"HE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CAL [FORMA J'U T THE COLUMBIAN HISTORY EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. , \ Edited by JTW! STEARNS. Published under authority and by direction of the State Committee on Educational Exhibit for Wisconsin, 1893. U388 S3 PRESS OF THK EVENING WISCONSIN COMPANY, M1I.WAUKEK, WIS. w Table of Contents. PAGE. PREFACE VII A FEW GUIDING DATES ."" '.. vm INTRODUCTION 1 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN 9 EARLY SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN, BY REUBEN G. THWAITES 78 UNIVERSITIES, COLLEGES, ACADEMIES AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS The University of Wisconsin, by Prof. David B. Frankenburger. 86 Lawrence University, by Pres. C. W. Gallagher 117 Beloit College, by Prof/H. M. Whitney ".". 133 Ripon College, by Ex-Pres. Edward tf. Merrell 154 Milton College, by Pres. W. C. Whitford 189 Downer College, by Miss Imogene S. Webster 197 Carroll College, by Pres. W. L. Rankin 202 Wayland Academy, by Principal H. J. Vosburgh 21(1 Kemper Hall, Kenosha, by Sisters of St. Mary 222 Kenosha University School for Boys, by Principal N. Rowe.... 225 INSTITUTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS Pedagogy at the University of Wisconsin by Prof. J. W. Stearns. 22s The State Normal Schools, by Pres. A. Salisbury 231 The Teachers' Institutes, by'Hon. W. H. Chandler 294 The Wisconsin Teachers' Association, by Prof. J. W. Stearns... 305 Summer Schools for Teachers, by Prof/J. \V. Stearns 314 National German-American Teachers' Seminary, by Ernil Dapprich " 31" STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES The School for the Deaf, by Warren Robinson 322 The School for the Blind, by Supt, L. S. Pease 333 The Industrial School for Boys, by E. Dixon 348 The Industrial School for Girls, by Mrs. M. E. Lynde 350 Free Public Schools for the Deaf, "by Hon. R. C. Spencer 354 SPECIAL FORMS AND AGENCIES OF EDUCATION The Wisconsin Farmers' Institutes, by AV. H. Morrison 37S University Extension in Wisconsin, by Prof. F. J. Turner 391 The State Historical Society, by Sec'y Reuben G. Thwaites 395 The Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences, by Prof. Wil- liam H. Hobbs " ". 406 School Libraries in Wisconsin, by F. A. Hutchins 410 Citv Libraries in Wisconsin, by F. A. Hutchins 414 Milwaukee City Library, by Miss Theresa West 4.' Milwaukee Public Museum, by H. Nehrling 428 The Wisconsin Journal of Education, by Prof. J. W. Stearns.. 430 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS The Milwaukee Public Schools, by Prin. Patrick Donnelly 4:>i> The Green Bav Public Schools, by Mrs. Cornelia B. Field 46fi The Public Schools of Madison, bV Reuben G. Thwaites 47!> Racine City and Her Schools, bv H. G. Winslow 496 The Evolution of the Free School at Kenosha, by S. Y. Brande. 511 The Jauesville Public Schools, by Mary L. Beers 524 The Appleton Public Schools, by I. N.' Stewart 537 The Fond du Lac Public Schools. 'by Supt. Edward McLaughlin.. 541 The \Vaukesha Public Schools, by Theron W. Haight ">47 The Eau Claire Public Schools, by Rev. A. Kidder 554 III TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. The Public Schools of Florence, by Prin.E. D. Rounds .~><_>2 The The COUNTY SCHOOL SYSTEMS ce, uy r m.jn. u. -ivuu 1.115 !."> Milwaukee college (>'. (5-709 Northwestern university 64!t Oshkosh normal school" 265 Racine high school 497 Racine Lincoln school 499 Ripon college 155-171 River Falls normal school 267 St. Francis seminary 673 University of Wisconsin 84-113 Whitewater normal school 232 Wisconsin school for blind 337 Wisconsin school for deaf. 32: !, 32H Index of Persons. PAE. Adams, C. K 115 Albee, George S ... 271. 505 Allen, W. F 107 Anderson, W. E -T>:: Arey, Oliver 270 Barnard, Henry 96, 240-242, 298 Bascom, John.' 99 Beecher, Catherine 692, 698, 700 Bell, Alex. Graham 360-370 Benedicta, Mother 676, 677 Binner, Paul 357-373 Bodge, E. Sarah 19S Briggs, L. W 47.; Bristol, Sherlock 168 Brown, J. J 12s Cecilia, M 677 Chadbourne, P. A 59, 98 Chamberlain, T. C 102 Chapin, A. L.. 151 Clapp, Betsev M i itf; Clark, Robert H 620 Drapei, L. C 25), 398-400 Ely, Richard T 43, 107, 108 Farrar, Charles S 701-704 Flagg, Rufus C 181 Frame, Michael 17 Gerend, M. M 669, 672 Graham, Robert 264, 271, 300 Hale, John E "-'- Heiss, M 674 Henrv, W. A 107, 381 W. D 381 TABLE OF CONTENTS. INDEX OF PERSONS Continued. PAGE. Hutchins, A. S 217 Hyacintha, Mother 677, 680 Kuntz, C. C 612 Lapham, Increase A 21, 23, 324, 692, 706 Lau, F. C 447 Lay ton, Frederick Lawrence, Amos A 118 Linfield, George F 219 Lunn, ,T. T (506 Mapes, D. P 154 Mazzuchelli, Samuel 83, 470, 685 McAlister, James 448 McMynn, J. G 244, 249, 299, 503 Mean. Charles E 620 Merrell, E. H 174 Merriman, W. E 164-167 Morley, J. W 603 Mortimer, Mary 692-701 Peckham, George W 455 Pickard. J. L 298,580 Rankin, W. L 208 Root, Eleazer 44, 202, 233 Sabin, Ellen C 201 Salzmann, Joseph 671, 674 Schulz, W. H 609 Savage, John A 205 Searing, Edward 195 Sheldon, Mrs. S. L 393 Sherman. S. S 699 Smith, Hiram 114,380 Spicer, A. C 190, 195, 239 Sprague, A. R 509 Stearns, J. W 49, 271, 434 Teiry, J. H 606 Thayer, J. B 196, 272 Thomasina, Mother 678, 680 Tracy, Mrs. C. T 162, 173 Viebahn, C. F 604 Volland, A. J 509 Walcott, J. W 157-160, 168 Washburn, C. C 39, 112 Way, Daisy 371 Weld, A. H 625 Whitford,*W. C 191, 196 Winslow, H. G 507, 510 Wiswall, E. C : 607 Wood, N. E 219 Zeininger, August 674 VI Colonel flIMcbael jfranfc, Colonel Michael Frank is, in some respects, the most con- spicuous and the most deservedly honored surviving pioneer of those who founded the public school system of Wisconsin. Son of a German-born American soldier of the revolution born in New York state educated on his father's farm and self- tutored, he began his signally useful life as a champion of free- dom, and an advocate of temperance. At thirty-five he came to Wisconsin, settled at Kenosha, and at once became a leader in all movements looking to the education of the citizens of the territory. He secured the passage of the first bill (1845) to es- tablish public schools in Kenosha, then Southport. The meas- ure was defeated by vote of the people but next year carried, and thus became the nucleus of the public school system of Wisconsin. He was the first president of the village of Kenosha, in 1848, and the first mayor of the city, in 1850. Preceding 1847, as member of the territorial council, he proposed the steps nec- essary to admission as a state; and as one of three commission- ers shared the labor of revising and adapting the territorial laws to the state constitution. He framed the school laws of this state, which, by subsequent modification, constitute the school code of to-day. Previous training and experience as teacher and school officer in his native state prepared him for this important work; but his sterling good sense and noble pur- poses enlisted the confidence of those who entrusted to him these important duties. Besides being a member of the territorial and state legisla- tures, Colonel Frank has been regent of the state university, justice of the peace, county treasurer, postmaster and city school superintendent. On the 4th of July, 1826, he delivered the oration com- memorating the fiftieth anniversary of our national independ- ence at Virgil, X. Y., his native town, and on the 4th of July, 1876, at the celebration of the centennial anniversary at the same place in the same town, he was the "orator of the day." He is now spending the evening of his long and useful life with the wife, to whom he was married in 1837, Miss Cornelia J. Carpenter, of the town of Preble, X. Y. They reside at Keno- sha, their home for more than fifty years, among friends who love them, and who regard their presence as a benediction rest- ing upon the community. W. E. A. Preface. In the preparation of this volume the purpose has been to represent the principal forms and agencies of education at present operative in the state of Wisconsin. One difficulty of such an enterprise lies in the definition of education, which might readily be made to cover the principal activities of civilized life. For the purposes in hand, however, the term must be taken to mean the schools and the agencies most nearly cognate to them. Thus we exclude the history of the press of the state, while admitting that portion of it especially devoted to the service of the schools. More- over, the volume does not seek to be exhaustive, and to each division of it many additions might readily be made. The plan of contributions by a large number of persons involves repetitions, some of which cannot very well be removed. The arrangement is necessarily somewhat arbitrary. Several papers might appear under two or three of the divisions. For example, Lutheran and Catholic schools might be, for the most part, distributed among the other divisions of the volume, but it has been judged more useful and satisfactory to exhibit them by themselves, as well organized and toler- ably complete systems. Even with this plan inconsistencies occur. Not only were many of the earlier schools, an account of which is given in several of the papers, either Catholic or Lutheran, but in one case at least, that of Green Bay, it has seemed best to leave undisturbed the treatment of these in connection with the educational history of the city. In fact, the arrangement of topics, which interlock in so many ways, must seek to be suggestive and convenient rather than logical. The general historical sketch of the educational history of the state has been prepared, under my direction, by Miss E. Helen Blair, a student in the school of economics and history at the state university, to whose industrious investi- gations must be attributed whatever value it may possess. It is believed that it will be found especially satisfactory in its treatment of the history of the educational funds of the state. VII A Few Guiding Dates. 1634. The country explored by Jean Nicolet from Lake Michigan up the Fox river. 1669. Father Allouez established a mission on Green bay, locating at DePere, 1671. 1700. LeSueur discovers lead mines in southwestern Wis- consin. 1718-21. Fort St. Francis erected at Green Bay. 1760. Fall of New France, leaving Wisconsin a possession of England. 1766. White traders settle permanently at Green Bay. 1791. James Porlier taught at Green Bay. 1809. Illinois territory, including the present state of A\ 7 is- consin, organized. 1815. United States trading post established at Green Bay. 1817. First regular school at Fort Howard, for children of the garrison. 1818. Wisconsin attached to Michigan territory. 1824. First term of United States circuit court held at Green Bay. 1827. Rush of settlers to the lead region. 1829. First school of children of white settlers at Mineral Point. 1832. Black Hawk Avar. 1836. Territory of Wisconsin organized. First school opened at Milwaukee. 1837. The legislature establishes the university of the ter- ritory of Wisconsin. 1846. First city school in Milwaukee. Charter of Beloit col- lege granted. 1847. Charter of Lawrence university granted. 1848. Wisconsin admitted as a state. 1849. Ground broken for the first railroad in Wisconsin. First building of Ripon college begun. 1850. Preparatory school of the University of Wisconsin opened. 1853. Wisconsin teachers' association organized. 1856. The Bashford-Barstow trouble. 1857. First railroad to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien opened. 1859. Teachers' institutes established by law. 1861. First county superintendents elected. Fort Sumter bombarded. 1866. First normal school opened at Platteville. 1875. First free high school law. VIII Introduction. An introduction to this volume would be unnecessary had not an accident prevented the insertion of these para- graphs at the close of the general sketch of the history of education in "Wisconsin, where they properly belong. In order to make that sketch as complete as possible they are added here : XVI. COMPULSORY EDUCATION. The attendance on the public schools of the state has never been wholly satisfactory. In 1849 it was only 46 per cent., the highest in any county being 75 per cent., of the total school population. The next year reports indicated an attendance of 67 per cent. ; but at that time reports were very defective and of little actual value. The attendance in I860 remained the same. There was considerable discussion among educators, from year to year, as to the desirability of a law for compulsory education ; and this was recom- mended to the legislature by a committee of the state teach- ers' association in 1865, and again in 1867. The first step taken by the legislature was in 1873, when a resolution of the assembly directed the state superinten- dent to investigate the subject of compulsory education, reporting thereon to the legislature. His report shows that the number of illiterates in Wisconsin, ten years old and over, in 1870, was 55,441, of whom 41,328 were of foreign birth. Of these, 14,538 were between the ages of ten and twenty-one ; and only 65 per cent, of the school population were enrolled in the public schools. After making all allowances for the attendance on private schools, etc., the report shows that between 40,000 and 50,000. children in the state were not attending any school whatever, in 1873.* This report elicited much interest and discussion, differ- ences of opinion prevailing as to the desirability of a com- pulsory law. The immediate result was an enactmentf by the legislature, authorizing cities to establish truant schools for children between the ages of seven and sixteen^ *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1S73, p. to. fLaws, 1873, Ch. 270. l 2 INTRODUCTION. who might be committed thereto by courts or justices. As might be expected, this was inoperative and practically use- less. From year to year the need of better legislation in this direction became more apparent. In 1879 almost 34 per cent, of the school population were not enrolled in schools of any kind and the school attendance was even less than in the preceding year.* A compulsory law was finally passed in 1879.f It was entitled " an act to secure to children the benefit of an ele- mentary education," and provided that all children between the ages of seven and fifteen should be sent to some school, either public or private, for at least twelve weeks in each school year. Fines were imposed on parents or guardians neglecting to send such children, except in cases where the child might be mentally or physically unfit for school, or where its labor was necessary for the support of indigent parents. This law is of especial interest because it originated, not with teachers and school officers, but with business men and some of the leading politicians in the state. During the first year of its operation, the school attendance was increased by nearly 10,000, of whom 8,000 attended the public schools.! The effect of the law was to increase the attendance of chil- dren between seven and fifteen, though the percentage of such attendance has slightly decreased each year ; but the attend- ance for the whole number of school age, especially in the cities, has become noticeably smaller. In 1888 this percent- age had decreased to 58.7. One reason for this is the smaller school attendance of very young children, many parents preferring to keep their children at home until they are six years of age. Another, and a principal cause in cities, is the early age>at which children must often go to work. It was estimated that in Milwaukee fully 80 per cent, of the chil- dren leave school by the age of thirteen. The predomi- nance of a foreign-born element in the population of Wis- consin, as compared with most other states, is another matter to be considered partly as - accounting for many of the illiterates, partly as leading to the support of more private schools. But, after making all allowances for the number attending private schools, there is no doubt that the benefits of the public schools should reach many more than they do, *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1879, p. 55. tLaws, 1879, Ch. 121. JSupt. Pub. Instr., 1879, p. 237; 1880, p. 36. Rep. Mil. Sch. Bd., 1882, p. 24. INTRODUCTION. .'I and that thousands of children are unjustly deprived of even an elementary education. Such considerations as these led to the passage, in 1889, of a compulsory education law,* intended as a substitute for the act of 1879, and popularly known as the " Ben- nett law." Its provisions were more stringent than those of the former act, and required attendance at school, for not less than twelve or more than twenty-four weeks in the year, of every child between seven and fourteen, under penalty of fine for every neglect of such duty by parent and guardian. Jurisdiction to enforce these penalties was conferred on jus- tices of the peace and police magistrates, and habitually truant pupils were to be committed as dependent children. Xo child under thirteen was to be employed or allowed to work in any shop, factory, mine, or place of business. Xo school should be regarded as a school under this act unless there should be taught therein reading, writing, arithmetic, and United States history, in the English language. This law, on account of various political complications, and opposition on the part of those interested in private schools, was repealed in 1891, and an act passed in its place which made parents and guardians responsible for the schooling of children under their care, between the ages of seven and thirteen, for twelve weeks in each year, unless in some other way the child should receive the equivalent of such instruction. School officers are required to enforce the law, and truant children are obliged to attend school. The difficulties of enforcing compulsory laws are very great, and have been felt in all parts of the Union. The need of them in Wisconsin is, fortunately, by no means so urgent as our school statistics may seem to indicate, since the extreme range of school age, from four to twenty, justifies a much lower percentage of attendance than would be tolerable if the range were from six to fifteen years of age. XVII. TEXT BOOK LEGISLATION. One great difficulty in the way of the fullest success of our common schools has arisen from the diversity of text books. This was, of course, most noticeable in the early years, when schools were scattered and isolated, and the books brought by children of immigrant families from a score of other states were the onlv ones available. In the state su- * Laws, 1889, Ch. 519. 4 INTRODUCTION. perintendent's report for 1854 one may note the reports from towns in all parts of the state, showing the variety of text books in the school. "The books most used comprise a list of fifteen different spelling books, eighteen readers, ten geogra- phies, fifteen arithmetics and twenty grammars; and it is be- lieved that if all the school books in use were known, they would comprise a list nearly as extensive as that reported in Connecticut a few years ago, which in the five studies named included the works of 191 different authors." Similar complaints were made year after year, by teach- ers and superintendents, of the unnecessary multiplication of classes and consequent loss of time to the teacher; and, by the parents, of the high price and frequent changes of books. Occasionally, towns or districts purchased all the books needed for their schools, thus securing a considerable discount, and cheapening the cost to the parents, but no concerted or general action was taken to secure either lower prices or uniform series of books in different towns. The evident necessity for such action, and the success of such legislation in other states, gradually led to the consideration of the question of free text books. A city superintendent made a study of this latter subject, and ascertained that "on the plan of pupil ownership of text books in a Wisconsin city with a school membership of several hundred pupils, the average cost per capita per annum in all grades primary to high school inclusive is $2.30. The same cost in Lewiston, Maine, with a school membership of 3,064 pupils, on a plan of government ownership of text books, is fifty-eight cents." * An exhaustive report of the state superintendent on this sub- ject, in 1874, resulted in the passage of a bill in the following year, which authorized districts, towns, villages or cities to purchase text books for the use of the public schools, retain- ing the ownership of the books, and loaning or other- wise furnishing them to the pupils. f In 1876 the reports showed that 267 districts had purchased books under this act; 137 districts loaned the books, and 130 sold them to the pupils. These numbers have steadily increased from year to year until, in 1892, there are 3,525 districts which have adopted a list of text books : 2,258 purchase books; 1,048 loan them, and 1,250 sell them to pupils. Sev- eral of the cities do likewise. The system has thus far met with favor, and is gradually becoming more prevalent. It * Supt. Pub. lustr. 1874. pp. xxxii-liii. j Laws, 1875, Ch. 315. INTRODUCTION. 5 saves money and time, increases attendance, and exerts a beneficial influence on the character of pupils.* A text-book commission was appointed by the legisla- ture of 1878, to investigate the subject of uniformity in text books. They submitted at the next session an elaborate report, fully discussing the subject, and giving the results of the legislation therein on other states. They also recom- mended a law which should encourage uniformity in text books throughout the state and secure cheaper prices from publishers ; and reported in favor of reform in English or- thography, suggesting that such reform be adopted by the state in its schools whenever it should be embodied in a prac- tical system, likely to enlist the co-operation of other states. The report seems to have been pigeon-holed in legislative halls for several years, but it has had an indirect influence on subsequent legislation. The revised statutes of 1878 re- quired district boards to determine what books should be used in their schools; but the authority of a board to pur- chase books depends on the votes of electors at the annual district meeting. A law of 1887, modifying the statute of 1875, provides that at every such annual meeting the ques- tion of furnishing free text books, and of levying a tax to pay for them, shall be submitted to the voters. Text books once adopted cannot be changed for three years (except in districts furnishing free text books to all the pupils); and this provision applies also to boards of education in cities. XVIII. SCHOOLS FOR DEPENDENT CLASSES. The first school established by the state for the benefit of the unfortunate was the institute for the blind, at Janesville, a school opened in 1849, by citizens of that place, but adopted, and thenceforth supported by the state, February 9, 1850. It aims to give a common school and industrial training to blind children, and has enabled many of these unfortunates to become self-supporting. The school for deaf mutes has a similar origin and record. The private school at Delavan was made a state institute in 1852. Public schools for deaf-mutes were also opened (in ac- cordance with chapter 315, laws of 1885) at Milwaukee, La Crosse and Oshkosh. The last two were opened in 1888 and 1890 respectively, each with six pupils. The Oshkosh school * Supt. Pub. Instr., 1892. INTRODUCTION. seems to have been discontinued, but one has been opened at Wausau. The present attendance is as follows : Milwaukee, 42 pupils; Wausau, 5, and La Crosse 8. Another school will probably be opened soon at Manitowoc. In 1857 was established the industrial school for delin- quent and incorrigible boys, at Waukesha, its first building being opened in 1860. It was at first operated on the con- gregate system ; but later the boys were divided into small families, living in cottages a plan much more satisfactory in its results. Many of these boys have become good and respected citizens, and have been well equipped for the duties of life by the industrial training received in this school. The Wisconsin industrial school for girls was organized in April, 1875, the legislature appropriating $15,000 for its main building ; while the city of Milwaukee gave it eight acres of land, valued at $20,000. This school, unlike other similar institutions, is not managed by the state, but by a board of women who are incorporated as a society. It places out such of the girls as can be trusted to leave its care, usually in country homes ; and incorrigible girls are kept till they are of age, and instructed in domestic occupations by which they may earn a living when dismissed from the school. At both these industrial schools were many children, committed for no fault, but simply because they had no homes or guardians. For a long time it was felt that these children should not be placed in the same category with the wayward and incorrigible ; and to meet their needs the state public school for neglected and dependent children was opened at Sparta, November 13, 1886. From that date to September 30, 1888, the school received 301 pupils 184 boys and 117 girls between the ages of three and fourteen. These children are instructed, while in the school, according to the course and methods of the graded schools in the state ; but they are placed in families as soon as good homes can be found for them. A kindergarten was organized here in At the close of the civil war, it became necessary to pro- vide for many penniless orphans of Wisconsin soldiers. The women of Madison collected $12,000 and secured from the secretary of war the use of the government buildings near Third Lake ; and in January, 1866, the Soldiers' Orphans' Home was opened. In the following March it became a state institution, the legislature appropriating $10,000 for the pur- chase of the building from the federal government. A INTRODUCTION. 7 school house costing $12,000 was erected in 1868. The home was closed in 1875, and the property transferred to the uni- versity regents, who sold it in the following year. During the thirteen years of its existence, it sheltered 683 children, the largest number at any one time being 266. Its classes were graded like those of a public school ; and twenty of the pupils, who wished to become teachers, were sent to the state normal schools for the full course of study, besides their in- struction at the home. The appropriations made by the leg- islature for its support aggregated $342,300. Certain bequests received by the trustees, in 1871 and 1872, were invested in behalf of the orphans, each of whom received from this fund $55 on coming of age.* XIX. ACADEMIES AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS. Of the numerous academies, seminaries and colleges chartered in the pioneer days of Wisconsin but few have survived to the present time, though in many cases they served as foundations on which other educational enterprises have since arisen. The academic system of New England was transplanted to Western soil by our early settlers, and for a time appeared to flourish. But certain unfavorable in- fluences, both within and without, gradually caused its par- tial decay. The strongest of these was doubtless the attitude of the state toward education. The congressional grants of lands to the states of the Northwest territory made this atti- tude one of protection and encouragement, but at the same time one of authority and control. It is true, nearly a gen- eration passed before this fact was thoroughly recognized by the people. Still, by 1865, they had become accustomed to the idea of state direction of education, and the subsequent growth of the university, and of the high schools in the cities and villages, fully reconciled them to the plan and en- listed for it their sympathies. Another reason for the ill-success of academies and seminaries was the fact that many of them were denomina- tional in their management. Each denomination wished to support its own institution ; and so there was a multiplicity of feeble schools, as of churches, because the energies of re- ligious organizations were scattered instead of being concen- trated on a few strong institutions. This same religious ten- dency largely Protestant prevented the academic institu - *Supt. Pub. Instr. 1872, p. 263 ; 1879, pp. 46, 279. INTRODUCTION. tions from receiving the support of the foreigners who so rapidly increased the population in later years. These schools were also seldom endowed, and the early poverty of the people made their support at first meagre. But these institutions, often the result of heroic struggles to secure a higher education, were of great benefit to the people, supplying the opportunity for a better education than the public schools then afforded. They helped to keep alive the moral and intellectual life of the people ; and the self- sacrifice and devotion of their teachers cultivated, refined, scholarly men and women, often overworked and underpaid exerted a strong influence in shaping the characters of their students. Reports from these institutions have been made to the state superintendent since 1865; but in many cases the reports have not been full or complete, and it is difficult to give any satisfactory account of their condition as a whole. In 1879 the superintendent reported that there were twenty- five incorporated academic institutions in the state, and that they were yearly surrendering to the influence and work of the public high schools. The same official, in 1880, estimated that the whole amount expended that year for the support of collegiate institutions, outside the state university, was $120,263.02, and, for other private institutions, over $130,000. Reports made to his office showed 351 private schools not in- corporated, with 411 teachers and 9,659 scholars, and in- comes amounting to $43,109.34. The state superintendent reports, for 1892, sixteen col- leges, academies and seminaries, with 755 preparatory stu- dents, 875 in regular classes, and 541 special students; 144 graduates in that year, and 1,856 graduates since organiza- tion; and over 75,000 volumes in their libraries. The leading academic institutions are as follows : Car- roll college, Waukesha, Presbyterian, organized in 1846; Wayland academy, Beaver Dam, Baptist, 1845 ; St. Francis seminary, St. Francis (near Milwaukee), Roman Catholic, 1856 ; German and English academy, Milwaukee, 1850 ; Milwaukee academy, Milwaukee, 1864; Milwaukee college for women, Milwaukee, 1848; Nashotah house, Nashotah, Episcopalian, 1847 ; St. Clara's academy, Sinsinawa Mound, Catholic, 1847. Full and accurate reports of unincorporated private schools are not available ; but it is estimated that their en- rollment, including the parochial schools, numbers nearly 70,000 pupils. General Sketch of Educational History. I. HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT OF WISCONSIN. From the long and bitter struggle of the revolutionary war arose a new nation, and the thirteen colonies became the United States of America. To the original limits of the states were added, at various times, enormous tracts of land, notable among which was the vast Northwest territory, extending northward from the Ohio river to the Great Lakes, and westward to the Mississippi. Originally explored by Nicolet and other adventurous Frenchmen,* this great region early came into the nominal possession of France ; but she was compelled in 1763 to relinquish it to her more powerful rival, England. The tenure of British authority there was. however, a short one, lasting only twenty years ; and with the treaty of Paris, in 1783, the sway of England south of the Great Lakes came to an end. The war of independence gave the newly-formed states an opportunity to extend their borders by aggressions on the provinces hitherto held by Great Britain ; and the lands of the Northwest territory were claimed by Massachusetts. Connecticut and Virginia. These claims, however, were gradually withdrawn in favor of the Federal government, and in 1784 an act of Congress made temporary provision for the government of the territory. Not until three years later was it duly organized, and the authority of the United States established over its inhabitants. The ordinance of 1787, "the Magna Charta of the states of the great Northwest," made two magnificent promises to the new territory, which have been nobly kept. One was a perpetual guarantee of human freedom; the other declared that "schools and the means of education should forever be encouraged." Both were safeguards for the future ; but the latter demanded immediate action and material support. For its fulfillment Congress made generous provision. *Ttnvaites' Story of Wisconsin, pp. 19-35. 9 10 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. The land ordinance of 1785, which provided for a proper survey and disposal of the great Northwest territory, declared that " there shall be reserved the lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within the said township." This reservation was reaffirmed in the " powers to the board of treasury," authorizing the sale of Ohio lands in connection with the ordinance of 1787.* The idea originally entertained by Congress, in making the grant of the sixteenth sections, was to give each town- ship the exclusive benefit of its own section. Some of the states had acted on this idea, and the result was that some townships secured a much larger fund than others from the sale of the lands, while in many cases much of the avails was lost or squandered. f In Wisconsin, during its territorial existence, the sixteenth section might only be leased by the township to which it belonged, and the income used for .school purposes; but when admitted to the Union, the state became empowered to sell or otherwise transfer the lands themselves. About two-thirds of the Northwest territory was set off in 1800, under the name of Indiana territory, including what is now the state of Wisconsin. Another subdivision occurred in 1809, when Wisconsin was transferred to Illinois . territory. In 1818, Illinois became a state, and Wisconsin was assigned to Michigan territory. The birth of Wisconsin as a political unit occurred April 20, 1836, when Congress created a territory under that name, including not only our present state, but Iowa, Minnesota and part of Dakota. That portion of the territory which comprises the present state consisted of four counties Brown, Crawford, Iowa and Milwaukee. According to the census taken at this time, the inhabitants of these counties numbered 11,683.| With a population of this size, it will readily be seen, that, scattered and often isolated though the people might be, there must have already arisen the need of in- struction for their children, and various efforts must have been made to meet that need. For the earliest endeavors our attention naturally re- verts to the French explorers, missionaries and traders who first opened up the lake region and the Mississippi valley. Their first permanent settlement in Wisconsin was made at *H.insdale's Old Northwest, p. 276. fSmith's Education in Michigan, 1880, p. 17. tTuttle's History of Wisconsin, p. 191. (.KXKKAI. SKKTCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTOKY. 11 Green Bay, in 1745 ; but missionary stations had been main- tained since 1670, by the French Jesuits, at La Pointe, De Pere and Prairie du Chien.* At these centers some instruc- tion was given to the Indians and their children, but, of course, it was mainly religious ; and of schools proper there seem to have been none worthy of note till the early part of this century. The first of these were private schools for the children of French families, many of which had grown wealthy by this time in the fur trade. Many of these French traders sent their children to the schools of Quebec, Montreal and Detroit, and to Catholic schools in Illinois. In 1816 military posts, occupied by Federal troops, were established at Fort Howard and Prairie du Chien, and in 1828 at Fort Winnebago, near the Portage City of to-day. At these places, under the direction of the commanders of the garrisons, post schools were formed, for the children of officers and of the settlers who lived in the vicinity. Special efforts were early made by the government and by various religious societies to educate and Christianize the Indian population. Chief among these was the school started in 1823, opposite Green Bay, by the missionary society of the Episcopal church. It was intended for white and half-breed children, though later it took in pupils of full Indian blood, and was under the direction of Rev. Eleazar Williams, later known as the pretended Dauphin of France.f Before its territorial organization Wisconsin had not, excepting the French settlers and traders, any very strongly marked element of population. But the Black Hawk war directed the attention of people in the Eastern States to the vast and almost unex- plored region between the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, and a great tide of American immigration soon set in thither- ward. This was greatly accelerated by the financial crisis of 1837, which spread panic and disaster throughout the Union. Thousands of industrious, intelligent American fami- lies came to Wisconsin from 1834 to 1840, to repair their broken fortunes, or to secure a better start in life than was now possible at the East. They settled along the shores of Lake Michigan, along Lake Winnebago and the Fox river, and on the fertile prairies of the Rock river valley. Then they spread down the shores of the Wisconsin and of the upper Mississippi rivers, and up the valleys of the streams tributary to the latter. In all these regions were then laid *Th\vaitfs' Story of Wisconsin, p. 4S. tWhitford's Education in Wisconsin, p. 14. 12 GKNKRAL SKETCH OF KDICATIONAL. HISTORY. the foundations of now thriving and prosperous cities and villages of Wisconsin. Other nationalities came into this "promised land" soon afterward, and, indeed, in later years often replaced the original settlers ; but the early character of the state was largely shaped by these American pioneers. This new class of inhabitants brought with them churches, newspapers and schools, and other tokens of that distinctively American civilization which, during the pre- ceding century, had subdued the New England wilderness and surmounted the barrier of the Alleghanies ; which had established a democratic government at the threshold of the New World, as a protest against monarchical oppression in the Old ; which had laid, even in tears and blood, the foun- dation stones of a great nation ; and which was building thereon, in a mighty zeal for freedom and native land, a state which should become the beacon and refuge of the oppressed in all lands. Much of the spirit which animated those founders of the Union came to Wisconsin with the American pioneers ; and along with human liberty, freedom of speech, and unfettered conscience, they guaranteed free education for their children. It is mainly to their intelligence and fore- sight that Wisconsin owes her present high rank among lier sister states, and her unsurpassed system of instruction for the people. It is difficult for us to realize the disadvantages of the pioneers in establishing those early schools. The virgin soil and unbroken forest offered grand opportunities for industrial success, but only at the price of hard toil and long, patient waiting. Still must men struggle with Nature and subdue her, though here her aspect was less stern than it had been to the voyagers of the Mayflower. But, with all their privations, they gave what they could from scanty means for the education of their children ; and, wherever a settlement was formed, a school was established. In hun- dreds of localities the little private school, gathered from the children of a few neighboring families, was the beginning of the public school, which was provided in place of the former as soon as the community could meet the expense.* II. EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORIAL PERIOD. No school system, or general legislation for that end, was possible until the territorial organization of Wisconsin *VVlutford, p. .>. GKNKKAI. SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL IIISTOKY. 13 \vas effected, in 1836. Up to this time she had, as a part of Michigan, been subject to the laws of that territory, and her schools were nominally governed by the Michigan code. But, as a matter of fact, only one public school had yet been organized by law within the bounds of Wisconsin. It was opened in the autumn of 1836, in Milwaukee, in that part of the city now known as the Second ward. As the first legis- lature met soon afterward, and thus assumed responsibility for the schools of the new territory, this school in Milwaukee was the first and only school in Wisconsin organized under the Michigan law as such.* At Kenosha, Milwaukee and Sheboygaii there were now private schools in successful op- eration; but as yet no steps had been taken to provide for the higher education. The act of Congress creating Wisconsin territory made no provision for any educational matters. The first legisla- ture met at Belmont, Iowa county, October 25, 1836. It is curious to note that nothing was done at this session in re- gard to common schools, except the passage of a bill to pro- hibit trespass on the school lands by cutting and destroying timber thereon. But within six weeks the ambitious law- makers proceeded to establish on paper the "Wisconsin University" at Belmont. The trustees were instructed '"to apply such part of their estate and funds in such manner as they may think most conducive to the promotion of litera- ture and the advancement of useful knowledge in the terri- tory." They were authorized "to establish colleges, acade- mies and schools dependent on the university." Mo more was done, however, under the provisions of this act than to name the trustees. At the next session, the common school question was again ignored, presumably because the Michigan code an- swered for present needs. But numerous acts were passed, incorporating academies and colleges ; and, the seat of gov- ernment having been removed to Madison, the University of Wisconsin was also established there, under a new act. This was the first definite step toward the higher education in Wisconsin, although twelve years elapsed before the uni- versity had an actual existence. The board of visitors, twenty-one in number, were duly appointed ; but their powers wore merely nominal, and they could accomplish little in the then undeveloped and sparsely settled territory. But the ex- "Whitfunl. p. 20. 14 <;I:M:RAI. SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. isteiice of the board helped to keep alive the plans and efforts for a university, and to prevent the dissipation of its resources. Congress was asked by the legislature to appropriate $20,000 for buildings, and two townships of land for endowment of the infant university. The money was refused, but by act of June 12, 1838, the secretary of the treasury was authorized to reserve from the public domain a quantity of land, no't to exceed two townships, for the support of the university. The manner in which this endowment was used will be more fully described hereafter. Among the higher institutions to which charters were granted at this second session was the Episcopal mission school at Green Bay, before mentioned. For a time it had nourished, and it owned valuable lands and buildings ; but the policy of the Federal government in colonizing the Indians was gradually removing them from Green Bay and its vicinity, and diminishing the number of pupils in this school. The missionary society decided therefore to open the school to the public. It was now incorporated as the "Wisconsin University of Green Bay," with a board of twenty trustees; and the funds and property of the original institution were to be appropriated for the support of the new one "in such manner as shall most effectually promote virtue, piety, and learning." This institution was after- wards known as Hobart university, but its existence was not a long one. Charters were also granted to Beloit, Racine, Mineral Point, Depere, Cassville, and Green county semin- aries, and to Milwaukee academy. Besides these, there were incorporated seven seminaries, the Philandrian college, and Davenport Manual Labor college all in what is now the state of Iowa. Some of these institutions were explicitly co-educa- tional ; the rest, with few exceptions at least, made no regula- tion as to the sex of pupils. A curious feature of many of these charters is the restriction of the income of the insti- tutions, aside from tuition bills, to a sum not exceeding $1,000; and, in one or two cases, $3,000. It is also very interesting to observe that several of them explicitly guaranteed entire freedom of religious opinion to professor^ and students.* Few of these higher schools now remain : but without doubt they were often the foundations of now nourishing academies and colleges. At the session of 1839, a revision of existing statutes *La\vs of Wisconsin, 1837. (iKNKKAI. SKKTCJI OK Kl )| '( ATloN ..\ I. IIISToUY. 1 "> made, and numerous deficiencies and omissions were corrected by the passage of suitable enactments. Among them was one in regard to common schools, which, though retaining most features of the old Michigan law, endeavored to adapt it to the conditions and needs of the territory. Formerly each township containing not less than twenty electors was obliged to support at least one school. The management of the schools and school lands was placed in the hands of three school commissioners, elected every three years ; and each district must elect three directors annually, who should employ teachers and levy taxes for the support of schools. Now, the family was made the basis of town organization for school purposes, every town containing not less than ten families being required to become a school district. For the rate-bill system was substituted a real estate tax of one-fourth of one per cent, on the whole county, to provide for the erection of school houses and the support of schools. The town commissioners were abolished, and their duties given to inspectors. The school fund was apportioned according to the number of pupils, and to secure its share of the fund the town must support a school during at least three months in the year. Each district was allowed to elect trustees in place of inspectors. A teacher who had not procured a certificate was liable to a fine of $50.00.* The legislators were not satisfied, however, with this effort to organize the school system ; for in 'little more than a year they so amended the act of 1839 as to restore the office of town commissioner, assigning thereto the duties of the inspectors. This amendment! regulated the formation of school districts ; defined the duties of each school officer: provided five officers for each district clerk, collector, and three trustees ; and restricted votes at the district meetings to male residents over twenty-one years of age, who must br freeholders or householders. The fine before imposed on a teacher who had no certificate was changed to the forfeiture of a sum not to exceed his wages. Districts were authorized to raise certain limited amounts of money for building school houses. The commissioners formed a court of appeal for griev- ances arising from the action of districts. They reported *Revised Statutes of Wisconsin, ix:!i, p. i:->7. fAct to provide for government of towns and revision of county government, 1840-41. lli (JKNKUAL SKKTCII OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. each year to the secretary of the territory the number of school districts in each township, the number of teachers and scholars, the length of school terms, and the amount of taxes raised and paid out for school purposes. Penalties were imposed for neglect of these duties. The clerk made yearly a list of heads of families in the district, and the number of children between the ages of four and six- teen in each family. This list was filed with the town com- missioners and with the board of county commissioners. The county moneys appropriated for common schools were duly apportioned to the districts by the county com- missioners. Again, in 1843, considerable changes were made in the law. An act,* amendatory to that of 1841, relative to town and county government, provided for the organiza- tion of school districts ; for building and furnishing school houses, to the limit of $200, or in special cases $300, for each district, this tax to be voted by the district itself. Each person sending children to school must furnish his share of fuel. Provision was made for collection of taxes and rate- bills for moneys due for instruction. School suffrage was restricted to male inhabitants over twenty-one years of age, who had resided in the district for three months previous to the district meeting, and had paid taxes for this or the pre- ceding year. The percentage of tax on assessments was re- -tricted to one and one-half pqr cent., except district taxes for building school houses. At the next session was passed an actf enabling school districts to raise a tax for the support of schools in case of refusal or neglect of towns to do so. This tax was limited to one-fourth of one per cent., and was to be used only for the pay of teachers. Jn 1845, a charter was granted^ to Janesville academy, with the curious proviso that " nothing therein was to be so construed as to confer banking privileges on the corpora- tion." The " Wisconsin Phalanx " was also incorporated, a Fourierite community at Ceresco, in Fond du Lac county, on the outskirts of the present city of Ripon. The council of the Phalanx was allowed "to establish a public school in which should be taught, during nine months of *La\vs of Wisconsin, 184i'-4:'>. p. 4.".. fLaws, 184:5-44, ]. 40. iLuws, 184o, p. 70. , ]S4~>. p. 70. (.KNKKAI. SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTOKY. 17 the year, all the different branches of science usually taught in the common schools of the territory, and which should be open and free to the children of all members of the corporation." But the notable educational event of the year was the establishment at Kenosha (then called South port) of the first free public school in Wisconsin. The population of this village then promising to become one of the largest cities on the shore of Lake Michigan was largely made up of people from New England and the Middle States, including many educated persons from eastern cities. The social and intellectual tone of the community was, therefore, unusually high, and no better field could have been selected for such an educational enterprise. Col. M. Frank, one of the editors of the local newspaper, was an ardent believer in a system of free schools supported by state taxation ; and for five years he strongly influenced public opinion through his journal and various personal efforts. Largely through this work and his speeches in the legislature, was it possible to inaug- urate the scheme at South port. In 1843 he had introduced a 1 >ill for the establishment of a system of free schools in Wis- consin, but it was rejected, and the idea was considered im- practicable by most of the members. But in 1845 the legislature conceded to district No. 1, of Southport, the privilege of making an experiment in this line, by authorizing* the voters of the district to raise, by taxation, a sum of money, not exceeding $2,000 in any one year, for the erection of a school house, the purchase of ap- paratus, the payment of teachers, and incidental expenses. The act provided for the selection of three superintendents, who should organize and inspect the schools, employ the teachers, oversee the classification of schools and depart- ments, supervise their government, etc. The tax was to be levied on both real and personal property, in the same manner as in counties which had adopted the .township sys- tem of government. The act contained a proviso that its validity should depend on its adoption by a majority of the voters in the district. Some of these opposed it ; but it was finally adopted in the autumn of 1845, and at once put in ope ration, f The experiment was thoroughly successful, and the schools of Kenosha soon acquired a wide reputation for their completeness of organization and thoroughness of instruc- -Laws. 1S45, p. 38. tWhitford, p. 2. IS (JKNKKAI. SKKTCII OK KI >l'( 'ATION A !. IIFSTOKY. tion. Their success, doubtless, had much to do with the liberal provision made later for public schools in the state constitution. In 1847, school district No. 1, in the town of Fond du Lac, was incorporated by the name of the " Franklin School District." The act* for this contained a proviso that, when- ever the village of Fond du Lac should be incorporated, the office of treasurer of the Franklin school district should be abolished, and its duties, with the collection of the school taxes of the district, be assigned to the treasurer of the village. The district and the village were incorporated within two days of each other. We have noted the principal steps in the progress and development of the common-school idea during the territor- ial period. The great extent of Wisconsin, and the rapidity with which the streams of immigration poured in, overflow- ing its prairies, river valleys and forests, prevented for several years the formation of an organized school system. In the successive legislatures, attempts were made in this direction ; but they were, of necessity, largely experimental and temporary. So many changes were made in the school laws during the first five years of territorial history that great confusion existed in the management of school affairs, both in towns and districts ; and much dissatisfaction arose in consequence. The schools were poorly organized and insufficiently supported, and must often have been closed if rate-bill taxa- tion or even private subscription had not provided the neces- sary funds. At each legislative session it became necessary to pass local acts, authorizing districts to raise special taxes for school buildings. It was impossible to secure uniformity or permanence in any plans of improvement, under the regime of commissioners changed every year. Town and district authorities often disagreed ; and in 1840 the legis- lature enacted that the school commissioners of the several towns should not hereafter allow any appeal from the deci- sion or vote of any district school meeting. These deficiencies w r ere plainly recognized by all who were interested in educational work ; but it was felt that little could be done in that transition period of territorial development, and no important changes in the laws were permitted until a state law should be adopted. f The mag- *Laws, 1847, p. 153. t\Vhitf.ini, pp. L'7-28. GENERAL SKETCH OF KIM< 'ATloXAL HISTORY. 1 ( . niticent donations of Congress for education were lying com- paratively idle, and the rapid increase of population was making imperative the demand that these lands be rendeivd available. This and other educational questions contributed much to emphasize the need and hasten the time of state organization. From 1843 the matter of state government was dis- -ussed more or less every year, both in the legislature and among the people of the territory. At the first session of the Twenty-ninth Congress was passed the " enabling act," dated August 0, 1846, authorizing the people of Wisconsin to form a constitution and state government for the purpose of being admitted to the Union. In accordance with this act, the question of state organization was submitted to the votes of the people in April, 1846, and by them was decided in the affirmative. A constitutional convention was duly called and elected, meeting October 5, 1846, by which a draft of a con- stitution was framed, to be submitted to the votes of electors in April, 1847. At this convention the educational interests of the state were thoroughly discussed, and due provision made therefor in the draft for a constitution. Congress did not wait for the action of the people of Wisconsin, but passed an act for its admission to the Union as a state. When the vote was taken in April, the proposed constitution was rejected on account of opposition to some of its provisions notably those forbidding the issue of currency by corpora- tions or individuals, securing to married women the right to their separate property, and exempting homesteads from forced sale for debt.* A special session of the legislature passed a bill, October '27, 1S47, for election of delegates to another constitutional convention. This convention met December lo, and drafted a new constitution, which was adopted by the electors March 13, 1848. Their action was ratified by Congress in the act of May 29, 1848, and Wisconsin became one of the sovereign states of the Union. III. EARLY SCHOOLS <>F THE METROPOLIS. Till 1835 Milwaukee was but a trading post, having at that time only thirty inhabitants. Through the efforts mainly of Solomon .funcau and Byron Kilboura, the adjacent region was explored, its resources made known in other states, town lots laid out, and immigrants invited and drawn thither. *Stronr's Hist, of \Vis.. p]>. V>0-.V>L ) . JO i.KNKltAI. SKETCH OF KDK ATM >XAL IIISToKY. The sclieme of uniting the waters of Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, by a canal from Milwaukee to the Rock river, originated with Mr. Kilhourn ; and Congress, influenced by his representations, granted to the Milwaukee and Rock River (anal Company the alternate sections five miles each side the canal. This enterprise, though finally abandoned when par- tially completed, owing to misunderstandings and difficulties between the canal company and the territorial legislature, apparently opened up grand possibilities for the industrial and commercial growth of Wisconsin ; and this and other inilueeinents drew to the little village of Milwaukee a large and enterprising body of immigrants.* The early growth of Milwaukee \vas unparalleled by that of any other town or city in the United States. By January 1, 1842, its imports for the previous year amounted t<> si, 805,277, and its exports to $286,777 as ascertained by a committee of the corporation of Milwaukee. In the same year shipments of lead, shot and copper from this port amounted to 1,786,175 pounds. By 1843 the population of Milwaukee had increased to 6,068 and was supporting numer- ous thriving industries. t Appropriations for a harbor had already been made by Congress ; and it was evident that Mil- waukee would ere long become an important commercial center. When the city was incorporated, in 1846,. its popula- tion was 9,666 ; and three years later it numbered 18,000. With all this material progress the cause of education did not keep pace in those early years. This was partly due to the necessities and scanty means of a pioneer settlement in a new country partly to the heterogeneous character of the population of Milwaukee, as compared with that of the smaller villages and farming communities. This latter cause is apparent in the figures given by the school census of 1851, which shows 5,914 children of school age ; of these but 1,668 were Americans, while 2,577 were Germans, 1,286 Irish, and 294 English the remainder Scotch, French, Welsh, Danish, and Poles.]; The public school established in 1836, before alluded to, was the only one in Milwaukee previous to 1840. No tax levy for school purposes had been made, and but a small in- come was obtained from the school lands. There was little difference between the public and private schools, the ex- *McLeod's Hist, of Wiskonsan, 1842-43. tl. A. I.apham's A ret. of Milwaukee in 1843, p. 114. JHistory I< ATK iNA I. HISTORY. 21 penses of the former being defrayed by the subscriptions of public-spirited citizens. But in 1846 Milwaukee was granted a city charter, and a board of school commissioners was ap- pointed by the Common Council. The act of 1846 provided that in no year should the sums expended for school pur- poses exceed the amount raised and appropriated in that year for the support and benefit of common schools. The aggregate amount of taxes levied for school purposes was not to exceed one-fourth of one per cent, annually. The rate of tuition fees was not to exceed $1.50 a quarter of eleven weeks for each scholar. These rates were to be collected by the city authorities, like other taxes. To be entitled to a grant from the city school moneys, a school must average a daily attendance of at least thirty pupils, and the English language must be taught as a branch of education. October 7, 1846, over thirteen acres in the present Sixth ward was deeded to the city by Increase A. Lapham, to be forever used for the purposes of a high school. The Common Council accepted the gift with thanks, appointed trustees, and indefinitely postponed further action. Later, the land reverted to the donor.* So this magnificent gift of a generous and far-sighted citizen was lost to the community through what now seems to have been unpardonable stu- pidity and negligence on the part of the city government. A public school system was thus established in the city, but it came to strength and efficiency by very gradual steps. The first year there were five ward schools, with an enroll- ment of 648 pupils, and an average attendance of 355, out of a school population of 2,128. The law allowed a tax of one-fourth of one per cent, for the maintenance of the schools, but it was soon found to be utterly inadequate for this purpose. Soon after the incorporation, the Common Council resolved that the debts contracted by the public- schools should be paid out of the fund assigned to the wards in which the respective schools were located. The second annual report of the board of school com- missioners of Milwaukee shows that, during the year ending April 1, 1848, the school population had increased from 2,128 to 2,763. Eight free schools were in operation, with an enrollment of 865, and an average attendance of (57' >. The expenditures for the year were $3,512.1)9, and wen- met by the proceeds of the tax authorized by the law of *AVight'* Annals of Milwaukee College. 2-.! GKNKRAI. SKKTCII OF KIUVATIOXAL HISTORY. 1840. There were also seventeen private schools, with 722 pupils. Complaint was made by the board, in this and the preceding years, of the rickety, overcrowded, and generally unsuitable buildings in which the public schools were housed. The legislature in 1848 authorized the city to raise a loan of $15,000, for the construction of five school houses; but money-lenders were long disinclined to take it up. although the city offered a high rate of interest. The buildings were finally completed in 1852. IV. CONSTITUTIONAL ' PROVISIONS. The state constitution of Wisconsin made, in Article X., thi' following provisions for public education : The supervision of public instruction was vested in the .state superintendent of schools, who should be chosen by the electors, and other officers to be appointed by the legislature. The salary of the former was fixed at $1,200. For the school fund were set aside the following sources of income : (a.) The proceeds of all lands granted by the United States for educational purposes, except the grants for a university. This included, besides the sixteenth section of each township, the 500,000 acres given by the act of Congress of September 4, 1841 ; also five per cent, of the net proceeds of public lands, to which the state was entitled on her ad- mission to the Union, (b.) All moneys and the clear pro- ceeds of all property accruing to the state by forfeiture or escheat, (c.) All moneys paid as an equivalent for exemp- tion from military duty, (d.) The clear proceeds of all fines collected in the several counties for any breach of the penal laws, (e.) All moneys arising from any grant to the state. when the purposes of such grant shall not be specified. The interest of this fund and all other revenues derived from the school lands was to be exclusively applied thus: {!.) To the support and maintenance of common schools in each school district, and the purchase of suitable libraries and apparatus therefor. (2.) The residue was appropriated to the support and maintenance of academies and normal schools, and libraries and apparatus therefor. Laws were to be made for the establishment of a uniform -\>tem of district schools, to be free, and without charge for tuition, to all children between the ages of four and twenty years ; and no sectarian instruction should be allowed therein. Each town and city was required to raise by annual tax, for the support of common schools therein, a sum not c.KNKUAI. SKKTCII OF KI>r< ATlnN A I. lllSTultY. 2o less than one-half the amount received hy sucli town or city from the income of the school fund. Provision was to be made by law for the distribution of the school fund among towns and cities, in proportion to the number of children and youth resident therein ; but no appropriation should be made to any city or town for the year in which said town or city should fail to raise its tax, or to any district for the year in which it did not maintain a school at least three months.. A state university was to be established, at or near the scat of government ; and in different parts of the state such colleges connected with the same as the interests of educa- tion might require. The proceeds of all lands granted by the Federal government to the state for a university should be a perpetual fund, called the university fund, the interest of which should be appropriated to the support of a state university, in which no sectarian instruction should be given. The secretary of state, the state treasurer, and the attor- ney-general were constituted a board of commissioners for the sale of the school and university lands, and for the in- vestment of the fund arising therefrom. Provision was made for the sale of these lands, and investment of the funds. If the purchase money was not paid at the time of the sale, a mortgage bearing seven per cent, annual interest should be taken on the land sold for the sum unpaid. V. THE SCHOOL FUND. The liberal grants of Congress for education became for the first time available upon the organization of the state. The county reports of appraisal of school lands for the year ending September 1,1849, were defective, and do not furnish a satisfactory account of the fund; but a careful estimate, prepared at that time by I. A. Lapham, shows the land area of Wisconsin to be 54,816 square miles, and the number of school sections 1,")23. The average appraisal of school lands was 2,194.96 a section. The state superintendent's report for 1849 gives the following table : 1,523 school sections, at above average valuation... $3, 342, 924 08 Section 16 of Racine city 74,205 25 Waukesha and Jefferson .canal lands 14.S07 34 Balance of the 500,000 acres at average appraised valuation of school lands 1 ,668,048 85 The 5 per cent, for 1848-49 20,000 00 KstimaU-d value of school fund... ...85,119,985 52 24 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. During the first year, the only income was the inteiv-t. at seven per cent., of $8,400, the cash paid down on sales of Section 16 in Racine city. This amounted to $588.00, and when apportioned gave but 8 3-10 mills to each child. As the superintendent very naturally remarked, " a sum so very small was hardly worthy of distribution." For the year 1850, however, the report is more encour- aging. From May to November, in that year, were offered for sale the school lands of fourteen counties in the southern part of the state, amounting to 148,021 acres, of which were sold 89,758 acres, at a slight advance on the appraised value. Little more than one-sixth of the amount due was paid down on sales ; the interest of the proceeds, with five per cent, received from the United States treasury on sales of govern- ment lands, made the income of the school fund amount to $47,416.77, which allowed each child 51 8-10 cents. St. Croix county neglected to levy any tax, thus forfeiting its share of the public money, $19.31. The total amount expended in the state for the year was $142,017.96, or $1.55 for each child. The population of the state was now 305,391.* It was estimated that in the decade between 1840 and 1850 at le.ist 275,000 immigrants had entered Wisconsin. The number of children of school age in 1850 was 99,375, and the average of public school attendance was 67 per cent. Walworth county, however, reported the high average of 91 per cent.; while Milwaukee county stood next to the lowest, at 25 per cent. This low rate seems to have been due to the large number of pupils sent to private schools in Milwaukee, to the excess of foreign population, and to the lack of suitable accommodations in the public schools. The liberal provision of the sixteenth section in each township placed at the disposal of the state nearly a million acres of land ; and to this was added by act of Congress, in 1841, a further grant of 500,000 acres a magnificent endowment for the educational system of the common- wealth, if managed with honesty and economy. But influ- ences hostile to this end were at \vork from the first. Even before the territory was formed, its great natural advantages and resources had attracted many shrewd, keen-eyed men- traders, speculators, and capitalists who saw here abundant opportunity for money-making, and were not slow to improve it. "Ilins.lalc's O]<1 Northwest, p. :54:5. (iKNKKAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 25 The same spirit of speculation which helped to precip- itate the crash of 1837 was rife throughout the Northwest, The inflated currency (in 1836) consisted mainly of the notes of state banks, which were taken in payment for pub- lic lands. President Jackson's circular of July 11, 1836, compelled specie payments after August 15 of that year, and checked speculation ; but southwestern Wisconsin was already largely in the hands of speculators.* In the same year, at Milwaukee, immigration began early, became enormous and lasted until late in the season. A court house was erected, a land office was opened, and speculation was the occupation of half the people. Single lots sold for $500 to $1,000. For acreage bought the year before at the government price, $35 an acre was now refused. The crash of 1837 burst the bubble, and hundreds who had come here stayed because they had no means of getting away. The prosperity of the city was set back at least three years, and the effects of the collapse were visible for ten years.f In the contest for the location of the capital in 1836, the claims of Milwaukee, Racine, Fond du Lac, Green Bay, and a dozen other cities, were successively urged. Many of these towns merely existed upon paper, and in the minds of the real estate speculators. " A wild spirit of town-site rivalry had been born with the territory, and the Eastern markets had early been flooded with prospectuses, maps and bird's-eye views of ' cities ' which were thoroughly equipped, in these florid descriptions and fanciful pictures, with court houses, jails, hospitals, schools and other modern improve- ments." Curious as i^ may seem to us now, the little town of Ke waunee was the center of a scramble for gold, which some unknown explorer was reported to have found there. Real estate forthwith had a " boom," rivaling those at Ashland and Minneapolis in recent years ; and among the eager pur- chasers were John Jacob Astor and Salmon P. Chase, after- wards chief justice of the United States. By 1836 Kewau- nee aspired to rivalry with Chicago; but the gold soon proved to be an illusion, and the prices of lots collapsed ac- cordingly. The imaginary greatness of that early day has never since then been realized by Kewaunee.| The sales of government lanclsin Wisconsin, previous to December 31, 1836, were 878,014 acres, of which at least 600',- *Strong, p. 218. tHist, of Mil. (West. Hist. Co.), p. 154. tThwaites, pp. 199-200. 20 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 000 were sold to speculators.* Throughout the territorial pe- riod immigration poured into the state with great rapidity, but speculation was there ahead of it, offering all sorts of induce- ments to turn the tide in special directions. Much of the stream was diverted into northern Ohio and Michigan on the way, and Wisconsin must needs wait for the overflow from those states. To hasten this process seemed desirable to the leading promoters of Wisconsin ; and it soon became the settled policy of the state to encourage and attract immi- gration in every possible way. AVithin certain limits this was laudable enough ; but for this object the school lands were shamefully sacrificed, regardless of the fact that they were not the property of the state, but only held in trust for the support of schools a trust that should have been kept inviolate and sacred. The legislature at its first session passed acts amply pro- viding for the appraisal of the school and university lands, and for the selection of the lands in the 500,000-acre tract. During the years from 1849 to 1855 inclusive, the state paid out the amount of $35,032.55 for the selection and appraisal of school lands ; but much of this expenditure brought no adequate return, if we may judge from its results. Lands of the most indifferent character were often selected, and in many cases appraised at ridiculously low figures sometimes ' at twenty, ten, or even five cents an acre. . The average price realized to the school fund from the sixteenth sections, which were of course chance locations, w r as but $2.74 an acre ; while from the 500,000-acre tract, which was supposed to be choice and selected lands, was obtained an average of only $1.42 an acre.f Compare these prices with those obtained by Michigan for her school lands, which were sold at an average of $4.50 an acre.