to a class the effect of mountain ranges on climate, show how
you might lead the children to seek further proofs for themselves.

17.— In giving a lesson on a river, which is the better plan— to speak first of a par-
ticular river which the children have seen, or to start with a definition and a general
description ? Give reasons for your opinion.

»7

258

CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY.

Value of History.

1. It helps to reveal the past history of the country, and so gives
an amount of valuable information.

2. It calls forth feelings oi patriotism. It stimulates the national
pride, promotes a love of virtue, gives powerful object lessons
against vice, and tends, rightly taught, to make good citizens. This
ought to be its prime aim.

3. It arouses interest and curiosity, and so helps to form habits
of concentration. This object is defeated when history lessons are
crammed.

4. It furnishes plenty of work for the reasoning powers. The
pupil learns to trace cause and effect ; to generalise ; and to make
valuable inductions. He finds a cycle in historic events — that
history repeats itself. He sees the power of the monarch grow
less, and he learns why ; how one class rises and another falls ;
and facts which throw a powerful light upon present tendencies,
and give plenty of scope for thought.

5. Properly taught, and methodically studied, it may be made
a good training for the memory, which it taxes severely.

6. Persons and events of the past are still on their trial before
posterity. History presents evidence which is weighed and
reasoned on ; conclusions are arrived at, and judgment is pro-
nounced. It thus cultivates the critical faculty .

7. Our sympathies are often called into active play, and any-
thing which strengthens and develops sympathy is a valuable aid
to social progress. It also provides a legitimate safety-valve for
the play of the malevolent affections.

8. It increases our capacity and opportunities for pleasure. By
association the objects in our museums, our old buildings, our

HISTORY.

259

battlefields, all possess an added interest and attraction from our
knowledge of history.

g. It helps to brush away national prejudice by giving us some
knowledge of other nations. Bias against, and hatred and con-
tempt for other nations, are often the result of ignorance.

The Objects of History.

" The history of mankind is the history of great men. To find
out these, to clear the dirt from them, and to place them on their
proper pedestals, is the function of the historian. He cannot
have a nobler one." (Carlyle.) This is equally true of the
teacher's function.

"The object of history is to discover and make visible
illustrious characters, and pay them ungrudging honour. His-
tory teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions. That is
the best condition of things which produces, not the largest
amount of knowledge or wealth, but the men of noblest nature.
Does history show that in proportion as men are left to their own
wills they become happier, truer, braver, simpler, more reverent of
good, more afraid of evil ? This is a high ideal, but it is one the
historian should strive to reach, for the only true progress is
moral progress." (Froude.)

What is true of the historian is again true of the teacher.
The progress of morality and the development of patriotism
should always be the two chief objects sought in teaching.

Bacon says it is the true object of history to represent the
events themselves together with the counsels, and to leave the
observations and conclusions thereupon to the liberty and faculty
of every man's judgment. A Greek writer says history is philo-
sophy teaching by example.

" Now, what is the problem of teaching history ? It is (i.) to
introduce several hundreds or thousands of persons, and several
hundreds of events, to an age that knows nothing, except by the
power of sympathetic or anticipative imagination, of men or of
things; (ii.) to make each person introduced an individual and a
real character ; (iii.) to show the connection of cause and effect
between great events." (Meiklejohn.)

General Hints on the Teachings of History.

1. The teacher should combine history and geography, so as
to teach certain valuable lessons concerning territorial, political,
and commercial history.

26o A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

2. He should seek to bestow accuracy and skill in representing
graphically the ideas gained from books.

3. He should teach the association of different subjects, and
the knowledge that they are diverse parts of one whole.

4. He should show the connection between history and litera-
ture.

5. The pupil should receive very definite general impressions
of the progress of historical events. He should also learn a con-
siderable number of historical facts, not necessarily for immediate
use, but to serve as a point of resistance for gaining other such
facts in future years.

6. The pupil should make some progress in learning how to
use the material he has acquired.

7. " He should develop keenness of observation in regard to
the political and social conditions in which he finds himself.
These conditions of themselves are seldom of interest to the
pupil, for it is physical rather than mental activity that appeals to
him. But our Great Charter, such rebellions as those of Tyler
and Cade, our poor law, etc., should lead to a knowledge of what
the State does for its dependent classes. The study of the
colonists' resistance to taxation that fires the boy's heart should
lead to an interest in the principles of taxation in his own day
and country. Every concrete illustration of the past should
find its parallel or its abstract application in the present." (Miss
Salmon.)

Difficulties in the Teaching of History.

1. The subject is by no means an easy one, for it demands
plenty of good sound reasoning and reading from the teacher. In the
Baconian sense, the teacher must be essentially a " full " man.

2. The maintenance of a proper historical perspective is difficult.
Events and persons want keeping in their proper places. The
leading characters and their chief works need to be in the front
of the picture plane. The unimportant, both in person and fact,
should be omitted or put well back in the picture.

3. The teacher requires good descriptive powers to vitalise his
characters and events. This will involve the possession of good
vocal control, more or less dramatic ability, a readiness of illus-
tration, and a skilful use of the forces of contrast and comparison.
The imagination and the emotions also require skilful management.

4. There is a tendency to abuse the memory rather than to use

HISTORY. 261

it. It is so easy for the teacher to give a chapter to be read up,
and then to examine upon it. The memory is overworked, and
very often matter thus acquired is neither digested nor retained.
The memory is called into play extravagantly. If a chapter is to
be read it should be read after a lesson on its subject matter had
been given, and not before.

5. There is a further tendency to overwork. Too much is
often demanded for the time at its disposal, and the result is
disastrous. The work is neither properly taught nor digested.
Even where the demands are apparently more reasonable, and a
*' period" only is prescribed, we have that commendable craze
for "thoroughness" showing itself in the examination questions,
and which must of necessity involve more work.

6. It requires, for effective teaching, a great mental range on
the part of the pupils. History is a strange mixture of the very
simple and the very difficult. Parts fall easily within the com-
prehension of young scholars; parts require much riper minds.
Hence the lessons must be suitable; and the principle of selection
involved is often very trying for the teacher.

Faults in the Teaching of History.

In stating the difficulties of teaching history, one naturally
indicates some of its faults, for the two facts stand in the relation
of cause and effect.

1. Too much is attempted; a mass of detail is crowded into
book and lesson, only to the damage of both. This kills all
interest.

2. The memory is unduly taxed ; training and education dis-
appear, and cram becomes rampant. This kills good method.

3. The teaching is often unconsciously obscure. Allusions are
made, and it is often assumed they are understood. Terms
are given without being defined or explained. They may be
understood by the teacher : they rarely are by the class.

4. All history lessons ought to be focussed on its two main
objects —moral and patriotic. This is more frequently forgotten
than remembered. The focus being wrongs the view cannot be right.

5. Unsuitable matter is chosen. Often, if it is suitable in
quantity, it is unsuitable in kind or quality.

6. Often there is insujficient preparation. Preparation is
absolutely essential, even if the teacher be a full reader and a

262 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

deep thinker. The obscurity attaching to many of the lessons is
one of the results accruing from this too prevalent fault.

History Books. — Professor Meiklejohn once asked in a lecture
delivered by him on the teaching of history : What are the quali-
ties we desire to find in a history book ? What would a common-
sense person desire to find in a history that was to be used in
schools, and that would be good for the growing mind ? He sug-
gested three things :—

1. That the history should be interesting in itself; that it
should attract and not repel its readers ; that it should be read for
its own intrinsic interest, and not merely for duty.

2. That the history lent itself to good reading aloud; i.e., it
should be written in a spirited, vigorous, and human style.

3. That it lent itself easily to reproduction ; i.e., that the facts
and events stated and described in it were so plainly and clearly
stated and described, that the young learner could easily state
them over again in his own way.

STAGES IN TEACHING HISTORY.

I. Stories. — Begin with stories. Children love these, and if
they are pleasantly rendered, there is soon a decided liking for
them throughout the whole class. Do not seek to give too much
information at first, but rather try to interest a.nd amuse. Let there
be some human nature in your lessons, and let them deal with the
ways, actions, and motives of men in an elementary fashion.

1. Attractive Stories. — The stories, then, must be attractive,
and every teacher of history who has had an experience of a young
class in the subject knows that there are certain stories or episodes
which prove particularly attractive to the scholars; Such stories
include —

{a) Biographies. — Under this head will fall stories of Caractacus, Boadicea,
Alfred, Becket, Rosamond, Wallace, the Black Prince, the young
Princes of York, Wolsey, Lady Jane Grey, Mary Queen of Scots, the
Seven Bishops, Raleigh, Drake, the Pilgrim Fathers, Cromwell, Marl-
borough, Wellington, Nelson, the young Pretender, Robin Hood,
Hereward, Prince Arthur, etc.

(d) Rebellions, etc. — These will include such things as Wat Tyler's insurrec-
tion. Jack Cade's rebellion, the rebellion of the Percies, the Gunpowder
Plot, the Meal Tub Plot, Monmouth's rebellion, the rebellions of the
Pretenders and the Chartists.

(c) Battles. — These should embrace such events as the piratical raids of the
Danes, the Battle of Hastings, the Crusade, Bannockburn, Crecy,
Poitiers, Agincourt, the Spanish Armada, Blenheim, Trafalgar,
Waterloo, Balaclava, the Indian Mutiny, and the Zulu War.

HISTORY. 263

(rf) Miscellaneous. — In this group could be placed such incidents as the
meeting at Runnymede, the formation of the New Forest, the drown-
ing of Prince William, the Field of the Cloth of Gold, the Great Plague
of London, with its closely following Fire, the French Revolution, the
First Exhibition , and so on.

2. The Reasons for their Attractiveness. — They are attrac-
tive because of their emotional character. There is a solid tinge
of sensationalism or romance in many of them ; and romance was
ever attractive to the young. The imagination is indulged, and
this indulgence introduces another element of pleasure. Pleasure
is one of the most powerful of human motives. Whilst listening
to these stories, there is a perfect indrinking of emotion, and our
best psychological authorities consider this as essential for chil-
dren as country walks, games, and treats. There is much of that
which attracts in fiction and in the drama. These stories produce
a certain amount of mental excitement, which is stimulating and
enjoyable. The strength of this element can be easily understood
when we reflect that the so-called pleasures of older people are
often based on excitement. These historic actions appeal to our
egoistic and social feelings, and so minister to our happiness.
Admiration for courage, virtue, success ; anger, contempt, scorn ;
pride of race, of conquest, patriotism in its strongest aspects, all
these feelings are affected in turn, and contribute their share of
attractiveness. The feeling of rivalry is stimulated only to be
regulated and guided. The love of activity and power finds mental
outlets in these stories. We fight with our heroes — on their side;
we share their risks and triumphs, their love of approbation, and
learn to love and respect them. We sympathise with those who
suffer unjustly, and our sympathy runs warm into kindred cases
in our own small circle. There is little or nothing educative in
the first instance, for the pleasures of knowledge are yet too weak
to avail ; but the foundation of a love for the subject is being laid
in an attractive manner, a foundation upon which is to be built
the after structure of a sound historical training.

ZZ. Biographies. — The teacher will then pass on to biography
in a fuller and more educative manner, and this stage would be
suited to Standard IV. and upwards. Further remarks upon this
branch will be found under the head of the " Biographical Method "
in the section on " Lessons on Reigns " ; and still later under the
head of '* Notes of Lessons on Biographies ".

nx Inoidenta. — This will be an expansion of the ** Mis-

264 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

cellaneous " item under the head of "Stories". As in the pre-
ceding case, the subjects will be handled more fully, losing none
of their attractiveness, it is hoped, but requiring more thought, and
furnishing more training and education. The incidents should be
striking, instructive, and interesting. They would include such
subjects as travels, battles, voyages, plagues, rebellions, famous
Acts of Parliament, plots, etc.

rV. Periods. — A period of history should next be taken — say
the Tudor or Stuart period. But even here the teaching will be
largely biographical. The period may be taught by one of
the methods laid down in the " Lessons on Reigns".

V. Constitutional History. — A " period " could be taken in
each of the higher standards, but in the highest standards the
elementary principles of our Constitution should be explained ;
the constitution and functions of Parliament ; the social and
religious state of the nation, and so on. In every stage biography
will form a part of the teaching, for the lives of eminent men are
the historic pegs around which hang the events of a period.

IjEssons on reigns.

I. Their Use. — Any such lessons as these should be given at
a late period in the school course. If history has been well
taught in a school, it will not have been through the " reigns " as
a syllabus of lessons primarily. But as a means for summarising
or for recapitulating, the reign can be used with some profit. It
will test the pupil's memory and synthetical power to retain and
pick out and group those portions of a series of lessons on the
biographies. Constitution, literature, etc., of the people which
belong to any particular reign. Few will be able to do this, as
the test is too severe. Hence such lessons will afford an oppor-
tunity to the teacher of presenting his facts — facts which for the
most part should be already known, or at least familiar — in a new
combination to the pupil. The name of the sovereign will serve as
a useful centre, around which these events might be grouped.

H. Method of Teaching-. — There are many methods laid down
in the various text books in use, but perhaps the first given is the
best.

1. The Chronological Method. — The reign should be pre-
sented as a complete picture, the parts bearing each its due
weight. The lesson then really reverts to a species of biography,
in which the sovereign may or may not play a conspicuous part.

HISTORY. 265

But all that has been said in favour of teaching history through
biography can be repeated here, for it bears as much value.

2. The Epoch Method. — This is a better method for a range
of history lessons than for a lesson on one reign. It lends clear-
ness to the method, but it does not maintain interest like a
narrative. The interest of pursuit is weaker, and the lesson
suffers in comparison. The epochs for the reign of John would be
something like the following : —

(a) John's foreign policy. This would include the loss of Normandy and

the murder of Arthur.
16) Church troubles,
(^r) The Great Charter, and John's attempts to evade it.

3. The Parliamentary Method. — In this case the reign is
taught through the medium of its Parliaments. The lessons can
be made methodical, clear, and intelligent. Only the most
important work of each Parliament should be given, as it is
unwise to overload the mind with detail. The method has one
great recommendation — it teaches the history of the people,
which is history proper. But it is wearisome, scrappy, and often
dry. It is very difficult to maintain interest by it, and the
objection is a serious one. Of course, a very capable teacher can
turn any legitimate method to profit, for he is the master of his
method, and not the slave of it. But the remarks are true for the
average teacher. Again, it does not lend itself to the early reigns
of history, so that its application is limited. The reign of
Charles I. is taken as an illustration.

{a) First Parliament — Met 1625. Voted two subsidies of about j^i40,ooo

for war expenses. Sat two months only. Why ?
(fi) Second Parliament, — Met 1626. Why called ?

(I) 'They voted inadequate RuppHes.
" 'ith

(3) They withdrew the king's prohibition, and let Bristol take his seat in the

(2) With these grants they coupled the condition that they were to control and
re;;ulate every part of the government which dispUascd them,
kit

House of Lords.

(4) They voted that common fame was sufficient grour.d of accusation by the
Commons.

The other Parliaments could be similarly dealt with. Obviously,
one reign may require many lessons, each of which will make
some demand upon a knowledge of the Constitution and functions
of each branch of Parliament. For this reason alone such
a method could only be used in the highest classes of the
school.

4. The ClaMlfication Method.— Here we have the events of
a reign classified under such well-known heads as —

266 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

{a) Foreign policy.

{/>) Home policy.

{c) Science, art, literature.

Or the history of the reigns may be classified under such heads as —

la) The growth of constitutional liberty.

{^) The power of the Church.

(d) The growth of trade, manufactures, etc.

(e) The growth of the navy.

{/) The progress of colonisation.
(g) The growth of education.

This method is logical, clear, intelligent, interesting, and lends
itself to the memory. It disputes the palm with the first method,
and by many is preferred to it.

5, The Biog^i'aphical Method. — There is much to recommend
this method. The events of a reign are the work of the great
minds of that reign ; and the lives of a few eminent men will
embrace and explain the cause, conduct, and results of those
events. Such men exercise a greater influence on a nation than
a monarch. Any striking or suggestive anecdotes will be very
useful to illustrate and to add interest to the lesson. Another
great recommendation is its unity of plan, and the individual
becomes a nucleus for occasional instruction on many other
subjects.

6, The Comparative Method. — Two periods are taken, and
one is compared with the other. A present reign is compared
with a past; the reigns of two queens might be compared ; the
War of the Roses with the Civil Wars. The method is adapted
to all branches of the subject. Two movements or classes might
be compared : two individuals, two rebellions, or two great
charters. The Lollards might be compared with the Puritans;
Cade's rebellion with Tyler's ; Walpole with Gladstone ; or Pitt
with Beaconsficld. The general principle of this method must be
remembered — that points of likeness are more important than points of
difference. Contrast may be considered a negative aspect of the
same method. In such cases Walpole would be taken with Pitt,
and so on.

NOTES OF IiES30N3 ON BIOGRAPHIES.

The notes should be divided into two columns, one of which
will comprise all the information to be given, whilst the other
should be labelled education, and should show what tra-nir.,;, apart
from mere information, the teacher proposes to get out oi the
lesson. Effect and cause should be pointed out, deductions and

HISTORY.

267

inferences made, points of conduct observed and criticised, and a
wise use made of contrast and comparison. The great thing to
be aimed at in the " education " column is to select such points
of character as are likely to be specially attractive to children,
and if possible to fix them by suitable illustrations. The treat-
ment must always depend upon the ability of the class. Properly
treated, these lessons are very valuable both morally and in-
tellectually.

History lessons are often colourless and abstract, but in
biography the personality of the hero is ever before them. The
children put forth an effort of constructive imagination, form their
hero, and follow him eagerly through the chief incidents of his
life. The interest of pursuit is thus called into play, and the
lessons become vivified and successful.

The great danger of these lessons is overcrowding. The draw-
ing up of the " information " column taxes the analytical power
of the student, and makes serious demands upon his judgment.
Experience has shown that pupil teachers often fail to distinguish
the relative importance of the events with which they are dealing,
and so lose the true sense of proportion in their treatment of the
subject. For this reason it is advisable they should receive extra
practice in dealing with lessons of this nature. A series of lessons
on eminent men should be prepared. The difficulty of treatment
then decreases with each life, which becomes an extra source of
illustration, whilst points of conduct are better grasped by the
increased opportunities of making comparisons and contrasts.
The following notes on Walpole will require at least two
lessons : —

LESSON ON WALPOLE.

Infomution.

Education.

L Early Uft.

I. Treat this portion of the lesson briefly.

but call attention to —

I. Born, 1676.

I. His success. He attains the highest

2. Entered Parliament for Castle

office in the State. Why? Inference.

Rising. 1700.
3. Councillor to George of Denmark.

Because of his ability and energy.

2. His failures.

4. Secretary at War,

(a) Guilty of breach of trust.

5. Chief hand in Sacheverell's im-

(6) Guilty of notorious corruption.

peachment.

3. His punishmctit. He was to be—
(a) Committed to the Tower.

6. Paymaster of the Forces.

7. Disunion in Cabinet. He retires.

(6) Expelled the House.

8. Resumes former office.

Application. HiKh trust demands hi/rh

9. Prime Minister, 1721.

principle; f;real power demands great
honesty.

268

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.
LESSON ON WAL.POLE— continued.

Information.

II. Prime Minister.

1. Personal Characteristics.

(a) Neither a scholar nor a cultivated
man ; knew next to nothing of history.

(b) Good-natured man ; frank ; of great
industry. A great sportsman.

(d) No orator, but a good debater. Too
fond of power ; overbearing manner.

2. His Statesmanship.
(a) His Love of Peace.

Unsuccessfully resisted the Spanish war.
(i) "They are ringing their bells now;
they will soon be wringing their hands."

(2) " Madam, there are 50,000 men slain
in Europe this year, and not one English-
man." 1734.

(3) " My politics are to keep free from all
engagements as long as we can."

(6) His Bribery.

(i) Refer to venality of Commons. M.P.'s
sold their votes. Electors were bought and
sold.

(2) No publicity on the votes given in
Parliament.

(3) Newspapers not allowed to publish
members' speeches.

(4) " Every man has his price."

(5) The charge of bribery overstated.
Only one case proved.

3. His Financial Policy.

(a) His Excise Bill.

Its object to stop smuggling.

(i.) By establishing bonded warehouses.

(ii.) By raising the revenue from inland
dealers in the form of excise, instead of
levying at the ports in the form of customs.

Thrown out 1733.

(b) His Free Trade Policy.

The necessaries of life and the raw mate-
rials of manufacture were to be free of all
imposts, and that indirect taxation might
be the means of freeing land from most of
its burdens, if not from all of them.

His opponents held that revenue should
be drawn wholly from direct taxes on land.

Education.

Contrast or Compare him with other
great men.

These comparisons, etc., are naturally
limited by what the teacher has done in
previous lessons on biography.

II. I. (a) These show his wenf a/ qualities.

(b) These facts reveal his personal quali-
ties.

characteristics upon him as Prime Minister.

2. Describe his peace policy and show —
(a) Its success. The country daily grew

more wealthy ; taxes were light ; trade was

flourishing. Quote his proud boast expressed

{ in II. 2. {a) (2). Point out that he under-

I stood the truest interests of his country

I better than any of his contemporaries.

I (6) His foresight. The Spanish war

ended disastrously. He maintained that a

nation never gained anything by war.

Point out that his opinion expressed in II.

2. (a) (i) became true, and justified his

policy as expressed in II. 2. (a) (3),

(c) His obstinacy. He took no interest
in foreign policy. Show that this was one
of the chief factors in his downfall.
Compare with Mr. Gladstone.
(6) Put these facts about his bribery be-
fore the class. State the circumstances
which led to it.

(i) The fierce opposition he had to face.

(2) The ease with which it could be
done.

(3) That it was an established practice.

(4) His too great love of power.

(5) The lack of publicity.

Give the true history of the famous
phrase (b) (4). The Opposition were storm-
ing at him over this charge, when he re-
torted : " All these men have their price ".

" He durst do right, but he durst do
wrong."

An honest man. In an age of bribery he
was beyond bribes himself, and died a poor
man, heavily in debt.

3. (a) and (b) Show that this was impos-
sible in his day, but that it has all been done
since. Both in this and in his Free Trade
policy he was in advance of his times. An-
other testimony to his wonderful foresight
and excellent biisiness'\capacity. Show that
the justification of his policy is to be found
in our day rather than in his own ; and that
so firmly did he establish the national
credit, that the public creditors began to
contend who should be last paid.

DATES IN HISTORir.

Whilst warring justly against " cramming," we must not be
led to disregard dates. Some knowledge of dates is absolutely

HISTORY.

269

essential to an intelligent comprehension of history. They are
supposed to bear the same relation to history that the multiplica-
tion table bears to arithmetic. They are also called one of the
eyes of history.

But it is useless to learn dates unless the events associated
with them are learned also. Talk of the event, explain and illustrate
it, and the date will become an enclitic to the event. The dates are
best learnt through the events ; not the events through the dates.

Mnemonics are not recommended as a rule. Often they want
interpreting and learning themselves. Sometimes the mnemonic
is remembered whilst the key is lost, and, speaking generally, it is
doubtful if much is gained by their use. The best mnemonics are
interest and repetition. There must be plenty of repetition, and
the dates repeated must be few and important ; but the repetition
should follow, not precede, the events. Properly used, the dates
may afford good training for the exercise of memory.

The chronological system of Mr. David Nasmith, Q.C., is a
specimen of a good mnemonic system, which is simple and in-
genious. It has this to recommend it, that it is based on space
relations, and so presents a picture to the eye. It is as follows : —

Each decade is divided into nine squares, arranged in three
rows of three each. These squares
are surmounted by a top border,
which always begins the decade ;
i.e., contains the cyphers (o's).
It will then be observed that the
ones and the nines are at opposite
corners, as are also the sevens and
the threes, and that the five is always
in the middle. It is claimed for this
method that after a little practice
the difficulty is not to remember but
to forget. The event desired to be
remembered should be entered under
its proper date in the square. Pro-
fessor Meiklejohn has paid it the great compliment of adopting it
in his history.

'I' MWl PAT.T.ATI IN HX8TORT.

Z. Its Uses. — Its chief uses in the teaching of history may be
thus briefly enumerated : —

1880

I88I

1882

1883

1884

1885 1886

1887

1888 1889

270 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. It adds interest to the study; for it presents history in its
most attractive form.

2. From the association of rhyme, rhythm, and romance it
becomes easier to remember than history taught in the ordinary
form.

3. There is generally an intrinsic charm in a ballad from its
quaintness or simplicity, or its subject.

4. A ballad answers one of the best purposes of history, for it
develops and encourages patriotism — a love and pride in the
country, its people, and their achievements.

5. It is an easy and favourable method for cultivating a love
for poetry.

6. It cultivates the social affections — pity, admiration, and
sympathy all being stirred.

7. It preserves words and forms, of which it would not be very
easy to produce examples in other branches of literature.

II. Its Description. — It will be necessary to make the
children thoroughly understand what a ballad is, at least in' the
higher classes.

1. What is it ? — Originally it was a short narrative poem, with something of
both the lyric and the epic in it. In fact, it was a sort of minor epic reciting in
verse, and was usually designed to be rehearsed in musical recitative, accom-
panied by the harp.

Before giving this description briefly explain the terms "lyric " and " epic "..
Probably " recitative " will also require explanation.

2. Its Subjects. — These were epic in their nature, and usually dealt with the
adventures of lovers and the mysteries of fairyland.

3. Its Home. — It was chiefly used by the minstrels of the borders of
England, Scotland, Scandinavia, and Spain. But the true home of the ballad
in our country was the northern part of England and the southern part of
Scotland.

Point out these places on the map, and explain the term " minstrel ".

i. Their Quality. — The Scotch are generally superior to the English, and
the Scandinavian to all. The literary and dialectic (explain)- peculiarities of the
Scotch were most probably copied from the Scandinavian bards, for they
resemble each other both in form and language.

5. Their Popularity. — They were immensely popular with the people, who
were the custodians and guardians of them. The Normans despised the
nature of poetry, because they did not understand it, and so they were left
entirely to the people, from whom they have retained their simple and popular
character. Then they were recited by their beloved minstrels, dealt with sub-
jects which were popular and fascinating, possessed certain peculiarities which
were indicative of the people themselves, and were often set to dance music.

m. The Choice of Ballads.

A. For the Lower Standards. — The following principles
should guide their selection : —

1. The subjects should be simple enough to interest the children.

2. The incidents should be such as would excite their sympathy.

HISTORY. 271

3. The more painful sides of history should be omitted.

4. Explanation and sometimes abridgment will be necessary.

Guided by the above principles, the following list will most probably be
found suitable : —

(a) The Mother's Book by C. M. Yonge.

(b) The Battle of Evesham „ F. T. Palgrave.

(rf) The True History of Sir Richard Whittington - „ Author of John Halifax.

(e) The Queen's Oak „ C. M. Yonge.

(/) The Spanish .\rmada „ G. E. Maunsell.

(g) Victoria's Promise „ C. J. Coleridge.

B. For the Higher Standards.— There is not a large number
to choose from, but the same principles should regulate their
choice as for the lower standards. Copious notes, as a rule, will
be necessary for Scottish ballads if chosen.

(a) Boadicea by W. Cowper.

(6) Alfred the Harper „ I. Sterling.

{d) Robin Hood and Allan-a-dale Old ballad.

(«) Chevy Chase Old ballad.

(/) Joan of Arc by F. T. Palgrave.

(k) The Battle of Flodden „ T. Delaney.

(A) The Death of Essex Old ballad.

(»■) The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers - - - - by Mrs. Hemans.

BA'X'X'IjES.

I. Their Use in Teaching. — These incidents may be made in-
structive if properly handled. The teacher must guard against
the undue preponderance of the emotional element. The feelings
of patriotisfti, admiration for courage and suffering, and all the finer
traits of human nature which are supposed to be evoked by
battles, should be allowed their due share of attention and exist-
ence ; but the intellectual value must not be overlooked. It is
suggested that some such treatment as the following should be
adopted :—

n. Instruction. — A brief description of the campaign should
be given, leading up to the particular battle in question. This
will arouse interest. They should then be told distinctly the
parties engaged in this particular battle, and the names of the
leaders on either side. A rough map should be drawn on the
B.B. showing the relative positions of the contending forces. The
battle should then be described in sufficient detail to give an
accurate idea of the event, and to maintain the interest which has
already been evoked. A careful use of any pictures on the subject
could be made with advantage.

ZZZ. Bducation. -The teacher should then try to make due
profit out of it. For this purpose he should place the causes and
jthe results before the pjass.

272 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

1. Causes. — Why were the armies opposed ? Give the causes. Then show
the many interests always tending for war — standing armies, mihtary and naval
classes, the ambitions of sovereigns or politicians, portions of the press, inter-
national greed and jealousy, contractors, aggressive commerce, feminine
admiration for soldiers, the craving of the masses for change or excitement, and
other causes.

2. War. — Why war ? Ask for better methods of settling disputes. Discuss
briefly their degree of practicability. Show that war has been the custom for
ages in such cases. Point to modern cases of arbitration. Elicit and regulate
opinion on the value and morality of war versus arbitration. Why is war more
general than arbitration ?

(a) Because of necessity. In most cases, at present, other methods are im-
practicable.
(6) Custom. This has already been referred to.

(c) Literature often encourages it, from the Bible down to the local newspaper,
(rf) Refer generally to the " interests " mentioned in (i).

3. Results. — Some of these, like death, sickness, poverty, loss of trade, and
increase of taxation, can easily be obtained from the class, especially if previous
lessons on any battles have been given. The other, specific and historic ?-esults,
both di7-ect, as embodied in t7'eaties, and indirect, as arising out of the treaties
[e.g. , the bitter feeling engendered between countries, as between France and
Germany), should be told and impressed on the children.

OUR INSTITUTIONS.

Few teachers are free from the cramping effect of codes and set
syllabuses ; perhaps, still fewer from examinations. Where these
things exist, the teacher who wishes to preserve his official exist-
ence will always be largely guided in his teaching by them. But
where the teacher is a free agent, he may adopt the living
method of teaching, which is the best educationally and the most
interesting. He starts with a contemporaneous fact — a building,
a personage, an institution — and traces this fact back to its very
source. This method adheres to the sequence of teaching by
starting with the known and proceeding to the unknown. It
vitalises the teaching by placing concrete objects before the class
as a starting point, and it brings a living interest to bear upon the
work. Such lessons would deal with : —

1. Our Institutions. — These would include Parliament, our
Courts of Justice, our Fire Brigade, Local Bodies (Vestry, Corpora-
tion, School Boards, Asylum Boards, Charity Commissioners,
etc.), our Army, Navy, Militia, and Volunteers.

2. Our Historic Buildings. — These would include such places
as the Tower of London, our Cathedrals, the Houses of Parlia-
ment, our famous Castles, Universities, Palaces, Museums, Picture
Galleries, etc.

3. Historic Personages. — See under the various remarks in
this chapter about Biography.

4. Our Towns. — Their Qrq\yth, Tra,de, Development, etc.

HISTORY.

273

5. Inventions. — These would embrace such things as the Rail-
way, Steamboat, Photography, the various Electrical Inventions, etc.

6. Education. — As carried out by the School, Church, Press,
Literature, the Stage, and our social institutions.

Such lessons must necessarily be largely descriptive, so that
the teacher will need to cultivate his powers of word-painting.
They are primarily lessons for imparting information, but their
moral and intellectual sides need not be absent. Above all, they
are calculated to make the pupils take a budding interest in the
facts which surround them, and to develop a spirit of inquiry, and
a power of social and political observation. They are essentially
the type of lesson necessary to impress upon the schoolboy what
will be his rights and responsibilities when he becomes a citizen.
An illustrative lesson on the Policeman and another on an Act
of Parliament follow.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE POLICEMAN.

Information.

h What he is. A man appointed to
preserve order and apprehend offenders.
A member of an organised force maintain-
ing order and eniorcmg the laws.

IL His Power. He can—

1. Suppress unlicensed theatres.

2. Suppress illegal sport, like cock fight-
ing, prize fighting, etc.

3. Suppress gaming houses.

4. Superintend places of public resort.

5. Regulate traffic.

6. Regulate public processions.

7. He can arrest on his own authority,
and without a warrant, any person whom he
may see committing certain specific acts of
annoyance in a public thoroughfare.

Terras Explained.

Warrant. A document or order author-
ising an officer to seize an offender and
bring him to justice.

Treason. The offence of attempting to
overthrow or betray the government of the
State to which the offender owes allegiance.
Conspiring against the lives of the royal
family, certain of the royal councillors and not.

Education.

1. This can be found out by questioning.
Correct where necessary.

The teacher will probably get some novel
attributes assigned to the policeman.

II. I. Refer to local theatre. It must
have a licence, otherwise police would close
it. Tell who grants this licence.

2. Point out the brutal nature of these
sports. Show how public opinion has im-
proved on the point since the davs when
these sports were under the special patron-
age of the upper classes.

J. This is a recurring incident. Read a
suitable account from the newspapers.
Question on the policy and morality of

gammg.

4. Elicit by questioning and by references
to their own experience the necessity for
this. Rowdyism, drunkenness, etc., apt to
break out at times.

5. This will be within the knowledge of
all children who live in busy towns.

6. Refer to the London processions;
Lord Mayor's show ; Mayday processions ;
political processions to Trafalgar Square
and Hyde Park. Some forbidden ; others

Why? Object, time, nature, place,
judges ; counterfeiting the royal seal, signet, have to be considered.

or com.

Felony. An offence which occasions a
total loss of either lands or goods, or both,
at the common law, and to which capital
or other punishment may be added accord-
ing to the degree of guilt.

Misdemeanour. A lesa offence than a
felony or a crime.

7. Explain warrant, treason, felony, miS'
demeanour. If the class it a lower one
simplify these meanings.

A warrant necessary for an arrest for a
misdemeanour. Explain briefly the ^aver
nature of the two first offences.

Police sometimes arrest men for fighting,
and sometimes not. Why ? Show that
the power to arrest is for the purpoae of

274

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE POLlCEMAli— continued.

Information.

III. His Qualifications.

I". Unblemished character.

2. Intelligence. This is tested by ex-
amination.

3. Physically sound, of standard height
and chest development.

4. Well drilled and instructed in his
duties.

He is then appointed to a beat.

lY. His History.

1. Previous to Sir Robert Peel's time
characters of the worst and lowest descrip-
tion often served. He purified and reorgan-
ised them in 1829.

2. Early in the queen's reign a county
constabulary was formed.

3. Peace and order were previously main-
tained by the high sheriffs of the counties,
their deputies, and the constables appointed
by the parishes.

4. In England, from the time of the
Anglo-Saxon kings, an organisation, partly
voluntary in its character, existed for the
repression of crime, the arrest of criminals,
and the maintenance of good order.

5. In Rome, in the time of Augustus,
police became a special institution.

6. Traces of police organisation found in
ancient Egypt and the Mosaic Law.

Education.

preserving the peace, and not for punish-
ment, therefore they cannot arrest unless
they catch red-handed.

III. Show the necessity for these qualities.

1. In London the poHce have millions of
people, and property worth millions of
money, under their care. Night duty would
afford special facilities for a dishonest man.

2. They are peripatetic inquiry officers,
have to advise, coax, etc., and often to give
evidence in a court of law.

3. The work is fatiguing; hours long;
risks from weather, street rows, burglars,
etc., very great at times.

Explain beat.

A Second Lesson had better be de-
voted to his History.

IV. Since Peel's time the police have
been a splendid agency for the purposes for
which they were created.

This part of the lesson will be descriptive.

The teacher should show how each step
from their first beginnings has been an im-
provement. The voluntary agency failed,
hence the formation of a constabulary.

Show the necessity for some protective
force at all periods of our history.

Compare them with the military and
quasi-military nature of foreign policemen.

To a higher class the derivation of the
word might be given.

It should be pointed out that many of our
laws and institutions are based on those of
Rome (ancient). Use as many pictorial
illustrations as possible, and arouse sym-
pathy with policemen by dwelling on the
trying nature of their work.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE PASSING OF A BILL THROUGH
PARLIAMENT.

Information.

L Origin.

A bill generally takes its origin among
the people—

1. To meet some popular demand.

2. To remove some injustice.

3. To get some right recognised and
granted.

After discussion and education by the
press and on the platform, it is formulated
in the shape of a bill.

II. First Reading.

The bill is formally introduced to the
House, and read without any discussion.
It is then ordered to be printed and circu-
lated among the members for their study
and consideration.

Teaching.

I. The teacher first points out the con-
ception and the stages of growth of public
opinion on the question.

(a) By the press or platform, or both.

(b) By public and private discussion
first, then by platform and press.

(d) The bill is almost invariably
"backed," i.e., backed up or sup-
ported by the names of certain other
M.P.'s written on its back.

II. Why not discussed the first time ?

1. The form of the bill is new to the great
majority of the members.

2. Hence it would be unfair to discuss it
before the members had prepared them-

HISTORY. 275

LESSON ON THE PASSING OF A BILL THROUGH PARLIAMENT— con^inw^rf.

Information.

III. Second Reading.

A date is then fixed by the Government
for its second reading. The bill is keenly
debated as a rule at this stage ; and if it

E asses the second reading, virtually the bill
as succeeded so far as] the " House " is
concerned in which it was first introduced.

lY. Committee Stage.

The House now resolves itself into a
Committee for further discussion and pro-
bable modification of the bill ; to expand or
contract its scope ; to alter it in some of its
details. The alterations desired are effected
by what are called amendments.

An amendment is a motion put before the
House by a member, in which motion he
seeks to alter or amend some detail or
principle of the bill.

Y. Third Reading.

Having passed through the Committee
stage, the amended bill is generally read
•nd voted a third time without any debate.

YI. The Other House.

The bill is then sent to the other House
to go through the same stages as in the
first House. The two Houses are —

(1) The House of Commons.

(2) The House of Lords.

It may be defeated in the second House
on its second reading, when it fails to be-
come an act and dies as a bill. Or it may
be further amended in Committee in the
second House. It generally is.

Money bills cannot originate in the
Lords. This is the only limitation to the
free introduction of bills into either House.
This practically makes the House of Com-
mons the more powerful of the two.

YII. Royal Assent.

The bill is then sent to the sovereign for
assent. This is now never refused. In
days gone b)| it was not always so; but
royal opposition proved an expensive and
dangerous luxury, so that the assent of the
sovereign may now be considered merely
formal. Havmg received the royal assent,
the bill now blossoms into an Act of Par-
liament, and becomes a law binding on all.

Teaching.

selves to support or oppose it. The class
will readily understand these two state-
ments.

III. Get the. class to observe the follow-
ing facts : —

1. The bill is now discussed because the
members have had ample time to study its
provisions.

2. It is not, as a rule, further opposed,
(a) Because its discussion has generally

been exhaustive.
(6) Further opposition would be a waste
of public time (obstruction) ; for the
same arguments would be repeated,
to meet with the same result.

IV. Make the class understand that al-
though the bill has passed its second read-
ing, and the general principle of the bill has
been accepted by a majority, yet the altera-
tion of some of its details may be much
desired, and so it may be keenly contested
by a portion of the members.

Explain Committee. Now a member may
speak several times to the bill ; whereas, in
the other stages, the strict laws of debate
arc adhered to, and a member may only
speak once.

Explain amendment, and ^ive illustrations.

The report stage is omitted for a later
period.

(i) It is less important.
(2) It is difficult to define.

V. The reason for this was pointed out
in II. 2.

VI. Supposing the bill to have originated
in the House of Commons (most bills do),
then it would go to the House of Lords.
Question out the wisdom or policy of this.
Explain as follows :—

The Commons represent the people.

The Lords the aristocracy.

Both are existing parts of the country.
Both have special interests to conserve.
If either alone made laws, the interests of
the one body might suffer at the expense of
the other. Eacn House is then a check
upon the selfishness or injustice of the other.

Explain to the class the power of the
burse. The Government of a countiy is a
business, and no business can go on without
money.

VII. Note the three elements comprised
in the word Parliament: (i) Sovereign;
(a) Lords; (3) Commons. Let them fur-
ther note what would be the result if either
element possessed the sole power.

(1) If the sovereign— then our govern-
ment would be an absolute monarchy.

(2) If the Lords— an aristocracy,
(j) If Commons — a democracy.

Show that it is the blending of these
three elements that constitutes the glory of
the English limited monarchy.

Two lessons will probably be necessary to
dcel with this sabject.

276 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Notes of Lesson on the passing of an Act of Parliament ; Joan of Arc ; Cardinal
Wolsey ; some battle in English history ; chief topic of the reign of one of the kings of
England.

2.— Show the use of ballad poetry in the teaching of history, and illustrate your
statement by some historical ballad.

3.— Write out the chief topics to be selected for a lesson on the reign of one of the
kings of England.

^.—What plan would you follow in giving a description of some famous battle ?
Illustrate your answer by the battle of Flodden or Waterloo.

g._Select points in the character of Lady Jane Grey, or Robert Bruce, or Nelson,
that would be specially attractive to children, and write out some anecdote by which
you would illustrate each point.

6.— Write out those dates of events in English history during the seventeenth cen-
tury which you consider worthy of being committed to memory by children, and give
reasons for your selection.

7. — Name some stories from English history that you have found to be most
attractive to young children, and explain simply the causes of their attractiveness.

8. — It is sometimes said that one of the best ways of teaching history is by means
of biography. Explain this. Name five or six persons whose biography would throw
great light on the history of the eighteenth century, and give a slight sketch of one such
biography.

9. — In giving a lesson on the Duke of Wellington, show what use you would make
of comparison, and contrast with any other character in history.

10. — In teaching history, say what use, if any, you would make of chronological
tables. Is it better to learn the date before or after the pupil knows something of an
event, and becomes interested in it ? Give your reasons.

This chapter is continued in the Appendix.

277

CHAPTER XIV.

ENGLISH.

The TTses of Orammar. — It must be remembered that
grammar is not absolutely essential, although it is very desirable ;
for we could, and many of us do, go on speaking and writing our
own language more or less correctly without ever having received
a grammar lesson. But there are certain advantages arising
from its use, which may be briefly stated as follows : —

1. It helps the pupil to sjjeak his own language correctly.

2. It is an aid to composition ^ so far as readiness, ease, and accuracy are

concerned. The vocabulary is extended.

3. In learning a language it is economical, for it " abridges labour by

generalising everything that can be generalised ".

4. It is the logic of the elementary school. Bain disputes this, but the

opinion still remains. The higher faculties are called into play, for
it makes the pupils familiar with the meaning, the structure, the
grammatical and logical relations, and the right use of words.

5. Trench's Study on Words shows us also how very useful and interesting

the history of many words may be, and what a great light they may
throw upon the history of the people. In fact, many words are
" sidelights '' to history.

XNffioulties in Teaching. — " The difficulties of grammar are

the difficulties of all science — generalities couched in technical

language." The difficulties arising out of language itself are

great, for children in elementary schools rarely hear good

English outside the school. Their vocabulary is very limited, and

there is little or no power of arrangement in the formation of

their sentences. Nor are the mental difficulties any less. It

requires greater mental power than most school subjects. Bain

considers it harder than arithmetic, and says it is probably on a

par with the beginnings of algebra and geometry. It is a double

acquisition^ for there is the union of language with thought. The

mind is divided between the two, and this is a difficulty. Some

of its stages require great power of concentration^ and this is a thing

<)f slow growth. Hence it is not advisable to begin teaching the

subject too early. In the primary schools it begins with the

278 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

earliest standard, where the tender age of the children handicaps
them severely in the study of such a subject. Finally there is a great
deal of drudgery in the acquirement of derivation, classification,
and the rules of syntax. A skilful teacher may gild the drudging
pill, but it has to be taken, and drudgery is not a strong point
with many.

ORDER OF TEACHING THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

The parts of speech should be taught in the following order

for the reasons given in each case : —

I. Noun. 2. Verb. 3. Adjective. 4. Adverb.

5. Pronoun. 6. Conjunction. 7. Preposition. 8. Interjection.

Noun and Verb. — Every sentence is composed of two essential
parts — the subject and predicate. In their simplest forms these
are nouns and verbs ; hence the noun (as the subject) and the verb
(as the predicate) should be taught first. A few preliminary
lessons might be given separately on the noun, but the verb is
always better taught with the assistance of the noun.

The teacher will have little difficulty in getting the class to
pick out concrete nouns, for the material objects which they mark
surround the children on every side. The objects can be shown,
their names given, and the definition of a noun thus may be ob-
tained from the class. Perhaps it is hardly necessary to remind
the teacher that the name of the object is the noun, and not the
object itself. But more difficulty is experienced with abstract
nouns. These are best taught in conjunction with adjectives and
other parts of speech from which they are derived. But adjectives
are not required till the Third Standard, whilst nouns appear in
the curriculum for the First Standard. Still the teacher may
avail himself of these aiding words without giving their technical
names. The concrete nouns can also be utilised in the building up
of simple sentences, which is the best and proper way of teaching
this subject. Thus : —

1. Take a common concrete noun — man.

2. Affix qualities to this word with the assistance of the class ; e.g: : —

g'ood man dear book

strong man large book

kind man pretty book

3. Then derive the abstract noun by questioning. The questioning is neces-

sarily vague, but it is suggestive and sufficient.
A good man is one who has? — goodness.
A strong man is one who has i— strength.
A kind man is one who has ? — kindness^

ENGLISH. 279

4. Then tell the class that these -words— goodness, strtngth, and kindness—
are abstract nouns, or nouns simply. A number of exercises dealt with
in this way will help appreciably to remove any difficulty surrounding
the recognition of abstract nouns.

The pointing out of verbs is not required until Standard II.,
but the teacher is advised to do all his teaching through the sentence,
and very simple analysis, so that it will be found advisable to deal
with the verb in Standard I. Specimen lessons follow later on, on
the verb, the simple predicate, and the adjective, which the young
teacher is advised to study and use.

The Adjective. — We only know things by their qualities ; hence
next to knowing the sign of the thing itself, it is necessary to know
the words which express those qualities. There is no recognised
distinction between things until we begin to enumerate their
attributes, and adjectives are the words which specify these attri-
butes. Adjectives of quality should be taught first, then quantity,
and possessives and demonstratives last.

The Adverb. — The adverb modifies and extends the meaning
of the verb, an adjective, or another adverb. As we have recog-
nised the necessity for the early introduction of adjectives, because
they mark the necessary distinctions between things, so it is now
equally necessary to introduce adverbs to modify the actions
expressed by the verbs, and to distinguish the infinite variety of
ways in which an action done or suffered may be modified.

The Pronoun. — These words might now be introduced, as they
are largely used to avoid the unpleasant repetition of the nouns.
They are not a necessity, but rather a luxury, hence they give
way to the more essential words taught before them. The per-
sonal pronouns should be taught first, whilst the demonstratives
and possessives should be taught by comparison and contrast
with the demonstrative and possessive adjectives through the
medium of sentences.

The Coi^unotion. — It is, perhaps, best to take the conjunction
next, as it enables us to consider compound and complex
sentences, and so opens a wider range of sentences, which can
now be joined together, and the various relations expressed between
these sentences can be learned.

The Prepoaition.— This should* come after the conjunction,
because it does not lift us out of the simple sentence. It shows
relations between words only, and is therefore placed after the
conjunction, which performs the larger task of showing the rela-
tion between groups of words called sentences.

28o

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

The Interjection. — These words are emotional luxuries — mere
expletives, and can with reason, ease, and profit be relegated to
the proper position of all luxuries — last.

HOW TO TEACH THE PREDICATE.

It has already been pointed out that the best way to teach
grammar, whether it be the picking out of nouns or verbs, is best
done through the medium of the sentence. For this purpose it
will be necessary to give a lesson on the predicate early in the
course. One step should be thoroughly mastered before the next
division of the lesson is touched, and for this purpose plenty of
exercises will be required at each step. In this way the notes
might be used for three lessons, each lesson being confined to one
division of the notes, whilst the two latter lessons should come
later on.

Definitions and Examples.

I.lThe Monosyllabic Predicate.

Examples —

1. Boys jump.

2. Dogs bark,

3. Birds fly.

FIRST DEFINITION.
A predicate consists of a
word which tells you what the
subject does.

II. Passive Predicate.

Examples —

1. He was struck.

2. The floor has been scrubbed.

3. The bells were rung.

4. The table is cleared.

SECOND DEFINITION.
A predicate may consist of
one or more words which
express the action done by
the subject, or suffered by the
subject.

Teaching.

I. Write these sentences on the B.B.

I. Of what are we talking here ? Boys.

2 and 3. Elicit dogs and birds in the same
manner.

These words — boys, dogs, and birds — are
called the subjects of our speech.

Now, what do you say of each ?

1. Boys — jump 1 Let the class note that

2. Dogs — bark j-all these words express

3. Birds— fly ) actions, and that you
say, assert, or predicate (explain further, if
necessary) actions of each of the subjects.

Now analyse the above sentences on the
B.B., and let the class suggest others for
further analysis. The scholars should then
be able to give a first definition of predicate.

II. I. Let the class pick out the subjects
in each sentence. Then the predicates.
Help if necessary, and elicit by observation
that—

(a) The predicate in each sentence con-
sists of two or more words.

(6) It is in the passive voice ; i.e., it
suffers the action instead of doing it.
A little skilful questioning based on
comparison and contrast of the active
and passive voices will probably be
necessary for this step.

2. The class should then orally analyse
the sentences on the B.B. as before.

3. They should then be asked to suggest
other examples for analysis.

4. They then should be again asked for a
definition, and they should be able to give
something like the improved form in the
second definition.

III. Write these examples on the B.B.
as before.

ENGLISH.

Definitions and Examples.

III. Verb «' to be " with AcUectlve.

Examples —

1. I am foolish.

2. Thou art wise.

3. He is strong.

4. We are young.

FINAL DEFINITION.
The predicate is the word
(or words) in a sentence w^hich
expresses what is affirmed of
the subject.

Teaching.

(a) First get the class to recognise that
am, art, is, and are, are all parts of
the verb to be.

(b) Next demonstrate by questioning
the " incompkte " notion conveyed by
the verb ; e.g., I am — what ? Thou
art — what ? The class will thus be
led to see that the verb to be cannot
form a predicate of itself, but re-
quires another word, or other words,
to complete it.

(d) Next elicit from a, b, and c, that
a predicate may consist of the
verb to be and an adjective.

(e) The sentences should then be ana-
lysed as before on the B.B.

(/) The class should suggest other ex-
amples for analysis.

ig) They should then be invited to give
the final definition, which shouldf be
written on their slates and learnt.

HOW TO TEACH THE ADJECTIVE.

As laid down in the Code, the adjective is not required till
Standard III., but it is advisable to teach it before then if
grammar is taught at all. Let it ever be remembered that
grammar should be taught through the sentence, and in con-
junction with composition, so that the presence of the adjective
becomes almost a necessity. To keep children picking out nouns
for a year, and then nouns and verbs for another year before in-
troducing the adjective, is neither educational nor profitable.
The function of the adjective can easily be deduced by a choice of
suitable sentences, and provisional and improving definitions can
be given as the lesson goes on. These definitions must always be
given by the children, and not by the teacher. The functions
having been discovered, the class might then be led on to classify
the words into adjectives of quality or quantity, etc. Composition
exercises might then follow, and in the end the class ought to be
able to give a definition which should be final and general. This
method of teaching is illustrated below, but the notes there given
may be used for one or for several lessons, the latter being the
more probable arrangement. The first lesson might end with the
first definition, when a number of exercises might be worked orally,
and afterwards on paper or slates.

282

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Definitions and Examples.

I. Introduction.

List of Nouns : —

Boy Courage

Desk School
II. Function of Adjectives.

Phrases : —

1. Bright boy,

2. Real courage.

3. Foggy London.

4. Dual desk.

5. Board school.

6. Young teacher.

7. Many apples.

London
Teacher, etc.

8. Six chairs.

9. This book.
10. The truth.

FIRST DEFINITION.

An adjective is a word wliich helps
us to distinguish one class of persons
or things from another.

III. Classification of Adjectives.

1. Quality. Bright, real, foggy, board,
young.

2. Quantity. Dual, many, six.

3. Demonstrative. This, the.

Other Examples : —

1. Quality. Good, bad, nice, nasty.

2. Quantity. All, any, some, none.

3. Demonstrative. That, these, those.

lY. Composition Exercises.

1. The bright boy took the prize.

2. Real courage is to be praised.

3. Foggy London is a mighty city, etc.

Y. FINAL DEFINITION.

An adjective is a word used with a
noun to denote some distinguishing
attribute of quality or quantity, or
relation belonging to the object or
thing for which the noun stands.

Teaching.

I. Ask for some nouns, or let the class
name some of the common objects around
them. Something like what is opposite
will be given. Write them on the B.B.

XL Deal with these nouns as follows : —

I. Boy. By questioning elicit that the
term is general or common. If we wish
to specialise or distinguish the boy in any
way, it is necessary to say something more
about him ; e.g., tall boy, or short boy, or
bright boy, etc. Lead the class to see the
principle of selection, grouping or classifica-
tion involved ; e.g. : —

The bright boy implies others not bright
„ tall „ „ „ „ tall
„ short „ „ ,, „ short.

We have observed the boy and noted a
special quality — not of the word " boy," but
of the boy himself.

Deal with the other examples in the
same way. The distinguishing word in
each case is called an adjective.

The class should now give a preliminary
definition of an adjective.

III. Educe by further questioning and
explanation (if necessary) that some of the
adjectives indicate —

1. Quality. They tell the kind of boy, etc.

2. Quantity. These all deal with number.

3. Demonstrative. Give this word and
explain that it means " to point out ".

Write the three classes on the B.B., and
place each word in its right class.
Ask class for other examples.

IV. Add these examples. Let the class
affix a noun in each case, and then make a
complete sentence of each example. This
will be a good composition exercise.

V. The class should now be invited to
give a final definition. This must be
gradually worked into the desired form by
the teacher's aid, if necessary. Further
explanation and more examples may be
required, but the class must give the defini-
tion.

N.B. — The attribution to the pronoun is
left for a subsequent lesson.

THE ADVERB.

The method laid down for the teaching of the adverb is much
the same in principle as that for the teaching of the adjective.
The teacher's first task will be to develop the idea of the adverb
in connection with suitable sentences. It should be developed
with verbs first, as the modifying of verbs is its primary function.
For this purpose simple sentences should be written on the B.B.,
and they should then be expanded by the addition of adverbs.
From these expanded sentences i\\Q functions of the words should

ENGLISH. 283

be deduced, and their classification made. A first definition should
then be given. Its use with adjectives and other adverbs could
next be taken, after which the class ought to be able to give the
final definition. Plenty oi exercises should accompany each stage.
A lesson in illustration follows.

Definitions and Examples.

Develop the Idea.

1. With Verbs.

A. Suitable Sentences.

(a) You go.
(6) He sings.

(d) They ride.

(e) Are you sick ?
(/) You are well.

B. Expanded Sentences.

(a) You go there.
(6) He sings wtll.

(d) They ride often.

(e) Are you siclc ? No.
(/) Are you well ? Yes.

C. Classification.

(a) There— place.

(b) Well— manner.

(e) No — negation.
(/) Yes — affirmation.
FIRST DEFINITION.
An adverb is a word added to a verb
to show place, manner, degree, time,
negation, or affirmation.

2. With Adjectives and Adverbs.
Sentences.

(a) He is very good.

(b) She is most kind.

He did it so quickly,
(e) He ran remarkably fast.
FINAL DEFINITION.
An adverb Is a word used to modify
a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb,
a. ExercisAS.
Several exercises should be written here.

Teaching.

1. (a) Write these sentences on the B.B.
Let class analyse them, pointing out the
subject and predicate in each case.

(6) Ask the class to add words to each of
the sentences in (a). " Objects " and " ad-
verbs " will be principally given. Select the
adverbs, and at present disregard the ob-
jects. Something like the additions oppo-
site will be given.

(i) Where is he to go ? There, in that
place. Hence the word denotes place.

(2) How does he sing ? Well. The word
denotes the way or tnanner or quality of his
singing.

(3) When does he ride ? Often. So get
time, or when.

(4) Educe negation, affirmation, and de-
gree by similar methods.

Other examples should be given by the
teacher; then by the class. In each case
the class should be asked to specify the
relation expressed by the word.

The class should then give this defini-
tion, write it on their slates, and learn it.

2. Write these sentences on the B.B,,
and proceed as in i.

(a) Let class underline the adverbs in
each sentence.

(b) Class next to point out the words to
which the adverbs are added or which they
modify. (Explain this phrase.)

(<r) The modified words should then be
parsed; but not fully. It will be noticed
that some are adjectives and some are
adverbs.

Adjectives. Good, kind, good.

Adverbs. Most, how divinely, so quickly,
remarkably fast.

(d) Class to give the final definition, then
write it upon their slates and learn it.

3. The exercises should be kept within
the limits of the present definition. The
harder and more obscure cases should be
left for a subsequent lesson.

PRONOUNS.

The case of the relative pronoun affords, perhaps, the greatest
difficulty in the teaching of the pronoun. The reasons may be
various, but those following are among them. The mistakes

284

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

arise over the objective case, the nominative being incorrectly
used in its place. The probable causes are —

1. The prevalence of the errors surrounding the child. Even
well-educated people sometimes go astray over the case of the
relative, and errors in its use are found in some of our writers.

2. The distance of the relative from its verb will account for
this error. The relation between the two is lost owing to the dis-
tance ; e.g., " Who are you calling names ? "

3. The tendency of the language to cast off inflections will
probably account for the use of who to the exclusion of whom ;
e.g., " I don't know who{m) you mean ".

How to Teach the Case of the Relative Pronoun.

I. Write on the B.B. the following or similar sentences : —

1. This is the house that Jack built.

2. I know a man who draws well.

3. I saw the dog whose head you patted.

4. I defended the man whom he slandered.

Ask the boys to point out the relative pronoun in each sentence, and under-
line it on the B. B. It is assumed that the class can recognise a relative
pronoun. The difficulty to be cleared is one of case only.

II. Let the class orally analyse the sentences on the B.B., the

teacher correcting where necessary.

Sentence.

Subject,

Predicate.

Object.

Extension,

1 j This is the house

2 ( That Jack built.

This
Jack

is the house
built

that

1 j I know a man

2 1 Who draws well.

I
who

know
draws

a man

well

1 ( I saw the dog

2 \ Whose head you patted.

I
you

saw
patted

the dog.
whose head

1 j I defended the man

2 1 Whom he slandered.

I
he

defended
slandered

the man
whom

III. Now proceed by a few carefully graded questions to elicit
the case in each sentence; thus : —

1. Elicit the antecedent in each sentence,

2. Use the analysis to determine to which sentence the relative belongs.

3. Next elicit the function of each relative. In each case call attention to its

position — subject or object — which indicates its function. The subject
is in the nominative case ; the object in the objective case. This will
explain all except whose. For this question substitute, and the case is
recognised, e.g., whose head? — the dog's head. What is the case of
dog's ? — whose is the same case.

ENGLISH.

285

IV. A collection of common errors should now be submitted to
the class for correction ; e.g. : —

1. Who did you say ?

2. I don't know who you want.

3. Who did he do it for ?

MOODS OF VERBS.

In giving lessons on the moods of verbs, the teacher will begin
by developing the idea of mood through the medium of the
sentence, choosing the sentences carefully for this purpose. The
verb in each sentence should be underlined, and its function
named. After a number of exercises of this sort, the class might
be asked to give a definition of mood.

The teacher can then proceed to the special moods, and he
should begin with the indicative as the mood of commonest use.
The method is the same. Through the medium of sentences the
function of the indicative will be deduced, a definition will be
required, and a number of examples given.

The imperative mood is taught in the same way as the indica-
tive. It will only be necessary in addition to emphasise its two
chief characteristics.

1. Its subject is generally absent.

2. It has in reality only one person— the second.

The infinitive mood is a little more difficult than either of the
previous moods, but the method of teaching is still the same. Its
functions and characteristics will be deduced from well-chosen
sentences ; the unlimited application of the action or state ex-
pressed by the verb will be enforced, and the consequent absence
of a subject. As in all previous cases, the definition must be the
work of the class.

The subjunctive mood is a vanishing one in English. It is
probably the most difficult mood for children to grasp, hence its
teaching is here set out in more detail than the other moods.

on Uae Sul^anoiiye BSood.

Matter.

I. Idea Developed.
Sentences.

1. Ifyoui/rtni^ this you may get
better.

2. If he apologiu I will forgive
him.

Method.

I. Write these sentences on the D.B.
Point oat the verbs, and underline them.
Class then to observe that—

I. Expresses a doubt.

3. Expresses possibility.

3. Expresses a wish.

4. Expresses a consequenc*.
3. Expresses a supposition.

286 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

LESSON ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD— continued.

Matter.

Method.

3. I would I were a bird, that I
might fly to thee !

4. If only one man be saved, I
shall not have worked in vain.

5. Be careful, lest you fall.

II. DEFINITION.

The subjunctive mood is a subjoined
mood, used to express doubt, wish,
possibility, consequence, or supposi-
tion, all as moods of the mind.

III. Characteristics.

1. It is the mood of subjective
assertion.

2. It is always dependent on
some other clause which is ante-
cedent in thought, and generally in
expression. The antecedent clause
is called the conditional clause ; the
subjoined clause is called the conse-
quent clause.

3. It is gradually dying out of
use.

IV. FINAL DEFINITION.

II. These are the primary functions of
the subjunctive mood, and from these the
class can now give a provisional definition.

Explain— Subjunctive, from subjungere
— to join on to.

III. Explain to the class that it does not
express a fact directly, but only the relation
of a fact to the mind of the speaker. Point
out that it is used in a sentence which is
subjoined to a principal sentence. The
teacher can point this from the examples
given.

It should then be contrasted with the in-
dicative, which deals with actual facts which
exist independent of our minds. Such ex-
istence we call objective, whereas the sub-
junctive deals with facts which exist in the
mind of the speaker, whether they really
exist outside or not. Such existence is
called subjective. Then put the contrast on
the B.B.

Indicative = Mood of Objective Assertion.
Subjunctive „ Subjective „

Illustrate further from the sentences sup-
plied. Give, and then ask for, other simi-
lar sentences.

The teacher should next put some sen-
tences on the B.B. as examples of condition
and consequence.

Condition.

Consequence.

The subjunctive mood is that form
of the verb which is used in a sentence
that is subjoined to a principal sen-
tence, and which does not express a
fact directly, but only the relation of

1. If it were done
when 'tis done

2. If he be the man

1. Then 'twere well
it were done quickly.

2. Then he shall die.

a fact to the mind of the speaker.

3. Tell the class this fact, and illustrate
with a few carefully chosen sentences.

The class should then be able to give the
final definition.

A good selection of examples should then
be given for practice.

TENSE.

In teaching tense the teacher will seek to deduce the term
from a number of suitable sentences. He might then give the
derivation. His object will be to show the class that each verb
gives some notion of time; then to compare and contrast the
forms of the verbs to show also that the form of the verb is
different for different tenses. According to the general principle

ENGLISH.

287

laid down in this book, the definition should be the work of the
class.

The teacher should then deal with the other function of tense
— the indication of completeness or otherwise. This might be
deduced from suitable sentences again, all of which should be in
one tense, say the present, and by the time the teacher has
worked out the various forms of the present tense, he will have
done enough for one lesson. A further lesson should follow deal-
ing with the other tenses in the same way as the present. A
third lesson would also be required for the compound tense forms.
A lesson is now given in illustration of the method to be em-
ployed.

How to Teach Tense.

Definitions and Examples.

Teaching.

L Deduce Tense.

1. I go to school.

2. Father went to school.

3. Baby will go to school.

1. John loves.

2. John loved.

3. John will love.

II. Derivation.

From the French temps, which
comes from the Latin tempus,
meaning time.

PROVISIONAL DEFINITION.
Tense is that form of the
verb which indicates time.

There are three tenses or

"times" —

I. Present. 2. Past. 3. Future.

IIL The PreMOt Tense.

I. Write these sentences on the B.B.,
and elicit by questioning that—

1. I go to school now— at the present
time.

2. Father went to school in the past.

3. Baby will go to school at some future
time.

Each verb gives some notion of time.

Then write on the B.B. the next three
sentences. Let the class examine the
verbs in each. Each verb again gives us
some notion of time.

Next compare and contrast the forms of
the verbs by writing them on the B.B.
alone, and by calling attention to their
terminations ; e.g.—

loveSf loved, will love,
end deduce that the form of the verb is
different for different tenses.

II. Give the <^rira/k>n. The class should
then be able to give the provisional defini-
tion opposite.

III. 1. Write sentence i on the B.B.
Class to note that—

(a) The action is present, but

(6) The idea of time is not definite.

it may mean, I am working at this
moment; or that I am in the habit of
working, although I may not be at work
St this present moment. Hence the id*a
of time is indefinite, and the word work
marks present indefinite time or tense.

2 Write 2 on B B. It shows that the

Sentence.

Tense.

1. I worlt.

2. I am working.

3. I have worlied.

4. I have been working.

Indefinite.

Imperfect.

Perfect.

Perfect continooas.

action (a) is present,

(6) is unfinished or imperfect.

Hence it is caUed the present imperfect
tense.

3. Write 3 on the B.B. This sentence
shows tiiat the action is complete or perfect

288 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

HOW TO TEACH TENSE— continued.

Definitions and Examples.

FURTHER DEFINITIONS.

1. The Present Indefinite Tense
indicates that the action is pre-
sent, but its precise moment
indefinite.

2. The Present Imperfect Tense
shows that the action is not
finished.

c{ ThP Present Perfect Tense shows ^f^ ¥^ ^^.^" S°\"S °" ",P \° *^P /'y«e«^ ;

3. ineFresenti'eriectiensebnows ] ^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^.j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ jg

that at the present time the: now over, it is complete ;

Teaching.

at the present time. Have worked is there-
fore in the present perfect tense.

This tense is generally difficult to chil-
dren. Point out to them that though
the action is finished, we only spake
of it as being finished at present.
4. Treat this sentence in the same way.
It shows that the action has been going on,
and is now finished. This tense again is
difficult. Try to make the class understand
that the action—

action is finished.

4. The Present Perfect Continuous
Tense shows that the action has
been going on, and is now
finished.

The class will then see why it is known
as the present perfect continuous tense.

Have these definitions committed to
memory, and give plenty of exercises for
practice.

PREPOSITIONS.

There are certain well-marked principles which characterise
most of the lessons given in accidence, and which perhaps it will
be wise to emphasise once more by collecting and enumerating.
Every lesson in this chapter is shaped and guided by those prin-
ciples, and they should be firmly fixed in the memory. They
may be described as follows : —

1. The teacher's first task is to develop the idea of the subject
of the lesson through the medium of the sentence.

2. Definitions should always be the work of the class.
Furthermore, they should be synthetic or provisional, being given
at the different divisions of the lesson, and growing finally into the
complete statement.

3. Plenty of exercises should be afforded in illustration of the
truths or principles the teacher is seeking to establish.

4. The functions and characteristics of each particular subject
should also be developed through the medium of the sentence.

5. After the various rules, truths, and principles have been dis-
covered by the class from matter supplied by the teacher, they
should be committed to memory — not before.

The following lesson on Prepositions is based on these prin-
ciples, and it would be a good exercise for the young teacher if an
attempt was made to write notes of lesson on Conjunctions in the
same way.

ENGLISH.
How to Teach the Preposition.

289

Definitions, Exercises, etc.

I. Develop the Idea.

1. The book is on the desk.

2. The boy is in the school.

3. Love in a cottage.

4. The tree was struck by light-
ning.

FIRST DEFINITION.

A preposition is a word whicli ex-
presses some relation between two
nouns.

II. Derivation.

Pre — before ; positus — placed.
The preposition is placed before
the noun.
Exceptions.

1. Whom was this done by ?

2. What was he after ?

3. What did you do that for ?
SECOND DEFINITION.

k preposition is a word placed be-
fore a noun (or pronoun), and which
expresses some relation between that
noun and another.

III. Government.

1. The mouse is in the cage.

2. The cat is under the table.

3. He killed the man with a sword.
Prepositions govern nouns in the

objective case.
lY. Classification.

1. Place.

(a) Rest in — at, by, in, out.

(b) Motion — to, from, into.