}; Compare also the appraisals of Michigan lands with those of Wisconsin. The sixteenth sections in twelve Michigan counties were valued at prices ranging from $800 for marsh lands to $14,600 for timbered openings, and aver- aged $4,046 a section. The same sections in ten counties of southeastern Wisconsin, the garden of the state, were val- ued at an average of $3,089 a section. || *Strong, p. 217. fReport of joint select committee to investigate defaulting state officers, 1856. ^Smith's Education in Michigan, p. IS. ?Rep. Supt. Pub. Instr. Michigan, 1837. IJRep. Land Coinmis. Wis., 1850. prof. 3, 1L picfcarb. Professor J. L. Pickard came to Wisconsin, in 1846, to assume charge of Platteville academy. For thirteen years he conducted this school, performing a great and important work, in those days when the early settlers were too much occupied with the serious and stern duties of breaking land and building shelter to make large provision for higher education. The academy opened in 1846, with five pupils, and when Professor Pickard was called to the state superintendency, there were nearly three hundred. The state teachers' association owes its origin to Mr. Pickard and a few enterprising and devoted teachers who met at Madison, for the purpose in 1854. From 1860 to 1864, Professor Pick- ard was state superintendent, and though he has, since the earlier years of his career, occupied the post of superin- tendent of schools in Chicago, and president of the uni- versity in Iowa City, he has maintained his interest in Wiscon- sin schools and in the progress of her educational institutions. Few men have exercised an influence so genial and encour- aging to the advancement of the cause and the welfare of the profession as Mr. Pickard. He is remembered with affection by many of our teachers who now occupy important posts ; and his influence in promoting the advancement of education by wise legislation during the formative period of the system, enti- tles him to be remembered among the able pioneers who builded not for themselves but for posterity. At present he is living at Iowa City, and resting from his forty-five years of faithful labor, rich only in the experience of a life devoted to the welfare of others. W. E. A. GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 27 The board of land commissioners, in their report for 1854, mentioned that 10,580 acres of lands in Waupaca county had been selected, under the 500,000-acre grant, that were "farming lands of first-rate quality, well-watered and timbered, that should bring considerably more than the ap- praised value." These very lands were sold the next year at an average value of $2.19 an acre! The commissioners, in the same report, say that "the legislature has never, since the organization of the state, investigated the management of the school fund; and that a thorough investigation, to be made as promptly and fully as possible, is due the officers who have had charge of it, that their honor and integrity may be vindicated." This indicates the suspicion already prevalent, that the school lands were being mismanaged. The investigation they asked for was made the next year, a joint committee of senate and assembly being appointed by the legislature in February, 1856, to examine into the scandal which now involved the land commission- ers and other officials. The committee found affairs in a very serious and embarrassed condition. The books had been kept in a careless, negligent and irregular manner, and showed frequent alterations, and the accounts had not been properly audited. Money had been overdrawn from the treasury, and drawn without due warrant some- times with no vouchers whatever. The land commissioners and other officials had taken advantage of their positions to speculate in lands ; and for themselves and their friends they had reserved lands from sale to enable the purchaser to examine the lands before buying. Certificates of sale were issued to clerks in the office without any payment of money. A whole section in Brow r n county was sold on par- tial payment ; and afterward a patent for the same tract w r as issued to the chief clerk in the office, without the pay- ment of a dollar, at the nominal price of one shilling an acre, though formerly appraised at twelve to fourteen shil- lings ! Fraudulent certificates of sale were issued on lands forfeited for non-payment, or sold to the first purchaser at less than the first appraisal. Appraisals were made con- trary to law ; mortgages were often defective or not recorded ; fees were illegally taken ; names were forged to entries of lands, and money was withheld by the commissioners from the proceeds of sales. The lands had been rapidly sold. These defaulting commissioners had said, in their report for 1854: "The 28 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. more rapidly sales can be effected, so much sooner will these fund.s realize the benefit of the endowment of lands bestowed upon the state by the general government. And if in the end only the appraised value is to be obtained, the sooner the lands are sold the better." This opinion is so strong an indication of recklessness, improvidence, and utter lack of appreciation of the trust committed to them, that the report itself ought to have justified an immediate and un- sparing investigation of their official conduct. Unfortu- nately these men had the power, during three years, to squander the educational resources of the state. Over 7,000 acres were sold to one person. In 1854 were sold over 200,000 acres of school lands from the 500,000- acre tract (of which amount 129,520 acres were sold to nine persons) without any part of the principal being paid, and no other security except the lands themselves. Pine lands were sold thus, on thirty years' time. In 1853 a few persons combined and bought 130,000 acres. The investigating committee reported all these irregularities and frauds, and stated that " the school fund had sustained great loss thereby, and also through the haste with which the school lands had been brought into the market; that the fund might have been doubled by judicious and careful management ; that, instead, tens of thousands of dollars had been embezzled, and hundreds of thousands lost or squandered ; and that the fund had been handled with criminal negligence, wanton recklessness, and utter disregard for the most responsible duties that could be imposed on man." * And yet the very last official utterance of the defaulting commissioners to the public was this : " In concluding this report, we take occasion to congratulate the people of this state upon the fact that not one dollar of their great educa- tional endowment has been lost ; that the whole of it is securely invested ; and that no apprehension need be entertained of the loss of any part of it from the failure of the securities which are held for the payment of its principal and in- terest," An actf of the legislature in 1856 added to the school fund three-fourths of the net proceeds of sales of swamp and overflowed lands belonging to the state under the congres- sional grant of 1850 the remaining one-fourth being known *.Tt. Sel. Com., 185(J. fLaws, 18.56, Ch. 125. (JKNKKAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 29 as the drainage fund, and applied to the reclamation of swamp lands, as provided in the terms of the grant. From this source was added to the school fund nearly $40,000 in the first year. The next year, the amount due the fund on swamp land certificates was reported at $642,559.50.* The legislature now set aside one-fourth of the proceeds from the swamp lands to establish a normal school fund ; and in 1858 another one-fourth was given to the drainage fund. In 1865 the remaining one-fourth was transferred to the normal school fund, with the proviso that one-fourth of the in- come of that fund should be transferred to the common school fund until the annual income of the latter should ex- ceed $200,000. In 1870 this proviso was repealed, and the whole income of the normal school fund w r as applied to the support of normal schools and teachers' institutes. The Federal land grants not only made the foundation of the school system, but they gave a powerful stimulus to local taxation. Hon. L. (J. Draper, state superintendent in 1858, says in his report for that year that during the nine years following state organization at least 50 per cent, more money was raised by taxation for school purposes than was actually required in order to share the state bounty. The expenditures for common schools during the year 1890, amounted to $3,860,413.53. Of this enormous sum, only $439,684.22 was derived from school lands, fines and other resources of the general fund. The one-mill state tax gave $577,092.82; and the remainder, $2,815,424.03, must be raised by local and county taxation. It wjll thus be seen that over seven-eighths of the expense of the school system is a burden of direct taxation on the citizens themselves. From the first, this has been a large part of the total ex- penditure, and only for a few years was it greatly relieved 1 >y the proceeds of the school lands. This was due not only to improvident and reckless mismanagement of the lands, but to the great increase in the school population among whom it must be apportioned. The number of children of school age in 1850 was 92,047. The state superintendent's report for 1858 remarks that at that time only five states New York, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Indiana, in the order named sur- passed Wisconsin in the reported number of children of school age. In 1860, this number was 288,984, and in 1890 it was 592,7.V>. *F,an< availed themselves of its provisions. In 1881 only nineteen towns, in nine counties all in the northern part of the state had done so.* The city of Appleton, in March, 1869, established the township system, but in 1870 returned to the independent district plan, which it has retained ever since. Its high school was established in 1876 by the school board of the second district, under the law of 1875. The township system failed in Polk county, and the schools are all under the district system. Eau Claire retained the district system until two years ago. Even now, less than seventy towns have organized on the township plan. "These are nearly all in the new regions of the state, and in the main have organized for the purpose of raising revenue from the taxation of unoccupied lands, "f For fifteen years state superintendents and other leading educators have advocated legislative action which should make the town system obligatory, instead of optional ; but this step has not yet been taken, and public opinion evidently requires much education yet before it will insist that law- makers shall remedy the present waste of money, time and energy in the management of our public schools. The gradual spread of the township system has effected some beneficial results. It has, with other favoring influ- ences, brought about much consolidation of weak districts. The following table shows the number of districts in the state, by decades ; and it is readily seen that the increase in each decade is small compared to that of population and of new territory settled: 1849, 2,059; 1860, 4,434; 1870, 4,802 ; 1880, 5,604 ; 1890, 6,097. The last two numbers refer only to counties, outside the cities. Along with this consolidation, at once a cause and an effect, may be noted the steady increase in the number of graded country schools. And finally, the organization of the independent city school systems is largely due to growing appreciation of the town- ship idea, of which the city system is really an exemplifica- tion. There are now 48 of these independent cities. Each has fa board of education, which generally chooses a president, 'a clerk, and a superintendent. Each city has usually a high school, to which are sent the advanced pupils from the other schools, for higher instruction. A peculiarity of the system of Beloit is that the amount of the funds to be raised by taxation is determined by the vote of the city *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1874, p. 09; 1881, p. xlv. fSupt. Pub. Instr., 1892. 58 (iKNKKAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. school board alone. This plan is said to have worked very satisfactorily.* In these 48 cities are enrolled 90,740 pupils, with 1,923 teachers ; and their expenditures for school pur- poses during the past year amounted to $1, 576,702. f X. GRADED AND HIGH SCHOOLS. In the earlier years of Wisconsin's history, the schools, both public and private, were very elementary and almost unorganized. During the twenty years following territorial organization there was little opportunity for improving their quality, outside of a few cities and large towns. Some cities sustained "select" schools, where excellent work was done. The first of these were in Milwaukee and Kenosha, about 1840; and others were in successful operation in Whitewater, 1844 ; in Waukesha, 1847 ; and Geneva, 1848. These were soon followed by public schools, more or less graded. The first of them was in Kenosha, in 1849, which became a model for other towns. Similar schools were established at Manitowoc, 1850 ; Fond du Lac and Madison, 1852 ; and Racine, 1854.J These schools were ably con- ducted and many successful teachers and business men were educated in them. The success of such schools emphasized the need of improving the common schools in other locali- ties ; but this was a slow and arduous task. The state superintendent in 1852 suggested that county high schools should be formed, as "scattered population and limited means forbid the establishment of town high schools." In 1860 there were less than 50 graded schools of any kind in the state. The first high school class ever graduated in Wiscon- sin was at Racine, December 24, 1857, and it numbered ten young men and women. The high school of Milwaukee was opened January 1, 1868, with 128 pupils, of whom all but 17 came from the public schools.!) Constant efforts were made by prominent educators to organize and grade the common schools ; but the prevalence of the district system everywhere Avas a serious obstacle. If the township scheme authorized in 1869 had been generally adopted, the grading of the schools might have been easily accomplished ; but it was impossible under the district regime. *Supt. Pub. Instr. 1869, p. 102. tSupt. Pub. Instr. 1892. JWhitford, pp. 65-66. fSupt. Pub. Instr., 1863, p. 86. ||Supt, Pub. Instr.. 1868, p. 142. (iliNERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 59 The recommendation by the state teachers' association, in 1871, of a course of study for graded schools and for pub- lic high schools was followed, in 1872, by a similar recom- mendation in behalf of the county or ungraded schools, from the convention of city and county superintendents which met in that year. It was felt that special difficulties lay in the way of adopting the latter plan, but that they were not quite insuperable. By 1875, great improvement was visible in the condi- tion of the schools. There were 27 independent cities, with flourishing schools, most of which supported excellent high schools. There were 394 graded schools outside of cities, of which 210 had three or more departments. In this year was passed the law encouraging the voluntary establishment of free high schools in the towns, and making a special appro- priation of $25,000 annually towards their support. Each school might receive $500 from this fund, and an additional sum pro rata for the population of the district. In connec- tion with this law, the state superintendent prepared and presented to the high school boards three full courses of study ; two of these, designed for towns or cities having a population of 6,000 or more, were four years long the third, for districts with a population less than 6,000, was three years long. Under this law 11 high schools were established the first year. In 1880 there were 95 ; in 1885, they numbered 119 ; in 1890, there were 166 ; and in 1892 the number had in- creased to 182 (besides 10 schools not aided by the state). These free high schools have not only been a distinct ad- vance in the direction of the higher education, but they have stimulated and improved the lower schools throughout the state, vbesides forming a connecting link between the common schools and the university. This last advantage was early desired by leading educators in the state. In 1868 President Chadbourne, of the university, mentioned the great need of suitable preparation for entering students, and said this deficiency could only be supplied by increase in the number of high schools, and more thorough instruction therein. In 1870 the state teachers' association recom- mended that the graded schools should aim to prepare schol- ars for the normal classes, and the high schools for the uni- versity and other college classes.* In 1871 the state super- *Sii]t. Pub. Instr., 1870, p. 136. 60 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. intendent recommended that graduates of regularly organ- ized high or graded schools be admitted to the university, on certificates from their principals, without farther examina- tion or charge for tuition. The next year a law was enacted, adopting this, plan ; and that year eleven students were thus admitted the second year, forty-three. There are now 85 state high schools on the accredited list of the university, be- sides 9 in other states. The establishment of the free high schools under the law of 1875 was a powerful stimulus to the lower schools everywhere. Four years later, every county except three and these in the northern part of Wisconsin had estab- lished from one to sixteen graded schools. The course of study for country schools adopted the year before by the state teachers' association was being tested in the schools, and with gratifying success. In some of the country schools a fall term had been established a long step toward the full graded system.* In 1880 there were 294 graded schools in the counties, and 157 in the cities, besides 110 high schools, of which fifteen were not organized under the law of 1875. A " manual of a course of study for ungraded schools " was published in 1882, ten years after its first suggestion at the convention of superintendents. The acceptance of this manual by the country schools was very ready. In 1886 it had been adopted in 1,394 country schools, and in 1892 by 3,469. The progress of the free high schools has been most gratifying to the friends of education. In 1884 the state superintendent reported that they had improved in attend- ance, in the number instructed in the higher branches, and the number completing the course of study. The amount collected for tuition fees from non-resident pupils consider- ably exceeded one-half the amount received -from the state. The revised statutes for 1878 limited the time for which any one school could receive state aid to five years ; but in 1882 this time was extended to ten years. In the latter year the state superintendent thus commented on the condition of the schools : " The reports indicate that most of the pupils study here to supplement the work of the common schools, and not to fit for college. In the seventh year but little more than five per cent, of the pupils completed either course of study 367 out of an enrollment of 6,528. These *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1879, pp. 2, 18. (1KNERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 61 schools have done good work in supplementing the common schools, in fitting for college those who desired, and in pre- paring students for teaching. More definite, intelligent and thorough supervision of these schools is needed, and would greatly improve their quality." In 1885 it was found that the fund was absorbed by high schools connected with the graded systems of the cities and villages. Accordingly another fund of $25,000 annually was appropriated for free high schools in towns having no graded schools.* The first school organized under this law was at Medina, in Dane county, in September, 1886. The plan was admirable, but did not prove successful. But four of these schools were organized, and of those only two now remain. The town high schools were impossible under the independent district system; and the legislature in 1889 ordered that the fund for their support should be added to the free high school fund of 1875, and thus made available for the high schools of cities and villages. The same legis- lature authorized the state superintendent to appoint an assistant for the purpose of visiting, inspecting and super- vising the high schools, f The high schools are thus characterized by the state superintendent, in his report for 1890 : " The high school is at present the most potent factor in the educational system of the state. In its relation" to the university in preparatory work, in its relation to the normal schools in academic preparation, and in the professional instruction afforded to the great body of teachers required in the district schools, the high school is important. It is chiefly valuable, how- ever, in its relation io the work of associated lower grades in the same school, and. to the work in the surrounding country district schools, and gives an uplift to all schools of lower grades."! Of special interest are certain statistics collected by the state superintendent last year, and published in his report, just issued. The financial condition of families sending children to the high school was ascertained, as accurately as possible, and the occupations of the parents. There were 5,491 families represented, by whom 6,369 children were sent to 119 high schools. "Of these families, 2,732 are rated below $1,000 worth of taxable property, as assessed by *Laws, 1885, Ch. 352. JSupt. Pub. Instr., 1886, p. 28; 1890, p. 14. ISupt. Pub. Instr., 1890, p. 1(5. 62 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. the state. Those rated between $1,000 and $2,500 number 2,645. Only 216 are rated above $10,000. In other words, more than one-half the patrons of the high schools are assessed at less than $1,000, more than three-fourths below $2,500 ; and only one in twenty-five above $10,000. The free high school is emphatically the school of tlje poor man and of those in moderate circumstances." The same con- clusion is reached in comparing the occupations of parents. " Of the 5,491, farmers number 1,623, day laborers 659, and 361 are supported by widows these three classes constitut- ing more than two-fifths of all the patrons."* There are now 182 free high schools, with an enrollment of 11,022 pupils. The average age of pupils entering is 13.5 years. The number of graduates for 1892 was 1,156; the total number of graduates since organization of the schools, 8,700. It is noticeable that, of all those now enrolled, a large majority, 7,981, are studying English branches only. The schools received for tuition of non- resident pupils in 1892, $22,458.88, an average of $128 each. XI. TEACHERS AND THEIR QUALIFICATIONS. During the territorial and early state periods, the status of teachers was very unsatisfactory, as, indeed, might be ex- pected. The schools w r ere ungraded and poorly housed and equipped ; salaries were very low ; there was no uniformity of management or supervision, outside of a few cities, where most of the wealth of that time was concentrated. Here sufficient salaries were paid to command experienced and capable teachers ; but elsewhere there was little induce- ment to such instructors, and few, country teachers were able to go beyond the rudiments of knowledge. Certificates were granted, under the statutes of 1849, by town superinten- dents, who were not always possessed of as much " book- learning " as w r as the applicant. The state superintendent in 1850 urged the organiza- tion of town superintendents into county boards, who should grant certificates good for any school in the county, at public examinations to be held once or twice each year. This w r ould be likely to secure more thorough examination, more im- partial judgment as to qualifications of candidates, and the improvement of teachers themselves. Various plans for securing these objects were brought forward by those inter- ested in educational matters, for several years ; but in this *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1892, pp. 48-50. GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTOKY. '>:; early transition period it was hard to effect reforms. The teachers' institutes and the efforts to secure normal schools did much to educate the teachers and to strengthen public interest in the subject. Had it not been for the occurrence of the civil war, a great educational advance along all the lines would prob- ably have begun in Wisconsin about 1861 ; but in the presence of the danger that menaced even national ex- istence, such affairs were necessarily deferred till the return of peace. A law was passed, however, in 1862,* providing for the issuance, to qualified teachers, of graded certificates. At first, so many incompetent and ignorant teachers were weeded out by the examinations under this law that it was difficult to supply the districts with teachers ; but the effects were most beneficial in raising the standards of both schools and teachers, and stimulating the latter to improvement. Another great advance was made in 1868, when a state board of examiners was created to issue state certificates good for any school in the state.f At the first examination, two of these certificates were granted. The opening of the nor- mal schools about this time, gave further opportunity for ambitious teachers to qualify themselves for the higher posi- tions, and since then a steady progress and improvement are to be noted in the professional standards of teachers throughout the state. There were fifteen students in the first class graduated from the Milwaukee normal school, and all except one found immediate employment in the public schools of that city but one of many instances showing the confidence of the public in the normal schools, and their beneficial effect upon the teachers' profession. The state superintendent was authorized in March, 1878 r to countersign the diploma of any graduate of the state university who, after graduation, had successfully taught a public school in Wisconsin for sixteen months, and who could furnish suitable testimonials as to moral character, learning, and ability to teach. The diploma, thus counter- signed, became an unlimited state certificate. It was issued to thirty-six graduates of the university in that year, and to eighteen in 1892. Two years, later, the same favor was granted to graduates of incorporated colleges or universities in Wisconsin whose courses were fully equal to corresponding courses in the state university. Thirty-one graduates of *Laws, 1862, Ch. 17ti. j-LawB, 1868, Ch. 169. <>4 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. Beloit, Lawrence, Milton and Ripon availed themselves that year of this provision; and others have done so every year since.* The requirements for a state certificate have increased with the general advance of educational standards. At the first examination, held in August, 1868, candidates were required to pass a thorough examination in the branches >j >ecified for a county first-grade certificate, and a satisfactory examination in the following additional branches botany, physiology, zoology, chemistry, geology, political economy, and mental philosophy; also in the constitution and govern- ment of Wisconsin and the United States, and in the school laws of this state, so far as they relate to the rights and duties of teachers. In 1872 certificates good for five years were granted on the basis of the studies required for a first- grade county certificate, with the addition of English litera- ture and the rudiments of mental philosophy; also three terms' experience in teaching. Life certificates were also graded as first and second, with nine terms' experience as teachers. In 1877 physics and general history were added to the branches required. During the past year the number of teachers em- ployed in the public schools was 12,355. Of these, 620 graduates and 1,684 non-graduates were supplied by the normal schools, and 279 held state certificates; 513 first grade and 1,148 second-grade certificates, and 151 state certificates, were granted. Out of 6,427 teachers in at- tendance on the institutes, 399 are reported as having attended college, 1,168 the normal schools, 3,383 the high M -liools, and but 1,413 the common schools only. f These figures afford gratifying evidence of the increase in standards of qualification among Wisconsin teachers. For twenty-five years the need of a uniform system of examinations has been felt by superintendents and leading teachers. Various efforts have been made to secure this, but not with entire success. Since 1889, however, examination papers prepared by the state superintendent have been used by many of the county superintendents, with very beneficial results. It is hoped that v the state will, ere long, make uniform examinations in all the counties obligatory. In 1878, special efforts were made in most of the counties to secure more highly qualified teachers. Exam- -upt. Pub. Instr.,1880, p. 30. t. Pub. Instr.. 1892. . i:\KRAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 65 Inations were made much more severe, and from one-fourth to two-thirds of the applicants for certificates in the various counties were rejected. The law of 1887 gave greater value to teachers' certificates, by extending the first-grade to four years, and the second-grade to two years. The qualifica- tions of teachers in the free high schools must be approved by the state superintendent ; and principals of these schools must be graduates of a university, normal school, or college ; teachers who hold state certificates, or persons who have passed examinations in the branches of the prescribed course of study. Another evidence of improvement in the status of teachers is seen in the gradual rise in their salaries. In 1850, the average was $17.14 a month for men, and $9.02 for women. The highest wages paid in any town was at Kenosha, where men received $60 and women $20. But in the same county, in the town of Bristol, women received the lowest wages reported in the state, $2 a month.* The following table shows the average wages paid to teachers since 1849 : Year. Men. Women. 1849 815.22 8 6.92 1855 23.10 12.08 1865 36.45 22.24 1875 43.50 27.13 1885 41.75 28.20 1892 45.00 29.40 In the first two periods noted above, it is only fair to make an allowance (then estimated at $6 a month) for the additional privilege accorded in many country districts of " boarding around." In the last three, the figures refer only to counties. The average salaries of teachers in the cities have increased thus : Year. Men. Women. 1875 8 109.40 8 39.40 1885 1,015.00 370.00 (annual) 1892 1,071.00 412.00 To this may be added the fact that the present average salary of principals of free high schools is $982 a year. It is worth while here to notice the share of women in the business of education. In 1849 they divided this work almost equally with men the latter being generally con- *Suj)t. Pub. Instr., 1850. 66 (iKNKUAL SKKTCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTOKY. sidered as superior in ability, while the exigencies of a newly- settled country compelled the employment of many women in the schools as a measure of economy, especially in the summer months. In 1866 about two-thirds of the teachers were women " females," as they are styled in most official reports ; sometimes in later years characterized as " ladies." Their numbers have steadily increased till, in 1892, there are but 2,207 men to 10,148 women. The state superintendent said in 1886: "The business of teaching is rapidly passing into the hands of women. Very many of these are young and immature. The schools have suffered materially by the general withdrawal of men from teaching ; and this is, in the opinion of many, one chief cause of the early falling out of school by boys, in both the common and high schools." * It is somewhat amusing to trace a possible relation of cause and effect between this utterance and that of the superin- tendent of Fond du Lac, in 1868. He reported that the 36 teachers of that city, in 16 school houses, with 3,000 pupils, were all women, from the principal down ; but the pleasing effect of this announcement is diminished by his naive ex- planation of the phenomenon. " Until this year we employed a man as principal, at a salary of $1,200 to $1,700. We now secure the same service, much better performed, for $700." t Women became eligible to office as county superinten- dents, in 1875, and they have done excellent work in numer- ous counties. In 1890 eleven county superintendents were women, also two city superintendents and five principals of free high schools. This year the principals are all men. Women are also eligible to any school office, according to section 513 of the revised statutes; and they may vote at elections which involve school matters only. The organization and influence of the state teachers' association have already been mentioned. In July, 1889, this body decided to hold but one session annually there- after, instead of two. Branch organizations were also formed, southeastern Wisconsin teachers' association, which met first at Waukesha, March 31, 1890; and the southwestern Wisconsin teachers' association, which convened at Boscobel, February 21, 1890. In July, 1884, the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the national educational association was held at Madison, with *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1886, p. 30. tSupt. Pub. Instr., 1868, p. 132. <;KNKKAL SKKTCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 67 an attendance of 6,000 said to be the largest educational gathering ever assembled in America up to that time. XII. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. By the statutes of 1849, each town and city was required to raise its own school taxes. Laws passed at the session of 1853 changed this plan, -so that the board of county super- visors were required, at their annual meeting, to determine the amounts needed for each town and ward in the county. Such amount was to be levied and collected each year, and must be not less than one-half the amount of state money received in the last apportionment, nor must it exceed the rate of three mills on the dollar. Taxes for building school houses were not to exceed $300 in any district, except in special cases. The qualifications for school suffrage were made the same as for state and county voters, with ten days residence in the district where the vote was offered. The following branches were to be taught in every school, in the English language : orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography and arithmetic, with such other branches as the board should determine.* The same legis- lature enacted that a copy of the school code revised in that year, and of all amendment^ thereafter added to it, should be furnished to each school district in the state. A statute of 1859 gave the county board of supervisors power to charge delinquent school taxes to any town failing to raise them, with an additional penalty of 25 per cent., the same to be added to the current tax of said town, and levied with it. In 1866 each county was required to raise a school tax equal in amount to its apportionment received from the state, but not to exceed in any year three mills on the dollar, t Towns also were authorized to raise such sums of money as they might deem necessary, in addition to the amounts re- quired by law to be raised ; and by the revision of 1878 the sum to be raised by each town must be at least one-half of its share from the school fund.! The county tax must be equal, under the present school code, to the amount received from the state not only from the school fund income, but from the state tax of one mill on the dollar, levied under the act of 1885. To this is to be added the district tax *School Laws of Wis., 1854. fLaws, 1866, Ch. 40. JR. S., 1878, Sec. 554. 68 UKNERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. which is restricted in its annual amount by the average number of scholars attending the school during the school year and it will be seen that a heavy burden of taxation is borne by the people of the state for the support of education. Before 1848 there were less than 200 public schools es- tablished. These were maintained by the lease of the six- teenth sections, by local taxes and rate-bills ; and they were managed solely by district and town officers. The value of school houses in 1848 was about $150,000.* The whole number of school houses reported in 1850, in 263 towns was 1,223, valued at $173,247.67. Of these 38 were built of brick, 51 of stone, 568 of logs, and 540 were framedf a curious indication of the economic condition of the infant state. From this small beginning has arisen a great super- structure an extensive and costly system of public educa- tion which has, in the main, kept pace with the material growth of Wisconsin. In the following table is given the total expenditures for school purposes, by decades : 1850 ...8 142.017 96 1860 377,530 00 1870 2,006^20 66 1880 2,161,071 88 1890 3,860,413 53 1892 4,326,327 54 The total value of school houses and sites in the state is now $10,324,925.00. The school enrollment is 360,640, or 58 per cent, of the school population. The number of children between seven and thirteen years of age is 278,646, of whom 72.5 per cent, are enrolled in the public schools, and about 16 per cent, in the private schools. In the sixty-eight counties are 6,953 schools, with 6,570 build- ings. In the forty-eight independent cities are 90,315 pupils, with 1,923 teachers, and 299 buildings. The total expenditures for public education in the year ending June 30, 1892, amounted to $4,898,572.44 including the support of the university and all public educational institutions.^; In 1880 this sum was $2,603,104.0S. One of the many gratifying indications of educational progress is seen in the improvement of school buildings. *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1881, p. v. tSupt. Pub. Instr., 1850. ISupt. Pub. Instr., 1892. i.Supt. Pub. Instr., 1880, p. xxiii. GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 69 Complaints were frequent and loud, in early years, of the wretched houses, without proper seats, blackboards, ventila- tion, or outhouses. As late as 1863, out of 4,168 school houses, 2,495 were framed, 1,298 were built of logs, and only 183 of stone and 192 of brick. Nearly one-fourth of the log buildings were found in the counties of Washington, Rich- land, Manitowoc, Sauk, Vernon and Dane. Outline maps were reported in only 1,090 of the school houses, and 493 had no blackboards, 3,327 had grounds containing less than one acre, while 3,106 had sites unenclosed. Rock county was far ahead in the amount invested in school houses, $121,975; and Milwaukee came next with $95,000.* In 1879 the state board of health made a thorough investigation of the sanitary condition of school buildings and grounds and of the health of pupils. The facts reported by them were startling and of urgent importance ; for instance : " Lo- cated thus, a frog-pond on the west ; a hog yard on the east ; a railroad next the fence on the south ; and a cemetery just across the road on the north ! " " Play grounds decorated with old roots, stumps and saw-logs." " Nearly one-half the school-rooms described allow less space than 200 cubic feet of space per capita." "Ventilated through cracks and crevices or by holes made by ground-squirrels and gophers. Often windows nailed fast. Too well ventilated for health or comfort by cracks in unseasoned flooring or weather- boarding." " Only 23 out of 600 declare that the ventila- tion of their school houses is satisfactory." " To the ques- tion : Does sight often suffer ? Only 63 out of 600 answer unreservedly in the negative." " Seats genuine antiques all the same height and five to seven feet long. Sixteen seats, and in winter 56 pupils. Seats all graded, but models for many of them borrowed from implements of the Spanish inquisition." " Not one school building in Wiscon- sin in which provision for drying wet clothing in bad weather is reported." " Out-houses often lacking entirely ; seldom separate ; 58 per cent, unscreened from weather and observation ; often shamefully neglected and filthy ; often 15 feet or less from the main building." " Over 61 per cent, of the schools without water supply. Water brought from an adjoining marsh, or from wells receiving the drain- age from barnyards or out-houses." " Contagious diseases frequent ; in many towns no care taken to isolate cases ; *Supt, Pub. Inetr., 1863, pp. 84, 94. 70 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. children having these diseases allowed to attend school freely."* This inquiry by the board of health aroused consider- able interest, and did much to improve the sanitary con- dition of the schools. It was followed in 1881 by a cir- cular, prepared by the state superintendent, containing plans and specifications of school houses. Many districts have availed themselves of the suggestions contained there- in, and much improvement in school buildings has resulted. The board of health also deprecated the custom so prevalent and unfortunately authorized by the state of sending children to school at the age of four, or even less ; also the exactions, upon growing children, of a multiplicity of studies, too long hours and the marking system evils which especially affect the city schools. In 1880, out of 5,497 school houses, 336 were still without blackboards ; only 2,116 had the map of Wisconsin, and 2,541 the map of the United States; and 866 were not supplied with Webster's Dictionary. Only 1,894 had sites 'well enclosed ; but 4,295 are reported as in good condition, and 3,561 as properly ventilated. In that year Grant and Jefferson counties led in the cash value of school houses. f In 1892, out of 6,271 buildings, the number in good condition is 5,927, and 5,722 have separate outhouses for the sexes, which are, with few exceptions, in good condition. Railroad maps of Wisconsin are in 4,437 and outline maps in 4,242.| The figures for 1880 and 1892 refer only to counties outside the independent cities. The time during which a school must be maintained, in order to secure its share of public money, was at first three months, this was in 1866 extended to five months, and in 1887 to six months. The history and constitution of the United States and of Wisconsin were introduced into the public schools in 1871; and in 1869 instruction in foreign languages, not to exceed one hour a day, was allowed. In- struction in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon the human system, was ordered in 1885. In 1855, the state superintendent was authorized to sup- ply Webster's Unabridged Dictionary to any deficient school *Report of St. Bd. of Health, 1879, pp. 14-68. tSupt, Pub. Instr., 1880. JSupt. Pub. Instr., 1892. 2Laws, 1885, Ch. 327. Ibon, . E. Mells. State SuperintenDent ot public Instruction in Taidisconstn. Oliver Ehvin Wells, the present state superintendent of public instruction in Wisconsin, was born at Lamartine, Fond du Lac county, July 2, 1853. His education was obtained in the common schools near his home and completed at Chicago university in June, 1878. With the exception of about three and a half years' residence in Vermont, whence he returned to Wisconsin, when nine years of age, and the period of his attendance at the university, he has been a life resident of his native state. He began his career as a teacher in Fond du Lac county before completing his college education and afterward became principal of the village school of Manawa. Two years as princi- pal of this school, and one as principal of the south side school in New London, pointed him out as an organizer of unques- tioned ability, and won for him without opposition the county superintendency of Waupaca. The extensive and varied ex- perience gained in teaching nearly all classes and subjects from the district schools to the high, schools afforded a sound basis for the exercise of supervising ability and thus established his title to leadership in the conduct of a common school sys- tem. To his faculty for organization, Mr. Wells unites a devo- tion to learning. He has therefore marked every step of pro- gress in methods of management by a corresponding advance- ment in the aims and methods of teaching. The five high schools which he secured for Waupaca, no less bear witness to his ability for organization than does the pre-eminent success of the reading circle movement, which placed Waupaca in the front rank among those counties where this important means of cul- ture has been instituted. While in the school at Appleton, which soon became a high school under his management, Mr. Wells seems to have yielded to his ambition for a wider field of literary work, and began to consider seriously a plan for edito- rial work. The invitation to accept the principalship of a school at Manitowoc, diverted him for a period from this intention. The nomination upon the democratic ticket for state superintendent in the fall of 1890, saved him to his profession. The tidal wave of democratic triumph carried him to the state capitol as leader of the state system of public schools. The two years of Mr. Wells' superintendency have proved his industry and vigor, and in every way satisfied the claims of his friends and the ex- pectation of the public. W. E. A. i.KNKKAI, SKKTCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 71 district in the state, for which purpose 3,000 copies of the book were purchased, at $4 a copy. One-half the cost of the books was to be deducted from the next apportionment of state money to towns thus supplied ; but in 1859 this was amended so as to deduct the whole amount thus ex- pended from the general school fund income. In 1867 the district receiving a dictionary was required to pay in advance the cost, $4 a copy. This arrangement for sup- plying dictionaries to the districts through the state has been kept up to the present time. An act of 1889 authorized school boards to purchase United States flags, which has done much to stimulate patriotism in the common schools. An act of 1889 authorized the observance of Arbor Day in schools, to be accompanied by exercises designed to im- part a knowledge of arboriculture, and to promote the adornment of school and public grounds. Little was done to secure its observance until 1891, when Governor Peck and other gentlemen offered a fund of $1,000 for giving a prize to the school in each county which should observe Arbor Day and, during the spring and summer, make the most improvement in its premises. The state superintendent sent out circulars of information and encouragement, and aroused so much interest that prizes were awarded to fifty-six coun- ties. In 1892 still more was accomplished. The state super- intendent's circular contained abundant material for the ex- ercises of Arbor Day ; 2,408 districts observed the day, and planted 18,343 trees. Nearly all the city and village schools had appropriate exercises, and most of them planted trees. Columbus Day was also observed this year, both in country and city schools. It is estimated that 5,082 different de- partments took part in the exercises of October 21, and much interest was visible, not only in these exercises, but in his- torical works regarding Columbus and his times.* XIII. SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Expenditures for common school libraries were author- ized by the state constitution, and Wisconsin was the second state in the Union to make constitutional provision for this purpose.f The statutes of 1849 provided that, as soon as the total annual income of the school fund should exceed $30,000, it should be the duty of each town superintendent *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1892. t Supt. Pub. Instr., 1890, p. 18. 72 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. to appropriate and distribute, among the districts of his town,, ten per cent, of the apportionment to the town from the school fund income, this sum to be applied by the districts to the purchase of school district free libraries. Each district was also authorized to vote for a district tax, not exceeding $30 annually, for the same purpose. In 1866 this limit was increased to $50 ; and in 1867 school districts containing over 200 children of school age were authorized to raise a tax for this purpose, not exceeding $100. In 1852 the districts had expended for libraries $11,270.22, of which only $1,209 was raised by local taxa- tion, the remainder being apportioned from the school fund income. The law was found to be unsatisfactory in its re- sults, because " each district was compelled to spend a par- ticular per cent, of its receipts from the public moneys, regardless of its special necessities. Under this law some of the large districts received nearly $60, while some of the smaller ones received less than one dollar in the latter case, a sum entirely insufficient for practical use."* The state superintendent suggested an appropriation of $10 to each district, on condition that it should raise an equal amount,, for the purchase of books. In 1854 there were only 875 district libraries, in over 3,000 districts, and these contained but 14,000 volumes. This deficiency is ascribed to the ordinance by which the appropriation of ten per cent, from the school fund was left to the discretion of the town superintendents ;f and the state superintendent recommended that such appropriation be made compulsory. No action was taken, however, till 1859, when a permanent town school library fund was established. For this was set aside ten per cent, of the school fund income, and a special state tax of one-tenth mill on the dollar was levied. The books were to be purchased by public authority,, not by local boards. The state laws, and the journals and documents of both houses of the legislature, were to be sup- plied to all school libraries. Curiously enough, no specific provisions were made for the distribution of the fund thus formed, and it accumulated for three years. The enormous expenses of the civil war made such de- mands upon the state treasury that the legislature of 1862 unconditionally repealed the law, and ordered the transfer to the general fund of the library money that had accrued *Supt. Pub. Instr., 1852, p. 15. t Wis. School Laws, 1854, Sec. 74. GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 73 from the tax, and to the school fund of the money that had been taken therefrom. The total amount so transferred March 31, 1862, was $88,784.78.* The natural results of this action were soon apparent in the rapid diminution of the school libraries, both in size and number. In 1874 there were reported in the twenty- four cities of Wisconsin only 1,840 volumes, worth less than $3,000 a paltry and disgraceful showing, f " For eleven years the towns have had the privilege of establishing town libraries,^ and only 26 report the acceptance of the system. Only 328 districts in the counties report such libraries, and only 19 are reported in the independent cities." The state superintendent in 1875 recommended that the excellent law of 1859 be re-enacted, with one modification that state aid be so given as to stimulate local action. In 1880 the num- ber of .districts reporting libraries was only 273, with 15,- 850 volumes. In 1886 there were 363 districts with libraries containing 24,464 volumes ; and but one county, Walworth, reported any town libraries. Finally, action was taken by the state to remedy this digraceful condition of the libraries, and an act was passed in 1887|| authorizing the treasurer of each town to " with- hold annually from the several school districts of his town, one-twentieth of the school fund income appropriated thereto, together with one-twentieth of all county and town taxes for schools." This was amended in 1889, by changing the sum withheld to ten cents for each person of school age residing in such districts. As results of this law, 26 towns pur- chased school libraries in 1887, 48 towns in 1888 and 294 in 1890. In all, 671 towns have complied with the law, and the number of volumes purchased since 1887 aggregates 54,265. By 1892 the district libraries contained 28,579 vol- umes, of which 6,273 volumes were purchased in 1892. The state superintendent issues a carefully prepared list of books from which town clerks and county superintendents make selections. The independent cities report 42,650 volumes in their libraries for 1892. The system has thus far worked well, and districts show increasing interest in this direc- tion. *8upt, Pub. Instr., 1875, p. 65. fWis. Jour, of Educ., June, 1875. J Laws, 18B8, Ch. 174. 'i Supt. Pub. Instr., 1878, p. 31. |i Laws 1887, Ch. 4l'(i. 74 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. XIV. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. The state constitution required that no sectarian instruc- tion should be allowed in the common schools or 'the state university a principle which has been carried out in our educational system, though in recent years it has received a new interpretation. The early settlers were largely Ameri- can Protestants, and very naturally continued the custom, prevalent in so many eastern localities, of opening the school sessions with religious exercises. As the foreign element increased, and not only Protestants, but Catholics, Jews, and Free-thinkers sent their children to the public schools, objections to this custom arose. No statute has regulated it, for it is simply one of the details of school management that are left to the discretion of district boards. In the exercise of that discretion, they have in most plan- discontinued the practice. In this connection especial interest attaches to the fam- ous " Edgerton Bible case," which arose in 1889. Two of the teachers in the city of Edgerton opened the daily sessions of their schools by reading selections from the King James Bible. Some Catholic parents objected, and applied to the board of education to have the readings discontinued, which the board declined to do. The parents then petitioned the circuit court of Rock county for a writ of mandamus compell- ing the board to order the readings to cease. Failing in this. they carried the case to the supreme court of the state, which decided, March 18th, 1890, that the Bible readings as devotional exercises were a violation of the constitutional prohibition of sectarian instruction.* Religious exercises were also held for many years in the state university and the normal schools. At the White- water normal school Scripture readings and prayer were omitted in 1880, ethical lectures and readings being substi- tuted therefor. In 1886, a member of the board of visitors for the normal school at Oshkosh made objections to the religious exercises by which the sessions of that school were opened. Continued public controversy was aroused, which finally led to the discontinuance of the custom. The normal school at Platteville, however, did not drop its religious exercises till 1890. At the state university, chapel exercises were held, though attendance was optional. The board of visitors reported in 1880 that " less than thirty students out *Bible in the public schools (State Hist. Soc. of Wis). <;I-:NKUAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 75 of four hundred to five hundred, attended chapel ; and they thought it better to discontinue the exercises, if so little interest were shown." This was done about 1884. It has been felt, by many prominent educators, that some systematic instruction in ethics should be given in the public schools, and individual teachers here and there have attempted to meet the need : but thus far it has not become a part of our educational plan. X V. M IS( .'ELLANEOUS. A kindergarten school was opened in the First ward of Milwaukee, in 1872, with 70 pupils so far as is known the first kindergarten in Wisconsin. Another was opened the next year, in the Tenth ward, with 43 pupils. Both these were German ; but an English kindergarten was opened in the Seventh ward in 1874 with 21 pupils. In 1878 there were five of these schools, with an enrollment of 300 pupils.* The establishment of kindergartens in the normal schools and other state institutions has been already men- tioned, beginning with 1880, the year when one was opened in the Oshkosh normal school. Their number has increased from year to year until, in 1892, there are 53 public kinder- gartens reported, with 90 teachers and 6,230 pupils. These schools are located in the following cities : Milwaukee (28), Sheboygan (5), West Superior (7), Prairie du Chien, White- water. Appleton, Beloit, Wausau, Ashland, Tomah, Colum- bus, Berlin, Watertown and Janesville.f There are also private kindergartens in various places not reported in the above figures. Evening schools have been opened in some of the lar- ger manufacturing cities. In 1880 the following were re- ported: Watertown, one school, with 84 pupils; La Crosse, one school, 75 pupils, and Sheboygan, two schools, 40 pupils. The next year Watertown had 115 pupils and La Crosse 80 ; while Milwaukee opened its evening schools, 13 in number, with 2,030 in attendance. The subject of industrial training in schools has attrac- ted much attention among educators in late years. Several local experiments have been very successful ; but such training has not yet become a part of our school system. At the meeting of the state teachers' association, in 1882, ^Reports of Milwaukee School Board. iSupt. Pub. Instr., 1892. 76 GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. a very interesting and creditable exhibit was made by the pupils of the city schools of Janesville. It included "not only their ordinary school work, but products of handicraft, showing acquaintance with the mechanism and skill in producing the implements, machines, furniture and decora- tive, culinary and housekeeping articles." A similar exhibit was made before the association, in 1886, by the West side schools of Eau Claire. Their manual training department was begun in 1885, and the work was done under the charge of a teacher from the manual training department of Wash- ington university at St. Louis.* President Salisbury, of the Whitewater normal school, stated in his report for 1886 that a small experiment had been made in that school, for the past three years, by attaching a work-shop to their depart- ment of physics, with highly beneficial results upon the training of the normal students. A similar experiment was carried on in the normal school at Milwaukee. In the latter city manual training was introduced in the high school in September, 1891, as a part of the regular course of study. Milwaukee has also two cooking schools, which have been very successful, with 125 and 150 pupils respectively. In the city of Menomonie is a manual training school, belonging to the public school system of the city, but the gift of a generous private citizen. A spacious and handsome building hasjust been finished, fully equipped with machin- ery and all other needed appliances, and given to the city for the benefit of all its children. Here will be given, as a part of the high school training, courses in drawing, model- ing and wood-carving ; carpentry, wood-turning and pattern- making ; molding, casting, forging and machine work in metal ; sewing, dress-making and cooking ; hygiene and lab- oratory work in physics and chemistry. The department of mathematics is under the charge of a graduate of the Worcester polytechnic school. f The result of this enter- prise will be highly interesting to all friends of the " new education." The second district of the cit} r of Appleton has also a manual training department in its high school. An educational exhibit was made by Wisconsin at the Centennial of 1876, which attracted much attention and favorable comment. It included educational maps ; statis- tical reports of the school system (acknowledged to be the finest collection of the kind exhibited); work of pupils from * Snpt. Pub. Instr. 1882, p. 30; 1886, p. 48. f Worcester (Mass.) Daily Spy, November 30, 18!H>. GENERAL SKETCH OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 77 the schools, an especially fine display from those of Milwau- kee ; books, pamphlets, etc. These exhibits were sent to the Paris exposition of 1878 ; and nearly all the articles were donated to the French government, to be deposited in the Pedagogical museum in the Palais Royal at Paris.* Our schools were even more creditably represented at the National Centennial school exposition, held at Chicago in July, 1887, to celebrate the centennial of the ordinance of 1787. The state legislature appropriated $2,000 to aid in preparing a suitable exhibit of Wisconsin's school system. Among the notable features of this exhibit, a few deserve special mention. The Whitewater normal school sent a col- lection of clay moldings and shop work, including some fine lathe work and philosophical instruments, well finished. Calumet county showed some philosophical instruments made without tools, except a penknife and hammer inclu- ding a suction pump, camera obscura, wheel and axle, pulleys, etc. Fort Atkinson, Janesville, Marinette and Whitewater public schools sent admirable analyses and drawings in the natural sciences. Fond du Lac showed work with penknife and with needle, and geometric models of tin and wire. West Eau Claire exhibited the only sys- tematic and continuous effort in industrial training, including excellent specimens of bench work, sewing, knitting, etc. The state charitable institutions made fine displays of work done by the pupils, of which the school for the blind sent models in clay, rugs, hammocks, toy furniture, and among its kindergarten work one original design in color.f * Supt. Pub. Instr., 1878, p. 36. t Supt. of Pub. Instr., 1888, pp. 29, 102. Early Schools in Wisconsin/ The first schools in Wisconsin were those conducted for the religious instruction of Indian youth by Jesuit priests, sent hither as agents of France, charged with the double mission of extending the dominion of thechurch, and strength- ening that of the king. It is not probable that Father Rene Menard who lost his life in 1662, while seeking Huron fugitives from Iroquois wrath, at the source of the Black river had any opportunity in his laborious journey of exercising his pedagogical talents upon Wisconsin soil. But when, in 1665, Father Claude Allouez organized the mission of La Pointe, on the mainland near the future site of Ash- land, on Chequamegon bay, he drew pupils from tribes scattered all the way from Hudson bay to the Ohio, and from Lake Michigan to the Red River of the North. There were no entrance examinations, the curriculum was meagre, and the attendance spasmodic; yet few modern teachers have the persistent zeal of those hardy disciples of Loyola, whose pioneer missions were churches, schools, and trading posts combined. Allouez had large congregations of naked savages, the representatives of many far-spread tribes, who came to stare with open-mouthed wonder at his glittering altar ornaments and silken vesture, as well as to barter for utensils, weapons, and ornaments of European manufacture. Yet he made little headway among them, being consoled for his hardships and ill-treatment by the devotion of a mere handful of insignificant followers. Allouez labored thus, alone in the wilderness, hoping against hope, for four years, varying the monotony of his dreary task by occasional canoe trips to Quebec, to report progress to his superior. In 1669 he was relieved by Father *L have drawn rny information from manv sources, chiefly : Early History of Education in Wisconsin, by W. C. Whitfbrd," in Wis. Hist. Colls. V., pp. 321-351 ; the same 'author's Historical Sketch of Education in Wisconsin (Madison, 1876) ; Western Historical Com- pany's History of Milwaukee (1881), and History of Columbia County, (1880) ; History of Crawford and Richland Counties, (Springfield, III., 1884) ; Thwaites' Story of Wisconsin, (Boston, 1890) ; and scattering volumes of Wisconsin Historical Collections Vol. XII. of which has some curious documents relative to early Green Bay schools. 