2. Time.

(a) Duration — pending, during.
lb) Past — since, from.
Ic) Present — at, in.
(d) Future— \.\\\, unto.
8. Caasallty.

(a) Motive — from, for. I

(b) A gent or instrument — by, with. '

FINAL DEFINITION.

Prepositions are words placed be-
fore nouns or pronouns to show some
relation of plac«, timet or oauiality.

Teaching.

I. Show a book. Class to name it.
Point to a desk. Class to name this. No
connection or relation between them ob-
vious to the class at present. Now place
the book on the desk. Any connection or
relation between them now? The word
on expresses this relation.

Strengthen the idea by shifting the
position of the book.

1. Place the book tinder the desk.

2. Place the book far from the desk.

3. Place the book near the desk.

In each case the class is to point out the
relation between the book and the desk.

Then they might point out the word in
each case expressing the relations between
the various nouns in sentences 2, 3, and 4.

II. Give the derivation of the word.

By reference to the examples, show that
the word is placed before the noun or pro-
noun.

Ask for any exceptions, and give them if
necessary. The exceptions are not bad
grammar, but bad composition. Have them
given in an improved form; e.g., By
whom, etc.

HI. Write these sentences on the B.B.,
and let the class pick out all the nouns. In
the first sentence ask for the case of
" mouse " and " cage ". Ca^e is objective by
"in". Similarly, table ts objective by
" under " ; sword is objective by " with ".

Then Prepositions govern in the ob-
jective case.

IV. Write on the B.B. the following
sentences :—

Place.

1. He sits in the chair ; t.e., he rests in
the chair.

2. This hangs out of the window; !.<.,
rests out of the window.

3. He is at school now ; i.e., he rests or
remains at school.

Motion. Write on the B.B.—

I. He goes ^0 London. Motion— <o Lon-
don.

a. He comes /rom school. Motion— from
school.

3. They walk up the hili. Motion— «^
the hill, etc.

Time and Causality.— Deal with these
in the same ways as with place and motion.

The final definition should now be given,
HTitten on their slates, and committed to
memory.

Exercises should follow ss usual.

PARSINa.

Its Diffloulties, and Bow to Deal with Them.

The difficulties here referred to are special ones, and their

290

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

occurrence is chiefly owing to the double and triple functions of
some words. A child has been accustomed to meet a certain
word or words as certain parts of speech. The word is met per-
forming another duty ; there is a breach of expectation, followed
often by the consequent mental demoralisation. It is the teacher's
object to prevent this, and so these difficulties must be dealt with
as they appear. Take the following as examples : —

1. He cast one look behind. She said, " Look at me ".

2. How do yoxxform your letter ? That letter has a curious /?rOT.

3. He did it without help. Do not help him.

4. [a) The cold is severe in winter, [b) It has been a cold season, {c) Do

not catch cold.

The teacher should first note what parts of speech are com-
prised in the difficult words — nouns, verbs, and adjectives. He
should then ask for definitions of these parts of speech, and apply
these definitions as follows : — Ask the class for examples ; for
sentences containing nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Then let the
pupils point out distinctly the functions of these words in their
own supplied sentences. Then analyse the sentences, and recapitu-
late the various ways in which subject, predicate, and object may
be expressed. The teacher should then deal with the given diffi-
culties on the B.B. as follows : —

Look (as a Noun).

Look (as a Verb).

1. By Analysis. Loq\ is the object,
hence it is substantival.

2. By Concord. One is an adjective.
Adjectives qualify or limit what? Then
look is a noun.

3. By Substitution. He cast one glance
behind. Glance may appeal more readily
than look.

1. By Analysis. Look is the predicate,
hence it is a verb.

2. By Function. Look is imperative;
it commands or entreats, and therefore is
a verb. It expresses the action.

3. By Substitution. Regard me.
Observe me. These words may be more
readily recognised as verbs than look.

"Form" and "Help" may be dealt with in the same way as
Iiook.

Cold (as a Noun).

1. By Analysis. Cold is the subject
in sentence 4 {a), and the object in sentence
4 (c). It is therefore substantival.

2. By Substitution. The frost, the
weather, etc., is severe. Some of these
words will be easily recognised as nouns.
Then introduce " cold," and show that its
function is the same.

Cold (as an Adjective).

1. By Function. Cold tells what sort of
season in sentence 4 (6). Adjectives are
words which show " what sort " ; i.e., cold
is a quality of "season," and is therefore
an adjective.

2. By Substitution. It has been a
" severe " season. " Severe " is an adjective
qualifying " season ". Cold discharges the
same functions as " severe," and is there-
fore an adjective.

ENGLISH.

291

Difficulties may also arise from the form of composition in
which the selected words are met. The language may be in-
volved — the teacher should simplify it. It may be obscure — the
teacher should elucidate it by a paraphrase. It may be in the
form of poetry — the teacher should transpose it. It may be
elliptical, as in some of Bacon's essays — the teacher should fill in
the ellipsis.

The form of the parsing is important, and will depend upon
the stage attained by the pupil. Three stages are recommended as
being suited to the knowledge and different capacities of the children.

1. Simple Parsing^. — Here the child is simply required to
point out the parts of speech, and this should be done in two
parallel columns.

Word.

Part of Speech.

He
swims
weU.

Pronoun.

Verb.
Adverb.

2. Intermediate Form. — Here some knowledge of accidence

and syntax might be required. Only elementary knowledge
should be expected, and difficult constructions should be left till a
later stage. The form should be in three parallel columns. The
part of speech should always come first in the central column, and
it should be underlined. Words influenced by concord or
government should also be underlined.

Word.

Accidence.

SynUx.

swims
weU.

Pronoun, personal, 3rd person, sing, numb., masc.
gen., nom. case.

Verb, intransitive, indicative, present, 3rd person,
sing. num.

Adverb of manner.

Agreeing with swims.
Agreeing with lu.
Modifying swims.

3. Advanced Form. — Here the parsing should be full, and
should include more syntax and accidence. The origin of the
word should be given, and where known the derivation might be
added. The parts of verbs, conjugation, voice, the comparison cf
adverbs, and the more detailed functions of the parts of speech
would be expected, whilst the parsing of an interjection should
always show the emotion it signifies. The form should assume

292

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the arrangement of four parallel columns, and the same order and
underlining should be adopted as in the intermediate stage.

Word.

Accidence.

Syntax.

Origin.

swims
well.

Pronoun, personal (generally so
called, but really a demonstrative,
as personal pronouns are only of the
first and second person), 3rd person,
masculine gender, nominative case.

Verb, strong (swim, swam, swum),
intrans., indie, present, 3rd sing.

Adverb of manner, positive de-
gree, irregularly compared.

Agreeing in number
and person with swims.

Agreeing with he in
number and person.
Modifying swims.

Anglo-Saxon.

ANAIiYSIS.

In the teaching of analysis the word should be carefully
graded, the form of the analysis, as in parsing, depending on the
capacity and class of the pupils. In the Code this branch of
grammar is not required until the Fourth Standard in the scheme
usually adopted ; but all teaching in grammar should commence
with analysis, hence the stud}^ of this subject should commence in
Standard I. The functions of words are best learnt from sen-
tences, and not from the trick of picking out nouns and other
parts of speech.

A Grraduated Scheme of Analysis.

1. Standards I. and II. — The work here should be confined to subject,

predicate, and object.

2. Standard III. — Subject, predicate, object, and extension of predicate

(only the simpler and more obvious forms).

3. Standard IV.— To the above should be added the enlargement of the

subject and object. In all the above cases the work should be con-
fined to the simple sentence.

4. Standard V.— The compound sentence might be introduced, and the

kind of sentence and the connecting word or link should be required.

5. Standards VI. and VII. — The complex sentence should be intro-

duced ; the predicate should be divided into simple and compound,
the latter being again sub-divided into the verb of incomplete predica-
tion and the complement (subjective, objective, or infinitive).

HOW TO TEACH THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

Definitions and Examples.

I. Introduction.

II. The Noun Clause.

1. Kindness is commendable.

2. To be kind is commendable.

3. That we should be kind is
commendable.

Teaching.

1. Recapitulate briefly the simple sen-
tence.

II. I. Class to point out subject. Teacher
underlines it. It is a noun.

2. Treat this sentence in the same way.
The subject here consists of three words.
It is called a phrase.

The teacher should then point out the

ENGLISH.

293

HOW TO TEACH THE COMPLEX SEHTEUCE— continued.

Definitions and Examples.

DEFINITION.

A noun clause is one which dis-
charges the function of a noun.
Examples.

1. Why he died did not come out.

2. How he frot on was never
known.

3. What I intend to do is best
known to myself.

4. Introduce a sentence in appo-
sition with it ; e.g. :—

(a) It is a shame that he should be treated
so badly.

(6) // is not Icnown that he did as reported.
III. The Adjective Clause.

1. He has a good book.

2. He has a book 0/ much merit.

3. He has a book which is highly
esteemed.

DEFINITION.

An adjective clause is one which
takes the place of and does the worlf
of an adjective in a given sentence.

Examples.

These can be ^iven by the teacher.

I. The fly that sips treacle is lost in the
sweets.

2. Heaven helps those that help themselves.

lY. The Adverbial Clause.

1. He ran quickly.

2. He ran in a quick manner.

3. He ran as quickly as a bird flies.
Y. These Clauses are Subordinate,

»./., dependent upon other sen
tences, viz. : —

1. That sips treacle.

2. Which is worth a great deal.

3. That we should be kind.

YI. A Complex Sentence consists of
principal and subordinate sentences
Butmples of Complex Sentence*.

Teaching.

Prindpia.
i^ThtotetbehooM

Subordinate.
r/koljacklmik.

3. There wasan old ; Who lived in a shoe,
woman

3. I know

Where you live.

The Link. This is the word join
ing the two sentences ; as that, who,
where. Hence a complex sentence '
at least is composed of a principal :
sentence + a link + a subordinate
sentence.

similarity between the two subjects " kind-
ness " and " to be kind ".

3. Further expansion : the subject is now
a sentence ; i.e., a sentence is used instead
of the noun kindness. Hence it is called a
noun sentence or noun clause. The class
should now be aslced to define a noun clause.
They should then write several examples
of their own upon their slates. These might
I be examined in sample if the class is a large
I one, and the corrections made on the B.B.
I 4. Let the class note the relation between
1/ and the noun clause — it is one of apposi-
tion. It can be called the subject, and the
noun clause can be said to be in apposition
with it.

Other examples shpuld be given by the
class.

III. The expansion of good from an ad-
jective to a phrase and from a phrase to a
clause or senteiue should be pointed out.
Let it be firmly impressed upon the class
that in each case the adjective, the

{ihrase, and the sentence discharge
he same function.
The class should now be prepared to give
a definition of an adjective clause.

In dealing with further examples, in each
case the adjective sentence should be con-
verted into an equivalent word or phrase ;
e.g. ;—

1. The treacle-sipping fly is lost in the
sweets.

2. Heaven helps self-helping people.
Exercises should lollow as before.

IV. Treat the adverbial clause in the
same way as the noun and adjectival clauses.

I V. Detach some of the clauses from the
sentences to which they are joined.
Analyse them. They contam subjects and
predicates; i.e., they are complete sen-
tences, and yet they give us no more infor-
mation than —

1. Treacle sipping, or

2. Good, or

3. Kindness.

They are simply parts that help to com-
plete or modify an assertion or statement.
They depend on or are subordinate to the
other sentences. Hence they are called
subordinate sentences.

VI. Show that subordinate is a relative
word, by such examples as—
Father and child.
Shepherd and sheep.
Husband and wife.
Principal and subordinate, etc.
The Link. Have the sentences read
with the links omitted. The function of
the link in each case is obvious. They
"join" or introduce the subordinate sen-
tence.

Sentences should now be supplied with
the link missing, and the class should be
invited to insert the right link.

294 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

WORD BUTLDING.
Its Uses.

1. It gives the pupils a knowledge of the roo^s, prefixes, and suffixes of

their own language.

2. It increases their vocabulary both actually and potentially.

3. As a consequence of 2, it improves the accuracy of their reading and the

quality of their composition.

4. It has an intrinsic value. There is often the flash of recognition and the

consciousness of power when a pupil recognises the elements of a new
word and grasps its meaning.

5. It is a good exercise in synthesis, and synthesis is the chief method of

education for young scholars.

6. It introduces the class to derivation, and the history surrounding many

words. In this way it throws a side light on history.

7. It affords a good exercise in verbal analysis.

How to Teach VTord Building^.

Deal first with the native elements, commencing with the
prefixes, and afterwards taking the suffixes. The root will be
taught with both the prefixes and suffixes.

Prefixes. — i. Write words like the following on the B.B., and
let the class divide them into syllables : —

Afternoon equals after-noon. Gainsay equals gain-say.

Forbid ,, for-bid. Inborn ,, in-born.

Foretell ,, fore-tell. Misdeed ,, mis-deed.

Offshoot ,, off-shoot. Midday ,, mid-day.

2. The class should next be asked to say which is the more

important part of the word in each case. This they will tell from —

{a) Its meaning.
[b) Its function.
{c) Its capability for independent work and position.

These will be given as -noon, -bid, -tell, -shoot, -say, -born, etc. Tell the
class these are the roots. Compare with the roots and branches of a tree. The
class should then define or describe a root, and give examples.

3. It should next be noted that the remaining parts of the
words are —

{a) Placed in front of the roots in each case; i.e., they are preplaced.
{b) That they are joined to or fixed on to the roots.
Hence they are called prefixes.

4. Plenty of examples should now be supplied, which should
be dealt with both synthetically and analytically.

{a) Synthetically. Roots can be supplied by teacher or class, and suitable

prefixes can be added.
{b) Analytically. Woi'ds can be supplied for analysis ; e.g., misdeed ; mis-

(prefix), deed (root).

5. The meanings of the words should now be educed, and
little verbal or written exercises in composition embodying these
words should be given.

ENGLISH. 295

Suffixes. — The number of suffixes is so great that to avoid
confusion they must be classified carefully.

1. Write on the B.B. the following words : baker, liar,
sawyer, sailor.

2. Ask class to divide them into syllables ; e.g., bak{e)-er, li-ar,
sawy-er, sail-or.

3. The roots should then be pointed out as in the previous
lesson.

4. Then they are to remark concerning the remainders of the
words —

{a) They are all placed after the root.

\b) They are all fixed to the root.

That is, they are s,y\\a.h\es fixed after the roots.

5. Now, give the word suffix, and explain its derivation and
meaning ; suf (sub), dindfixere (to fix).

6. The class should now define or describe a suffix, and give
examples.

7. Now teach the functions of these suffixes ; e.g. : —

Bak(e)-er ; bake — the action of baking. \

-er — the person who does the baking. /
Li-ar ; lie— the action of lying. \
-ar — the doer of the action. /
Hence the suffixes -er, -ar, -or, denote the doer of an action.

8. Deal with the remaining suffixes in a similar way, and in
your teaching follow some such classification as the following,
dealing with each division or sub-division seriatim.

(a) Noun suffixes.

1. Doer of an action.

2. Denoting an instrument.

3. Denoting abstract nouns.

4. Diminutives.

it's Adjective suffixes.
c) Verbal suffixes.
d) Adverbial suffixes.

9. Only the more obvious and easily recognised suffixes should

be taken first. The more obscure cases should form later lessons.

Their too early mtroduction tends to confuse, discourage, and to

unduly magnify the difficulties of the study ; e.g.j the following

should be reserved : —

ia) Sufllxee, such as </ in drgd ; m in ^rm ; ship, skip, scape ; th and t.
\b\ Preflxett such as a in asleep ; y in yclept.

10. Words involving some of the contractions, etc., met with
in derivation should not be taken until after the Latin and Greek
prefixes and suffixes have been dealt with.

296 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Xiatin Elements.

11. When the ordinary native suffixes and prefixes are known,
the Latin should be taken and treated much the same as the
English. There will be one or two more steps at least.

[a) The English and Latin prefixes could be co7npared or conh-asted where

there is a similarity of form.

. / English — meaning (into)— inborn.
\ Latin — ,, (into) — include.

, , (not) — inactive.

[b) Or where there is a similarity of function.

English^^;-^ (before) as m. foretell. Latin — -prae (before) as in prevent,
mis (wrongly) as in misdeed. mis (badly) as in mischief.

[c) Hybrids. — These could be dealt with here, but it would be better to

postpone them until after the Greek element had been introduced.

Write following words on the B. B. At least one of them will show the

wisdom of postponement : —

Wondrous, dislike, goddess, anti-religious, bondage.
Give the derivations —

Wondrous — English, wonder ; Latin, -ous (osus), full of.

Dislike — English, like ; Latin, -dis.

In old English it was mislike.

Goddess — English, god ; Latin, ix (Norman French, ice).

Bondage — Icelandic, bondi (a tiller of the soil) ; Latin, aticum (French,
age).

Anti-religious — Greek, anti ; Latin, religio.
Ask the class to give, where possible, the proper suffix for converting the

word into a pure English or Latin word. This will be an interesting

exercise for the children.

12. The Greek should next be taken, and taught on the same

lines. There will now be greater opportunities for comparison

and contrast ; e.g. : —

Contrast Greek a in anarchy with English a in asleep.

,, ,, syn in synthesis with L,a.tm cum in circumference.

,. ,, exo in exotic with Latin ex in expel.

,, ,, endo in endogenous with Latin intro in introduce.

13. Finally, the more obscure and difficult cases could be taken, e.g. ;

{a) Aphaeresis — the taking of a letter from the beginning of a word.
Latin exemplum gives English sample.
,, avunculus ,, uncle,

{h) Syncope — the cutting out of one or more letters from the middle of a word.

Latin crudelis gives English cruel,
{c) Apocope — the cutting off of the last letter or syllable of a word.
Latin porcus gives English pork.
,, pillula ,, pill.

VITord Branching^. — Some very interesting and instructive
lessons might be given on word branching. A stem could be
given, its meaning made known, and then words asked for
supposed to be derived from the given stem. The suggested
words must retain something of the form and meaning of the
stem. The teacher should supplement the lists given.

ENGLISH.

297

OLD ENGLISH STEM.

LATINrSTEM.

GREEK STEM.

Byrn-an (to burn).

Curro (I run).

Astron (a star).

Brown (the burnt colour).

Current (running).

Aster (a flower).

Burnish (to polish).
Brand new (burnt new).

Currency (money in circulation).

Asterisk (a little

Concur, incur, occur, recur.

star).

Brand (a piece of burning wood).

Course (the track on which any-

Asteroid (starlike).

Brandish (brand, a sword).

thing runs).

Astrology, astron-

Brandy (burnt wine).

Courser (a runner).

omy.

Brimstone (burning stone).

Recourse, concourse, inter-

Astrologer.

Brindled (striped with brown).

course.

Astrological.

Brunt (shock of onset, where the

Precursor (a forerunner).

Astronomer.

battle burns).

Courier (one who runs).

Astronomical.

Corridor (Spanish passage,

Disaster (ill fortune).

gallery).

The above lists, which are copied from Blackie's English
Language and Literature, afford typical examples of the kind of
exercise to be given or obtained. No branch of word building is
more interesting or more popular than these thought and memory-
raking exercises.

Inductive Ijessons. — The class should now be ready for a
series of capital inductive lessons on the subject, which might take
some such form as follows : —

I. The class can be asked to form one part of speech from
another by the addition of prefix or suffix ; e.g. : —

Noun.

Adjective.

Adverb.

Verb.

Abstract Noun.

Participle.

ill

FooUsh.
Knowing.
Smeared.
Posting (house).
Postage (sump).
Beautiful.

Foolishly.
Knowingly.

Post-haste.

BeautifuUy.

Befool.
Know.
Smear.
Post.

Beautify.

Foolishness.
Knowledge.

Postage.

Beauty.

Fooling.
KnoMdng.
Smearing.
Posting.

Beautifying.

2. The modifying^ force of the prefixes and suffixes will

furnish another good exercise. A stem should be taken, and the

complete word should be built up upon it ; e.g., take the words

scl/f god, stand, point, etc.

un-Mlf-ish-ness. un-tfod-li-ness.

not-with-stand-ing. ne-vtrr-the-lMt.

dis-ap-point-ing-ly. trans-sub-itan-tin-tion.

3. Lessons on s ynoaym s^ bilinsruism, and doublets might be
given through the medium of word building.

RULES OF CONCORD.

The rules of syntax, like the definitions of grammar, should be
learned inductively and applied deductively ; i.e., they should be truths

298

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

and statements discovered by the pupils themselves from the
examination of sentences. Too often the rule or definition is
given by the teacher, and then explained and illustrated. We
observe facts, and then make generalisations on them, simple
probably in the first case, but proceeding gradually to more diffi-
cult cases. That is the inductive part. When the rule or defini-
tion is known, plenty of examples should be given for applying
the rules. That is the deductive part. As an illustrative lesson
we might take the rules of concord of the verb with its subject
in sentences connected by disjunctive conjunctions.

Rules and Examples.

I. Introduction.

Simple concords. The verb agrees
with its subject in number and
person.

II. Adversative Conjunctions.

1. I tried, but he did not.

2. He is severe, yet he is just.

3. I failed, nevertheless I was
hopeful.

4. He will do it, notwithstanding
the risk attached to it.

III. Distributive Conjunctions.

1. Singular.

(a) Either he is good or he is bad.

(b) Neither did John succeed, 7tor
did he fail.

(d) It must be done, otherwise
the thing will fail.

(e) He must be selfish, else he
would give.

(/) He will have to do it, or I
shall want to know why.

2. Plural and Singular.

(a) Either he or they were wrong.

{b) Neither he nor they were
right.

{c) Neither the king nor his men
were there.

3. Different Persons.

(a) Either he or I am right.
{b) Neither you nor he is right.

Teaching.

I. Recapitulate these. It is assumed
they are known, and the present lesson is
chosen as offering more difficulties.

II. Deal with this class first, as it offers
least difficulty. Explain adversative.

The class will perceive that the concords
are the same as in the simple sentences,
because a compound sentence is composed,
in each of these instances, of two simple
sentences. Each simple sentence is taken
separately, and its concords specified.
These adversative conjunctions will thus be
seen to have no influence on the concords.

III. Explain "distributive".

1. (a) Call attention to each sentence
from a to f seriatim. It will be remarked
that the subjects and predicates are singular
in each case.

(b) Give other sentences and invite the
class to examine them.

(rf) Explain, illustrate, amplify, and
correct where necessary. Discuss each
correction with the class.

The rule ought to be now supplied by
the pupils.

2. Call attention to these sentences.

(fl) There is a change of number (he and
they).

(b) The verb agrees with the nearer — the
plural they.

Then invite the class to expand the
sentence; e.g. —

Either he {was wrong) or they were wrong.

Neither he {was right) nor they were right.

Neither the king (was there) nor his men
were there.

The second rule should now be given.

3. (i) Teach these in the same way as in
No. 2.

(2) The complete rule for distributive
conjunctions could then be given.

(3) Exercises should be given to test the
rules as stated. Some of these should be
correctly and some incorrectly given. The

ENGLISH. 299

Rales and Examples.

Teaching.

Rules. necessary corrections should be made by

1. When the subject consists of | The^^hree rules should then be written
two or more singular nouns joined on the slates— either from dictation or
by a distributive conjunction the from memory-and learned by the class.

•' , ^ u • 1 If the class is in the habit of using note

verb must be singular. books, the rules should then be entered

2. When the subject consists of; there.

two nouns of different numbers the I ^^he distributive conjunction should
„^,u ^^,^^0 ,.,uu *u^ „^o^«».- i t"C" oe tabulated on the B.B., and copied

verb agrees with the nearer. 1 ^y the pupils into their note books ; e.g-

3. When the subject consists of Either Or
two or more nouns of different wii'*'" ^^^
persons, the verb agrees with the | othlJw"e Else. Or.
nearest subject. ' Rapidly recapitulate the whole lesson.

PUNCTUATION.

Proper punctuation is a difficulty by no means confined to
young pupils. Many ordinarily educated adults are quite unable
to grapple with it. Their letters are evidence of it. The reasons
are not far to seek. The subject is inherently difficult, demand-
ing a good and ready analytic power, and the subject is rarely or
ever taught.

I. Its Object. — Its object is to make the writer's meaning
clear ; to take the place of accent, emphasis, cadence, in the
spoken tongue. Children soon understand this. Let the teacher
speak — within his lung capacity — a long sentence, or series of
sentences, without a stop. Repeat the sentence, making proper
pauses. Its object will then be obvious.

n. "What it is. — Certain signs, called points, notes, or marks,
are used in sentences to mark off their different parts, and to show
the relation of each part to the whole. The placing of these
points in their right place is called punctuation.

TTT Method of Teaching.— Introduce the signs gradually,

and in the following order, which indicates the measure of their

difficulty : —

I. Full slop or period.

3. Mark of interrogation.

3. Mark of exclamation.

4. The semicolon.

5. The comma.

6. ITie colon.

7. Other marks.

IV. The FuU Stop or Period (•).

I. Repeat a number of small, disconnected phra.scs. such as birds fly, dogs
bark^ cats steal, pausing after each. Call attention to the cadence of

300 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

the voice at the end of each phrase. Tell them that fall of the voice is
translated or represented by a full stop. Make the sign {.) upon the
B.B. , and call attention to it.

2. Write some short phrases on the B. B. without stops — the previous phrases

will do. Let class read them as written, thus : —
dogs bark cats steal birds fly.
The initial capitals will be omitted, and small letters used. Now insert the
stops, and let the class read them again, thus : —
dogs bark, birds Jly. cats steal.
Then change the initial letters of each sentence for capitals. Let the class

tell you why ; if unable to do so, tell them.
Call attention to the difference in their voices. The effect is best produced
by placing them in parallel lines, and having them read consecutively.

3. Now dictate a number of small sentences, gradually increasing the num-

ber of words, but in no case requiring any stop but a period.

4. Then let the class supply exercises, which could be written on the B.B.,

and corrected where necessary.

V. Other Stops. — The teaching of the note of interrogation
and the mark of exclamation presents no difficulty. The colon is
little used. All other marks can be explained as met, except the
semicolon and the comma. These want special teaching.

VI. The Semicolon (;).

There is a great deal of looseness associated with the use of
this mark even by educated people. Often it is entirely omitted,
so that we may have an essay, a letter, or a piece of composition
without the appearance of a single semicolon. When it does
appear, it is often merely as a change for the too frequent commas
or periods, and hence its use is often wrong. It is not easy to
make young children understand its correct use, because it in-
volves, as has already been pointed out, a certain amount of
analytic power, and a readiness in detecting the opportunities for
the exercise of this power.

1. Let the pupils transcribe good composition, and read well-written books,

and use will gradually smooth the way.
This process of itnitation is a good aid, but as a sole process it is too slow
in its results.

2. Make the class thoroughly understand what a sentence is. Then explain

co-ordinate sentences. Explain them to mean sentences of the same
kind or sort.

3. Write on the B. B. some unpunctuated co-ordinate sentences. Have them

read. Then punctuate them and have them read again. Then have
them read consecutively. As before, introduce the capitals in their
right places, and contrast the difference in voice and effect.

4. Now write a number of unpunctuated co-ordinate sentences upon the

B.B. again, and let the class punctuate. Call attention to the fact that
the sentences are usually long ones.

5. Give plenty of exercises.

VH. The Comma (,).

This should be reserved for a late lesson, because of its many
uses and difficulties. It is the weakest of all our stops in prac-

ENGLISH.

301

tice, but its proper use, generally a matter of slow growth, may
be considerably accelerated by a few preliminary explanatory
lessons.

Uses and Examples.

Preparatory Work.

1. Reading.

2. Transcription.

3. Speaking.

(a) With monotone.
(6) With cadence.
Examples,

(a) He is a rich strong tall
man.

(b) He is a rich, strong, tall
man.

II. First Use.

To separate short co-ordinate sen-
tences.
Examples.

1. He did not come, but he
will come.

2. The man is good, and he is
strong.

III. Second Use.

To separate nouns in an enumera-
tion.

Examples.

1. Men, women, children, old
and young, all were there.

2. Smith, Brown, Jones, and
Robinson have all gained prizes.

3. Infantry, cavalry, trans-
port engineers and artillery all
looked tired and dirty.

lY. Third Use.

To separate a series of adjectives
and adverbs qualifying the same
words.

ExampUs.

I. He was shrewd cautious

Teaching.

I. I and 2. These recur daily in school
work.

3. Direct the attention of the pupils to
the pauses in your own speech.

(<i) The sentences selected can be re-
peated in a monotone and without punctua-
tion.

(b) In punctuated cadence.

The class should be called upon to note
the difference, and the way it is translated.

(i) Orally — by the voice.

(2) Written — by punctuation.

Other similar sentences might be similarly
treated.

II. This use is discovered by the use of
suitable examples. Let these examples be
written on the B.B.

(a) The class should first analyse the
sentences, paying particular attention to
the kind of sentence — co-ordinate.

(6) Next let them notice that the sen-
tences are short. Contrast with the semi-
colon.

Semicolon.

Separates, as a
rule, long co-ordin-
ate sentences.

Separates, as a
rule, short co-ordin-
ate sentences.

III. Ttiis use should l>e taught as in I.

I. (a) Dictate this sentence without
punctuation.

(6) Write it on the B.B. and punctuate
it. Then let pupils read it.

Some will pause at each noun, some not.

Call attention to this fact.

(r) The teacher should then read it with
cadence and pauses.

(</) The class should translate these
pauses on their slates.

(c) The teacher should then do the same
thing on the B.B.. and ask the class to
compare and correct. They are tramlattd
by commas.

2 and v These sentences should be
Himilarly treated, and the class should then
be able to give the second use.

IV. Taught as before.

I. (a) Dictate sentence i unpunctuated.

(b) Then write the sentence on the B.B.

(1) Adjectives in 1 and 2.

(2) Adverbs in 3.

302

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Uses and Examples.

cunning and unselfish (un-
punctuated).

2. He was shrewd, cautious,
cunning, and unselfish {punc-
tuated).

3. He did it quickly, smartly,
quietly, and cleanly.

Y. Fourth Use.

It indicates tlie omission of a word
or words.
Examples.

1. Unpunctuated. Histories
make men wise poets witty the
mathematics subtle natural
philosophy deep moral grave
logic and rhetoric able to con-
tend.

2. Punctuated. Histories make
men wise ; poets, witty ; the
mathematics, subtle ; natural
philosophy, deep ; moral, grave ;
logic and rhetoric, able to con-
tend.

Teaching.

YI. Exercises.
These should be

id) Let the class read the sentences as in
I.

(e) The teacher should then read with
pauses, and proceed as in the last step.

The class should now be able to give
the third use ; and they might be asked to
supply other sentences to test the extent
and accuracy of their knowledge.

V. Proceed as before.

I. (a) Dictate this sentence unpunctuated,
and then recapitulate the uses of the semi-
colon.

{b) Ask the class to point out the co-
ordinate sentences. This will be best done
by expanding the sentences into their full
form ; e.g. —

The poets make men witty ;

The mathematics make men subtle ;

Natural philosophy makes men deep.

(d) The teacher will then pattern read
the piece, making the proper pauses, and
asking the class to translate them into
"stops" on their slates.

{e) Now point out that since they had to
expand the sentences, there are parts
omitted ; i.e., the sentences are elliptical.

The class should now be able to give the
fourth use.

Recapitulation will be very necessary in
this lesson. Plenty of mixed exercises
should be given so that the class may
recognise the use in each case.

mixed ".

THE TEACHING OF ENGIiISH IiITERATUItE.

I. Its Difficulties. — It is, like history, a mixture of the easy
and the difficult ; the intelligent and the abstruse ; the interesting
and the dull. It demands a pure taste, and careful, thoughtful
reading and reflection. This combination is not an easy one to
produce in pupils during the short period of their school life.

H. The Teacher's Aim. — The primary aim should be to give
the scholars a love for good reading ; an active love, that will mani-
fest itself when school days are over. To do this successfully, the
teacher will require to have read much, so as to bring the beauties
of our national literature within his grasp and appreciation.

ENGLISH.

m. How to Secure this Aim.

303

1. The Selection of the Authors.

(a) Generally /atg authors should be preferred to old ones. The thoughts

and language are better within the grasp of the pupil, and his interest

will be greater.
{b) Poetry should not be introduced too early. Prose is the spoken language,

and the best prose is the best beginning.
{c) Later on the pupil should be introduced to the poets, among whom

Shakespeare should be the chief source of study.

2. Selected Portions of Authors.— The most interesting portions of these
authors should be selected, and well studied.

(a) They should know something of the authors life. This brings interest

and light.

(b) A little contemporaneous history should be introduced to throw side

lights on his life. The class will then the better understand the social,
religious, and political influences under which he wrote.

should be contrasted with the language of the present day, and ex-
plained. The whole, if possible, should be written in prose order, piece
by piece. The more difficult words and phrases should be unfolded.
Some of the derivations should be learned, and the geogfraphical and
historical allusions placed intelligently before the class. And to do
this well a portion of the author should be committed to memory.

THJSl TEACHING- OF COMPOSITION.

Grammar and composition go well together, for they are
necessarily complementary. If grammar is the science of lan-
guage, then composition is the art.

L Its Requirements. — Composition is not easy for children,
but it is very educative. Its demands are great, and are never
fully met by many, either during their school life or afterwards.

1. It includes both oral and zoritten language.

2. It involves a good knowledge of grammar, and a written and oral

atmosphere of correct language. The latter is sometimes enough.

3. It demands a large vocabulary. Much reading gives this.

4. The laws oi punctuation, of the sentence, and o\ \h^ paragraph must be

known.

5. Good composition shows styU. This will include —

la) A knowledge of idioms.
I b) The proper use ol{ figures of speech,
c) Certain mental a ualities, like clearness, strength, etc.
I d) Emotional qualities, like pathos, humour, etc.

TL. Its Teaching^. — The composition itself may be oral or

written.

A. Oral Composition.

1. Subject Matter.— The teacher supplies it or gets it from the children, and
this kind of composition may begin in the earliest classes. It affords plenty of
scope for reference to. and for vac teaching of. the rules of grammar. Fhe
common objects surrounding the children will be useful for the nrst lessons.

2. Teaching. —The teacher takes a common object (a book) and the class is
invited to describe it orally. Its qualities are eniunerated. and then collected
up into ope answer, and giycn by scholars selected by the teacher.

304 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

B. "Written Composition.

1. Subject Matter.— In every case the matter should be supphed by the
teacher, whilst early efforts should be mere exercises in the forms of language.
The matter may be supplied in any of the following forms, but the sequence
here suggested should be observed, as the order is believed to be progressive.

{a) Objective descriptions.
(d) Sentence making.

[c) Transcription.

[d) Dictation.

[e) Memory composition.
(/) Reading a short story.
Q) Transposition.

{k) Paraphrasing.

(i) Original composition.

2. Teaching.

[a) Objective Descriptions. Utilise the work done in oral composition.
In fact, the writing down of the collected oral answers is a necessary
complement to that work.

{i) Sentence Malcing. A word can be given to the class, and they can be
asked to write down sentences embracing the word ; or a subject or
predicate can be given, and the rest of the sentence left to their own
efforts. Then these sentences might be expanded, and so synthetically
a complex or compound sentence may be built up. This is a very
effective method of teaching both grammar and composition.

(c), (d) Transcription and Dictation. Both of these are aids, especially if
any of the beauties or strong points of the passage are pointed out.
But at all times the copying of good models is advisable, for imitation
and memory are both strong in children.

[e) Memory Composition. Choice passages are learnt and written from
memory. It is a better method than (c) or (d), but is too exhausting and
too expensive in time for wide practice. Nevertheless, it stores a little
valuable leaven which operates according to the mental stuff it has to
mix with.

(/) Reading a Short Story. The story is slowly and distinctly read once
or more times, the number of times depending on the class. This
method trains the attention, the memory, and the power to write ; for
the supplying of this class of matter arouses interest, and cultivates the
power of continuous composition.

[g-) Transposing. Here a piece of poetry is stripped of its poetic garb.
Hence the passages chosen should be carefully graduated. Transpos-
ing on a definite plan is a far better exercise than pure transposition,
but the teacher must be satisfied at first if he gets the class to transpose
at all. Later on plenty of variety can be introduced by the choice of
suitable passages, from which the class might do all or any of the
following exercises : —
(i) Pure transposition.

(2) The expansion of all elliptical sentences.

(3) Conversely, the removal of all tautologies or redundances.

(4) Figures of speech might be explained by others more simple, or by simple

English.

(5) Classical words might be exchanged for English words or phrases, and

conversely.

[h) Paraphrasing. The teacher should first give the class a good definition
of paraphrasing, and illustrate it well, so that the work to be done may
be clear to them. The work should be graded, so that the pupils should
begin by paraphrasing —

(i) Single words. Synonyms or explanations could be given,

(2) Short phrases. A good equivalent should be expected.

{^) Sentences. These should qot be too long at first.

ENGLISH. 305

(4) Transbosed pieces. Some of the transposed pieces might now be paraphrased,
and the two compared.

(5) Seur pieces. Unseens might now be given. In their first efforts at this

stage the piece might be briefly explained by the teacher. Subsequently
the scholars should be left to their own resources.

To get good paraphrasing the teacher should introduce a scheme
similar to that introduced in the teaching of transposition, and
should follow the sequence of teaching given above. But the
chief aid will be the cultivation of the general intelligence of the
class. It is a valuable study, and possesses certain advantages
which far outweigh its defects.

1. AdTanta^es.

(i) It demands careful reading.

(2) It develops the power of expression by training the pupil to the best

uses of the language.

(3) It improves the tastes and tN-oadens the views.
{4) It is as good a test of intelligence as can be given.

2. Defects.

(i) The pupil is said to spoil the passage.
(2) It is difficult and discouraging.

These are alleged as objections to it. The first is rubbish— the passages still
exist unspoilt. Teaching will cure the second in most cases.
{3) It l»-eeds verbosity. The author is probably loo terse for the pupil. A
flood of words is the result

(4) Irrelevant matter is introduced, and essential matter is omitted. This

is a defect, but also an opportimity for the teacher.

C. Origrinal Composiium. — As this makes severe mental
demands upon the pupils, it should not be given before the Upper
Standards are reached.

1. Subject Matter.— Here the pupil finds his own. and as a result, those who
read most and observe most should be most successful But the subject
matter must be within the range of child life and child reading, and it should
be drawn from one of two sotuxxs.

{a) CHMerratiOB. Early lessotis might be descriptions of the common
objects arotind them ; of the animal kingdom ; of common events in
their lives.

{6) Beading. Later lessons should make a demand upon tbdr reading and
knowledge of books.

2. TeachiniT*— The teacher should assist at first He should
run through the subject matter, pick out its chief heads, put them
upon the B.B., and then tell the class to write a paragraph upon
each. He should also encourage letter writing, seeing that they
are begun and finished correctly both as to style and taste.

m. The Correction of Composition.

U Chief Pointa.

The address or beading, and conduskm (if a letter).
Spdling erron.

Errors of styk:. Avoid exagBeratkxis, ooooeits, and verbosity. This
will involve « careful cboior nf language.
20

3o6 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

[d) The logical arrangement of the subject matter. The chief heads or
divisions must follow in proper sequence, and each should be relegated
to a separate paragraph. The sentences should be kept short.
{e) The punctuation should be correct, and too many commas should be

avoided.
(/) The handwriting should be legible and neat.
(g) The subject matter should be suitable.

Style and language will be very largely the reflex of the pupil's own personality.
The style should be simple, free from vulgarisms and figurative language.
The phrases should be expressive, but not florid ; whilst any appearance of
" gush " should be promptly checked.

2. How to Correct.

{a) Spelling Errors should be underlined, or lined through, written correctly,
learned, and repeated to the teacher.

(^) Grammatical Errors should be explained on the B.B. As a further
aid the correct form of speech should be written by each child, and
then repeated to the teacher. This brings more associative links into
play, and supplies the necessary repetition for retention.

{c) Errors of Style should be treated in the same way as the grammatical
errors.

{d) Choice of Language. The language should be improved and refined
where necessary. The objectionable and the desirable form of speech
should be placed in parallel columns on the B. B. , and copied into the
note books for future guidance and reference. This will apply equally
to exaggerations, conceits, vulgarisms, slang, etc,

{e) Punctuation. See section on " Punctuation".

3. When to Correct.

{a) Whilst the class is working arithmetic examples,

{b) Or working a test paper,

\c) Or doing memoritory work,

{d) Or doing transcription or another piece of composition — but not during
a reading lesson, as is often the case. In all these cases a junior could
superintend the class, and so set the teacher at liberty.

{e) Two or more classes could be massed, so as to set one or more teachers
at liberty.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I. — Notes of a lesson to a Sixth Standard on Latin prefixes.

2. — Notes of lesson on a complex sentence ; moods of verbs ; prepositions ; the verb ;
first lesson on the adverb ; simple analysis ; adverbial phrases ; the adjective and its uses.

3. — What are the chief points to be attended to in correcting the composition of a
letter of an older class ?

4. — Point out some of the common mistakes of children as regards the use of rela-
tive pronouns, conjunctions, and punctuation.

5. — What general rules of composition would you give to a class which was required
to write out from memory the substance of a short story ?

6. The same word may be either a noun, verb, or adjective in different sentences.
Show from the following sentences how you would obviate this difficulty for children
acquainted with those parts of speech only : —

He cast one look behind. She said, " Look at me ". How do you form your
letters ? That letter has a curious form. He did it without help. Do not
help him. The cold is severe in winter. It has been a cold season. Do not
catch cold.

7. — Make a table showing all the principal parts of a simple sentence, and give a
short sketch of your method of teaching the term " predicate ".

8. — Give briefly, with examples, the rules of concord of the verb with its subject,
when they are connected by disjunctive conjunctions in the order in which they would
naturally arise.

g.— Show that grammar and composition may be taught simultaneously from the
first. Give examples of such simple sentences as may be formed by Third Standard
children to illustrate the position of the verb and adjective in a simple sentence.

ENGLISH.

307

10. — What order should be followed in teaching the parts of speech ? Give your
reasons.

II. — Discuss the influence which the careful preparation of the repetition must have
upon the upper classes of a school.

12. — Name four or five poems or poetical extracts which you think suitable to be
learned by heart by scholars of the Third and of the Sixth Standards respectively, and
give your reasons for choosing them.

13. — Give some examples of what is called "word building" as an exercise in
English, and say what is the use of it.

14. — After a class has reproduced in writing a short story which you have previously
read to them, what is your method of revising the exercises ?

15. — Describe the best exercises you know in English composition, and the best
way of correcting them.

This chapter is continued in the Appendix

3o8

CHAPTER XV.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE.

From the "Code" and the Revised Instructions issued to Her
Majesty's Inspectors, we are able to get a few hints as to the
teaching of this subject. We learn that conversational object
lessons are to be given in the lower Standards, and that more
systematic instruction, with the aid of text books, is to be given
in the higher Standards. In all cases the work is to be done
mainly by experiment, observation, and illustration, and not by
definition and verbal description. The scheme selected by the
teacher must be well graduated, and suitable to the ages of the
children. It should make the scholars acquainted not only with
words, but with the facts and materials of the outer world. It
should also be well illustrated by models, diagrams, and experi-
ments. Furthermore, any scheme, to meet with the approval of
H.M.I., will have to show regard for the teacher's experience and
qualifications, and the possible visits of a skilled demonstrator,
who may be a visiting teacher to several schools.

Advantages of Studying Elementary Science.

1. Health. — The child gets some practical knowledge embodying a few
essential principles for the maintenance of health ; e.g. , physiology and domestic
economy.

2. Trade. — It gives some knowledge of the objects of trade and manufac-
ture ; of articles of import and export.

3. Utility. — Many common objects are explained, brought within the
comprehension of the child, and their uses are demonstrated in a practical
manner.

4. Parents. — The children will develop into better parents for such know-
ledge. The follies and carelessness of some parents would disappear under the
light of a little scientific training and knowledge. Parents are often ignorant of
the laws of life. Their children are made to run all sorts of risks, so that they
may look pretty. Their food is often monotonous, and badly cooked.

5. Citizens. — The exact training and discipline of such lessons will form
habits of close observation, of thought, of application, which will operate on
the boy, mould his habits perhaps, and influence the citizen man.

8. Pleasure. — It widens out their knowledge and their sympathies, and so
increases their total pleasure in life.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. 309

7. Interest.— The lessons are very interesting, and consequently they place
the minds of the children in their best receptive conditions.

8. Rest— Such lessons are a good change from book-work, and they afford
a pleasant rest ; a rest that is not wasteful, which is the best form of rest.

9. Mind. — It gives a perfect embodiment of truth, and it teaches the right
way to arrive at truth. The mind training is great if the subject is properly
taught. Observation, reasoning, and memory are all strengthened and de-
veloped, whilst the constructive elements of some of the lessons appeal to the
inventive powers.

Herbert Spencer writes : " What knowledge is of most worth ?
The uniform reply is— Science. This is the verdict on all the
counts. For direct self-preservation, or the maintenance of life
and health, the all-important knowledge is — Science. For that
indirect self-preservation which we call gaining a livelihood, the
knowledge of greatest value is — Science. For the due discharge
of parental functions the proper guidance is to be found only in —
Science. For that interpretation of national life, past and present,
without which the citizen cannot rightly regulate his conduct, the
indispensable key is — Science. Alike for the most perfect pro-
duction and highest enjoyment of art in all its forms, the needful
preparation is still — Science. And for purposes of discipline —
intellectual, moral, religious — the most efficient study is, once
more — Science."

Practical Teaching^. — It is a recognised principle that ex-
perimental sciences should be taught practically, i.e., the pupils
should not only see the objects, but handle them ; they should not
only see experiments, but, where possible, perform them. Some
subjects, like zoology and chemistry, cannot be properly studied
without personal practical work. But whether it is expedient for
pupils to work practically in all subjects of science is an open
question, according to Bain, who gives the following arguments
for and against. The establishment of technical schools and
organised science schools, with their chemical and physical
laboratories, has placed the matter almost beyond argument. All
teachers are decided, probably, that when facilities exist, there
practical work should always be given.

For—

1. The impressions made on the mind bv the actual obj^ects, as Men and

handled and operated upon, are far beyond the efiiaency of words or
description.

2, Although diagrams have a special value in bringing out links of con-

nection that are disguised in the actual objects, they can never show
tfu things as they appear to our senses ; and this full and precise con-
ception of actuality is the most desirable form of knowledge.

3IO A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

3. It enables the student to exercise a free and independent judgment upon

the dicta of the teacher.

4. It is a good introduction to various scientific avocations — engineers,

electricians, analysts, etc.

Against —

1. It depends on what further use is likely to be made of it.

2. A good knowledge may be obtained from a course that shows all needful

experiments, without the actual participation by the pupils themselves.

3. Fine manipulations and delicate precautions are sometimes necessary.

These are not likely to be observed or possessed by the pupils.

4. Mere manual manipulation cannot be called a part of scientific informa-

tion or discipline, while to acquire it needs time and attention.

5. If training in the higher intellectual operations of the mind is the first

object in view, it involves too great an expenditure of time.

Methods of Teaching in Elementary Science.

I. Observation. — When we watch anything with attention we
are said to observe it. The process implies more than a mere
look, although it often involves little or no conscious effort. But
unless we more than merely see the things, we cannot strictly be
said to observe. We must also see what parts the thing is
composed of. It is the careful notice which the teacher seeks to
cultivate by his teaching. All observation must be precise, and it
must exclude everything not to the point. If possible, the object
should be viewed under as many conditions as possible : the
phenomena observed should be isolated from everything else
whilst the observation is being made. In science, observation
usually precedes experiment. In fact, in some sciences, like as-
tronomy, many physiological phenomena, and in meteorology, the
only means open to us of ascertaining the effect of a given cause
is by observation. Again, if you want to ascertain the cause of a
given effect, you can only do it by observation. " We can take a
cause and try what it will give ; but we cannot take an effect and
try {i.e., experiment) what it will produce " (Mill).

H. Experiment. — Observation and experiment are the two
great methods for education in science, but very often they overlap
to such a degree that it is difficult to tell where the one ends and
the other begins. Every experiment implies something more
than an observation. The knowledge derived from experiment
is more precise than that of observation ; in fact, as much may
be learnt from a few experiments as from years of observation
very often. Hence the teacher should make the fullest possible
use of experiment in his teaching ; it will be his greatest guarantee
that his pupils are learning truths, and not words merely. The

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE.

sequence of teaching is always from the known to the unknown ;
and apart from the interest the teaching may excite, it should
show to the class the nature of the many common things around
them, and furnish the reasons for the existence of such things.
But the teacher must not be too ambitious in his experiments.
He must remember the tender age of his class, and so make his
experiments as simple as possible. If you want to find the effects of
a given cause you must use experiment. In this it is the converse
of observation.

m. niustration. — The work of illustration is to light up, or
make clear, a point or statement in a lesson, and, properly used,
it is very valuable. Many a difficulty can be lightened, explained^
and fixed by suitable illustration. " A good illustration is worth
two arguments — it conveys what is intended and carries convic-
tion." It follows the sequence of teaching by explaining the un-
known by the known. They require to be freely used ; for at
every point of a lesson where new matter presents itself, illustra-
tions, varied in form and nature, may be required. They may be
divided into three classes — oral, pictorial, and material.

1. OraL — These take two well- marked forms — example and
analogy — and they may consist of similes, metaphors, personifica-
tion, proverbs, or anecdotes. In using them the teacher will
sometimes avail himself of —

{a) The Instructive Method, in which the definition is given and followed

by the direct statement ; or
{i) The Educative Method, which is based upon a collection of examples

used as verbal illustrations.

" Children are required to take the examples and illustrations
supplied, and, by way of comparison and contrast, to discover
truth for themselves ; and, through the effort, to get a thorough
training in the processes of thought, which in after life will be
vastly more valuable than whole stores of fragmentary facts and
statements."

A. Bxampla.— Here the general is illtistrated by the purticular. We are
to love one another (general) because God first loved us (particular). Example
is really a form of resemblance. This will be best seen by an example or illus-
tration.

{a) " The earth possesses spherical shape, rotation on axis, and an atmo-
sphere.

{i\ Venus resembles the earth in possessing the former set'of properties.

{() Therefore Venus is inhabited.
There is a simple or mere resemblance of the former set of properties (I'.r , each
has an atmosphere, etc.), and we infer the latter (inhabited).

312 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

B. Analogy. — By analogy we mean an agreement or likeness between
things in some circumstances or effects when the things are otherwise entirely
different ; e.g. , when we say that learning enlightens the mind, we recognise an
analogy between learning and light, the former being to the mind what light is
to the eye, enabling it to discover things before hidden. Analogy is sometimes
confounded with similarity, but improperly. Similarity denotes general resem-
blance ; analogy implies general difference, with identity or sameness in one or
more relations or functions. Thus there is analogy, but no similarity, between
the lungs of animals and the gills of fishes. In geometry, equality, proportion,
or similarity of ratio (2 : 6 : : 3 : 9) is an analogy. In gramtnar, conformity to
the spirit, structure, or general rules of a language, similarity in respect to any
of the characteristics of a language, as derivation, inflection, pronunciation, etc.,
are analogies. // is the illustration of the particular by the particular. ' ' Two
things resemble each other in one or more respects ; a certain proposition is
true of one of them ; therefore it is true of the other."

2. Pictorial. — The love of pictures is almost universal, hence
a pictorial illustration appeals to a child at once. But they must
never be introduced till the need of them is felt, because from the
interest they excite they are likely to become ends and not means.
Remember they are only means to an end, and they must not be
so used as to smother the point they are meant to illustrate. A
verbal description should accompany their use. This adds to their
value. But the best pictorial illustrations are hand drawn by the
teacher. The children see the drawing grow under the teacher's
hand, who sketches it any size he likes within the limit of the B.B.
The children are more ready to imitate a sketch than a printed
picture, because they have seen it to be possible in the teacher,
and because, all unnecessary parts being omitted, the task is
easier. Any part of the drawing can be taken out, enlarged, and
specially dealt with ; whilst the use of coloured chalks lends clear-
ness and brightness to the whole thing.

3. Material. — This class includes such material objects as
apparatus, models, specimens, etc. Information conveyed ver-
bally needs much repetition, or it is soon forgotten ; but only
present the object, and its mental image remains and carries the
teaching with it. The children see and handle the objects; faith
is lost in sight, and the spirit of verification thus formed will be
very valuable.

Tests of their Value. — These will be gathered from what has
already been said.

1. True. — They must be true and real. When oral, the illustrating state-
ment must be true, or it should be stated to be otherwise.

2. Subordinate. — They must not override the truth or fact itself.

3. Appropriate. — Whether you use example or analogy, a picture or an
object, see that the cases are properly related to each other.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. 313

4. Familiar.— So far as possible, they should deal with the facts and
incidents of child life ; otherwise, it will be a case of the blind leading the
blind.

3. Distinct — They must be clear and graphic. The essential points must
be placed distinctly before the class by the illustration.

6. Time.— They should not be used till needed.

7. Variety.- They should be varied. But the ability to give varied illustra-
tions on the many subjects in a school curriculum demands a well-read and
a well-stored mind.

IV. Classification. — Elementary science aemands a knowledge
of the simple principles of classification ; and classification has
been defined as the arrangement of things, or our notion of them
according to their resemblances or identities.

It is one of the most constant occupations of the mind.
Things are good or bad, old or new, nice or nasty, etc., to us
from our earliest memories. The teacher's aim then is to utilise
this habit, and direct it into the channel of intellectual work.
" The object of a classification is the best possible ordering of our
ideas in reference to things ; or to make us think of those objects
together which have the greatest number of important common
properties. Its general problem is to provide that the things be
thought of in such groups, and these groups in such an order, as
will best conduce to the ascertainment and remembrance of their
laws" (Mill). By it we seek to reduce multiplicity to unity; and
thus, when we know an object belongs to a certain class, we can
infer of all the other members of that class the properties which
we know to belong to this particular object.

It will thus be seen that classification is a great economical
force, reducing the labour of memory, and bringing a mass of
knowledge within our grasp by rendering it easier of acquirement.
It naturally follows on abstraction, for we cannot form a class
until we have abstracted the common qualities of that class. The
process of classifying is as follows : —

1. Look for a /ypg ; i.e., ascertain what classes of objects possess a general

resemblance to each other.

2. Then determine what characters these rctembiing objects have in

common.

3. Then constitute your class by means of some of these resembtancea.

Take as an example the sub-kingdom of flowering plants. They
possess a general resemblance (flowering), and so give us our
type. We find on examination that these resembling objects have
certain characters in common ; eg. : —

314

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

Dicotyledons.

1. Embryo with two cotyledons.

2. Primary root growth exorhizal.

3. Growth of wood with open bundles,
exogenous.

4. Leaves net veined.

5. Parts of a flower arranged, as a rule,
in fours or fives.

Monocotyledons.

1. Embryo with one cotyledon.

2. Primary root growth endorhizal.

3. Growth of wood with closed bundles,
endogenous.

4. Leaves parallel veined.

5. Parts of flowers arranged in threes.

Out of these resembling characters we constitute our class
dicotyledon or monocotyledon.

Classification will apply to most branches of a teacher's work,
but zoology and botany furnish the best examples ; e.g., plants
may be arranged according to the country from which they come ;
according to locality, length of life, size, properties, etc. In botany
classes may be formed according to the number of stamens and
pistils, or according to the differences in the seed vessels. " The
progress of chemistry is rapidly rendering it a science of classifica-
tion. An artificial classification of the chemical elements is
necessary for the detection of substances. Hence arrangements
of the elements according to characters of very minor importance
are made, because they can be made with ease and accuracy."

V. Reasoning. — Reasoning is the mental process by which we
detect similarities. A bad reasoner cannot see where similarity
ends and difference begins, and the cultivation of the reason aims
to give this power. Reasoning is progressive. Animals reason ;
and the first efforts at reasoning by a child start from no higher
level probably. Eventually the mind is able to grasp distinctly
a general truth, and to draw conclusions from it. According to
George Eliot, too much reasoning may be done. " Reason about
everything with your child, and you make him a monster, with-
out reverence, without affections." Reasoning is required by
nearly all subjects in the school curriculum ; but it is specially
cultivated by such subjects as history, problems, grammar, and
the physical sciences. There are two methods of reasoning.

1. Inductive Reasoning. — Here a number of facts or principles are examined
and compared, and through them a general truth is reached. A child reasons
thus :—

He knows men die.

He observes some women die.

Some boys die.

Some girls die.

Some babies die.

And so he concludes that
all mortals die, which is a
general truth.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. 315

Some inductions are spontaneous ; e.g. , ' ' The burnt child dreads the fire ".
Inductions have to be regulated, for by their aid a child gains a large amount
of general knowledge (i) About the properties of things ; (2) About the causes
of changes in things ; (3) About the simpler truths of space, quantity, and
number. The process of regulating knowledge may be seen as follows :—
The child knows its father smokes.
The men who visit its father may smoke.
It sees men in the street smoke.
Hence it concludes that " all men smoke".

By-and-by it notices men who do not smoke. The induction is then regu-
lated to " Some (not all) men smoke".

Furthermore, the child gets its first idea of cause from inductive reasoning.
He finds that fire burns, water wets, food satisfies hunger, etc., and so concludes
that everything has a cause.

2. Deductive Reasoning. — By inductive reasoning a child picks up a mass
of information, and gets some knowledge of the laws of induction. He then
proceeds to argue as io the effects of these laxvs in other cases, and then app>eals
to experience to verify or condemn his conclusions. Now there are three steps
in this process of deductive reasoning.

(a) There is the general truth which is obtained by inductive reasoning

ijrnduction).
U)\ There is the arguing as to their effects in other cases [deduction).
\c) There is the process of verification by experience.

e.g.. All mammals suckle their young {induction).
The whale suckles its young.
. •. The whale is a mammal {deduction).
And experience corroborates this.

The essential process, as in induction, is detecting similarity
or assimilation. We bring a particular case (the whale) under
the general rule or principle (suckling), and we do this because we
recognise similarity between the particular case and the cases
included under the general rule.

Deductive reasoning is the great feature of scientific knowledge.
The more deductive a science becomes, the more perfect it
becomes, as in the case of mathematics. Most of the great
scientific discoveries are the result of deductive reasoning. The
composition of light, the barometer, the thermometer, gravitation,
the undulatory theory of sound, and the conservation of energy,
are some of these discoveries. The teacher will have plenty of
opportunity for using deductive reasoning in the teaching of
elementary science ; for such simple facts as the cracking of a
glass by hot water, fanning when hot, etc., could be explained
by this method.

3i6

CHAPTER XVI.

MUSIC.

ITS VAIiUX: IN SCHOOLS.

1. Pleasure. — The primary objects of school music should be
for pastime and pleasure. It is perhaps the most exceptional as
well as the cheapest of human pleasures. It is undoubtedly a
substantive contribution to the enjoyment of life. " Of all the
fine arts, the most available, universal, and influential is music "
(Bain).

2. Physical Advantages. — It opens the lungs and aids cir-
culation. It is stimulating in drill and marching.

3. Discipline. — The consensus of will, when all unite in some
beautiful song, is of great value to discipline. The scholar be-
comes a unit in a body more or less large, where he has to submit
entirely to the rule and guidance of the conductor.

4. Ethical Advantages. — Some forms of music educe the
moral virtues and the nobler characteristics of the mind. A
musical strain exerts, ofttimes, an immense power over the mind
to animate, to encourage, to soothe, and to control. Some,
however, deny that it has any permanent moral influence. There
are, moreover, certain quasi-spiritual relations in singing which
we do not yet understand fully.

5. Patriotism. — "One of the chief means of diffusing through
the people natural sentiments, is afforded by school songs, which
embody and express the hopes of industry, and the comforts and
contentment of household life ; and, preserving for the peasant the
traditions of his country's triumphs, inspire in him confidence in
her greatness and strength. The national legend, frequently
embodied in songs, is the peasants' chief source of that national
feeling which other ranks derive from a more extensive acquaint-
ance with history. The songs of any people may be regarded as

MUSIC.

317

important means of forming an industrious, brave, loyal, and
religious working class."

ITS AIM. — The aims of school music are largely suggested by
its value, and the items of value have just been enumerated.
But more particularly its aims may be briefly enumerated as
follows : —

1. To teach to sing by ear and note. To train the ear and voice so as to

give power to appreciate and perform music.

2. To enable a pupil to leave school capable of reading and understanding

popular music, both sacred and secular.

3. To train in sacred music for public worship.

4. Music is an innocent recreation. An early taste for music may exert a

beneficial influence upon the choice and character of the amusements
of the people.

5. To cultivate patriotism, industry, loyalty, and religion,

C L A SSI F ICATTON'. — This will vary in different schools, and
must depend on —

1. The size of the school.

2. The arrangement of the rooms.

3. The number of the qualified teachers upon the staff.

4. The length of the school life.

For ordinary schools four divisions are suggested ; but for
smaller schools fewer divisions will be necessary, and the work
must be graded to suit. This grading will be a fluctuating
quantity, and will largely depend upon the organising ability of
the teacher.

Division I. for Infants.

„ II. ,, Standards I. and II.

III. „ „ III. and IV.

„ IV. „ „ V. and upwards.

In smaller schools with fewer divisions less should be attempted
than in larger schools. The range of instruction must be re-
stricted, or more work is thrown upon teachers and scholars just
where circumstances are least favourable for any increase of
burdens.

The Two Notations Compared.

Tooic Sol-Fab.

1. " It combines scientific accuracy with
modes of expression the most direct and
simple."

2. It is quicker and easier, and therefore
more suited to children.

3. It is the notation generally aaed in
our primary schools.

Old Notation.

1. It is scientific, fcrophic. and tinivenal,
whilst tonic sol-fah is local.

2. It is suited to instrumental music
Tonic sol-fah is not used, except in rare
cases, for this purpose.

3. It is the recognised music language
of the civilised world.

3i8 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

THE TWO NOTATIONS COMPARED— coM^mwed.

Tonic Sol-Fah.

4. Its time names and its system of
spacing by continuation lines make the
teaching of time easier and more thorough.

5. Modulator advantages : —

(a) Difficulties can be presented singly.

(b) Attention can be paid to particular
difficulties.

Old Notation.

4. It is the medium of expression used
by the world's greatest masters, and their
works are written and preserved in it.

5. " It can claim all the modulator ad-
vantages of the other notation, and some-
thing more ; for having once conquered the
modulator, the end is attained ; whilst the

(c) Attention of a whole class can be | tonic sol-fah disciple has to attack the old
obtained. j notation without a modulator to assist him."

(d) Mental effects can be illustrated. j 6. In old notation the staff is really the

6. It is a splendid aid to the old notation, ^ modulator, and on it are pictorially repre-
and a stepping stone j sented musical intervals, whilst in tonic

7. The perpendicular modulator is an ! sol-fah the modulator is at right angles to
advantage, because it pictorially represents the notation.

the higher and lower notes of the scale. 7. Most students who continue their

musical studies ultimately revert to it.

VOICE TRAININa.

1. Tone. — The teacher should aim to get a soft, clear, round,

sweet, and yet full quality of tone.

The voices should blend. Generally, individual voices should not be dis-
tinguishable at a short distance. For this purpose it is best to cultivate a
medium strength of tone, or the singing w^ill inevitably be flat. With moder-
ately soft singing it is also often fiat, hence the range and key should be suit-
able. The range should be small at first, and should be gradually extended.
Each note should be brightly and clearly attacked, and there should be no
sliding or slurring allov^^ed. Cultivate downwards. It is urged by eminent
authorities that " in this way the sweetness of soft high notes can be best imparted
to the whole voice; whereas, if the upward moving exercises are always used,
the tendency is to use the thicker and heavier tone on the high notes ". Hence
the teacher will train in scale exercises from doh' to doh, and not conversely, as
a rule.

2. Breath. — The breath should be thrown well forward upon

the front palate, and immediately behind the roots of the upper

teeth.

Breathing exercises without singing are very essential, as either too little
or too much impairs the quality of the singing. There should be exercises in
inspiration, expiration, and retention or holding of the breath. This should be
done at the teacher's dictation. The pupils should keep their mouths shut in
these exercises. Odd minutes may be used in this way, and when standing the
class should be trained to take a series of breaths without moving the shoulders.
The inspiration should be deep ; the expiration slow and gradual. Pupils
should never breathe in the middle of a word, or between words closely con-
nected in sense, or anywhere where it is likely to spoil the continuity of the
words, or the flow of music.

3. Articulation. — The articulation should be clear and distinct.

Bad articulation is one of the greatest faults of singers, especially amateurs.
It is often impossible to recognise many of the words sung, and others are only
recognised by the aid of the context. The sense of the words must be properly
rendered by distinct articulation and proper expression. The reading lessons

MUSIC. 319

can be turned to account here, for a satisfactory spoken articulation is a good
stepping stone to a musical one. The shape of the mouth, and the proper
rendering of the vowels, will be the chief points requiring attention. Certain
vowels, like a (father), a (fate), oa (woad), and 00 are " forward" vowels, and
should be sung well forward in the mouth; e is difficult, and requires a clear
parting of the lips.

4. Practice. — Voice exercises should be given.

The practices should not be too long. Little and often is best. For
musical purposes children's voices soon tire. The aim of the practices will be
to produce a good quality and to maintain it. For this purpose it will be again
necessary to remind the teacher that the exercises should be carefully chosen as
to range and key, and graded to suit the varying vocal endowments of the
children.

5. Posture. — The attitude of the children must receive close

and constant attention. There can be no good production if

associated with unnatural or unsuitable methods.

The children should stand to sing; upright, with heads erect, shoulders
well back, and the chest well forward. These positions must be easy and
natural. It is a good practice to go through a little chest drill before beginning
the singing. Practices like some of those used in dumb-bell exercises are best ;
these get the shoulders back and expand the chest. They must be taken
moderately, or the breath will be impaired in some cases.

THE COMMON SCAZiK

I. The Starting Point. — Explain the meaning of scale, and

illustrate from both notations. Then choose any tone. This is

the starting point ; the key tone or tonic. Call it doh.

Make the class understand that of themselves different notes possess no
peculiar property or tone character — nothing more than variation in pitch. But
thoroughly impress a given sound on the ear, and all others will bear a proper
relation to, and will circle round it. The note to be impressed is the tonic.
The other notes of the scale then take up certain definite relations to it. This
will be illustrated by the mental effects of the notes of the scale.

XL Mental Si£Pects. — These must be gradually felt by the
class. Contrast and plenty of repetition will be the aids to apply.

1. Teach the fifth (sok). The class notes its efTect, but the teacher need not

yet name it. Practise in various kevs.

2. Teach the third («/). Proceed as with the fifth.

3. Then combine exercises on the fonir, the /if/h and the /Aird in

different keys; 1.^., practise the class in the (wn chord (d-m-s).

The notes ha.Tnonise. There is tonic sympathy, and the chord gives

conclusive satisfaction.

4. The tonic should then Ije taken with the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh

notes of the scale. The class now feels the effects of tonic contrast
The notes do not harmonise, but dissonatc. Each interval creates a
want.

5. The class should now be ready to contrast and name the mental effects

of the soUe. Each in its turn should be contrasted with the tonic and
with the others. The teacher will then be able gradimlly to fill in the
effects against each note as he writes it on the B. B. , thus :—
DOH^ — Strong or firm tone (octave).
TE — Piercmg or sensitive tone.

320 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

LAH — Sad or weeping tone.

SOH— Grand or bright tone.

FAH — Desolate or awe-inspiring tone.
ME — Steady or calm tone.

RAY — Rousing or hopeful tone.

DOH — Strong or firm tone.
The children do not grasp these differences at once. Plenty of repetition
and illustration will be required. Subsequently the teacher will show
that all these effects are modified by pitch, harmony, quality of tone,
and rate of movement. These differences or modifications must be
practically demonstrated, and then the attention of the class must be
fixed by the application of contrast.

TTTR MODUIiATOR.