78 EARLY SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 79 Jacques Marquette, and at once proceeded to the hybrid Indian village on the site of the present city of Depere, at the first rapids in the Fox river, where he opened the lonely mission of St. Francis Xavier, the second Jesuit establishment within what is now Wisconsin. Here again he instructed Indian youth in the elements of his faith, and sought with ill success to convert the elders. In the spring of 1670 he founded St. Mark, on Wolf river, among the Chippewas. The same year, the raging Sioux drove the La Pointe Indians, with their teacher, Marquette, eastward along the southern shore of Lake Superior, like leaves before the autumn blast, and the fugitives did not stop until they reached Mackinaw. The Roman Catholic mission at La Pointe was not re-estab- lished until a hundred and seventy years later, and then not on the mainland, but on Madelaine island. The following year (1671), Father Louis Andre went to Depere to succeed Allouez as chief ministrant at St. Francis Xavier and St. Mark, leaving the latter to rove at will &mong the Foxes, the Illinois, and neighboring tribes the first regularly-installed itinerant preacher in Wisconsin. We are told that Andre was particularly successful with the children at Depere rapids, where he taught them to sing, to orthodox psalm tunes, while he accompanied them with more or less harmony upon the flute, certain spirited songs of his own composition, ridiculing savage superstition. Allouez and Andre remained for several years in the Wis- consin wilds, achieving more or less success in a spasmodic fashion ; but with the advent of the professional fur-traders of New France, who closely followed upon their steps such men as Perrot, Du Lhut, and La Salle the comparative importance of the missions lessened, and in time the mis- sionaries of the early heroic type disappeared from the pages of our history. The early French fur-traders were educated about as well as men of their class would be to-day. The coureurs des bois, or unlicensed rovers, although nominally outlaws be- cause of their illicit traffic under a government which fostered commercial monopolies of every kind, were not a bad class of fellows, and the manuscript letters and journals which some of them have left behind are in the main creditable productions. They were educated either in France, or at Montreal or Quebec ; and even the voyageurs, or common helpers, had a sufficient smattering of the three R's to serve them in a primitive community. Doubtless 80 EARLY SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. there was more or less private tutoring, of a crude sort, for the children occasionally present at the early French trading posts on Lake Pepin (Fort St. Antoine), at Green Bay (Fort St. Francis), at the mouth of the Wisconsin, at La Pointe, and elsewhere, but no trace of anything in the nature of a regular school can be found. It was not until about 1745 that a permanent white settlement was formed in Wisconsin, by the removal to Green Bay from Mackinaw of the household establishment of Augustine de Langlade and his son Charles the latter a famous fur-trader who had been prominent on the Penn- sylvania border as a partisan leader of Indian war parties from Wisconsin ; and who was destined to become yet more noted as the head of those savage allies of the French who were to catch Braddock in his slaughter pen and bear away to their rude lodges in the trans-Michigan woods a goodly share of the scalps and spoils won by them on that fateful day. Augustine was educated in France, and Charles at Mackinaw, and among their followers were fur-trade clerks capable of preparing the younger children of their masters for the schools of Quebec and Montreal, and of sufficiently instructing the others for the ordinary affairs of life. In 1791, we hear of Jacques Porlier, a connection of the Langlades and the Grignons the families of the little Creole settlement were much intermingled by marriage conduct- ing a school at Green Bay. Possibly he was the first profes- sional pedagogue in Wisconsin although Augustin Grignon, the chronicler of the later fur-trading days, says : "They had no early schools at Green Bay none till after the coming of the American troops" (1816). Commencing with 1817 r manuscripts in the possession of the Wisconsin Historical Society enable us to closely follow the Green Bay schools through their varying fortunes. In that year, Thomas S. Johnson engaged "to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and the English language in the vicinity of Green Bay," for "the sum of six dollars for each scholar per quarter," which was fairly profitable for him, as he obtained thirty -three pupils. In 1820, one Jean Baptiste St. Jacobs was the pedagogue, and the agreement drawn up between him and his patrons stipu- lates that the latter are to pay "twenty dollars for one child, and quantity of vegitables," and provide a school-room free of expense. The year following, Mr. St. Jacobs bewails his sad lot in a letter to John Lawe, the leading inhabitant of those days, saying: "I have twenty-four Scholars but I suppose half EARLY SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 81 will pay and the others will not pay verry well," and confess- ing that he himself is "a poor reatch." In 1823, affairs in the Green Bay school were at a sorry pass, St. Jacobs writing to Lawe from his retreat on "Manomenie River," that had he "been incourage to keep a school at the Bay I should be there yet, but one Gallon Pease 15 Ibs. Pork per Month was not anueff to supp me. I got drunk to drop the school as I could not make a Lively wood on one Gallon Pease 15 Ibs. Pork per Month, and could not get Wood from Mr. Gorbut." Amos Holton, who at least knew how to spell, succeeded St. Jacob (1823), and taught twenty-five scholars at four dol- lars per quarter, the patrons to furnish and heat a room. The year following, a post school was opened across the river, at Fort Howard, for the instruction of children con- nected with the garrison, to which a few outsiders were admitted. In 1825 the Green Bay schoolmaster was Daniel Curtis, formerly a captain in the regular army ; he had kept school at Prairie du Chien the year previous. In 1828 the five American families at Shanty Town, now a part of Green Bay, erected a log school house and imported a young lady teacher from the east Miss Caroline Russell. In the same year, Electa Quinney, a Stockbridge Indian, was teaching a small school on the bank of the Fox river, near where Kau- kauna now is; her pupils were chiefly Indian children, although a few whites were admitted. One of them records with affection, in his tribute to her memory : "We all liked her ; it was very seldom that she whipped us." The first post school at Fort Crawford (Prairie du Chien) was established as early as 1817, an educated sergeant named Reeseden being the teacher, and the enterprise was main- tained for many years under various masters, as a feature of garrison life. In May, 1818, a private school was opened at Prairie du Chien by Willard Keyes, who had about thirty scholars, " mostly bright and active, at two dollars per month." A year later, however, he moved to Illinois, find- ing it " of no use to remain longer in this expensive place." At Fort Winnebago (Portage), Miss Eliza Haight opened a school in 1835, primarily for Major John Green's children, but other garrison children were admitted. By 1840, this post school, while in the charge of Chaplain S. P. Keyes, con- tained forty pupils. The opening of the lead district in southwestern Wis- consin, in 1827, was followed by the establishment there of numerous towns, the founders of which were men of more 82 EARLY SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. than ordinary education and ability. The first school house in the region was built at Mineral Point in 1830, and the second at Platteville three years later. It is computed that in 1836, the year of the organiza- tion of Wisconsin territory, there were within the present limits of the state a population of nine thousand whites, sup- porting " eight small private schools, and two hundred and seventy-five pupils attending them." These were the schools at Green Bay, Portage, Prairie du Chien, Mineral Point, Platteville, Milwaukee (1835), Kenosha (December, 1835), and Sheboygan (winter of 1836-37). The Madison school was not opened until March 1, 1838. It was not until 1839 that taxes for public schools became generally available in the territory, and until then most schools were maintained by fees levied upon the parents of the children ; and, indeed, in many communities, the public funds had, after that date, frequently to be supplemented by popular subscriptions. No notice of early schools in Wisconsin is complete without reference to the modern mission schools for Indians, the spiritual successors of the Jesuit schools of the seven- teenth century. Readers of Wisconsin history will remem- ber the part played by Rev. Eleazer Williams (Episcopalian), the pretended dauphin of France, in removing to the Fox river valley, in Wisconsin, members of certain tribes of New York Indians. In 1823 he opened a school on the Fort Howard side of the river, where he taught some fifty chil- dren, chiefly Creoles and half-breeds; his assistant for several years was Andrew G. Ellis, to whom we are indebted for " Estimates of Williams' Character," in the Wisconsin His- torical Collections. In 1827, Rev. Richard F. Cadle was sent out to Green Bay by the missionary society of the Protestant Episcopal Church, to conduct a school at Green Bay for Indian and half-breed children between four and fourteen years of age. In buildings costing $9,000, Mr. Cadle not only taught but lodged and fed his dusky flock, which in 1831 numbered one hundred and twenty-nine. There were at one time seven teachers, and branches were opened at Duck Creek and Neenah. Although intelligently conducted and gen- erously supported, the enterprise failed after a protracted trial of sixteen years. Between 1830 and 1834, there was an attempt, near Green Bay, at first promising, but finally unsuccessful, to revive the operations of the early Catholic missionaries. An EARLY SCHOOLS IX WISCONSIN. So Italian priest, Father Mazzuchelli, was in charge, but even government aid failed to make the enterprise prosper. Pursuant to the provisions of the treaty of Rock Island (September 15, 1832), a school for the education, boarding, and lodging of Winnebago children was in 1832 opened by the government at Prairie du Chien, under the superin- tendence of Rev. David Lowrey, a Cumberland Presbyterian minister. The school, never very successful, was several times removed, Lowrey remaining with his wards uctil their removal to Dakota in 18G3. In August, 1831, a congregational mission was founded on Madelaine island (the La Pointe of to-day), by Rev. Sherman Hall. A feature of the enterprise was a school for the instruction of Indian youth, which soon averaged twenty- five scholars. In connection with this mission, there was organized in August, 1833, the first Congregational church within the present limits of Wisconsin. A Roman Catholic mission was begun on the island by Bishop Baraga, in July, 1835, which was soon housed in a log chapel. The remains of this building are to-day shown to credulous tourists as the relics of Father Marquette's mission house. It is perhaps needless to remind the reader, that the La Pointe of Mar- quette's day was on the mainland, some sixteen miles dis- tant, and that no relics of his work in Wisconsin are known to exist. REUBEN GOLD THWAITES. COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES AND ACADEMIES. The University of Wisconsin. Madison, the capital of the state of Wisconsin, is situ- ated about forty miles from the southern boundary of the state, and midway between Lake Michigan and the Missis- sippi river. The region round about is known as the Four Lake Country ; so named from four lakes that, like great pearls, have been strung on the Yahara river. The largest of these lakes, the fourth lake, known commonly by its In- dian name of "Mendota," is about six miles long from east to west, and four miles wide. The shore line is irregular ; it rises into bluffs and forest-covered hills or slopes gradually away from the water's edge into beautiful farms and mead- ows. About three-fourths of a mile from the eastern shore of Mendota lies Third lake. It is three miles long from north to south, and has an average width of one and a half miles. The Indian, with a true poetic sense, called the lake "Monona," or "Fairy lake ;" and no one who has seen the lake in June, when the shadows are most at play, or has seen it shimmering in the moonlight, ever thought it mis- named. On the strip of land between these two lakes, and westward along the southern shore of Mendota is situated Wisconsin's capital city. In 1829, Jefferson Davis, with a file of soldiers, while on a march from the Portage of the Wisconsin and Fox river- to the village of Chicago halted at the point where Madison now stands. He claimed to be the first white man who ever looked upon the Four Lake Country. As early as 1835, this spot, while yet in the center of a wilderness, was chosen as the proper site for the capital of the new territory. Its picturesque beauty has always been recognized. Horace Greeley said, " Madison has the most magnificent site of any inland town I ever saw." Longfellow broke into song ' ' Four limpid lakes four Naides Or sylvan deities are these, In flowing robes of azure dressed ; Four lovely handmaids, that uphold Their shining mirrors, rimmed with gold, To the fair city in the West. 87 88 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. By day the coursers of the sun Drink of these waters as they run Their swift diurnal rounds on high ; By night the constellations glow Far down the hollow deeps below, And glimmer in another sky. Fair lakes, serene and full of light Fair town, arrayed in robes of white, How visionary ye appear ! All like a floating landscape seems In cloudland or the land of dreams, Bathed in a golden atmosphere ! " And what could Madison do but modestly "blush at the praise of her own loveliness ?" Unfortunately, she came to believe that "beauty unadorned is adorned the most," for- getting that both cities and civilizations are governed by a different law. Only within the past two or three years has she really added anything to her original endowment of beauty ; but now the spirit of improvement is abroad. With excellent gas and water, with electric light and electric railway, have come macadam streets, mile upon mile. The rage for good roads has so possessed her that the principal avenues leading out from the capital will, before long, be made hard and smooth far beyond the city limits. A beau- tiful pleasure drive some ten or twelve miles long has just been opened ; it passes through the university grounds and westward close by the southern shore of Lake Mendota, and returns along a high ridge or line of hills parallel with the lake shore, and some two or three miles distant, furnishing a series of views of lakes and forests and undulating farm lands that can scarcely be surpassed. The city is built mainly on and about two hills. One of these, midway between lakes Monona and Mendota, is crowned by the state capitol, and the other, on the southern shore of Mendota, by the state university buildings. Some smaller hills render the site undulating, if you put it mildly; the cyclist insists that it is abominably hilly, but the true Madisonian thinks it just hilly enough to be picturesque. Here at this political and educational center are some sixteen thousand people. As early as 1838, at the first meeting of the territorial legislature, an act was passed creating the "university of the territory of Wisconsin." A board of visitors was appointed by the legislature, and the territorial delegate in THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 89 the National Congress was instructed to ask of the general government, as an endowment for the said university, seventy-two sections of land. The request of the delegates was granted, and in 1838, the secretary of the treasury was instructed to set apart two full townships for the support of a university, and for no other use or purpose whatsoever. These lands might be selected in seventy-two parcels, each containing one section, and not in two full townships in a single parcel, as had been the rule in former appropriations to other territories or states for a similar purpose. Thus the territory might select for its university the choicest of the unappropriated lands. This was the very beginning of the Wisconsin state university, but no buildings began to rise ; no faculty was yet chosen. The whole territory was one great wilderness, and a higher institution of learning must have seemed to the hardy frontiersmen the very last thing they needed. The board of visitors, or regents, as they were called later, had, indeed, no duties, but they enjoy the distinction of being the only governing board of the university that has not had more or less adverse criticism. The new grant DO THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. of land was not placed under their control, they had no moneys to expend ; and yet they performed a great service to education. They kept the idea of a university, a higher institution of learning managed and controlled by the state, before the people. In 1840 commissioners were appointed by the territorial governor to locate a portion of these lands, not exceeding two- thirds, thus granted for the support of a university, and by the time the territory became a state, the entire 46,080 acres had been located. When the territory became a state, in 1848, the new constitution provided that the grant of land made in 1838 should be the basis for the support of a state university. The lands were at once appraised, and, although the commissioners w r ere sworn to appraise at a fair valuation, yet the desire to offer cheap lands to the immigrants, and thus build up the material prosperity of the commonwealth, was so great that the rights of the university that was to be were ignored. The same crime had been committed before, and has been committed since in other territories and states. The fe\v friends of the university protested, but to no pur- pose. The board of regents, created by the new constitu- tion, called the attention of the legislature to this palpable violation of trust, and, in 1850, it seemed that a reform was about to be made the minimum price of the lands, ap- praised at $2.78, was fixed at $10 an acre. But the reform, -even if attempted in good faith, was not pushed. The clamor of the new settlers for cheap lands to induce immi- gration prevailed, and the price was lowered, and then lowered again, until the prize was sufficiently alluring to draw the crowding immigrants into the wilderness. The words of the congressional grant were "for the support of the university and for no other purpose." The state never claimed any legal right in the lands, except as trustee, and yet the policy of sacrificing the university lands to pro- mote immigration continued, and became the settled policy of the state. Michigan university from a similar grant realized a permanent fund of over half a million dollars, while the "Wisconsin university received for her grant only $150,000. This sum was so manifestly inadequate for the endowment of a university that in 1854 a second grant of 72 sections was obtained from the general government. But it was the same old story ; the lands were carefully selected, but ap- praised and sold at ridiculously low prices ; and even in 1862, THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 91 when Congress granted to the state, by the agricultural college act, 240,000 acres of land, the same policy was for a time adhered to. But where was the university while the state was thus squandering what would by reasonable care have made it wealthy and powerful ? On January 16, 1849, the regents began the work of organization. For more than ten years the university had been, indeed, only an idea, and even now, with no high schools, no academies, how could it have a real exis- tence ? The regents, with great modesty, first organized a preparatory school. This was opened in 1850 by Professor John W. Sterling, in a building furnished free of rent by the citizens of Madison. Dr. John H. Lathrop was elected chancellor chancellor of a unversity consisting of a pre- paratory department. His action, however, was not prema- ture. The president of the university was, by the act of incorporation, ex-officio president of the board of regents, and his advice and counsel would be needed at every step in the organization. In the following year the department of science, literature and arts was organized with Professor Sterling and Chancellor Lathrop as the faculty. Another 92 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. member was added in 1852, but it was not until 1856 that all the chairs in the six departments were provided for. In 1854, two young men, a sort of first fruits of the institution, were graduated, and the university was now indeed estab- lished ; though it lacked students, funds and friends. The board of regents at their first meeting, besides this work of internal organization, bought fifty acres of land on the edge of the village for $15 per acre, and " College Hill," as it had long been prophetically called, was declared to be the site of the university. In 1857, with the permission of the legislature, the regents borrowed $25,000 from the university fund to con- struct the first college building. This act was without doubt doubly illegal : the grant of the general government was for the support of a university, not to construct buildings ; and the income only, not the principal, was to be used for such support. The foundations for a second building were soon after laid, but it was not completed until 1855, and then not by money appropriated by the state, but by a second loan of $15,- 000 from the university fund. Two years later another loan of more than $50,000, for the construction of a third building was made from the same fund. No other buildings were con- structed until 1870. With nearly $100,000 thus taken right out from the university fund, the already slender income was so reduced that apparatus and additional instruction had to be postponed. The life of the university from its birth until 1866 was one long struggle, not pleasant to think upon. Not only were its lands squandered, and the burden of erecting nec- essary buildings unjustly and illegally thrown upon it, and its income thus impaired, but from the first the new institu- tion made its way against a hostile public sentiment. The right of the state to provide for higher education was dis- puted ; the right even to provide for common school instruc- tion was not everywhere conceded. The denominational college was the only type of higher institution with which the people were familiar, and a purely secular university was an impiety, and its success an impossibility. Indifference to the university we may ascribe to the engrossing cares of the material life in new communities, or to the desire among the better educated to send their sons to the older eastern in- stitutions with whose walls they were themselves familiar ; but the active opposition that could violate a solemn public trust, and even plot the life of the university, could spring THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 93 only from surviving medieval conceptions of the relation of the church and the state to education. It was charged constantly from 1850 to 186G that the university did not meet the wants of the people, and that there was mismanagement of the funds by the regents. From the fact that the legislature authorized loans from the university fund for the erection of the college buildings, the state came to think that it might do as it pleased with the university and its funds ; and at one time it had so far taken possession that the regents were compelled to ask the legislature each year formally to appropriate the income of the university fund for the current expenses of the institution. From this usurpation the idea that the university was subsisting upon the bounty of the state became firmly fixed ; the denomina- tional colleges petitioned the legislature to abandon the state university and to divide the university fund among them, and the local press generally favored the measure. In 1855 & member of the board of regents, who was also a member >of the assembly, introduced a bill in the legislature to grant the prayer of the denominational colleges. But the action .seemed so Judas-like that even popular indifference was 94 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. aroused and made him withdraw the measure. There was hostility everywhere. In a formal meeting of the regents it was proposed to suspend the institution for one year for the pretended purpose of securing a more efficient organization. While prohably three-fourths of the students boarded them- selves yet these critics of the university sneered at it as existing only " for the aristocratic few." The charge that the university did not meet the wants of the people was made, but in what way it failed the regents were not informed, and so they tried in various ways to meet what they supposed might be those wants. They organized a department of law and one of medicine, but got no further than the organization, on account of lack of funds; they tried to establish a normal department that should be at the same time one of the normal schools of the state, but failed ; they tried to give a more practical education. Says Chan- cellor Lathrop in his report to the board: "In the administra- tion of the department of science, literature and the arts in the university, a more distinct bias should be given to its instructions in the direction of its several arts and avocations as they exist among men ; the practical should take rank of the theoretical in the forms as well as the substance of the university culture." Not all of the criticism, however, was prejudiced or un- just. Undoubtedly there was a feeling among the people,, blind, unreasoning though it was, that the university should minister to the material, practical life of the community ; the stereotyped college course was felt somehow to be inadequate, out of touch with the new learning in science. This feeling was the hint of an ever-broadening conception of education. But it was unjust to demand that the regents should broaden a course of study already too broad for the resources at their command. The university did undoubtedly seem unsuccess- ful. However promising the graduates of any new institution may be, however good the instruction, the results will at first seem very disproportionate to the effort expended. The people then could not know that among those early graduates there were in embryo great lawyers, judges, United States senators and cabinet ministers. However impatient we are for the fruitage, it takes time to grow men. This impatient spirit of the people showed itself in frequent re-organizations of the university ; like impatient children, they periodic- ally uprooted the young plant to see why it did not grow- faster. 96 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. In 1858 the regents reorganized the course of study somewhat along the lines proposed by the enemies as well as by the friends of the university. When this re-organiza- tion was completed, Dr. Lathrop resigned the chancellor- ship, and was elected to the chair of ethical and political science, but this he also resigned the following year. Dr. Henry Barnard, of Hartford, Conn., widely known as an educator, was elected chancellor, and his acceptance filled the friends of the university with hope and confidence. But their anticipations were never to be realized, for Dr. Bar- nard's health was not good, and besides to the duties of chancellor he had added those of agent for the normal school board, and it was as such agent that he did his chief work in the state. To the limit of his strength he gave himself to the bettering of the common schools of the state, a work greatly needed, to be sure, and directly in line with his previous tastes and experience, while the university saw little of him. After two years he resigned, and Prof. Ster- ling, the dean of the faculty, was for seven years the executive head of the institution. When the civil war broke out, the young men looked across from College hill on Camp Randall, a great drill ground for the new regiments, and they soon found their way into the ranks. Entire classes were in the field ; the annual attendance was reduced to fifty or sixty ; one year no commencement exercises were held. During the period of the war the question was not one of progress, but of keeping the breath of life in the institution. The most rigid economy was demanded, yet, in spite of their poverty, the regents, in 1863, established a normal department, and seventy-six young women tripped into the university. They were graciously allowed to hear lectures on a few subjects, such as botany, chemistry and English literature, but en- trance into the regular work in languages, mathematics, philosophy, etc., was still denied them. The wise conserva- tives, however, insisted that the department was a Trojan horse, and the enemy was already within the gates. In 1866 the legislature reorganized the university, re- created it, established it on enduring foundations. The war had been an educator; men's ideas had broadened, many a soldier hastened from the battlefield to the college or university. We had come in touch each with the other, and with this cosmopolitan feeling had come a recognition of the value of higher education. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 97 The great prosperit}' of Michigan university, established in 1841, stimulated our state pride. The sentiment was slowly growing among the people that if the university had really corne to stay, then it must have an opportunity and must have money. By the reorganization, the university was to consist of a college of arts, a college of letters, and such other colleges as might from time to time be added thereto. The scope of the two colleges established was very broad, and provision was made for further, almost indefinite, expansion without change in the organic law. Now, for men and money. The regents tendered the presidency to Paul A. Chadbourne, formerly a professor in Williams college and at this time president of the Massa- chusetts Agricultural college. Dr. Chadbourne visited the state twice, looked the ground over carefully, and then de- clined the position. The reason was plain. In this last re- organization the legislature had provided that "the university in all its departments and colleges shall be open alike to male and female students." But Dr. Chadbourne was not a be- liever in co-education. The regents then went to the next legislature and represented that the carrying out strictly of 98 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. the provision in regard to co-education would be injurious to- the university. The legislature thereupon amended the- original section and provided that " the university shall be open to female as well as male students under such regula- tions as the board of regents may deem proper, and all able- bodied male students ot the university, in whatever college, shall receive instruction and discipline in military tactics, the requisite arms for which shall be furnished by the state.' r The presidency was again offered to Dr. Chadbourne in June r 1867. He accepted, and the real work of reorganization was begun. Of the old faculty Prof. Sterling alone was perma- nently retained. New courses of study were provided, and the university was swung slowly around on its new direction. The long-looked-for day had dawned. Dr. Chadbourne was, first of all, an orderly man ; not great as a specialist, but of excellent scholarship along many lines. To the young men of that time he seemed an ideal teacher. He certainly brought an atmosphere of an older and more perfect culture, lifted university instruction to new dignity, raised the office of president of the university to such honorableness that he won respect for the university and its interests. By the act of reorganization the legislature had provided for the support of the university : First : The income of the university fund, which consisted of the proceeds of thegrants- of 1838 and 1854. Second : The income of a fund to be de- rived from the sale of the 240,000 acres of land granted by Congress in 1862 for the benefit of agriculture and the me- chanic arts, to be called the agricultural college fund ; and Third : All such contributions to the endowment fund as- might be derived from private or public bounty. In the- whole act of reorganization perhaps no other single provision was so important as the one thus placing the agricultural col- lege in the university instead of organizing it as a separate- institution. At the time of the reorganization the annual income from the university fund was $11,894.20. This was plainly insufficient for the support of the university, and the legisla- ture, in 1867, appropriated to the university annually for ten years the sum of $7,303.67, being interest on a gross sum of $104,339.42, that had been taken from the university fund in 1862. The change of attitude was marked. Previous to- 1866 the state had charged the regents $1,000 a year for the- care of the university fund, now the state treasurer was made* THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 99 ex-officio treasurer of the university. In 1870, animated by this new born spirit of generosity, the legislature appro- priated $50,000 for the erection of ladies' hall, the first money the state ever gave to the university. President Chadbourne, on account of ill-health, resigned in June, 1871. The university, however, under the impulse he had given it, moved on. The breath of a new life was animating the whole institution. With the new faculty had come a new horizon. The courses of study had been laid along lines that meant steady growth and unceasing power. Men might come and men might go, but hereafter the uni- versity was to move steadily forward. In June, 1871, Rsv. John H. Twombly, of Boston, was chosen president, and held the office for three years. Upon his resignation, in 1874, the regents elected as his successor, Dr. John Basco m, of Williams college. For thirteen years Dr. Bascom, with great wisdom and ability, directed the fortunes of the institution. There went out from the academic department, during those years, 585 graduates, each one of whom had been mentally and morally quickened by his instruction. He was the Mark Hopkins of the university. His philosophy may not be the philosophy 100 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. of the future ; the power and influence was in the man. The students heard the profoundest themes discussed by a great man, saw the processes of his thought, the orderly ongoing of & trained intellect, and knew thereafter the difference between thinking and merely seeming to think. He was an inspirer of men ; instruction in its best sense reached in the university its high tide in his class-room. President Bascom was heartily in favor of co-education. The temporizing system adopted in 1867 had continued with some modifications until his time. During the administra- tion of President Chadbourne, the young men and the young women recited in the same subject to the same instructors, but at different hours. The president would hear the six or eight young men of the senior class in philosophy, and the next hour would step into an adjoining room and hear about the same number of young women recite the same lesson. The system steadily broke down under the weight of its own absurdity, and in 1874 the young men and the young women entered the classes together, and all the manifold calamities that had been prophesied never came to pass. True, there were some who, persuaded against their will, were of the same opinion still in regard to co-education, but these utterances were only echoes of the strife that had really ended, and they soon died away. The generosity of the state was shown by increasing from time to time the income of the university, and by lib- eral appropriations for buildings. The legislature in 1872, after reciting the mismanagement of the lands of the univer- sity, by the state, in former years, decreed that annually thereafter there should be levied a tax of $10,000 as part of the university income. A tardy acknowledgment, perhaps, but no less pleasing to the friends of the university. But even better than this followed. In 1876 the legislature voted to replace the $10,000 tax by another tax of one-tenth of a mill on the dollar on the assessed valuation of the taxa- ble property of the state. This, it was declared in the bill, was to be deemed a full compensation for all deficiencies in the income from the disposition of the lands donated by the state. This tax greatly increased the income of the univer- sity. In 1883 it was increased to one-eighth of a mill on the dollar, and such increase was to be used to maintain an agricultural experiment station and a school of pharmacy. The appropriations for buildings were no less liberal. The science department of the university began to take form president 3obn Bascom. Professor John Bascom was called to the presidency of the Wisconsin university in April, 1874. His advent was marked by an earnest and persistent endeavor to raise the standard of scholarship and to establish for the institution those ideals and aims which distinguish true university education from the aca- demic or preparatory stage of teaching. As in the growth of higher institutions, President Bascom found that the labor of securing the conditions of growth were arduous. He was met by external opposition which was the more difficult to sur- mount as it came from those unacquainted with the aims of higher education and its value to the commonwealth. The thirteen years of his management were, hoAvever, rewarded by a steady advancement along the lines of larger growth and more liberal culture. At his request young women were admitted to the same courses and advantages as young men. The terms of admission were gradually raised, and distinctively preparatory work elim- inated. The multiplication of high schools throughout the state, and the fixing of the standard of admission from these schools to the university, at last supplied the foundation for which President Bascom labored. In the meantime the learn- ing and diligence of the president was a full and constant source of helpfulness to the pupils. His personal instruction was given generously to the higher classes during his term he taught fifteen classes, instructing both juniors and seniors the last year. President Bascom is now residing at Williamstown, Mass. W. E. A. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 101 soon after the reorganization. In 1869 the professor of chem- istry cleaned out the cellar of the old main hall, where the janitor had from the beginning stored his wood, and estab- lished the first laboratory of the university, and the students began to work with things instead of abstractions. The department went from this basement and the main hall into one of the old dormitories, and when these quarters became too small, the legislature, in 1875, showing the increasing SCIKNCE HALL. good-will of the people, appropriated $80,000 for the building of science hall, and it was completed two years later. In 1878 there was appropriated the sum of $130,000 for an assembly hall and library building. It seemed that now the needed buildings for the university had been provided. The need was to come in an unexpected way. On December 1, 1884, science hall, with its costly apparatus and valuable col- lections was burned. The legislature, ten days later, voted $150,000 for a science hall, machine shops and boiler house ; 102 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. $20,000 for a new chemical laboratory, and $20,000 for heat- ing apparatus. The regents immediately began the erection of these buildings. It was after a time seen that the build- ings as planned would 'cost a much larger sum than the ap- propriations, and two years later the legislature with a feeling that the regents should be reprimanded for exceeding the original appropriation, voted an additional sum of $125,000 to complete science hall on the scale laid out by the regents. The new hall is massive in its proportions, admirably planned and is fire-proof. At the time of its erection it was among the very best of the buildings devoted wholly to science in the world. Brick and mortar do not indeed make a university, and yet the growing shell shows in a measure the development of its inhabitant, and the new science hall that seemed in 1888 large for our uses is getting even now somewhat crowded, and a new engineering building is one of the not remote possibilities. In 1887 President Basco in resigned. During his admin- istration the university grew in power, in new departments, in increased facilities. The kindly feeling that sprung up after the reconstruction continued ; the permanent income of the university was greatly increased, and more than half a million dollars had been appropriated for new buildings. The preparatory department was abolished, and the system of accredited high schools was inaugurated. Co-education was made the permanent policy of the institution ; the agricultural experiment station was beginning to solve the problem of agricultural education. On the retirement of Dr. Bascom, the regents elected as his successor Dr. Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin, of the United States geological survey. Further broadening of the scope of the university ; more original research; more post- graduate study ; the method and life of a university, and not those of a college these fairly indicate the hopes and pur- poses of the new executive. Dr. Chamberlin was not ex- pected to give instruction in the class-room, but to devote himself entirely to executive duties. He held the presidency for five years. In briefly sketching the period from 1887 to 1892, 1 shall aim not only to indicate the lines of recent progress, but to show in some measure the fruitage of seed long since planted, and thus in some degree place before you the university as it exists to-dav. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 103 One of the greatest drawbacks in the early history of the university was the lack of fitting schools. There were no funds to establish academies throughout the state, if it had been thought wise to do so. It was only as the university grew in popular favor, and took its rightful place in the educational ^system of the state, that the high schools took up successfully the functions of feeders to the university. The system is -now fairly established and becomes every year more efficient. Any high school or academy wishing to be admitted to the list of accredited schools will be examined as to its courses of study and method of instruction by an agent of the uni- versity, usually one of the professors. Upon his favorable recommendation and the concurrence of the faculty, the school is placed upon the list and continues thereon from year to year while the results are satisfactory, and while the management of the school remains unchanged. In 1892 there were 100 schools on the accredited list. Of this num- ber 14 high schools prepare for all the courses except the ancient classical. Of the remainder, a majority prepare for three or four courses. There are ten seminaries and academies on the list. The professor of pedagogy in the university has -special charge of these accredited schools. Under his wise management the connection of the university not only with the high schools, but with all the lower schools of the state, is becoming more close, and with the grading of the country schools, now rapidly going on, the way to the university for every boy and girl in the state is made easy. The college of law graduated its first class in 1869. It has had a prosperous career ; a steady growth in numbers and in efficiency. The ablest attorneys and jurists of the Northwest have been members of the faculty. The methods -of instruction embrace the best of the most approved sys- tems. There are lectures and quizzes, text-book study and practice in stating and explaining legal principles, the drafting of legal papers, and the trial and argument of cases in moot courts, all supervised by experienced instruct- ors a system that insures the maximum of benefit .to be -derived from a school of law. Madison offers superior advantages for such a school. Here are located the munici- pal court, the circuit court, the state supreme court and the United States district court. The library of the school is of good size and well selected ; while the state law library is the largest and most complete in the west. The regular course is two years ; a three years' course is offered, which is 104 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. practically the two years' course with an added year in economics, political and social science. College graduates who take of these elective branches, the equivalent of a full year's work, may at the end of three years receive an aca- demic master's degree, as well as the degree of bachelor of law. The college has had its quarters in the capitol build- ing ; of late years it has been cramped for room, especially during the session of the legislature, but the new building on College hill, costing $75,000, now nearly completed, will make the department a home whose elegance and com- pleteness will atone somewhat for the discomforts of the past. Striving to serve the material life of the state as well as the intellectual, the department of engineering has been greatly strengthened, and established as the college of mechanics and engineering. It offers courses in railway, structural, mechanical, electrical and metallurgical engineer- ing. The whole number of students in attendance is 173. These courses, aiming in the four years to give both a general and professional training, are among the hardest courses in the university and yet among the most popular. The school of pharmacy was established in 1884, and at once took high rank. The curriculum of the university may seem to some incomplete without a medical department. At an early day such a department was organized, on paper, and, per- haps fortunately for the university, never progressed beyond that point. The field is now occupied by the medical schools of Chicago. The superior conditions furnished by large cities have kept the regents from entering upon a work where the university would of necessity be at a disadvantage. In its pre-medical course it now makes substantial contribution to the general medical training. In these later years there seems to be a growing need for a high kind of investigative work in pathological science, work that neither the busy physician nor the medical instructor can adequately do, work that can only be done by special talent in a great lab- oratory perfectly equipped. Such a laboratory lies fairly within the scope of the university ; and it has its precedent in the great agricultural laboratories of the institution. The development of the agricultural college has been most interesting. It was fortunate for the university and for the cause of agricultural education, as we said above, that the land grant of 1862 was used not to establish an agricultural college THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 105 as a separate institution, but to incorporate with the university a school of agriculture and the mechanic arts. A separate in- stitution would have meant a duplication of buildings, and instructional forces, all of which was saved to the university and the state. This disposition of the agricultural college grant was determined upon definitely in 1866, nearly five years after the grant was made by the general government. The legislature, by the same act that made the agricultural college a part of the university, empowered Dane county to issue bonds to the amount of $40,000 to purchase an experi- mental farm. In pursuance of this authority the county purchased a tract of land containing nearly 195 acres adjoin- ing the old university grounds, and improved it for the use of the department of agriculture. The system of agricultural education in the university has three aims : First, to develop agricultural science through investigation and experiment. Second, to give instruction in agriculture at the university. Third, to disseminate agri- cultural knowledge, the result of such investigation, among the farmers, by means of institutes and publications. The experimentation and investigation are carried on in the experiment station at the university. The station was organized by the legislature in 1883, and the state now contributes $5,000 annually to its support. The station force consists of the directors and four professors, two assistants, and perhaps half a dozen other employes. The greatest work yet done at the station is the inven- tion of the Babcock milk test, by Dr. Babcock, the chemist- in-chief. For one hundred years chemists had sought a simple and cheap method for determining fat in milk ; the demand for such a test was heard at every meeting of dairy- men. The Babcock test meets this need. It is so simple that a fifteen-year-old boy can make the tests as accurately as a skilled chemist can, and twenty times as rapidly as the chemist can by the gravimetric process. Thousands of these tests are in use in this country and in Europe, and milk is paid for according to the per cent, of fat it contains. If it is asked what is such a test worth in dollars and cents to the farmers and dairymen of this country, it is probably less than the truth to answer that it is worth to the dairy interests of Wisconsin alone more in dollars and cents than the uni- versity has ever cost the state. At the station such scientific matters as the following are now being investigated : Animal nutrition ; effects of 106 THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. different foods and different combinations upon the animal carcass and in the production of milk ; all questions con- nected with the dairy ; the movements of the water in the soil ; how much water is required by growing crops, and how best to serve it to them ; experience in fruit trees from Siberia, northern China and the hardiest home varieties. In the matter of instruction the long course and the short course indicate the differentiation in agricultural work- ers. The long course means scientific investigators in agri- culture, the short course means the intelligent, practical farmer or dai^man. Students are daily at work in manu- facturing butter, studying living specimens of the best farm animals, or in grafting in the horticultural rooms. These short courses are very popular. The dai^ing course in par- ticular has been obliged to turn applicants away from lack of room. Among the students in this course are instructors of several years' practice in other agricultural colleges. The new dairy building, "Hiram Smith Hall," costing $40,000, is the most completely equipped building for its purpose in the world. The third aim is to disseminate agricultural knowledge, to bring the great mass of farmers into vital connection with this experimental and investigative work at the station by means of farmers' institutes; it is practical and potential, completing a system that marks a plain advance in agricul- tural education. These institutes are under the control of the agricultural college, which sends to each a conductor with from two to four assistants. About one hundred insti- tutes are held every winter, each lasting from two to three days. The attendance ranges from 250 to 1,500; the aggre- gate attendance for 1891 was over 30,000; farmers often come thirty or forty miles to attend the meetings. The con- ductor, the professors from the station, other specialists in the state, or from other states, are there to suggest methods, to answer questions that a great body of farmers are quick to ask. For six years this pioneer university extension work has been in operation. For this work the legislature makes an annual appropriation of $12,000. The great significance of these institutes is only now being generally recognized. Says Charles Dudley Warner in Harper's Magazine : "As these farmer's institutes are conducted I do not know any influence comparable with them in waking up the farmers to think, to inquire into and improve methods and to see in what real prosperity consists. With prosperity, as a rule, the farmer professor G. 9, the salary of the president was raised from $800 to $1,000 a year, and the salaries of pro- fessors from $700 to $840. The years from 1868 to 1875 can well be called the period of prosperous consolidation. No marked events occurred to change the order of things or to initiate some great advance. The well-defined characteristics of the college appeared in hard work by the faculty, a spirit of consecration to the service, marked diligence on the part of the students, and a vivid and strong current of religious influence. No student in those yearrf could be connected with the college for any considerable period without being profoundly impressed, and great numbers were brought tri- umphantly under the saving power of the gospel of Christ. The college took its proper place of pre-eminence in local re- RIPON COLLEGE. 173 forms, and its influence was marked throughout the churches of the commonwealth. It is but historic justice to say that this was in a great measure due to the superb intellectual and spiritual leadership of the president, though he was grandly supported in his chief aims by the faculty, the stu- dents and the local church. Believing, as he once remarked, that he had at his hand more of moldable mind than any pastor in the state, he sought opportunities to address and instruct the students assembled in chapel, and the impress- ions of his powerful appeals are among the things vividly remembered and olten mentioned by the older students. No new buildings were erected in the period we are considering, and little was added to the equipment for illustrating the sciences or for laboratory work. Large ad- ditions were made to the library, and about $60,000 was secured toward the general endowment for the payment of teachers. During these years and the previous ones as far back as 1862, it is difficult to see how the work of the college could have been sustained on the accepted principle of operat- ing it on its own earnings, but for the surprising thorough- ness and economy with which the domestic department was managed under the headship of Mrs. Tracy. The number of boarders was large, and the income from the department exceeded the expenditures by a handsome sum each year. Doubtless less was accomplished in the last years of President Merriraan's administration, much though it was, than would have been possible, if his health had not been impaired. He often labored for weeks together in intense pain. A scholar- ship scheme was adopted and canvassing for the sale of certificates begun, but the work of carrying it through was impossible on account of the president's impaired health and other limitations. At the annual meeting, June 30th, 1874, the president was granted leave of absence, on account of ill health, for six months, with salary continued, and Professor Merrell was requested to act in the place of the president during his absence. But this respite did little towards restoring his health, and at the annual meeting, June 29th, 1875, the board voted to grant him "a complete release from all official duty connected with the college, excepting such as he might choose to perform, until in his own judgment and that of his physicians, he should be so far restored as to be able to return to his work." His salary was in the meantime to be continued, but he did not accept the generosity of the 174 KIPON COLLEGE. board in this respect. Professor Merrell was made acting president, to continue such during the absence of the presi- dent. The president spent the following year in travel in Europe and the farther East. His health was little im- proved during the year, so that his work for the college practically ended in June, 1875. At the annual meeting, June 16. 1876, his resignation as president was presented to the board and it was accepted, though with great reluctance. Professor E. H. Merrell was appointed his successor at the same meeting. The incumbency of President Merrell continued to the end of the school year in 1891, his administration covering a space of sixteen years, including the one year of acting- presidency. The double duty of conducting the adminis- tration and caring for a department of instruction, was undermining his health, and made his resignation at length a necessity. The labor of building up the material side of the work, a responsibility that rested on the president, ex- acting at all times, had come to be excessive. . By the desire of the faculty and trustees, Mr. Merrell retains his chair of mental and moral philosophy. President Merrell has been connected with the college since the autumn of 1862. He is a graduate of Oberlin College and of Oberlin theological seminary, and was a tutor in his alma mater at the time of his first appointment at Ripon. Having been connected with the college during its formative period, he had learned to turn his hand to many forms of work. He had taught more or less in all depart- ments, had given much thought and labor to the " secular- ities " of the institution, and was fully imbued with the spirit of the new enterprise. It was a remark of President Merriman that Mr. Merrell's work during the year 1862-3 had brought the college to such a condition that he dared to take hold of it. During President Merrell's administration the general policy of the college as to intellectual and moral aims and spirit, as well as that relating to economy, was maintained. Large additions were made to the library ; chemical and biological laboratories were established ; four new buildings were added, including the rebuilding of East college; and the endowment funds were about trebled. During these years the interest in the famous Erwin estate was secured, from which it is expected that $100,000 will soon be added to the resources of the college. This was not accomplished without much of specific labor for particular objects. RIPON COLLEGE. 175 In the autumn of 1876 the chemical laboratory building was erected, together with the transit house annexed. The impulse to secure this enlargement was given by the offer for sale of the transit telescope and the chronograph that had been in use in the Mitchell observatory, Cincinnati. The instruments were so excellent and the terms of sale were so reasonable, that prominent citizens of Ripon thought they should be secured for the college, and offered liberal sums towards their purchase. It was decided, while making a house for these instruments, to build for the laboratory also, and the result was the laboratory and transit building as it now stands, together with the equipment for both branches of the work. The laboratory form of instruction began with the completion of this building, under the direction of Professor A. H. Sabin, a large invoice of material having been purchased for him in Germany. Before this time chemistry had been taught on the old lecture and text book plan. The money for this improvement was subscribed by friends in Ripon and other neighboring towns. In 1887 the income of the college was found to be less than the necessary expenses, and on December 3d of that year a plan was adopted to secure one hundred pledges of $125 each to aid in payment of current bills. These pledges were made payable in installments of $25 each, one payment a year for five years. Each subscriber was permitted to send to the college a student free of tuition during the five years. The pledges were all secured, and yielded the sum of $2,500 a year in a time when the aid from it was essential to the safety of the college. The credit of suggesting and promoting this plan is largely due to Mr. Willard Merrill, of Milwaukee. An event of the utmost consequence to the college was the offer of Mrs. Valeria G. Stone, of Maiden, Mass., in the year 1880, of 20,000 for the endowment fund, to be paid when her gift should make the fund $125,000 in all. In order to meet the terms of this pledge, there was needed on December 6th of that year about $28,000. This sum was raised during the following year and the full sum paid in to the endowment. Out of gratitude to Dr. William H. Willcox, of Maiden, Mass., a nephew of Mrs. Stone, and a constant adviser of the distribution of her great wealth in beneficence, the board, with the approbation of Mrs. Stone, named the Greek chair for him, the William H. Willcox professorship. These additions to the endowment made it 176 RIPON COLLEGE. possible to go on under the old law, to operate the college on its earnings. The year 1880 found the college in great need of more room for various purposes. The library was crowded into a corner in West college, in which room also the faculty held their meetings; the treasurer had no proper office; the chapel was overcrowded and generally unfit for its purposes ; and there were no suitable rooms for the museum and for the college literary societies. The old East college had served its day. Nothing about the college in its early days is more vividly remembered, and oftener referred to in mirth, than the great windows, set thick in its four sides, with their little six by eight panes of glass. But the windows were no more behind the times and need than the rest ot the building. A plan was adopted in June, 1880, to rebuild it entire, but the work was postponed on account of the occurrence of Mrs. Stone's offer in the autumn of that year. In the summer of 1882, however, the reconstruction was begun, and the chapel portion was ready for use by the following January. The entire building was completed in the first half of the follow- ing year the comely structure as it now stands. Nothing but the bare walls and a portion of the timbers of the old building was retained, but these in some measure satisfy the sentiment of reverence for that on which the fathers wrought. The changes by which the entire second floor of the building, before used for the library and reading room, was made into the fine suite for the school of music, were not made till the year 1891. The money for all these improve- ments to the building, about $10,000, was given in response to the solicitations ot the president among friends in the East and the West. Mrs. Helen C. Knowles, of Worcester, Mass., died in November, 1884, leaving a conditional legacy to Ripon col- lege. By the terms of her will the college was to receive $10,000 towards the endowment of the president's chair, pro- vided that within two years from the date of her decease the friends of the college should contribute 10,000 more to be used for the same purpose. The money was raised within the time specified, and the $20,000, by action of the board, was named the Knowles endowment of the president's chair. Before the money was fully secured to meet the terms of the will of Mrs. Knowles, a plan was adopted to raise $25,000 by the sale of low-priced scholarships. This plan RIPON COLLEGE. 177 was adopted September 28, 1885, and embraced the following chief particulars: 1. It is proposed to issue one thousand scholarships, to be sold at $25 each. 2. Each scholarship to secure "tuition" for any twelve terms of instruction within eight years Irom the date of issue, and to be good for any person presenting it ; except 3. That scholarships non-transferable, and to be used only by the persons named in them, shall be good for the tuition of twelve terms if used within twenty years from date of issue. 4. Scholarships to be issued when the one thousand are subscribed for in trustworthy subscriptions, and the entire proceeds of the sale of them to go to the general endowment fund, the interest only to be paid for instruction. The work of securing the subscriptions was done by the president, assisted by the Rev. I. N. Cundall and Mr. P. D. McAssey, and was successful, though the last one-fourth of the certificates were taken by a syndicate of gentlemen who were to hold them till they could be resold. Of the $25,000 subscribed on this movement, about $7,000 was pledged by citizens of Ripon and vicinity. Students began to be re- ceived on these scholarships at the opening of the school in September, 1886, and the large majority of the students have been admitted on them up to the present time. It was un- derstood that the income from the $25,000 would yield to the college a revenue as large as would be received from tuitions without the plan, and then when the scholarships should be used or void by lapse of time, the college would still have the revenue from this permanent fund. The need of room for a biological laboratory and of a better building for the women students pressed upon the faculty heavily in these years from 1880 to 1887; and in April, 1887, steps were taken towards erecting a cottage for young women and towards reconstructing Middle college, hitherto used as a dormitory for the lady students, so as to provide for the laboratories, for art rooms and for dormitory rooms for college men. On June 28, 1887, the plans of the present Bartlett cottage were adopted, and the building com- mittee was authorized to proceed with its erection so soon as money sufficient to enclose it should be subscribed. The committee was able to begin the building by the first of August, and thereof was on before winter. In the following spring and summer it was completed so as to be ready for oc- 178 RIPON COLLEGE. cupancy by the opening of the fall term of the school year. The treasurer had been authorized in April to borrow the money needed for the completion of the work, and the board were not without apprehension that the college would be left heavily in debt when the cottage should be finished and furnished, and the changes should be made in Middle college and the laboratories equipped. But in God's good providence a friend came to the need. Mrs. Lucy Bartlett, of Oshkosh, already a large subscriber to the building fund, and the benefactor who had founded the Bartlett schol- arship, offered to the board $6,000 more to pay last bills on the new cottage. In consideration of the payment of this pledge, it was stipulated that the new building, at pres- ent the finest one on the college campus, should forever bear the name of Bartlett cottage, in honor of her husband, Su inner Bartlett, deceased, and of the family of which he was the honored head. The new laboratories, with their equipment, and the art rooms were ready for use in Septem- ber of this year, 1888. The Dawes cottage was secured to the college and opened for occupancy in the autumn of 1887. It was the gift of William Dawes, Esq., of Milwaukee. Since its open- ing for students it has been enlarged and refitted, and now has rooms for fourteen women students, besides the parlor, dining-room, kitchen, and so forth. It is managed accord- ing to a favorite plan suggested by Mr. Dawes, and for which he made this provision, as a Christian family, the young lady students performing, by turns in order, all the domestic service. On this plan the cost for board is about one dollar a week. In May, 1888, the grounds for athletic sports were purchased, about eighteen acres in extent. The movement to secure these grounds was instituted by an alumnus, Mr. John G. Ingalls. In view of this fact, the board at its annual meeting in June, 1889, passed the following resolu- tion : " That the grounds purchased for athletic sports be called Ingalls park, in honor of Mr. John G. Ingalls, who initiated the move to secure the grounds, and who has con- tributed liberally and worked earnestly for the funds needed to pay for them and improve them." The title of the grounds is in the college, but they are controlled by a board consisting of the treasurer of the col- college, the secretary of the faculty and the president of the athletic association all ex-omcio. A grand stand has been built upon them and other excellent improvements have RIPON COLLEGE. 179 been made, so that they are now regarded as equal to any in the state for their purposes. The athletic association is strong and has already made a splendid record: At the meeting of the board, in July, 1890, a move- ment was made to secure $10,000 to extinguish debts that had accrued on current account. The lowering of rates of interest and the inability to make prompt interest collections on portions of the investments, had brought a temporary distress. The $10,000 was pledged within a year, greatly to the relief of the college. The mention of these improvements secured in the fif- teen years previous to 1891, indicates that the college was making a steady advance, as it was. That it accomplished all that seemed possible and desirable cannot, however, be maintained. In the last half of the period its work was much obstructed by doctrinal and other controversies. To assume that these controversies had no influence to limit the growth of the college would be untrue ; to discuss them at length would be entirely out of place in this sketch ; but to ignore them wholly would be affectation. The judgment of the board in regard to the gravity of the case, as well as in respect to the place of religion in connection with the build- ing and conduct of the college, can be sufficiently gathered from an extract from the minutes of the meeting of January 21, 1889. The following minute was adopted unanimously: " The board of trustees of Ripon college, having given care- ful and extended consideration to the subject of the religious needs of our work, record their agreement and purposes as follows : "1. While the college has not been and is not intended to be in any sense sectarian, it was the thought of the founders and is the purpose of the present board, that it be distinctively and permanently Christian. " 2. By this it is intended, that instruction in the college shall recognize and be coincident with the principles of inspired truth, as revealed in the Christian Scriptures, and interpreted in the historical thought and expressed in the best life of the so-called orthodox churches ; that this truth shall give to the entire work its fundamental aims ; that the evangelical spirit, which is the proper fruit of the embracing of the truth, permeate the life of the college ; and that the Bible shall be a text book never to be displaced or neglected. ' ' 3. Assent to these propositions as fundamental, implies a duty which is cardinal and imperative, to protect the college against error, to establish and maintain suitable religious in- struction, and to see that appropriate means are employed in various ways to bring the thought of the students into the light 180 RIPON COLLEGE. of a true Christian intelligence, and under the constraint of the Christian motives. "4. In view of these facts and principles, and believing that the time in the history of the college has come for better provision for making these principles effective in our practical work, it is resolved : "I. So soon as the funds of the college will allow, to appoint a professor of Biblical theology, whose duty shall be in general to teach the Scriptures, and supervise the Biblical in- struction of other teachers in all departments, and to assume the office of college pastor and preacher. " II. Until such professor shall be appointed, in addition to the means for religious instruction and work now employed, to direct that public Sunday services with preaching and suitable worship be instituted in the college chapel, to be under the direction of the president and such professors as he may be able to call to his assistance. " III. For the successful promotion of these services and the best interests of the students, and the encouragement of good order, that we recommend the formation of a church, to membership in which officers of the college, students and citi- zens of Ripon be invited, and that attendance on the part of all students be required, except when excused for proper reasons." The funds of the college have not warranted the ex- pense of the professorship contemplated ; and after extended deliberations and conferences, the formation of the new church, the time of which the board left with the executive committee, was indefinitely postponed. No quorum of the board was present at the time lor the annual meeting in June, 1891, but President Merrell an- nounced to the board and publicly that he intended to present his resignation of the office of president as soon as the board could meet to receive it. The board met in Milwaukee on the 21st of the next month, when the resignation was pre- sented and accepted, the chair ot mental and moral philos- ophy being still retained. On September 20th, of this year, 1891, the Hon. Ed- ward D. Holton, of Milwaukee, deeded to the college a valuable piece of real estate lying in the city of Milwaukee; the deed, however, being placed in the hands of a trustee, to be passed over to the trustees of the college if within one year $50,000 additional should be pledged to the endowment funds of the institution. This sum was secured, chiefly in pledges given in response to the solicitations of the new pres- dent, Dr. Rufus C. Flagg. When this realty is sold, it is expected that the total of the Holton endowment will amount to about $80,000. RIPOX COLLEGE. 181 On February 16th, 1892, the board, by a unanimous and hearty vote, elected the Rev. Rufus 0. Flagg, D. D., then pastor ol the Congregational church at Wells River, Vt., president, and he began work with the college at the opening of the spring term in that year. Dr. Flagg is a graduate of Middlebury college, and of Andover theological seminary, and is a man of scholarly attainments, breadth of judg- ment, and conciliatory temper. He has been received with great heartiness by all members of the laculty and by the students and friends of the college, and his administration gives promise of great prosperity. CHARACTERISTICS. Since the beginning of college work in 1863, the institu- tion has exhibited well-defined characteristics, some of them perhaps distinctive. As in the best American colleges, the center of interest and effort has been at. the courses of study. The able men and women who have from the beginning been the members of the faculty, have been agreed in the thought that scholarship, intellectual life, according to the best conceptions of college men in all time, should be the central concern of young men and women while pursuing their courses. They have agreed also, that when a degree is conferred, the recipient of it should le a man or woman edu- cated up to the standard college grade. And the scholarship and intellectual life have been constantly directed according to the liberal aim, that is, with man tor its end. They have been practical, but have discarded "that practicalness that would take from man to add to his possessions." But while the first concern of the college has been its intellectual life, there is a sense in which this even has been second. " While aiming at the best results of intellectual training, its instructors bear in mind that character is more than these, that the development of character is an essential part of the work of an educational institution, and that there is no sound basis of character except in Christian principle." So that while intellectual life is the immediate aim, all this, by pervading every form of the work with a moral and relig- ious intelligence and influence, is shown to be subservient to the cross of Christ, and to the personal appropriation of the grace of Christ by the individual student. Our students have pretty uniformly borne testimony to the fact that the college has given them nothing more valuable than the religious aims and impulses which they have so clearly and lully received. The Spirit has again and again descended in re- viving and converting power, and under the impressions 182 RIPON COLLEGE. received here those purposes have been formed which have led large numbers into the ministerial, the missionary and other forms of Christian service. For the promotion of the religious work Christian asso- ciations have been formed, which have been well maintained, and a religious service has been held by the faculty and stu- dents together on Tuesday evenings for the last thirty years. These meetings have often been intellectually and spiritually stimulating in a very high degree, and old students have often referred to them as among the most helpful advantages of their college life. For many years a weekly lecture was delivered on Friday afternoons to the whole body of students, and this, especially in President Merriman's time, afforded some of the finest results of moral and spiritual address. ALUMNI. The whole number of graduates from the various courses is one hundred and sixty-four, of whom one hun- dred and two were men and sixty-two were women. The smallest number in any one class has been three, and the largest number fifteen. Of these graduates, twenty-eight have become ministers, nine foreign missionaries, six physi- cians, twenty-five lawyers, twenty-nine business men, thirty- two teachers, and twenty-four women graduates have mar- ried. Several of the younger graduates are now in profes- sional schools. But besides those who have completed the full courses of study, a very large number have been con- nected with the various departments of the college, and have here received their intellectual fitting and moral training for lives of wide usefulness. The students in the regular college classes have in the average been less than one-fourth of the total number enrolled, and the work for the larger number who have studied for a time, and often irregularly, has been a contribution to the world of inestimable value. The smallest catalogue enrollment for any one year was one hun- dred and eighty, in 1864-5 ; the largest number was three hundred and seventy-one, in 1872-3. About this time the influence of the state normal schools, particularly that at Oshkosh, began to be felt in diminishing the number of students. In 1876-7 the number of students was three hundred and one, and from that time to 1886-7 it was less than three hundred annually. In 1887-8 the enrollment reached three hundred and twenty-five, under the impulse given by the issuing of scholarships. RIPON COLLEGE. 183 DEPARTMENTS AND INSTRUCTORS. THE COLLEGE. DEPARTMENTS. NAMES. DATES. Mental and Moral William E. Merriman 1863-76 Science. Edward H. Merrell 1876 Social Science. Rufus C. Flagg 189 9 Edward H. Merrell 1 8fi^-7ft James A. Towle 1 87fi 87 Greek. John Bigham 1887 8Q Wilton W. Truesdale 1 8SQ-Q1 William A Eckels 18Q1 William H. Ward 186466 Justus N. Brown i 86fv-fis William M. Bristoll 1868-73 Latin. John P. Haire IS?'}-?^ Cyrus G. Baldwin 1 87,^-84- Newton S. Fuller 1884 Daniel Merriman 186 ; v-fi7 Lvman B. Sjperry 1 870-7^5 Natural Sciences. William G. Ballantine 1 87478 Alvah H. Sabin 1876-80 Edwin A. Scribner 1 880-81 Oliver Sloan 18646^ Theodore Wilder 1866-70 Mathematics and Erastus C. Beach 1 870-7? Astronomy. Carlos A. Kenaston 187 9 81 Stephen M. New r man 1881 83 Charles H Chandler 1881 Rhetoric and En- Joseph M. Geery 1868-85 glish Literature Albert H. Tolman 1884 Rhetoric M Montague 18(vv-66 Chemistry and C Dwio'ht Marsh 1ROT Biology. Chemistry and George P Bacon 1 ftftft-8Q Physics William S Leavenworth icuo Dynamics, Elec- 1881-83 tricity. 184 RIPON COLLEGE. THE SCHOOL OF MUSIC. DEPARTMENTS. NAMES DATES. Piano and Theory. Miss Augusta Camp 1862-64 1864-67 1867-69 1868-77 1877-78 1878-84 1884-85 1884-88 ; 1888-89 1889-90 1890-92 1892 1892 Mrs. A. A. Davis Miss E. A. Billings John C. Fillmore Lvman F. Brown Dwight F. Stillman .Miss Cara Farnsworth Charles A. Ellenberger Andrew J. Wells Edwin H. Pierce H. William Dubee Rossetter G. Cole Miss Fannie Louise Gwinner Vocal Culture. Miss Camilla M. Xettleton 1870-73 1873-74 1874-76 i 1876-79 ! J 884-87 1888-90 Miss Louise E. Clark Miss Eva White Miss Emma J. Ells Samuel B. Ellenberger Miss Hattie S. Thome SCHOOL OP ART. DEPARTMENTS. NAMES. DATES. Drawing and Painting. Emma A. Lee 1864-66 1866-67 1878-84 1884-85 1885-89 1889 Harriet H. Brown Irene T. Wilcox Annah M. Smith Effie Dawes Flora E. Hockenhull LADIES' DEPARTMENT. DEPARTMENTS. NAMES. DATES. Superintendents. Principals and Preceptresses. Clarissa T. Tracv 1862-71 1871-72 1872-74 1874-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-84 1884-86 1886-88 1889 Martha E. French Kate A. Bushnell Minerva B. Norton Clarissa T. Tracv Sarah A Barnes Lucretia H. Kendall Mary I.Dana Fannie Cundall Susie E. Cushman RIPON COLLEGE. 185 PREPARATORY SCHOOL AND ENGLISH ACADEMY. DEPARTMENTS. NAMES. DATES. Edward H. Merrell ! 1862-63 Clarissa T. Tracv j 1859 Julia Hosford Merrell i 1862-67 Frances E. Woodrow ! 1864-66 Mrs. L. M. Beach i 1865-66 Luthera H. Adams ! 1866-76 George C. Duffie i 1868-86 Sarah E. Dorr I 1869-70 Frances E. Wilder | 1868-71 Herbert G. Denison i 1876-80 Principals and Mrs. Wm. M. Bristoll ! 1872-73 Instructors. Henry B. Miter I 1875-84 Laura W. Ladd ' 1878-79 Josephine F. Krogman ! 1882-85 James F. Eaton ! 1884-89 Albion E. Smith ! 1884-85 Isaac N. Cundall ! 1887-88 Jennie Wheeler ' 1887-88 Thekla Eversz I 1887-88 Harriet P. Fuller ! 1889 Susie E. Cushman ! 1889 Maud L. Merrell... . 1891 In the table above no attempt has been made to give an exact statement of departments. These have been frequently changed, and the same teacher has often wrought in more than one. To have given them in exact detail would have required an amount of repetition which, for the present pur- pose, seemed needless. SPECIAL FUNDS. The college has a few funds contributed for special ob- jects. Their names and objects are as follows : THE RUFUS DODGE FUND. The late Rufus Dodge, of Beaver Dam, left the college a legacy of $9,000 as a permanent fund to aid young ladies of limited means in getting their education. The interest of this fund is annually distributed for this purpose among such students, according to their need. THE JAMES FUND. This is a fund of $1,500, given by Mrs. John W. James, of Boston, the income from which is distributed annually in prizes for the encouragement of excellence in English com- position. 