The modulator should not be used until the major scale is
impressed on the ear. This scale and its mental effects will be
taught by ear. Every lesson then contains some modulator
practice. The teacher should point the modulator, and the class
should sing without pattern after the initial lessons. The pupils
should be taught to sustain each note as long as the pointer is
kept upon it. The wall charts and sheets should be used for
exercises. The key tone should always be pitched well within
the range of the class voices, and the melody should be sung in
tune. The intervals should be carefully graded according to the
requirements of each division. There should be no random
pointing by the teacher. The class should sometimes sing in
sections, and the teacher will then be able to discover where the
weakness and strength of his class respectively lie. Sol-fah-ing
should always be followed by laa-ing, and in later lessons the
pupils should sing to lah always, only falling back on the sol-fah
names for corrections. Transitions should be carefully intro-
duced, the removes appearing in their proper order.

Early Iiessons in Tune.

1. Explain pitch and key tone.

2. Pattern Singing and Class Imitation. The teacher gives some pattern

singing ; the class listens, and then repeats the tones sung by the
teacher. The teacher should not sing wii/i the pupils, but proceed as
follows : —

(a) The teacher sings a tone to lah. The class imitates. The teacher tells
them that is their key tone.

(b) The teacher sings this tone and the fifth {soh). The class imitates.

3. Key Cliange and Self-Effort. The teacher gives anoiker key tone. The

class sings it and tries to give the sok. The teacher practises this
interval by frequently changing the key. The dominant range (s to 8^)
must be systematically studied, because the mental effects of the scale
tones are somewhat modified by the prominence given to the fifth of
the key. The class must not be practised too exclusively in low keys,
because, then, children often fail when asked to sing in a higher key.

MUSIC.

321

4. Introduce the Mediant. The teacher sings tm. Then there is pattern

singing, imitation, self-effort, and practice in various keys; e.g., d, m,
s, m, s, d, s, m, s, d.

5. Introduce the Octave. The exercises can now be increased in variety.

6. Manual Signs. These should be used. They introduce variety, help

the mental effects by association, often save time, and demand close
attention. In Division II. no leaps should be made to or from the
second, fourth, sixth and seventh notes; z.e., tonic contrasts should be
avoided. In Division III. any intervals may be given, hence the
teacher should become proficient in the ready product'on of manual
signs.

HOTV TO ARRANaS A SCHOOZi MUSIC CIjASS.

For systematic instruction in singing, Mr. John Evans makes
some very practical suggestions. He recommends that you
should sort your pupils, to make it possible for all to learn
r'uickly and pleasantly ; i.e., you should arrange your pupils
according to their natural musical ability. He further recom-
mends that you should place the most promising at the back of
the class, and the least promising m front near the teacher, and
he points out certain advantages for this arrangement.

1. The teacher gets the result he wants with less friction and labour.

2. It give^ the teacher the opportunit} of rewarding those that make most

progress by giving them a place wiii the selected voices.

3. Pure intonation, which is the chief thn.g to be worked for, will be ob-

tained more quickly and easily.

4. It affords great help in voice training, as the best voices serve as model.''

for the others, and give the tone required, esp)ecially in c!rsses where
the teachers cannot pattern the tone they want.

5. It materially helps to cure Jlat singing, for the flat singers are placed in

front, where the other singers hear less of them.
How to Find the most Promising Voices.

1. Vox Standards I. and II. the teacher stands in front of the class and

calls on ten or twelve to listen to him whilst he sings the following
phrase: —

Key G. m, d, s, 1, s.

2. The children imitate, and the sweeter and purer voices are easily detected

and placed.

3. Then try the whole class in the same way.

4. In Standard III., instead of testing by imitation, a suitable exercise

should be written on the B. B. ; or the teacher may dictate a phrase.

5. The altos should be tested by themselves.

SAR TRAININa.

No branch of school music is so difficult to teach as this, for
the subject is inherently difficult. But any lack of endowment on
the part of the pupils can be more or less successfully met by
carefully 'graded teaching; and some useful suggestions for this
purpose were set forth in one of the early numbers of the School
Music Review, the chief points of which are embodied in the
following hints : —

322 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

I. Requirements for Success.

1. Capacity. — The teacher must be capable. He must have a cultivated ear
himself, and, unless he has an instrument, he must be able to smg in tune. His
enunciation rnust also be good, his vowel pronunciation being correct.

2. Time. — Some part of each lesson must be set aside for training the ear.
About one-fifth is generally recommended.

3. Gradation. — The exercises must be carefully prepared and graded.
i. Variety. — The exercises should also be varied.

5. Suitability. — They must be adapted to the ability of the class.

6. Classification. — The pupils should be classified, because ability varies,
and the classification should be carried on to the limits of the staff. A good
classification acts as a powerful stimulus.

n. Its Stages. — There are practically three stages.

A. Imitation.

1. If possible, a musical instrument should be used, at least as a change.

The voice may be used later if the teacher is thoroughly capable, but
he should begin with the instrument for the following reasons : —

(fl) It is safer.

(6) It is easier.

(d) It prevents the class getting too used to one voice.

(e) It removes the vowel difficulty.

2. The imitation proceeds as follows : —

The teacher sings a few notes. The class imitates.

The teacher /aas the same notes. The class again imitates.

The teacher then graduates his exercises somewhat as follows, and this
introduces the second stage — discrimination.

B. Discrimination.

1. The pupils tell —

{a} Any arrangement of a three-tone key chord, as U, S, PI, or C, G, E,
(6) The same, without the first note bemg told.

first note being told.

(d) The same, without any note being told.

(e) Alternatives. The teacher sings.

s, t, d' i s, 1, s

G, B, CI I G, A, G

And then asks which he sings; i.e., the class discriminates.
(/) Any three tones commencmg on some tone of the key or doh chord.

2. There must be plenty of practice to /aa.

Do not begm too soon. Wait till the pupils can command a fair amount of
ability in sight singing, whilst using the sol fah syllabus. Otherwise there
is guessing, or a following of a few leaders Again, do not trust too much
to the value of collective laa-ing. for the weak are too much at the mercy
of the strong. Individual work must supplement.

C. Dictation. —The three stages, imitation, discrimination, and dictation,
will now proceed together, affording mutual assistance. Collective laaing
exercises will still be necessary, but they must be well graded, and not too
abundant as they are fatiguing. Manual si,^ns should be used in all the stages,
lor in addition to introducing variety, they fix the attention and strengthen the
power of concentration ; they have been already shown to have a valuable con-
nection with the mental effects, and they act as a fine substitute for the modulator,
and so train for sight singing at the same time. P'urthermore, they are an aid
to discipline, as they allow the teacher to exercise greater vigilance over the
class, and they make the work more thorough by enabling the teacher to detect
the lazy, timid, and indifferent.

MUSIC.

323

m. Teaching.

1. Give laa-ing Exercises. — Some such scheme as the following is sug-
gested : —

{a) The teacher sol-fahs easy phrases, and the class repeats, singing to lah,
(d) The teacher dictates short easy phrases, and the class sings them (i) to
sol-fah syllables, {2) to lah.

repeating one tone or omitting as diiected.
{</) The class sings one stated tone ot the scale to /ah. The teacher sol-fahs

other tones, and the class tries to rep>eat the first stated tone.
{e) The class sings a phrase. The teacher sol-fahs another phrase, and the

class tries to repeat the first phrase.
(/) The teacher writes a timeless exercise on the B. B. , pxjints to it very

slowly, making a pause of a second or two between each two tones ;

and the class has to think of the next tone before it is pointed to — a

very valuable collective exercise.
(g) The class sings to /ah a very short easy phrase, and it then makes varied

additions to the phrase as dictated by the teacher,

2. Give easy Ear Exercises. — In giving these, and in testing, observe the
following rules : —

[a) Sing each ear test twice before proceeding to the next.

(d) Change the key, so that no two consecutive tests are in the same key.
(c) Sing the doA chord to /aA slowly before each test ; and again in the same

key before the second test.

3. Mental Effects of Scale Tones. —When a fair power of observation is
gained, the peculiar effect tones of the scale have upon one another can be used.
The mental effect of a tone is roughly the sum of its relations to all the other
tones of the scale. Verbal explanahon is not much good ; mottat effects must
be felt, not understood. They must be repeatedly and pointedly demonstrated,
and then the sol-fah syllable truly t)ecomes the name of a tone, the name of a
sensation. Close attention is necessary. To get this let the whole class sing
the chord, and then let one of the class sing the tone.

4. Graduation. — Give a graduated course of moderate difficulty. The
teacher will write something like the following on the B.B., and the class will
have to discover what tones are sung at the blanks. Fewer tones should be
given as the class progresses.

■

6. Accumnlatin^ BxerolsM.— These cultivate a keen observation and a good
memory for tune.

I a) The teacher sings a short and perfectly easy phrase; <■./., d, r, m.
I b) The class answt-rs correctly.

c) The teachei sings the same phrase and adds two notes,
I d) The class again answers correctly.
e) The teacher then adds two more notes, never adding until the previous

phrase is correctly recognised,
e. Written Exercises.— These are very valuable exercises. Slates or
paper can be used, but paper is best for obvious reasons. The teacher writes

324

A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

down a number of tones to be used in each line, numbers, and properly spaces
them. (He should explain the whole plan of the exercise.) If the test
occupies, say, four lines, like a a hymn tune, two or three notes should be given
in each line.

First Line

d
C

fah
F

Second Line ... -

r
D

d
C

r
D

Third Line

1
A

s
G

m
E

Fourth Line . , - .

s
G

m
E

r
D

d
C

TIME AND TUNE! COMBINED.

Exercises combining time and tune are now required in the
higher divisions, but it is not wise to wait till those divisions are
reached before any attempt is made to combine the two in teach-
ing. Children must be taught to read at sight, if their knowledge
is to become power. The work must be graded and well arranged,
so that the difficulties may be gradually approached.

1. Grade your Exercises. — The School Music Review recommends : —
[a) Choose those containing easy intervals. Exercises with repeated notes
are generally easy, because they allow the attention to be largely
directed to the time.
[h) Intervals in the key chord or doh chord are easy.

\c) Passages that creep from note to note, as it were, are easy when com-
pared with passages containing free leaps.
{d) Short contmuations are generally difficult. The rhythm may be difficult

quite apart from the intervals.
{e) Rests, preceded by a continuation, often give trouble.

The following are given as illustrative examples: —
Key F.

(a)

(6) I

Id : d.d 1 d

KeyG.

• 1 d : s ! n

;n s

•
: S| d.Si

If :n.r Id
KeyG.

: —

• { t, : f 1 r

: f, r.l

'lU, :s Id

: —

s .s s : —

n.d I s

f.r II

s.d :n.Si { d.n : S|.s

l.r :f.l,|r.f :1,

MUSIC. 323

KeyC.

^'^ lid :r ln.f: |l :s |s.f:n In f.s I l.s . d' }
lit :l.t|d :-

KeyG.

^^^ {Id :-.dir :-.r In : - .d | d :s
KeyF.

W (In :-|f :r |r :- I-: |s :-|-:f }

(In :-

I - : I r : - I d : -

It will be observed that two exercises are given under ^. These show that it
is not always the mere width of a leap that determines the difficulty ; the par-
ticular members of the scale employed must be considered. The first passage
is quite easy, whilst the second, although usmg much the same interval move-
ment, is very much more difficult.

2. Preparatory Exercises.

(a) Choose your exercise carefully.

(d) Time it to the /ime names.

{c) Time it to /ah.

{d) Sing it to the sol-fah names.

\e) Sing it to lah.

(/) Sing it, with time and tune combined, to the sol-fah names.

(g) Sing it, with time and tune combined, to lah.

(A) If there are any words, sing to the vwrds.

\i) Finally, sing with due regard for the expression marks.

8. Si^t Exercises.— Here the piece should be laa-edio time and tune at
once, and then sung to the words with due expression.

4. Pinal Stage.— The piece should be taken straight off, with proper
attention to the conductor. ITiis is a difficult accomplishment, involving a
rapidly shifting attention, and marking a high state of perfection. It is the
final goal of all school musical effort, and must not be sought too hurriedly.
Every previous step will require complete mastery before any efforts of this
nature are attempted.

TIME.

Bow to €KTe the Idea of Time. — Appeal to the common
experience of the children. They walk or run the same distance
in unequal times; one cart goes faster than another; one train
slower than another; and so lead the children to see that one
sound follows another sometimes at regular intervals, sometimes
at irregular intervals. Demonstrate this before the class. It will
be observed that sometimes the sounds are quick; sometimes
slow. Show this on some musical instrument, on some common

32& A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

object, or by the voice. If the sounds follow each other in an
orderly succession the effect is called time.

To Teach Accent. — Teach by talking and singing.

1. Talking. — The value of accent can easily be made apparent by ordinary
speech. Repeat some verbal phrase in a monotone Then repeat the same
phrase in ordinary conversational style. The difference will be obvious to the
children. That difference is made by accent. Illustrate further by single
words. The accented syllable should be slightly exaggerated. Verbal illus-
trations should be given and asked for, and from these it will be noticed that in
every word there is at least 07ie strong accent ; e.g. . —

beau'-ti-ful equals strong, weak, medium.
di-ges'-tion , , weak, strong, weak.
good'-ness ,, strong, weak.

2. Singing. — Now sing a simple phrase in a monotone, making the notes of
equal length and strength. Then repeat the phrase again with its proper
accents. The difference will again be obvious, and it is again caused by accent.
Now ask the class to say what accent is. They will tell you that some words
are louder than others, or that one is more abrupt than the other. Illustra-
tions should then be given from the tonic sol-fah or old notation — whichever
may be taught in the school.

The Time Chart. — The teacher is not advised to introduce
the chart en masse to the pupils. He will find it better td print
that portion which he wishes to use upon the B.B. The whole
chart is distracting to the attention of the ordinary scholar, and
apt to intimidate the dull and weak. The lessons should be in-
troduced as required, and little passages written on the B.B. to
illustrate them. The lessons should fall at least into six classes,
some of which will be introduced to the higher divisions only.
The classes should be arranged as follows : —
Class I. Wholes and halves.
„ 2. Quarters.
„ 3. Thirds.

Flan of a I«esson on Time.

1. Commence with two-pulse measures. The class will listen to the

teacher, who will taa a simple passage.

2. The class then imitates, the teacher beating time.

3. The class should then be divided into two divisions, and each division

should taa alternate measures, still keeping the swing of the time.

4. The exercise should then be practised at varying rates of time.

5. The accent should be marked in each measure.

6. The exercise should then be laa-ed. This exercise is not important in

simple measures, but it is more important when there is a variety of
time names introduced.

7. Continuation lines and half-pulses might then be introduced, and

exercises given upon them.

8. The quarter-pulse should not be introduced for some time, in fact not

until the children reach a higher music class in large schools.

9. The other measures should be gradually introduced, but no harder time

divisions than quarter-pulses should at present be included.
10. Harder time divisions (thirds, etc.) should be relegated to later lessons
and more advanced classes.

Class 4. Sixths.
„ 5. Eighths.
,, 6. Ninths.

MUSIC. 327

Things to Remember in Teaching Time.

1. With the help of the time chart, time should be studied separately from
tune — at first.

2. The teacher has to set up an association between syllable and rhythm.

3. The teacher should pattern and point on the time chart.

4. The pupils should imitate.

5. Then pupils and teacher should taa-tai alternately^ measure for measure

at first, and lon^^er passages afterwards. This gives " swing".

6. The rate should be varied.

7. The class should sing 7vithout the teacher pointing.

8. Exercises should then be written on the B. B., or sung from books.

9. Finally, the passages should be laa-ed.

Rhythm. — To teach this suitable examples should be given, in which the
rhythm may be made obvious. Each time e.\ercise should be taa-tai-ed on
various tune forms. The method suggested is : —

1. The teacher prepares some suitable time exercises, and sol-fahs or sings

one of them.

2. The teacher now points the same exercise on the modulator, but taa-tais.

3. The pupils imitate. The object is to show the sameness of the rhythm

and the difference in the tune. The time names show the sameness of
the rhythm, and the modulator the difference in the time.

4. The pupils should then sing the same exercises from their books, or

charts, or from the B. B.

SONGS.

A. Choice of School Songs. — School songs should be chosen
with some care, and with proper consideration for the nature of
the music and the words.

I. Suitable Songs. — These will embrace : —

1. Those which express natural sentiments.

2. Those which express the hopes of industry.

3. Songs dealing with the comfort and contentment of household life.

4. Patriotic songs— such as preserve the traditions of the country's

triumphs, and inspire the pupils with confidence in its greatness and
strength. These will include some war songs, and the national songs ;
but the teacher must guard against anything like the glorification of
war.

5. Songs embodying the national legends.

6. Songs dealing with chivalry, braverv, and loyalty.

7. Humorous songs. The humour should be wholesome and intelligible.

These songs are very popular with the children.

8. Songs dealing with our national games.

9. Simple descriptive songs, like those dealing with the seasons.

XL QuAliiies of a Oood School Song.

1. The iinging vcwisx be sweet and in tunc.

3. The compass of the song should be suitable.

3. The vnrds should be such as the children can understand.

4. The articulation must be clear, and the enunciation easily intelligible.

5. The time must be exact.

6. There must be suitable expression.

7. The Quality of the tone should be pleasing.

8. The breath must be properly managed.

9. Thcpoiition of the singet must lie healthy and suitable.

10. The phrasing must be good

328 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

B. How to Teach a School Song.
I. For Voung Classes.

1. The words must first be learnt. One verse will be sufficient to begin

with.

2. The tune or melody should then be learnt by imitation, phrase by phrase.

An instrument should be used for this purpose where one is available.
Otherwise, the teacher must vocalise the song.

3. The rest of the words should then be taught.

4. Plenty of practice, pattern work, and correction should follow.

H. For Higher Classes.

1. Preparation.— Dictate the melody, or write it on the B.B., or distribute

books containing it. Neither is yet to be used.

2. Modulator.— Point the melody on the modulator. The class should

sol-fah it, and afterwards laa it.

3. Time. — The class should then time the melody to the time names from the

B. B. or otherwise, and then laa it in proper time.

4. Melody. — They should next sing the melody from their books or from the

B. B. as the case may be. The melody should be thus repeated until
it is known from memory.
8. Memory. — Then let the class point the tune from memory, on a modulator
written on their slates.

6. Ear. — Give ear tests from and based upon the melody.

7. Words. — Have the words dictated, learnt, and explained where necessary.

8. Song. — The melody should then be sung to the words, the teacher striv-
ing to obtain the qualities enumerated above.

Fart Singning. — This need not be confined to any one division.

1. Its Advantages.

(a) It awakens a strong interest in singing.

\b) It introduces variety.

\c) It cultivates the sense of musical harmony, and so increases the feeling

of pleasure derived from vocal music.
{d) It cultivates the taste for a pure and cheap form of amusement.
((f) It is an important aid to ear and voice training.

2. Its Teaching.

(<z) At first let the music be simple and easy. Do not be too anxious to
murder ambitious pieces. This applies to time and tune.

{b) Choose a major key, and at first have no chromatics or accidentals.

{c\ Commence with rounds. This trains their " holding ' powers.

\d) Then proceed to simple part singing. Before this can be done examine
the children's voices, and arrange the class so as to have the worst
voices in front, thus : —

Best trebles i Best altos

Inferior trebles i Inferior altos

Give the trebles and altos some separate training exercises, so as to get

even production from both parts.
(^) Let the whole class sing the alto (or second treble) before the first treble

is touched at all. This is to be continued until the alto part is well

rendered.

MUSIC.

32g

(/) Where possible, then h^ve the piece played, and let the whole class sing

alto.
( ,^) Have the treble well sung by the trebles. Repeat till well done.
(A) Then let the two parts be sung together with the piano, and afterwards

without the piano.
(/■) Have the words learnt, and the piece rendered with due expression in

two parts, with the words.

aiNaiMO FZJLT.

Us Causes.

1. Voice. The singing may be too loud
if' may be forced, strained, or coarse ; or
carelessly rendered ; or it may arise from
physical weakness; or from neglect of
breathing places, and consequent exhaus-
tion ; from weather (damp or cold) ; from
overstrain or fatigue ; or from a bad atmo-
sphere in the school.

2. Ear. There may be defects of the
ear, and very olten the remedy is slower in
its operation.

8. Discipline. The singing may be lax
and careless, or the pupils may be in-
attentive, or in a bad position.

4. No Interest. There may be a lack of
interest from some cause or other. Cases
of this sort are rare.

5. Breath.

Its Remedies.

1. Make the pupils sing softly, and listen
to the phrase when sung or played in tune.
Test with the tuning fork or instrument.
Practise in the key of C, and let the passage
always finish on C. Strike the fork on the
last note. The flatness becomes thus a
reality to the class, and greater efforts are
I made to conquer it. If the school possesses
an instrument they can be similarly tested
and corrected in any key. The remedies
in the other case are obvious.

a. Plenty of pattern singing will be
required. Modulator exercises should be
slowly sung from the pattern of the teacher
or the instrument. This must be sup-
plemented with ear tests and the study of
mental effects.

3. The remedy here is obvious.

4. The cause must be ascertained, and
if possible removed. The intrinsic charm
of the subject will then create its own
interest.

5. See notes on voice training.

HOW TO TEACH ROUNDS.

"The practice of teaching rounds is most valuable and in-
teresting in class singing. Rounds are the happiest possible
means of bridging the chasm between unison and part singing,
and they often provide infinite delight and amusement for young
pupils."

Teaching.

I. First see that your class is fit to commence the study. A class should be
able to smg smoothly m unison before attempting even a simple
round.

a. Silence the flat singers and growlers.

3. Next get ypur round. Let it be a simple one at first, with a range not

greater than an octave.

4. Choose melodious rounds. They are easier to remember.

5. Do not chopse rounds with rests, especially it the rests are on accented
puls^. Plain smooth rhythm stands the best chance.

Words with a little innocent fun in them are sometimes desirable. Avoid

words which are too obviously moral lessons.
Let the class learn the whole melody of the round as a unison song. It

^uld be sol-fab-ed, then laaed, then sung to words.
2I»

330 A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD.

8. Divide the class into as many sections as necessary. Tliey can then be

arranged either side by side, or behind each other. But the plan and
furniture of the room will be an important factor in most arrangements.
The one section behind the other is the best arrangement, because
nearly every pupil can hear and feel the onslaught of the other parts.

(a) Make each section separately sing the round as a melody.

(b) The teacher should then " pit " himself against the whole class as the

second part of the round.

divide the sections and sing against each.

(d) Let six picked pupils sing the round against the teacher.

(e) If successful, add six more.

(/) Then group the two sixes separately in a circle, and try them against one
another.

(g) As this succeeds, keep adding to the number of each group until the two full
sections are singing one against the other. This arrangement is recom-
mended by high authorities for two-part rounds.

9. Three and four part rounds are more interesting, and will follow the

others,
(fl) Let them be sung first as two-part rounds, and sing the third part yourself.

(b) Divide the class into three sections, and make any two sections sing in two

parts.

(d) Proceed in the same cautious way for four parts.

10. In choosing rounds with a view to give special practice in time, it is

well to select those that have at least one part that firmly marks the
beat or pulse.

DEFECTS IN SCHOOIi SINGING.

The most common defects in school singing have been thus
summarised by one of H.M. Inspectors : —

1. Want of voice cultivation, resulting in an unmelodious quality of voice,

harshness characterising the boys' and stridency the girls' voices.

2. A faulty balance of voices, the boys' voices, as a rule, being too pre-

dommant. A proper relation of the two elements should be aimed at.

3. Insufficient weeding out of bad, untrue, and incurably harsh voices.

4. Inadequate range of voice, leading to the injudicious selection of too low

keys.

5. Want of expression. The singing is often tame and apathetic, and the

teacher is often a mere animated metronome.

PROPER DIVISION OF TIME.

For a half-hour's lesson the following arrangement of the time
is recommended

3 minui

es for voice exercise.
, modulator exercise for iune.

, iime — on charts and B. B.

, ear — the teacher to give exercises.

, Hme and tune — from charts or books.

songs — from books, as a rule.

QITAIiIFICATIONS OF A CONDUCTOR. (Barnby.)

1. Abundant technical knowledge.

2. Experience.

3. A strong will.

4. Magnetic influence.

MUSIC. 331

5. A quick ear.

6. A sharp tongue.

7. A good memory.

8. A clear beat.

The conductor is not to be always looking at his book or his copy, but is to
be en rapport with his class.

CHOIR KFFICIXINCT.

There are some essential tests of efficiency in a choir or sing-
ing class.

1. Perfect time.

2. Good intonation.

3. Well-balanced parts.

4. The tone must be of good quality.

5. The expression marks must be accurately and tastefully rendered.

6. The articulation must be clear. The proper use of the lips, tongue, and

teeth is much neglected.

7. The phrasing must be good. " Ragged edges" should be avoided. The

attack should be simultaneous, and the release of the last note equally
so.

8. There should be soul or feelmg in the singing.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

I.— Describe the best method of proceeding in teaching a new song to infants or to
older children.

2.— Describe the method you adopt in teaching " singing by note " to a class of
beginners.

APPENDIX.

INDEX.

PAGE

School Economy—

1. Building, Planning and Accommodation 337

Schoolrooms 337

Walls, Floors and Roofs 337

Entrances 338

Cloak-rooms and Lavatories 338

Class-rooms 338

Halls 338

Windows 338

Staircases 339

Ventilation 339

Warming 339

Sanitary Arrangements 339

Sites and Playgrounds 340

Infant Schools 341

2. Care of the Voice 341

3. Care of the Eyes 343

4- Thrift 344

Reasons for Banks 345

Examples of Thrift 346

Temporary Devices for Thrift 346

Additional Facilities for Banking 347

Class Tkaching—

1. Chief Defects in Teaching 348

2. Self-help or Self-activity 349

Object Lessons—

1. The Method of Writing them 351

2. Notes of Lesson on Iron 352

KiNUEROARTEN-

1. Instruction of Infants 353

2. Suitable Occupations 354

3. Infant School (iames 356

(a) Physical Advantages 356

(^) Mental Ad\'antages 357

4. Infant School Songs 357

(a) Selection of Songs and Games 357

It} Action Songs 357

(2) Indoor (lames for Infants 35^

(3) Playground Gaines for Infants 358

(4) „ „ „ Older Scholars - • 358
(*) Teaching 35^

Arithmetic—

I. Notation 359

I.ocal Value 359

Absolute Value 359

Index Notation 359

336 APPENDIX.

PAGE

Number of Figures 360

Bases greater than 10 360

Scales of Notation 361

Advantages of the Common or Decimal Scale - - - - 362

2. The Metric System 3^2

Revised Instructions 3^2

Chief Unit of the System 362

Length 3^3

Square Measure 303

Cubic Measure 3^4

Capacity 3^5

Weight 365

Money 3^5

Hints and General Principles 3o5

Reading—

The Type-Word Method 3°°

History—

The Historic Novel 307

List of Novels 369

Stories in English History— their Preparation and Delivery - - - 369

The Teaching of Social Questions 37^

English —

What is Word-building? 372

Relative Value of English Grammar 374

{a) Its Retention 374

1. Its Training Value 374

2. Its Practical Value 375

lb) Its Partial Removal 375

Examination Questions * ' 377

SCHOOL ECONOMY.

BITTLDING. Frovi the Day School Code of 1896.

Planning and Accommodation. — In planning a school, the first
thing is to seat the children in the best manner for being taught. The
accommodation of each room depends not merely on its area, but also on
its shape (especially in relation to the kind of desk proposed), the positions
of the doors and fireplaces, and its proper lighting. The second point is
to group the rooms together in a compact and convenient manner.

Schoolrooms. — Every school must have a schoolroom or a central
hall. The proper width for a schoolroom is from 18 to 22 feet. In a
room 18 feet wide groups of long desks, three deep, should be used;
where four rows are used the width should be 21 feet 6 inches, and if the
width is 22 feet, dual desks, five rows deep, are most suitable.

{a) Accommodation in schoolrooms for elder children is calculated by the
number of children seated at desks and benches, subject to a minimum of 10
square feet per child being provided.

(b) Double bank schools (now almost obsolete) require rooms 32 feet wide,
walls left clear for three rows of desks, and ample lighting from windo\is on
both sides extending to ceiling.

The doors and fireplaces in schoolrooms must be so placed as to allow
of the whole of one side of the schoolroom being left free for the groups
of benches and desks.

(</) Ho Bchoolroom lighted from one side only can be approved. The gable
ends should Ix; fully utilised for windows.

Walls, Floors and Roofs.— The walls of every schoolroom and
class-room, if ceiled at the level of the wall-plate, must be at least 12 feet
high from the level of the floor to the ceihng ; and if the area contain
more than 360 superficial square feet, 13 feet, and if more than 600, then
14 feet.

(a) The walls of every schoolroom and class-room, if ceiled to the rafters
and collar beam, must be at least 11 feet high from the lloor to the wall-plate,
and at least 14 feet to the ceiling across the collar beam.

iff) Great care should be taken to render the roofs impervious to cold and
heat.

(<r) Roofh open to the apex are not approved. They can only be permitted
where the roofs are specially impervious to heal and cold, and where apex-
ventilation is provided. Iron tie-rods are least unsightly when placed
horizontally.

(<0 The whole of the external walls of the school and residence must be
solid. If of brick, the thickness must be at least one brick and a half, and if
of stone, at least ao inches.

338 APPENDIX.

[e) All walls, not excepting fence walls, should have a damp-proof course
just above the ground line.

(/) The vegetable soil within the area of the building should be removed,
the whole space covered by a layer of concrete not less than 6 inches thick, and
air bricks inserted in opposite walls to ensure a through current of air under floors
for ventilation to joists.

[g] Timber should be protected from mortar and cement by asphalt or
tar.

Entrances. — Entrances should be separate for each department.

In large schools more than one entrance to each department is desirable-
The principal entrances should never be through the cloak-room. En-
trance doors should open outwards as well as inwards. A porch should
be external to the schoolroom.

Cloak-rooms and Iiavatories. — Cloak-rooms must be external to
schoolrooms and class-rooms, with gangways at least 4 feet wide, amply
lighted from the end. Hat-pegs should be i2 inches apart, numbered,
and of two tiers. The hanging-space necessary to provide a separate peg
for each child is thus 6 inches lineal.

Thorough ventilation is essential, so that smells are not carried into
the school.

Lavatory basins are needed. Girls' schools require a larger number
than boys' or infants'.

A lock-up slop sink, water tap, and cupboard are desirable for the
caretaker.

Class-rooms. — Class-rooms are calculated at 10 square feet, if not
providing accommodation for more than 60 children. Six rows of dual
desks or four rows of long-length desks are permissible in such class-
rooms. When the front of a class is narrowed, but the area of the room
is not reduced, a seventh row of dual desks or a fifth row of long desks
may be allowed.

{a) The minimum size of a class-room is 18 feet x 15 feet. If desks are
placed longitudinally the width should not be less than 16 feet. This latter
width is also allowed in schoolrooms of very small size.

[b) The class-rooms should never be passage-rooms from one part of the
building to another nor from the schoolrooms to the playground or yard, and
should be on the same level as the schoolroom. Each should be easily cleared
without disturbance to any other room. Doors should open both ways.

[c) The number of class-rooms should, where practicable, equal the number
of classes in the schoolroom ; usually five class-rooms are necessary for the six
standards.

[d) The excessive use of movable partitions should be avoided.

Kails. — Large schools are sometimes planned with a central hall,
from which the class-rooms are entered. The hall must be fully lighted,
warmed and ventilated, and must contain a floor space of not less than
1200 square feet. Halls of excessive size are not approved.

If desired, one class (or under special circumstances two classes) will
be allowed in the central hall, provided the hall is suitably planned for
teaching such class or classes.

vrindows. — Every part and corner of a school should be fully
lig^hted. The light should, as far as possible, and especially in class-
rooms, be admitted from the left side of the scholars. All other windows
in class-rooms should be regarded as supplementary, or for summer ven-
tilation. Where left light is impossible, right light is next best. Windows

APPENDIX. 339

full in the eyes of teachers or scholars are not approved. In rooms 14
feet high any space beyond 24 feet from the window wall is insufficiently
lighted.

(a) Windows should never be provided for the sake merely of external
effect. All kinds of glazing which diminish the light and are troublesome to
keep clean and in repair should be avoided. A large portion of each window
should be made to open for ventilation and for cleaning.

{d) The sills of the main lighting windows should be placed about 4 feet
above the floor. The tops of some windows should reach nearly to the ceiling,
with a portion made to swing. The ordinary rules respecting hospitals should
here be remembered. Large spaces between the window heads and the ceiling
are productive of foul rooms.

(r) Skylights are objectionable, and should never be resorted to where
windows are possible. Plans needlessly involving their use cannot be approved,
except in the case of central halls having ridge or apex ventilation.

Staircases. — A staircase must be external to the schoolroom. No
triangular steps or " winders " should be used. Each step should be
about 13 inches broad, and not more than 5^ to 6 inches high. The
flights should be short, and the landings unbroken by steps. The number
of staircases should be sufficient, not only for daily use, but also for rapid
exit in case of fire or panic.

Ventilation. — Apart from open windows and doors, there should be
provision for copious inlet of fresh air ; also for outlet of foul air at the
highest point of the room. The best way of providing the latter is to
build to each room a separate air chimney, carried up in the same stack
with smoke flues. An outlet should have motive power by heat or
exhaust, otherwise it will frequently act as a cold inlet. The prin-
cipal point in all ventilation is to prevent stagnant air. Particular
expedients are only subsidiary to this main direction. Inlets should
provide a minimum of 2^ square inches per child, and outlets a minimum
of 2 inches. Rooms should, in addition, be flushed with fresh air
from windows about every two hours.

A sunny aspect is especially valuable for children, and important in
its ert"ects on ventilation and health.

Although lighting from the left hand is considered so important, venti-
lation in summer demands also the provision of a small swing window as far
from the lighting as possible and near the ceiling.

WA21MIMO.

A common stove, with a pipe through the wall or roof, can under no
circumstances be allowed. Stoves must also be of such a pattern that
they cannot become red hot, and they must be supplied with fresh air
direct from the outside by a flue oi not less than 72 inches supcrhcial.
They must also be of sucti a size or shape as not to interfere with the
floor space necessary for teaching purposes.

SAIOTART AItIlANaKMSNT&

Water-closets within the main school building are not desirable, and
are only sanctioned for women teachers. All others should be at a short
distance, and completely disconnected from the school. Privies should
be fully twenty feet distant.

(a) The doors, staircases and passages leading from the schoolroom to the
latnnes (whether in mixed or in other schools), and the latrines themselves must

340

APPENDIX.

be separate tor the two sexes, and constructed entirely apart from each other.
In the case of a mixed school this rule especially affects the planning. Where
passages or corridors are iinavoidably used by both sexes there must be com-
plete supervision from the class-rooms by sheets of clear glass.

[h) Each closet must not be less than 2 feet 3 inches wide, nor more than 3
ieeX., fully lighted and ventilated, and properly screened or supplied with a door.
More than one seat is not allowed in any closet.

{c) The children must not be obliged to pass in front of the teacher's resi-
dence in order to reach the latrines.

[d] The following table shows approximately the number of closets
needed : —

No. of Children.

Girls.

Boys. Infants.

30
50
70

lOO

150
200
300

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1 2

2 3

3 4

I I

5 7

Urinals in proportion.

(e) Cesspits and privies should only be used where unavoidable, and should
be at a distance of at least 20 feet from the school. Earth or ash closets of an
approved type may be employed in rural districts, but drains for the disposal
of slops and surface water are still necessary. The proximity of drinking wells
should be carefully avoided.

(/) Soil drains must always be laid outside the building (on a hard even
bottom of concrete) in straight lines with glazed stoneware pipes, carefully
jointed in cement and made absolutely water-tight. A diameter of 4 inches is
sufficient, unless for drains receiving the discharge of more than 10 closets.
Above this number the diameter should be 6 inches. The fall should never be
less than i in 30 for 4-inch and i in 40 for 6-inch drains. An inspection open-
ing or chamber should be provided at each change of direction so as to facilitate
cleansing the drain without opening the ground. Every soil drain must be
disconnected from the main sewer by a properly constructed trap placed on the
line of drain between the latrines and the public sewer. This trap must be
thoroughly ventilated by at least two untrapped openings ; one being the 4-inch
soil pipe carried up full size above the roof, and the other an inlet pipe con-
nected with the side of the trap furthest from the public sewer. Automatic
flushing tanks are desirable where trough closets are used.

[g) Urinals must in all cases have a sufficient supply of water for flushing.

{h) Waste pipes from sinks or lavatories should be first trapped inside and
then made to discharge direct through an outer wall over a trapped guUey.

Sites and Playgprounds. — Every school should have an open, airy
playground proportioned to the size and needs of the school. The
minimum size of site is, in the absence of exceptional circumstances, a
quarter of an acre for every 250 children. If the school is of more than
one story this area may be proportionally reduced. The minimum open
space is 30 square feet per child.

[a) In the case of a mixed school, playgrounds must be separate for the
boys and girls.

[b] All playgrounds should be properly levelled, drained, enclosed and fitted

APPENDIX. 341

with some simple appliances. A portion should be covered, having one side
against a wall. A covered way should never connect the offices with the main
building. Buttresses and corners should be avoided.

{c) An infant school should have its playground on the same level as the
school, and open to the sunshine.

Infant Schools.— Infants should not, except in very small schools,
be taught in the same room with older children, as the noise and the
training of the infants disturb and injuriously affect the discipline and
instruction of the other children.

(a) There must be no opening wider than an ordinary doorway between an
infants' and any other schoolroom, because o\ the sound of the infant teaching.

{b) An infant school (and playground) should always be on the ground
floor, and if more than 80 scholars are admitted, should have one gallery and a
small group of benches and desks for the occasional use of the older infants.

{c) No infant gallery should hold more than eighty or ninety infants, nor in
a babies' room more than fifty. It should be well lighted from one side. The
light for object lessons is as good from the right as from the left.

{d) The width of an infant schoolroom should be in proportion to its sire,
but not more than 24 feet. A covered marching-ground is desirable.

{e) The babies' room should always have an open Are and be maintained
at a temperature of about 65°. As a rule it should not contain more than fifty
children. Large schools may require two communicating rooms for babies,
one fitted with low kindergarten desks, the other providing ample floor space
for exercises.

(/) The accommodation of an infant school is calculated at 8 square feet
for each child after deducting wasted or useless space, but a larger area should
be allowed wherever practicable. Care should be taken that the numbers are
conveniently seated, and that space is left for marching. Where a second
standard is taught in an infant school the accommodation for it is calculated at
10 square feet per child.

CAXtli OF THX VOZCSL

The human voice is governed by the laws regulating sound. It is a
musical instrument, and like any other musical instrument // soon shows
the effect of any change in its condition.

So far as children's voices are concerned, enough has already been
said in the chapters on Reading and Music to guide the teacher in their
management. The great thing is to avoid strain and cold. The teacher
can easily regulate the voices in school, but it is in the playground and
the street where the mischief from straining will occur if it occurs at all.
Speaking generally the same will be true of cold. Reasonable care is
generally forthcoming in the school, but the straining of the voice in the
street which characterises many children probably makes the strained
organ more susceptible to cold. The teacher cannot do much in the
matter except to advise restraint and care.

But this is more a teacher's question than a scholar's. Laryngitis
among teachers has become sufficiently prevalent to excite medical atten-
tion and remark, and it would be better if every teacher had some
anatomical knowledge of the organs of voice, for improper use of the
voice leads to changes in the tissues of the larynx. Pupil teachers come to
their work at a critical period for their voices. The vocal organs, which
are comparatively small in children, begin to grow as puberty is reached,
hence they are in an unfavourable condition for sustained vocal effort.

Some teachers work under exceptionable voice difficulties from the
nature of the locality in which the school is placed. The noise and roar
of the streets are almost continuous, and the teacher's voice is sure to

342 APPENDIX.

suffer sooner or later. He may exercise all reasonable care ; he may
have a separate class-room ; the floor may be stepped ; but he cannot shift
the position of the school, check the costers and piano grinders, soften
the noise of the traffic, or stop the loud whoops of the many milkmen.
Noisy animals, steam organs and steam roundabouts are also not un-
known near some schools. The remedy unfortunately in cases like these
lies outside the teacher's power. The best he can do is to enlist the
sympathy of the local governing body, who may be able to deal with
the noisy animals and steam roundabouts, and who, perhaps, might be
induced to asphalt or wood-pave that portion of the street in which the
school stands.

Generally the means of warming a school will not be of a kind to
produce such a dryness of the atmosphere as to irritate the throat. If
any cases of this kind still exist, the means for destroying this dryness are
easily within the teacher's reach, and should be utilised. Irritation to
the throat may also be caused through the presence of foreign bodies in
the air, and the grappling with this difficulty will depend upon its origin.
It probably will be beyond the teacher's control. The temperature of
the room is important. Overcrowded or overheated rooms are bad in
many ways, and for the voice among others. Ventilation will remove
much of this evil, but further mischief may arise from sudden exposure
to the raw, cold air after quitting such a room, and the teacher must be
careful to guard both the children and himself from such risks.

The throat may be weak from constitutional causes, which in their
turn may be due to some serious illness or to heredity ; and although the
teacher cannot do much in such cases, he can at least exercise ordinary
care and forethought. Throat affections are sometimes due to disorders
of the stomach and to indigestion generally. Where such is known to
be the case, the teacher should be ready to advise suitable habits and
diet for restoring the natural tone of the pupil, and the Physiology and
Domestic Economy lessons might be utilised for the same purpose. The
children could be advised to keep their feet warm and dry at all times,
and they should never be allowed to sit in wet garments at school.
Both of these are fertile sources of bad throats and injured voices, and
both suggested remedies are well within the teacher's power.

Habit is very often responsible for disorders of the throat and voice.
"Coddling" oneself is probably one of the worst of such habits, and
the practice of over-muffling the throat is far too prevalent. When the
body has been made very warm, the throat is often muffled and the body
neglected ; but the reverse should rather be the practice. It is the body
that requires keeping warm, although the throat should not be forgotten.
The teacher should remember these facts and act up to them. It has
also been stated by medical men that respirators are unnecessarily, and
so, injuriously worn by some people. The necessity for the respirator in
some cases is not denied ; but in raw, cold weather, and in biting winds
the mouth should be kept shut, and the breathing should be done
through the nose. In fact it should be done through the nose at all
times, but especially so in such cases. Nature will then supply her own
respirator in the solt mucous membrane over which the air has to pass.
Tight boots, iced drinks, and hot drinks are also said to be bad for the
throat and voice. Perhaps it is unnecessary to warn teachers against
the injurious effects to the throat and voice of excessive drinking or
smoking.

But the young teacher must trust chiefly to himself. He must culti-

APPENDIX.

343

vate an easy vocal delivery, and let neither zeal, excitement, nor external
noise tempt him to overpitch his voice. He can attend to the ventilation
of the room, and exercise reasonable care at all times.

CARE OF 'I 'HHi V, V K8,

Defective eyesight among the children may arise from a variety of
causes, but it is the teacher's duty to see that none of those causes are trace-
able to the school. Speaking generally, prevention is the teacher's work ;
cure, the doctor's. By the adoption and consistent enforcement of a few
simple rules, much may be done to check the impairment of the sight dur-
ing school hours.

1. Light.— The rooms require to be well lighted ; i.e. , there should be a

sufficiency of light without glare, and the light should be evenly dis-
tributed. The direction of the light is very important (see page 2),
anfi so is the angle at which it falls on the paper.

2. Printing.— The printing in the school books should be good, being

marked by clearness, good spacing, decent sized type, and general
good finish.

3. Position. — Every child should be supplied with a healthy and comfortable

seat (see Desks, page 9). The height, dmiensions and builci ol the
desks need supervision, so that each child may be most advantageously
placed. Where possible, three sizes of desks should be found in each
class, so that the children could be seated according to their size.
This will give a fair average of suitability, and will, among other
things, aid the discipline and efficiency of the class. To place chil-
dren differing so much in physical build in similar desks is to indulge
in a practice which tends to produce short sight. The muscles of the
eye will be unequally worked, with the probable result of a loss of
tone and power.

4. Penmanship and Needlework. — These are really special cases under (3),

but they are such fertile sources of bad posture and bad eyesight that
it has been deemed advisable to note them particularly (see /'osition
for Writing, page 196). Where very small writing is allowed the evil
becomes intensified. The teacher should insist on the cultivation of a
bold and rather large style of small hand, so as to remove any strain
on the eyes. The disastrous results accruing to the eyesight
through very "fine-stitch" needlework have happily been discovered
only to be denounced and discouraged, it is the teacher's duty to see
that there is no reversion to them.

5. Homework.— Where homework is given, writing should be reduced to a

minimum, and the same supervision as to printing should be exercised
over the books used for home lessons as in the case of school books.
Among other discomforts, it must be remembered that many children
have to do their homework in very badly lighted rooms. The chil-
dren should also be advised never to read In a bad light. Home-
work is one of the most fertile sources of overworking the eyes.

6. Spectacles. The teacher's work here is to advise. C hildren with dc-

frclive sight are sooner or later detected by means of their school
work. The parents should be acquainted with the fact (if necessary),
and advised to consult a competent authority. The sight is too precious
to be n^lected, or to be experimented upon by amatetu^ in such cases.
Spectacles may or may not be necess;iry, but the importance of taking
good advice m time should be strongly urgeci.

It is not uncommon to find a Jijercnce 0/ Joe us sing power in the two
eyes, and when we remember itiat the eye-ball is worked by six
muscles, plus the muscles rc^^lating the eye-lid, it is easy to under-
stand that under certain conditions any one of these muscles may be
more or less disabled. Now, if the focussing power of each eye is

344 APPENDIX.

different there will obviously be a difference in the sight of the eyes,
and this difference is a source of discomfort. This discomfort arises
from double vision, and the child's efforts to remove the annoyance
lead to squinting. The muscles of the two eyes are of unequal
strength, and in the struggle the eye with the weaker muscle has the
image on its retina suppressed. But weakness in focussing power may
occur in children through constitutional weakness, and in such cases
the eyes should be carefully used. No fine work involving any strain
should be permitted until the general health is restored. The teacher's
work in such cases, within the limits of his knowledge and power, will
be to see that objects are placed at a right focus, so as to check and
correct a misfortune which may become permanent. And it is the
more important that he should do his best from the fact that 7nost
short-sighted children are said to have lateral curvature of the spine.
He should persistently strive to alter the injurious habits of the children
in question. Probably the best way of doing this will be to think out
some kind of exercise which will increase the work of the idle muscles,
and decrease that of the overworked ones. It has also been medically
advised that children with short sight should read together, and
should be drilled in the use of those muscles which regulate distance,
but how far this may be possible in the ordinary day school the cir-
cumstances of each school must decide for itself.

7. Temperature. The ventilation of the school should be good, so as to

protect the children from draughts, which might injure the eyes.
Children should also be advised not to sit over ^fire, either staring at
it or reading by its light.

8. Atmosphere. The presence oi foreign bodies in the atmosphere may

injure the eyes. So far as the schoolroom is concerned the teacher
can see that it is properly cleaned at suitable intervals, that it is
regularly and well swept, that the furniture is daily dusted, and that
chalk-laden dusters are not shaken out inside the school. The
presence of certain trades or factories near the school may increase
the risk from this source.

THRIFT.

In a circular issued from the Education Department in July, i88i,
occasion was taken to urge the consideration of this subject upon all con-
cerned in the management of elementary schools, and this appeal met with
a ready response in many parts of the country. During the years which have
since elapsed the number of banks in connection with elementary schools
under inspection has greatly increased. Much, however, yet remains to
be done in this direction, and the practical abolition of school fees has
rendered it easier for managers and teachers to enlist the co-operation of
parents, and to bring under their special notice the existence of the School
Bank and the use which might now be made of it.

The general principles which should be kept in view in relation to
this and kindred means of extending the usefulness of our public element-
ary schools have been repeatedly brought under the notice of managers.
In these instructions, a copy of which is required by Article 8 of the Code
to be kept in every school, it is pointed out (paragraph 51) that: —

1. A good school under favourable conditions does not limit its work to the

scheme of instruction prescribed in the Code, or

2. To preparation for examinations ;

3. But seeks by many subsidiary expedients to render service to the chil-

dren, and

4. To exert a right influence on their characters and their aims in life.

APPENDIX. 345

Among these expedients the provision of a School Savings Bank
is specially enumerated.

Reasons for Banks. — Experience has shown that many of the evils
which weigh most seriously on the industrial classes in this country are
the results of improvidence and waste. But some of these evils admit
at least of partial remedy ; e.g., the children might learn : —

1. How to economise slender resources ;

2. How to resist temptation to needless expense ;

3. How to make reasonable provision for future contingencies.

Such knowledge is calculated to protect its possessor from much
trouble and humiliation, and to help him greatly in leading an honour-
able and independent life.

In mature years it is often found difficult to acquire this knowledge,
and still more difficult to apply it in practice. But in a school much may
be done to render its acquisition easy to children, and to show them the
advantages of economy and foresight For this purpose they might
also learn simple lessons : —

1. On money ;

2. On the conditions which affect the rate of wages ;

3. On the relations of skill, prudence and knowledge to industrial
success ;

4. And on right ways of spending and saving.

Economy, however, is a habit, and is to be learned as other
habits are learned, rather by practising it than by listening to de-
monstrations of its importance. During the school life of a child there
arise many temptations to the heedless and wasteful expenditure of small
sums ; and many occasions on which, if the opportunity were offered, such
sums might be usefully and wisely saved. The child who is helped to deny
himself some trifling present gratification, who is encouraged to save by
degrees a few shillings, and who finds this sum available for the purchase
of books or clothes, for helping his parents at a time of family misfortune,
or ultimately for his own equipment on leaving school for work, has re-
ceived a practical lesson in forethought and self-restraint which will
probably abide with him for life.

The value of such a lesson is not to be measured solely by its effect
on the scholar's own character and welfare. It exercises a reflex in-
fluence on the whole household to which he belongs. And when a
parent resolves to set apart even a portion of the pence saved under
the Education Act of i8gi, and to deposit it regularly in the scholar's
bank, the educating work of the school is extended to the home,
the interest of other members of the family is excited, small economies
become easier, and the savings bank, which at first receives only a
few trifling sums, becomes recognised as a household institution,
to be maintained lon^ after the school life of the youngest child is
ended. The possession of even a small reserve or capital places it
in the power of the workman gradually to acquire the ownership of
his house or a piece of land, to take a share in an industrial partner-
ship, or to enter on a small business, which, although at the outset
it may only employ himself and his family, may, by his economy,
industry and skill, become the means of employment to many others, and
so contribute to the general prosperity. Thrift and temperance arc very
nearly allied ; each is helpful to the other, and having regard to the
enormous waste caused by intemperance, there can be little doubt that if

346 APPENDIX.

the people of these islands were more temperate and thrifty, our home
trade and the profitable employment of our people therein would be very
greatly increased.

Elxamples of Thrift.

1. The well-known thrift of the peasantry and artisans of France has had a

remarkable influence in adding to their comfort and sense of independ-
ence, in developing the commerce and manufactures of that country,
and in enabling her people some years ago to recover with extra-
ordinary rapidity from the effect of a great national calamity. It
cannot be doubted that the institution of the School Savings Bank —
caisse depai'gne scolaii-e — has contributed largely to this result.

2. In Belgium, a country with more than six million inhabitants, the School

Savings Bank is also a very popular institution, and is largely used by
parents in making their earlier and humbler efforts in economy before
they are able to open accounts in their own names.

3. No such extensive use has yet been made of the school bank system in

our own country. But in certain places, and wherever the experiment
has been tried in a judicious, business-like and kindly spirit, it has
proved remarkably successful. For example, in the single city of
Liverpool many school banks have been established in connection with
the Livef'pool Penny Savings Bank Association, and year by year the
number of deposits increases. When the child's deposits m the School
Penny Bank amount to ten shillings, that sum or the multiple of it is
transferred in his or her own name to the Liverpool Savings Bank,
certified under the Act of 1863. This practice lightens the responsibility
of the school authorities, and introduces the depositors to a savings
bank which they may continue to use after leaving school.

These results have been achieved without the pressure of any author-
ity, but mainly by the voluntary exertions of the friends and managers
of schools, and by the intelligent co-operation of the teachers. The ad-
vantages of thrift have first been simply explained to the children, and
then opportunities for its exercise have been placed within easy reach.
In some schools in which it has been the practice to give small money
premiums for special proficiency, industry or good conduct, the prize has
taken the form of a deposit in the savings bank in the scholar's
name, so that on leaving school he has been presented with a bank
book and a substantial nucleus for future saving.

Temporary Devices for Thrift. — Penny Banks and Provident
Clubs of various kinds have already been founded in many schools aided
by the Parliamentary grant. In Glasgow, Manchester, Hull, and other
large towns, as well as in Liverpool, the trustees of savings banks certi-
fied under the Act of 1863 have been actively instrumental in their forma-
tion. There should be no wish to interfere with any existing plans
which are found to work well. Every expedient which encourages
economy and forethought has its educational value. But shoe clubs,
clothing clubs and other temporary devices, which merely aim at supplying
a particular want, have the disadvantage that they do not last after
that want is satisfied, and are of little service in the formation of a
permanent habit. What is to be desired is that the scholars should
become early familiar with the practice of saving in view of any
possible future need. It is desired therefore to remind school managers
and teachers of the special facilities offered by the Post Office for the
establishment of penny banks in schools. Such banks when formed
may readily be placed in connection with the local Post Office Savings
Bank. Small books for the use of children have been prepared, and

APPENDIX.

347

are issued gratuitously by the Savings Bank Department, and the
necessary rules, which are few and simple, will be found printed in
each of these books. Suitable ledgers for keeping the accounts of
the school bank in a simple form can also be obtained at a small price.
Deposits of small sums should be entered in the scholar's book and in
the school ledger, and as soon as the sum paid by any depositor reaches
a sufficient amount he should be assisted to open a separate account in
his own name in the Post Office Savings Bank. He will thus be able, if
he wish it, to make his subsequent payments direct to the Post Office.
While fully appreciating the services which teachers may render in the
way of economy, no one would wish to cast upon them any additional
labour and responsibility which might interfere with the proper discharge
of daily duties. It will be necessary to have the good7vill of school
managers for help in devising and carrying out the needful arrangements.
Two or three members of a local committee may act as trustees of the
school bank and may open an account with the nearest Post Office Sav-
ings Bank. On two or three mornings in the week one of the number
should be present to receive deposits, and to conduct the simple business
connected with the withdrawal of money or its transfer to the Post Office
Bank : or this may be done by the teacher himself.

The general adoption of such a plan will greatly increase the useful-
ness of the elementary schools as instruments for the formation of char-
acter, and will, in present circumstances, not be without a valuable
influence in awakening the sympathy and interest of parents. The
co-operation of members of School Committees and Boards and of those
persons of leisure and influence who are interested in elementary schools
and in the future well-being of the scholars should be invited. The
annual return (Form g) required to be filled up by managers has long
contained a question respecting the existence of a bank in the school,
and there has recently been introduced into this form two further ques-
tions respecting the number of scholar-depositors and the total amount
standing to their credit.

Some additional facilities offered by the Postmaster-General for the
banking of school pence will be found appended.

Additional Facilities for the Banking of School Penc«.— With a view to

the further encf)ura<,'t;nH-iit of thrift, the Postmnster-Cjeneral has decidetl that,
in cases where school managers and teachers And the penny bank system
unsuited to their requirements, he will render them assistance on the f()||r)wing
lines: —

Upon application being made to the Controller of the Savings Bank De-
partment, the manager or teacher will Ix: supplied with stamp deposit forms of
either of the following descriptions, vis. ; (i) forms containing spaces for twelve
stamps, with which envelojies will be supplied for the saf«' keeping of the forms ;
or (2) forms containing sp>accs for forty-eight stamps, folded to a convenient
size, and printed on much stouter paper, not requiring the protection of an
envelope. The name of the schfK»l. with a space for the name of the scholar,
will be printed on the forms.

S.Ii.—Tht UM of the form with spaces for forty-eight stamps will be of advantage
to the Post Office, inasmuch as h will tend to lessen the unavoidable expense
of dealing with frequent deposits of amounts under four shiiltnfts.

If required, a credit strnrk of stamps can l)c obtained by furnishing a letter
of indemnity signed by two householders. A form for the purpose is provided
by the Savings Bank Department.

On the day appointed for the receipt of the pence saved, the manager or
teacher will exchange them for stamps, and soe the stamps affixed to the forms,
which the children will take home as e\idence to the parents of the money

348 APPENDIX.

having been paid in, the forms being then either kept by the parents or returned
to the school until the next depositing day.

When the school is within a reasonable distance of a Post Office, and the
number of depositors and the amount to be deposited are sufficient to justify
the cost, a Post Office clerk will attend at the school at certain intervals, say
monthly or quarterly, according to arrangement, to receive the completed
stamp forms as deposits in the Post Office Savings Bank.

Where the school is situated in a remote district, or in cases where the
transactions are not numerous, the following arrangements have been made to
assist the managers and teachers in bringing the deposits to account, viz. : —

(i) In order to open an account in the name of a child over seven years of age in
the Post Office Savings Bank, a form of declaration (S.B., No. 8) should be
filled up and signed by such child, the signature being attested in accordance
with the instructions printed on the back of the form. The declaration
should be presented at a Post Office Savings Bank with the completed stamp
forms by some one connected with the school, and a deposit book would
then be issued in the child's name and handed to the applicant. When the
child is under seven years of age. a form of declaration (S.B., No. 8 b) should
be filled up and signed on behalf of the child, and presented at the Post Office
in like manner. A supply of declaration forms can be obtained at any Post
Office Savings Bank.

(2) If it is inconvenient for any one connected with the school to attend periodic-
ally at a Post Office in order to open accounts for the children, arrangements
will be made for the manager or teacher to send the completed stamp deposit
forms, together with the declarations, in a registered letter envelope to the
Post Office. Special envelopes will be provided by the Department for the
purpose, and the postage and registration fee will not be charged. The
deposit books, when issued, will be forwarded by post to the manager or
teacher.

The completed stamp deposit forms could be -deposited in accounts already
opened by forwarding the deposit books with the stamp deposit forms.

CLASS TEACHING.

Chief Defects in Teaching. — Mr. Sharp, H.M. Senior Inspector,
has stated that the chief excellence of modern teaching is the careful and
intelligent direction of the steps of reasoning, and that the chief defects
are a want of force and local colour.

He defined local colour to tiican especially illustrations from the daily
life and surroundings of the scholars, whatever the subject might
be — whether literature, science, or words.

He then goes on to say that years ago, except a few individuals who
had been fortunate enough to fall in with an enlightened teacher, children
had, to a great extent, been brought up on stereotyped methods from
which the essence of the spirit of the first wise teacher who had ori-
ginated them under entirely different circumstances had long departed.
Students of the History of Education could often trace the gradual fading
away of colour and force in some of the methods of bygone days which
might have been arrested by the consideration that all such methods
needed to be varied in their application to modern times. This was
rapidly going on now. The spirit was often absent and the mere husk left.

Years ago, people were brought up in the belief that the committing
to memory unintelligible rules of Syntax and long lists of vocables was
the correct way of approaching the Divine gift of language. Probably
at the time of the revival of learning, when grammars and dictionaries
were scarce, no better way could be devised than this cheap method of
supplying the raw material of language. But, no doubt, in those early

APPENDIX.

349

days the rules were copiously illustrated by the living voice of the wise
enthusiast who revived the dead languages in Europe with abundance of
force and local colour, and in Scotch schools many a joke was cracked in
good Latin. Unfortunately this method of teaching had been continued
after the need for it had ceased — the spirit had departed, and with it went
all the force and colour that came from the natural living illustrations.

Arithmetic was degraded in the same way to a mere bundle of
rules, which had lost all connection with the principles of the science,
and which had for their chief end the teaching of small commercial trans-
actions. Commercial arithmetic was an excellent subject and was now as
much in danger of being depreciated as it was before of being over-exalted.
Commercial arithmetic should be a leading subject for boys and girls of
thirteen or fourteen years of age, but not before they had been so well
grounded in the rules of arithmetic as to enable them to discover new
rules and to invest them with local interest and colour gathered from
experience. He had endeavoured in three girls' schools to ascertain
whether they had a clear idea, gathered from the ordinary transactions
of life within their reach, of the meaning of the terms above par, below
par, and similar phrases which they glibly used in calculations of small
investments. In one of these schools the teacher, the girls, and himself
agreed to set up a small business, form themselves into a meeting, and
take shares. The children then began to take an interest in the success
of the undertaking, and thus a real meaning was given to the mysterious
terms above par and below par.

Again, on one occasion he had found a class reciting that charming
piece of Longfellow, The Children's Hour, repeating it correctly and with
a good knowledge of the vocabulary, but with scarcely any interest. But
when permitted to dramatise the piece, to act the parts of the three
girls named in the poem, their interest was fully aroused.

Yet again, in a class of older girls he had heard a graphic lesson on
the most famous buildings in Edinburgh, but it required the interest of
human life. The teacher, at his request, had given a short history of the
growth of Edinburgh. She had showed the early savage tribes clustering
for shelter with their cattle on the Castle Rock, the citizens' wall, and the
means of defence in the fortified town ; the peaceful men of later date
overflowing the narrow boundaries, and then the buildings fell into their
natural order, each the result of the wants of the different ages, and thus
the touch of human interest was given. Hence, one great feature in the
study of methods of teaching should be the kindling of the spirit of
human life and thought, to give a living interest to the teacher's
words and a force and colour to the lesson.

Self-Help or Self-Aotivity. — This is another of those points which
have been suggested by H.M. Chief Inspector as fitting subjects for dis-
cussion between inspectors and teachers. An important problem for
teachers to solve is how far a particular lesson might have contributed
to a habit of self-help or self-activity. Did the teacher help the scholars
in points which he might have found out for himself and thus have weakened
his power of acquiring knowledge ? It should be one of the chief objects
to see that they did not help the scholars too much. It must strike
every one when they considered how very small a proportion of the wcll-
taught boys and girls who left the schools had acquired the habit of self-
help and a desire to increase their knowledge through a continuation class
or a higher polytechnic.

This question was mixed up in most schools with that of the proper

350 APPENDIX.

treatment of an upper class in which, perhaps, three standards, as they
used to be called, were taught together. What was the best way to teach a
class of Standards VI. and VII. combined .^ It could hardly be expected
that a scholar in the Seventh Standard should continue at school to be
obliged to listen to the same elaboration of the terms of simple gram-
matical analysis to which he had been accustomed two years before. This
itigrained system of keeping the children in leading strings ran throughout
the whole national system, from the infant who had to dance or play to
order and the boy and girl who must have the whole, or nearly the whole,
of his mental food chewed and digested for him, to the pupil teacher who
sat down at half-past six every evening and rose at ten or half-past,
having only just completed his daily task like the mill horse which tramped
his monotonous round, and the student of the training college who might
lose the Saturday half-holiday if the full tale of bricks had not been
delivered.

It amounted to a positive gain to a small class of the Seventh Stan-
dard scholars if, instead of being dragged into all the lessons of the Sixth
Standard, they were allowed to study by themselves, and ask for help only
when they needed it. Surely, therefore, it was an excellent subject for
consideration how the habit of self-activity or self-help might be created,
without which any real acquisition of knowledge became well-nigh
impossible.

A tail of backward scholars might always be expected to every class,
but whereas it used to be a tail of uniform size, a tail of despair in more
senses than one, it was now a natural tail gradually tapering off according
to natural ability. In the periodical examination the class should not be
judged by the tail ; in assessing the work of a class, a group of papers
should be taken from the upper part of the class and another group from
the middle, but none from the lowest, and for two reasons, (i) they were
no real criterion of the teaching ; (2) each of these papers should be care-
fully considered with a view to ascertaining the individual character, for
the causes of failure would be found to be different in nearly every one of
the lowest members of the class.

Probably one of the best means at the teacher's disposal, with the older
scholars at least, is the giving of home lessons, but as their value is a disputed
point it will be just as well not to rely on them solely (see Classification, page
43). Silent Reading, independent working in Arithmetic from books or cards,
the use of text books or class reading books for the purpose of individual pre-
paration or revision, original composition, and other school subjects may all be
utilised. But the greatest aid will be to import that " kindling of the spirit of
human life and thought, to give a living interest to the teacher's words, and a
force and colour to the lesson". The habit of work has to be formed, and to
do this successfully the teacher must understand both the nature and training
of habit (see page 34). The child's activities must be constantly utilised and
glided, and a fair share of work should always be thrown upon him. The
school curriculum now admits of plenty of opportunity for forming pleasant
associations with work, and it must be the teacher's aim to see that this asso-
ciation is so strong that there will be no desire to break it when school days
are over.

• APPENDIX. 351

OBJECT LESSONS.
THE METHOD OF WKITIN'O THEM.

Object Lessons may be written in a variety of forms, and indeed
such variety will always be desirable, as it would be neither wise nor
profitable to treat every object in the same stereotyped way. Generally,
the Matter and Method Form prevails, as both practice and facility
favour it. But students and teachers are advised to adopt the Training-
or Logical Form where the nature of the subject matter will permit it.
The following advantages are claimed for it : —

1. It enables the teacher to show more clearly the logical arrangement

which ought to characterise these lessons.

2. It enables him to give more prominence to the training aimed at, and

to strongly mark the inductiye nature of the lesson.

3. More prominence can be given to those experiments and that correct

use of observation on which the value of these lessons depends.

4. It draws attention to the " results" of these experiments and observa-

tions, and registers them in the language of the children themselves.

5. It shows the teacher's method of ensuring the active 00-operation of the

class and of arousing interest.

6. It reveals " the association of one lesson with another through some one

leading idea or ideas"; e.g., Drawing, Composition, Kindergarten,
Suitable occupations are all utilised and associated.

In most lessons the notes will be written in three parallel columns,
the nature of which will be obvious from the study of the subjoined
specimen lesson. The method lends itself readily to lessons on Common
Objects, to some lessons, with a little modification, on Animals, but to
fewer lessons on Plants. Such Physical Geography Lessons as those
on Clouds, Rain, Dew, a River, etc., also do not adapt themselves
easily to it. Speaking generally, the form is best suited to Experi-
mental Lessons, where Experiment is the chief teaching aid employed,
and where, as a consequence, Cause and Effect can be easily shown.

Now in lessons on Animals, although plenty of scope is afforded for
Observation, and some scope for Experiment, there is but little oppor-
tunity of illustrating Cause and Effect, hence a slight modification is
required. The first column is headed Observation and Experiment ; the
second, as a rule. Results ; the third, Inferences. The modification
required here is the substitution of Remarks for Results, not only for the
reason just mentioned, but also because every lesson on an Animal
involves the imparting of some information (which should be tersely
placed in the Remarks column) to help out the Observations made, and
to lead to the Inferences desired.

The chief mental profit to be got out of a lesson on a Plant is the
cultivation of the power of observation ; the chief moral eain is the
implanting of a love of nature. Here again, Experiment, and Cause and
Effect are not the chief aids employed, because they are often not avail-
able. But what is lost in Experiment is probably gained in increased
Observation, in the outdoor preparatory work required for some of these
lessons, and in their good emotional value. The full form may some-
times be used, as in a lesson on How Plants Grow, or on How Seeds
Grow ; sometimes the middle column is advantageously omitted, as in a
lesson on Plants as Growing Things, or on Vegetation and Cultivation ;
sometimes the form is inapplicable, as in a lesson on the Veins of Leaves.

The Inferences should always be written in larger type than the rest
of the lesson, or they should be underlined, or distmguished in some way

352

APPENDIX.

to indicate their importance. For each step in the lesson each inference
respectively constitutes the goal which the class is trying to reach under
the guidance of the teacher.

A specimen lesson (taken from Garlick and Dexter's Object Lessons)
is now given : —

IRON.

Thingfs Required. — Nails, hammer, poker ; pieces of iron and wood
of equal size; water; iron rod and piece of glass tubing about same
diameter ; heavy weights ; iron and lead tubing of about same diameter ;
fire, sheet iron, iron wire, piece of rusty iron, lead, iron spoon, magnet,
penny, shilling, iron filings, sand.

Observations and Experiments.

Results.

Inferences.

I. (a) Let child hold piece of
iron and wood of same size.
(b) Drop each into water.

Iron harder to hold
up than wood.

Iron sinks ; wood
floats.

Iron is heavy.

2. (a) Let child scratch wood
with iron nail.