186 RIPON COLLEGE. THE LEWIS PRIZE. This prize was established by Hon. J. T. Lewis, of Columbus. The annual income of a fund of $200 has been presented to that student in the college who, in the opinion of the faculty, has made the greatest mental improvement during the preceding year. THE KNOWLES ENDOWMENT FUND. This consists of $20,000, the income to be used towards payment of the president's salary. It is named for Mrs. Helen C. Knowles, of Worcester, Mass., who gave $10,000 towards it. THE SUMNER BARTLETT FUND. This is a fund of $1,000, founded by Mrs. Lucy Bartlett, of Oshkosh, the income from which is to pay the tuition of one student at a time, who is a candidate for the gospel ministry or for missionary service. THE DAVID WHITCOMB FUND. This fund of $1,000 was given by the gentleman whose name it bears, and the income from it is used yearly in aid of needy and worthy students. THE COOK SCHOLARSHIP. This was founded by the Rev. E. W. Cook, a gift of $500, to be a perpetual scholarship giving tuition to one student at a time. COURSES OF STUDY. The college offers three liberal courses of study, the classical, the scientific, and the literary, whose characteristics are sufficiently indicated by their names. They are open to students of both sexes, and students of both sexes are in- structed in the same classes. Each of these courses provides for a liberal number of elective studies. Besides these college courses, others are arranged for students in music and for those fitting for college or for practical work in life. The standard of American colleges is fully maintained. GROWTH, POSITION, AND NEEDS. Since the institution was organized for college work, thirty years ago, it has had a healthy growth and made a steady advance. Old debts have been paid ; an endowment has been gathered sufficiently large to make it possible on the present scale of expenditure to meet current liabilities RIPON COLLEGE. 187 from the annual income ; four buildings have been added to the two existing in 1863, making six in all; a library of ten thousand volumes, a respectable mineralogical cabinet, a botanical cabinet, and considerable apparatus for illustration and laboratory work in chemistry and biology, have been gathered ; a full faculty has been organized whose work covers the ordinary departments of college instruction ; and, best of all, a very large number of young men and women, graduates and others, have here received the intellectual discipline, moral training, dignified aims, and spiritual impulses, that have fitted them for noble service in the world. They are to-day a great multitude and constitute a tower of strength to the college. But the triumphs of the past do not remove, but only add to the weight of responsibility for the present and the future. If the thought of the founders was wise, and the sacrifices of those who have carried this work to its present advancement have not been mistaken and wasteful, then surely we are not likely to overestimate the importance of the college to the field which is properly its own. To con- sent to inferiority in equipment and work is to fail gravely in duty. The following points obtrude themselves upon our attention as clearly involved in our case : We are building the college in a time of general revival of intellectual activit}^ when all men are thinking for them- selves, and systems of knowledge are unsettling and becom- ing formed anew. A result of this awakening demands not only the great- est fertility of thought on the part of those who assume to be leaders, but also economy of thought by the multiplica- tion of special departments. To meet these demands, sums of money of unprece- dented magnitude are being devoted to educational and special work. Hence an equipment for a college that would have been considered ample fifty or even twenty-five years ago, our young people pass by as wholly inadequate. Our need is enlarged by the fact that we aim to support not only the intellectual but also the Christian ends in edu- cation ; for to cover this wider range properly requires not only a greater breadth of instruction, but also a thorough- ness in general work that shall secure respect for the educa- tion which includes the idea of Christian character. 188 KIPON COLLEGE. Besides the breadth of the work, it is true also that a vast territory is naturally tributary to the college. We have accepted the responsibility of occupying this field, and the college confronts the high duty of filling ade- quately and well the large place to which every consideration in the nature of the case urges it. All these considerations urge the importance, and open to the friends of Christian education the privilege, of aiding Ripon college in this work. EDWARD H. MERRELL. present Mm. ACADKMY. 219 assistance of many warm friends. The board of trustees has been composed of leading laymen and ministers. Mr. C. B. Beebe, of Beaver Dam, has been a member of the board almost from the beginning of the school, and for many years was its chairman. Many others equally prominent might be mentioned. Dr. Jewett, of Milwaukee, will ever be lovingly remembered among them. Rev. N. E. Wood became principal at the opening of the fall term of 77. He occupied that position until De- cember, 1884. Rev. R. K. Manning, at one time pastor of the Baptist church at Beaver Dam, and now the honored and efficient pastor of the North church of Detroit, Mich., was associated with Dr. Wood in the work of the school for three years, from 1878 to 1881. Too much credit cannot well be bestowed upon these men for their heroic and suc- cessful efforts to get the school established upon a firm financial basis. The school had an endowment of but nine thousand dollars when Dr. Wood assumed its management ; but this amount was increased to thirty-five thousand at the time of his resignation. This increase may not seem great in this day of magnificent munificence, but under the circumstances it was a remarkable achievement, and paved the way for greater success later on. Dr. Wood was a man of thorough education, accurate scholarship, fine oratory and profound thought. His public appearances in the state as the representative of the school were notable examples of the highest type of eloquence. The sacrifices of himself and those associated with him were marked examples of Christian devotion to a noble cause. Since leaving the school he has been pastor of the Memorial Baptist church of Chicago and the Strong Place church, Brooklyn, N. Y., and is now pastor of the First Baptist church, of Brookline, Mass., one of the strongest in the denomination. Dr. Wood was succeeded by Rev. Geo. F. Linfield, who entered upon the duties oftheprincipalshipat the beginning of the winter term, 1884, and met all the requirements of the position with tact, ability and success until his untimely death in April, 1890. "His body rests in the Oakwood cemetery ; his portrait occupies the place of honor on the chapel walls ; his memory is a perpetual benediction to the institution. He gave himself with whole-hearted zeal to the work and, to an extent scarcely equaled, won the con- fidence and esteem of the students. Every student regarded him as his most valued friend. He greatly extended the 220 WAYLAND ACADEMY. reputation of the school and largely increased the attend- ance. The work of the school broadened in every direction during the period of his management. The courses in music, art and business became more comprehensive than ever before. Among the material improvements was the erection of Warren cottage. This is a home for the young lady students and was built at a cost of $20,000, and is in every regard well equipped for its purpose. This building has been a great aid to the school, both in attracting stu- dents and in providing more satisfactorily for the training of the young ladies. Its erection was one of the epochal events in the history of the institution. After the death of Professor Linfield, Professor W. S. Sweet served as acting principal for a few months. He had occupied the chair of natural science for several years and was one of the most efficient and influential instructors the school ever had. His enthusiasm was infectious, and his power to mold the characters of young men was remark- able. He resigned his professorship in June, 1891, in order to accept the pastorate of the First Baptist church of La Crosse, Wis. In November, 1890, Rev. James P. Thorns, Ph. D., became principal. He had enjoyed the benefits of a thorough education, extended experience and foreign travel. He labored with untiring energy until June, 1892, when he returned to the active work of the Christian ministry. During this period another memorable movement was made. The American Baptist education society made an offer of $7,500.00 for the endowment, on condition that $25,000.00 was raised by the Baptists of the state. This movement was grandly successful, and the addition of these funds has placed the school on a firmer foundation than it ever has enjoyed, and has rendered advancement possible in many directions. In this connection mention should be made of the faithful services of the financial secretary, Rev. L. G. Catchpole. He was called to that position in the year 1888 and has since been a potent factor in the financial prosperity of the academy, both in raising money to com- plete the payment for Warren cottage and in securing the new endowment. He has also, as the field representative of the school, added largely to the number of students. In the summer of 1892, Professor Homer J. Vosburgh was elected principal. He was the valedictorian of the class of '86 in Colgate university, Hamilton, N. Y. ; and since his graduation he has taught for three years and been a pastor WAYLAND ACADEMY. 221 for the same period. The faculty consists of ten teachers. The enrollment for the year will not be far from 200. The grade of scholarship is high. All colleges that admit stu- dents on certificates accord that privilege to Wayland. The discipline is kind but firm. The outlook is full of hope. Many wealth}' friends have the interests of the school warmly at heart, and an epoch of great enlargement is con- fidently expected in the near future. The vicissitudes of its early years are over. For years it has enjoyed an assured and permanent prosperity. With increasing attendance, an able faculty, and a strong board of trustees, its subsequent history can be only bright. H. J. VOSBURGH. Kemper Hall, Kenosha. A CHURCH BOARDING SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. The Right Reverend Jackson Kemper, D. D., the first missionary of the American church and the first of her clergy to officiate west of the Alleghany mountains, was consecrated " missionary bishop of the Northwest," in September, 1835. For nearly twenty years he traveled over and ministered in a jurisdiction embracing the present states of Indiana, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and whatever else was known of the West, and now under the care of ten or more bishops. In 1854 he was made bishop of Wisconsin, though still retaining some missionary territory until 1859. After his death in 1870, his successor, Bishop Armitage, proposed to the church the establishment of a school, as a fitting memorial of the bishop, and con- servator of his labors to extend the kingdom of Christ, such school to become in time "a home for a sisterhood for church school-teaching, to be gradually formed according to the recommendation of the General Convention." The " Durkee mansion," the old gubernatorial residence, standing in a grove of rare and beautiful evergreens, close upon the shores of Lake Michigan, and just outside the village of Kenosha, was purchased ; and in 1871, the year following Bishop Kemper's death, a school \vas opened, under the rectorship of the Rev. George M. Everhart, D. D., number- ing at first but ten boarding pupils and three day scholars. Within a year this unlucky number had increased to five times seven. In 1873 the encroachment of Lake Michigan upon the grounds made it necessary to protect the property by a large breakwater, said to be one of the finest upon this lake. In 1875 a brick chapel was erected in the grounds, as a memorial to Mr. Peter Hubbell, of Massachusetts. During the following year the chapel was connected with the school building by a cloister, ninety feet long and twenty wide, affording music rooms below and a studio above. In 1878 the Sisters of St. Mary were invited by Bishop Welles to assume the charge of the school, in accordance 222 KEMPER HALL. '2'23 with its original purpose, the now venerable Dr. Ashley, of Milwaukee, being chaplain. In 1886 the Sisters accepted Kemper hall as a permanent charge and became trustees. Armitage hall, sixty-five feet long and thirty feet wide, was erected in 1885 for a gymnasium and recreation hall. The school and household having again outgrown the building, in 1891 an addition was made, joining the south side of the house, forty feet by forty-five, and four stories high, giving a new, cheerful dining-room on the ground floor, a spacious school-room above, and two floors of additional dormitory room, each with fifteen windows looking out to the east, west and south. Other addi- tions have been made from time, including a lalv oratory, a steam laundry and a suitable house for servants. The entire group of buildings is heated by steam from a furnace sunk in the ground, and quite removed from all school and living rooms. Kemper hall to-day contains, beside the chapel, Armit- age hall, the large school-room and twenty other rooms in use by the school, household accommodations for eighty- five pupils ; while a full number of teachers and assistants are lodged at "The Pines," an adjoining cottage of sixteen rooms, purchased by the sisters in 1890. It is believed that better scholastic work can be accomplished by both teacher and pupil than in schools where the teachers are responsible for house-order out of school hours. The plan of the school provides courses of study in English, Latin, modern languages, science and mathematics ; and while not professing to be in any sense a college for women, it demands a grade of scholarship enabling its pupils to take advanced rank in the best Eastern colleges. It is at the same time sufficiently flexible to meet the requirements of the individual. The aim of the Sisters of St. Mary, in this, as in all their schools, is the natural and healthy develop- ment of the pupils placed under their charge, in body and soul as well as in intellectual culture. They desire thorough- ness and reality of character as the true basis of education ; and the affection with which former pupils return, year after year, to keep holidays with the school, speaks plainly of a fine relationship affecting the whole life. At All Saints, at the feast of the Purification, and at Founders' day, May 24th, especially do friends gather under the old roof to keep the time-honored feasts. The location of this school, about half-way between the 224 KEMPER HALL. cities of Chicago and Milwaukee, and its healthful situation, on the shore of the lake, are advantages well appreciated by patrons. The house is supplied with artesian water, famed for its invigorating and remedial properties. Details of sanitation' are under the constant supervision and direc- tion of Dr. N. A. Pennoyer, of the Pennoyer sanitarium. The department of health and physical culture, includ- ing both indoor and outdoor exercise, is in charge of a thoroughly trained and accomplished special teacher, who has the power of maintaining attention and interest. The school is so divided that the greatest amount of individual instruction and oversight may be secured. Dr. Sargent's methods are used. The gymnasium is newly furnished with all necessary appliances. The aim is the full, but gradual and cautious development of each pupil. The results thus far obtained, as shown by measurements taken, and in the more elegant carriage of the young ladies, are most satisfac- tory. In the increase of breathing capacity, the key to all physical growth, the development has been universal, in some cases very marked. There have been since 1874, ninety-nine graduates. The president of the alumnae association is Miss Belle Mc- Gregor, of Milwaukee. The trustees are the Bishop of Mil- waukee, ex-officio president, the Sisters of St. Mary, and Mr. Nathan Allen, of Kenosha. One hundred and ten pupils have been in attendance during the school year of 1892- 1893. SISTERS OF ST. MARY. University School, Kenosha- A DAY AND BOARDING SCHOOL FOR BOYS. This school is situated in Kenosha, on the Chicago & Northwestern railroad, about fifty-one miles from Chicago and thirty-three from Milwaukee. The site is a pleasant one, facing Central park and bordering on Prairie avenue. There are two buildings. The house contains the sleeping rooms, the dormitories, bath- room, reception-room and library. The school house con- tains a large study-room, class-rooms, a gymnasium and billiard-room. There are tennis courts for the recreation of the boys. It is a home school, and, not being so large as other boarding schools, individual attention can be given to the boys who are well-taught and well-cared for. The object of this school is to furnish the elements of a sound education, to prepare boys for a classical or a scientific course in any Eastern or Western college, or to give a thorough English training to those who must enter business life at an early age. The school was founded in 1889 by N. Rowe and H. N. Seaver. It was the intention of the founders to devote most of their time to the preparation of boys for college, but younger boys applying for admission, the thought was suggested that the school might also be made a training school for boys whose parents wished them to have a sound education. Thoroughness has been the watchword of the school. It has sought to give its pupils the power to work, and has not enforced the principle that a certain number of books must be finished in a certain time. Particular atten- tion is paid to teaching boys how to study. There are three courses in the school the classical, the scientific, and the English. The school has entered boys without conditions at Yale, Columbia, \Vest Point and Madison. It has met with success in the boys whom it has sent up for entrance ex- aminations. 225 226 UNIVERSITY SCHOOL. The discipline is suggestive rather than repressive. The pupils, teachers and matron form one large family and the rules are those that govern any well ordered house- hold. Realizing that a sound body is absolutely essential to a sound mind and good morals, the pupils are encouraged to take a lively interest in all manly out-of-door games, and to make a proper use of the gymnasium when the weather does not permit field exercise. All information relative to admission, expense, etc., may be obtained from the catalogue, which can be obtained by application to the school. N. ROWE. INSTITUTIONS FOR PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. Pedagogy at the University of Wisconsin. The opinion that the state university should aid in the preparation of teachers very early found acceptance in Wis- consin. The charter of the university, obtained at the first session of the state legislature, provided that " The university shall consist of four -departments; the department of science, literature and the arts; the department of law; the depart- ment of medicine; and the department of the theory and practice of elementary instruction;" and when the university proper was opened in 1850, in the addresses at the inaugura- tion of Chancellor Lathrop special stress was laid upon the importance of the fourth department. It was not until 1856, however, that any special instruction was provided for those wishing to become teachers. During that year and the follow- ing Professor Daniel Read delivered a brief course of lectures onpedagogy . No further effort of the sort appears to have been made until 1863, when Professor Chas. H. Allen, who had been for several years agent of the normal school regents, was appointed to take charge of the normal department. Some hostility seems to have existed toward the department, "mainly on the ground of its bringing females into the uni- versity," the faculty say. Professor Allen resigned at the end of two years, the department was continued during 1866 by Professor J. L. Pickard, and then dropped for a series of years. It w r as finally revived in 1885 by the appointment of a professor of the science and art of teaching, whose title has since been changed to professor of philosophy and pedagogy. The work in this department as now organized at -the uni- versity follows the three lines of the history, the philosophy and the practice of education. For some years the arrange- ment of studies has kept the order just given. The historical work is concerned especially with the growth of educational doctrine, and experience has shown that this is at once the most interesting and suggestive means of introducing the student to the problems of pedagogy. It puts him in a posi- tion to understand their significance, and affords a back- ground for the discussion of current issues. To this historical 228 PEDAGOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. 229 study of educational doctrine is added a sketch of the devel- opment of education in the United States, supported with a more detailed examination of the organization and adminis- tration of education in the state of Wisconsin. It is manifest that the philosophy of education is already begun by this historical course. This is further pursued by a systematic inquiry into the nature, form and elements of education, based upon psychology, ethics and sociology. Va- riety and range is given to the instruction by seminary methods, in which important special topics receive more de- tailed study ; and the whole is brought into relation with practice by investigations into, the systems and methods of Germany, France, England and other countries. Abstracts of articles in reviews and the higher current philosophical and educational publications, with reviews of valuable trea- tises on special topics, put the student in touch with the educational thought and movements of the day. Thus transition is effected to the practice of education, in which special attention is given to school management, hygiene, supervision and methods of instruction. The practice- teaching, which forms so important a part of the training in the normal schools, is felt to be wholly unsuited to university instruction ; and it is believed that the superior culture of the university student, and the breadth of view gained by the course which has been outlined, more than make up for the lack of this element. The success of the present plans is fully shown by the record of enrollment in the classes. The study is wholly elective, and is pursued not only by those intending to teach, but also by many for general culture. In 1855-6 twenty-one students enrolled in the classes in pedagogy, the year following, thirty ; the next class reached forty- three; the succeeding years show forty-eight, sixty-seven, .fifty-nine and sixty ; while this year, during the first two terms, sixty-eight have elected the study. Of the practical value of this instruction it is, of course, difficult to give any direct evidence. It may not be meas- ured by the number of graduates of the university who are actually teaching in the schools, because it is almost as im- portant that the conceptions necessary for intelligent and helpful criticism of educational work should be found among the cultured portion of the communities as that they be found in the schools. They will hardly continue long in the schools without this support from outside. Yet 230 PEDAGOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. this imperfect test is the best now available. A careful examination of the list of teachers in the free high schools of the state, kept in the office of the state superintendent, shows that there are seventy-three of them who hold diplo- mas of the state university, and only ninety-two graduates from the five normal schools. Thus the university is mak- ing good that relation to the schools of the state which seemed so important in the eyes of its early promoters. J. W. STEAKNS. Historical Sketch of Normal Schools in Wis- consin. CHAPTER I. THE GROWTH OF THE IDEA. The flourishing oak-tree implies the acorn, the soil, and time for growth. A system of normal instruction like that of Wisconsin, with its five schools in active operation, with others in prospect, and with an elaborate adjunct system of teachers' institutes, similarly implies previous agitation and labor and the gradual growth of favorable public sen- timent. Thus any intelligent presentation of the normal school history of the state must include some considera- tion of the growth of the normal school idea among the peo- ple of the state. The normal school acorn was brought from the East to Wisconsin in the territorial days. The first attempt to plant it was made in the constitutional convention of 1846. In the journal of that body we read as follows : "The question was then put on concurring in the fifth amendment of the committee (of the whole), which was to add to section 2d, 'until a university shall be established, the net income of the university lands shall be appropriated to the support of nor- mal schools,' and was decided in the negative (48 to 51)." The authorship of this amendment cannot be certainly determined. Dr. Henry Barnard had come to Madison, at the invitation of Hon. John H. Tweedy and others, and ad- dressed the convention at an evening session. The points advocated by him were reduced to writing by himself, and were embodied in the constitution as adopted by the con- vention. Possibly he was the author of this unsuccessful amendment, also, but it seems hardly probable. The constitution of 1846 was rejected by the people of the territory, and another convention met late in 1847. As a part of the article on education, the committee on that sub- ject reported the following : 232 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 233 "Section 7. When the population of any county in this state shall exceed twenty thousand in number, provision shall be made by law for the erection of an academy in such county, with male and female departments and a normal school depart- ment for the education of teachers for the primary schools." But this section was expunged by the convention. THE STATE CONSTITUTION. The normal school idea, however, gained a foothold in the constitution of 1848, which, in Article X., Section 2, sets apart "a separate fund, to be called the school fund, the interest of which, and all other revenues derived from the school lands, shall be exclusively applied to the following objects, to-wit : "1. To the support and maintenance of common schools in each school district, and the purchase of suitable libraries and apparatus therefor. "2. The residue shall be appropriated to the support and maintenance of academies and normal schools, and suitable libraries and apparatus therefor." Here we are able to trace, in part at least, the paternity of the provision for normal schools. The article on educa- tion was drafted by Rev. Eleazer Root, of Waukesha, who had been elected to the convention by constituents of opposite politics, with special reference to the cause of pub- lic education. During the weeks between Mr. Root's election as a delegate and the assembling of the convention, he had been in frequent conference with Mr. Elihu Enos, Jr., a graduate of the Albany normal school under David P. Page, who had just entered upon the work of teaching in Waukesha, through Mr. Root's instrumentality. Fresh from the influence of Mr. Page, and full of enthusiasm for normal schools, Mr. Enos labored diligently to instill the idea into Mr. Root's mind, and with success. The first plan conceived for securing normal instruction in the state was that of connecting it with the university. In January of 1849, less than a year after the admission of Wisconsin as a state, the regents of the embryo state uni- versity, by an ordinance which was ratified by the legislature in the month following, established therein a normal depart- ment. But the funds at their command were insufficient for the work already in hand, and the ordinance remained in- operative so far as it concerned normal instruction. 234 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. FIRST REPORT OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT. At the close of 1849, Honorable Eleazer Root, then super- intendent of public instruction, made the first annual report from his department. In it he calls attention to the pro- vision of the constitution respecting normal schools, recounts the history of the Albany normal school, and transmits the university "ordinance of 1849," just alluded to. He thinks that such a normal department, with a system of teachers' institutes, may answer present need. Concerning this ordinance of 1849, it cannot be amiss to give such extracts as will give an intelligent idea of its pur- port. The charter of the university had provided for four departments, the fourth being that of the theory and prac- tice of elementary instruction. THE UNIVERSITY ORDINANCE OF 1849. The ordinance referred to, after organizing the depart- ment of science, literature and arts, proceeds as follows : ' ' The Regents of the University do further ordain : ' ' 1 . That there be hereby established a normal professor- ship ; and that it be the duty of the chair to render instruction in the art of teaching, comprising the most approved modes of inculcating knowledge, and administering the discipline of the common school ; and in such branches of study as may best prepare the pupils in this department for their honorable and useful vocation as educators of the popular mind." Sec. 2 constitutes the chancellor and the normal profes- sor the faculty of this department, whose duty it shall be to hold annual sessions of at least five months, for the instruc- tion of such young men as may avail themselves thereof with a view to teaching in the state. Other sections provide for tuition without charge, for a degree and diploma, etc. Section 6 declares: "That it is the fixed intention of the board of regents thus to make the University of Wisconsin sub- sidiary to the great cause of popular education, by making it, through its normal department, the nursery of the educators of the popular mind, and the central point of union and harmony to the educational interests of the commonwealth." SUPERINTENDENT ROOT'S REPORTS FOR 1850 AND 1851. In his report for 1850, Superintendent Root again argues for normal instruction, saying : " In consideration of the exigencies of the public schools, the imperative demand for SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 235 normal instruction, and the probable inadequacy of the available means of the university to provide for the reason- able supply of that demand, I would respectfully suggest for the consideration of the legislature, the policy of aiding the regents in the completion of the normal school building al- ready begun, and of making an appropriation from the annual revenue of the school fund, of a sum sufficient to defray the current expenses of normal instruction therein, until the university shall be able to assume the burden for the benefit of the common schools of the state." And in 1851, in his last report, he returns vigorously to the charge, with these words : " The utility of normal in- struction is conceded ; it is provided for in the constitution ; it is imperatively demanded by our wants ; 2,300 schools ask for it, and more than 111,000 children are in daily need of it. Action on this subject should be no longer postponed. The income of the school fund is now amply sufficient to justify it." He therefore urged the "speedy organization of the department for teachers in the university." A lame conclusion to so vigorous an onset, we might say, looking at the matter in the light of to-day. REPORT OF THE UNIVERSITY REGENTS IN 1851. In the report of the university regents, bearing date January 1, 1851, the purposes of the board in regard to the normal department are again outlined, forming a very com- plete and intelligent plan, including " the opening of a model school in the village of Madison," and " the admis- sion of female as well as male teachers to all the advan- tages of the normal department of the university." The foundation of a building for that department (the south dormitory) was already laid, and the board proposed, if the state of the treasury would permit, to have the building completed and the department opened by the spring of 1852. This hope was not realized. WORK OF SUPERINTENDENT LADD IN 1852 AND 1853. A new phase in the growth of the normal school idea was introduced in 1852, by Superintendent Azel P. Ladd, who held in various portions of the state what he calls in his report " temporary normal schools," since designated by the less ambitious title of teachers' institutes. This action of Sup- erintendent Ladd, considering the general condition of edu- cational affairs at that time, deserves to be held in most hon- 236 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. orable memory by his successors in the work, for the sagacity and industry which gave it birth. He urged the necessity of state aid to this work, and procured the passage of a bill to that end through one house of the legislature, but it met with failure in the other. In his second report, for 1853, the same matter was pre- sented more fully, and in addition, the following: "No appropriation has yet been made to carry into effect the provision of the constitution relative to state normal schools. That a school of this character is needed, the difficulty of obtaining good teachers for our schools is the best evidence. * * Until we have an institution of this kind, we cannot reasonably expect the character of our schools will be com- mensurate with the munificence of our fund. I would, therefore, commend this subject to your consideration." SUPERINTENDENT WRIGHT IN 1854. Superintendent H. A. Wright, in his report for 1854, speaks of the value of normal schools, of their usefulness wher- ever tried, and of the great need of them in this state. He especi- ally urges the speedy development of the normal department of the university, and calls upon the legislature to furnish the pecuniary aid, without which the regents would be unable to put their plan into operation. He says : " It is the inten- tion of the law of the state providing for a normal depart- ment of the university, and of the board of regents acting under the law, that it should be organized and opened for the reception of teachers ; but when ? That is the import- ant point. We shall never hereafter need its good service so much as now, in providing the schools with good teachers, and now is the time for that normal department to exist otherwise than upon paper. It has thus slumbered long enough." A STEP FORWARD ATTEMPTED BY THE UNIVERSITY. In 1855, the university attempted to take a forward step in the development of the projected normal department, as may be best told by a letter from Chancellor Lathrop, which was embodied by Superintendent A. C. Barry in his report for 1855. Says Chancellor Lathrop : "It is the settled design of the regents of the university to make the institution subsidiary to the cause of popular educa- tion through its normal department. In accordance with this SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN'. 237 policy, the board at their last meeting appropriated $500 per annum for the support of this department, and filled the chair of normal instruction by the election of Prof. Daniel Read, who is also professor of the English department of the faculty of arts. A yearly course of professional instruction will be rendered in the art of teaching, at such season of the year as will best suit the convenience of the teachers' classes. " In the present condition of the university fund, this is all that the regents are able to do in that direction. A full organi- zation of the department will require : "1. The support of a normal professor, whose undivided time and energies shall be devoted to the duties of his charge. " 2. The necessary apartments and apparatus; and "3. A well arranged system of teachers' institutes which shall carry temporary normal instruction into every section of the state. " The professional course at the university should occupy about five months of the year, and during the seven months of vacation the normal professor, in connection with the state superintendent, should hold at least one teachers' institute in. each judicial district. " * * An appropriation of $2,000 per annum would enable the board to perfect the system, and offer to the public a normal organization not to be surpassed elsewhere, at a moiety of the expenditure it would require to set up a normal school separate from the university, which could not be expected to perform the work as well." But the legislature failed to respond with the asked-for aid. The experiment was continued by the university alone, to the extent of two courses of professional lectures, delivered by Prof. Read, 011 the art of teaching. The first began in the latter part of May, 1856, and continued through the eight remaining weeks of the term. Eighteen students are recorded as in attendance. A second course was given in 1857, with an attendance of twenty-eight students. A BILL FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS BY HON. JAMES SUTHERLAND. The first discoverable evidence of any legislative con- sideration of the normal school question is found in the senate journal for 1856, from which it appears that, in the session of that year, Hon. James Sutherland, of Janesville, introduced "a bill for an act to provide for normal instruc- tion and teachers' institutes." But this bill met a pioneer's fate and failed to pass the senate. 238 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. SUPERINTENDENT BARRY'S REPORT FOR 1856. In his report for 1856, Superintendent Barry treats the subject of normal schools and teachers' institutes quite elabor- ately, quoting at considerable length from Horace Mann and also from Henry Barnard. He commends the action of the university regents in establishing the normal professorship under Dr. Read, and favors the development of the normal department : but he protests against the idea that it will satisfy the needs of the state, and urges the founding of a separate and independent normal school. The report contains much valuable matter and clear thought. DISSATISFACTION WITH THE UNIVERSITY ATTEMPT TO DIVIDE ITS FUNDS. About this time there was much dissatisfaction, on the part of some, with the workings of the universrty ; and the friends of the incorporated colleges and academies con- ceived the idea of getting for themselves a share of the uni- versity funds. It was soon found that the conditions of the United States grant of the university lands were such that the fund could not be diverted in any way. The attention of the college men was then directed to the "swamp land fund," and when the legislature met in January, 1857, a college delegation came to the capitol to procure the passage of an act aiding their schools from the proceeds of the sale of the swamp lands granted to the state by the general government. Prominent in this "lobby" were Dr. Edward Cooke, president of the Lawrence university, and Prof. A. C. Spicer, principal of Milton academy. LEGISLATIVE ACTION IN 1857. A bill entitled "a bill to create and establish a litera- ture fund from the proceeds of the sale of swamp lands" was, in accordance Avith their desires, introduced in the senate by Hon. James Allen Barber. It was remodeled by Hon. James Sutherland, chairman of the committee on education, and by him championed through the senate, pass- ing by a vote of 24 to 1. Meanwhile, at the instance of Prof. J. G. McMynn, of Racine, and Hon. Elihu Enos, Jr., of Waukesha, a bill was introduced in the assembly by Hon. Llewellyn J. Evans, of Racine, chairman of the committee on education, "to estab- SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 239 lish a normal school and teachers' institute." Both bills were favorably reported by the assembly committee. The friends of the latter bill, headed by Mr. Enos, made a strong push against the college bill ; and the result was a reference of both bills to a special committee, headed by Dr. Dugald H. Cameron. This committee reported a substitute on the same day, March 5th, which passed both houses on the next day, and received the approval of the governor, March 7th. Thus originated the act of 1857, "An act for the encouragement of academies and normal schools." This law, portions of which are given in another place, set apart to the purposes specified in its title the income of one-fourth of the gross proceeds of the sale of the swamp lands granted to the state in 1850 ; it also provided for a board of regents by which the distribution of the income was to be made to the schools, as said board might determine. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. This board, as appointed by Gov. Bashford, after the ad- journment of the legislature, was largely made up of the of- ficers and friends of the very institutions which were to re- ceive its aid. The substitute bill, which became the law, had not given entire satisfaction to all the original movers, Dr. Cooke, indeed, being strongly opposed to it ; but, such as it was, the best was made of it. At the first meeting of the board, held July 15th, 1857, the question of establishing a district normal school came up, and was referred to a committee, of which Dr. Cooke was chairman. Naturally enough, the committee did not report favorably. Of the several "conclusions" of the report, only the first need be given, viz.: "1st. However desirable separate nor- mal schools, not connected with any other institutions, may be to the interests of education, in the opinion of your com- mittee the act entitled, 'An act for the encouragement of academies and normal schools,' does not empower this board of regents to take any steps in that direction, other than to receive proposals from towns, villages and cities, proposing to erect and donate such institutions." But this plan of en- trusting all normal instruction to departments of colleges, academies, and high schools, for the benefits of the act were eventually extended to high schools also, was never satisfac- tory to all parties ; and the practical workings of it did not alwavs tend to increase satisfaction. 240 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. SUPERINTENDENT BARRY'S REPORT FOR 1857. The gradual growth of public opinion is well illustrated by the more advanced stand taken by Superintendent Barry in his report for 1857. He says : "Proper and thorough in- struction in the theory and practice of the teacher's profes- sion can only be furnished by the normal school." And in commenting upon the act of 1857, he says : "I re- gard the action of the last legislature on this subject, in part at least, as premature and ill-advised ; and the entire plan as im- practicable, and destined, of course, to fail. Without wishing to disparage in the smallest degree the claims of our colleges and academies, or to call in question their usefulness ; I unhesitat- ingly assert that it is utterly impossible for them to furnish the normal instruction required, even though the entire income of the school fund were to be distributed among them. The ex- periment has been fairly and faithfully tried (in New York), and has failed most signally and disastrously. * * We may save time, money, and the vexation and shame consequent upon de- feat, by proceeding at once to the establishment of a state nor- mal school on a wise and liberal basis. Never shall we need such an institution more than we do at the present time. I again re- spectfully urge this subject upon the attention of the legislature, and shall hope for its favorable action in relation thereto." THE STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. The state teachers' association had discussed the ques- tion of normal schools at its meeting at Waukesha, in 1857, and perhaps at Beloit the year before, but had given forth no decided voice in the matter until the meeting at Portage, in 1858. At this meeting, Rev. J. B. Pradt read an elaborate essay on normal schools, and a committee, consisting of Messrs. Pickett, Pradt and Griffith, reported a " plan of nor- mal instruction," prepared by Mr. Pradt, which included, as one of its several features, " an itinerant normal faculty who, in conjunction with the county superintendents, shall give instruction in the institutes." Although the legislature had given to the colleges and academies what it had denied to the university, viz.: aid for the support of normal instruction, the university did not give up the idea of a normal department. THE UNIVERSITY DR. BARNARD. By a bill introduced in 1858, but lost in the closing hours of the session, it was proposed to reorganize the uni- versity with nine departments, among which that of normal SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 241 instruction was named as first ; and the chancellor, in a communication to the university regents, in June of that year, urges that " the time has arrived for a full develop- ment of the normal department." The university was at that time reorganized by an or- dinance of the regents in which, strangely enough, no nor- mal department is once named, though they proceeded immediately to elect Hon. Henry Barnard, LL. D., as " chancellor and professor of ^normal instruction." This choice had been made largely through the influence of Dr. Daniel Read, the normal professor of the university, now president of the Missouri state university. The atten- tion of the board of normal regents was also directed toward Dr. Barnard. At a meeting of this board, October 5, 1858, he was present, by invitation it would seem, and was then elected as their agent. His specific duties were " to visit and exercise a super- visory control over the normal departments of all such in- stitutions as shall apply for a participation in the normal school fund ;' to conduct county teachers' institutes, and give normal instruction in the same ; and to co-operate with the superintendent of public instruction in providing a system of public educational addresses to be delivered in the various counties of the state." Let it be remembered that he was also chancellor of the university. SUPERINTENDENT DRAPER'S REPORT FOR 1858. Superintendent L. C. Draper, in his report for that year, discusses elaborately the subject of normal schools and teachers' institutes. He speaks of the division of opinion as to the wisdom and practical results of the law of 1857, but does not seem to commit himself very decidedly to either side. He waxes enthusiastic over the prospective advent of Dr. Barnard, in the following terms: "Regarding as I do, Dr. Barnard's connection with our state university and our normal school system especially the latter as the most important event that has ever occurred in our educational history, if not indeed, the most important in view of its probable con- sequences, that has ever transpired in the history of the state, I shall venture to give some notice of his most prominent ser- vices thus endeavoring to show what we may reasonably expect as the result of his earnest labors here, by what he has elsewhere so largely and so thoroughly accomplished." 242 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Then follow several pages of biography, closing with : "Such is Henry Barnard. We have reason, as a state, to felicitate ourselves on the acquisition of such a man. It ought to form a new era in our state history ; and it will if we are true to ourselves and him. We shall best honor our- selves and bless our state by listening confidingly to, and promptly carrying into effect, whatever suggestions and ad- vice such a man as Henry Barnard, in his ripe experience and noble devotion to the good of his race, may deem it his duty to offer on matters pertaining to the great cause of popular education in Wisconsin." Teachers' associations passed congratulatory resolutions ; and the state was passed over, as it were, into Dr. Barnard's hands, in the enthusiastic belief that he would be able to do all things. But, although all this adulation was almost justified by his previous work and reputation, the fact remained that it was not within the power of any man to fulfill such over- wrought expectations. DR. BARNARD'S LABORS IN WISCONSIN. Dr. Barnard was not able to enter upon his labors in Wisconsin until the spring of 1859. But during the autumn of that year he organized and carried out a series of teachers' institutes, reaching about twenty counties. The work done under his direction in 1860, by examinations, institutes and teachers' associations, reached probably three-fourths of all the teachers in the state. In connection with this work, several prominent educators were brought temporarily, some permanently, into the state, who did not a little to fos- ter the educational spirit, and to promote the growth of the normal school idea. But Dr. Barnard's labors here were greatly interrupted by ill health, and, about the beginning of 1861, he resigned his position and closed his career in Wisconsin. While there was general disappointment at the failure of so many high hopes, and great dissatisfaction on the part of some at his seeming neglect of the university under his charge, it is undoubtedly true that he did something, in sev- eral ways, to advance the cause of education in the state at large. After the exit of Dr. Barnard, the dissatisfaction with the act of 1857 naturally increased. To many it seemed to forestall, or at least to seriously delay, the establishment of SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 243 true normal schools ; though others had all the while looked upon it as the stepping-stone to the desired end. SUPERINTENDENT PICKARD's REPORTS. Superintendent J. L. Pickard says, in his report for 1860: "The agencies now at work will soon prepare us for normal schools, which must be established ere long. I am not pre- pared at present to recommend any action upon this subject. I would only express my conviction that more than one should be established, and aided rather than supported by the state." In 1862, he says : "No temporary expedient can supply the place of the professional school, or in any way diminish the necessity for such a school." In 1863, after reviewing the workings of the system then in operation, he continues most pertinently : " Much good has been accomplished by these agencies, but they are at present inadequate to the demand . Permanent normal schools are needed, whose sole business shall be the training of teachers. The department of normal instruction of the state uni- versity has been opened within the past year, and the attendance has been very large. Many pupils connected with it are not normal students, and have no intention of engaging in the work of teaching. The circumstances under which it was opened ren- dered such a course advisable. A course of study has been adopted, but it will be next to impossible to pursue such a course of training in the art of teaching as is essential to com- plete professional culture. The model school cannot be engrafted upon the university. * * No one school will supply the wants of the state. We should look to the establishment of not less than four such schools, including the normal depart- ment of the university. * * * It is my impression that the present is the time to take the initiatory steps." OPENING OF A NORMAL DEPARTMENT IN THE UNIVERSITY. In the spring of 1863, the university had taken a new departure in the shape of a separate and tangible normal department, under the charge of Professor Charles H. Allen. It is this which is referred to by Superintendent Pickard in the above extract. One object of this was to make a place for young women in the university. Seventy-six entered during the first term, this being the first appearance of ladies as students at the university, and took possession of the south dormitory. 244 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. The old-time college prejudice against the admission of women was not wanting here, of course ; but the normal de- partment continued until 1869, when it was merged into the female college, which was, in turn, fully merged into the university in 1873. Professor Allen continued in charge until near the end of 1865, and was succeeded by Prof. Joseph C. Pickard. JOHN G. M'MYNN AS AGENT OF THE NORMAL REGENTS IN 1863. During the year of 1863, to go back again to our narra- tive, John G. McMynn was the agent of the board of normal regents, conducting institutes and examining the normal classes of the several schools. The war for the Union had materially weakened the more advanced classes of all the schools, and Mr. McMynn saw an opportunity to make head against a system which he considered radically mischievous. In his annual tour of examination, by an unusual severity of examination, he greatly reduced the number of benefi- ciaries, and did much to break down the system then current. The medicine was severe, and most unpalatable to the imme- diate recipients, but it has undoubtedly had a salutary in- fluence upon the state as a whole. The belief is quite general that the so-called normal de- partments were such only in name, and that they did noth- ing but purely academic work and not always the best of that. While this is probably a near approach to the truth in some cases, the writer hereof can testify of one school (Milton academy), that its "teachers' class" was an actual and prac- tical thing, and helped to give a better class of teachers to the country roundabout. SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NORMAL REGENTS. Portions of the report of the board of regents for 1864 are here inserted as showing what the system was in its latest and consequently best perfected form: "The board, in their report for 1862, say that 'normal in- struction, like other branches of education in the state, has met with obstacles for the last two years by the war, which has not only withdrawn many of the young men from the classes, in some cases nearly depleting them, but has taken some of the best instructors.' " These obstacles have by no means been di- minished during the period covered by this report. Not only has the occasion of the war called away many of the male pu- pils and instructors, but has by this call made vacant places SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN' WISCONSIN. 245 which were of necessity filled by female teachers, and thus drawing still more on the classes. The result has been a lower- ing of the standard of scholarship in nearly every class reporting to the board. While the number reported by the various classes was about the same as that of 1862, and the standard of examination established by the board was the same, a smaller number actually passed the required standard. "On the other hand the board has acted in conjunction with the state superintendent in holding teachers' institutes in different sections of the state with marked good results. It has been the uniform testimony of those attending these institutes that the results have been beneficial in awakening new interest and zeal in the cause of education, and imparting new vigor to the teachers. County superintendents have expressed their great satisfaction at the results, and they have been greatly encour- aged and strengthened in their own work by the new impetus thus given. "The board consider that no part of the fund gives quicker returns or is more satisfactorily expended than that ap- propriated for these county or district institutes. Their influ- ences, in most cases reach districts but little benefited by normal classes, as it has been the uniform policy of the board to send their agent and make appropriations for institutes in those counties where no normal class exists, in order that the bene- fit of the fund may be partaken of by all." INSTITUTIONS REPORTING. ' ' There are four classes of institutions making report to this board : "1. Colleges, with a net property of $50,000. " 2. Female colleges, with a net property of $20,000. " 3. Academies, with a net property of $5,000. " 4. Union or high schools without any property qualifica- tions defined, but being 'under the control of any city, village, town or district, according to the laws of the state.' "Of these several classes, reports were received and a por- tion of the fund appropriated to the following institutions : "Lawrence university Appleton, Outagamie county. " Milton academy Milton, Rock county. " Allen's Grove academy Allen's Grove, Walworth county. " Beloit High school Beloit, Rock county. " Delavan high school Delavan, Walworth county. AMOUNTS APPROPRIATED TO SCHOOLS. ' ' The following table exhibits the number of pupils claimed as having pursued normal studies, according to the require- ments of the board, together with the number allowed by the board, and the amount appropriated to each institution : 240 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 1st Year's 2d Year. Allowed. Amount. Course. Lawrence university 12 1 2 $ 60 00 Milton academy 31 10 9 27000 Allen's Grove academy 20 5 9 270 00 Beloit high school 20 5 150 00 Delavan high school 7 1 30 00 Platteville academy , 1 1 Albion academy... 21 3 1 3000 Waupaca high school 22 9 270 00 134 20 36 $1,080 00 " This distribution was at the rate of $30.00 for each pupil passing the examination. The board can only repeat a remark made in its report for 1856: " ' These amounts, together with those received from the tuition of the pupils, ought surely to be a sufficient inducement for the establishment of good normal classes, and it is not un- reasonable, on the part of the state, to expect that the work for which the institutions are paid shall be fully and amply done. Nor should any institution lay claim to or expect to receive aid and encouragement from the state, until, on its part, it is will- ing and able to do the state some service. FINANCIAL EXHIBIT. " Statement showing the transactions of the normal school fund during the fiscal year ending September 30, 1864: Receipts. Disburse- Date. ments. 1863. Oct. 1. Balance in the fund $ 178 21 1864. June 1. Transfer from swamp land fund income 2,977 50 1863. Nov. 3. Paid expenses J. L. Pickard $ 100 00 Dec. 16. services J. G. McMynn 78 00 1864. July 1. services J. G. McMynn 50000 July 1. incidental expenses 100 00 July 7. mileage C. C. Sholes 27 00 July 8. mileage Wm. Starr 24 00 July 8. mileage Silas Chapman 20 00 July 8. services Silas Chapman 70 00 July 14. appropriation Milton academy... 27000 July 14. appropriation Allen's Grove academy 270 00 July 15. appropriation Beloit high school 150 00 July 25. appropriation Waupaca high school 270 00 July 26. traveling expenses J. G. Mc- Mynn 200 00 Aug. 5. appropriation Albion academy.. 30 00 Sept. 6. mileage H. Robbins 20 00 Sept. 20. mileage J. E. Thomas 30 00 Sept. 30. Balance in the fund 206 71 $3,155 71 $3,155 71 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 247 OC -1O1C* *- lCMj-1 5" 5 . H>~ II !l *.>! f- H^^ojgww^^a i|i||l|llil Ii!ii/sii ^o' 219 sftS 1 to 3i! 1^ I 2 |.1l||i' 5: 248 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. SUPERINTENDENT MC'MYNN's REPORT FOR 1864. John G. McMynn became state superintendent, Octo- ber 1, 1864. In his first report he took almost exactly the same ground that had been taken by Superintendent Pick- ard in the previous year. Of the plan of giving aid to acade- mies and other schools for maintaining normal departments, lie says: "The number of departments at present organized is seven ; and the number of students examined during the present year is less than seventy. Sufficient time has elapsed since the present plan was adopted, to show that the ostens- ible objects of the law are unattainable under the provisions of the act. * * The plan is defective. It makes the normal department subordinate, and does not provide for the special training of teachers." No stronger words, perhaps, than those of Superintend- ent Barry, in 1857 ; but Superintendent McMynn had been long a recognized power in the educational work of the state, and he had the energy and force of character needful for the accomplishment of any radical change of state policy. Cir- cumstances fortunately concurred. The increasing value of the swamp lands made it seem necessary, to the more intelligent, that some action be taken without further delay toward some permanent investment of this fund for the best interests of the whole state. Public senti- ment was also tolerably ripe, after so long a course of educa- tion. The friends of normal schools did not neglect this auspicious moment. LEGISLATIVE ACTION IN 1865. As a result, the legislature of 1865 enacted a law pro- viding a much more liberal endowment for normal instruc- tion, and devoting it to the establishment and support of distinctively normal schools. The history and purport of the bill will be more fully presented in the chapter following. Early in this session of the legislature, 1865, a bill was introduced by Hon. Anthony Van Wyck, of Kenosha, "to provide for the establishment of a state normal school." It passed the senate and worked its way through the com- mittee of the whole in the assembly without amendment, when its further consideration was rendered unnecessary by the final passage of the bill mentioned in the previous paragraph. Senator Van Wyck's bill devoted to the sup- port of a single school the same fund which has since been found sufficient for the maintenance of several. SKETCH OF NOKMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 249 The laws relating to normal instruction were codified in 1869, and have received but slight changes since that time. The normal system has been rapidly and wisely developed, and must increase or decline in the favor of the people, according to the measure of its work. The history of its growth and the statement of its present condition will be given in ensu- ing chapters. It may be said, in passing, that the term "normal" has been unwarrantably tacked on to the titles of several private or incorporated institutions ; but no distinct normal school has ever been established in AVisconsin outside of the state system, with the single exception of the Holy Family Teach- ers' seminary, a Roman Catholic institution at St. Francis, near Milwaukee. This school has a three years' course of study, including modern languages and making a specialty of musical instruction. RESUME OF THE GROWTH OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL IDEA IN WISCONSIN. To recapitulate, briefly, the growth of the normal school idea in Wisconsin : It was introduced into the constitutional conventions of the territory by a few intelligent citizens, zealous for the cause of popular education. It was brought forward and urged, in some form, by every superintendent of public instruction, in every annual report, from the ad- mission of the state to the adoption of the present normal school system in 1865. It was adhered to, in a departmental form, by the authorities of the state university for the twenty years from 1849 to 1869. It received some impetus from Dr. Barnard in his career in this state, but more from some of the more perma- nent educational workers of the state, like Hon. Jno. G. McMynn, Rev. J. B. Pradt, Prof. Chas. H. Allen, and others who have worked with them and after them. Strangely enough, it appears to have received but little encouragement from the state teachers' association, as such, until it was fairly on its feet. CHAPTER II. THE FORMATION OF THE FUND. Previous to 1857, nothing had been effected in the way of providing a fund for the support of normal instruction. The matter had been agitated, somewhat, in a general way. 250 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Superintendent Ladd, in 1853, had asked, unsuccessfully, for a permanent appropriation for teachers' institutes ; and the university had asked, as unsuccessfully, for aid in de- veloping its normal department under Professor Read in 1854. A division of the general school fund for normal school purposes had been proposed, but nothing had been accomplished. ACT OF CONGRESS OF 1850. In 1850, by an act of congress entitled "an act to enable the state of Arkansas and other states to reclaim the swamp lands within their limits," a grant had been made by the general government to the state of a large amount of swamp and overflowed lands. The proceeds of these lands were, by the provision of the grant, to be "applied ex- clusively, so far as necessary, to the purpose of reclaiming said lands by means of levees and drains." In the United States land survey of the state made as it was, partly in winter and partly in the spring, when the natural wetness of forest lands is greatest much land had been described and recorded as "swamp and overflowed," which subsequently proved to be of the very best quality. The amount, also, was large, comprising, as was eventually determined, several millions of acres. But a moderate share of the proceeds would be needed, or could be used, for strictly drainage purposes. As time went on, and the value of the grant became more apparent, the question of the disposal of the proceeds not necessary for drainage became an im- portant one. By an act approved October 11, 1856, one-fourth of the net proceeds was set apart as the drainage fund, the remain- ing three-fourths going to the school fund. This distribu- tion applied also to the already accumulated proceeds of the swamp land sales. At the next session of the legislature, a law was enacted which set apart one of the three-fourths given to the school fund as a normal school fund. Portions of the act, contain- ing its salient features, are here given. THE ACT OF 1857. "An act for the encouragement of academies and normal schools. "The people of the state of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as follows: " 1. It shall hereafter.be the duty of the commissioners SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 251 of the school and university lands to apportion the income of twenty-five per cent, of the gross proceeds arising from the sale of swamp and overflowed lands granted to this state, by an act of congress entitled 'an act to enable the state of Arkansas and other states to reclaim the swamp and overflowed lands within their limits,' approved September 28, 1850, to normal institutes and academies as hereinafter provided. " 2. For the purpose of more fully carrying out the pro- visions of this act, there shall be constituted a board of nine regents, to be called the ' board of regents of normal schools,' no two of whom shall reside in any one county of this state. They shall be appointed by the governor, by and with the ap- proval of the senate. The governor and superintendent of public instruction shall be ex-officio members of the said board of re- gents. They shall have a voice, but shall not be allowed to vote on any of the business of the board of regents. The governor shall have power to fill all vacancies which may occur by death, resignation or otherwise, until the next meeting of the legisla- ture, or while the legislature is not in session, but the appoint- ments thus made shall be confirmed by the senate during the next succeeding session of the legislature: provided, that the first board of regents shall have power to act though appointed by the governor after the adjournment of the present session of the legislature. ******* " 7. All applications for any of the income of the school fund, pursuant to the provisions of this act, shall be made to the board of regents of normal schools, in such manner as they shall direct, and the school land commissioners shall distribute the income fund specified in section one of this act to such nor- mal schools and academies, and in such ratio as the board of regents shall designate, and no religious test shall ever be re- quired of any student or scholar in any of the institutions and schools receiving any of the income fund designated in this act. " 8. The regents shall require of each institution apply- ing for any of the income fund designated in section one, satis- factory evidence, which shall be uniform, that the provisions of this act have been fully complied with. They shall require a report annually at such time as they shall designate, of the number, age, residence and studies of each pupil or scholar re- turned to them, entitled to the distribution share of said income fund. And they shall make a report of the state and condition of such institution drawing from the income fund, to the gover- nor, at the same time that the other state officers are required to report. A copy of the proceedings of the board of regents, fully and fairly kept and codified by their president and secretary, shall be filed annually at the close of each fiscal year of this state, in the office of secretary of state. 252 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. ****** * " 10. All the income of the fund provided for in section one of this act shall be distributed to the colleges, universities and academies severally, except the state university, having es- tablished and maintained such normal institute, according to the number of pupils so instructed in such studies and for such a period of time as the board of regents may designate as a qual- ification or condition for receiving the benefits of this act, until the amount awarded to any one of such schools shall reach the sum of three thousand dollars annually. " 14. Whenever any town, city or village in this state shall propose to give a site and suitable building and fixtures for a state normal school, free from all incumbrances, said board of regents may consider the same, and if, in their opinion, the in- terests of education will be advanced thereby, they may, in their discretion, select from such propositions the one most feasible and located in such place as is deemed easiest of access, and apportion to the same annually a sum not exceeding three thous- and dollars for the support and maintenance of teachers therein. " 15. No charge shall be made for tuition to any pupil or scholar in said normal school whose purpose is to fit himself as a teacher of common schools in this state, and the number and qualifications of scholars, and regulations under which they shall be admitted, shall be determined by the board of regents. Of the remainder of the income mentioned in section one of this act, every incorporated college in this state with a clear capital of $50,000 (except the state university) shall be entitled to re- ceive $20 for every female graduate who shall have pursued the regular course of study in such college, or such a course as the board of regents in this act shall prescribe in lieu thereof." LEGISLATIVE ACTION. In 1858, the legislature added another fourth of the swamp land fund to the drainage fund, thus leaving but one-fourth in the general school fund. The normal school act of 1857, quoted above in part, was in operation for eight years. The amount of money disbursed under it was, in 1857, $14,520 ; in 1858, $10,152 ; after that amounts varying from $3,000 to $5,000 per annum, a portion of which was expended for teachers' institutes. In 1865, a radical change was made, both in the constitution of the fund and the objects and method of its disbursement. The swamp land question was still troubling the Solons of the state. Local "grabs" and "steals" were being con- tinually worked up against the swamp land fund. One favorite method of attack was the building of state roads, SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 253 etc., by appropriating swamp lands for the purpose, these measures being often only the sharp schemes of private parties. When the legislature met in 1865, it was felt that one of its first duties was to make some permanent and final disposition of these lands so that the whole might not be squandered and dissipated to no general good. "An act to dispose of the swamp and overflowed lands, and the pro- ceeds therefrom," was introduced, in the assembly, by Hon. Jackson Hadley, of Milwaukee, once the popular principal of the Buffalo, N. Y., high school. It passed the house March 24, with but four dissenting -votes, and passed the senate April 7, receiving the approval of Gov. Lewis, April 11. So much of the law as relates to the normal school fund is here inserted : THE ACT OF 1865. "An act to dispose of the swamp and overflowed lands, and the proceeds therefrom. "The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in sen- ate and assembly, do enact as follows: "Section 1. All the provisions of law which direct the ap- plication and use of the swamp and overflowed lands of this state, and of the lands selected in lieu of swamp and overflowed lands, and of the moneys received on sale of such swamp and se- lected lands, and of the moneys received from the United States in lieu of swamp lands, for the purposes of drainage, and for support- ing common schools, normal schools and academies, are hereby re- pealed ; and all acts granting or offering to grant, or authorizing the conveyance of any such lands to any county, town, corpora- tion, officer, board, or any person or persons, are hereby re- pealed ; and such grants, offers, and authority are revoked and annulled, except so far as the title to such granted lands may have been actually diverted under such acts : provided, that nothing herein contained shall impair the obligation of any con- tract heretofore made. "Section 2. All the swamp and overflowed lands hereto- fore received by this state from the United States, under and in pursuance of an act of congress, entitled 'an act to enable the state of Arkansas and other states to reclaim the swamp lands within their limits,' approved September 28, A. D. 1850, and which are now owned by this state, and all lands now owned by this state which were selected in lieu of swamp and overflowed lands, as authorized by an act of congress, entitled 'an act for the relief of purchasers and locators of swamp and overflowed lands,' approved March 2, A. D. 1855, and all moneys received from the United States in lieu of swamp and overflowed lands under the provisions of the act of congress last aforesaid, and all 254 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. moneys received by this state, as purchase money, for swamp and overflowed lands, and for lands selected as aforesaid, in lieu of swamp and overflowed lands, including the amounts loaned and invested, together with all sums of money due or to become due as balance of purchase money on contract for the sale of such swamp lands and selected lands, shall, after deducting the incidental expenses heretofore paid from said funds, and the losses sustained therefrom , as near as they can be conveniently ascertained, be divided into two equal parts, the one part to be denominated 'the normal school fund,' and the other to be de- nominated 'the drainage fund.' In making the partition be- tween such funds, the swamp lands and moneys receivable on contracts for the sale of swamp lands shall, as far as practicable, regard being had to the mode of distribution required by section six of this act, be set apart to the drainage fund ; and the mon- eys received in lieu of and in payment of lands as aforesaid, in- cluding the sums invested and the lands selected in lieu of swamp lands, and the moneys receivable on contracts for the sale of such selected lands, shall, as far as practicable, be set apart to the normal school fund ; and for the purpose of making such partition, one dollar shall be taken to be the equivalent of one acre of such lands. "Section 3. All the swamp and overflowed lands which this state shall hereafter receive, pursuant to said act of congress, approved September 28th, A. D. 1850, shall, on receipt thereof, be partitioned equally, by counties, between the drainage fund and the normal school fund, and the part known as drain- age fund shall be set apart to the counties respectively in which such lands lie, to be used and applied as the other drainage fund belonging to such counties is, by this act, directed to be used and applied. And all the moneys which this state shall hereafter receive from the United States, in lieu of SAvamp and overflowed lands, shall, on receipt thereof, be equally divided between the drainage fund and the normal school fund ; and that part which is known as the drainage fund shall be distrib- uted to the several counties in proportion to the number of acres of swamp land therein, and shall be used and applied as the other drainage fund belonging to such counties is, by this act, directed to be used and applied. "Section 4. The land belonging to the normal school fund shall be sold, and the moneys arising from such sales, and all other moneys belonging to the fund, shall be invested in the same manner and by the same officers as now provided by law for the sale and investment of the school fund. "Section 5. The income of the normal school fund shall be applied to establishing, supporting and maintaining normal schools, under the direction and management of the board o normal school regents : provided that twenty-five per cent, o SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 255 said income shall be annually transferred to the school fund in- come, until the annual income of the school fund shall reach the sum of two hundred thousand dollars." The remaining sections of the act relate to the location and division of the lands, and the application of the drain- age fund. PARTITION OF THE LANDS. Hon. G. D. Elwood, of Princeton, who had been the active champion of the bill in the senate, was appointed by the commissioners of school and university lands to make the division of the lands in pursuance of the provisions of the act. In their report for 1865, the commissioners say: "The division was the work of great study and labor, occupying several months. In order to accomplish it faithfully and correctly, according to the letter and the spirit of the law, we availed ourselves of the services of Hon. G. De Witt Elwood, to whose skill, industry, good judgment and accuracy we are chiefly indebted for the excellent execution of the details of the work." The allotment of the normal school fund was, in round numbers, $600,000 in cash and dues, and 500,000 acres of land, estimated in the law at one dollar per acre, with other lands not yet put in market. Thus the board of regents started out in its new course with a productive fund, already in hand, of about $600,000, with a net annual income of over $30,000, with a certain increase so fast as the lands should be sold. FURTHER LEGISLATIVE ACTION. The board of regents of normal schools was incorporated, and its various powers were fully defined, by legislative act in 1866. In 1869, the laws relating to normal instruction were codified. In 1870, the annual transfer of twenty-five per cent, of the normal school fund income to the school fund income, as required by section 5 of the act of 1865, was stopped; and since that time the normal fund has remained intact, and its income has been wholly devoted to the pur- poses of normal instruction, in the establishment and sup- port of normal schools and teachers' institutes. PRESENT RESOURCES. The total productive fund, July 1, 1892, was $1,782,500. And more than $150,000, including sites and buildings, have been donated by the several towns in which the five normal schools now in operation are located. 