(b) Drive nail into piece of wood ;
pull nail out and examine.

Wood easily scratch-
ed.

Nail not altered, but
hole has been made in
wood.

Iron is hard.

3. Rest iron and glass rods on
two supports ; hang heavy weights
on parts of rod between the two
supports.

Glass rod breaks ;
iron rod does not break.

Iron is strong.

4. (a) Get child to try to bend
iron and lead tubing.

(b) Put poker in fire till end is
red hot ; press hot poker sideways
on hearth.

Lead tubing bends;
iron tubing does not
bend.

Poker easily bent.

Iron does not bend
when cold but bends
when hot.

5. (a) Get child to strike piece
of iron wire with hammer.

(b) Make wire red hot ; strike it
with hammer.

No effect is produced
on iron.

The iron wire is
flattened.

Iron can be ham-
mered out when hot,
but not when cold.
It can also be made
into. wire.

6. Melt lead in iron spoon.

Lead melts; spoon
does not.

Iron does not melt
easily.

7. Show piece of iron that has
been exposed to air for a long time.

Iron is covered with
brown scales.

Air rusts iron.

8. (a) Try to pick up nail, penny,
shilling, lead, etc., with a magnet.

(6) Separate iron filings from
sand by means of a magnet.

Magnet only picks up
the iron.

Iron is the only
common thing a
magnet will pick
up.

Oral Composition to follow.

APPENDIX. 353

B.B. Sketch: — Iron

Is Heavy, hard, strong.

Can be bent and hammered out into sheets.

Can be drawn out into wire.

Does not melt easily.

Rusts in air.

Is picked up by magnet.

KINDERGARTEN.

INSTRUCTION OF INFANTS.— The Department is desirous
of giving further encouragement to the employment of Kindergarten
methods.

The circumstances of infant schools have altered considerably in the
last few years ; the numbers in the lower classes having increased, a full
four years' attendance at the infant school will be the rule and not the
exception. The improvement also shown in passing the Standards at an
earlier age than formerly gives to infant schools greater liberty and leisure
in developing natural methods of education.

As regards the Elementary Subjects, the conditions of the Code are
fully satisfied if the scholars over seven can pass, as a rule, in the First
Standard ; nothing more should be attempted in these subjects in the
infant schools, except in the few cases in which scholars are allowed to be
retained for the work of the Second Standard. The scholars in the lower
classes of infant schools may, therefore, be relieved from any premature
preparation for those subjects on methods ill-suited to their tender age.

Two leading principles should be regarded as a sound basis for the
education of early childhood : —

1. The recognition of the child's ipontaneous activity, and the stimulation

of this activity in certain well-defined directions by the teachers.

2. The harmonious and complete development of the whole of a child's

faculties. The teacher should pay especial regard to the love of
movement, which can alone secure healthy physical conditions ; to the
observant use of the organs of sense, especially those of sight and
touch ; and to that eager desire of questioning which intelligent
children exhibit. All these should be encouraged under due limita-
tions, and should be developed simultaneously, so that each stage of
development may be complete in itself.

It has been strongly urged that sufficient attention has not been paid
in the past to these principles ; indeed, it is so often found that the A'lii-
dergarten Occupations are treated as mere toys or amusing pastimes,
because they are attractive for children, and the intellectual character of
the •' Gifts of Froebel " is disregarded, whereas the main object of these
lessons is to stimulate intelligent individual effort.

The attention of teachers should be directed to the chief consideration
which underlies true methods of infant teaching, vis., the association of
one lesson with another through some one leading idea or ideas. The
reading lessons, occupations, and object lessons may all be usefully combined
for one purpose ; e.g., if the teacher wishes to impress on her class some
knowledge of a domestic animal, she may usefully combine the object
lesson /or general study of its structure ; the reading lesson /or a know-
ledge of its habits and character ; some occupation, such as pricking the

354 APPENDIX.

outline, to impress an exact knowledge of its form ; a song or simple story
hearing on its association with human life ; so that familiarity with ani-
mals, especially with domestic animals, and a kind treatment of them may
be fostered.

On the other hand, teachers should guard against the mere repetition
of the same exercises and lessons; the progressive character of the
whole scheme of instruction should be constantly kept in view ; and
each exercise should lead up to something beyond itself.

Pictures acad. flowers have been wisely introduced of late in greater abund-
ance into infant schools and have added much to their cheerfulness and
attractiveness. Thev should be frequently taken down into the class and made
the subject of conversation. It is not enough that the children should be taught
to observe these things and to answer questions upon them. They should be
encouraged in every way to give expression in their own words to what they
know, what they want to know, and what they think.

It will be found that the Elementary Subjects when taught on
right methods can be treated with greater variety ; reading becomes a
Kindergarten lesson through pictures and word building; writing becomes
a variety of Kindergarten drawing ; elementary exercises in number are
associated with many of the Kindergarten occupations.

It is the experience of many good teachers that by the adoption of such
methods it is found to be unnecessary before the sixth year is passed to employ
books for Reading, except occasionally for a change of occupation, or perform
any exercise in Writing except the elements of letters, or to do any formal
Arithmetic work on slates.

It may reasonably be hoped that the observance of these suggestions
will materially improve the work of the younger children in infant schools
and classes by relieving the teacher from that useless subdivision in the
elementary subjects which has been hitherto generally employed, and by
rendering the instruction less formal, but more varied and attractive. —
{Circular 322.)

SXTITAHLE OCCUPATIONS.

Kindergarten occupations have for some time been used in our infant
schools, and manual instruction has also been given to the elder boys in
many schools for older children, while the elder girls have similarly been
taught cookery and laundry work ; but the scholars in the first, second,
and third standards have, as a rule, had hitherto no manual training,
except in so far as it has been supplied in the forms of needle-work and
drawing. Manual instruction is a valuable part of school training, and
my Lords desire to encourage managers of public elementary schools
to introduce, where circumstances permit, a suitable course of manual
occupations for the three lowest standards.

Kindergarten occupations as used in the infant school are not suit-
able for the children in schools for older scholars. The mat-weaving,
stick-laying, embroidery, tablet-laying, and building with bricks or cubes,
which serve to give young children ideas of form and number, as well as
to train hand and eye, seem trivial to the ordinary child of nine or ten
years of age. On the other hand, few of the common workman's tools
can with safety be put into the hands of ordinary children under the age
of eleven.

An Occupation ought to satisfy several conditions,

APPENDIX. 355

(a) It must be educative, and should especially stimulate independent effort
and inventiveness. Any work that provides a real training for hand
and eye is in a true sense educative, but the most valuable work of
all li that which imports a knowledge of form, colour, and the
properties of materials, at the same time that it fosters manual
dexterity.

{b) It should admit of being dealt with in a progressive course.

\c) It must be attractive to the children, and afford a welcome relief to
other studies.

(d) It must not involve the use of needlessly expensive materials.

{e) It must be capable of being practised in an ordinary schoolroom , 7vith-
out risk of harm to children or damage to furniture.

(/) It must, in cases where the classes are as large as the Code permits, be
so simple that it does not require an undue amount of individual
attention. Large classes should, where possible, be subdivided for
these occupations.

(g) It should avoid a long series of preparatory exercises apart from finished
results, and the finished article should be one that is attractive to
a child. At the same time the construction of articles for sale is
undesirable.

The manual occupations satisfying these conditions which have been
most commonly adopted as specially suitable for the First, Second,
and Third Standards are: —

1. Modelling in clay.

2. Mofleliing in cartridge or cardboard paper.

3. Cutting out in paper or other material.

4. Drawing and colouring designs (some original),

5. Brush drawing from the object and from recent iinpressions.

Other equally useful occupations may, no doubt, be devised, and any
occupation that is proposed, if it is likely to prove satisfactory, will be
readily accepted by the Department.

It appears that the various manual occupations which have hitherto
been introduced for the lower standards because of their suitability resolve
themselves into exercises in the studies of (i) form, (2) colour, (3) mea-
surement, which should be, where possible, connected with other subjects
of instruction.

For acquiring a knowledge of form the most effective occupation
is Clay Modelling. It demands accurate observation of the object which
is chosen as a model, and the accuracy of the observation will largely
depend upon previous instruction as to the build or growth of the object in
its natural state. Sometimes a lesson on Modelling has followed one on
Natural History or Science ; sometimes the children, after an Object
lesson upon the formation of a fruit or the germination of a seed, have
modelled the object, thus at once testing the correctness of their impres-
sion and driving it home. Clay Modelling has been used to illustrate the
Geography lessons ; for example, the children construct a model of the
river basin in which they live ; and, again, illustration has been found for
the History lesson in constructing a model of some neighbouring encamp-
ment, whether square or circular, Roman or British. As a knowledge of
form depends ubon a close observation of light and shade, a lesson in
modelling greatly furthers instruction in drawing. Clay Modelling, how-
ever, lacks the charm of colour.

Colour may be studied in the following ways : When care is taken
to provide a variety of tasteful shades of coloured paper, it is possible to
combine the drawing, cutting out, and mounting of a number of good

356 APPENDIX.

designs, many of which may be, in respect both of pattern and arrange-
ment of colour, the original work of the children themselves. The draw-
ing may be done partly by aid of rulers and templates, and partly free-
hand. The use of templates makes it possible to stamp on the mind
certain beautiful curves at an earlier age than children can draw them
freehand. This kind of exercise has been very fully developed by some
of the officers under the London School Board. The advantages of it
are that it promotes accuracy and good taste in colour and design, and also
a sense of harmony and proportion. The defect of it is that the manipula-
tion is somewhat monotonous ^ and that it does not lead to mtich increase of
knowledge of varied objects.

Brushwork demands a clear perception of form and some know-
ledge of natural objects and cultivates delicacy of touch, hut it does
not train the sttident to great accuracy or cidtivate the sense of colour.
Children, however, can express their impression of a flower, as for
instance a bluebell and its leaves, much more easily by the brush only
than by the pencil, and if their observation has been very inexact, the
error becomes obvious when they try to draw their impression.

As an exercise in accurate measurement, Cartridge Paper or Card-
board Modelling leaves little to be desired. This work is an excellent
training in exact measurement and in cutting true to measure, and it fur-
nishes an elementary notion of construction. The manipulation, however,
in this exercise also is somewhat monotonous. This kind of work lends
itself readily to the illustration of instruction in simple geometry. The
beginner may learn to cut out in cardboard (or more readily still in stout
drawing-paper) simple plane geometrical figures, and after a time he may
proceed to simple geometrical solids. The cube, the cone, the cylinder,
the wedge, the prism and the pyramid can all be drawn, cut out, and put
together without much difficulty. The manufacture of various useful
articles, such as blotting-books, frames, trays, and the like, can be com-
bined with the formation of geometrical figures.

As no one of the branches of manual occupation is complete when
taken by itself, the most satisfactory results will follow where it is found
possible to make them supplement each other.

Lastly, very great care is necessary in leading the pupils to
acquire correct method in handling brushes, tools, and all the imple-
ments required. Another point which demands attention is that of the
general posture of children during their lessons. Where much stooping
is necessary, the work should be occasionally interrupted and a short
extension drill given. Unhealthy and cramped postures should be
avoided. Whilst fairly accurate work should be aimed at, beware of
expecting very fine work requiring minute finish, or any work which is
likely to strain the eyesight of young children. — [Departmottal Circular.)

INFANT SCHOOIi GAMES.— See pages 79 and 80, Play and
Dance.

1. Physical Advantages. — -Children seem to live for play. They
delight in bodily activity, and their active instincts find constant outlet in
movement. Their happy, unregulated play, although zvithout definite
aim, is an important element in their development. Their young and ever-
growing bodies find further growth and development through their games.
The muscles are developed and improved, the circulation is quickened,
effete matter is carried off, health is improved, and every organ of the
body is rapidly nourished. In the training of children, whether physically
or otherwise, the best principle to go on is natural growth, and this is

APPENDIX.

357

only learnt by careful observation and study of children. Children are
too young to share the gymnastic training of their elders, but organ-
ised and regulated games offer an efficient substitute, and are better
calculated to make their young bodies and limbs supple and active. By
their aid an immense amount of hand and eve training is imparted
through the pleasurable medium of play. The love of power and the
pride of success are fostered by their consciousness of skill. The games,
rightly treated, are an expansion of the educative effects of the
occupations, for the same notions are given and the same associations
are formed, although in a different form. The same educational method
runs through all alike.

2. Mental Advantages. — The forms of play are innumerable, but
to the observant teacher something is to be learnt from all. Nothing
gives such a true revelation of child character as child play, and no
branch of child life affords better opportunities to the teacher for profitable
work. Children dearly love to be noticed by older people and to share
their games with them, if only they are assured of their sympathy. Then
comes the teacher's opportunity. Organised games must have rules, and
these rules can be laid down and enforced on a pleasant basis. Custom,
age, position, strength, and higher authority all assist. The child
shares in a well-ordered game, and so gradually is brought under the
influence of new ideas and feelings. In this way he receives his first
" social " ideas. He learns to subordinate himself to the common needs
and the common good. He receives a pleasant object lesson which
helps him unconsciously to grasp the fact that he is only a unit of the
whole body. He learns to combine willingly and regularly with
others, and this is all done in a practical way. The child could not
learn the same truths verbally, for they would be beyond his comprehen-
sion, and so, in an easy and acceptable way, knowledge is given, and an
invaluable association is set up. " The associations that are to govern
life must have small beginnings if we would root them early, and they
must be rooted early if we would root them deep." It is easier to bend
the pliant twig than the stubborn stem. The little child has only to
learn ; the neglected child has much to unlearn.

ZMFAMT SCHOOZi SOMOS.— See pages 80 and 316.

Whilst the ordinary school song, among other things, is useful as a
recreative and restful change between other lessons, the infant school
song, with its Kindergarten attributes, is something more. The child's
love of activity and mimicry is fully and wisely indulged. The wordi of
the song draw attention to scenery, to objects well known to him, to
natural phenomena, to common animals, to human labour, and to various
kinds of people. His interest in life is thus widened, his sympathies
cultivated, and his taste is improved. Pleasant associations are thus
formed between work, order, government, and pleasure, which are to bear
more or less desirable fruit in the future. Many songs of this kind are
now published — action songs — and probably every infant school teacher
is more or less familiar with some of them.

Selection of 8on|^ and Oames.— No attempt is made at selec-
tion in either case here. The field of choice is so wide that there can be
no difficulty in the matter. Every school will have its own selection
made, and the pupil teacher will be able to see that selection put into
practical use. But the following suggestions are thrown out as being
useful, probably, for examination purposes.

(a) Action Songs.— A list of about half a dozen should be mide.

358 APPENDIX.

learned, and taught to the children by the young teacher if possible. If
not, the teaching and rendering of them should be carefully watched and
noted, the actions studied, and the general characteristics remembered.
The list, with the actions intelligently written out, should then be entered
in a note book for future use.

(b) Indoor G-ames for Infants. — Game and song are most often
combined. If there is any distinction worth making in such cases, it is
that in the songs the singing is the dominant factor, while in the games
play is supreme. The student is advised to pursue the same course as
with the action songs. Such "Movement Plays" as may be found in
several well-known books will be very suitable, and about half a dozen
should be prepared in the same careful way as the songs.

(c) Playground Games for Infants.— In suitable weather many of
the " Movement Plays " lend themselves admirably to out-door work, and
a further list, more specially suitable for this purpose, should be prepared
as in the previous cases. In addition, any local or popular game should
not be despised. Any form of play which lends itself to organisation and
is liked by the children should be utilised. What these games may be
each district will best decide for itself, but here again a careful description
of a few should be written out and preserved with a view to examination
necessities.

{d) Playground Games for older Scholars. — These might in-
clude Drill (see page 5), and some oi om popular games (see page 6, The
Teacher^s Work). Both cricket and Association /oo^ftaZ/ could be played
with a small, soft ball. Shuttlecock and battledore, skipping, and even hop-
scotch (in asphalted playgrounds) could be played by the girls, while such
old games as French tag, the tnnlberry bjish, and oranges and lemons
would bring variety. The tug-of-war needs little outlay, is a good game
for boys, and is even played in some girls' and infant schools. Tennis
requires capital and can only be played by a few of the elder ones at a
time, while few playgrounds attached to elementary schools are fitted for
such public school games as fives or rackets — the more's the pity. Leap-
frog is popular with some boys, but physical weaklings should be ex-
cluded. Jumping is not often possible in the playgrounds of town schools,
but may be practised where the surface of the playground safely admits
of it. Foot racing is possible in many playgrounds, and the teacher might
encourage it among the "sound" boys by carefully framing handicaps,
and occasionally offering a small prize of some sort. Many other games
will readily suggest themselves, but whatever they may be, before adopt-
ing them, the teacher should see that they are not only pleasurable, but
beneficial and educative. For these reasons, any game involving the
element of gambling, cruelty, or destructiveness should be avoided.

Teaching. — See page 328, How to Teach a School Song for Young
Classes. In addition to what is said there, it must be noted that the
actions will be learned hy pattern work, action by action, on the part of
the teacher, and by imitation on the part of the children. Too much
should not be attempted in one lesson, but the quantity must always
depend upon such factors as the amount of time available, the ability and
energy of the teacher, the nature of the song, and the grade of the class.

In teaching a new game, there should first be a simple description with
practical illustrations so far as these may be given by the teacher himself.
A few of the most apt children should then be instructed, guided, and prac-
tised in the game in the presence of the rest of the class, who will be directed
to watch attentively. When these children are efficient, the teacher

APPENDIX. 359

then has so many assistants to distribute at different points, and another
batch of children should be introduced, but no more than are fairly manage-
able by the teacher and his young staff. The idea is to ayoid confusion
or failure. The game must be presented in its best light to win the ap-
proval of the children, and no association of muddle or silliness must cling
to it. Children are keen but hasty critics of games. Unless the game
goes smartly and well, they will give an unfavourable judgment at once,
which the teacher may find a difficulty in removing. When the number
of children knowing the game is sufficient to provide all necessary assist-
ance, then the whole class, and in a similar way, finally the whole school,
may come under active instruction and participation.

ARITHMETIC.

NOTATION.

Young children can be made to understand our system of Notation so
far as its base and composition are concerned. They can be taught the
meaning of ** Local Value " as distinct from •' Intrinsic" or ** Absolute
Value". They can learn that the base of our system is lo, and they can
be shown how that base works into the composition of numbers. They
may even easily comprehend Index Notation and the number of figures
required to express our decimal or denary system. But when it comes to
bases greater or smaller than lo, and to the demonstration of the advan-
tages of the ten-base over any other, it will be better to postpone the
necessary explanation to a later Standard. These things are the better
understood when Scales of Notation are known, and although the
actual working of the few simple examples required for the purpose in
hand is probably within the grasp of the average young scholar, still the
reason for that method of working would be better appreciated by a more
mature mind.

1. Iiocal Value. — First get the children to understand what is meant
by this term, and proceed as follows : —

Write down any number — 22302— on the B.B.
Class to note that the figure 2 appears 3 times.
Beginning from the right —

The meaning of the Ji/st 2 is 2 unt/s ;

,, ,, fourth 2 is 2 thousands ;

fifth 2 is 2 ten thousands.

The class then infers that, in consequence of a change of position,
a figure may have a change of value, /.« ., the place or locality of a
figure fixes its value, and this is called its Local Value.

2. Zntrinsio or Absolute Value.— But the figure 2 always repre-
sents 2 somethings, whatever its position may be, and it never represents
anything else but i somethings, i.e., from this point of view its value is
a quality of itself, and is tmchangeable. This is called its Intrinsic or
Absolute Value.

3. Index Notation.— With the aid of the B.B. get class to note :—

10 = 10 X I = 10*.

100 = lo X 10 = lo*.

1000 = 10 X 10 X 10 — lo*.

loooo = 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 a lO*, and so on.
From an examination of these and other cases, if necessary, the class

36o APPENDIX.

should be able to tell the teacher that the little figure in each case points
out how many times lo is multiplied by itself to produce either of the
given numbers. The name of the little figure can then be given them,
and the suitability of its name for the work it does can be illustrated by
a reference to the pointing or index finger, and to the place and functions
of the index of a book.

The class will now be in a position to comprehend the Index Nota-
tion of any given number, and to see how that number is built up, e.g. : —
22302 = 20000 + 2000 + 300 + 2.

— 2 X loooo + 2 X 1000 + 3 X 100 + 2.
r= 2 X lo"^ + 2 X lo^ + 3 X lo^ + 2.
The number 10 which is seen to be a factor of every product or num-
ber except the first (2) is called the base or radix or root of the Scale of
Notation.

4. Number of Figures Required. — Get the class to note that we
only have the following figures: —

I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
i.e., for a system of notation whose base is 10 we require 9 different
figures, or, counting the cypher (o), we require 10 symbols. But any
other figure might have been chosen as a base, as 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, etc.,
and then the scale would not have been Decimal or Denary, but

For 2 it would be called Binary ;
. . 3 . . , , Ternary ;

, , 4 , , , , Quaternary ; and so on.

Suppose the base to be 7 instead of 10. Then only 6 figures and a
cypher will be required, which fact should be stated by the class and not
by the teacher. The system of Notation will be the same until we reach
7, when it differs. In this scale 7 would be represented by the figures
10, A comparison may help the class to understand this : —
Scale of 10. Scale of 7.

1 would still be i

2 „ 2
6 „ 6

but 7 would now be represented as 10, i.e., one 7 + 0.

8 ,, „ II „ one 7 + 1.

9 „ „ 12 „ one 7 + 2.
14 ,, ,, 20 ,, two 7's + o.

It will thus be seen that no more than the 6 figures and the cypher
are required. Similarly : —

A scale of 2 would require i figure only ;

..3 ,. 2

M 4 ,. 3 .,

..20 ,, 19 ,,

i.e. , the number of figures required for the notation of any scale is
always i less than the number indicated by the base, or, counting the
cypher as a figure, the number is always the same as that represented by
the base.

5. Bases greater than lO. — If a base greater than 10 were chosen,
then obviously new figures would be required. Suppose the base was 15.
The figures would be the same as in the Decimal Scale as far as g,
but new symbols would be wanted for 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. Let these
symbols be respectively a, b, c, d, e, then the notation would be thus
shown : —

APPENDIX. 361

Scale of 10 I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15

Scale ofi5!i23456789 a b c d e xo

And 15 in the scale of 10 would become 10 in the scale of 15 ;

16 ,, ,, ,, II ,,

17 .. II 11 12 ,, ,,

25 .. 11 ,. la .,

26 ,, ,, ,. i^ ,, ,,

29 ,, I, ,, \e

30 ,. ., I, 20
40 ,, ,, ,, 2a

i.e., 14 figures and the cypher would be required for a scale of 18.

6. Scales of Notation. — The class should next be taught how to
convert numbers from one scale to another, e.g. : —

Transform ^26g'8/rom the common scale to the radix 7.

The class will readily perceive that so far as the mere work is concerned it

is purely a matter of division, and that the remainders constitute the digits

for the number in the new scale. It will be seen that

42698 in the scale of 10 = 235325 in the scale of 7. Two

points will require special attention here : —

(a) That more figures are required to express the same
quantity in a lower scale; i.e., 6 figures are
required in the scale of 7 as against 5 in the
scale of 10.
{b) That 235325 does not mean two hundred and
thirty-five thousand three hundred and twenty-
five, but forty-two thousand six hundred and
ninety-eight in the scale of 7.

Reason for the Rule. — Let a, 6, c, d, etc., represent the digits to
be used in expressing the quantity in the nev^^ scale, a being the first digit
to the right (the units).

(i) Decompose the number in each scale so that the construction of
the number may be clear in each case : —

Scale of 10.

42698 = 40000 + 2000 + 600 -t- 90 + 8.

= 4 X loooo -I- 2 X 1000 -h 6 X 100 -h 9 X 10 + 8.
= 4 X 10* + 2 X lo* -f- 6 X lo* -h 9 X 10 -h 8.
S cale of 7.

235325 = 33614 + 7203 + 1715 + 147 + 14 + 5.

= 2 X 16807 + 3 X 2401 + 5 X 343 + 3 X 49 + 2 X 7 + 5.
= 2X7»-j-3X7* + 5X7»-f-3 x72 + 2X7-f-5.

(2) The class will then see that the number can be expressed thus—
the letters taking the place of the digits : —

(/ ^ 7*) + («r X 7^) + (<; X f) + (c X 7«) + (6 X 7) + a.

(3) Next do the division and compare it step by step with the
worked example.

7I42698

7 1 6099-1-5

7 1 871 + 2

7 1 124 -f- 3

7 1 17 + 5

7I2-I-3
+ 2

/x7» + *x7< + </x7» + cx7« + (Ax7)-ha.

/x7* + *x7» + rfx7* + cx7+ b +a remainder.

/x7» + *x7*+rfx7+c + h remainder.

fxi^-^txT-ifd + c remainder.

/ X 7 + e + d remainder.

/ + e remainder.
+/ remainder.

362 APPENDIX.

(4) From the comparison with the worked example it will be seen
that rt = 5; b = 2; ^ = 3; d = 5; c = 3;/=2, and the reason for the
rule will be apparent.

(5) The class should then work examples in Scales of Notation in the
simple rules of Arithmetic.

7. Advantages of the Common or Decimal Scale. — The pupils
should now be able to give the advantages of our system with its base of
10, which probably had its origin from the practice of counting on the
10 fingers.

{a) The system, bemg a decimal one, is probably easier than any other.
Some people dispute this, and say that with equal practice we could
have written and calculated with equal facility on other bases.

{i) A smaller base would have the advantage of requiring fewer symbols,
but this would have been more than outweighed by the extra number
of places of figures required to express the larger numbers. This
increase would make both Notation and Numeration more difficult.

{c) A largei- base would have required more figures, and more figures, both
in the learning and manipulating of them, would again have been
more difficult.

{d) It is the base of the system used by other civilised countries. This
last advantage could be told to the class and explained.

THE METRIC SYSTEM.
I. Revised Instructions.

The Code provides that scholars in the Fourth and higher Standards
shall be taught in the principles of the metric system, i.e., on the con-
venience of adopting systems of coinage and of weights and measures in
which the increase of values or of quantities proceeds by multiples of
ten, and their diminution by tenths. So long as these principles are
grasped, it is immaterial whether instruction in the system is illustrated
by the French metre, with its subdivisions and multiples, or by some
other unit. But it will probably be found most convenient to illustrate
them by reference to the metre and \h& franc. The metre can be readily
compared with the English yard, and its approximate length can be easily
remembered if it is taught in the form of 3 ft. 3^ ins., in which the number
3 is alone employed.

It should be borne in mind that a real knowledge of all weights
and measures can only be obtained by allowing the scholars to
handle and use them.

H. The Chief Unit of the System.

The originator of the Metric System was Watt of steam engine fame,
who unsuccessfully urged its adoption in England. It was taken up in
France at a later period. The system attempted to get a natural unit as
a basis. For this purpose a quarter of a meridian (AB) was taken and
divided by 10,000,000, and the quotient was made the unit of length.
This quotient was called a metre, and, roughly speaking, it is 3 ft. 3^ ins.
long. Everything is built up from this unit. The accuracy of the
measurement is not now universally accepted, so that the standard unit
must be considered an arbitrary one, although it is none the worse on that
account.

APPENDIX. 363

1. Outdoor Work.

(a) Measure i metre in the playground or along a near and suitable road.
(d) Extend the line 10 times its length. This measurement is called a

decametre.
(^r) Measure 10 decametres along the road. This is called a hectometre.

(d) Measure 10 hectometres along the road. This is called a kilometre.

(e) See that the association between the name and the measure tnent is well

fixed.
(/) Do not yet bother about the derivation and meanings of the respective
prefi.xes.

2. Class-room Work.

(<z) On B.B. draw a line, 3 feet 3J inches in length — equals i metre.
\b) Divide it into 10 parts. One part equals a decimetre.
{c) Now divide a decimetre into 10 parts. Each part is called a centimetre.
\d) Divide a centimetre into 10 parts. Elach part is called a millimetre.
\e) As in outdoor work.

(/) Explain the meaning and force of the prefixes used. It will be useful
for the steps that follow.

3. Compile the Table.

This should be done by the class, starting with the metre. Myria-
metres may be omitted. Express all in metres.

10 mtV/tmetres = i cen/imetre =
10 ccw^j'metres = i decimetre =
10 dectmetres = i metre -

10 metres = i decametre =

10 decametres = i hectometre =
10 hectometres = i kilometre =

From this compilation the class should note : —

(a) It proceeds by multiples and sub-multiples of 10.

\b) As a consequence it is an application of the decimal system.

{c) It utilises our system of Notation for the Simple Rules, and saves the

burden of learning the fresh Notations of the Money, and Weights and

Measiu-es Rules.

Finally, the English equivalents should be learned and the class should
be well drilled in them. The aid of Drawing should be enlisted, and the
class exercised in drawing the multiples and sub-multiples to scale.

4. Escamples.

Similar examples should be worked by both methods, and placed side
by side on the blackboard. Two facts will at once be apparent to the
class : —

(a) The simplicity of the Metric System.

{b) The similarity of the work to that in the Simple Rules.

IV. Square Measure.
1. Outdoor Work.

la) Measure 10 metres in the playground.

[b) From one extremity of the line measure another 10 metres at right

angles to the first fine.
{c) Complete the Square. This is called an Are, and is th« unit of Square

Measure.
If the playground is asplialted, mark tlie measuremeiits with challc. If not, fix

pegs, or place l>oyB at the comers.

•01 metr«

■I ..

1" •>

lo- „

loo-

lOOO* „

APPENDIX.

2. Class-room Work.

Supply the children with proper drawing apparatus. This work is to be
done by the class — to scale. The scale chosen will depend upon the size
of the slates or drawing-paper supplied to the children. The teacher
should work with the children, to a larger scale, on the B.B.

(a) Draw any straight line of suitable length. Let this represent lo
metres. Complete a square with this line as a side. This represents
the Are.
(d) Divide 2 adjacent sides into 10 equal parts each, and through the points

of intersection draw lines parallel to each side respectively.
{c) Count the squares. There are 100, and each one presents a square

metre.
{d) Then any one of these small squares is ^hu P^rt of the whole square.
Hence it may be called a Centiare square or a square centiare.

ie) Note there is ?io deciare. Class to give reason.
/) Teach the hectare in the same way, and let the class note that there

are no decares. Reason again to be given by class.
{g) Compare and illustrate with formation of English Square Measure.

3. Compile the Table.

To be done by class again. By the use of similar diagrams the other
measurements can be shown to be related to each other. The multiple
is seen to be, not 10, but 10' or 100.

I centiare = i square metre.
100 centisiTes — i are.
100 ares = i hectare.

4. Examples.

(a) Similar examples should again be given to show the facility with which

this system is worked.
{d) In working examples the terms decare and deciare may be met with.

Tell the class that they represent 10 ares or ^Jq are respectively.

V. Cubic Measure.

1. Get 12 slender sticks or pieces of wire each i metre long, and
construct a large skeleton Kindergarten tube. It will be better still if
done in cardboard, as the element of solidity will then be apparent. This
is the unit, and is called a stere.

2. Draw a diagram on the B.B. to represent a cube with a lo-milli-
metre side. Draw parallel lines through each of the millimetre divisions.
Use coloured chalks or shade alternate lines of cubes so as the better to
bring out the idea of layers of cubes.

3. Let the class count the top layer — 100.

4. Then let them count the number of layers — 10 with 100 cubes in
each.

5. Then ask for the total number of little cubes — 1000, i.^., 10 x 10 x
10, or 10^.

6. Compare with the EngHsh Measure, e.g., 1728 c. ins. is
12 X 12 X 12, or 12^.

7. Build up the table : —

1000 cubic wi//imetres = i cubic centim&Xxe.
1000 „ centimetres — i „ dea'metre.
1000 „ dea'metres =1 ,, metre = i stere.

8. Tell the class that higher denominations than the stere are seldom
used.

APPENDIX. 365

Zbcaxnples.

Work similar examples again in both systems on the B.B. and side by
side. Class to note : —

1. To reduce from any given denomination to next lower denomination

multiply by 1000.

2. To reduce from any given denomination to the next higher divide by

1000.

3. That all the work involved can be done by simply moving the decimal

point 3 places to the right or left.

VL Capacity.

Proceed as in Cubic Measure : —

1. Make a cardboard cube with a one-decimetre side. The inside volume

of this cube equals a litre, which is the unit.

2. Show a vessel (decanter, jug, etc.) which is a litre measure. Then show

an English quart measure.

3. Fill the litre vessel with water ; transfer to quart measure. Class

observes that the litre is somewhat less than a quart.
4- Construct table as in Cubic Measure.

1000 cubic centimctTts = i cubic decimttrt = i litre.
1000 litres = I kilolitre (about 220 English gallons).

VH. Weight.

1. Make a small cardboard cube with 1 centimetre side (inside measure).

Tell the class that a measure of that size is filled with distilled water
at 39° F., and that the weight of water contained is called a gramme
(the unit).

2. Explain the reason for the use of distilled water (to be free from im-

purities which might cause the weight to vary), and of the fixed
temperature (temperature at which water reaches its greatest density).

3. Pass round a gramme weight (there should be one in the school museum)

for the class to judge of its relative weight.

4. Build up the table. Roughly a gramme equals -^^-oi. Avoirdupois.

1000 grammes = i kilogramme (about 2^ lbs.).

1000 Kilogrammes = i tonneau (not quite an English ton).

5. Work examples, compare the systems, and give the class exercises as in

the other tables.

VZZZ. Money.

1. Show a franc. This is the unit.

2. Weigh it before the class, if possible ; if not, tell them that it weighs 5

grammes.

3. Tell also that -^ of it is silver and -^ alloy.

4. Tell that

10 decimt* = 1 franc f "*'°^ »P«cimen corns .
and that only fk«nos and centimes are considered in keeping

The decime is the French penny. The French halfpenny
is called a sou, and in the everyday life of the people one hears much
more of sous than decimes.
5. The same kind of practical work should follow as in the previotts cases.

JX. Mkntm mad General Prinoiplee.

From what has now been briefly explained, the young teacher will
be able to summarise the following general principles and hints to guide
the teaching of this subject : —

366

APPENDIX.

1. The increase of values or quantities proceeds by multiples of lo,
and their diminution by loths, i.e., it is an application of the decimal
system.

2. All the Tables centre round one common unit — the metre, e.g. : —

Name of Table.

Unit.

Connection with Common Unit.

Length

Square Measure

Cubic Measure

Capacity

Weight

Money

Metre

Are

Stere

Litre

Gramme

Franc

ICO square metres.

I cubic metre.

I cubic decimetre.

I cubic centimetre.

5 grammes — 5 cubic centimetres.

3. The metre being given, it should be practically demonstrated how
each other table is derived from it.

4. The association between the name and the measurement should be
well fixed, the name being learned from the measurement, and not con-
versely.

5. The multiplying force of the prefixes used should be allowed to grow
upon the class before either derivation or explanation is utilised.

6. The scholars should build up their own tables from the practical
demonstrations which they see and share.

7. The great aid of comparison and contrast should be freely used to
firmly fix the association between the terms used in the two systems.

8. Similar examples from the French and English systems should be
worked side by side on the B.B. to show the superior simplicity and
facility of the Metric System.

g. Exercises should be given to test the correctness of the knowledge
of the class, and these exercises should receive vitality, force, and local
colour by assuming the form of local business and shopping transactions.

READING.

The Type-Word Method. — This is an analytic-synthetic type-
word system of reading combined with the Phonic Method. It is an
Australian system, and is in use in the primary schools of South Australia.
The ^^ Adelaide '" illustrated primers which embody the system are published
by the Education Department of that colony, which thus stamps the
method with oiificial approval.

I. In the beginning the following limitations are imposed : — .

1. Only such words as are names of real objects are used.

2. The children must be familiar with these words.

3. The objects must be such that a conversation can be held about them.

4. The objects must also be such that a simple drawing can readily be

made of them.

5. The letters forming the name of the object must be such as can be

regularly and distinctly sounded.

IL A set of movable letters are used in connection with the scheme.
These movable letters are now introduced in their order, and the word is
set up by means of a word builder.

III. Exercises follow.

APPENDIX. 367

1. The sounds are made for the letters shown,

2. The children are always told to associate a certain sound with a certain

letter.

The method deals with a whole word, takes it to pieces, notes the
sounds, and connects these again to form the word. The analytic-syn-
thetic nature of the method is thus revealed. By its supporters it is
claimed to be a natural method, because it teaches the children to associ-
ate the sounds with the letters and written symbols, but not the names of
them.

3. After mastering a few such type words as fnap, cap, hat, and fan, all of

which have been carefully selected, fresh combinations with the eight
sounds of a, c,f, h, m, p, t (to be set up on the stand in this order),
are made.
This step is a very important one, and at first the teacher must proceed
very slowly and exercise all patience. As soon as the children can^
unaided, connect the sounds which make the new word, a great deal has
been achieved. Young teachers are too often tempted to tell the first
word, but this is wrong. The children should be allowed to find it out.

4. The Look-and-Say Method is used for words of irregular notation. These

words are taught as wholes, and no attempt should be made to analyse
them.

5. To ensure still greater interest in the lesson, the pupils have tluir own

sets of loose letters, which they keep in little boxes or bags. At first,
only those letters are used with which they have become acquainted..
This practice recognises and utilises the child's love of activity.

6. The next step is the writing of the type word. A fair attempt at the

written characters on their ruled slates is all that can be expected at
first.

7. The last step is to place a simple outline drawing of the object along-

side the word. This seldom fails to Ix; imitated.

IV. The words to be taught by the Phonic Method are done in large
type ; the words on the Look-and-Say Method in small type, hence the
name by which the method is known.

V. There is no doubt that this is one of the best applications of the
Phonic Method that have yet been made, and a conscientious adherence
to it would do much to remove some of the disadvantages under which
that method is alleged to labour, e.g., it has been asserted that no case of
stammering has resulted from it within known experience. It has the
further advantage of utilising a child's love of activity; of introducing the
Kindergarten element ; of basing instruction on concrete objects ; and of
utilising drawing and writing as aids. In fact, it recognises the chief
consideration which underlies true methods of infant teaching, viz., the
association of one lesson with another through some one leading
idea.

HISTORY.

The msiorio NovaL — What use, if any, should be made of
Historic Novels in the teaching of History?

When we review the ordinary practice associated with the teaching
of History in our schools, their use seems to be naturally complementary.
They are, consciously or unconsciously, led up to by the scholar's train-
ing. The History Lessons may or may not be supplemented by the use

368 APPENDIX.

of the History Book, but they are generally aided by the use oi Historical
Reading Books with their interesting stories and biographies, and so the
scholars are insensibly led up to the Historic Novel. Let it be granted
then that every school library should contain a selection of such books
carefully chosen by the head teacher or some other efficient and respon-
sible person.

Perhaps their recreative element is their strongest recommendation,
and in this capacity they are a fine preventive or antidote to the
"' penny dreadful " or the " shilling shocker ". One of the primary aims
-of every Reading Lesson is to implant a love of reading, and it should be
■equally one of the aims of every History Lesson to appropriate some portion
-of that created taste for the reading of History. But with young people
^all transitions should be easy, and the Historic Novel offers that golden
ibridge by which the desired transition may be made, and the taste for
more substantial efforts effected with riper years. Like most other novels,
the book contains a plot and so presents all the interest of pursuit. It
may embody all the delights of romance and those characteristics of the
best modern fiction which appeal to the universal sympathies of our
nature. Such books may thus satisfy that craving for the marvellous
-which is an attribute of all classes from the mansion to the cottage.
Furthermore, there will sometimes be found a most successful mixture of
the historical and the familiar, the junction of stirring and romantic ele-
ments with that popular humour which gives to the story the largeness
and variety of life itself.

The instructive element contained in them is another recommenda-
tion, and that instruction is received under the most favourable conditions.
The work is approached willingly, and is thoroughly enjoyed. The inter-
£st which the teacher is taxed to create and maintain in some other
branches of school work is here ready-made for him in rich abundance,
and none the less so because the pupil is rid of all those disciplinary
restrictions which are essential to a class lesson. Nor does the fact that
the characters, events, and descriptions are often fictitious detract appre-
ciably from this, for they are often accurately suggestive or true in kind.
Historic facts may be dressed up with such intense personal reality as to
-give the book an air of authentic narrative, an example of which may be
■seen in Defoe'' s Memoirs of a Cavalier, or the same author's Journal of
the Great Plague of London. They often give those true pictures of the
everyday life and manners of the past which limited time and other
obstacles very often keep out of the school lesson. Nor is the literary
merit of the book wasted. The appreciation of this may be beyond the
average capacity of the class, but the subtle influence of good models of
style will show itself sooner or later to the lasting advantage of the reader.
It is true that the diet is a mixed one, compounded of fact and fiction, and
it is equally true that authors often fill up the rents of time with matter of
their own invention. But this is hardly a weakness, and it is certainly
not an unpardonable offence. For it all aims at the same goal as the
teacher in seeking to implant a love for the subject among the
people.

Good historic novels tend to elevate the tone of the people, and this
influence is brought to bear in this case at the most plastic and impression-
able period of life. As civilisation gradually subdues the violent passions
and impulses of society, the historic novel, among others, is more and
more called into use to give an even and detailed development, not only
of incident, but also of sentiment. Such books may present heroes whose

APPENDIX.

36^

courage, sentiments of honour, chivalry, and delicacy must have a good
ethical effect upon their readers. In the case of children, the moral
influence of the book, like its literary influence, may not show immediate
fruit. Children are too young to take delight in the delicate light and
shade and the knowledge of human sentiments and passions they display,
but they are going through a process of unconscious cultivation on these
points also, and their passions are earnestly enlisted on the side of
virtue. Furthermore, many of them are characterised by good sense and
a clear moral aim. They may also embody social speculations and
aspirations which may help to form the habit of serious reflection, and
they will furnish instances of genuine feeling, together with life-like
impersonations of manly and womanly character in all ranks.

A few historic novels are now named, but with no intention of limit-
ing the teacher's choice. Most teachers will be able to vary, increase, or
improve the list. They are merely offered as some sort of a suggestive
aid to the younger teachers whose range of reading is naturally assumed
to be somewhat narrower than that of their older colleagues.

Name of Book.

Author.

Period.

Harold

Lytton

Harold

Hereward the Wake

Kingsley
E. S. Holt

William I.

Lady Sybils Choice

Crusades

Betrothed

Scott

„

Talisman

Ivanhoe

Richard I.

The Days of Bruce

Grace Aguilar

Edward II.

The Constable of the Tower

Ainsworth

Edward III.

White Company

Conan Doyle

Mistress .Margery

E. S. Holt

Lollards |

Red and White

Wars of the Roses

Last of the Barons

Lytton

„

Armourer's Apprentices

C. Yonge

Henry VII. or VIII.

Windsor Castle

Ainsworth

Henry VIII.

Henry VIH.

„

For the Master's Sake

E. S. Holt

Queen Mary

Cardinal Pole

Ainsworth

„

Westward Ho

Kingsley

Elizabeth

Monastery and the Abbot

Scott

Mary, Queen of Scots

Kenilworth

Elizabeth

Sister Rose (St. Barth.)

E. S. Holt

„

Unknown to History

C. Yonge

„

Fortunes of Nigel

Scott

James I.

Guy Fawkes

Ainsworth

„

Spanish Match
The Caged Lion

C. Yonge

„

Ovtngdean Grange

Ainsworth

Charles I.

Legend of Montrose
Woodstock

Scott

Civil War

Edna Lyall

Civil War and Commonwealth

In the Golden Days

Charles II.

Peveril of the Peak

Scott

Old St. Paul's

Ainsworth

Plague of London

Defoe

„

Miclb Clarke

Conan Doyle

James II.

James 11.
Preston Fight

Ainsworth

„

George I.

Barnaby Kudge

Dickens

Cordon Riou

The Romance of War

James Grant

Peninsular War

■iorlM iB XnflUh History: th«ir Pr«pMra*imi and D«-

— Where History it taught as a Class Subject, the work of the

370 APPENDIX.

first three years is practically confined to the relating of stories fi-om
English History. Plenty of scope is left to the teacher in the choice of
the incidents, and a number of stories are mentioned as suitable. The
teacher is at liberty to adopt a new set of stories for each year, or he may
adopt the Concentric Method and deal with the same stories with ex-
pr.nding fulness each year. Fresh stories bring fresh interest, but, rightly
handled, the Concentric Method will bring added interest. The one
method widens the interests and sympathies, the other intensifies them ;
the one gives breadth, the other depth ; hence, ever remembering that
one of the teacher's chief aims is to implant a love for the subject, either
method, in the hands of a skilful teacher, can be made very profitable.

But the teacher is not going to be a successful narrator without pre-
paration and training. To make such lessons a success, they must be
delivered extempore, or with no greater aid than a few " peg " notes. For
young teachers, with limited powers and attainments, it will be especially
desirable that they should audibly rehearse the lesson during the time
devoted to its preparation. If they are not prepared to take this necessary
trouble, they are strongly advised to leave the lessons alone, for a stum-
bling, halting, or timid delivery is most likely to destroy the primary
object for which such lessons are given.

Assuming the teacher to be well prepared with the subject matter, his
manner and style of delivery will next need attention. I'he " personal
equation " enters strongly here, and handicaps him favourably or other-
wise. It is probably no exaggeration to say that a certain amount of
dramatic ability is essential for success. A mechanical drone in a slightly
changing monotone is nothing more nor less than a soporific to young
children, and must never be indulged in by the teacher on any account.
A noisy delivery deadens with its din, to say nothing of the harm it does
the teacher himself. It is true that all are not gifted alike in that bright
and vivid style of narration so necessary to this type of lesson, yet, the
greater the need, the greater the effort demanded, and that effort must be
made. The teacher must enter into the situation of his hero, take on his
emotions, and fairly interpret them to the class, and this will entail the
cultivation of a sympathetic nature and good vocal control. The aid of
gesture and the vivifying " historic present ^^ should not be forgotten, for
they enable the teacher to bring his hero or his incidents from the dim
obscurity of the past into the vitalising atmosphere of the present.

Language will be the next difficulty. The vocabulary and style
which suit the boy of seven will not fit the child of eleven. In young
children there is a common desire to cast off the baby element at the
earliest possible moment, and nothing is more likely to chill the interest of
the class than language which innocently snubs their self-esteem. On the
other hand, there must be no shooting above their heads in the desire to
spare their hearts. Perhaps the best course to follow will be to consult
some of the best of the Historical Readers in use in the schools, and to
study the styles of language used there for each standard, and, speaking
generally, it will be wise if the bulk of the preparation is done from such
books for lessons of this kind.

When preparing the lesson the choice of the subject matter may some-
times present difficulties. Voting teachers err on the side of too much rather
than too little. They are too anxious to make their lessons exhaustive
rather than suggestive and instructive. Where good Historical Readers
are available this difficulty disappears. But where aids of this kind are not
available, such incidents should be chosen as are most likely to interest

APPENDIX. 371

the class, and to unobtrusively suggest some moral lesson. Accuracy is
desirable, but not absolutely essential in the earlier lessons, and, conse-
quently, the teacher may make some use of the stories interwoven in our
ballads and legends (see page 296).

The material and artistic element in the lesson should not be
neglected. Toys, models, historic relics, maps, pictures, etc., should all be
pressed into the service of the lesson where opportunity offers. Visits
to museums, public and historic buildings (such as old castles, walls,
gates, churches, etc.), should be made, and, generally, every suitable
and obtainable objective aid should be utilised.

The Teachings of Social Questions.— The teaching of the social
life of the people opens up a wide field of work, but so far as these hints
are concerned, they are limited to such subjects as Clothing, Food, Dwell-
ings, and Amasements. The question of clothing only will be dealt with
here, but the other subjects might be treated in a similar way.

Clothing. — Questions like this, properly handled, may be made to
throw a flood of light on the social life of the people, and that, too, in a
way which is not only practical and interesting, but which permits some
exercise of the reasoning powers, brings out in vivid contrast the condition
of the people of to-day, and gives a good object lesson in that content-
ment which is an important factor in the abiding peace and prosperity
of any country. To make these points effective it will be necessary,
not only to describe the dress of " society," but that of the poorer classes
also. The dress of the labouring class in the " good old times " of song
and novel will be more interesting to the children of their successors than
that of any other class, and more profitable for making those comparisons
which ought to be a feature of all these lessons.

The dress of the period should be accurately described with the aid
of suitable pictures or drawings of sufficient size to be seen by the class.
These drawings might be prepared before the lesson, but the teacher is
wasting a good opportunity for arousing and maintaining interest if they
are not executed on the B.B. during the lesson. Each article could be
rapidly sketched as described, and it is worth the teacher's while to prac-
tise B.B. drawing for this and similar lessons. If a museum should be
near which contains the necessary specimens, the children should be taken
to see them. Similarly, any local collection of pictures containing the
necessary illustrations should be visited. This is the more necessary,
because B.B. sketching alone, although most desirable for individual gar-
ments, gives little or no idea of the general appearance of the dress as a
whole. But under any condition, the lesson should be either objective
or pictorial, or both. A lesson of this nature which is purely descriptive
is doomed to failure, Jwwever skilful the teacher may be at word painting.
The materials supplied to the children for their efforts of con.struciivc
imagination would be mere abstractions to them, and the completed
effort, if it could be known, would probably be inaccurate in every case.
Hence, such lessons, to be successful, must be objective and pictorially
illustrated.

Comparison and contrast might then be brought into play. Each
article might be compared or contrasted with its modern substitute or
modification, the points of likeness or unlikeness indicated, and the
necessary inferences made as to the greater or less degree of the suita-
bility of modern dress to climate and the altered conditions of life. The
lesson would thus receive a practical application, which should bring
something more than mental profit only.

37? . APPENDIX.

In preparing such lessons, the teacher will have to formulate a series
of questions which will make the mental demands desired, and lead up to
the practical results pointed out ; e.g., the following are suggestive rather
than exhaustive : —

1. Did it keep the body at a nearly uniform temperature, and that tempera-

. ture a suitable one ? Did it allow free play to the powers of the skin —
perspiration, absorption, and feeling? Was it woollen, cotton, silk,
linen, etc. ? With the poor people, did it change for the seasons, and
if so, to what extent? Was it adapted to the body? Did it allow the
body the full exercise of all its motions? The answers to such
questions, among other things, would reveal, not so much the
knowledge of the time as to the scientific principles which should
regulate clothing, but how far these principles were applied.

2. Was it showy, extravagant, or neat in its style? Did politics or creed

have any modifyiftg injiuence f Was there any marked difference in
its style or texture between the different grades of society, and if so,
how far was the quality of the dress considered a measure of social
standing? Was the difference in this respect more or less marked
then than now, and if so, why? Were there any laws regulating
dress, and if so, why ?

Give the average wage of the artisan and labouring classes, and, if
possible, the cost of living, including food, shelter, and clothing.
The class will then be in a position to infer the capacity of the poor
to clothe themselves, and their consequent comfort or discomfort in
winter.

The answers to such questions, aided by the information suggested,
would in some degree reveal the measure of the taste of the people,
and the degree of luxury indulged in by them. In neither case would
it be a sole test ; but in each a valuable and suggestive one. Here
again, contrast and comparison with the present should be utilised.

3. Was it varied, and if so, for what purpose? The answer to such a

question would again give much information on the social life and
.habits of the people, and a rich field of observation would be opened
out by a comparison or contrast with the varied dress of the present
day. Nor should the changed dress of the army and navy, the
reasons for such changes, and their relative degrees of suitability be
overlooked.

Obviously, the teacher will not be able to crowd all these points into
one lesson. A selection, both in kind and quantity, must be made and
thoroughly dealt with. A few points, well described, illustrated pictori-
ally, and well worked out with objective aids, will be far better than trying
to crowd in a mass of detail which only breeds weariness or gives mental
indigestion. It is necessary to emphasise this point, for it is this overcrowd-
ing of the subject matter which experience shows to be the most common
faxilt of y&ung teachers.

ENGLISH.

What is Word Building ?— Word building is a system of teach-
ing by means of a course of progressive lessons leading up from the
formation of simple sounds to the composition of words by means of
affixes and sufBxes, and may be considered to consist of two distinct
divisions : —

I, The building up of a single syllable., by assigning to it that combination
of letters which usage has determined to be the conventional representa-

APPENDIX.

373

tion of its sound, which is the true inductive method of teaching spell-
ing.
2. The combination of one or more of such syllables, of which a root word (i.e. ,
a word which cannot be reduced to a simpler form) is composed, with
suffixes and affixes, such as the formation of nouns from adjectives, as
heavy, heaviness ; thus giving a training in the use of language.

The former process by itself would lead to correct spelling in the
languages of countries which possess comparatively few cases of excep-
tional spelling. But the imperfections and the inconsistencies of our
English alphabet in representing many of the commonest sounds are so
numerous that it might almost be said that in English we virtually possess
two separate languages, a spoken language and a written language, the
one appealing to the ear, the other to the eye.

It is not possible, consequently, to separate the spelling of anoma-
lous "wrords entirely from word building^, because a purely phonetic
method of spelling English words cannot be used ; therefore, after dealing
with a group of words connected by a common spelling of the same
sound and so reducing a considerable number of English words to cer-
tain visible and intelligible principles, the teaching should embrace the
spelling of some few exceptional words of common use which convey the
same sound by a different combination of letters, though such instruction
lies quite outside the progressive course of lessons on word building. It
should be clearly understood that such lessons are subordinate to the word
building, and should not be considered as a real test of a good series of
word-building lessons. In selecting the exceptions to be taught, it would
be wise to select such anomalous words as are in common use.

A clear distinction may be helpfully drawn between the methods of
teaching groups of regular words formed by word building and exceptions
to the rules. In teaching, the former shoiild be spoken before they are
^vritten on the blackboard to connect more firmly the sound with its
ordinary combination of letters ; the latter should be written on the
blackboard before they are spoken, so that the teacher may be able to
disconnect the same combination from its ordinary pronunciation.

The Word- Building Lessons in infant schools may be usefully
restricted to the simple phonic teaching of the more common of the different
sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet. It should be possible in
infant schools to teach simple combinations which might include, for
example, all the simpler closed syllables, while relegating to the schools
for older scholars such difficult varieties of sound as are conveyed, for
instance, by the three sounds of the combination " ch " in chin, charade,
and chasm. But the chief part of the word building will, in the upper
schools, consist of the combination of root words with suffixes and affixes,
which might be progressive in difficulty, rising from such simple forms as
the more common terminations of nouns and adjectives and the suffixes
denoting gender to the formation of adverbs from adjectives or preposi-
tions, or other difficult combinations. There is no better exercise of
the inductive method of reasoning, nor one more intelligible and
interesting to young children, than verbal anaWsis, i.e., the exact inves-
tigation ofthe several parts of familiar words. The addition, for example,
ofthe suffixes en, er, est, ly, ish, and ness to the word sweet, and the use
of words so found in short sentences, will lead the scholars by simple in-
duction from these and other similar words to determine for themselves
the exact meaning of each suffix.

Any course of Word Building should embody the following rules :—

374 APPENDIX.

1. The classes of words proposed to be taught should be plainly set out in

progressive order, i.e., words that can be taught both through the eye and
the ear.

2, The ano7nalotiS zuoj-ds, or words which form exceptions to these rules,

which can be taught by the eye only, should be also set out in lists and
limited to words in common use.

Some freedom may be permitted as regards different modes of spell-
ing the same word, as inflexion and inflection, bylaw and byelaw, judg-
ment and judgement.

The Relative Value of English Grrammar. — Should English
Grammar be discontinued as a class subject, either wholly or partially,
and if so, how could Composition be best taught ? Probably, we are the
only nation in which the national language and literature are not absolutely
prescribed as one of the first, if not the first subject to be taught in
public (primary) schools, and we are bound to secure good English Com-
position, even if we discard the more refined technicalities of English
Grammar. Some think that Grammar should be taught in the lower part of
the school only. The question then arises, how best to secure a sufficient
acquaintance with the technical structure of simple sentences, supposing
that the more advanced technical teaching of parsing in the higher classes
is dispensed with ? The opposite question also arises, viz. : if the study
of grammar be deferred to the later years of school life, how is it possible
for the lower classes to acquire such an acquaintance with correct forms
of English sentences without the introduction of technical terms, so as to
secure a foundation on which to build the higher structure of more com-
plicated sentences ? {H.M. Chief Senior Inspector, Mr. Sharp.)

I. Its Retention in the School Curriculum. — The object here
aimed at is not to pronounce a judgment on this question, but to lay cer-
tain points and opinions before young teachers for their consideration.

1. Its Training Value.

[a) Although the capacity of thought is inborn in every human being,
nevertheless language is indispensable for the development of the
higher activity of intellect in the child, hence it is a fair inference that
" a more commanding knowledge of it than habit alone can give must
be deemed a necessity of education, and particularly of all education
which pretends to cultivate the mind ".

{b) It is one of the best, perhaps the very best, aids a scholar has to ab-
stract thinking. The point for the teacher to decide is whether he can
afford to dispense with this aid to the mental training of his scholars.
What substitutes are available? A course of Euclid, and a tracing of
the rules of Arithmetic and Algebra to first principles furnish the same
kind of training, but two of these subjects, in primary schools at least,
fall only to the few, whilst Graimnar falls to the many. If it becomes a
question of substitution, Euclid and Algebra could hardly be com-
menced at so early an age as Grammar, so that, whether it resolved
itself into substitution or elimination, there would seem to be a loss of
mental training so far as abstract thinking is concerned.

{c) It is a great aid to the cultivation of taste. It has been well asserted
that some training in language is necessary, and that no other lan-
guage is of such importance as a subject o<" school study, for no other
language has the same fulness of meaning for us, or the same power
of evoking feeling, as our own. Hence, its study seems necessary to
cultivate the appreciation of what is best in our literature.

{d) It has already been asserted (see page 277) that it is the logic of the
elementary school. Mr. Morell says that " the importance of train-

APPENDIX.

375

ing the mind to accurate logical thinking can hardly be over-estimated,
for although the logical faculty is not the highest faculty of the mind,
yet it is, of all others, the most practical ; that, namely, which is the
most directly necessary for the occupations and duties of daily life.
. . . The best preparation I believe to be a thorough, well-grounded
knowledge oi grammar, for all language is really Ixised upon a kind
of natural or intuitive logic, and to understand the structure of
language aright enables us to follow the workings of the understanding
as it has embodied itself in this symbolic form."

2. Its Practical Value.

i^a) See page 277, The Uses 0/ Grammar, i, 2, 3 and 5.

{d) Mr. Currie says : ' ' The study of grammar has an important bearing
on the pupil's practical acquisition of language. For since all its
rules are drawn from language as actually used, it is necessary that
correct examples should bo submitted to his observation, and that he
should try the language which he meets with by the rules which he
learns. Grammar thus furnishes him with a criterion for Judging of
the correctness of expressions, by which, on the one hand, his imita-
tion of those which are correct is more confident, intelli*?ent, and rapid,
and, on the other, he is fortified against the influence of incorrect ex-
amples."

{c) Locke says a gentleman ought to study grammar amongst the other
helps of speaking well, but it must be the grammar of his own tongue.

H. Its Partial Removal from the School Curriculum.

1. See page 277, Z)(]^rtt///« /« Teaching Grammar.

2. Professor Bain says : " Many persons are beginning to see the mistake

of commencing grammar with children of eight or nine years of age.
Experience must have impressed teachers with the futility of the
attempt. Simplifications of various kinds have lx;en tried, tasy ways
of presenting the subject have been suggested to commence with, the
difficulties being postponed. Unfortunately for such attempts, the
difficulties lie at the threshold, and cannot be evaded without render-
ing the entire subject a nullity. The Parts of Sfx'ech cannot be
understood at all unless they are understood fully."

3. Herbert Spencer says : " From the substitution of principles for rules and

the necessarily co-ordinate practice of leaving abstractions untaught
till the mind has t)een familiarised with the facts from which ihe^ are
extracted has resulted the postponement of some once early studies to
a late period. This is exemplified in the abandonment of that In-
tensely stupid custom, the teaching of grammar to children.

4. M. Marcel s.nys : " It may. without hi-sitation, Ik- aninncd tli.it grammar

Is not the stepping stone, but the finishing instrument ".

5. Mr. Wyse argues : "Grammar and Syntax are a collection of laws and

rules. Rules arc gathered from practice : they are the results of induc-
tion to which we come by long observation and comparison of facts.
It is, in fine, the science, the philosophy of language. In following the
process of nature, neither individuals nor nations ev<T arrive at the
8cien<xj!rs/. A language is spoken and poetry written many years
before either a grammar or a prosody is even thought of. Men did not
wait till Aristotle had constructed logic to reason." This nu%ins that,
as grammar was made after language, so it ought to be taught after
language.

JXL, Its Total Removal fk-om the School Ourrioulum.— Should
Grammar be totally removed from the class subjects, how could Compo-
sition best be taught ? As Mr. Sharp says, we arc bound to secure good
English Composition, even if we discard the more refined technicalitiet
of English Grammar.

376 APPENDIX.

1. Sir J. Fitch says : " The faults which occur in speech, the confusions,

the clumsy constructions, the misuse of words, and their mispronuncia-
tion are not, as a rule, sins against grammar, properly so called, and
are not to be set right by learning English accidence or syntax.
Accuracy is far more due to the daily influence of good example and to
frequent correction than to formal rules. The direct operation and
use of grammar rules in improving our speech and making it correct
can hardly be said to exist at all. For we all learn to speak the
English language in one fashion or another without the aid of books.
Some of the best and purest speakers of the language have either never
learned grammar, or are not in any way consciously guided to correct
speech by a knowledge of grammatical rules. They have learned to
use their own language by using it, by imitation and habit, and by the
fine intuition which has led them to imitate good models rather than
bad."

2. Locke says : " I would fain have any one name to me that tongue that any

one can learn or speak as he should do by the rules of grammar.
Languages were made, not by rules or art, but by accident and the
common use of people. And he that will speak them well has no other
rule but that, nor anything to trust to but his memory and the habit of
speaking after the fashion learned from those that are allowed to speak
properly, which, in other words, is only to speak by rote. There is
nothing more evident than that languages learnt by rote serve well
enough for the common affairs of life and ordinary commerce. There-
fore, to this use of language one may answer that Grammar is not
necessary. "

3. Professor Bain says: "All the usages of the language, including the

highest rules of correctness and propriety, may be imparted merely as
guidance in speaking and writing with exactness, there being no attempt
to cast them into a methodical shape or to reduce them under rational
explanations. This would be pure information ; the teaching of
language, so conducted, would be very useful, but would not be called
a mental discipline. Those persons that all their life have been asso-
ciated with only such as speak correctly and elegantly become cor-
rect and good speakers without any training at all."

4. Colet says : " Read and expound plainly unto your scholars good authors,

and show to them in every word and in every sentence what they shall
note and observe, warning them busily to follow and do like both in
writing and in speaking, and be to them your own self also, speaking
with them the pure Latin very present, and leave the rules; for i-eading
of good books, diligent information of learned masters, studious advert-
ence and taking heed of learners, hearing eloquent men speak, and
finally, busy imitation with tongue and pen more availeth shortly to get
the true eloquent speech than all the traditions, rules, and precepts of
masters ". This is written of Latin, but it is equally applicable, at least,
to English.

5. Read the Teaching of Composition, pages 303-305.

377

ADDITIONAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.

SCHOOL ECONOMY.

13'— Give a few good rules to be observed in school for the protection of the eye-
sight.

U— Describe any means by which " Thrift " may be encouraged among the children
of your class.

I5-— What are the advantages of having the various changes of lessons, etc., in
school executed by means of drill ? Describe a good desk drill.

DISCIPLINE.

26.— Show how school discipline may be useful in forming habits of punctuality and
prompt obedience to orders.

27.— Describe any means by which the interest of the parents of the children in the
school and its work may be awakened and sustained.

CLASSIFICATION.

13.— Make out a syllabus of work to be done by the end of the first quarter of the
school year for : —

(a) First Class, Infants, or

(6) The Fourth Standard.
14.— What are the principal advantages of having a good Time Table ?

CLASS TEACHING.

7.— It is often found that the answering in class subjects is confined to a few of the
children. What are the causes of this, and how would you remedy it ?

8. — Describe the examination which you would give in the various subjects to chil-
dren of the First Class in an Infant School.

OBJECT LESSONS.

i^.— What are the uses of a course of Object Lessons to Standard III. ? Make a
list of ten suitable lessons.

IV— Notes of Lessons on Tin; the Leaves of Trees; the Foot Rule (for iofantt);
• Railway Station (for infants).

KINDERGARTEN.

17. — Give examples of varied occupations tending to promote invention among
children from seven to ten years of age.

18.— Make out a list of six suitable occupations and games for babies, and describe
the manner in which you would conduct them.

19.— Write out a list of six infant school songs, witb actions, and describe io detail
bow you would teach one of them.

20.— Describe three or four good games (a) for infants or (b) for older scholars, io
the pLaygrouod, and say how you would teach one of them.

ARITHMETIC.
54.— How woold you teach children that—

l-f = 1 V i?

53. — What simple apparatus would you use in giving a first lesson on Fractions ?

36. — Explain in a simple but ratiotul way some method of taking 843 from 6i3t.

37. — State the rule for pointing io the multiplication of decimals, and justify this
rule.

38.— What is meant by concrete examples io Arithmetic ? Write out six that would
be taiuble :—

(n) For the Third Standard, or

(6) For the First Class in an Infant School.

39.— Frame some Questions in Menul Arithmetic for Standard II., having in view
the preparation for the Arithmetic of Standard III.

378 APPENDIX.

60 — Subtract 3948 from 6075, and explain each step clearly (as to a class) by the
method of Equal Additions or by that of Complementary Addition.
61.— Show by diagram that—

7 X 13 = 13 X 7.
62. — Define what is meant by the fractions | and ^f, and show by a diagram that

3, — 15

T — "JT-

63. — Divide 9173 by 39, and show, in the course of the working, as to a class of
young children, how to find : —

(a) The remainder after 39 has been subtracted from the dividend 200

times.

(b) How many times 39 has been subtracted when the remainder is 203.

64.— Explain the terms : average, measure, quotient, stock, percentage, present
worth.

65. — Show, as to a class of children beginning fractions, how to subtract -g- from ^,
explaining each step clearly.

66. — Give short notes of a first lesson in decimal fractions.

READING.

34. — Write down the explanations and illustrations which you would give of the
following words to children averaging seven years of age : Business, Rock, History,
Season.

35. — What use would you make of the B.B. in giving a Reading Lesson to children
in the Second Standard ?

36. — What do you consider are the advantages of children learning Recitation ?
How may these be secured ?
-• 37- — What explanation would you give to Standard VI. if reading the following? —
" It was not by vile loitering in ease
That Greece obtained the brighter palm of art.
That soft, yet ardent Athens learned to please.
To keen the wit, and to sublime the art,
In all supreme ! complete in every part !
It was not thence majestic Rome arose,
, And o'er the nations shook her conquering dart ;

For sluggard's brow the laurel never grows ;
Renown is not the child of indolent repose."

WRITING.

28. — What should be the minimum length of slate pencils ? What are the dis-
advantages of the use of very short ones? Give a description of any. pencil drill you
know.

HISTORY.

II. — Write out Notes of a Lesson on the Dress of the Sixteenth Century.
12. — Tell, as you would to a class of children averaging nine years of age, some
story from English History.

13.— Notes of a Lesson on the Union Jack.

ENGLISH.

16. — Write out Notes of a Lesson on the Relative Pronoun.

17.— In teaching Grammar, what should be the object of the teacher as regards
Mental Discipline ? How may this be attained ? Take a lesson to Standard IL on the
verb to illustrate your answer.

18. — At what stage in a lesson would you give a definition ? Show how you would
lead up to and work out the definition of an adjective to Standard III.

19. — Show how you would give a Word-building Lesson to an upper class on ety-
mological lines.

20. — Explain, as to the first class of a senior school, the different forms which the
object of a sentence may take, and write a short paragraph in illustration which shall
contain each of them.

21. — Give a sketch of a lesson on Word Building to Standard IV. Show how you
would make lessons on this subject helpful in regard to grammar.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE.
I.— By what simple experiments would you teach the composition of water ?

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