256 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. The income from the fund, for the year ending July 1, 1892, was about $95,000, to which must be added about $13,500 of local receipts at the schools. There is also a standing annual appropriation from the general fund of the state of $2,000, for the partial support of teachers' institutes, and $10,000 for the partial support of the Milwaukee nor- mal school, thus aggregating an annual revenue of about $120,500. In 1891, the legislature appropriated $20,000 for the en- largement of the buildings at Platteville and Whitewater, this being the first contribution from the general fund of the state for building purposes. There are yet unsold (1892) about 240,000 acres of land, which will, in time, considerably increase the fund. This fund, like all the school funds of the state, is under the con- trol of a board called the commissioners of school and uni- versity lands, and composed of the secretary of state, the state treasurer, and the attorney-general. This board has charge of the sale of lands, and the investment of the funds, which is largely in the way of loans to towns, school dis- tricts, etc., though the state itself is the principal debtor to the school funds. CHAPTER III. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. "The board of regents of normal schools of Wiscon- sin" was constituted by the act of 1857, and consists of two ex-officio and nine appointed members. The nine are appointed by the governor, by and with the approval of the senate. Their term of office is three years and until their successors are appointed and confirmed; and they are di- vided into three classes, so that the term of office of one class expires each year. The ex-officio members are the gov- ernor of the state and the superintendent of public instruc- tion. The officers of the board are a president, vice-presi- dent and secretary, who are elected each year. The state treasurer is ex-officio treasurer of the board. The board holds two regular meetings each year, the annual meeting required by law, on the second Wednesday of July, and the semi-annual meeting on the first Wednes- day in February. Special meetings may be called by the president of the board or governor, on petition of any three members. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 257 The board is a body corporate, and has full control and direction of the locating, building, supplying and operating the schools, of the school property, and of the income of the normal school fund, but not of the fund itself, which is under the control of the "commissioners of school and univer- sity lands." The members of the board receive no compen- sation for their services except for "specific service rendered under the direction of the board, other than attending the meetings* thereof," and actual expenses in attending the meet- ings or performing other service directed to be performed. The president of the board is required to make a bien- nial report to the governor of the state, and an annual re- port to the superintendent of public instruction, giving a de- tailed account of the doings, expenditures, etc., of the board. THE ORIGINAL MEMBERSHIP OF THE BOARD. The original board was appointed by Governor Coles Bashford in 1857, and consisted of the following members : Edward Cooke, J. G. McKindley, A. C. Spicer, Alfred Brunson, Noah H. Virgin, J. J. Enos, S. A. Bean, M. P. Kin- ney and D. Y. Kilgore. The first meeting was held in the assembly chamber, at Madison, on July 5th, 1857, when the oath of office was ad- ministered by Associate Justice A. D. Smith, of the supreme court. The officers elected were : Rev. Martin P. Kinney, of Racine, president; Dr. Edward Cooke, of Appleton, vice-president ; D. Y. Kilgore, of Madison, secretary. This board proceeded with its duties through the remainder of the year, though the members had been appointed after the adjournment of the legislature, and so not confirmed. January 28, 1858, their names were sent to the senate, for confirmation, by Governor A. W. Randall. On February 12, the senate proceeded to confirm the appointments indi- vidually ; but after several had been confirmed, the whole matter was reconsidered, and the entire list was returned to the governor with the information that the senate refused to confirm, on the ground that the members were not properly distributed throughout the state. Perhaps there was some other reason back of that. On February 25, 1858, Governor Randall nominated an entirely new board, as follows : Terms expire January 1, 1859 C. C. Sholes, Kenosha county ; Julius T. Clark, Dane county ; L. H. Gary, She- boygan county. 258 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Terms expire January 1, 1860 John Hodgson, Wauke- sha county ; James H. Howe, Brown county ; Hanmer Rob- bins, Grant county. Terms expire January 1, 1861 Silas Chapman, Mil- waukee county ; 0. T. Maxson, Pierce county ; Win. E, Smith, Dodge county. All were confirmed by the senate March 3, 1859. The new board held its first meeting at Madison, March 25, 1858, and organized by the election of C. C. Sholes, of Kenosha, as president : Wm. E. Smith, of Fox Lake, vice- president ; and Julius T. Clark, of Madison, secretary. Messrs. Howe and Hodgson did not enter into the work of the board, but soon resigned, and their places were filled by two of the original board which had been appointed by Governor Bashford, viz.: Dr. Edward Cooke, of Appleton, and Sidney A. Bean, of Waukesha. The following gentlemen have been members of the board at some time since the rejection of the original nine : MEMBERSHIP OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. Governor A. W. Randall, ex-officio 1858-62 State Superintendent L. C. Draper, ex-officio 1858-60 C. C. Sholes, Kenosha ; 1858-67 Julius T. Clark, Madison 1858-67 Luther H. Gary, Greenbush 1858-62 John Hodgson, Waukesha 1858 Dr. Edward Cooke, Appleton 1859 Jas. H. Howe, Green Bay 1858 Hamner Robbins, Platteville 1858-72 Silas Chapman, Milwaukee 1858-67 0. T. Maxson, Prescott 1858-64 Wm. E. Smith, Fox Lake and Milwaukee 1858-76, 1878-82 Sidnev A . Bean, Waukesha 1859-63 Jacob West, Evansville 1860 State Superintendent J. L. Pickard, ex-officio 1860-64 Edward Daniels, Ripon 1860-63 Governor Louis P. Harvey, ex-officio, January 5 to April 19 1862 Rev. J. I. Foote, Footeville 1862-65 Governor Edward Salomon, ex-officio 1862-64 Governor James T. Lewis, ex-officio 1864-66 State Superintendent J. G. McMynn, ex-officio 1864-68 Wm. Starr, Ripon 1864-79 Jno. E. Thomas, Sheboygan Falls 1864-70 Geo. Griswold, Columbus 1864-66 S. A. White, Whitewater 1865-70, 1874-77 Governor Lucius Fairchild, ex-officio 1866-72 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 259 Henry Kleinpell, Sauk City 1866-67 Henry Lines, Oshkosh 1867-70 Nelson Williams, Stoughton 1867-70 Rev. William C. Whitford, Milton 1867-75, 1878-82 State Superintendent A. J. Craig, ex-officio 1868-70 Allen H. Weld, River Falls 1868-77 T. D. Weeks, Whitewater 1870-74, 1877-89 James I. Lyndes, La Crosse 1870-76 Samuel Gary, Oshkosh 1870-74 State Superintendent Samuel Fallows, ex-officio 1870-74 W. H. Chandler, Sun Prairie 1871-92 Governor C. C. Washburn, ex-officio * 1872-74 J. H. Evans, Platteville 1872-90 Governor Wm. R. Taylor, ex-officio 1874-76 State Superintendent Edward Searing, ex-officio 1874-78 Charles A. Weisbrod, Oshkosh 1874-76 F. W. Cotzhausen, Milwaukee 1875-78 Governor Harrison Ludington, ex-officio 1876-78 John Phillips, Stevens Point 1876-91 S. S. Sherman, Milwaukee 1876-79 Samuel M. Hay, Oshkosh 1876-91 A. D. Andrews, River Falls 1877-86 State Superintendent Wm. C. Whitford, ex-officio 1878-82 Governor Wm. E. Smith, ex-officio 1878-82 Carl Doerflinger, Milwaukee 1878-82 James Mac Alister, Milwaukee 1879-83 A. 0. Wright, Fox Lake 1879-81 Charles A. Hutchins, Fond du Lac 1881-90 State Superintendent Robert Graham, ex-officio 1882-87 Governor J. M. Rusk, ex-officio 1882-89 G. E. Gordon, Milwaukee 1882-87 Emil Wallber, Milwaukee 1883-89 Charles V. Guy, River Falls 1886-92 State Superintendent Jesse B. Thayer, ex-officio 1887-91 Wm. E. Anderson, Milwaukee 1887-90 Governor W. D. Hoard, ex-officio 1889-91 E. M. Johnson, Whitewater 1889-00 J. E. Singer, Milwaukee 1890-91 Michael Kirwan, Manitowoc 1890-00 M. A. Thayer, Sparta 1890-91 Governor George W. Peck, ex-officio 1891-00 State Superintendent O. E. Wells, ex-officio 1891-00 Geo. W. Gate, Stevens Point 1891-92 Dennis J. Gardner, Platteville 1891-00 Ira A. Hill, Sparta 1891-00 Jno. W. Hume, Oshkosh 1891-00 Jacob Mendel, Milwaukee 1891-92 F. P. Ainsworth, River Falls 1892-00 260 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Bernard Goldsmith, Milwaukee 1892-00 W. D. Parker, Madison 1892-00 Byron B. Park, Stevens Point 1892-00 SPECIAL MENTION OF PROMINENT MEMBERS. Special mention can be made of only a few of the more active and influential members. Of the ex-officio members, the state superintendents have been, from the nature of the case, uniformly active and intelligent regents. Of the gov- ernors, most have not actually identified themselves with the work of the board. But two, Lucius Fairchild and Wm. E. Smith, will be remembered as among the most wise, ener- getic and useful friends of normal schools. They actively participated in all the labors of the board. The first president of the board was Honorable C. C. Sholes, of Kenosha, who served in that capacity from 1858 until his death, October 5, 1867. He was succeeded by Hon- orable Wm. Starr, who stamped his strong individuality upon all the work of the board until his death in April, 1879. The next president was Honorable J. H. Evans, of Platte- ville, who presided eleven years, retiring from the board in 1890. Honorable John W. Hume, of Oshkosh/was chosen to succeed Mr. Evans, being the fourth president only, in over a third of a century. Silas Chapman, of Milwaukee, was the efficient secre- tary of the board for nearly nine years. Several state super- intendents also served in this capacity ; but in 1878, Honor- able Willard H. Chandler, of Sun Prairie, was chosen secretary, and held that office until his retirement from the board in 1892, after an active membership of twenty-one years. On his resignation of the secretaryship, the following resolution was unanimously adopted by the board : " Whereas, W. H. Chandler, for many years a member and secretary of this board, has just retired therefrom, and tenders his resignation of the secretaryship, "Resolved, That in accepting such resignation, it is the sense of the board that as such member and secretary the service of Mr. Chandler to the normal schools of this state, in their establishment, extension and maintenance, and in the improve- ment and supervision of the instruction given, and in his efforts which have materially contributed to make these schools efficient and prosperous to a degree which will bear favorable compari- son with like schools elsewhere, as well as in moulding and directing the institute work of the state for many years, has been ot inestimable value to this hoard and to the public school system SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 261 of Wisconsin, and that such services merit and should receive the cordial recognition and grateful acknowledgment of the board and the friends of public education throughout the state." Mr. Chandler was succeeded as secretary by Professor Warren D. Parker, formerly president of the River Falls normal school, who is the first officer of the board to devote his whole time to its service. CHAPTER IV. LOCATION AND OPENING OF THE SCHOOLS. After the passage of the act of 1865, it soon became evident that normal schools would be established at several points in the state ; and different localities at once began to press their claims. The board of regents, after due deliberation, adopted the plan of locating a school, eventually, in each of the con- gressional districts of the state, which were then six in number. They early visited and examined several of the competing localities and received proposals from them ; but no decisive action was taken until February 28, 1866, when it was voted to locate schools at Whitewater and Plattevillc. A building committee was appointed and instructed to pro- cure plans, etc., for the building at Whitewater. On the 2d of May, the transfers of title to the sites were completed, and the building committee was instructed to proceed to the erection of the building. Proposals had been laid before the board from no less than sixteen cities and villages, making offers of sites and various amounts of money. At this meeting of the board, May 2, 1866, Oshkosh, Stoughton and Sheboygan were se- lected as points, in their respective congressional districts, for the opening of schools in the future. As the donation from Platteville included the building and grounds of the Platteville academy, the board were enabled to open that school on the 9th of October, in the same year. Professor Chas. H. Allen, then in charge of the normal department of the university, had been elected principal. The first normal school faculty in Wisconsin was con- stituted as follows : Chas. H. Allen, principal. Jacob Wernli, assistant principal. Geo. M. Guernsey, professor of mathematics. 262 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Fanny S. Joslyn, teacher of geography, history and physiology. Esther M. Sprague, principal of model department; and we shall do no wrong to add Henry Treganowan, janitor. Mr. Wernli was a graduate of the normal school at Wettingen, Canton Aargau, Switzerland, and had served with marked success as school superintendent of Waupaca county, in this state. Mr. Guernsey had been previously principal of the Platteville academy and, before that, a pro- fessor at Milton academy. During the first term 60 pupils were enrolled in the normal department, 14 in the preparatory class, and 38 in the model school. During the year first following there were in attendance, for some part of the year, 219 students, ex- clusive of the model school. The capacity of the academy building being too limited for the work of the school, the board had entered upon the erection of a new building, which was completed at a cost of about $20,000 and was opened with appropriate cere- monies on the 9th of September, 1868. Among the visitors present at the dedicatory exercises was General U. S. Grant. The completion of the normal school building at White- water was greatty delayed, by various causes ; but it was at length at dedicated April 21, 1868. Professor Oliver Arey had previously been elected principal and was present at the dedication. The dedicatory exercises consisted of a brief historical sketch of the normal school enterprise in the state, by Honorable Wm. Starr, president of the board of regents ; an address by the principal, showing what a nor- mal school ought to be and do ; and addresses by the promi- nent educational men from various parts of the state, includ- ing State Superintendent A. J. Craig. During this first, and as it were, preliminary term, 48 pupils were enrolled in the normal department, and 102 in the model school. For the second term, which opened on September 1, 1868, the enroll- ment was 105 in the normal department, and 98 in the model school. THE FACULTY AT WHITEWATER. The original faculty was composed of : Oliver Arey, principal and professor of mental and moral philosophy, and theory and practice of teaching. J. T. Lovewell, professor of mathematics and Latin. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 264 Mrs. H. E. G. Arey, preceptress and teacher of English literature, French and drawing. Miss Emily J. Bryant, teacher of history, grammar and geography. Dr. H. H. Greenman, teacher of vocal music. Miss Virginia Deichman, teacher of instrumental music. Miss Catherine H. Lilly, teacher and critic in the gram- mar department. Miss Ada Hamilton, teacher and critic in the intermediate department. Miss Sarah A. Stewart, teacher and critic in the primary department. Besides the regular faculties of the two schools now in operation, Mrs. Anna T. Randall (Diehl), of Oswego, N. Y., was employed for a time to give instruction in reading and elocution at both schools. FIRST GRADUATING CLASSES AT PLATTEVILLE AND WHITEWATER In June, 1869, the Platteville school graduated its first class, in the full or advanced course. As being the first graduating class from a normal school in Wisconsin, their names are given, viz.: Lewis Funk, Melvin Grigsby, Andrew J. Hutton, Richard H. Jones, James Rait, Edward H. Sprague, Ella Marshall, Alvena E. Schroeder. In June, 1870, the Whitewater school graduated its first class, six in number. A class of fifteen was graduated at Platteville. OPENING OF THE OSHKOSH SCHOOL. At the meeting of the board, June, 1868, arrangements were made for procuring plans for a building for the nor- mal school which had been located at Oshkosh, and the contract for its erection was made in January, 1869. The building was completed in the summer of 1870, but for lack of funds to furnish it and pay salaries, the opening of the school was delayed for another year. At a special meeting of the board of regents, held June 6, 1871, George S. Albee, superintendent of the Racine city schools, and a graduate of Michigan university, was elected president of the Oshkosh school. In July of the same year, Prof. Robert Graham, a graduate of the Albany normal school, and widely and favorably known as conductor of institutes for the normal board, was chosen as teacher in the normal department, and director of the model school. president albert Salisbury The subject of this sketch, Albert Salisbury, was born in Rock county, Wisconsin, January 24th, 1843. He represents a type of scholarship and manhood that is peculiarly Western, and characteristic of the energy and directness which distin- guishes the true Western teacher from the more conventional product of Eastern institutions. His education was begun in the public schools of this state, and perfected in Milton college, an institution which is distinguished for the number of leading teachers and energetic pioneers of education sent into the public schools of Wisconsin during the past twenty years. He began his career as a teacher in 1866 in a country district. This experience, with a love for the work and great natural aptitude, prepared him for the position of principal of the high school at Brodhead. Here he was very successful, but re- mained only from September, 1870, till March, 1873, when he was called to take the position of conductor of institutes in the Whitewater normal school. He resigned this position to take charge of the schools of the American missionary association, but after three years, in 1885, he re-entered the Whitewater normal school as president. Mr. Salisbury has been conspicuously able and diligent in the state teachers' association and in the work of institutes. As president of the normal school, he has displayed marked ability as an organizer and director of the work of training teachers. His experience in the common schools and as insti- tute conductor brought him face to face with the real problems of teaching common schools, and thus equipped him with re- sources which have been invaluable to the great work he has accomplished in the school at Whitewater. His strongest characteristics are a firm and self-reliant in- dividuality, a clear grasp of the essence of the leading questions of practical pedagogy, a facility in illustration and demonstra- tion of the logic of method in elementary education and school management, and, withal, an enthusiastic devotion to his call- ing which at once inspires and encourages his pupils to emulate the highest and best ideals of the teacher. W. E. A. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. '265 The original faculty at Oshkosh was as follows : George S. Albee, president, teacher of mental and social science, and school economy. Robert Graham, teacher of reading and music. D. E. Holmes, teacher of natural science. Anna W. Moody, teacher of rhetoric and mathematics. Mrs. D. E. Holmes, teacher of geography and history. Martha E. Hazard, teacher of grammar and physical culture. Robert Graham, director of the model school. Maria S. Hill, teacher in grammar department. Rose C. Swart, teacher in primary department. The school opened September 12, 1871, with an enroll- ment in the normal department of forty-six pupils, which was soon largely increased. The buildings were dedicated on the 19th of the same month. Addresses were delivered by President Starr and Hon. W. C. Whitford and A. H. AVeld, of the board of regents; President Albee, of the school ; State Superintendent Fallows, and several others. The enrollment of students for the first term was, in the normal department, 97 ; model school, 92 ; total, 189. TOUR OF BOARD OF REGENTS TO LOCATE THE FOURTH SCHOOL. In July, 1871, the board of regents, including Governor Lucius Fairchild, made a tour of the northwestern part of the state, for the purpose of locating the fourth normal school, toward which they were now beginning to look ; the action in reference to Stoughton and Sheboygan having been annulled. Of their eventful experiences by field and flood, over corduroy and sand plain, the time sufficeth not to tell. But as a result of their tour of inspection the fourth school was located at River Falls, in the St. Croix valley, by action of the board in January, 1872. In January, 1874, plans were adopted for the River Falls normal school building ; and the contract was soon awarded for its erection. PROF. C. H. ALLEN, CONDUCTOR OF INSTITUTES. After the election of Prof. Graham to the Oshkosh faculty, his place had been taken as conductor of institutes by Prof. C. H. Allen, former president of the Platteville school, who had lately returned from the Pacific coast. He continued in this service from July, 1871, till September, 1872, when he resigned, to accept a position in the normal 266 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. school at San Jose, California ; and Prof. Graham resumed the institute work in connection with his work in the school. In January, 1873, the regents reorganized the institute work, dividing the state into three institute districts, and assigning one professor from each school to conduct insti- tutes in his own district. In pursuance of this arrange- ment, Prof. Duncan McGregor was designated as institute conductor for the first or Platteville district ; and Albert Salisbury was added to the Whitewater faculty, March 1st, 1873, as conductor for the second district. NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. OPENING OF THE RIVER FALLS SCHOOL. In July, 1874, Warren D. Parker, of the Janesville city schools, was elected president of the River Falls normal school, his service to begin September 1, 1875. The building, the largest and best appointed of any yet erected by the board, was dedicated September 2nd, 1875. Addresses were made by Honorable Wm. Starr, President W. D. Parker, State Superintendent Searing, and Honorable W. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 267 H. Chandler. The school opened with a larger attendance than had been received by any of the other schools at their opening. When fairly in operation, there were enrolled in the normal department, ll)4; in the model school, 155; total, 259. The original faculty was constituted as follows : Warren D. Parker, president. Jesse B. Thayer, teacher of mathematics and conductor of institutes. Albert Earthman, teacher of geography and music. Lucy E. Foote, preceptress, teacher of reading. Laura G. Lovell, teacher of history. Margaret Hosford, teacher of grammar and rhetoric. Emily Wright, teacher grammar grade. Mary A. Kelly, teacher intermediate grade. Lizzie J. Curtis, teacher primary grade. THE MILWAUKEE SCHOOL. The opening and maintenance of the fourth normal school, together with the enlargements made necessary by the growth of the older schools, absorbed so nearly the whole revenue of the board as to prevent, for some years, the establishment of another school. Meanwhile the city of Milwaukee had been maintaining a city training school for the recruiting of its own corps of public school teachers. A movement at length took shape for devolving this work upon the state instead of the city; and in 1880 an act of the legislature was secured which made it "the duty of the IxKird of regents of normal schools to establish an additional normal school in the city of Milwaukee .... and to proceed to organize and conduct the same without impairing the efficiency of the normal schools already established . as soon as said board shall in its own judgment be able to pro- vide from the funds at its disposal for the maintenance of said school in said city of Milwaukee; provided the said city of Mil- waukee shall donate a site and a suitable building for said nor- mal school in said city of Milwaukee, the location and plan of said buildings to be approved by said board of regents, and the said site and building to be together of a value not less than fifty thousand dollars." The board of regents did not much welcome or encour- age this movement, notwithstanding the activity and persis- tence of its Milwaukee member, Hon. James McAlister, who was also the Milwaukee city superintendent of schools. The reason for this attitude on the part of the regents lay 268 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. in their financial limitations ; for while the aggregate of the normal school fund had greatly increased, the general shrinkage of interest rates and the increasing difficulty of making profitable investments ' of public funds had pre- vented any corresponding increase in the income at the dis- posal of the board. However, in July, 1881, the board accepted a site ten- dered by the city of Milwaukee. Architect's plans were ap- proved in July, 1882. In February, 1884, Regent Emil Wallber reported to the board that $40,000 had been ap- propriated by the common council of Milwaukee for the erection of the building ; and in June, 1885, the completed building was conveyed by the city to the board of regents. The cost to the city of the property conveyed was $52,000. The financial difficulties of the board with respect to this school had just been solved by an act of the legislature (1885) making an annual appropriation of $10,000 to the board of regents for the maintaining of the fifth normal school, this being the first appropriation, in the history of the state, of funds derived from taxation to the support of normal schools. Professor J. J. Mapel, principal of the Milwaukee high school, was elected president of the fifth normal school. At the meeting of the normal board in July, 1885, the conditions for admission to the Milwaukee school were estab- lished as follows : ' ' The terms of admission to the state normal school at Mil- waukee shall be : (a) by certificate of having completed the first three years of one of the existing courses of study in the high school at Milwaukee, excepting trigonometry ; (b) by elementary certificate from any normal school in Wisconsin; (c) by diploma from such free high schools in Wisconsin as have adopted the four years' English and scientific courses of study prescribed by the state superintendent for such schools ; (d) by examination in the branches of the last mentioned course, except that English history be substituted for theory and art of teaching." This action arose from the conviction of the board that the city of Milwaukee presented conditions and environment so different from those of the other schools as to permit the omission altogether of the " elementary course," leaving only the advanced course of two years. This course was modified somewhat in its details from the advanced course of the other schools ; although the board premised, at the same time, as follows : president X. ID. Prof. Harvey began teaching in the district schools of this state in the year 1866, while taking a college course. After a variety of experience in teaching and study to equip himself for his chosen profession, he was called to take charge of the Mazo- manie high school, where he performed very acceptable service and so well proved his ability and capacity as an instructor and disciplinarian that the school board of Sheboygan secured him to take charge of the high school in that place. For five years he managed that school with signal success, but then resigned with the intention of following the practice of law. He was not allowed, however, to sever his connection with the schools en- tirely, for the position of city superintendent having been created, he Avas at once elected to that office. In this capacity he labored for five years more, when he again returned to the work of teaching by accepting an appointment as institute con-' ductor and teacher of economics and civics in the state normal school at Oshkosh. This field gave Mr. Harvey larger scope for his abilities, for he was required to visit nearly every county in the state and to hold institutes for the training and improvement of teachers employed in the district schools. The six years he devoted to this occasional work, together with his special department in the normal school, gave him the preparation requisite for the position he now occupies, viz., president of the normal school in Milwaukee. Prof. Harvey was elected to this place in the spring of 1892, at first as temporary president but subsequently as the perma- nent head of the school. He is therefore the youngest of the normal school presidents. The present condition of the school is excellent and gives promise of still further improvement and greater usefulness. The conduct of a state normal school in a large city presents opportunities and involves questions of ad- ministration not to be met in the other normal schools of the state. A large city system of schools in the immediate locality, and a demand for a continually increasing supply of well- trained teachers, together with the very natural expectation that the head of the normal school take a prominent place as a leader in the discussion of educational questions and in the con- duct of teachers meetings, imposes obligations requiring not only large resources and versatility, but a capacity for perform- ance that few possess. That Prof. Harvey is the man for this important mission is the confident belief of all who have watched his career, and approve his accession to the presidency of the state normal school in Milwaukee. W. E. A. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IX WISCONSIN. 269 ' ' The diploma of all the normal schools in Wisconsin shall represent essentially a uniform breadth of scholarship and pro- fessional training." The new school opened September 14, 1885, with the following faculty : J. ,T. Mapel, president, teacher of psychology and peda- gogy. Alexander Bevan, teacher of mathematics and natural science. S. Helen Romaine, teacher of English language and literature. Eleanor Worthington, teacher of geography and his- tory. Mary S. Gate, teacher of methods and supervisor of practice teaching. Emily W. Strong, critic teacher in third and fourth grades. Dora Hilliard, critic teacher in fifth and sixth grades. Mary Campbell, critic teacher in primary grades. The enrollment of the school in its first year was 46 in the normal department and 112 in the model school. In June, 1886, the school graduated its first class of fifteen members, these having been in attendance but one year, all having previously graduated from the Milwaukee high school. MORE SCHOOLS IX PROSPECT. The value of the normal schools to the educational in- terests of the state is now so well approved and clearly seen that the establishment of additional schools is already under discussion by the people of the state. The legislature of 1891 passed an act authorizing the board of regents to " establish, build, equip and maintain a sixth normal school in the state of Wisconsin, at a site to be selected by said board in the territory north of the north line of township number twenty- four north." No action has been taken by the board in this direction, however, for lack of sufficient present income to maintain more schools than those already opened. At the present session of the legislature (1893) a bill has been introduced providing for the establishment of two new normal schools, and appropriating money for their construc- tion and support. 270 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. CHAPTER V. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHOOLS. ADMINISTRATION. All the normal schools of Wisconsin, being under the general management of one board and supported from one fund, have naturally developed along the same general lines; though enough freedom has been accorded to the internal administration of each school to bring forth a definite indi- viduality in each. But the scope and purpose of this sketch does not justify any attempt at a discussion of their special individual characteristics. The Platteville school continued under the presidency of Charles H. Allen but four years, when he resigned and went to the Pacific coast, becoming, later, the president of the San Jose (Cal.) normal school. He was succeeded at Platteville by Professor Edwin A. Charlton, of Auburn, N.Y., who continued at the head of the school from 1870 until January 1, 1879. Professor Duncan McGregor entered the faculty of the Platteville school at the beginning of its second year, August, 1867, as professor of mathematics. In January, 1873, he was designated as conductor of institutes for the first district. In January, 1879, he became president of the school, which has continued under his judicious ad- ministration to the present time, a period of fourteen years, with more to follow. The first president of the Whitewater school was Oliver Arey, who had achieved marked success in building up the central or high school of Buffalo, N. Y., and had afterwards been principal of the Albany normal school. Mrs. H. E. G. Arey, the esteemed and gifted helpmeet of the principal, was a graduate of Oberlin college and had become quite widely known through various literary labors. She became preceptress of the school, teaching in various lines. Mr. and Mrs. Arey administered the school with signal efficiency for a little over eight years, resigning in the spring of 1876. The influence of their positive and sterling charac- ters left an enduring mark on both pupils and associate teachers. President Arey was succeeded in the fall of 1876 by Wil- liam F. Phelps, who had been principal of the Trenton (N. J.) normal school, and for many years at the head of the Winona (Minn.) normal school, coming to the Whitewater school in the fullness of experience and reputation. He re- SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 271 mained at Whitewater but two years, his administration constituting a tumultuous episode of which it is difficult to speak with justice to all concerned. In the fall of 1878, Professor J. W. Stearns, LL. D., came to the presidency of the school, having previously been for several years principal of a government normal school at Tucuman, in the Argentine Republic. He was, before that, a professor in the old Chicago university. He remained in charge six and one-half years, resigning in January, 1885, to accept the chair of pedagogy in the University of Wiscon- sin. His administration was marked by broad and quick- ening impulses, and impressed upon the school certain characteristics which it retains, in a good degree, to the present time. After the resignation of Dr. Stearns, Professor T. B. Pray was acting president for an interim of a half- year. In March, 1873, Albert Salisbury, principal of the Brod- head high school, came to the Whitewater normal school as its first conductor of institutes, and the third of the original trio of state institute conductors. He continued in this re- lation till the summer of 1882, when he went to the South as superintendent of schools for the American missionary association. In the fall of 1885, he returned to Whitewater, having been elected, some months before, to the presidency of that school, which position he still holds. The Oshkosh school has been more fortunate than any of its sister schools in continuity of administration. Before the opening of the school, in 1871, George S. Albee, principal of the Racine high school, was elected to its presidency, a position which he has held with great and increasing accept- ance until this day, a wise and unbroken administration of over twenty-two years. In this time, the school has grown to be the largest in the state and one of the most efficient in the whole country. At the opening of the Oshkosh school, Captain Robert Graham, who had become widely known as a very efficient conductor of institutes, entered the faculty as director of the model school. He also rendered valuable service to the school as teacher of reading and vocal music. In January, 1873, he was designated as the first regular conductor of institutes under the system which has ever since prevailed. He continued in these relations until he became state super- intendent in 1882. The first president of the River Falls school was Warren 272 SKETCH OF NOKMAI. SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. D. Parker, previously principal of the Janesville city schools. He organized the school on a very thorough basis and ad- ministered its affairs with great vigor until failing health compelled his retirement in 1889. What then seemed a great loss to the educational interests of the state has been offset by the fact that Mr. Parker has now become a member, and the secretary, of the board of regents. He was succeeded at River Falls by Prof. J. Q. Emery, principal of the Fort Atkinson high school, under whose management the school has very considerably increased its enrollment. At the opening of the school in 1875, Jesse B. Thayer, principal of the Menomonie schools, was made its conductor of institutes, which position he held until he became state superintendent, in 1887. The River Falls school comes nearest to the Oshkosh school, therefore, in the continuity and unity of its administration. Prol J. J. Mapel, principal of the Milwaukee high school, became president of the Milwaukee normal school at its opening in 1885. He resigned in January, 1892 ; and was succeeded by Prof. L. D. Harvey, institute conductor at the Oshkosh normal school. The first institute conductor at Milwaukee was Prof. Silas Y. Gillan, who held his position from 1886 to 1892. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT. In the "sixties," when the normal school idea was first taking practical shape, only a vague conception obtained of what the legitimate equipment of a teachers' training school should be. Little or no provision was therefore made of facilities for laboratory work, physical training, or drawing ; and, even for the commoner needs and the most natural ex- pectation of growth, the prospective requirements were sadly underestimated. That was the day of small things. But the growth of the schools, both in membership and in the scope of work found to belong to such seminaries, soon com- pelled extensive enlargement of accommodations. The Platteville school, beginning life in 1866, in the building of the old Platteville academy, at once found itself straitened for room ; and a new building, in exten- sion of the old one, was completed in the summer of 1868 at a cost of $20,000. Almost from the start, the Whitewater building was found to be inadequate to the demands upon it ; and a new prof, <3. S. Blbec, Professor Albee, president of the state normal school at Oshkosh, began his career as a teacher in New York, in 1855. He entered Genesee college in 1859, but was soon appointed professor of mathematics and natural science in Rushford acad- emy, which position was held uutil his matriculation in Uni- versity of Michigan, fall of 1861. Graduating A. B. from that university in 1864, he was engaged as principal of high school, Peoria, Ills., and was called to principalship of the high school, Kenosha, Wis., in 1865. In 1868 he accepted the principalship of the Racine high school, and soon after was appointed super- intendent of the schools of that city, a system at that time ranking first in the state, due to the influence and ability of John G. McMynn. Mr. Albee's work in the Racine high school marked him as the man needed to assume charge of the new state normal school, which was opened at Oshkosh, in 1871. For nearly twenty -two years Mr. Albee has occupied the posi- tion of president of this institution. This period has been marked throughout the state as one of rapid development and advancement of the whole educa- tional system. The school at Oshkosh, has been distinguished for steady and rapid growth. Its influence upon the public schools throughout the state can hardly be calculated. The hundreds of young men and women who have been educated for the profession in this school and imbued with the high ideals of the president have given ample proof of the wisdom of found- ing and supporting normal schools ; throughout the state, in village and city, in hundreds of schools may be found teachers who have been helped to greater accomplishment and encour- aged to higher achievement by the example of patience, earnest- ness and thoughtfulness, impressed by one whom all are proud to remember as their "best teacher." W. E. A. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IX WISCONSIN. 273 wing, almost equal in capacity to the original building, was completed in the summer of 1876, at a cost of about $20,000. The Oshkosh school early exhausted all available space and was enlarged in 1877 by a new wing, costing 15,000. Now it was vainly supposed that all needs had been met. The River Falls school was built on a larger scale in the light of experience ; but the older schools were soon suffering again for lack of room. In the fall of 1880, the Platteville school received an extension, for which $10,000 was appropriated. In 1888, a gymnasium was added to the Oshkosh school, at a total cost of about $7,000. In 1891, the funds at the command of the board being insufficient for enlargements still needed, the legislature made an appropriation of $20,000 to provide additions at Platteville and Whitewater. Scarcely had the bill granting this appropriation been enacted, when the Whitewater building took fire on a windy morning, April 27, 1891. The large wing erected in 1876 was burned out, with con- siderable damage to the rest of the building. Prompt action was had on the part of the board and state authori- ties ; and the burned wing was again ready for occupancy at the end of August, four months after the fire. At Christmas of the same year, the new gymnasium wing, costing $15,000, was also ready for occupancy. An extension at Platteville, the third since its opening, was completed in 1892, at a cost of $19,000. The buildings of the three older schools are thus rather interesting examples of architectural accretion, as well as illustrations of the difficulty of planning adequately for educational institutions in a young and growing country. ENROLLMENT OF THE SCHOOLS. The increasing membership of the schools is, in a meas- ure, shown by the following table of enrollments, from which it will be seen that the number of adult students availing themselves of professional training in the normal schools of the state has increased from 600 in 1872 to 1,100 in 1881 and 1,600 in 1892. But this by no means represents the whole gain. The standards of admission have gradually advanced in a degree calculated to check the accretion of mere numbers. The 1,600 students of 1892 represent a much higher attainment and larger professional force than an equal number would have done twenty, or ten, years ago. 274 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. The enrollment of the model schools for the same years is also given as being of some interest, although not so directly representative of the progress made. TABLE OF ATTENDANCE AT THE NORMAL SCHOOLS. NORMAL DEPARTMENT. School Year. Platteville. ' Whitewater. Oshkosh. River Falls. Milwaukee. i Aggregate. M. F. Tot M. F. Tot M. F. Tot If. I F. TotJM. F. Tot M. F. Tot 1866-67. 1868-69. 1871-72. 1875-76. 1880-81. 1885-86. 1890-91. 1891-92. 38 61 69 81 82 116 103 101 80 136 104 180 101 167 97 190 99 150 198 204 215 284 268 JS7 38 14t> 230 406 392 483 479 498 61 376 362 575 709 914 991 1,099 99 322 592 981 1,101 1,397 1,470 1,597 77 77 94 87 112 97 93 75 144 192 216 232 229 232 172 221 286 303 344 326 325 ?i 102 144 179 157 226 178 316 198 338 193 392 173 323 388 494 536 585 65 103 168 68 132 200 87! 142 229 71 196 267 92 218 310 '.'."'"', .'.'.. 2 44 46 12i 61 73 23 67 90 MODEL DEPARTMENT. 1866-67. 68 43 111 ... 68 43 111 1868-69. 118 96 214 9t 87 181 : ... ... .. .1 212 183 395 1871-72 j 114 9~> 206 85 67 154 68 73 141 267 232 499 1875-76. 12') 135 255 61 54 115 80 118 198 110' 133 "MS ... 371 440 811 1880-81J 118 115 1885-86. 48 63 1890-91. 49 63 1891-92.; 60 79 233 9S llll| 71 112,| 64 114| 56 84 117; 99 131 230 74 145 104 130 231 61 125J 76 120: 1% 62 118] 103 135 238 67 93 59 61 57j 90 65! 109 160 120 147 174 "58 ! 56 58 54 61 78 .... 377 112 340 117 302 136; 347 42S 382 395 463 800 722 697 810 These figures exhibit the growth of the schools with tol- erable exactness, though not with entire accuracy as a means of comparison with each other ; since the line between the normal and lower departments has not been the same in all the schools, nor always the same in each school. Further- more, the continuity of pupils is not the same in all, so that with a less total enrollment there may exist a greater aver- age attendance. From the table as a whole, it will be seen that, notwith- standing some natural fluctuations, there has been a constant and steady growth in the membership of the schools. This has taken place, moreover, contemporaneously with a general increase of requirements both for admission and graduation. CURRICULUM FIRST COURSES OF STUDY ADOPTED BY THE BOARD. Courses of study for the schools were adopted by the board at its meeting in June, 1868, three in number, viz.: 1. An institute course of one term. 2. An elementary course of two years. 3. An advanced course of three years. The courses were essentially the same for both schools ; but the arrangement of the specific studies was left to each SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IX WISCONSIN. 275 principal for his own school, so that the practical workings of the courses in the two became somewhat different. The several courses were announced by the Platteville school in the following terms : "The institute course is designed to meet the wants of those teachers who, possessing the necessary scholastic acquirements, yet feel the need of professional training. It will consist of a rapid review of the various subjects taught in our common schools, with lectures upon the best methods of teaching the same; lectures upon the organization, classification and govern- ment of the schools, and the school law. " The object of the elementary course is to fit students to become teachers in the common schools of our state, and will consist of a thorough drill in the studies pursued, experimental lectures on methods of instruction and, if practicable, practice in model school. "The advanced course should fit teachers for the higher de- partments of the graded schools in this state, and, as will be seen from the detailed statement of the courses of study, is both thorough and practical. Students in the advanced course will have extended practice in the model school, under the eye of experienced teachers, who will, by kindly criticisms and pointed suggestions, strive to make the practice conform to the theory of instruction." THE INSTITUTE COURSE. Of the three courses inaugurated in 1868, the institute course^ had a brief and rather unsatisfactory career. In the fall of 1871, a venture was made in the shape of an institute course of six weeks. This course, if it can be called a course, was taken by thirty-five pupils at Whitewater, twelve at Platteville, and fifteen at Oshkosh. In 1872, the institute course was again attempted in connection with the first six weeks of the fall term, with an attendance of 37 at Oshkosh, 26 at Whitewater, and of (?) at Platteville a practical failure except at the first-named school. This institute class, coming as it did at the time of the year when the schools were the fullest, and the tax upon the teaching force greatest, was found to be very inconvenient in the working of the schools, and was from this time dis- continued. THE THREE YEARS* COURSE. At the annual meeting of the board of regents in 1872, the elementary course, which had been simply a dead letter, was changed to one year in length, but, as before, it failed to attract students in any practical way. 276 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. There was, thus, practically, but one course, of three years in length, up to the year 1874. In July of that year, a change was made which may best be stated by inserting here the main portion of a committee report which was adopted at that time. It was voted : "That hereafter in the several normal schools in the state there shall be two courses of study, known respectively as the 'elementary course' and 'advanced course' ; that the elementary course shall be two years in length, and the advanced course four years in length ; and that the studies in the respective courses, and the maximum and minimum time allowed thereto shall be as follows : "In the elementary course : Arithmetic, 30 to 40 weeks ; ele- mentary algebra, 12 to 20 weeks ; geometry, 16 to 23 weeks ; book- keeping, 6 to 10 weeks ; reading and orthoepy, orthography and word analysis, 30 to 37 weeks ; English grammar, 28 to 39 weeks ; composition, criticism and rhetoric, 20 to 24 weeks ; geography, physical geography, 26 to 40 weeks ; physiology, 10 to 15 weeks ; botany, 10 to 13 weeks ; natural philosophy, 12 to 17 weeks ; United States history, civil government, 30 to 40 weeks ; pen- manship (time undetermined); drawing, 20 to 26 weeks ; vocal music (time undetermined); theory and practice of teaching. "In the advanced course, the studies of the first two years shall be the same as those of the elementary course, with the ad- dition of Latin for 20 weeks, which shall take the place of rhet- oric. In the advanced course, the studies of the last two years shall be : Higher algebra, 20 to 28 weeks ; geometry and trigo- nometry, 17 to 23 weeks ; Latin, 80 weeks ; rhetoric and English literature, 10 to 28 weeks ; chemical physics, 6 to 20 weeks : chemistry, 12 to 23 weeks ; zoology, 6 to 12 weeks ; geology, 12 to 17 weeks ; universal history, 12 to 23 weeks ; political econ- omy, 15 to 17 weeks ; mental and moral science, 20 to 30 weeks ; theory and practice of teaching." The committee also recommend that at the close of the elementary course there shall be a thorough review of the studies of the last two years. Details of the order of studies within each course, and the precise amount of time devoted to each study, within the limits prescribed, were left to the presidents and facul- ties of each school. The sanctions established were as follows : 1. For the advanced course, a diploma, becoming, in due process, an unlimited state certificate. 2. For the elementary course, a certificate, becoming in like manner, a state certificate limited to five years. president Duncan In the fall of 1858, while working on a farm in Waupaca count} 7 , Duncan McGregor was importuned to take charge of a school among the pineries of Marathon county, and reluctantly consented. The salary agreed upon was 818 per month, for four months, and the understanding that the teacher should be boarded by the families represented in the school. A month was added to the term of four months, for which there was no money in the treasury, and Mr. McGregor was obliged to be satisfied with tax certificates. In the spring of 1859 or '60 he was elected town superintendent, and achieved the unenviable reputation of being the first superintendent who was inconsider- ate enough to refuse a certificate to a candidate. The spring of 1861 found youug McGregor working on a farm near Appleton. Documents in his possession showed that he had completed the junior year in King's college. Aberdeen. He knew little or nothing of educational institutions in the West, and therefore asked to be examined for admission to Lawrence university, preferring to stand upon his actual attainments as they might be measured by the faculty, rather than upon his foreign cre- dentials. The result of the examination surprised the candi- date. He was informed that he might enter any class which he pleased. He spent a term in the institution, taught the high school in Waupaca for the year 1861-62, passed examination for graduation, and received his degree of A. B. He taught for a short time after this, but then enlisted, be- came captain of Company A, Forty-second infantry, and fol- lowed the fortunes of war to its conclusion. After he was mus- tered out he again became principal of the high school in Wau- paca, but in 1867 was appointed professor of mathematics in the state normal school at Platteville. Twelve years of experience in this school, during which his usefulness was demonstrated as institute conductor, and super- visor of practice teaching, established his reputation as a man fit to be entrusted with larger responsibilities. A vacancy occurred in the presidency of the school, and Mr. McGregor was at once elected to occupy the place. He has therefore been engaged at the head of the Platteville school for thirteen years. President McGregor has been a very active and enthusiastic leader in the introduction of advanced methods of instruction, especially in the work of drawing, and the teaching of mathe- matics in institutes. He has been president of the teachers' association of Wisconsin, has been twice appointed as member of the board of examiners for state certificates, is the author of the revised and enlarged drawing book published by A. H. Andrews, of Chicago, and in many ways has been instrumental in advancing the interests of education throughout the state. W. E. A. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 'J77 MODIFICATIONS IN 1879 AND 1880. Iii July, 1879, the schedule of studies was somewhat modified, and, on the recommendation of the presidents of the schools, it was ordained "That the elementary course shall include the following named branches, pursued within the specified limits of time: Arithmetic. Elementary algebra ; 12 to 20 weeks Geometry 16 to 23 weeks Book-keeping 6 to 10 weeks Reading, orthoepy, orthography and word analy- sis 30 to 37 weeks English grammar 28 to 30 weeks Composition and criticism 20 to 24 weeks Geography, political and physical 25 to 40 weeks Botany 10 to 13 weeks Physiology 10 to 15 weeks Physics 12 to 17 weeks United States history and civil government 30 to 40 weeks Drawing 20 to 40 weeks Penmanship and vocal music. Theory and art of teaching, and school management. That the advance course shall include all the branches ot the elementary course, together with : Higher algebra 20 to 28 weeks Higher geometry 12 to 15 weeks Latin 80 weeks Rhetoric and English literature 10 to 28 weeks Chemistry 12 to 23 weeks Zoology 6 to 12 weeks Geology 12 to 15 weeks General history 12 to 28 weeks Political economy 10 to 17 weeks Mental science 12 to 20 weeks Drawing 10 to 20 weeks Pedagogics 20 weeks It may be remarked that, at this time, the amount of Latin required in the advanced course was not only dimin- ished to two years, but also that this amount was made op- tional with an equal time in English literature. All ex- cept the Whitewater school availed themselves of this op- tion ; but every graduate at Whitewater has, thus far, taken the Latin course. Experience had long shown that the elementary course was badly over crowded ; and in July, 1880, it was voted by the board "that each president be instructed to arrange for 278 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. his own school the programme of the present studies in the elementary course to cover two and a half years for their completion by the students." This was, in effect, a lengthening of both courses to two and a half and four and a half years, respectively. This change was promptly effected at the Oshkosh and White- water schools, and somewhat later at the other schools. As has been stated in the preceding chapter, when the Milwaukee school was organized, in 1885, the elementary course was omitted and only the advanced course of two years was established. This was outlined as follows : (a) Reviews of elementary branches 80 weeks (b) Schoolmanagemeiit, art of teaching, history of edu- cation, psychology, and science of education.... 80 weeks (c) Practice teaching and observation 40 " (d) Natural science review 60 " (e) English literature, constitutions and political econ- omy 60 " German may be substituted for English 30 " Physical exercises, music and drawing to be introduced as the exigencies of the school may seem to permit." In this course, it will be observed, Latin was omitted altogether : German was made optional with a limited amount of English ; while music and drawing were left in an .ambiguous position, though the practice of the school has not ignored them. RADICAL REVISION IN 1892. In July, 1892, after thorough and careful discussion, the presidents of the several schools submitted to the board a scheme of studies differing in important particulars from that which had previously obtained. The main points of change involved are as follows : 1. The two former courses are shortened to two and four years respectively, doing away with the odd half year. 2. Four courses are provided for : (a) An English course of four years. (b) A Latin course of four years. (c) A professional course of one year. (d) An elementary course of two years, being the first two years of the English course. 3. The elective principle is further extended, so that those taking the English course may choose between dif- ferent lines of work in the natural sciences. German may also be elected instead of Latin. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 279 The details of this new schedule, as adopted by the board of regents, are as follows, the time-limits specified being the minimum requirements in the several branches. I. THE ENGLISH COURSE. Mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra and geometry 80 weeks Book-keeping, optional ". 10 " Vocal music 20 " Drawing 40 " English language : Orthoepy, reading, word analysis, grammar and composition, rhetoric and literature, in all 120 " Natural sciences, required : geography, including physical, 20 weeks ; physiology, 10 weeks; botany, 10 weeks ; physics, 20 weeks. In addition to this, at least 50 weeks' work from the following elective list, viz.; Physiology, 10 weeks ; botany, 10 weeks ; zoology, 20 weeks ; chemistry, 20 weeks ; geology, 20 weeks ; physics, 20 weeks. Minimum aggregate in natural science 110 " United States history and civil government 30 " General history 25 " Political economy 15 " Professional work : School management, school law, and theory and methods of teaching, 50 weeks ; practice teaching, 40 weeks ; reviews in common school branches with special reference to teaching, 30 weeks ; psychology, and science and histoiy of education, 40 weeks ; minimum aggregate of pro- fessional work-. 160 " Minimum aggregate of English course 600 ' ' II. THE LATIN COURSE. Mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra and geometry 80 weeks Vocal music * 20 ' Drawing 20 " Latin 120 " English language : Orthoepy, reading, grammar and composition, rhetoric and literature 80 " Natural sciences : Geography, including physical, 20 weeks ; physiology, 10 weeks ; botany, 10 weeks ; physics, 20 weeks ; zoology or chemistry 20 weeks ; aggregate in natural science 80 United States history and civil government 30 General history 25 Political economy 15 Professional work : As in the English course 160 Minimum aggregate of Latin course 630 280 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IX WISCONSIN. iV. B : Two years (80 weeks) of German may be substituted for the Latin, in which case the requirements in English lan- guage shall be the same as in the English course, viz., 120 weeks. III. THE ELEMENTARY COURSE. Mathematics : Arithmetic, 10 weeks ; algebra, 20 weeks ; geometry, 20 weeks ; total 50 weeks Book-keeping, optional 10 " Vocal music 20 " Drawing 20 " English language : Orthoapy and reading, 20 weeks ; word analysis, 10 weeks ; grammar and composi- tion, 30 weeks ; total 60 " Natural sciences : Geography, including physical, 20 weeks ; physiology, 10 weeks ; botany, 10 weeks ; physics, 20 weeks ; total 60 " United States history and civil government 30 " Professional work : School management, school law, theory and methods of teaching, 50 weeks ; re- views in common school branches with special reference to teaching, 30 weeks ; practice teaching, 20 weeks ; total 100 " Minimum aggregate of elementary course 340 " ONE- YEAR PROFESSIONAL COURSE. The course of training in the one-year's course shall consist of: 1. A course of 10 weeks in review and methods in each ot the following branches, viz.: Reading, arithmetic, geography and grammar. 2. A course of 40 weeks in school management, school law, and theory and methods of teaching, supplemented by 20 weeks of class-teaching in the schools of practice. 3. A 00111*86 of 10 weeks in psychology and its applications to teaching. 4. A course of 20 weeks in drawing. 5. A course of 20 weeks in composition and rhetoric, and a course of 10 weeks in either natural history or civics. GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL THOUGHT. Twenty-five years ago, normal schools were yet in their infancy, and not alone in Wisconsin. Those who had charge of their development here did not find much clear guidance elsewhere. Scholastic ideals and traditions still ruled educational thought ; and while many recognized that a normal school was something other than a mere academy or secondary school, the precise character of this difference, in practical external realization, was far from clearly con. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 281 ceived. The Wisconsin normal schools have worked steadily away at this problem ; and their present professional char- acter is the result of a somewhat slow process of evolution, not yet, by any means, brought to its completion. From the very beginning, however, one clear and cher- ished idea has pervaded these schools. The professional teacher must, first of all things, and above all things else, possess a worthy character, be moved by unselfish aims and high ideals. No one at all acquainted with the facts will question that the ethical purpose and spirit of these normal schools has always been high and strong. Akin to, indeed a part of, this ethical spirit is the devotion to thoroughness in the fundamentals of scholarship and training which has always been a well-defined characteristic. But there are other lines in which the normal schools have had slowly to work out their own distinctive features as professional training schools. Doubtless the most prom- inent fact here has been the effort to determine and lead to a recognition of true ideals and ends in education. The narrow, materialistic notions which constitute the popular conception of education must be displaced by broader, truer ideas very early in the training of a profes- sional teacher. The prospective educator should, above all, learn in what education really consists ; and this he is not likely to learn under ordinary circumstances. The normal schools of Wisconsin, beginning with a rather vague apprehension of this primary function, have now come, it is believed, to an adequate conception of their responsibility and opportunity in this regard. Closely connected with this advance, in fact a condition of it, has been an appreciable progress toward a pedagogic treatment and use of psychology, turning aside from the traditional but unfruitful absorption in metaphysics and the history of philosophical controversy to a more practical and scientific study of the phenomena and development of the child-mind, the true material of the teacher's art. The training of the young teacher's thought toward the constant study of the child, his needs and possibilities, almost from the first entrance upon normal school work, instead of rele- gating the whole matter to a term or two of adult psychology in the last year of the course, is a reform at least partially realized, and wholly approved. A necessary corollary of the clearer apprehension of the ends of education is found in the recognition, not only 282 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. theoretical but practical, of the fact, so long obscured, that music, drawing and gymnastics are not simply accomplish- ments, but as truly among the essentials of education as mathematics or geography. The normal schools have led the way in this return from mediaeval toward Greek con- ceptions of these elements of education. Again, while hold- ing firmly to a belief in the value of linguistic study, especially in the direction of practical mastery of the mother- tongue, the normal schools have been alive to the realistic movement of modern thought. While the equipment of laborator.es and the adoption of laboratory methods have progressed somewhat slowly, they have,, nevertheless, been realized; and the distinction between scientific work and the literature of science has come to be adequately appre- hended. A natural concomitant of what has already been touched upon is found in the development of what is known as pro- fessional work. While nearly all the work in a normal school is "professional" in the sense that it is ruled by the pedagog- ical aim, differing widely in this respect from the work. of other schools in the same studies, there has always been a large increase over the earlier years in the amount of what is recognized as distinctly and purely professional work, in practical and theoretical pedagogy. This work has not only been more carefully elaborated, but it has been brought down into the early years of the course, so that no student can remain long in the normal school without coming under . its direct influence. From the first, the Wisconsin normal schools have recognized the indispensability of schools of practice. The earlier efforts at realization were crude and ineffective ; but they paved the way to the marked success of later years, the amount and organization of the practice teaching being now such as will bear the most thorough examination and criticism. It is impossible and unnecessary to trace in detail the various steps of this advance in pedagogical thought ; it has been gradual, never revolutionary, and more discernible in the present result than in the stages of its progress. It would be invidious and inaccurate to attribute leadership in this advance to one school or another. All have contributed to it in greater or less degree ; but no one will take exceptions to the assertion that great credit is due, in the general reckoning, to the wisdom, insight and persistence of the veteran president of the Oshkosh school. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 283 KINDERGARTEN, SLOYD, ETC. Only brief space can be taken for notice of certain move- ments with which the schools have dealt haltingly. In 1880, a kindergarten was organized in connection with theOshkosh school, somewhat by way of experiment. This was con- tinued for several years, but, owing to changes in the board of regents and want of cordial appreciation on the part of that body, it was closed in 1885. Nothing further was at- tempted in this direction until 1882, in which year the board set forth, apparently with earnest purpose, to establish a kindergarten training department in connection with the Milwaukee school. This is now in process of development with much in favor of its full success. Manual training has received some attention, though not incorporated into the regular curriculum of all the schools. Since 1884, the Whitewater school has regularly maintained a "shop" in connection with the natural science department, each member of the class in physics, ladies in- cluded, being required to take a limited course in the use of wood-working tools. In 1886, the Milwaukee school began work in this line, receiving material assistance from promi- nent citizens of Milwaukee. Now an instructor in sloyd is employed by the board, that system having been introduced into the model school. Thus, while music, drawing, and gymnastics have been placed on a permanent and regular footing in all the schools, the kindergarden and manual train- ing have been dealt with in a more cautious and conservative manner. This is doubtless due, in some degree, to the financial limitations of the board. ACADEMIC AND PREPARATORY DEPARTMENTS. The policy of accepting local aid in the construction and equipment of normal schools has resulted, in some states, and to some extent in Wisconsin, in complication of interests to the hindrance of the purely professional inter- est. The existence of a local right to demand that a normal school shall provide an academic department is always an embarrassment to the legitimate work of such a school. In their earlier years, the Wisconsin normal schools were sub- ject to such a demand ; and, in 1876, the board set out to make the "grammar departments" of the several schools fitting schools for college. This thought, for a time, received special development at the Whitewater school, in what had, all along, been called the "academic" department. In 1884, 284 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. however, the board finally took action, by abolishing the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades in the grammar depart- ment at Whitewater, which constituted a definite abandon- ment of all aims not necessarily connected with the prepara- tion of teachers. Nothing higher than the ninth grade now remains in any of the model schools. Of a very different nature, however, are the "preparatory classes." The normal schools of Wisconsin have never been willing to ignore scholarship as essential to the teacher's equipment ; nor have they been able to assume it as already acquired by those seeking professional training. The en- trance examinations have always been rigorous ; and only a minority of those applying for admission are found qualified to enter directly upon the work of the normal course. Especially is this true of those coming from the rural schools, even the best. It has been the policy of the normal schools to keep in touch with the country schools as far as possible; and so the preparatory class has been found a useful adjunct as constituting a bridge from the country schools into the normal schools. Tuition is charged in these classes ; and the preparatory departments are now nearly, if not quite, self-sup- porting. Much excellent material comes into the normal course from the preparatory classes, the preparatory course being, in effect, an extension of the normal course downward, a sort of ladder let down to those in need. It is but fair to say, however, that the propriety of this course has been questioned ; and considerable opposition to its continuance is being manifested in influential quarters. CHAPTER VI. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AS A FORCE. The normal schools of Wisconsin are part and parcel of the public school system. They are absolutely free to all persons who contemplate teaching in the schools of the state. They are schools of th& people, and not simply of the wealthy classes. Their function is to prepare teachers for the public schools, from the wayside rural school to the city high school. Their work has been adjusted, almost of necessity, to the practical demands upon them rather than to any abstract ideal of what a normal school should be ; though theoretical ideals have by no means been forgotten or ignored. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 285 Two aims constantly present themselves to those charged with the management of normal schools. Shall we devote ourselves to the service of the multitude in the elementary schools, and prepare teachers only for them ? Or shall we rather aim to prepare the select few for educational leader- ship and the more responsible positions? In some states, as Connecticut, for instance, the former aim seems to have been frankly accepted. The normal schools of Wisconsin have not been willing as yet, to forego either end, though the two may seem to be in some degree incompatible ; but they have striven, so far as practicable, to meet both demands. This is the meaning of the two courses of study, the elementary and the advanced, which have so long prevailed ; and the modi- fications recently made (in 1892) have the same ends in view. It has been the constant endeavor of these schools, more- over, to enkindle their pupils with the love of knowledge and the desire for a fuller personal development, leading them eventually to higher institutions for wider training. In con- sonance with this thought, they have not striven to graduate large numbers in brief and meagre courses ; but emphasis has always been laid upon the long course. The term "grad- uate" is not allowed to those completing only the shorter course. As a consequence of this policy and their exacting standards of thoroughness, the Wisconsin normal schools have not sent out such large numbers of graduates as those in states where lower standards have prevailed. This fact, they have not chosen to consider as a reproach. GRADUATES AND UNDERGRADUATES. In the twenty-three years which have elapsed since the graduating of the first class at Platteville, the normal schools have graduated 792 persons from the advanced course. The elementary course has been completed by 776 others, a total of 1,568. Something over one-third of these were men. Of all these persons, 95 per cent, have discharged their obligations by teaching after graduation. Nearly 40 per cent, have taught every year since graduation, in some capacity; while 51 per cent, of all, notwithstanding death and matrimony, are still members of the teachers' profession, having stopped only temporarily for recuperation or other unavoidable causes. The aggregate amount of teaching done by these graduates is over 7,000 years, counting eight to ten months of teaching a year. The average amount of teaching done by all, living and dead, married and unmarried, is nearly five years since grad- 286 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. uating, besides a large amount of teaching done between the date of first entering the normal school and the date of grad- uation. The character of the positions held and the amount of salaries received by these graduates have alike been credita- ble to the schools in which they were trained. It is often alleged, with substantial truth, that these graduates are lost to the country schools, being quickly caught up by the cities and high schools. They have too much capital invested in professional training to remain in poorly paid positions. But the country schools get their ben- efit from the normal schools through the greater body of un- dergraduates. About 13,000 young people, according to careful computation, have enjoyed more or less extended training in these schools. Setting out the graduates and the smaller number who have done no teaching, there remain something over 10,000 undergraduates who have gone forth to teach, mostly in the common schools. The greater part of these have done excellent service through considerable periods of time. It is doubtless true, therefore, that the in- fluence of the Wisconsin normal schools is most widely felt through its undergraduates, a fact that is sometimes over- looked in current discussion. GENERAL INFLUENCE. The value and influence of normal schools is not con- fined, however, to the results effected directly through their pupils. The existence within the state of five faculties of picked teachers, set apart to the office of exalting the principles and rationalizing the practice of education, is in itself a lact of no small importance. The members of these faculties are bound, by virtue of their office, to become care- ful students of educational problems and to communicate the fruits of their studies and their experience lar beyond the circle of their own immediate instruction. As members of teachers' associations and institutes, as writers for the educa- tional press, as preachers of education on all opportune occa- sions, they should be and are candles set upon a candle- stick. And they are not only givers of pedagogical light, but supporters of the dignity and efficiency of the teacher's profession. The files of the proceedings of the Wisconsin teachers' association and of all lesser associations within the state will bear testimony to the activity and general utility of the teachers in normal schools. 3. <&. President Emery began his career as a Wisconsin educator by teaching a common school in 1863. After three years' em- ployment in Albion academy, he was elected county superin- tendent of the east district of Dane county. In 1869 he resigned to become principal of the Union school at Grand Rapids, which place he resigned to accept the office of county superin- tendent of Wood county. After re-election, in 1873, he re- signed to become principal of the high school at Fort Atkinson. Here for sixteen years Professor Emery labored with an earnest- ness and devotion to the work which attracted the attention of educators throughout the state, and AVOII for him the love and admiration of hundreds of pupils who were fortunate enough to come under his able and inspiring instruction. Few men, in the history of Wisconsin, have been so uni- versally approved and commended by parents and citizens as was Professor Emery in Fort Atkinson. While engaged as principal of this school he became widely known throughout the state, by the interest he manifested in the state teachers' association, the efficient work which he per- formed in the capacity of conductor of institutes, and in the diligent sympathy he has shown in aiding and encouraging the younger members of the teaching profession. In July, 1889, the board of regents of normal schools unan- imously elected Professor Emery to the presidency of the state normal school at River Falls, Wis. His incumbency has already given evidence that the appointment was wise and in the interest of progress. The attendance has rapidly increased ; the teaching force enlarged ; systematic physical training has been introduced ; appliances and apparatus adapted to more thorough work in the sciences obtained ; and improvements in library facilities have been instituted. W. E. A. SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 287 But special mention must be made of the great benefits resulting from the connection of the normal schools with the teachers' institutes. It is now twenty years since the inauguration of the pres- ent system, by which a leading member of each normal school faculty is set apart as a conductor of institutes, subject to call at any time for this service. Thus, long before "University extension" became a popular notion, normal school extension was a realized and familiar fact, carrying cut the best light of those schools to shine in the remotest corners of the state. The wide- reaching benefits of this close relation between the normal schools and the county in- stitutes would deserve fuller exposition but for the fact that the work has been done, in this same volume, by another hand, that of the Hon. W. H. Chandler, who was for so many years a prominent factor in the organization and man- agement of both the normal schools and the institutes. In conclusion, it may be said that normal schools in Wis- consin have passed the experimental stage, and no longer have anything to fear from hostile influences. They have approved themselves as a wise and necessary instrumentality in a public system of education, and are becoming more per- fectly co-ordinated with the other factors of this system. Making no claim to have promulgated anything ultimate in educational theory or practice, they abide in the hope of ful- filling their proper functions more and more adequately. CHAPTER VII. ROSTER OF THE FACULTIES, 1866-93. As a useful appendix to the foregoing chapters, the fol- lowing list is given of all persons, to date, who have taught regularly in the faculties of the several normal schools. The names in each faculty are arranged chronologically, in the order of their entering the teaching corps of the school. The list is a surprisingly long one and reveals one weak- ness in the past management of the schools, the fact that the board has not been able to retain, chiefly for financial reasons, all the best talent that has entered its service. A perusal of the list will show how many have gone on to positions elsewhere of great honor and responsibility. 288 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. PRESIDENTS. Chas. H. Allen, Platteville 1866-70 Oliver Arey, Whitewater 1868-76 Edwin A. Charltou, Platteville 1870-79 Georges. Albee, Oshkosh 1871 Warren D. Parker, River Falls 1875-89 Wm. F. Phelps, Whitewater 1876-78 John W. Stearns, Whitewater " 1878-85 Duncan McGregor, Platteville ' 1879 Albert Salisbury, Whitewater 1S85 J. J. Ma pel, Milwaukee 1885-92 J. Q. Emery, River Falls .'). igsg _ L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee '.'. 1392 TEACHERS. PLATTEVILLE NORMAL SCHOOL. Chas. H. Allen, principal 1866-70 Jacob Wernli, assistant principal 1866-68 Geo. M. Guernsey, mathematics ; 1866-67 Fanny S. Joslyn, preceptress, teacher of geography, history, etc 1866-70 Esther M. Sprague, principal model school 1866-67 Mrs. Euretta A. Graham, principal model school '.. 1867-72 I professor of mathematics 1867-74 Duncan McGregor, < conductor of institutes, etc 1M73-79 I president, etc 1879 Charles F. Zimmerman, teacher of drawing 1867-68 D. Gray Purman, English language and literature 1868-77 A. H. Tuttle, natural science 1868-70 A. M. Sanford, teacher of vocal music 1868-71 J. H. Terry , principal of academic department .' .'. 1868-70 Aug. Michaelis, teacher of German 1869-71 Edwin A. Oharlton, mental and moral science 1870-79 George Beck, natural science * .' . i&yo Eva M. Mills, geography and history 1870-73 Andrew J Hutton * principal academic department 1870-71 on> (conductor of institutes, etc 1879 - T. J. Colburn, teacher of vocal music 1871-74 Carolyn E. Adams, { principal of academic department 1871-73 \ teacher ol reading and history 1873-76 Emeline Curtis -I teaCQ er of intermediate department 1872-76 I teacher of geography and history 1876-81 Chas. H. Nye, principal of grammar department 1873-93 Phila A. Knight, arithmetic and geography 1873-74 D. E. Gardner, mathematics and vocal music 1874-91 Jennie S. Cooke, assistant in grammar department 1874-83 Mary A. Brayman, teacher of primary department 1874-36 Helen Hoadley, English language and literature 1876-77 Georgia A. Spear, teacher o_f reading 1876-77 Mrs. Helen Churlton, English language and literature 1876 Anna Potter, teacher of intermediate department 1876-85 Albert J. Volland, Latin and Greek .' 1877-82 Emily M. B. Felt, English language and literature 1877 Ella C. Aspinwall, teacher grammar department 1877-82 Mrs. S. E Buck, reading 1878-83 Marj F. Flanders, geography and history 1881-85 Clara E. P. Smith, preparatory class and Latin .' 1881-83 Miss H. M. S. Eggleston, teacher of primary department 1881-82 Ella Walker, teacher of grammar department 1882-83 Sadie F. Burr, teacher of preparatory class 1882-85 Elizabeth C. McArthur, Latin 1883-85 Antoinette E. Brainard, English grammar .' 1883-84 Alice J. Sanborn, reading 1884 Sarah R. McDaniel, English grammar .'.'.'.' 1884 Viola P. Hotchkiss, drawing ..... 1884-90 Mary Noyes, English language and Latin 1884-86 Lydia A. McDougal, geography and history 1885 Alice Chapin, methods, supervisor of practice '. 1895-86 R TTnt<5imr>>t J teacher of preparatory class 1885-86 > nt ' 1 English language and Latin 1886-88 Lona Washburn, teacher of intermediate department 1885-87 Sarah Alice Glisan, methods and supervisor practice 1886-92 Helen A. Dewey, teacher of primary department 1886-89 Helen M. Cleveland, teacher of preparatory class 1886-87 Annie Hendron, teacher of intermediate department ".".".' 1887-88 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 289 Bertha Schuster, teacher of intermediate department ....................... 1888-89 Horace S. Fiske, civics, word analysis and physical training ................ 1887 Minnie Hickey, teacher of preparatory cltss ................................. 1887-92 EdithA. Purdy, teacher of intermediate department ......................... 1889 Mrs. V. K. Hay ward, teacher of primary department ........................ 1889-91 EthelS. Rawson, English language and Latin ............................... 1890-92 Emma Wyman, drawing ...................................................... 1890 Huldah A. Grant, teacher of primary department ........................... 1891-92 Clyde R. Showalter, mathematics and vocal music ........... .............. 1891 Mae E. Schreiber, methods and supervisor practice ......................... 1892 Mary E. Laing, methods and supervisor practice ............................ 1892 Isabella Pretlow, teacher of preparatory class ............................. 1892 Janie A. Hamilton, teacher of primary department .......................... 1892 T. S. Smith, physics, Latin and German ..................................... 1892 W. N. Brown, teacher of grammar department .............................. 1893 C. H. Bickford, physics, Latin and German ................................. 1893 WHITEWATER NORMAL SCHOOL. Oliver Arey, mental and moral philosophy and pedagogics ................. 1868-76 J. T. Lovewell, mathematics .............................................. .. 1868-72 Mrs. H. E. G. Arey, preceptress, rhetoric and drawing ....................... 1868-76 Emily J. Bryant, grammar, geography and history ......................... 1868 J. J. Brown, M. D., natural science ........................................... 1868-69 Harvey H. Greenman, vocal music .......................................... 1868-74 Virginia Deichman, instrumental music .................................... 1868-77 Clarinda D. Hall, grammar, etc ........................................... .. 1868-70 rth etc ...................... _ ..................................... 1885 _ Martha I. Burt, principal academic department ..................... _ .................... 1873 Annie M. Greene, principal academic, department ................................ ........ 1873-76 Herbert E. Copeland, natural sciences .......................................... .*. ............... 1873-75 Garry E. Culver, penmanship and vocal music ............................................. 1874-77 Geo. R. Kleeberger, natural sciences ................. . ........................................... 1875-78 Ella A. Webster, teacher primary department ................... ............................ 1875-76 Maggie E. Wicker, teacher intermediate department .................................... 1876 Wm. F. Phelps, mental and moral science and pedagogics .......................... 1876-78 Mrs. A. J. Field, English grammar and rhetoric ............................................ 1876-77 Joseph H. Chamberlin, principal academic department .............................. 1876-77 Emily Wright, assistant principal academic department ...................... . ....... 1876-77 Mrs. J. D. Lee, teacher intermediate department ......................................... 1876-77 May L. Allen, teacher primary department .................................................. 1876-78 Margaret M. Thomas, English grammar, rhetoric and literature ................. 1877-78 Mrs. E. M. Knapp, vocal music ..................................................................... 1877 Isabel Lawrence, supervisorof practice teaching ......................................... 1877-78 Helen L. Storke, principal academic department ........................................... 1877-80 Isabella J. Storke, assistant academic department ......................................... 1877-80 Miss K. S. Osborne, teacher intermediate department ....................... ~ .......... 1877-78 W. Seymour Johnson, \ Jlnp ^ J. \V. Stearns, president, mental science and pedagogics .............................. 1878-85 Lyman C. Wooster, natural sciences ............................................... ............... 1878-81 Emma M. Farrand, English language and literature ................................... 1878-80 Mnrfrnrot TT Pnnviin / supervision of practice teaching .............................. 1878-88 t E. Conklm, { tea H cher of geography ................................................ f assistant grammar department ............................... rv>moiia v p^crore J principal preparatory department .......................... 1882-88 ielia E. Rogers. United States history and mathematics ................ 188S-S9 [ teacher of geography .............................................. 1889 290 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Mm. Ada Rv fnokp /teacher intermediate department 1878-86 Kay Cooke ' i reading and English branches 1886 - Fanny C. Timanus, teacher primary department 1878-79 Clara L. Wright, teacher primary department 1879-80 Mary L. Avery, English language and literature 1880-87 Ellen L. Clothier, ancient languages and principal grammar department. 1880-81 Ellen A. Persons, assistant grammar department 1880-83 Ellen J. Couch, teacher primary department 1881-91 TheroiiB Prav (mathematics 1880-88 ay> 1 conductor of institutes, etc 1888 J. N. Humphrey, Latin, etc 1881 Agnes Hosford, United States history, penmanship and mathematics 1881-84 Harriet A. Salisbury, principal preparatory department ! j^||l^| KateE. N. Tupper, principal grammar department 1881-85 J. W. Gibson, reading and political economy 1882-83 C. W. Cabeen, natural sciences 1883 Henry Doty Maxson, conductor of institutes, etc 1883-88 W. F. Bundy, M. D., natural sciences, 1883-86 Elizabeth Hargrave, methods and supervisor of practice teaching 1883-84 Frances A. Parmeter, methods and supervisor of practice teaching 1884-91 Helen 51. Farrand, assistant grammar department 1884-85 Mrs. Lena B. Shepherd, principal grammar department 1885-86 Bertha Schuster, assistant grammar department 1885-87 John W. Stump, natural sciences 1886-88 Clara F. Robinson, drawing and physiology 1886-90 Emma J. Fuller, teacher intermediate department 1886-91 Alfred J. Andrews, director of physical training 1886-87 Sara E. Whitaker, English langua'ge and literature. 1887-88 Mary R. Saxe, assistant preparatory and grammar departments 1887-89 Geo. C. Shutts, mathematics and general history 1888 Arthur A. Upham, natural sciences 1888 Annie M. Cottrell, English language and literature 1888 Marfrnrpt TTr> n ...i A -p TTo, , f teacher intermediate department, etc 1883-87 Carried. Hanson, | prlnc ipal grammar department 1887-S9 Therese E. Jones, English grammar, composition and rhetoric 1884-89 Grace Darling, history and English literature 1884-92 Harriet C. Mugee, drawiner and social science 1884 Frances A. Carpenter, assistant grammar department ~._ 1884-85 Lorenzo D. Harvey, conductor of institutes, etc_ 1885-92 W. N. Mumper, natural science 1885-89 Mrs. Fannie M. Marchant, principal grammar department 1885-87 Mellie McMurdo, assistant grammar department 1885-86 Flora A. Slosson, teacher intermediate department 1885-87 Lucy Washington, kindergarten director 1885-86 Mrs. E. L. Blakeslee, music _ .... 1886 Mary Grandy, assistant preparatory department 1886-88 Henry Leemhuis, gymnastics 1887-88 p-mmo r ,ro / assistant grammar department 1887-89 i LT. axe, | principal p reparntory department 1889 Philinda Whiting, teacher intermediate department.. 1887-90 Mary S. Dunn, gymnastics and hygiene 1888-90 Jennie G Marvin J principal preparatory department - 1888-89 ) G. Man in, -j princlpal grammar department 1889 - Sarah A. Dynes, assistant grammar department 1888-92 George M. Browne, natural science 1889 Violet D. Jayne, English grammar, composition and rhetoric 1889-91 Mary S. Howe, pianist and instrumental music 1889-91 Persis K. Miller, assistant grammar department 1889 Dora Dresser, teacher intermediate department 1890-91 Theodora A. Hooker, gymnastics and hygiene 1890-91 J. Rufus Hunter, physics and mathematics 1891 May G. Slotterbec, history and literature 1891-92 Mina DeH. Rounds, English grammar and composition 1891 Helen A. Woods, gymnastics and hygiene 1891 Nellie L. Smith, pianist and instrumental music 1891 Nancy Darling, teacher intermediate department 1891-92 Emma L. Berry, history 1892 Josephine Henderson, English language 1892 Mrs. Alma McMahon, assistant preparatory department 1892 Dennie G. Dowling, teacher in model school 1892 Walter C. Hewitt, conductor of institutes, etc 1892 KIVER FALLS NORMAL SCHOOL. Warren D. Parker, president 1875-89 Jesse B. Thayer, mathematics, conductor teachers' institutes _ 1875-86 Albert Earthman, history, geography, music 1875-78 W. S. Barnard, physical science 1875-77 Lucy E. Foote, reading, spelling, English literature 1875-88 Laura G. Lovell, history .-. 1875-77 Sarah A. Barnes, history, drawing _ 1875-77 Margaret Hosford, English grammar and rhetoric 1875-78 Leora Pusey, mathematics 1875-77 . ones, sory, geograpy Mae E Schreihpr -1 vocal music 3er> 1 history, geography, music Sarah H. Strong, teacher grammar grade 292 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. Emily Wright, teacher grammar grade .......................................................... 1875-77 Lizzie J. Curtis, teacher primary grade ......................................................... 1875-78 Mary A. Kelly, teacher intermediate grade ........................... ........................ 1875-77 Mary E. Burt, teacher grammar grade ............................................................ 1876-77 Tnlia A MoFarland f teacher grammar grade ............................................ 1877 nd ' i mathematics, geography .......................................... 1877-79 Ellen C. Jones, teacher grammar grade .......................................................... 1877-81 F. H. King, natural science ........................................................................... 1878-88 Mrs M E Jenness / Latin, English language ............................................ 1878-80 ess> 1 supervisor of practice teaching ................................. 1880-83 Louise W. Parker, teacher primary grade ...................................................... 1878-87 Julia M. Stanclift, supervisor of practice teaching ....................................... 1878-80 Mrs. V. A. Potter, singing, drawing, writing ................................................. 1878-79 Nellie L. Hatch, history und geography .................... .................................... 1879-82 Myra Irwin, singing, drawing ........................................................................ 1879-80 ( Latin, English language ......................................... 1880-90 Charlotte J. Caldwell, J. history, geography, rhetoric, grammar .................. 1890-92 I English language, general history... ........................ 1892 Jennie E. Blakeslee, vocal music .................................................................... 1880-81 Nettie E. Burton, assistant supervisor of practice teaching ........................... 1880-81 Harriet A. Salisbury, preparatory grade ........................................................ 1880-81 Ellen C. Jones, history, geography ................................................................. 1881-87 1881-87 1887-90 1881-83 Jane L. Terry, teacher intermediate grade .................................................... 1*81-84 Edith I. Avery, teacher ............................................................................... 1882-84 Zilpha S. Hubbard, teacher grammar grade ................................................... 1883-84 C. H. Keyes, teacher history and mathematics .............................................. 1883-84 Mr, E. Avery Watson, ] %$^-^ = ^~= J3&S Sophie E. Davis, mathematics, history .......................................................... 1884-85 J. T. Lunn, language, mathematics ............................................................... 1884-85 Rosalia A. Hatherell, teacher grammar grade ............................................... 1884-91 Lizzie A. Darnell, teacher intermediate grade ............................................... l><84-92 Sadie F. Burr, mathematics, vocalmusic ....................................................... 1885-86 Antoinette E. Brainard, supervisor of practice teaching ................................ 1885-86 Alice H. Shultes, supervisor of practice teaching ........................................... 1886 A. J. Andrews, director of physical training .................................................. 1886-87 H. T. Kirk, conductor of institutes ............................................................... 1887-88 Cora Lee Summers, teacher primary grade ............................................... 1887 A. L. Evving, natural science .......................................................................... 1888 Annie W. Hurbank, English literature, reading ............................................. 1888-89 Miss A. E. Knapp, English literature, reading .............................................. 1889-90 G. G. Payne, mathematics ............................................................................. 1888 May D. Roberts, mathematics ........................................................................ 1889-92 J. Q. Emery, president, etc ............................................................................ 1889 W. J. Brier, conductor of institutes, literature, etc ...................................... 1889 MaudF Rpminfrtnn / preparatory branches .............................................. 1890-91 a t. Kemington, { Latin, English composition, German ....................... 1891 Elizabeth F. Knox, drawing, vocal music ...................................................... 1890-91 Grace B. Marsh, physical training .............................................................. 1891-92 Carrie T. Pardee, drawing ............................................................................. 1891 Mrs. F. M. Thatcher, vocal music .................................................................. 1891 Mattie A. Seiders, principal grammar grade ................................................. 1891-93 J. E. NeCollins. mathematics ............................................. ............................. 1892 Carrie M. Sheldon, preparatory grade .......................................................... T TT fioi.ii- f United States history, geography, two terms .......................... 1892 irk> {mathematics ......... ...... ........ ... ............................................. 1893- Eva E. Holcombe, principal intermediate grade ............................................ 1898 Jane A. Sheridan, physical training ......................................................... ..... 1892 Rose M. Cheney, preparatory grade ............................................................... 1892 Lovila M. Mosher, Uni'ed States history, geography ................................... 1892 Lona Washburn, principal grammar grade ................................................... 1898 MILWAUKEE NORMAL SCHOOL. J. J. Mapel, president, psychology, etc ........................................................... 1885-92 Alexander Bevan, natural science and mathematics .................................... 1885-89 S. Helen Romaine, English language and literature ........................... _ ......... 1885-92 Eleanor Worthington, geography and his'ory ............................................... 1885-86 Mary S. Cate, methods, superintendent of practice teaching ........................ 1885-86 Emily W. Strong, critic teacher third and fourth grades ....... ......................... 1885 Dora Hilliard, critic teacher fifth and sixth grades ...................................... 1885-88 Mary Campbell, critic teacher first and second grades ................................... 1885-87 Silas Y. Gillan, conductor of institutes, etc .................................................. . 1886-92 SKETCH OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. 293 A. J. Andrews, conductor of physical training 1886-87 Mary E. Sykes, methods, superintendent of practice teaching 1887-89 Margaret W. Morley, physical training and drawing .. M 1887-90 Winifred E. Jones, critic teacher primary department 1887 Eliza A. Sargent, critic teacher seventh and eighth grades 1888-89 Mary L. Warner, critic teacher third and fourth grades -... 1888-89 Alice E. Sanborn, critic teacher fifth and sixth grades 1888 Chas. P. Sinnott, mathematics and natural sciences.. 1889 Margaret E. Oonklin, methods, superintendent of practice teaching 1889 L. H. Enton, vocal music 1889-91 Mabel L. Anderson, critic teacher seventh and eighth grades _ 1889-92 Miriam S. Faddis, phvsical training and drawing ~~ _ 1890 Robert McMynn, Latin 1891-92 Ada Rockwell, music 1891-92 Carl Lueders, physical training....... 1892 L.Dow Harvey, president, etc m 1892 Charles P. Chapman, conductor of institutes, etc 1892 I. N. Mitchell, Latin and mathematics 1892 Mae E. Schreiber, English language, music, literature 1892 M. Elizabeth Allen, critic teacher seventh and eighth grades 1892 Jennie Ericsson, sloyd 1892 ALBERT SALISBURY. History of Teachers' Institutes in Wisconsin. Among the forces which have contributed largely to the progress and efficiency of the work of common schools in the state of Wisconsin, is that of the teachers' institutes. These institutes, as organized and managed in this state, have attracted the attention and received the commendation of prominent educators in other states, have been exceed- ingly popular and largely attended by teachers of all grades in the state, and have been fruitful in great benefits in three lines of effort, viz.: (a) in imparting direct and excellent instruction to persons having had meager advantages in the ordinary common schools and no other, as scholastic prep- aration for teaching; (b) in cultivating and promoting know- ledge of the theory and art of teaching by instruction in and exemplification of the principles underlying methods of teaching, organization, management and discipline ; and (c) by creating an esprit de corps, professional pride, and the spirit of emulation. The institute work in Wisconsin, like all institutions of value, has been a matter of growth, development and adap- tation. If there is any one feature of this work which has commended it to the favor of our own people, and to others who have observed it from the outside, it is that of conform- ity to existing needs, and complete and organic relation to other educational forces. This will be apparent by review- ing briefly the origin and history of the institute work, and what has been attempted to accomplish through this form of effort. From 1818 to 1836 Wisconsin formed a part of the ter- ritory of Michigan, its population was small and scattered, and educational interests were necessarily neglected. From 1836 to 1848 the territory, now constituting the state, was for a short time connected with Iowa, and then organized as a territory by itself. The school laws of Michigan, with other laws of that territory, were adopted almost entire, and were exceedingly crude and defective. They contained no pro- vision for. supervision of schools or support of them by pub- lic and general taxation. But by immigration from Eastern 294 flDr. M, 1b. CbanMer. Mr. W. H. Chandler was connected officially for a period of twenty years with the normal school system of the state. This fact, with the talent and capacity he has displayed, entitles him to the credit of having exercised a larger influence in shap- ing the educational history of Wisconsin, so far as the system has been improved by the normal schools, than any other edu- cator in the state. He began his career as a Wisconsin teacher in an ungraded school in the town of Windsor, Dane county, in 1856. He then became town superintendent, and when the township sys- tem was changed he was elected superintendent for Dane county, and held that office for four years. From 1861 till 1868, he represented his county as member of assembly or as state senator. While in the legislature he was able to effect important legislation for the benefit of the schools. He became regent of the normal schools in 1870, and subse- quently assistant state superintendent, which position he held nine years. While member of the board of regents, he was un- ceasingly diligent in furthering, by all ways practicable, the inter- ests of the normal schools and the state system of public schools. While secretary of the board of regents, a post that brought him constantly into contact with the work of the normal schools and of their instructors, his experience and his clear insight of the true purpose of these schools, and the real significance of the professional training of teachers enabled him to see the proper relation which normal schools should hold to teachers' insti- tutes. He was therefore largely instrumental in bringing the normal schools of the state and the whole system of common schools into close and vital connection. The former, through their institute conductors were familiarized with the conditions under which their pupils were to be tried in actual teaching, and the latter were potently and directly influenced by men especially selected from the normal faculties to reveal to young teachers the leading principles of true method, and to inspire them with high ideals of aim and purpose. Mr. Chandler is a clear and impressive speaker. His inti- mate acquaintance with the details of school management and instruction, his familiarity with school law, and the wholesome enthusiasm by which he has directed and lead teachers to adopt the practical aims of the teachers' mission, all have con- tributed greatly to the improvement of the public schools of Wisconsin. Mr. Chandler is now living at Sun Prairie, at his old home and near the place where he began his life work as educator thirty-six years ago. W. E. A. HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. 295 states the population increased, and schools became an im- perative necessity. These were provided by private enter- prise, and supported by voluntary contributions and rate bill assessments. Frequent applications by localities were made to the territorial legislature for authority to raise money by taxa- tion to build schoolhouses and support schools, which were sometimes granted and sometimes refused, as the local rep- resentative favored or opposed the measure. When granted, the school affairs were administered by local commissioners, who also examined and gave certificates to teachers, leased the school lands, and made reports to the secretary of the territory. The election or appointment of town superinten- dents was agitated in and out of the legislature, but failed of success. So that we can learn of no effort during the terri- torial period to organize teachers for mutual improvement and assistance. Wages were low, distances between settle- ments were great, and no central supervisory agency existed to lead and permeate such organization. With the agitation of the question of organization as a state, which preceded the constitutional convention of 1545, the leading friends of a liberal public school system began the discussion of needed features in that system. Public meetings were held and a sentiment created which decidedly affected the action of the convention. But this attempt to organize the state by adopting a constitution failed. The discussion continued, and in 1848 a constitution was adopted. In this provision was made for the establishment of academies and normal schools. In the discussion in rela- tion to this feature, the idea was persistently insisted upon that teachers' institutes were inseparably connected with normal school instruction. In less than a year after the state organization was perfected by the election of state officers and members of the legislature, the- regents of the university, which had been provided for in the constitution adopted in 1848, by an ordinance established a normal de- partment in that institution. Honorable Eleazer Root, then state superintendent, in his annual report made at the close of 1849, in transmitting the ordinance above mentioned to the legislature for ratification, remarked that such a normal department, with a system of teachers' institutes, may answer present needs. In this remark we find crystallized in official expression the prevailing idea of the leading edu- cators of that time, of a system of teachers' institutes, having 296 HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. organic and vital relation to normal instruction. Here is the germ of the system since wrought out and put in practice by the thoughtful and self-sacrificing men and women who have devoted their lives to the work of public and general edu- cation in the state. It is important to bear this in mind and hold in grateful remembrance the sagacious men who con- ceived and put forth this germinal idea of institute work. Although not immediately or practically realized, this scheme was thoroughly embedded in the minds of the friends and champions of the public school system. Over this ideal they brooded, until the time came when it was practicable to realize it in actual and successful experience. The constitution of the state provided for the supervi- sion of schools through a "state superintendent and such other officers as the legislature may direct." By law the office of town superintendent was created. Each town super- intendent examined and qualified teachers within his own jurisdiction. Great diversity in the qualifications of teachers necessarily prevailed, and the schools, of course, reflected in exaggerated form the weakness or strength and fitness of the teachers employed. By the reports of the early superin- tendents, it is evident that no one fact so strongly impressed them as the need of professional instruction and inspiration, and they did what they could to meet this need. They labored assiduously with the legislature to secure the estab- lishment of normal instruction in some form. They were ably seconded in their efforts by the faculty of the university, and by a few leading and able men who had charge of the public schools in the few cities and principal villages that were organized. Unsuccessful in their application for aid to the legislature they " bated not one jot of heart or hope," but turned to their own individual exertions, and in their zeal and public spirit went from point to point, held meet- ings for mutual help and inspiration, and for the comparison of methods and discussion of theories. January 1, 1852, Hon. Azel P. Ladd, the second state superintendent, assumed official position. Failing to secure an appropriation from the legislature to defray the expenses, he organized and held in various localities in the state what were termed " temporary normal schools." In his report for 1853, he said : " To mitigate the disadvantages arising from the engagement of a number of persons so diversified in qualifications and character, I have adopted the system of holding temporary normal schools for their instruction HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. -2^7 in the branches of science and the art of teaching. These schools have been thus far conducted under manifold em- barrassments, without legal provision for their organization or means for their support. I am satisfied that they have been of practical utility, and that great good would result from their incorporation into one general plan of public instruction." Here we have the beginning of normal schools and teachers' institutes vitally connected, an attempt to realize and exemplify the ideal of a predecessor. Superintendent Ladd was succeeded in 1854 by Hon. H. A. Wright. He lived to discharge the duties of his office but a little more than a year, and was succeeded by Hon. A. C. Barry. During his administration, town super- intendents, to some extent, and the more progressive teachers began holding teachers' institutes in country places, local- ities not reached by the temporary normal schools. These were largely held for a single day, on Saturdays, were en- tirely voluntary, and devoted to exemplification of methods of teaching, especially of mental and written arithmetic, grammar, or parsing, and geography, the latter largely con- sisting of practice of systems of map drawing. Persons were secured to lecture, if possible, and discussions of the exercises presented resulted in much mental quickening, and the dif- fusion of knowledge of the best methods of awakening and maintaining the interest of pupils. Often a teacher would take to the place of meeting a class of bright and apt pupils, a model class and exemplify methods. Classes would be formed of teachers present, and these put through a course of practice in recitation on the simplest parts of elementary subjects. The "model" class would frequently excel in quickness and accuracy, and thus vindicate the method of their teacher, humiliate for the time being the selected class of teachers, and provoke to study and emulation. The teachers of some towns would sometimes send word they would hold a session of their institute in a neighboring town, perhaps a benighted one, where no such efforts for improve- ment existed. These were often the occasion of considerable attendance of citizens, and the exhibitions of the model class, in contrast with the inertness of their own teachers, would create quite a sensation, and set the town to talking, and result in improved school sentiment and practices. This type of institutes continued for many years, and although not true to the original ideal, except remotely. "298 HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. had its place in moulding public sentiment and preparing for the better way that followed. ^-^ During Superintendent Barry's administration of three years he secured the passage of an act authorizing the state superintendent to hold teachers' institutes, and appro- priating annually not to exceed one thousand dollars to de- fray the expense. Hon. Lyman C. Draper succeeded Superintendent Barry, and the institute work was systematized to the extent which the limited means warranted. The prominent teachers of the state engaged in the work with intelligence and ability. Lectures on educational topics, discussion of theories, organization and management, were characteristic of the exercises. J. G. McMynn, Racine ; J. G. McKindley, Kenosha ; Dr. J. H. Magoffin and A. A. Giffith, Waukesha ; J. L. Pickard, Platteville ; W. C. Dustin, Beloit; H. W. Col- lins, Janesville ; A. C. Spicer, Milton ; W. Van Ness, Fond du Lac ; W. P. Bartlett, Watertown ; J. E. Munger, Waupun ; A. Pickett, Oshkosh ; D. Y. Kilgore, Madison, are the names of gentlemen who did valiant service in these pioneer in- stitutes, and wrought a work of untold value in creating and maintaining worthy and high standards in the art of teaching and the qualifications of teachers for their high calling. In January, 1860, Hon. J. L. Pickard succeeded to the superintendency. During the preceding year the interest in teachers' institutes was largely increased through the la- bors of Dr. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, an educator of national reputation, who was acting as chancellor of the university, and agent of the board of regents of normal schools in conducting teachers' institutes. This board was created in 1857, and provision was made for a fund to be used "for the encouragement of academies and normal schools." This fund was to be distributed among the col- leges, academies and normal schools of the state which or- ganized, maintained and instructed classes for normal training. A part of this fund was used in maintaining teachers' institutes. It is not clear by what interpretation this was deemed authorized, but Dr. Barnard was appointed agent of the board to examine the classes of institutions making application to share in the fund, and distribute the money pro rata according to the number successfully passing the examination. He was also to conduct teachers institutes in various parts of the state. He organized a nota- HISTORY" OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. 299 ble corps of conductors for a series of fourteen institutes at prominent points in as many different counties, besides short sessions of two days or more in five other counties, At most of these Dr. Barnard's presence and addresses were strong attractions, and the membership numbered over fourteen hundred in the aggregate. Among his co-workers were Prof. John Ogden, of Ohio; Fordyce H. Allen and Chas. H. Allen, of Pennsylvania; C. E. Hovey, of Illinois; Francis T. Russell and Wm. S. Baker, of Connecticut; John G. McMynn, A. J. Craig and others, of Wisconsin. During the years of Mr. Pickard's incumbency, who was twice re-elected, the same general system of institute work was pursued. Distinguished teachers of our own and other states were employed as conductors, and the general purpose was to inspire a professional spirit, incite teachers to make better preparation, and arouse public sentiment to demand better schools. During this administration the town superintendent sys- tem was abolished, for which the county system was sub- stituted, and by law each county superintendent was re- quired to hold at least one institute each year for the instruc- tion of teachers. Until 1867 these institutes were held by the county superintendents independently, each arranging his own scheme, and depending upon the leading teachers of his own district for assistance. Naturally they partook largely in character of their predecessors under the town- ship system, although attendance was largely increased, being county and not township affairs. Little progress was made, however, in institute work toward the ideal from 1860 to 1866. The coming on of the war interfered. Prof. Charles H. Allen succeeded Dr. Barnard as agent of the board of regents, and he was succeeded by J. G. McMynn. These gentlemen both enlisted in the service of the country, and the county superintendents were inexperienced, and often were persons who had never been identified with schools or school work. In September, 1864, Col. John G. McMynn became state superintendent, upon the resignation of Hon. J. L. Pickard to take the superintendency of Chicago city schools. He had been closely allied with all educational thought and move- ment in the state from the organization, and he immediately began a vigorous effort to secure the separate organization of state normal schools. This was accomplished in 1866. The 300 HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. law then enacted provided for the separate establishment of normal schools not only, but enlarged the powers and means of the board for the purpose of holding teachers' institutes. In 1867 the board adopted a plan of co-operation with county superintendents in holding institutes, by offering to pay necessary expenses of institutes, under certain super- visory regulations, which was cordially and generally coin- cided in by county superintendents. In the fall of 1868, Captain Robert Graham was appointed agent of the board to organize, systematize and supervise teachers' institutes in the state. He entered vigorously upon that work, which he continued in that and other capacities until he was elected state superintendent in the fall of 1881. No other man in the state has rendered more efficient ser- vice, or left a deeper or more beneficent impression upon the teaching force of the state than Mr. Graham. His close observation, keen analysis, untiring energy, and genius in suggestiveness were unreservedly given to the institute work, and state superintendents and committees of the board of regents availed themselves without reservation of his valu- able services and co-operation. In 1871 the legislature authorized still further expan- sion of the institute work by making provision for normal institutes, to be held in such localities as were least bene- fited by existing normal schools, three of which had at this time been established and opened to the public. The board of regents of normal schools was authorized to use five thousand dollars annually for institute purposes from the normal school income, and two thousand dollars an- nually was appropriated from the general fund for the same purpose. The time had now come to put into practical operation the system of institutes contemplated, as we have seen, from the beginning. These normal institutes were to be held for a period not less than four weeks. Colonel Samuel Fallows had succeeded to the state superintendency. The entire management and control of institutes was by law and by act of the board of regents committed to the state super- intendent and a committee of the board, acting conjointly. They immediately took measures to organize the work. Co-operation of county and city superintendents was con- tinued. These arranged the time and places for holding the institutes in their respective localities, made all neces- sary incidental arrangements for their accommodation and HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. 301 that of teachers, and made application in writing to the state superintendent for conductors. The committee desig- nated and paid salaries and expenses of all conductors and lecturers. Enrollment blanks and registers were furnished upon which to collect statistics of name, age, daily attend- ance, attendance previously at institutes, experience in teaching by months, highest grade of school attended and highest grade of certificate held. The committee divided the state into districts cor- responding to the number of normal schools existing, and designated one of the faculty in each school as an institute conductor, who was to have general charge of the institute work in the district in which he resided. This was never made arbitrary in practice, but each conducts institutes in other districts, in conformity to requests of superintendents, or convenience as related to time and place. These con- ductors are subject to the call of the committee for institute work, both in term time and during vacations of normal schools. In the spring, institutes are held during vacations of country and village schools, during March and April, and in summer and autumn, in August, September and October. This arrangement was ratified by the board of regents, and the work was prosecuted with vigor. The normal institutes were held in August and September, and sometimes extended to six weeks in duration. The principals of the graded schools co-operated most cordially, and many of them were employed as assistant conductors, at nominal salaries and payment of expenses. Two conductors were usually assigned to an institute continuing more than one week, who alter- nated in charge of the institute, all attending at the same time to the same exercise. Latterly some effort has been made to separate large institutions into sections, with simul- taneous exercises in different rooms, where practicable. A number of female teachers of prominence and skill have been employed and have given great satisfaction. It very soon became apparent that still greater unity and effectiveness in institute work was desirable, especially as the largely increased demand for conductors made it nec- essary to employ many men who had no experience in di- recting institutes. At the suggestion of Prof. Robert Gra- ham, a convention of institute conductors was called and held at Sparta in July, 1873. All who desired to engage in insti- tute work were invited to attend, and the committee paid one-half of the expenses of attendants. This was an exceed. 302 HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. ingly valuable meeting. Under the leadership of Prof. Gra- ham classes were formed, and methods and matter of insti- tute work were exemplified. Discussion followed and criti- cism was keen and unsparing. The purposes of the insti- tute were clearly and strongly emphasized, and the fitness or unfitness of applicants for this especial line of work was manifest to themselves. As a result of this meeting it was decided that the committee should annually prepare and publish for the guidance of conductors and attendants a syllabus of the work to be done during the year, which in- cluded the subjects to be considered, the scope or topics to receive attention, and suggestions as to method of treatment. This proved a very helpful arrangement, furnished a definite plan of work, and became the basis of assignment of prepar- atory study daily for members of the institutes. This meeting of conductors became annual, usually held at the same place and immediately preceded or followed the annual meeting of the Wisconsin teachers' association, largely attended by other than conductors, and considered one of the most inspiring and suggestive of our educational gather- ings. With modifications the meetings and syllabus have continued to the present time. The first arrangement of institute districts and conduc- tors was as follows: Platteville school district, Duncan McGregor; Whitewater, Albert Salisbury; Oshkosh, Robert Graham. Two others have since been arranged upon open- ing of schools, as follows : River Falls, Jesse B. Thayer ; Milwaukee, Silas Y. Gillan. It is certainly within the bounds of truth and propriety to assert that if any state ever had a quintette of more facile, tactful, able and conscien- tious institute conductors to inaugurate and carry on for many years a work of great importance and vital necessity, that state has been exceedingly fortunate and unusually favored. Recent changes, with one exception, by promotion to the state superintendency or to the presidency of normal schools, have entirely changed this original corps of princi- pal conductors. At present they are as follows : Platteville, A. J. Hutton ; Whitewater, T." B. Pray ; Oshkosh, W. C. Hewitt ; River Falls, W. J. Brier ; Milwaukee, C. H. Chap- man. This is the system of teachers' institutes in vogue in Wisconsin. We have traced its evolution along the line of relationship to normal and professional work, from its in- HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. 303 ception to its culmination in close and vital organic relation with separate and distinct normal schools and their work. The policy controlling this feature of school work has been continuous and uninterrupted. State superintendents have changed frequently, but for twenty years no change has occurred in the head of the committee on institutes of the board of regents. Thus the experience, the traditions and the plans in detail have been preserved, constantly available and continuously utilized, for progress and efficiency. With- out exception, the relation between the committee of the board of regents and the state superintendents has been har- monious in the highest degree. No political or personal bias has in the least degree disturbed united effort for the good of the public. The Wisconsin teachers' association has taken an active interest in institute work at all times, and by its wise and timely discussions and criticisms contributed much to pro- mote growth and proper development. It remains briefly to sum up the results of these many years of effort along the lines indicated at the beginning of this paper. I. During the year ending July 1, 1892, eighty-five in- stitutes were held in sixty different counties sixty-two in the summer and fall of 1891, and twenty-three in the spring of 1892. These were in session an aggregate of three hundred and fifty- eight days. In ten counties only no institutes were held. Five thousand one hundred and seventy-nine attendants were enrolled and the expense of the same was 87,569.22. This is about an average of recent years. While academic in- struction is not directly a feature, yet incidentally it will at once be seen that in exemplification of matter and methods of treatment, a vast number of indifferently qualified teach- ers have received most timely and excellent instruction by the best teachers in the state. This will be more apparent by a statement to be made later. The statistics gathered at the be- ginning of this work showed that a large proportion of attend- ants had only the advantages of common schools and often very poor schools. II. The effort at instruction in and exemplification of principles underlying correct teaching, has revolutionized the practices of teachers in class work, in organization, and in management. No one familiar with the earlier practices in Wis- consin schools will dispute this statement, or deny that the efficiency of many of them has been quadrupled by this means. Even the earlier and crudely managed institutes contributed largely to this end by simply revealing the practices of the best 304 HISTORY OF TEACHERS' INSTITUTES IN WISCONSIN. teachers ; and the later institutes have largely reinforced the value of the better methods by inculcation of principles upon which they are based, and leading to an intelligent apprehen- sion and appreciation of their value and necessity. III. In nothing has the value of the institute work been more apparent than in the spirit of emulation which has been awakened, and the effort of all grades of teachera to use all possible means of improvement, scholastic and professional. The institute has thus become a feeder for normal and high schools, a stimulus to private study, reflection and experiment. Mention has been made of the adaptation of institutes for current need. Perhaps a word in the way of illustration will make this clear. When the law inaugurating the county superintendency was enacted, requiring written exami- nations of teachers, and establishing certificates of three different grades, the relations of teachers was greatly changed. Through the institutes these matters were discussed, proper tests for examinations were considered, and thus teachers were prepared for the change, and county superintendents themselves were greatly assisted. AVhen the law required teachers to be examined in the constitution of the state and of the United States, and later in physiology and hygiene, either of which had been in the curriculum of but very few schools, teachers were guided into the proper way of studying these branches and fitting themselves for the new demands of the state. Still later, when a general and strong movement was made to improve and systematize instruction in ungraded schools by the introduction of a course of study, the institutes took up that work, and by exposition and illustration greatly aided teachers in compre- hending the course and the methods of its administration. Other instances of adaptation to current needs might be mentioned, but enough have been cited to show what is meant by the phrase and by this popular feature of institute work. W. H. CHANDLER. The Wisconsin Teachers' Association. To the day of small things a picturesque interest at- taches, as furnishing a background against which we see more clearly the extent of present prosperity. So we turn with gratitude and pleasure to the record of that gathering in Madison, in July, 1853, at which eight gentlemen drew up and signed a constitution, by which they organized themselves into the Wisconsin teachers' association. They were Josiah L. Pickard, of Platteville ; Walter Van Ness, ol Fond du Lac ; J. L. Enos, of Madison ; R. O. Kellogg, of Appleton ; J. G. McMynn, of Racine ; S. G. Stacy, of Madi- son ; J. H. Lathrop, of the state university ; and C. B. Good- rich, of Mineral Point. The constitution has remained in force to the present time, with but one article added to its provisions (Article VII.) and two amendments (to Article II. and Article VIII., originally VII.), The second article limited membership to those engaged in teaching in the state, but allowed the election of honorary members, who might become acting members by the payment of the an- nual fee of one dollar. This somewhat jealous limitation of membership is noteworthy, and in striking contrast with the subsequent practice of the body, in which membership is determined only by payment of the fee. The eight original members chose nine honorary mem- bers, among them the state superintendent, and completed their organization by the election of officers. John G. Mc- Mynn was the first president. The remainder of the session was occupied with four addresses. The objects of the asso- ciation are succinctly stated in the first article of its consti- tution, as the "mutual improvement of its members and the advancement of public education throughout the state." It seeks primarily, therefore, the gain which comes to those en- gaged in the same calling by interchange of views and clash of opinions; and, in the second place, such direct influence upon public educational policy as is properly conceded to the general opinion of those most intimately connected with the management of the schools. The association thus be- comes a great agency for developing, crystallizing and making 305 306 THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. effective the practical judgment of the educators of the state; and a history of it should turn aside from the mere record of meetings and topics, and aim to set forth rather the way in which it has attempted to realize its aims, the reasons of its failures, and the true measure of its successes. Apathy on the part of those who should become mem- bers and the natural indifference of the public are the great difficulties to be overcome; and these became realized at the second annual session. Of this second meeting, held at Madison, August 9, 1854, J. L. Pickard says in his historical sketch, prepared in 1860 : " So little interest was felt, by either the teachers of the state or the citizens of Madison, that those who came to attend the association could find no one expecting them, nor that any provision had been made even for a place in which to hold their meetings. They 'happened together' at one of the inns of the place, and after much time spent in fruitless search for some one sufficiently interested in the cause to procure them a suitable room, they sallied forth to look for themselves. At length in an obscure room in the old court house, of which one of them had obtained the key, and by the light of a few tallow candles pur- chased by one of their number, and which, for the want of candlesticks, were held by the hands of so many teachers, with one citizen as a witness of their proceedings the association entered upon its business. The records do not tell us how many were present, but, from the recollections of all who can be found we learn that there were but six or seven teachers, and eight or ten book agents at the opening of the session. And indeed it is not to be wondered at, for a teachers' association could not expect to be popular in a state in which our profession was so slightly esteemed. " The remainder of the session Avas much better attended, for curiosity was somewhat aroused to learn what could induce men, and above all teachers, to come from home, at a very con- siderable expense (in those days they had no 'return free' tickets nor deductions from hotel bills), to attend meetings of their own craft. " In consequence of the discouraging want of interest felt in our organization, it was seriously proposed that the institu- tion be dropped till future generations should be able to pro- duce more 'live' teachers to carry it on; but one more effort was resolved upon, if a meeting could be held at a point where out- side influences could be made to tell in our favor. Racine was proposed, which put an end to further discussion in the mat- ter." As a practical result of the session, a charter for the asso- THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 307 elation was secured from the state legislature for 1855. The first meetings were necessarily consumed in getting under way, and their real success was evidenced by the full attend- ance at Racine, where the third annual session was held, by the hearty reception which the citizens of the place gave to the organization, and by the origination of an important edu- cational enterprise. Here the young association took upon itself the publication of an organ, and appointing an edito- rial committee which made one of its members, John G. McMynn, "resident editor/' began the issuance of The Wis- consin Journal of Education. The act was an important one, since thus was created an instrumentality for furthering all the aims of the association, and one of its most efficient means for overcoming the apathy of teachers and the natu- ral indifference of the public. In the Journal of Education the association found a voice, and began to make itself heard in the most remote portions of the state. Through the in- fluence of the association, that state aid was secured which enabled the Journal to survive through a long period of struggle and difficulty; and when this was withdrawn and the enterprise suspended for several years in consequence, the action of the association again called it into existence, and continued to foster it and shape its future. At the fifth annual meeting, held at Waukesha in 1857, "the necessity of normal schools" appeared as a topic for consideration. The timeliness of it and the reason for the special form of the discussion appear from the fact that in that year the state legislature passed the act creating from one fourth of the swamp land act the normal school income, and providing that it should be distributed among the acad- emies and colleges maintaining normal classes. Shortly after the high schools were added to the list of beneficiaries, under like conditions. Thus there was a strong tendency to dissipate the fund, and to lose wholly the advantages which come of professional schools, with a professional spirit, which the aspirants for a teacher's diploma breathe during their novitiate, until it forms their own ideals. The recurrence of the topic of normal instruction at subsequent sessions of the association evinces its importance as an agency for formulating and disseminating educational opinion. It seems like a prophetic insight that at the eighth an- nual meeting, at Milwaukee in 1860, J. L. Pickard's history of the association up to that time was read ; for this meeting 308 THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. closed its first era. The civil war touched it as it touched every other institution of the country, and for a time with depressing influences. The first era created the association, created the Journal of Education and commenced the efforts to mould public opinion on educational matters. What else it did may not be so clearly told. It helped to form the men who gave it their thought and energy, and it ac- customed the educators of the new state to work together for common ends and to realize their need of escaping Oiit of the isolation to which the nature of their work in a measure subjects them. It is difficult to get a general view of the topics discussed, but help towards it will be gained by considering them as general essays and practical themes. It is altogether natural that the first should predominate in the early period, and the best result of them was prob- ably emotional the stimulating of zeal for the cause. In the second class also we may note a tendency to general rather than specific themes, and to the organization and form of education rather than to its principles and practices. A third era in the history of the association was created by the development of executive sessions, in 1873. The in- tervening period may be characterized in general as the institute period. It was a reflex of this new form of educa- tional effort which was organized in the state in 1859. Dr. Henry Barnard was the first general agent of the state for this work, and J. G. McMynn, J. B. Pradt and J. C. Pickard also served in this capacity. That the association should be powerfully influenced by the new movement was therefore natural, and in most of the programs of the period in- stitute exercises and class exercises constitute an important feature. It seems a strange vagary that a gathering of the principal teachers and superintendents of a state should so largely assume this form, which educationally is a school form and not an association form. Though but one element of the program, it is manifest that they determined essentially the character of the gathering. The association has become, in part, at least, a place for the instruction of teachers in school-room methods. It is not surprising that, with this conception dominant, the purpose of influencing the educational policy of the state should have dropped almost completely out of sight. The programs during these years are remarkable for the . absence of administrative topics. We note but two, a report on revision of school laws, by J. B. Pradt, and an essay on THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 309 education of idiots, by T. H. Little, of Janesville. We find evidence that at the twelfth and thirteenth meetings the state was urged to provide for the maintenance and educa- tion of soldiers' orphans, and that at the eleventh meeting "the establishment of a grade of permanent or professional teachers' certificates, to be granted to graduates of normal schools and others who pass the required examinations" was recommended. That this drift of the annual meeting was recognized and deplored by some leading spirits is evidenced by the appearance, in 1867, of an executive session, held in mid-winter in Madison, which is announced to be "for the discussion of questions of state policy." The brief scheme of the meeting shows a handful of them, compulsory educa- tion, teachers' institutes, normal schools, education for the feeble-minded and school supervision. In 1868 another such session was held, devoted to the discussion of the county superintendency. It seemed as if virility were returning to the organization ; but the time was not yet fully ripe. No more " executive sessions " appear in this period, and the annual gatherings hold to the established type. Among the topics discussed it is easy to recognize a new class, akin to the prevalent tendencies of the times and yet cognate to the legimate aims of. the body. .These may be styled essays in methodics. They discuss the relations, aims, limits and ways of teaching different branches of the school curriculum. From 1873, at which point we place the beginning of the third era in the history of the association, the executive ses- sions, held in December at Madison, occur annually. At first the contrast between them and the summer meetings is very marked. They are almost wholly occupied with questions of educational policy, while the summer gatherings maintain the old type, with slight modifications. The essays in meth- odics increase in number and apparently in definiteness of doctrine, addresses, literary, historical and philosophical, find a place, and entertainments and summer excursions are com- mon. The center of gravity of the association has changed to the winter session, because the deeper significance of the questions of policy makes itself felt. The range and quality of the papers offered in the summer steadily improves ; the meetings are large ; they are held at various points about the state, and awaken considerable local interest; but they al- ready feel the touch of decay. As the executive sessions grow in numbers a change 310 THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. comes over the programs. They take on features well known in the summer meetings. This is first noteworthy in the programme for 1877. In it we find the popular address, the essay in methbdics, and the general educational thesis, mingled with questions of policy, and at subsequent sessions the invaders steadily gain ground. In some respects the years 1877 to 1889 constitute the golden age of the associ- ation. Never was there a wider range of interest, greater vigor in the discussions, more ability in the addresses, or higher finish in the papers. But the logic of the situation soon began to make itself felt. The change which ushered in the present period came from two general considerations. Why attempt to have two gatherings of a similar character each year ? Is not the winter meeting quite enough for the practical ends of the organization ? The drawback is that it cannot reach and affect equally all parts of the state. Then came the second consideration. The state has grown wonderfully. If the sum- mer meeting, by moving from point to point, has served to stimulate popular interest in education, and to reach at each point a different body of teachers, why not increase this use- fulness, and adjust to the new conditions in the state, by favoring the formation of sectional associations in different portions of the state, doing away with the summer meeting to make room for them ? These considerations led to the action at Waukesha, in 1889, by which the annual meeting of the Wisconsin teachers' association was fixed in Madison in December. The anticipated result followed. The Southeastern and Southwestern Wisconsin teachers' associations were formed the same year, and shortly after the Northeastern and Northwestern associations. These now meet during the spring and summer, while the general association in the winter serves to keep up the unity of interest and action throughout the state. Thus the spirit of the " executive session " has become the spirit of the annual meeting, which never more earnestly and effectively sought after practical results than it does at present. The academic essay has al- most entirely disappeared from the general program. Ad- dresses by distinguished speakers and on varied topics are still sought after to give zest and variety to the gatherings. The essays in methodics also have a legitimate place and produce valuable results. But the stress of the meetings is put upon questions of educational policy. THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 311 To set forth the practical results of the work of the asso- ciation is a difficult task. Some of the most valuable ones are intangible. We may not esteem lightly, because we cannot measure it, the value of the acquaintanceships, the general understanding of educational policy, the hearty co-operation of the different educational institutions of the state. It is not difficult to show that, without the intervention of legislation, influences which have been felt far and wide in the schools of the state have gone out from this body. Take for illustration the course of study for common schools, the plans for which originated in the association, and most of the important changes in its details are due to their deliber- ations. Or note some of the effects of its discussions upon the courses of study of the graded and high schools. Read- ing in grammar grades has broken away from the mechan- ical processes of the reader-class, and become a study of literature ; elementary science has come into all the grades below the high schools ; the history of our country is now taught quite generally below the high school; manual train- ing has taken root in several of our schools ; and all these and many other movements were promoted by discussions in the Wisconsin teachers' association. If we look for effects upon legislation we may point to many. The Wisconsin summer school was organized by a committee of the association, and the aid from the state se- cured for it by their efforts. The move for district school libraries originated with this body. The association has made itself felt in the provisions for granting teachers' cer- tificates, which still demand at their hands further efforts for improvement. The movement for better equipment of the state superintendent's office and the creation of an inspector of high schools is due to them. They have striven hard and repeatedly to secure the establishment of a school for feeble-minded children, and, though repeatedly disap- pointed, they still cling persistently to their purpose, as their action at the last session fully shows. Other large problems engaged their attention then, a radical reform of the county superintendency, and such a recasting of the provisions for teachers' certificates as will cause the great body to move forward instead of standing still. The indications of steady growth in breadth and dis- tinctness of purpose, and in practical usefulness which this review of the past of the association brings to light, are full of promise for its future. The rapid development of the 312 THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. high schools of the state, and of professional superintendents of our city school systems, and the increasing effects of normal and university training upon those engaged in teach- ing in the schools, assure continued advancement. J. W. STEARNS. APPENDIX. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. Article I. This association shall be called the Wisconsin teachers' association, and shall have for its object the mu- tual improvement of its members, and the advancement of public education throughout the state. Article II. (As amended July 25, 1867.) This associa- tion shall consist of school officers and persons engaged in teaching throughout the state, who shall pay one dollar annu- ally ; from this tax female teachers shall be exempt. Honor- ary members may be elected at any annual meeting, and may, by the payment of the annual fee, become active members. Article III. The officers of this association shall be a president, three vice-presidents, a secretary, a treasurer, and a board of five counselors, who, with the president and secre- tary, shall constitute an executive committee any three of whom shall be a quorum to be elected by ballot at each annual meeting. Article IV. The duties of the president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, shall be such as pertain to the same offices in similar associations. Article V. The executive committee shall arrange busi- ness for the annual meetings, procure lecturers for the same, and through the secretary of the association, who shall be ex-officio their secretary, conduct such correspondence as may be deemed advisable. They shall also have power to call special meetings of the association to fill all vacancies occurring in the offices, and shall make to the association an annual report of their proceedings. Article VI. The annual meeting shall be held at such time and place as the executive committee may designate, and any five members who shall meet at a regular or spec- ial meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 313 Article VII. (Inserted July 25, 1867.) The executive committee shall have power to call an executive session of the association for the purpose of considering questions of educational policy, at such a time and place as they may deem advisable. Article VIII. (As amended July 22, 1868.) This con- stitution may be amended at any regular meeting of the as- sociation, provided the proposed amendment shall have been submitted in writing at least one regular meeting previous to its adoption. Summer Schools for Teachers. Within a few years there has sprung up in Wisconsin an interesting movement for the improvement of public school teachers. It is commonly called the summer school movement, though the phrase summer school had been previously in use to designate one of the sessions, and usually the smallest, of the common district school. The type of educational effort now indicated by it had its origin beyond the boundary of Wisconsin. So far as we have been able to ascertain, the first summer school in the state, which has had a continuous history for several years, was opened at Cassville, in Grant county, in 1886, by Professor 0. R. Shpwalter, now of the Platteville normal school. He was at that time prin- cipal of a public school, arid aimed to afford to teachers in the country an opportunity of improving themselves in the branches they were to teach by attending his school during six weeks of the long summer vacation. The attendance was not large the first year, but increased rapidly until it reached nearly a hundred. The experiment was strictly a private enterprise. As the teachers paid for the instruction which they received the experiment demonstrated the exis- tence of a demand for assistance of this sort, and in 1888 several schools of similar character were opened in different counties of the state. Since then the growth has been rapid. As the schools are private enterprises, and no regular reports are received from them, it is not possible to make accurate statements as to their number, but during the summer of 1892, the Wisconsin Journal of Education contained notices of thirty-seven. The evidence available as to their enroll- ment points to the conclusion that from sixty to seventy-five per cent, of those in attendance are actually engaged in teaching. Some of the schools enrolled upwards of one hundred pupils, so that it seems safe to estimate that at least fifteen hundred persons were in attendance upon them during that summer. What are known as " third grade " branches constituted the core of the instruction given in these schools, though the programs at hand seem to indicate that few 314 SUMMER SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS. 315 of them confined themselves to these, and some might not inappropriately be called summer high schools. The most important movement of this sort was inaug- urated by the Wisconsin teachers' association, at its meeting in December of 1886. After some discussion of the subject, a committee of three, consisting of C. H. Keyes, F. H. King and J. W. Stump, was appointed to make arrangements, if possible, for the opening of a summer school of science and pedagogy at the state university. The purpose was to aid those engaged in the work of teaching in the high schools of the state, and especially to increase their interest in the principles of teaching, and to introduce improved methods of instruction in the natural sciences. The university au- thorities readily granted the use of class rooms and collec- tions in Science hall, and four of the professors in the uni- versity, Prof. J. W. Stearns, Prof. E. A. Birge, Prof. W. W. Daniells and Prof. Lucius Heritage, with the aid of Prof. F. H. King, then connected with the River Falls normal school, agreed to devote four weeks of the summer vacation to the service of the school. Courses were announced in psychology, pedagogy, physiology, botany, physics, physical geography, chemistry and Latin. The first session opened July 18, 1887. Forty students, most of them teachers in the high schools of the state, presented themselves for instruc- tion. Although the enrollment was not large, it was repre- sentative in character, and the results were regarded as so valuable by the students, and so encouraging by the instruc- tors, that a second session was arranged for the following summer with nearly the same program. The board of regents of normal schools were induced to make a small appropriation for the school, to help out its limited income until more permanent aid for it could be secured from the state. The enrollment this year was forty-five. An appro- priation of a thousand dollars per year in aid of the enter- prise was secured from the legislature, and thus the contin- uation of the school was assured, and those in charge enabled to announce sixteen courses with seven instructors for 1889. The rapid growth of the school from this time is sufficiently indicated by the following statements: In 1890 there were 9 instructors, 131 students and 21 courses; in 1891 there were 10 instructors, 145 students and 24 courses; and in 1892, 12 instructors, 190 students and 32 courses. The instructors have been for the most part taken from 316 SUMMER SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS. the faculty of the state university, but in 1889 Professor Wm. M. Davis, of Harvard university, was secured to give a . course in physical geography. In 1889 and 1890 Professor A. L. Kimball, of Johns Hopkins, gave the courses in physics, and in 1891 Professor S. J. Saunders, from Cornell uni- versity. The course in English literature in 1891 was given by Professor Nathaniel Butler, of Champaign, 111., now of Chicago university ; and in 1892 by Professor 0. B. Clark, of Indiana university. In 1891 Professor Stanley Coulter, of Purdue university, gave the course in botany. Professor George Beck, of Platteville normal school, in 1888, and Pro- fessor S. Y. Gillan, of the Milwaukee normal school, in 1890, gave the courses in geography. That this school has strongly affected the teaching in the high schools of the state might be safely inferred from the statement of its enrollment. The testimony of superinten- dents and high school inspectors fully confirms the inference. Four weeks spent at the state university, in the use of its collections, laboratories and library, under competent direc- tion, could not fail to affect the ideals of any teacher. Through this school the university has most effectively extended its influence into the various communities of the state, and, as a consequence, has drawn into its classes not a few of those who first came up simply to spend there four weeks of the summer. Others not able to compass a continuous course of univer- sity study have come up to the school for successive sum- mers, and, concentrating their energies upon one or two lines of effort, have gained for themselves noteworthy advance- ment in these. The school also has begun to draw students in considerable number from neighboring states. It has, in fact, fully justified the wisdom of those who originated it and have given it their constant encouragement. J. W. STEARNS. National German-American Teachers' Semi- nary. This school, ranking among the first and best edu- cational institutions of Milwaukee, recently completed its fortieth year. It was established under the auspices of the "Milwaukee Schulverein" and the directorship of Peter Engelmann. The name and fame of the institution were greatly due to his skill and untiring zeal as an educator. Since his death, the folio wing gentlemen have filled the posi- tion of director: W. N. Hailmann, of Detroit, Mich.; I. Keller, of Hoboken, N. J. ; Dr. H. Dorner, of Milwaukee, and, since 1888, Emil Dapprich, of Belleville, 111. The excellent work of the school induced the well-known German families, Pfister and Vogel, to make liberal donations for its benefit, enabling it to remove to its present location on Broadway, where it occupies one of the best school edifices in the city. The building and grounds were donated by Mrs. Elizabeth Pfister and Mrs. Louisa Vogel, in memory of the late Guido Pfister. The building, unique in design, is admirably arranged, and provided with all modern improve- ments. Among its notable features are the large, light and convenient class-rooms, supplied with pure air by the most improved system of ventilation and heating, the location of the toilet rooms, and the system of plumbing. The curriculum of the school provides for a broad and thorough education, in both German and English, in the branches usually taught in public schools, and a number of branches not ordinarily taught. For natural science teach- ing a museum and a physical and chemical laboratory are provided, while the kindergarten, manual training depart- ment for boys, needle and fancy work department for girls, and the gymnastic department, afford excellent facilities for physical as well as mental training. The academy is also the model department for the National German-American teachers' seminary. This normal school was opened in 1878. The means for its support were largely obtained by subscription in all parts of the country. 317 318 NATIONAL GERMAN-AMERICAN TEACHERS' SEMINARY. Its purpose is to fit young ladies and gentlemen for teaching in both English and German. The training they receive is similar to that of the normal schools (seminaries) of Germany, and is according to the most approved methods of modern pedagogy adapted to American institutions. The seminary was not forgotten by the noble donors to the academy. The beautiful home of the latter is also that of the seminary, and the pupils enjoy the same privileges and facilities as the GERMAN-ENGLISH ACADEMY. pupils of the academy. The instruction in the seminary is free. A limited number of scholarships are issued to pupils whose means do not permit them to prepare for their chosen calling. The normal school for teachers of gymnastics (Turnlehrer seminar), adjoining the academy and seminary, takes the seminary students through a course of training, thus fitting them to direct not only mental and moral, but physicial development. The high standing of the seminary is mainly due to the untiring efforts of the Milwaukee people, of whom the fol- lowing gentlemen deserve special mention ; Messrs. Wm. Frankfurth (deceased), Chr. Preusser, Henry Mann, Ferd. Kuehn, H. C. Boppe, Fred Vogel, Jr., Chas. Pfister and A. B. Abrams. The board of regents is composed of Professor NATIONAL GERMAN-AMERICAN TEACHERS' SEMINARY. 319 W. H. Rosenstengel, Madison, Wis., president ; Fred. Kuehn, treasurer ; and C. H. Boppe. GYMNASTIC NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GERMAN UNION. The North American Gymnastic union opened a normal school for training teachers of gymnastics on January 4th, 1875, at the West Side Turners'" hall. In 1889 this school was removed to Indianapolis, where two annual courses were held. At the national convention of the North American German union, held in New York, May 20, 1890, it was de- cided to locate the normal department permanently at Mil- waukee and to combine it with the National German- Ameri- can teachers' seminary. A first class gymnasium was built upon the same lot where the German-English academy was rearing its new home, and the first union course was opened September 7th, 1891. George Brosius was appointed director of the seminary. The board of regents is composed of the following members : C. H. Boppe, president ; F. B. Hucht- ing, vice-president ; Christ Paulus, treasurer ; William Voigt, secretary ; H. Rassmusen, visitor. EMIL DAPPRICH. STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR SPECIAL GLASSES. The Wisconsin School for the Deaf. The first mention in Wisconsin of an institution for the deaf of which there is any account was in 1843, twenty-six years after the founding of the first institution in America at Hartford, Connecticut, and five years before the territory of Wisconsin became a state, in the following letter written to the Honorable Moses M. Strong, president of the territorial council at Madison : MILWAUKEE, March 15th, 1843. ' ' DEAR SIR : Believing it to be the right of those unfortu- nate persons who are by nature excluded from our common schools, to participate equally with others in the public funds and donations of land for the support of schools, I hope no apology is necessary for directing to you the enclosed draft of 'resolutions asking an appropriation of land by Congress for the purpose of establishing within the territory of Wisconsin, institu- tions for the instruction of the deaf and dumb and blind, and an asylum for the insane,' and for asking you to bring the same to the attention of the honorable body over which you preside. Very respectfully, I. A. LAPHAM. HON. M. M. STRONG, President of the Council." Action was at once taken on the receipt of the "resolu- tions" by the council, and Congress was petitioned according- ly, but there is no mention in the journals of Congress of that time that anything was done. Thus ended the first recorded attempt to establish a school for the deaf in the territory. The movement which led to the founding of the present school began in the following way : There was in the family of Mr. Ebenezer Chesebro, who emigrated from New York state to Wisconsin in 1839, a deaf girl named Ariadna, who had been a pupil in the New York institution before the re- moval of her parents. The family had settled on the Janes- ville road, in Darien, Walworth county, two miles west of the present village of Delavan. In 1848 or '49, Miss Wealthy Hawes, a graduate of the New York institution, who lived with her parents at Magnolia, fourteen miles east of the present city of Janesville, Rock county, Wisconsin, went to 322 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 323 visit some relatives in Racine, Wisconsin. She learned on the way that Miss Ariadna Chesebro, whom she had known as a classmate in the New York institution, lived on the road, and, finding the house, stopped to pay her a visit. In 1850 she received a request by letter from Miss Belle, a sister of Ariadna, to come and teach Ariadna at her home, along with a deaf boy named J. A. Dudley, who lived on a farm a mile or two southeast of the Chesebro farm. She complied with the request, and taught four months. Mr. J. A. Mills, also a former pupil of the New York institution, was then requested to take up the work of Miss OLD BUILDING DESTROYED BY FIRE SEPT. 16, 1879. Hawes, which he did in the fall of 1851. The school now numbered six pupils, and so far had been a private affair. Four months later it had to be discontinued for lack of funds, but the idea of a school was not abandoned. Mr. Chesebro conceived the plan of having the following petition circu- lated in Darien and the adjacent towns, which was signed by one hundred citizens of Walworth county : " To the honorable the legislature of the state of Wisconsin : ' ' The undersigned, citizens of the state of Wisconsin, re- spectfully petition your honorable body to pass a law making more ample and just provision for the education of that unfor- tunate portion of our youth known as 'mutes,' or those who are deaf and dumb either, as your petitioners would suggest. First, l>y providing for, establishing and maintaining at least one school in the state where all such children between the ages of four and twenty years may be taught free of charge ; or second, by appropriating out of the school fund such sum to each child as will enable the parents or guardians of such children to edu- cate them in some proper school taught for that purpose." 324 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. This petition was placed in the hands of Hon. J. R. Baker, then assemblyman from this district, and through his energetic and able presentation of the matter before the legis- lature a bill was passed and approved by Governor Leonard J. Farwell, April 19, 1852, incorporating the "Wisconsin in- stitute for the education of the deaf and dumb," to be located "at or near the village of Delavan" in Wai worth county. The act of incorporation included, among other things, a board of trustees consisting of Ebenezer Chesebro, William 0. Allen, Franklin K. Phoenix, Henderson Hunt, P. W. Lake, Wyman Spooner, Jesse C. Mills, James A. Maxwell and George Williams, for the general management of the school, with the power to employ a principal, and an appropriation of $1,000 a year for three years for building purposes ; and $500 for the support of the school for the ensuing year. The first meeting of the board took place in the follow- ing June, and J. R. Bradway was appointed principal and J. A. Mills, teacher. A site was selected and steps taken to- wards the erection of suitable buildings. Principal Broad- way afterwards resigned, and Rev. Lucius Foote was chosen to succeed him. The present site, on a hill just west of the village of Delavan, comprises thirty-seven acres, eleven of which were originally donated by F. K. Phoenix, the remainder having been subsequently acquired by purchase. Its location is as healthy as it is beautiful. The grounds are covered with oak, evergreens and maple, and in summer present a lovely aspect. It has very appropriately been given the name of Phoenix Green. While the first building was being erected, the pupils, numbering eight, were boarded in private families in the village, until, increasing to fourteen, a house was rented for their special use ; while the upper story of a red brick .shoe- shop, which is still standing with its original sign of "Boots and shoes," was used as a school-room. The new building was completed in January, 1854, and the pupils were moved into it from their quarters in the village. It was a red brick structure 33x44, two stories besides basement and attic; and was only a part of a complete set of buildings, consisting of transverse and lateral wings on either side of a main edifice, which were not finished until 1867. At the time of the opening of the new building, L. H. Jenkins was principal. He filled a long felt want, as he was a man of experience in the education of the deaf. By his knowledge and devotion to the cause a broader public inter- est was awakened in the institute and its needs. THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 325 In 1856, Mr. Jenkins was succeeded by J. S. Officer, under whose able management the institute made marked progress. Though previously advocated by Mr. Jenkins, industrial education was not begun until Mr. Officer's term, in' the form of cabinet-making. This was a wise step, for too much can hardly be said in lavor of manual training, especially in the case of the deaf. During the session of 1857-8 a law passed the legislature requiring pupils who were sent to the deaf and dumb or blind institutions, to pay seventy-five dollars per annum, unless "parents could make oath before an officer that they were unable to pay that amount." A similar law was passed in 1867; but these laws operated so disastrously on the pros- perity of those institutes that they were both repealed soon after their passage. The period of the civil war was a time of considerable pecuniary embarrassment to the institute, and teachers w r orked on reduced salaries. Mr. Officer died in office in 1864, and his place was filled by Dr. H. W. Milligan, whose administration was sig- nalized by the introduction of steam heating and gas light- ing, and the opening of the shoe-shop. The next' two principals to take charge of the institute, between the years, 1869 and 1875, were E. C. Stone and George L. Weed. It was during this period that Hon. Samuel Fallows, state superintendent of public instruction, acknowl- edged the institute as one of the educational interests of the state. In 1875 William H. DeMotte was elected principal. The following events marked his term of office : The erection of a small wooden building for a gymnasium ; the opening of a basket shop for two years in a part of the cabinet shop ; the introduction of printing and the starting of a paper, the " Deaf-Mute Press," in 1878 ; the giving of elementary instruc- tion in drawing for a few months ; the erection and fitting up of a building for a kitchen and laundry ; and the de- struction of the old institute by fire September 16, 1879. No clue as to the origin of the fire has ever yet been obtained. The building was a total loss to the state, as it was not covered by insurance. In spite of the great inconveniences caused by this most unexpected calamity, the work of the institute was not suspended. The shoe-shop was immediately con- verted into a dormitory for the boys, and the lady teachers and girls were taken in by private families on the hill and 326 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. down town. In the meantime the school work was- mostly carried on in the Methodist church in the village until the carpenter shop was divided up into school-rooms and a small office for the principal and steward. After the fire the public press began seriously to discuss the advisability of moving the institute to some other place, but nothing resulted from the discussion. Plans for new buildings were adopted, and, an appropriation of $65,000 having been secured, their erection was commenced in the spring of 1880. These buildings, which are a modification of the congregate plan, will accommodate two hundred and NEW BUILDINGS ERECTED IN 1880. fifty pupils, and are well suited to more completely separate and classify pupils of different sex, age and state of advance- ment. The present superintendent, J. W. Swiler, entered upon the discharge of his duties in July, 1880, and, to say nothing of the erection and fitting up of the new buildings, which took place during the summer and fall of the same year, the following improvements have been made: The erection of a new engine house and smokestack, with the removal of the old one; of a new and well-equipped gymnasium ; the introduction of systematic instruction in drawing and paint- ing ; the change in the name of the institute to " The Wis- consin School for the Deaf; " the addition of a bakery to the industrial department ; the making of the " Deaf-Mute THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 327 Press," now the "Wisconsin Times," a regular weekly paper, and the use of electricity in lighting. From its establishment in 1852, the school had been under the general management of a board of trustees, but in 1881, with all the other charitable, penal and reformatory institutions in the state, it was placed under a state board of supervision, consisting of five members appointed by the governor, having their headquarters in the capitol at Madi- son. In 1891 this board was reorganized under the name of the state board of control, with one additional member. It may not be out of place here to refer to the recent death of Hon. Charles Luling, who served for ten years on the old board and whose eminent ability and fitness were so well recognized that he was reappointed to a place on the new 7 board. In his death, which called forth regret from all sections, the deaf lost a sincere friend and wise counselor. The system of instruction generally followed in the school is the combined system, which has been employed in most of the schools in this country for the last half century. The two most prominent features of this system are the man- ual and the oral methods, that is, the teaching by signs, the manual alphabet and writing, and by speech. Each pupil is taught by that method whicYi is the best suited to his or her case, or, in other words, that method which, in the broadest sense, yields the most satisfactory results. Articulation, or speech-teaching, was introduced into the school as early as 1868, with Miss Emily Eddy as teacher, whose connection with the school dates from 1857 ; and it is at present a subject of constantly growing importance. Though much articulation work had been done previous to 1884, since that time three regular oral classes have been so taught, and this fall another was added to the list. The course of study, which covers ten years, is given below : COURSE OF STUDY, ADOPTED MAY, 1889. FIRST YEAR. Language: NOUNS Objects in class-room; articles of dress: articles of food; articles of furniture; parts of the body; names of most common animals and birds; divisions of time, as morning, noon, evening, forenoon and afternoon ; the articles, a, an, and, the, are to be taught with these words, also the plural form of the words. ADJECTIVES Such as, good, bad, young, old, sweet, sour, hard, soft, wise, stupid, weak, strong, 328 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. pretty, homely, light, heavy, quick, slow, etc., etc. ; colors : black, white, yellow, green, red, and blue. Numeral ad- jectives to twenty inclusive. PRONOUNS I, you, he, she, it, in all cases and numbers. VERBS To be, in present and past tenses, and verbs that express simple action. PREPO- SITIONS In, into, out, of, on, over, under, by, for, of. Arithmetic: Writing numbers to twenty, and mental addition and subtraction. How many? Penmanship : Careful instruction with crayon, followed by exercises with pencil and pen.- No text books. SECOND YEAR. Language : A thorough review of first year work. NOUNS Names of the parts of common quadrupeds, birds and fishes; names of implements in common use about the house, barn, farm, etc. "Miss Sweet's No. 1," second series. ADJECTIVES Continued, together with : this, that, these, those, many, a few, several, some. PRONOUNS -Simple ques- tions with, who, what, where, can, have and do. VERBS The infinitive mood with to, simple and compound actions, may and must. ADVERBS Not, often, never, sometimes, now, soon, very, much, etc. PREPOSITIONS From, at, through, of, before, behind, around, after. CONJUNCTIONS But, and, or. Simple questions : whose, which, when, will, and may. Arithmetic: Addition and subtraction in practical problems. Penmanship: Copy-book. Drawing : Board and paper. THIRD YEAR. Language : NOUNS The different classes of artisans and the articles made by each ; the time of day ; the seasons. "Miss Sweet's No. 2." ADJECTIVES Simple comparison ; also, each, other, another, one, every. PRONOUNS Myself, himself, herself, and their plurals. VERBS Present, past and future tenses; the infinitive and imperative moods; thorough drill on: will, would, could, and can. ADVERBS Continued. PRE- POSITIONS Without, among, along, near, above, below, within. CONJUNCTION Because. Simple narrative and elliptical ex- ercises. Action and picture writing. Arithmetic : Multiplication. Mental exercises. Prob- lems involving the three rules. Dollars and cents. Reading : "Harper's First." Penmanship: Copy-book. Drawing: Continued. THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 329 FOURTH YEAR. Language : NOUNS Continued : somebody, anybody, nobody. ADJECTIVES Comparisons continued. VERBS Active and passive voice : exercises in the indicative, infin- itive and imperative moods ; have and had ; may and might; shall and should. "Sweet's No. 3." ADVERBS Time, place and manner. PRONOUNS Relative. CONJUNCTIONS If, either, or, neither, nor, when, while, since. PREPOSITIONS Com- pleted. Elliptical exercises. Descriptions of actions, pictures, persons, animals and things. Historical sketches. Journals. Stories. Letter writing. Arithmetic : Four fundamental processes. Mental and practical problems. Currency, continued. Geography : Local division of land and water in the neighborhood. Reading: "Harper's Second." Penmanship. Drawing. FIFTH YEAR. Language : NOUNS Adjectives, pronouns, ^adverbs, pre- positions, conjunctions, continued. "How to Talk." Special drill in active and passive voice: participles. Action and picture writing. Historical sketches. Natural history stories. Journal. Stories. Arithmetic: Practical problems. Currency. "Felter." Geograph v: Local geography carried to the state finished. Reading: ""Sweet's No. 4." Penmanship. Drawing. SIXTH YEAR. Language : Sentence writing ; participial constructions, continued. Natural history. Narrative and descriptive composition. Journal. Stories. "How to Talk." Arithmetic : Common fractions begun, with practical problems. "Felter." History : History of United States. Manuscript lessons by teacher. Geography : Swinton's Primary, completed. Reading :" "Harper's Third." Penmanship. Drawing. SEVENTH YEAR. Language : Sentence building. Analysis, using dia- grams. Participial and adverbial phrases. English com- position. "How to Write." 330 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. Arithmetic : Denominate numbers completed. Decimal fractions, begun. Practical problems. Accounts. "Felter's Advanced." History: History of United States. Manuscript. Geography : "Swinton's Intermediate." Reading: "Little Men and Women." Penmanship. Drawing. EIGHTH YEAR. Language: Composition, "Swinton," or "Barnes' Lan- guage." Thorough drill on connectives. Arithmetic : Interest, discount, forms of notes, receipts, bills, etc. Loss and gain. "Felter." General history. Manu- script, from "Thalheimer." Physiology and hygiene. Reading: "Harper's Fourth." Penmanship. Drawing. NINTH YEAR. Language : Composition. "Patterson's Grammar." Arithmetic : Completed. Square root and cube root. "Felter." United States history. "Eggleston." Natural philosophy. Physical geography. "Monteith." English literature. Drawing. TENTH YEAR. English literature. Civil government. "Townsend." Manners and morals. "Govv." Reviews United States his- tory, "Eggleston ;" arithmetic, "Felter ;" geography, "Swin- ton." Since the origin of the schools 920 pupils have shared its benefits, and in every section of the state they may be found as intelligent, law-abiding and prosperous citizens, pursuing almost every occupation. Out of the above num- ber 20 have entered the National college lor the deaf at Washington, D. C. Four of these are now teachers, and one is the founder and present superintendent of the deaf school at Santa Fe, New Mexico. What better than the above could attest the usefulness of the school, or open the public mind to the fact that this school, in the words of Dr. A. L. Chapin, the late scholarly president of Beloit college and for many years an efficient member of the board of trustees of the school, " to the fact that this school should be regarded not as a charity, an asy- lum, a house of refuge, but rather as an important branch of THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 331 that system of public education, through which the state seeks to make of its entire people intelligent, industrious, virtuous and patriotic citizens ?" BOARD OF TRUSTEES AND RESIDENT OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. The Wisconsin institution for the education of the deaf and dumb was first regularly organized in 1852 by the ap- pointment of a board of trustees and the opening of the school by J. R. Bradway, the first principal. The first annual report of the school was made to Gov- ernor L. J. Farwell, at the close of the year 1852, by the follow- ing board of trustees: E. Chesebro, W. C. Allen, C. G. Will- iams, J. A. Maxwell, J. C. Mills, P. W. Lake, S. Thomas, President H. Hunt, Secretary F. K. Phoenix. The institution remained under the control of the above mentioned, or a similar local, board of trustees from 1852 till June 6th, 1881, when, by act of the general assembly, all the state institutions passed into the hands of the state board of supervision. This board, appointed by Governor Will- iam Smith, was composed of the following gentlemen: Charles Luling, Manitowoc; James Bintliff, Darlington; Charles D. Parker, River Falls ; George W. Burchard, Fort Atkinson ; Lewis A. Proctor, Milwaukee. The board re- mained in office for ten years; during its administration of affairs the public institutions of the state enjoyed a period of unprecedented growth and development. The state board of control was invested with authority July 1st, 1891, and since that time, in addition to the state institutions, has had the entire control of all the county jails and almshouses. The following gentlemen constitute the state board of control : Clarence Snyder, Ashland, president ; Charles D. Parker, River Falls ; J. E. Jones, Portage ; J. L. Cleary, Kenosha. Of the officers and teachers now employed in the Wis- consin school for the deaf, the superintendent, J. W. Swiler, took charge in 1880; Mrs. M. H. Schilling, the matron, in 1891; Charles M. Tallman, the clerk, in 1892; Joseph Wa- chuta, boy's supervisor, in 1891 ; Miss Emily Eddy became a member of the teaching force in 1857; Mrs. M. H. Fiske in 1879 ; Miss A. I. Hobart in 1884 ; Miss E. M. Steinke in 1886 ; Miss I. C. Pearce in 1888; Miss Agnes Steinke in 1891 Mrs. Eleanor G. McCoy in 1874; Miss Jene Bowman in 1 892; Warren Robinson in 1884; J. J. Murphy in 1884; E. E. Clip- 332 THE WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. pinger in 1883; W. F. Gray in 1887; J. S. Long in 1889; Thomas Hagerty in 1891. Warren Robinson, J. J. Murphy and Thomas Hagerty are graduates of this school, and J. S. Long is a graduate of the Iowa state school for the deaf. In the industrial depart- ment John Beamsley has been at the head of the shoe-shop since 1882; W. T. Passage, foreman of the printing office since 1891 ; and Hollis Stone took charge of the carpenter shop in 1892. WARREN ROBINSON. Wisconsin School for Blind, at Janesville. On the 27th day of August, 1849, a public meeting of the citizens of the village of Janesville was held at the court house for the purpose of adopting some measures relating to the es- tablishment of a school for the education of the blind. The meeting was presided over by A. Hyatt Smith, the Rev. Hiram Foote acting as secretary. Mr. J. T. Axtel, a gradu- ate of the Ohio Institution for the Education of the Blind, explained the methods of instructing the blind and proposed to remain and assist in establishing the school, provided the citizens would contribute the necessary funds. About thirty individuals and firms pledged the amount of $430 "for the purpose of founding a school in the village of Janesville for the instruction of the blind persons resident in Wisconsin, and the purchase of the necessary apparatus for the instruc- tion of six such persons." With the funds raised by this subscription a few pupils were gathered, and school opened in November, in a house owned by Captain Ira Miltimore. Mr. Joseph T. Axtel was elected principal of -the school. In the following February, the legislature incorporated "The Wisconsin Institution for the Education of the Blind." The first section of the act named A. Hyatt Smith, Hiram Foote, Ira Miltimore, Levi Alden, Jairus C. Fairchild and William A. Barstow as trustees, and gave them corporate powers. The second and third sec- tions are as follows : "Sec. 2. The object and duty of this corporation shall be to continue and maintain the school for the education of the blind established in Janesville, and to qualify, as far as may be, that unfortunate class of persons for the enjoyment of the blessings of a free government, obtaining the means of subsist- ence, and the discharge of those duties, social and political, de- volving upon American citizens." "Sec. 3. The school shall be continued in or near Janes- ville, and the corporation shall, as early as practicable, purchase a suitable lot of ground, containing not less than ten acres nor more than twenty acres, and proceed to erect thereon suitable buildings, and make such improvements as are necessary for the school." 383 334 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS. In 1850 Mrs. Hunter was appointed matron, and the school was transferred to her house, on Jackson street. The school was continued here until June 1st, 1852. In the meantime, Captain Ira Miltimore had generously donated ten acres of ground lying on the south bank of Rock river, within the limits of the present city of Janesville, and about one and one-half miles south of the post-office, and a building costing $3,000 had been erected here for the school. This soon proved insufficient, and a larger building was erected in 1860. In April, 1874, this building was destroyed by fire. After the fire, the city of Janesville granted the institution the use of the building standing where the Central school is now located, and the trustees rented the Williams house op- posite, where the school was continued the remainder of the year. A large frame building was erected on the school grounds, and, in conjunction with the shop a brick structure which was not destroyed at the time of the fire afforded ac- commodations while the present building was in process of construction. The west wing of the new building was fi nished in 1876, and was immediately occupied. In 1877, the building was completed as it stands, with accommodations for from ninety to one hundred pupils. The building is a fire-proof brick and stone structure, one hundred and sixty feet in length the main portion being one hundred and one feet in length and four stories high, the wing eighty-eight feet in depth and three stories high. The building, when the east wing is completed, will be about one hundred and ninety-five feet long. The weaving, broom- making and cane-seating department, the boys' gymnasium and the laundry are located in the shop building, a brick structure on the west of the main building. The buildings are all lighted by electricity and heated by steam. All the officers, pupils and help numbering one hundred and twenty, on October 1st, 1892 are accommodated in the main building. The school is located on forty acres of land, lying on the south bank of the Rock river within the city limits of Janes- ville. The grounds are high and are covered with a fine growth of hickory, oak and elm, making a beautiful and healthful location. The real estate and improvements are valued, in round numbers, at $167,000. The entire valuation of school property is $190,000. There has been paid from WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 335 the state treasury up to October 1, 1892, for real estate, build- ings and improvements, repairs and current expenses of the school, $960,000. The name of the school was changed in 1885 from Wis- consin Institution for the Education of the Blind to the Wis- consin School for the Blind. OFFICIAL MANAGEMENT. The official management of the institution was in- strusted to the local board of trustees until 1881, when it was placed under the charge of the state board of supervision of Wisconsin charitable, reformatory and penal institutions. In 1891, it came under the management of the state board of control of charitable, reformatory and penal institutions. SUPERINTENDENTS. The school has been in charge of the following principals or superintendents: 1849, J. T. Axtel (blind); 1851, Alex- ander McDonald ; 1852, Henry Button ; April, 1853, C. B. Woodruff; October, 1855, P. Lane (blind); 1856, W. H. Churchman (blind); 1861, Thomas H. Little; 1875, Mrs. Sarah C. Little; September 1, to December 1, 189J, Warren D. Parker ; December 1, ] 891, Lynn S. Pease. The matrons have been successively: 1851, Mrs. H . Hunter; 1852, Mrs. Jane Miltimore; 1853, Mrs. C. B. Woodruff; 1855, MissFoote; 1857, Miss E. M. Curtis; 1859, Mrs. M. Wright; 1862, Mrs. M. H. Whiting; 1868, Miss I. H. Phelps ; 1869, Miss Eliza Mitchell ; 1871, Mrs. M. H. Whiting ; 1879, Miss Lizzie J.Curtis. Governess: 1868-70, Mrs. Sarah C. Little. TEACHERS. The following teachers have been engaged in the school in the departments as indicated. * indicates connection with school Nov. 1, 1892; (B) indicates blind or partially blind teachers: LITERARY 1851, Miss Maria Hoyt; 1853-4, Miss Mary A. Weed; 1854-55, Miss Sarah Ellsworth; 1855-68, Miss M. E. Hand; 1855-68 (part), Miss Anna Churchman; 1858-61, Miss N. S. Lamed ; 1858-59, Mrs. E. G. Rice; 1859- 62, Miss S. J. Lamed ; 1861, '62, '63, 74, 75, Mrs. S. C. Lit- tle; (1861, Miss Sarah C. Cowles) ; 1862-68, Miss S. A. Scho- field; 1863-65, Miss Frances A. Lord; 1863-73, Miss H. Daggett; 1865-80 and 1883-92, Miss S. A. Watson*; 1868- 73, Miss C. L. Baldwin ; 1873-74, Wm. J. Showers; 1883-74 ; Miss A. M. Smith ; 1874-82 and 1885-86, Miss A. I. Hobart ; 336 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 1875-76, Miss Eva M. Putney; 1876-82, Miss Helen F. Blinn; 1880-81, Miss Grace Draper; 1882, Miss Slinger- land; 1881-92, Miss E. M.Williams; 1882-85, Miss Elsie M. Steinke; 1886-87, Miss Grace Slye; 1887-90, Fred. B. Maxwell; 1890-91, Samuel M. Smith; 1891-92, Miss Lizzie A. Bineham ; * 1892, Miss Frances H. Benson.* Music 1852-55, Miss L. Walls (B) ; 1855, Miss Mar- garet Belcher; 1857-68, F. A. Campbell (B); 1858-62, J. S. Allen (B) ; 1863-68, Jesse H. Temple (B) ; 1868-70, J. W. Bischoff(B); 1870-75, Maurice D. Jones (B); 1870-72, Miss Flora Winslow (B) ; 1872-75, Miss Frances Colvin ; 1875-79, John S. Van Cleve (B) ; 1875-79, Miss L. M. Blinn ; 1879- 81, Edgar D. Sweet; 1879-92, Mrs. J. H.Jones;* 1881-84, N. C. Underbill; 1884-86, Miss Jennie Cummings (B) ; 1885 (part), Alfred Churchill; (part) H. H. Hunt; 1886-87, MissC. W. Haynes; 1887-88, Miss Jeanette Baldwin ; 1888- 89, Miss Otelia"G. Rustad ; 1889-92, Miss Elizabeth A. Van Aiken ; 1889-92, Miss Laura Engleson ; 1892, Miss Jeanette Beck with.* PIANO TUNING 1892, W. H. Gaebler. KINDERGARTEN 1884 (part), Miss Frances Norton. J 884-92, Miss Clara Y. Morse.* HOUSEKEEPING Miss Lizzie J. Curtis (matron) ; 1892, Miss C. Adele Williams. WEAVING 1879-92, Mrs. Ellen Hanson.* GIRLS' HANDICRAFT Before 1879, taught by teacher in another department ; 1879-80, Miss M. L. McKibben ; 1880- 92, Miss A. B. McKibben , 1892, Miss Anna Molander.* BROOMS, CANE-SEATING AND NETTING 1854, Andrew Keikie ; 1858-62, J. W. Deitz ; 1862-71, J. Horton ; 1871- 75, James Stephen; 1875, Ambrose Shotvvell (B); 1876-79, William B. Harvey (B) ; 1877, Julia Gorham (caning) ; 1882, Minnie Julsen (caning); 1883-92, Joseph 0. Preston (B). ENROLLMENT. The following table shows the number of pupils reported for each year of the existence of the school : Number of pupils year ending October 1, 1850, 6; Jan- uary 11, 1851, 8 ; December 18,1851, 9; December 30, 1852, 9; December 31, 1853, 13; December 31, 1854, 16; Decem- ber 31, 1855, 14 ; December 31, 1856, 19; October 1, 1857, 20; October 1, 1858, 25; October 6, 1859, 27; October 1, 1860,34; October 1,1861, 32; October 1, 1862, 50; Octo- ber 1, 1863, 54 ; October 1, 1864, 59; October 1, 1865, 58; 338 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. October 1, 1866, 54 ; October 1, 1867, 54; October 8, 1868, 60; October 12, 1869, 69; October 12, 1870, 64; October 1, 1871, 68; October 1, 1872, 76; October 1, 1873, 77; October 1, 1874, 75; October 1, 1875, 82; October 1, 1876, 86; Octo- ber 1, 1877, 91 ; October 1, 1878, 91; October 1, 1879,90; October 1, 1880, 89 ; October 1, 1881, 84; October 1, 1882, 82; October 1, 1883, 78; October 1, 1884, 78; October 1, 1885,84: October 1, 1886, 91; October 1, 1887, 93; Octo- ber 1, 1888, 101 ; October 1, 1889, 104 ; October 1, 1890, 107 ; October 1, 1891, 109; October 1, 1892, 117. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. The growth of the school, in its several departments of instruction, is indicated in the annual reports of the superin- tendents as follows : No report of studies is given until August 1, 1851, in the second report of the institution, where it is said : "The course of instruction is similar to that which has proved suc- cessful in the older institutions of the kind in the United States. The studies pursued are as follows : Reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, geography, English history, natural philoso- phy and music." The following year it is reported : "The studies pursued are the same as during the last year, except natural philosophy." The programme of the school at that time is interesting. "The time of rising is six o'clock ; at seven the pupils are assembled, and a portion of the sacred Scriptures is read and a prayer offered ; then breakfast ; and at eight the school commences. Fifty minutes of each hour from eight to twelve are devoted to recitation, and the other ten minutes to recess and change of classes. We have din- ner at twelve, and devote an hour, from one until two, again in the school-room. The time from two until five is spent out of doors in exercise and amusements. In the evening, one hour is devoted to reading, and an hour to conversation and singing. Thus passes the day." The report advises teaching some trade as a means of profitably employing a part of the leisure time. At this time, the institution had thirteen volumes in raised letters, but not any maps. De- cember 31, 1852, it is reported that "music as a regular study was introduced June last." This year, the girls were taught sewing, and plain and fancy knitting, by the teacher of music. In 1853, the making of brooms was introduced. Some of the products were exhibited at the fair in Janesville, and four premiums were taken. As an inducement to interest in the WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 339 work-shop, a regular number of brooms was given to each boy to be made each week ; if he made over that number, he received so much per broom. There was a similar arrange- ment with the girls as regards other work. The girls were taught fancy knitting by the music teacher ; the knitting class meeting Wednesday, Thursday and Friday evenings from 6 to 7:15. In 1853, the daily studies consist of "read- ing, writing, spelling, geography, composition, grammar, elocution, written arithmetic, mental arithmetic, philosophy, algebra and meteorology." December 5, 1854, the announcement is made that " the pupils will begin the manufacture of bead baskets before the first of January. During the past year the girls have been making tidies, chair armlets, cake covers, ottoman covers and sacks for children." The work-shop is completed and has been "an invaluable aid during the past year in enabling the boys to learn the manner of manufacturing brooms." The teaching force has been increased by a foreman of the shop. A new superintendent took charge October 2, 1855. He reports: "The branches taught in the school-room are reading, history, spelling, deciphering, English grammar, arithmetic and natural philosophy." Most of the pupils are reported as receiving instruction in music, but during " my connection with the institution, nothing has been done in the mechanical departments." The time alloted to the school is five and a half hours per day. In 1856, when Mr. Churchman assumed the superin- tendency, he reports that in the work department " nothing worthy of mention has been accomplished since the estab- ment of the institute." In 1857, the superintendent, pro- fessor of music and matron, with nine of the pupils, visited Milwaukee, Racine and Kenoshaand "gave a public exhibi- tion and concert for the purpose of showing in a practical way the scholastic attainments of which the blind are capa- ble." The literary department included the following stud- ies: Orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, algebra, geography, grammar, geometry, history, moral and mental philosophy, elements of physiology, rhetoric, natural history, vocal and instrumental music, etc. As no text books had been printed, the instruction was entirely oral. " Ordinary writing is performed with a lead pencil, the paper being placed upon a card containing parallel grooves which serve to keep the lines straight and the letters of uniform size." The same report records " a system of embossed writing or 340 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. printing which is executed with a species of type, the let- ters being formed by pin points arranged in the ends of wooden blocks," so that it could puncture the paper and the writing could be read with the fingers. Arithmetic and algebra were taught orally, and the problems solved upon a metal frame with movable figures and signs, answering as a substitute lor the slate and pencil. In 1858 the female pupils were drilled in some of the simple kinds of house-work, and were enabled thereby to perform in a tidy manner all the labor necessary to keep their sleeping apartments in order. In 1860 "a marked improvement in our arrangements for the current year" is reported. "In addition to the employ- ment of a higher grade of teachers, we have considerably enlarged our stock of apparatus." The new apparatus con- sisted of an organ harmonium, a seven-octave piano, a com- plete set of apparatus for illustrating the principles of natural philosophy, a set of wooden and papier-mache models of animals, an embossed globe, a small telluric globe; a large double map of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, five feet in diameter, showing the land in very bold relief, and a dis- sected map of the United States. The programme called for nine hours' work per day. The shop work was entirely sus- pended. When Superintendent Thomas H. Little takes charge, in 1862,he announces the continuance of the three departments literary, musical and industrial. The studies are object lessons, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar, English literature and rhetoric, history, algebra, physiology and chemistry. In the musical department, the violin and melodeon have been added and a brass band organized. Bead work assumes considerable prominence the ensuing year, the smaller boys working with the girls. In 1867, the Braille point writing system was introduced and taught in conjunc- tion with the other systems of writing described above. By puncturing heavy manilla paper with a blunt stylus, a tang- ible writing was obtained which the blind could read, the alphabet being represented by the various arrangements of one to six points. Light gymnastics were introduced this year. From the nineteenth report, in 1868, it appears that the books used in reading were printed in three different alpha- bets, known as the Boston, the Philadelphia (or Glasgow) and the combined. In this year, instruction was given in Latin, WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 341 trigonometry, chemistry and political economy. All the pupils are placed in one of the singing classes and, when sufficient knowledge of music is. obtained, each is allowed to commence practice upon some instrument. This generally occurs alter a few months. Instruction is given on piano, violin, melodeon, flute and guitar. A small string band has received regular instruction and makes good progress. In 1870, a spelling book was prepared and printed in raised letters on a small printing press owned by the institu- tion. August 10, 1871, the convention of superintendents and teachers of the institutes in the United States resolved "that the New York horizontal alphabet should be taught in all the institutions for the educa- tion of the blind." The twenty-second report, of date Octo- ber, 1871, records, "Writing by Braille system, one class." The twenty-third report is silent in regard to instruction in writing, but the list of bills shows one of date October 30, 1871, "Wm. B. Waite, apparatus for writing, $21.50," so that the institution probably conformed to the resolu- tion. The twenty-fourth report, dated October 1, 1873, re- cords classes in writing, both with card and pencil and by the New York system ot points. The twenty-fifth report, Octo- ber 10, 1874, says, "Writing is taught both by the New York system of tangible dots and by the use of card and pencil for the common alphabet. Considerable progress has been made in learning to read and write music by the New York system." Although the contest between the two systems seems elsewhere to have raged fiercely enough, it would seem that, in this institution, from the incidental manner in which the change is indicated, the demise of the Braille was peaceful and the New York system took unquestioned pos- session of the field. In 1877 cane-seating was introduced, and in the follow- ing year one loom was purchased and instruction was given in rag carpet weaving. In 1878 kindergarten work is intro- duced for one hour each day. In 1879 the institution re- ceived its first installment of books from the Louisville printing house as its quota from the congressional subsidy, which provides for furnishing books gratis to the several in- stitutions for the blind. It now became possible "to give pupils of one class (etymology) the discipline of learning les- sons from the printed page." In 1881, caning is continued to "provide occupation and manual drill for those boys who 342 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. are not yet prepared to learn carpet weaving, and for these purposes is indispensable." "The younger boys and girls find useful training for muscles and tactual sense in making fancy articles with beads and fine wire." In 1883 the literary work is thus generalized : "In the literary department we design to give each pupil a good knowledge of the common branches ; and to those who are qualified, instruction is given in the more practical of the higher English branches." Three chorus classes recite daily. A carpet woven by a totally blind young woman in the school shop, Barbara Fon- taine, was exhibited at the state fair at Fond du Lac and was awarded tue first premium. In 1884 a kindergarten depart- ment was established. In 1887 attention is called to the custom of granting a certificate to any worthy pupil leaving the school, stating what he or she had accomplished. " It has seemed wise to change this plan and accordingly a course of study, with some electives, has been prepared, which is believed to be equivalent to an ordinary English high school course. To those completing this course, diplo- mas will be given." In the industrial department, the net- ting of hammocks and fly-nets was introduced. In 1889, " we have returned to the manufacture of brooms, discon- tinued a few years ago." In 1891 and 1892, the school was graded on the basis used in the graded schools of the state ; the grades being kindergarten, three primary, four grammar and a four years' high school course. Rhetorical work, consisting of declama- tions, essays written in point and orations, was made a regu- lar feature of the course; written arithmetic was dropped and the field of mental arithmetic was enlarged. In 1892 the departments of piano tuning, typewriting and house- keeping have been introduced. The boys as well as the girls are instructed in making beds and taking care of their rooms. The girls have regular classes for instruction in physical cul- ture by a trained specialist. SYNOPSIS OF COURSE OF STUDY. The work of the school is comprised in the following departments or courses of study: LITERARY DEPARTMENT. The prescribed course of study, beginning with kinder- garten training, includes the usual primary and grammar grades and a four years' high school course. The school WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 343 aims to give all capable pupils an education equal to that given in the free high schools of the state. Pupils who wish to prepare themselves for teachers are given practice work in teaching, under the supervision of the superintendent or teachers. MUSICAL DEPARTMENT. Instruction is given on piano, organ and violin, and in vocal music. Two chorus classes and an orchestra rehearse daily. Pupils who develop talent in musical directions are given the opportunity for special training to fit them for business in this line. Importance is given to this depart- ment, as the field of music offers profitable employment for a good proportion of our pupils. Excellent proficiency is attained by the pupils. Whenever the orchestra appears in public, it is warmly received and its efforts are considered worthy of high praise. PIANO TUNING DEPARTMENT. Pupils are trained in this department to become thorough piano tuners. WORK DEPARTMENT. This department has the double purpose of a general manual training and of such instruction in various trades as will fit pupils to become self-supporting. Instruction is given in cane-seating, hammock, fly-net and fish-net knitting and broom-making. The girls are taught plain and fancy sew- ing, both hand and machine ; knitting, crocheting, fancy work, hammock-netting and cane-seating. DEPARTMENT OP TYPEWRITING. Instruction is given on the Remington typewriter. DEPARTMENT OP HOUSEKEEPING. Under the charge of skilled and experienced teachers, the girls are instructed in all the details of housekeeping, including cooking and preparation of meals ; the purpose being to train the girls not only to take care of themselves, but to become useful members of their homes after they have finished their school life. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL CULTURE. All the pupils are arranged in classes in physical cul- ture, in charge of a trained specialist, who endeavors to secure 344 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. the exercise and consequent bodily development necessary to good health, and to correct the unnatural and peculiar postures and habits which so frequently accompany blindness. The daily programme is as follows : 6:30, rising bell ; 6:30, breakfast; aiter breakfast, the pupils attend to their room work, making their beds, etc. Classes begin at 7:45 and are in session, excepting a recess from 9:50 to 10:10, until 12:00. From 12:00 to 1:30 the time is occupied with dinner, exercise and study. Classes begin again at 1:30, continuing until 4:45 ; recess from 3:00 to 3:15. From 4:45 until 5:30 all the pupils are required to exercise out of doors when the weather permits. Supper at 5:30 ; study hours begin at 6:15 and run until 8:45, excepting one period of forty-five minutes, when all the pupils are assembled in two divisions in charge of two qf the teachers, who read them a synopsis of the news of the day and selections from various authors. The younger pupils retire at 8:00 ; the older ones at 9:00. Classes are not in session on Saturday. On Sunday, the pupils are expected on pleasant days to attend their respective churches in the city. Those who do not attend are assembled at 10:10 at a reading of a non-sectarian character. In the afternoon, a Sunday school is provided for those whose parents wish them to attend such instruction. A reading ex- ercise is arranged at the same hour for the other pupils. In the evening there is another reading exercise. The care of the officers and teachers in this regard is simply and wholly to protect the pupils in the faith wherein they have been taught by their parents. The school begins the second Wednesday in September and continues forty weeks. There are no full vacations. Between Christmas and New 7 Year's, the pupils are given only half-work ; having free afternoons throughout the week. A similar vacation occurs in the spring about the time of the usual Easter vacation in the public schools. This plan is an innovation of 1891 to break up the strain of forty weeks con- tinuous work. It is therefore experimental and may not be- come a permanent arrangement. All the pupils return to their homes for the summer vacation of twelve weeks. The school has a good equipment of apparatus for in- struction. The establishment of the Louisville printing house for the blind in 1879, and the subsequent subsidy granted by congress, has enabled the school to accumulate a library of 1,250 books in raised print. This has resulted in material advancement in the school work. In preparing WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 345 lessons, formerly it was necessary for the teachers to read the lessons to the pupil, and the period assigned to the class was equally divided with preparation and recitation. At present nearly all the classes prepare the lessons outside the school room. These books are very bulky; for instance, Barnes' "History of the United States" occupies three volumes, each the size of a Webster's unabridged dictionary. Swinton's "Outlines of History" is in three volumes of the same size. Specimens of this print will be sent to any school upon re- quest from librarian or teacher. The school also possesses a library of 1,650 volumes in ink. There is a good assortment of dissected and carved maps, all made by hand. A carved map of the hemispheres is five feet across and stands on a pedestal. It was made in Phila- delphia, at a cost of $120. These maps must show boundaries, mountain ranges, rivers, cities, etc;, so that they can be readily located with the fingers. One of our thirteen-year- old boys was lately placed before a dissected map of the United States from which all the states had been removed and thrown into a heap. He named and placed all the states in proper place in less than four minutes. The musical department is equipped with seven pianos, two organs, violins, bass viol, violoncello, viola, and a set of brass instruments. The housekeeping classes have a kitchen modeled after the usual home kitchen, where the girls learn to cook. The shops are equipped with six weaving looms, includ- ing the Newcomb flying-shuttle loom, and the necessary im- plements for making brooms, caning chairs, and knitting hammocks and fly-nets. ADMISSION OF PUPILS. "All the blind residents of this state who are of suitable age and capacity to receive instruction, shall be received and taught and shall enjoy the benefits and privileges of pupils ; have the use of the library and books of tuition, and be fur- nished with board, lodging, washing and fuel free of charge." Section 573, Revised Statutes. The school for the blind is part of the educational sys- tem of the state. Its purpose is to supplement the common school system. It therefore admits not only those who are totally or nearly totally blind, but also all school children of school age who have such defective sight that they cannot pursue their studies in the common school. Young people 346 WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. over twenty years of age, upon presenting a certificate of good character from at least three free-holders, may be granted a permit by the state board of control to attend the school for a limited period, for the purpose of learning the trades and to read and write the point system. Any person wishing to make application for the admis- sion of a pupil into the school must address the superin- tendent, giving definite and truthful answers to the follow- ing questions, viz. : First. What are the names and post-office address of the parents or guardians of the person for whom application is made ? Second. Are such parents or guardians legal resi- dents of the state of Wisconsin? Third. What is the name and age of the person for whom application is made ? Fourth. At what age did he or she become blind, and from what cause? Fifth. Is he or she of sound mind, and susceptible of intellectual culture ? Sixth. Is he or she free from all infectious diseases ? Seventh. What are his or her personal habits and moral character? Eighth. For what purpose dots he or she enter this school? Blanks for application will be furnished by the superin- tendent. Upon the receipt of such application by the super- intendent the applicant will be notified as to whether or not the person in question will be admitted, and no one must be sent to the school until such notification shall have been re- ceived. No person of imbecile or unsound mind or of con- firmed immoral character will be knowingly received into the school ; and in case any person shall, after a fair trial, prove incompetent for useful instruction or disobedient to the wholesome regulations of the school, such pupil will be there- upon discharged. As will be noticed by the law establishing the school, it is neither a hospital nor an asylum, but a school. The school has no facilities for treating the eyes. A FREE SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND. At the establishment of this school, it was free to all blind children resident in the state. In 1858, a law was en- acted providing that, "no blind person shall receive boarding and tuition at the institute for the blind at the expense of the state unless they can procure from the board of supervisors of the town, alderman of the ward, or trustees of the village in which they reside, a certificate of inability to pay for such WISCONSIN SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 347 boarding and tuition at the rate of seventy-five dollars per annum." Governor Randall, in his message, treated the enactment as follows: "The act of the last legislature has practically worked a great injury and been a great disadvantage to- both these institutions. (Institutes for blind and for deaf and dumb.) A majority of persons laboring under the mis- fortune of blindness or of being deaf mutes, are in humble circumstances in life. The attachment of parents to their innocently unfortunate offspring is strong and their afflic- tions great. The humanity of the age has undertaken to soften the harshness of these afflictions by providing these public charities. Great states are emulating each other in efforts and expenditures for their amelioration. But in this state the parents of a blind child or of a deaf mute, if unable to bear the expense of educating it away from home, must procure, from the town officers of their own town or village, certificates of pauperism before they can take any benefit from the institutions themselves. Education at our common schools is free to all, but in these public institutions is free to only certified paupers. The law ought to be repealed." The law was repealed. Similar legislation was enacted in 1866, but, as it lessened the attendance from fifty-four to eighteen, the law was soon repealed. Since that time, the state has maintained the institution as a free school for the blind. Parents and guardians are expected to furnish cloth- ing and transportation, and to provide forincidental expenses. Teachers in the schools for the seeing will find it profit- able to visit the school and study the methods of instruction where the sight cannot be utilized, and all the work depends upon the other senses. LYNN S. PEASE. Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys Wau- kesha. The industrial school for boys is situated just inside the western limit of the village of Waukesha, the county seat of Waukesha county. Three principal railroad lines pass through the village, giving excellent facilities for transpor- tation. The state legislature approved an act March 7, 1857, authorizing the erection of a house of refuge for juvenile delinquents of both sexes. After the year 1870 only boys were committed to the school. The name of the institution has undergone some changes, first, "house of refuge," then, "reform school," now, industrial school for boys. The insti- tution was formally opened July 25, 1860. The first build- ing burned down in 1866 ; the same year a central building and the family cottages were erected. The number of family cottages have been increased from time to time, until at the present time there are two family cottages, capable of accom- modating four hundred boys. The largest number at any time was 438. Forty boys were committed the first year. The number committed yearly from the opening to the present date has varied from forty in 1862 to 198 in 1891. The total number committed up to date is 3,373, of whom sixty-seven were girls. The term of commitment was at first fixed from three months to one year. It soon became apparent, in order to get the best results, that the term should be during minor- ity, w r ith power in the hands of the board of managers to release on parole, subject to return for non-compliance with the conditions of release. The control of the school has always been under a state board appointed by the gov- ernor. The number and make-up of this board has been changed a few times. The present state board of control consists of six members, for terms of five years each. They have always had power to appoint the superintendent, matron, etc., yearly. The selection of the subordinate offi- cers is made by the superintendent, subject to the approval of the board. The wisdom of this method is evident from the fact that only five different men have been appointed 348 WISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR BOYS. 349 to the superintendency in the thirty-two years of the school's existence. The educational department is under the charge of a principal teacher and eight associate teachers. The school is graded and kept as nearly in touch with the public schools as practicable under existing circumstances. The industrial part of the school consists of work in sock factory, boot and shoe factory, tailor shop, and the farming and gar- dening of over four hundred acres of good, tillable land, besides much general work. E. DIXON. Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls. The Wisconsin industrial school for girls, located in Mil- waukee, was the outgrowth of a desire on the part of benevo- lent women of Milwaukee to put a stop to street begging, which, during the hard times of 1875, had increased to an extent almost alarming. The city Bible and benevolent society was about closing its efforts in that line, and concluded to merge its work of district visiting and Bible reading into that of rescuing and providing for the street waifs and gathering them into schools. This was done by following them and in every possible way taking them out of the streets, alleys and back-yards. They were persuaded, by furnishing them with good clothing and warm, comfortable rooms, to enter the day industrial school which women had opened as a charity. In 1875, while the thermometer stood below zero, two ladies spent a day driving their own horse in order to secure rooms in which to open the new school. With two little waifs in two small rooms they opened a day industrial school. Their hands were empty, but their courage strong, and out of their small beginning the present institution has grown. By their efforts statutes were enacted prohibiting beg- ging, under pretext of peddling, in the streets or at doors, or begging in any form, and ordering the arrest of all violations of this act. These women organized the school, soliciting aid from the citizens, electing a self-perpetuating board of man- agers, and maintaining it entirely upon funds raised by their own efforts until the 15th of April, 1875. At this time an act was passed by the state legislature authorizing industrial schools, and under this act the present school was legally organized. One of the peculiar features of the school is that, while organized under the legal enactment from which it derives all its important powers, and subject like all state institu- tions to the supervision of the state board of charities, it is, notwithstanding, under the management of an unpaid and voluntary association of women, and thus entirely exempt from political influence. 850 WISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 351 The children are committed by magistrates, or taken from dangerous surroundings anywhere, the aim being to form in their lives habits of order, decency and industry. In the beginning the work was carried on in rented build- ings, poorly adapted to the needs of the children^ and the funds were raised by private solicitation, with the exception of one thousand ($1,000) dollars donated by the state in its first year. In the winter of 1877 the board asked the legislature to give it a home for the children and in 1878 a bill was passed appropriating the sum of $15,000 for a building, providing the city would donate to the state ground on which to place it. This was done, and early in 1879 the new quarters were occupied. In 1880 the number of children had increased until more room was absolutely needed, and in that year the legis- lature made its second appropriation of $15,000 for a build- ing and repairs. Again, in 1882, it was necessary to ask for more room, especially as it had become a necessity to sepa- rate the oldest girls from the very young inmates ; and again the legislature gave $15,000. With this a cottage was built, equipped with its own school-room and dormitories. The state has since, at each session of the legislature, contributed money for repairs of the buildings and care of the grounds. The board of managers is as follows : Mrs. M. E. B. Lynde, president ; Mrs. A. J. Aikens, 1st vice president ; Mrs. J. L. Kaine, secretary ; Mrs. W. S. Candee, treasurer ; Mrs. A. J. Aikens, chairman executive committee ; Miss Sarah E. Peirce, superintendent. The following statistics of the school for the years 1891-92, indicate clearly the extent and nature of its work : TABLE I. NUMBER IN THE SCHOOL DURING THE PAST TWO YEARS. 1891. 1892. In school October 1st 183 182 Since received, including returns 126 153 Number under care 309 335 Dismissed during the year 127 112 Remaining in school at close of year 182 223 Boys _.. _ 32 S3 Girls 150 190 Average number 184 188 Average age 13 12% Supported by counties 168 212 Supported by friends 14 11 Total 182 ' 223 Cost per en pita per week $2 37 $2 47 352 WISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. TABLE II. CHILDREN COMMITTED BY COURTS AND SUPERVISORS. 1891. 1892. In school October 1st _ 169 179 Received by commitment 82 90 T9tal number under care 251 269 Dismissed during the year 115 99 Returned after dismissal _ 43 42 Number remaining away 72 57 Committed children still in school 179 212 TABLR III. AGES OF COMMITTED CHILDREN WHEN RECEIVED. Less than one year old _ 2 Eleven years old 8 One year old 1 Twelve years old 6 Two years old 4 Thirteen years old 18 Three years old 2 Fourteen years old 28 Four years old 7 Fifteen years old 22 Five years old 7 Sixteen years old 18 Six years old 5 Seventeen years old 15 Seven years old 8 Eighteen years old 1 Eight years old 7 Nine years old 16 172 Ten years old 2 TABLE IV. AGES OF CHILDREN DISMISSED. One year old and under 1 Thirteen years old 7 Two years old and under .... 2 Fourteen years old 7 Three years old _ 2 Fifteen years old 13 Four years old .. 4 Sixteen years old _ - 29 Five years old ~~. _ 8 Seventeen years old 40 Six years old 3 Eighteen years old 39 Seven years old.... ^. 4 Nineteen years old 17 Eight years old 6 Twenty years old 1 Nine years old 13 Twenty-one years old 3 Ten years old 12 Eleven years old ^. 4 214 Twelve years old 4 TABLE V. MANNER OF DISMISSAL OF COMMITTED CHILDREN. 1891. 1892. Total. Adoption 123 Indenture ~~~ _ 5 7 12 Service - -.. 45 20 65 Returned to friends _ 47 56 108 Returned to county 1 Transferred to Boys' Industrial School 314 Transferred to State School for Dependent Children 4 4 Transferred to St. Francis Orphan Asylum 3 Transferred to insaneasylum Attained majority ... 1 Discharged to be married Transferred to Home of Good Shepherd 101 Death 4 3 Discharged to learn dressmaking 112 115 'X' 214 WISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. TABLE VI. SCHOOL-ROOM STATISTICS. 353 The number under instruction varies from Table I. on account of three in- capacitated for school work, one in the hospital, and two babies. Present Classification of Schools. Cottage Home. Main Home. Chi. Home. Total. "A" Class Seventh Grade 13 17 30 Arithmetic, from Percentage forward. Harper's Geog- raphy, finished and reviewed. United States Hist- ory. Grammar. Phjsiology. Constitution. Fifth Reader. Spelling and Writing. "B" Class Sixth Grade 26 14 9 49 Arithmetic from Denominate Numbers forward. New Eclectic Geography. Grammar. Physiology. His- torv, United States. Fourth Reader. Spelling and Writing. "C" Class Fifth Grade 16 3 19 Arithmetic, from Simple Fractions forward. New Eclectic Geographv. Third Reader. Physiology. Writing and Spelling. "D -> Class Fourth Grade 6 28 12 46 Arithmetic, Robinson's Rudiments. Geography, New Eclectic. Third and Second Readers. Spelling and Writing. "E" Class Third Grade 21 21 Robinson's First Book in Arithmetic. Reading. Writing and Spelling. Primary Class Second Grade 11 10 21 Number Work. First Reader. Writing and Spelling. Kindergarten 34 220 MRS. M. E. B. LYNDE. The Wisconsin System of Public Day Schools for Deaf Mutes. Wisconsin laid the foundations of her educational sys' tern in accordance with the wisdom and conditions of the period. On these she has built her schools and educational institutions, which have developed with her growth, pro- gress and enlightenment inspired by a spirit of humanity. In providing for the education of her deaf-mute chil- dren she has shown moral elevation and refined sympa- thies. STATE INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF. The nucleus for her system of educating deaf-mutes was a small private school at Delavan opened at an early day. From that school sprang the state institution for the deaf, which has taken high rank among institutions of its class. During a period of about twenty-five years no other school existed in Wisconsin for the education of deaf-mutes. Indeed, no other provision was suggested or deemed desira- ble. Deaf-mute children were unavoidably removed from their homes, separated from their families, transported to Delavan and there confined in the state institution during the period of their education. They were shut up with deaf-mutes, with little opportunity for associating with hear- ing and speaking people, and, being taught mostly by signs, were inadequately prepared to associate with hearing and speaking communities. They were, however, well cared for and as well taught by the sign method as possible, and gen- erally became good and useful citizens. The state institution for the deaf has ever been, and will doubtless long continue to be, a blessing to deaf-mutes and to the commonwealth, but its usefulness will increase and its right to exist be prolonged in proportion as it advances in the oral method of educating deaf-mutes, which must neces- sarily be slow, if the sign and orally taught deaf-mutes are allowed to freely mingle, as seems inevitable, in that institu- tion. With the growth of the state and the increase of the population, it became necessary from time to time to enlarge PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 355 the institution at Delavan to meet increasing demands upon it, until it had an annual attendance of nearly two hundred deaf-mute children, maintained and taught at a per capita cost originally of about $200, which has been gradually re- duced to about $150 per annum, not counting the invest- ment in the plant, which brings the per capita cost consider- ably higher. In later years, improvements in the methods of instruc- tion were introduced into the institution at Delavan, where- by semi-mutes and those believed to have special aptitude for it are taught orally, and industrial instruction and train- ing have also been introduced. DAWN OF A BETTER ERA. The tide of immigration brought to Wisconsin, many intelligent Germans acquainted with the articulate method of teaching the deaf universal in Germany. Indeed, the oral method of teaching the deaf was beginning to attract general attention, and the fullness of time had arrived for Wisconsin to advance in this direction. A few Germans in Milwaukee started the movement, the honor of which belongs to the late Peter L. Dohmen and Mr. Carl Trieschmann. They formed the acquaintance of Prof. Adam Stettner, a teacher of articu- lation for deaf-mutes, and encouraged him to open such a school in Milwaukee, which he did January 14, 1878, with four pupils, which increased that year to seventeen pupils. This was'a boarding and day school taught at first in the German language. A number of philanthropic citizens, mostly Germans, soon became interested in the school and its methods of instruction, and formed an association to assist in- digent children to its benefits and promote the spread of the oral methods of educating deaf-mutes. WISCONSIN PHONOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. In June, 1878, a permanent organization was effected, which was incorporated under the title of the " Wisconsin Pho- nological Institute" January 20, 1879, with 120 members. For a time it conducted its proceedings and kept its records in the German language. The first officers were president, Guido Pfister ; vice- president, B. Leidersdorf ; secretary, P. L. Dohmen ; treasurer, L. Teweles; trustees, C. Trieschmann, J. F. Singer and B. Stern. Guido Pfister was succeeded in the presidency by Mr. Bernhard Stern, whose energy and intelligent devotion have greatly advanced the cause. 356 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. LADIF.S' AID SOCIETY. Knowing that the mothers of the city would sympathize deeply with the unfortunate class of children fostered by the institute, the board of trustees, October, 1878, extended an invitation to the ladies of Milwaukee to lend their assistance, which they did by forming, November 15, 1878, a ladies' aid society, which soon had 191 members paying quarterly dues of $1.00 each. The revenues from this source were put at interest, as a fund to purchase or erect suitable buildings for a school, but was subsequently devoted to training teachers of the deaf by the oral method. The ladies' aid society also watched over the children, provided instruction in sewing, and gave them delightful picnic and Christmas entertainments. Without their assist- ance the institute would have accomplished much less than it has. Indeed, their aid has been most timely and valuable. The active membership of the aid society is composed almost entirely of German mothers, who, continuing stead- fastly their work, have brought much happiness to the deaf children in the school and encouragement to the teachers in their arduous labors. For the progress which Wisconsin has made in the edu- cation of the deaf, by the oral method and establishing pub- lic day schools for that purpose, and for the advanced posi- tion which she now occupies in that respect, she owes a debt of gratitude to the German mothers of Milwaukee and to the ladies' aid society of the Wisconsin phonological institute. PROF. ADAM STETTNER'S SCHOOL. The school for the oral instruction of the deaf, opened and conducted by Prof. Stettner in Milwaukee, and in which he was assisted in teaching by his daughter, Mary, and in the boarding department by Mrs. Stettner, grew quite rapidly, until it numbered twenty-four pupils. This school was not con- trolled by the Wisconsin phonological institute, but was under its surveillance and patronage. The chief interest of the insti- tute in the Stettner school, was to give indigent children its advantages and to promote speech among the deaf in Wis- consin and throughout the country, making use of the school to some extent to illustrate the pure oral method of teaching the deaf as it exists in Germany. With these objects in view the institute established close relations with Stettner's school, and these relations continued until the close of the school year 1883. Prof. Stettner con- tinued his school until 1884. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 357 For some time previous to 1883, the institute had more and more felt the need of commanding the services of the best obtainable exponent of its objects, both in teaching the deaf speech and by speech, in training teachers of the deaf by the oral method, in presenting the claims of the method and in the preparation of necessary text-books. Upon suc- cess in finding such a person the future of their undertaking seemed to depend ; for without competent teachers little real progress could reasonably be expected. At this juncture a member of the board, Prof. D. C. Luening, principal of a Milwaukee public school, happily directed attention to Prof. Paul Binner, a teacher of the Ger- man language in the Milwaukee public schools, whose gen- eral education, special acquirements, experience and aptitudes pointed him out as the man for the occasion. Accordingly an arrangement was made by which he should prepare for the work. In August, 1883, the institute engaged the services of Paul Dinner at a salary of $1,000 per annum to devote his time to the cause of the oral instruction of the deaf. Mr. Binner visited the various articulation schools in other portions of the country at the expense of the institute, to ob- serve their methods. On his return, by arrangement with the Milwaukee school board, a day school for the deaf children was opened in one of the public school buildings by the Phonological institute, with Mr. Binner in charge of the school. The fol- lowing is the prospectus of the school issued at the time : "THE DUMB SHALL SPEAK." MILWAUKEE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE IMPROVED EDUCATION OF DEAF-MUTE CHILDREN, BY THE PURE ORAL OR GERMAN ARTICULATE METHOD. The board of directors of the Wisconsin phonological insti- tute for deaf-mutes have the greatest pleasure in announcing that on Monday, October 15, 1883, they will open, in the city of Milwaukee, a day school for the improved education of deaf- mute children. In this school the instruction will be given by the pure oral or German articulate method, by which deaf-mutes learn to speak and to read from the lips. This method is the only one that can restore deaf-mutes to an equality with hear- ing and speaking people. The day school is best adapted to the oral method ; also to the general progress and welfare of deaf- mutes, because it gives them free association with hearing and speaking people, and protects them against the evils that un- 358 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. avoidably arise from the constant association of deaf-mutes with deaf-mutes, which is a serious objection to confining such chil- dren in deaf-mute asylums, institutions and boarding schools, as is now the general practice. The object of our society is to spread the pure oral or Ger- man articulate method ; to procure the establishment of day schools for deaf-mutes the same as for hearing children, as a part of the public 1 school system of the country ; to prepare teachers of articulation ; and, as far as its limited means will allow, aid indigent deaf-mutes to obtain an education. In be- half of these philanthropic objects we confidently appeal to the intelligence, humanity and benevolence of the people of our state and country. The Milwaukee day school for deaf-mutes will be in charge of Professor Paul Binner, who brings to the work intelligence and enthusiasm in the cause. He will at once visit the best Eastern schools of articulation for deaf-mutes, with a view to adopting in the Milwaukee school the best results of experience. We are reluctantly compelled, for want of funds, to limit the number of pupils to be received into our, day school, and in order to carry it on, are obliged to charge tuition to cover a part of the expense of maintaining it. Tuition per term, payable in advance, will be 815. The average cost to the society of the in- struction will be about S100 per pupil per annum. In cases of necessity the board will make such deductions from above rates as circumstances demand, and its means will allow. But it is hoped that no one will ask it unless it should be necessary to do so. It is also hoped that patrons of the school will, if able to do so, cheerfully pay as large a part of the actual cost of instruction as they can, so that we may do more for those who need our aid. We shall be happy to be in communication with parents and guardians of deaf-mute children in Milwaukee and else- where, who wish their children instructed by the improved method; also with intelligent, cultivated and high-minded young gentlemen and ladies who feel that they would like to become teachers by this method. Application for admission to the Milwaukee day school for deaf-mutes may be made in person or by letter to the under- signed. An;. F. MUELLER, Secretary, 278 East Water Street, R. C. SPENCER, President, Milwaukee, Wis. Corner Broadway and Wisconsin Street, Milwaukee, AY is. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS. March 31, 1885, the legislature passed a bill providing for the establishment in incorporated cities and villages of PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 359 public day schools for the instruction of deaf-mutes by teachers of approved qualifications, to be ascertained by the state superintendent, with state aid at $100 per pupil for nine months' instruction and in that ratio for shorter terms. Under this law the Milwaukee school board relieved the institute of its school, which became a public day school and as such still exists and grows. Under this law, similar schools taught by the oral method have been established by the school boards of La Crosse and Wausau. NORMAL DEPARTMENT. Deeply impressed with the great necessity for qualified teachers of the oral method, the institute early turned its attention to the subject, but made little progress until it opened a day school of its own in 1883, when it earnestly entered on this branch of the work, making the day school a practice school for normal students. In 1887 Prof. Binner, at the expense of the institute and by permission of the Milwaukee school board, visited the oral schools of Germany, Switzerland and England to iiifgrm himself of their methods and management. By arrangement made with the Milwaukee school board the normal department of the institute was continued under Professor Binner, in connection with the public day school for deaf children, which was also used as a school of practice for normal students. Tuition in the normal department has been free, and the institute has given financial aid to the needy normal students. By these means has the Milwaukee public school for the deaf been supplied with trained teachers, and several teach- ers have also been supplied to other schools and institutions for the education of deaf-mutes both in and out of Wisconsin. PROPAGANDA. Throughout its history it has been the aim of the Wis- consin phonological institute to propagate the pure oral method of teaching deaf-mutes. It therefore began its work by drawing the attention of the community to the claims and advantages of the method, enlisting the interest and securing the support of parents, educators, legislators, school boards, philanthropists, business men and the press. The success attending its efforts has far exceeded its anticipations. 360 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. PUBLICATIONS. In addition to the several annual reports issued by the in- stitute, it published in 1879 a pamphlet on "The Articulate Method of Teaching Deaf-Mutes," edited by Prof. D. C. Luen- ing. This was followed in 1887 by a small book entitled "The Dumb Speak," "A History of the Education of the Deaf and Dumb," prepared by Prof. Paul Binner and neatly printed free of charge by Cramer, Aikens & Cramer, publish- ers of the Evening Wisconsin. In 1884 it issued a pamphlet giving briefly the astonish- ing results of Prof. Alexander Graham Bell's investigations regarding "the formation of a deaf variety of the human race" by means of the sign language, the segregation and seclusion of congenital deaf-mutes in institutions, and conse- quent intermarriages between them. As a remedy for this and other serious objections to the prevailing method of edu- cating and caring for deaf-mutes, this pamphlet urged the adoption of the oral method and the establishment of day schools in incorporated cities and villages as a part of the public school system, with limited state aid, and contained the form of a law for that purpose, the enactment of which was secured. It contained also an article by Prof. Paul Binner on the "Home Training of Deaf-Mute Children." LEGISLATION. Convinced that the state institution for the deaf at Delavan was not in a condition to do the best for the oral method of educating deaf-mutes, and that it must be at a seri- ous disadvantage in that regard, so long as signs were taught or allowed in that institution, the Wisconsin phonological in- stitute early saw r that about all that could be done in the state institution was to encourage more attention to the arti- culation teaching. Happily much progress has been made there in this regard and will doubtless continue, for the trend is strongly toward the pure oral method. It early became apparent to the phonological institute, that further provision by the state was necessary if any great general improvement was to be made in the treatment and education of deaf-mutes. Accordingly the subject was brought to the notice of the governor and the legislature by exhibitions of the pupils of Prof. Stettner's school, which, by invitation of the phonological institute, was visited by Gov- ernor Smith and committee of the legislature, the Milwaukee school board and the chamber of commerce. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 361 Governor Smith, in his annual message to the legislature, directed attention to the subject and urged its favorable con- sideration. At that time it was in contemplation to ask the state to establish a separate institution, to be exclusively devoted to the oral instruction of deaf-mutes, but this idea was never formulated into a bill or brought before the legislature. About this time a bill was introduced into the legis- lature by the late Senator George H. Paul, which provided state aid of fifteen dollars per month for each deaf-mute pupil taught in any public, private or parochial school in the state. The Wisconsin phonological institute believed that this measure was not only unwise from an educational point of view, but otherwise open to grave objections, because it would give state support to private schools and institutions and to parochial schools, and in this latter respect violate the religious liberties of the people by compelling them to sup- port, against their will, religious teachings and worship. Acting in accordance with these views, the Wisconsin phonological institute remonstrated against the passage of the bill and it was defeated. The institute had now enlisted the interest of the Mil- waukee school board in favor of its objects, a committee of which, through its president, Hon. Joshua Stark, in 1880 made a strong report favoring the oral method and the duty of the board to provide instruction for deaf-mutes, and in favor of public day schools for this purpose, with state aid, and eloquently urged the inestimable value of the home and the family to deaf-mute children, the claims of which the state institution for the deaf cannot suitably respect and utilize. In pursuance of this report, a committee of the school board was appointed to prepare a bill for presentation to the legislature, giving authority to the board to establish and maintain a school or schools for the instruction of deaf-mutes residing in the city, and pledging the state to the payment of a fixed sum annually per pupil, towards the support of such a school. This action by the Milwaukee school board was sug- gested by a similar provision in Massachusetts, by which the Horace Mann school for the deaf in Boston is sustained. The bill prepared by the Milwaukee school board was introduced into the legislature at its session in 1881, but failed because its merits were not explained and understood. 362 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. At the next session of the legislature, in 1882, the bill was again introduced and much pains taken to explain it to the committees to which it was referred and to members. At the suggestion of a member of the legislature it was amended so as to make it general and apply to all incorporated cities and villages. In this form it passed the assembly late in the ses- sion, but failed in the senate for want of time. The following summer the national education associ- ation held its annual meeting in Madison. The division for deaf-mute teachers was addressed by PROF. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. He strongly advocated the oral education for the deaf, and day schools for that purpose. Governor Rusk listened with close attention and in his next annual message recommended measures favored by the phonological institute and advocated by Prof. Bell, for the improved education and treatment of deaf-mutes. At that session of the legislature the bill was again in- troduced > so modified, however, as to make the establishment of public day schools subject to the approval of the state board of supervision and state superintendent of public in- struction, with a view to bringing the state institution for the deaf and day schools for the deaf into systematic rela- tions for the advancement of deaf-mute education. Prof. Alexander Graham Bell became deeply interested in this measure, and, upon invitation of the committees on education of the senate and assembly, came from Washing- ton to Madison, where he spent two weeks explaining it to the legislature and urging its passage. On leaving Madi- son, he placed in the hands of each member of the legis- lature the following open letter to the committees on educa- tion of the senate and assembly, setting forth his views regard- ing the merits of the bill : AN OPEN LETTER CONCERNING THE BILL RELATING TO THE IN- STRUCTION OP DEAF-MUTES IN INCORPORATED CITIES AND VILLAGES. MADISON, Wis., Feb. 18th, 1885. To the committees on education of the senate and assembly of the legislature of Wisconsin : GENTLEMEN: His Excellency, Governor Rusk, in his recent message to the legislature, has called attention to the large num- ber of deaf children in the state who are growing up in igno- rance, and to the fact that the provision made for their education PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 363 is yet inadequate. In 1880, according to the recent census, there were in the state of Wisconsin 1,079 deaf-mutes, of whom 600 were from six to twenty years of age. The total number of deaf- mutes returned as then in school was only 199. The following facts show that the means adopted by the other states have also failed to bring under instruction a large number of the deaf- mutes of school age. (This age is assumed in the census returns to be from six to twenty years.) Out of a total of 33,878 deaf-mutes in the United States in 1880, 15,059 were of school age ; and the total number of deaf-mutes returned as then in the institutions and schools of the United States was only 5,393. It is obvious that the best means of reaching and bringing under instruction the uneducated deaf children of the country is a subject demand- ing immediate and serious attention. The bill you are now dis- cussing, relating to the instruction of deaf-mutes in incorporated cities and villages, touches this question. It has given me great pleasure to respond to your cordial in- vitation to participate in your deliberations, and I think I would be wanting in my duty to the deaf, to whose interests I have given so many years of earnest thought, were I to leave Wiscon- sin without placing in your hands, in some permanent form, the views I have attempted to express to you orally. The moment my attention was directed to the bill now under consideration, I recognized the fact that a new phase of legislation for the benefit of the deaf and dumb had been reached, of vast importance to the deaf and to society. The bill repre- sents the first attempt that has been made in the United States to embody, in the form of a law, a principle of dealing with the deaf and dumb that has long been seen to be advisable from a theoretical point of view; and the example of Wisconsin will un- doubtedly be speedily followed by other states. The principle involved may be tersely described as the policy of decentraliza- tion, the policy of keeping deaf-mutes separated from one an- other as much as possible during the period of education, and in contact as much as possible with hearing and speaking chil- dren of their own age. The difficulty hitherto has been how to accomplish this. The proposed bill promises a partial solution of the problem, and is an important step in advance. NVhen the subject of the education of the deaf first engaged the attention of the legislature, the state was thinly populated, and deaf-mutes were few in number. They were so scattered throughout the state that the only practicable method of reach- ing them appeared to be to collect them together into one school. This policy of centralization had also, up to that time, been uni- formly adopted by the older states. In pursuance of this policy, it became necessary to remove the children from their homes in order to instruct them, and this forced the state to assume the cost of support as well as tuition. Dormitories and special 364 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. school buildings were erected, and in 18-52 the Wisconsin insti- tution for the education of the deaf was opened at Delavan. A few years ago the buildings were destroyed by fire, and in 1880 the institution was rebuilt, with increased accommodations. The institution is now comfortably well filled ; but the returns of the census show, that, even if crowded to its utmost capacity, it could not accommodate one-half of the deaf-mutes of schoof age in the state. It is now necessary to consider what additional facilities should be provided. Shall the Delavan institution be enlarged ? Shall a new institution be erected in another part ol the state ? Or, shall schools of -a different kind be established ? The promoters of the bill propose a new departure. They believe that in many of the incorporated cities and vil- lages of Wisconsin the deaf children could, with limited state aid, be educated in the localities where they reside. By the passage of the bill the state w r ill offer facilities for the establishment ol small day schools for deaf children wherever the parents desire to keep them at home during the period of instruction. This desire, I am sure, is very general; and it is to be feared that in many cases the struggle between parental affection and the good of the child results in the retention of the child at home instead of sending it to school. By sending the teachers to the children, instead of the children to the teachers, wherever possible, the state will accommodate its policy to the wishes of parents, and bring comfort and happiness to many an afflicted family. The state, also, will be benefited by having deaf children brought under educational influences who would not otherwise, without compulsion, be sent to an institution, or who would enter school so late in life as to receive but little benefit from the course of instruction. It is now well known that those whom we term "deaf- mutes" have no other natural defect save that of deafness. They are simply persons who are deaf from childhood, and many of them are only hard of hearing. The lack of articulate speech which has led to their denomination as "mutes" results from lack of instruction, and not from any defect of the vocal organs. No one naturally acquires without instruction a language he has never heard. But, if children who are born deaf or hard of hear- ing do not naturally speak, how, then, do they think ? It is difficult for us to realize the possibility of a train of thought carried on without words ; but what words can a deaf child know who has never heard the sounds of speech? What we think, we think in words, though we may not actually utter sounds. Let us eliminate from our consciousness the train of words, and what remains ? I do not venture to answer the question ; but it is this, and this alone, that belongs to the thoughts of a deaf child. Even written words, as found in books and periodicals, though appealing to a sense possessed PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 365 by the deaf child, mean no more to him without instruction than a Russian or Chinese book would mean to us. Who, then, can picture the profound depth of the ignorance of the unedu- cated deaf-mute ? If you would try to realize the black dark- ness of his mind, consider what your mental condition would l>e were 'you to wipe out from your memory everything you have ever heard of and everything you have read. Naturally intelligent, the deaf child looks out upon the world and longs for knowledge. Common humanity demands that we use every means even to compulsion to bring under instruction the deaf children of Wisconsin. Upon other grounds also the education of deaf children is a matter of importance ; for deaf-mutes, if allowed to grow up without instruction, have all the passions of men and women, without the restraining influences that spring from a cultivated understanding. Under the enlightening influences of education they become good citizens, amenable to the laws of society, and able to exer- cise the franchise intelligently. As deafness is not necessarily a bar to intellectual culture, some are found capable of the very highest education. This has been recognized by Congress by the establishment of the national college for deaf-mutes, at Wash- ington, which is open to the deaf-mutes of Wisconsin. To show the intellectual condition they can assume, I may state that a number in this country support themselves by literature. Some are editors, and contributors to the magazines and daily journals. Two deaf-mute brothers in Belleville, Ontario, are successful lawyers. There are very few positions in life which cannot be occupied by deaf persons. Nearly all the arts and industries are open to them, and many of the professions. Even when uneducated they are rarely a burden upon the community ; for deafness is no bar to physical labor. Indeed, it is to be feared that deaf-mutes are sometimes deprived of education on account of the value of their labor at home. By education, deaf-mutes are raised from a condition of mental degradation that is abso- lutely inconceivable, and from a social position but little re- moved from slavery, to become intelligent and valuable mem- bers of society, and sources of wealth to the state. Success in the education of the deaf and dumb depends on the possibility of teaching them a language whereby ideas may be imparted and the mind cultivated. But it is in very early childhood that language is most easily acquired. By adopting a policy of centralization the state has rendered it im- possible to bring deaf children under instruction until after the most impressionable period of life has been passed. Wisconsin, in her constitution, defines the school age of her children as from four to twenty years ; but deaf children, to whom education is so vitally important, cannot enter your institution until they reach the age of ten . Why should deaf children be debarred from the benefits guaranteed to all by the constitution itself ? 366 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. The nearer the school can be brought to the home the ear- lier can instruction be profitably commenced. Little day schools scattered throughout the state will meet a want that "is sorely felt. The necessary smallness of the schools will be an element in promoting their efficiency. Under equal circumstances of instruction the pupils of small schools make greater progress than those of large ones, because the teacher can give more in- dividual attention to the children. Another advantage of the small day school is the influence on the home surroundings exerted by the teacher. There is no one so capable of instructing a little child as its own mother ; but parents, as a rule, are utterly ignorant of all matters con- nected with the education of the deaf. The proximity of the home and school must lead to frequent personal contact between the parents and teacher. Information will be sought and given, and in many cases the parents and family will be brought to co- operate intelligently in the work of instruction. The bill contemplates making the day schools for the deaf a part of the general public school system of the state, and school- rooms will be provided by the incorporated cities and villages in which such schools are opened . As a very small school-room will accommodate as many deaf children as one teacher can profit- ably instruct, economical and other considerations will usually lead to the selection of a room in some building already occupied as a public school, and thus the deaf children will be brought into close proximity to large numbers of hearing children in the same building. This proximity will favor the growth of friend- ships between the deaf and the hearing pupils, which will be invaluable in adult life, leading to business and social relations of the greatest importance. Constant association with hearing and speaking children will accustom the deaf child to the society in which he is to live in the future. His hearing school-fellows and playmates will be the men and women by whom he will be surrounded in adult life. How important, then, that deaf- mutes should have the opportunity of cultivating the acquaint- ance of hearing persons of their own age. The friendships formed in childhood often last through life. Living constantly in the midst of the industries and activities of the communities in which they have interested personal friends to encourage and aid them, the ways are open to them to acquire any trade, business, or profession for which they have aptness or inclination. The broad fields and avenues of life invite them as they do the hear- ing ;. whereas, in institutions they are limited to a few mechan- ical trades merely, not so easily turned to account for want of that personal acquaintance so helpful in obtaining desirable employment. Furthermore, industrial education is being brought into the educational systems of the large towns, afford- no ha gr PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 367 ing advantages of a broader and more thorough kind than insti- tutions offer. Every means that will bring the deaf child into closer as- sociation and affiliation with hearing children of his own age Avill promote his happiness and success in adult life. Associ- ation in the games and plays of hearing children will be an im- portant element in bringing this about. Partial co-education with the hearing children of the public schools will also be of use. Partial co-education is not only perfectly feasible, but will be of ad- vantage to the deaf child, and a means of economizing the time of the special teacher. Deaf children require a great deal of individual instruction, especially in the early steps of education. Some ot the brightest children can be withdrawn from the special school- room for short periods of time, with advantage to the duller pupils, who could then receive the individual attention of the specially skilled teacher. There are subjects taught in the public schools in which information is gained through the eye, and in such branches deaf children could profitably enter the same classes with the hearing ; for instance, they could join the classes for practice in writing, drawing, and arithmetic from the black- boards and on the slate, map drawing, sewing, etc. For other subjects, special methods of instruction would be necessary, especially in the earlier stages, and this necessitates the employ- ment of a special teacher and school-room. I have no doubt that some of the brighter pupils might ultimately be able to dispense with the special teacher altogether, as cases are known in the United States where deaf children ave successfully taken the full course in the public school, and aduated with honor to themselves and their teachers. It must be remembered , however, that these are exceptional cases ; and, while they show the possibility of complete co-education in some cases, the experience of the past has demonstrated the impos- sibility of this in the great majority of cases. The power of speech and reading speech from the mouth would evidently be of the greate'st assistance in establishing com- munication between deaf and hearing children. Constant as- sociation with hearing and speaking children will act as a stimu- lus to the acquisition of speech, which stimulus is wanting in an institution where all the playmates and associates are deaf, and where some of the teachers themselves cannot hear. It is well know to all instructors of the deaf, that, in other countries than our own, deaf-mutes are taught to speak, and that international conventions of teachers of the deaf have decided that speech and speech reading should be taught to all deaf-mutes, as a "regular branch of their education. That this is not more done in America is due to many causes, among the most important being the extraordinary ignorance of the American people concerning the mechanism of speech, and the consequent difficulty in ob- 368 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS EOR DEAF MUTES. taining competent articulation teachers. I doubt Avhether one person in ten thousand could give an intelligible account of the movements of his mouth in uttering the simplest sentence. In- deed, so gross is the popular ignorance of the whole subject that, when a deaf-mute is taught to speak, people look upon it as a sort of miracle, and few persons seem to be aware that what is here regarded as a miracle is in other countries an everyday fact. All the deaf-mutes of Germany are taught to speak. In fact, so feneral is instruction of this kind that in 1882 more than sixty- ve per cent, of the deaf-mutes under instruction in the world, outside the shores of America, were taught to speak and under- stand the speech of others in purely oral schools. Inside our shores less than nine per cent, were to be found in oral schools. In most of our institutions, however, though they may not be classed as oral schools, speech is taught to a selected few of the pupils. The Igftmt statistics on this subject show that in May, 1883, fourteen per cent, of the deaf-mutes of America were using speech in the school-room as the means of communication with their teacher, eighteen per cent, were taught to speak as an ac- complishment, and sixty-eight per cent, received no instruction whatever in articulation. In view of the lamentable neglect of articulation teaching in this country 7 , it is encouraging to know that of the deaf-mutes in the institutions and day schools of the New England states, more than fifty-four per cent, are taught to speak. In the light of the great success of articulation teaching in Germany, the following fact is significant: I am informed that in that country instruction in the mechanism of speech and the anatomy of the vocal organs forms a part of the regular curricu- lum of the normal schools. Courses of lectures are also given on the methods of teaching defective children. It then becomes easy to select from the normal schools suitable persons for teach- ers of the deaf and dumb. Such persons require a thorough knowledge of the theory and ail of teaching and of the mechan- ism of speech. Then, with a limited amount of practical ex- perience in a school for the deaf under the superintendence of an experienced principal, they are qualified for their work. Such a plan is perfectly feasible in Wisconsin, and is viewed with favor, I understand, by the state superintendent. A general knowledge of the mechanism of speech will be of value to the teachers of your public schools on account of the large number of children of foreign-born parents in your schools. If you would preserve the purity of the English tongue in Wiscon- sin, you must teach speech to the pupils of the public schools, and this involves a knowledge of the mechanism of speech on the part of the teachers. Should the subject of the mechanism of speech receive attention in your normal schools, there will be no difficulty in selecting from the students persons who show PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 369 special natural abilities for articulation work, to become the teachers in the small day schools for deaf children to be estab- lished under the provisions of the bill. Let the bill be passed, and a demand will arise for the schools. This will create a de- mand for teachers, and the demand will lead to a supply. The promoters of this bill have wisely abstained from re- stricting in any way the methods of instruction to be used in the schools. The measure expresses a willingness on the part of the state to accommodate its policy to the wishes of the par- ents of deaf children to retain them at home ; and, in pursu- ance of this spirit of accommodation, the bill leaves the parents and local authorities some liberty of choice regarding methods of instruction. When the most experienced teachers are divided as to the value of the different methods of instruction, who is competent to decide ? The state may rest assured, that, when the interests of their afflicted children are at stake, the parents will be apt to make a careful choice. The state is secured against rash experiments of a doubtful nature by the general control to be exercised over all the schools by the state super- intendent and the state board of supervision, who also control the operations of the Delavan institution. By this provision also the harmonious relations of the small day schools to the central institution are guaranteed. It is to me a matter of regret that the amount of the state aid should have been limited to 8100 per annum for each child instructed; for it is obvious that the higher the limit fixed by the state the more will it be possible to extend the benefits of the measure into the smaller centres of population. To my mind, the limit should ultimately be fixed at that amount, whatever it may be, which represents the average per capita cost at the state institution. I believe, however, that the amount of $100 per annum is sufficient to test the operations of the plan. Experience will show how far the measure fulfills the expectations of its promoters, and if successful the state can then consider what further increase of state aid may be advis- able or necessary. Each centre of instruction, established under the pro visions of the bill, will radiate an influence into the surrounding country districts, and tend to attract into the schools deaf-mutes from these districts. In this way many deaf-mutes in rural dis- tricts may be reached whose parents would object to send their children far away from home to the state institution. It may also be possible, under the provisions of the bill, to establish a school in an incorporated village where there may not be a suffi- cient number of deaf children to support a teacher, by collect- ing into that centre a sufficient number of children from the surrounding country. The nearer the school approaches to the home of a child the less likelihood is there that he will escape 370 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. instruction. Little by little, as the measure is put into opera- tion, new centres of instruction will arise, each radiating its influence into the neighboring places, so that ultimately the benefits of the bill will reach into every nook and corner of the state. The multiplication of small schools upon diverse plans renders it possible for the first time in the history of the country to settle by a natural process the disputed points concerning the education of the deaf. A single state school with an estab- lished method of intruction, like an established religion, tends to intolerance. A number of small schools depending for life upon the results produced is iavorable to progress. It should be the duty of the state superintendent and state board of supervision to keep careful note of the processes employed in the various schools ; and it should also be their duty to collect statistics that would demonstrate the influence of the methods of instruction upon the after lives of the pupils. Then we may expect progress, and the state of Wisconsin will point the way for the other states to follow. In the above argument I have attempted to show: 1. That the operation of the bill is calculated to bring under instruction a larger number of the uneducated deaf chil- dren of the state than would be possible on the institution plan. 2. That their instruction may be commenced at an earlier age than has heretofore been practicable. 3. That by her constitution Wisconsin is pledged to offer the benefits of education to all her children between the ages of four and twenty years, and that in the case of the deaf she can- not fulfill this obligation, excepting upon some such plan as that provided for in the bill. 4. That the conditions created by the bill are eminently favorable to the cultivation of speech and speech reading, and 5. That the conditions are also favorable to the growth of improvements in the methods of instruction. In conclusion allow me to express my earnest and heartfelt desire that you may see fit to recommend to the legislature the passage of this bill, which, in my opinion, is destined to confer untold blessings on the deaf and upon society. I am, gentlemen, yours very respectfully, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Although the legislature hesitated regarding so radical an innovation, the bill became a law March 31, 1885. Thus originated what is now pointed to and known as "the Wisconsin system," considered a model for other states in providing for the education of deaf-mutes. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 371 MISS DAISY WAY AND HER MOTHER. These two ladies greatly assisted the phonological in- stitute in advancing its objects and most opportunely in securing the passage of the law that has placed Wisconsin in advance of other states in the education of deaf-mutes. Sickness deprived Miss Way of hearing at the age of five years and with it she lost her speech. She was an only and very bright and beautiful child. He mother went with her to Mystic, Connecticut, where she was placed in the Whipple school of articulation for the deaf. At the end of one year she returned to her home in Ores- ton, Iowa, under a private teacher of articulation a year, after which she was taught by her mother. She entered the public school in classes with hearing children, successfully completed the course and graduated with honor from the high school, reading in public an original essay. Her father having lost his property and health, it was necessary for her to fit herself tor self-support. With this object in view she came to Milwaukee to take a course in a business college, which she accomplished with marked suc- cess, and soon thereafter accepted a responsible position in a large financial institution in Kansas City, which she still occupies. Miss Way and her mother spent the winter of 1884-5 in Milwaukee at a time when such intelligent, accomplished and enthusiastic representatives of the oral method were most needed. They immediately became a center of attraction and around them gathered not only the large circle comprised in the phonological institute and ladies' auxiliary society, but many others. Miss Way's winning manner and interesting conversa- tion drew about her the most cultivated people, and she be- came a social favorite. Both she and her mother were so deeply interested in favor of the oral method of educating the deaf, that they were more than anxious to lend their aid for its advancement. While in Milwaukee her frequent visits to the day school for the oral instruction of the deaf were a source of encouragement and inspiration. They thoroughly believed in small day schools for the oral in- struction of the deaf, and in this behalf they went to Madison to urge the passage of the bill providing for day schools for the deaf in incorporated cities and villages as a part of the 372 PUBLIC DAY SCAOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. public school system. In her own person, Miss Way was an excellent example of the benefit that might be expected from such a measure, both to pupils and teachers. The presence of Miss Way and her mother in Madison was announced, and members of the legislature, friends of education and citizens called upon them. Miss Way's fluent speech, intelligence and grace surprised and captivated legis- lators and others, and so many hearts were touched and minds opened that it became comparatively easy to get the merits of the bill for the day schools for the deaf considered. Miss Way and her mother had helped to prepare the way for Prof. Alexander Graham Bell and his powerful advocacy of the measure, the adoption of which has already done much for the benefit of the deaf-mutes of Wisconsin and is des- tined to confer untold blessings upon such children in other states as well, for whose education and prospects in life it marks a new and better era in the progress of deaf-mute education. STATISTICS OF DAY SCHOOLS. There are now in operation in Wisconsin three public day schools for the deaf, all by the oral method, located as follows : One in Milwaukee, with forty-two pupils, a principal and five class teachers assisted by five normal students. One in Wausau, with five pupils and one teacher. One in La Crosse, with eight pupils and one teacher. Total number of pupils fifty-five. Steps are being taken to establish an oral public day school in Manitowoc. In view of the special qualifications required and the exhausting character of the work, the Mil- waukee school board pays teachers in the oral school for the deaf $100 per annum more than it pays class teachers of hear- ing children. The same course of studies is pursued in the school for the deaf as in hearing schools. By the rules of the board ten pupils constitute the mini- mum for a class, but experience has shown that the number is too large, and that classes of five are large enough when taught by the oral method and that smaller classes are preferable. NORMAL DEPARTMENT. The normal department of the Wisconsin phonological institute has trained twenty-two teachers by the oral method. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 373 They have come from various parts of the country, as fol- lows: Milwaukee 9, Chicago 1, Iowa 1, Boston, Mass., 1, Portland, Me., 1, New York state 2, New York city 1, West Virginia 1, Wausau, Wis., 2, Washington county, Wis., 1, La Crosse, Wis., 1., Canada 1. Eight had taught in hearing schools before entering this work, and one had taught six years in a day school lor the oral instruction of the deaf. GRADUATES. Graduates from the day school for the deaf in Milwau- kee, have experienced little difficulty in rinding opportuni- ties to learn such trades as they prefer. One has entered the public high school in classes with hearing pupils, and one is pursuing a course in a business college with the intention of taking charge of her father's books and counting-room in a large manufacturing business. They are excellent lip read- ers and speak quite well, although one has a partial facial paralysis and the other sutlers from catarrhal troubles that affect her speech. They are both semi-mutes. PREPARATION OF TEXT-BOOKS. The need of text-books and manuals for students and teachers of articulation has received the attention of the phonological institute. To supply that want they engaged the services of Prof. Paul Binner, who began several years ago the preparation of works on the " Anatomy of the Or- gans of Speech," " Physiology of the Elements of Speech " and " Special Pedagogy for Teachers of the Deaf.'' These works, in manuscript, comprising the lectures of Prof. Binner to the normal students, have been in use in the normal department of the institute some time experiment- ally and proved to be well adapted to the purpose for which they were intended. The publication of these books was delayed until a con- venient time for the institute to defray the expense, as pub- lishers could not be obtained on account of the probable small demand. The manuscripts were, during the past summer, put in the hands of leading oralists for examination. During the progress of the examination they found that Dr. Thomas Arnold, of the oral school for the deaf, North Hampton, England, had recently published a book covering much the same ground in such a manner as they then thought rendered the publication of Prof. Burner's books unnecessary. 374 PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. From the preface of Dr. Arnold's book it appears that it was suggested in 1886, while Prof. Dinner began his work much earlier. It thus appears that Prof. Paul Dinner in America and Dr. Thomas Arnold in England, were each working inde- pendently along the same lines without the knowledge of the other. From a more thorough comparison of Dr. Arnold's book with Prof. Dinner's manuscript it appears that the former does not adequately supply the place of the latter, which will probably be published before long. This again adds to the honor of Wisconsin in the line of progress in the education of deaf-mutes. PLEDGES FULFILLED. When the Wisconsin phonological institute engaged the attention of the Milwaukee school board and the state legis- lature in behalf of its objects it voluntarily pledged itseit to use its best endeavors to supply trained teachers by the oral method, and to be watchful of the day schools. This obliga- tion has not been neglected. In prosecuting the work which it has assumed it has spared no effort, been deterred by no obstacle, faltered at no discouragement, but has given freely of its time, ability and means for the good of the cause and the advancement of the state in this direction. Its money expenditures aggregate about $15,000, con- sisting mostly of contributions from citizens of Milwaukee. A DUTY OF THE STATE. It will not be denied that the duty of the state to pro- vide for the training of teachers for the oral instruction of deaf-mutes is no less binding and imperative than is its duty to provide for training teachers of hearing children. For the latter it has to some extent provided, but not adequately. For the former it has made no special provis- ion. To meet this obligation, however, will be easy and inexpensive for the state in conriection with the state normal school at Milwaukee and by joint arrangement with the Milwaukee school board, securing the services of the teachers in the public day school for the deaf and the use of that school for practice work. CATHOLIC SCHOOL FOR DEAF-MUTES. This sketch of progress in Wisconsin in the education of deaf-mutes would be incomplete did it omit to mention PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS FOR DEAF MUTES. 375 the school established and maintained for that purpose by the Catholic church at St. Francis, a beautiful southern suburb of Milwaukee. Among a most interesting cluster of Catholic educa- tional reformatory and ecclesiastical schools and institutions at St. Francis is one for the deaf-mutes, under the charge of Rev. M. M. Gerend assisted by Catholic sisters. At one time this school was taught by the oral method, but was changed to a sign school for lack of time to develop speech. A feature of special interest in this school is the atten- tion given to carving, drawing and cabinet work, in which the pupils excel. Specimens of their work in altar pieces, shown at the Milwaukee exposition, were marked by a high order of skill. For such work the services of its pupils are in demand and command good wages. It is needless to add that the school was established and is maintained in pursuance of the policy of the Roman Catholic church, based on the opinion that the best way to make good men and citizens and save their souls is to com- bine religious with secular education in the same school. It is, however, deplored that in view of the noble ser- vices rendered to the cause of oral instruction of deaf-mutes by the Roman Catholic church and its representatives, that in -Wisconsin it should neglect the spiritual advantages of speech in the education of its deaf-mute children. It is, to say the least, extremely doubtful if so grave a consideration as this should be made secondar} r to skill in handicraft, however valuable that may be, and doubtless is, to the community. R. C. SPENCER. SPECIAL FORMS AND AGENCIES OF EDUCATION. Wisconsin Farmers' Institutes. Education in the United States is constantly taking more so-called practical turns. High schools, academies, colleges and universities are changing and broadening their curricula, to give not only mental culture, but an equipment of knowledge in the principles and technicalities of business life. The mechanic, as well as the lawyer, learns something of his business in the schools, and the student of agriculture is taking his place with the readers of Latin verse and Greek philosophy. Our educational system is enclosed in rubber bands of modern practical judgment, rather than in the iron handcuffs of ancient superstitions. It is becoming elastic enough for the diversified tastes, tal- ents and needs of men. It is meeting the remarkable pro- gress of the last fifty years in agriculture with a strong, helping hand. We have departments of agriculture in our universities, colleges of agriculture and farmers' institutes. The institutes are the product of recent years. In Wisconsin they were the outgrowth of the work of the state dairymen's association, and the annual conventions of the state agricultural society. Honorable C. E. Estabrook, listening to an address upon farm topics by the late Hiram Smith, became impressed with the value of plain talks upon farm topics by practical men. At the legislative session of 1885 he secured the enactment of the following law, drawn and introduced by him : Section 1. The board of regents of the state university is hereby authorized to hold institutes for the instruction of citizens of this state in the various branches of agriculture. Such in- stitutes shall be held at such times in the months of November, December, January, February, March and April in each year, and at such places as said board may direct. The said board shall make such rules and regulations as it may deem proper for organizing and conducting such institutes, and may employ an agent or agents to perform such work in connection therewith as they deem best. The course of instruction at such institutes shall be so arranged as to present to those in attendance the re- sults of the most recent investigations in theoretical and prac- tical agriculture. Section 2. For the purposes mentioned in the preceding section, the said board may use such sum as they may deem 378 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 379 proper, not exceeding the sum of five thousand dollars in any one year, from the general fund, and such amount is hereby an- nually appropriated for that purpose. In 1887 this act was amended by an increase of the ap- propriation to $12,000 per annum. The warmest friends of the law had no conception of the remarkable benefits to the state which would result from it. The management of the $12,000 annually appropriated was wisely left in the haned of the regents of the state university. This was done to keep the machinery of the institutes beyond the reach of politial manipulation. The appropriation was not deemed in any sense a gift to the university, but an outside addition to the labors and responsibilities of the regents of that institution. The board had uniformly delegated its authority in this matter to the agricultural committee, composed of three of its members. It has been carried on from the beginning without ma- terial change except in the employment of lecturers and en- largement. Two things were necessary, the first to make the institutes valuable, the second to make them popular. In securing the first the geography of the state was looked over and the varying farm interests of the different sections care fully studied. Institutes were located at accessible points, and fairly apportioned to the agricultural counties. Some of the brightest men of the state were called into the service, and divided into two corps of workers, in order that two in- stitutes might be in operation at the same time. The present winter four institutes are held in different parts of the state at the same time. The aim has been from the commencement to make them both entertaining and instruc- tive. All topics of a political character have been rigorously excluded. It was assumed that the institute appropriation was for the purpose of establishing farmers' schools, where they should be taught definite things about their business without bringing in the disturbing elements of political or religious discussion. Each institute consisted of five sessions, including an evening session. The sessions varied in length from three to four hours. The reading of long and elaborate dissertations was discouraged. Brief, plain, pointed talks from the regular corps of workers were required. Sky-scraping oratory and glittering generalities were at a discount, and the clearly defined facts of experience at a premium. There was a constant pressure of encourage- 380 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. ment for discussion. Every effort was made to bring farmers to their feet and draw from them their knowledge by which all could profit. Many distinguished men from other states were em- ployed as lecturers during the first two years. Professor Robertson, of Canada, brought the resources of a splendidly equipped mind, a broad experience, a simplicity of statement remarkable for strength and clearness, to supplement the original thought and profound scholarship of Dr. Manly Miles, of Michigan. Dr. Grange, of the Michigan agricul- tural college, taught veterinary science with charts, in a way that the farmers could understand. Professor Cook and Chas. W. Garfield, from the same state, added new interest and increased profits to the study of horticulture ; and Pro- fessor Roberts, of Cornell university, preached the gospel of regeneration for Wisconsin soils with great force and effect- iveness. T. B. Terry, of Ohio, one of the best agricultural writers in America, delivered addresses upon general farm topics and home life, which displayed not only the richness of generous mental culture, but the greater richness of a "saving common sense.". John Gould, of the same state, made tens of thousands of friends for himself and the insti- tute by his genial and pungent wit, his heartfelt sympathy with the farming interests, and his clear understanding of how dairy questions should be put to the farmers to hold their attention and reform their judgment. Many other gentlemen, strong in special lines of agricultural knowledge, were drawn from other states to make the institutes attrac- tive, strong and helpful W. I. Chamberlin and Waldo F. Brown, of Ohio, J. H. Hale, of Connecticut, President Wm. Brown and McPherson, of Canada. Among the Wisconsin men who gave practical value to the institutes was the Hon. Hiram Smith, whose monu- ment stands in the dairy school of the state university. In all the years of his service as a regent of that institution he not only gave the best counsel and support to the institutes, but rendered, without compensation, most effective service upon the institute platform. He worked out the problems of the dairy business on his own farm and backed his de- fense of modern methods and a more scientific agriculture with definite details of actual results. The farmers trusted and believed in him as a teacher, because of his uncompro- mising honesty of judgment and his closeness to them inlife- and sympathies. WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 381 W. D. Hoard was another of the distinguished pioneers in the institute work, and did remarkable service in laying broad and deep its foundations. The editor of the leading dairy paper in the West, an enthusiastic student of all the questions involved in agricultural progress, with fine pow- ers of analysis and discrimination, with the courage of his con- victions, and a talent of persuasive oratory, brightened by native wit and enriched with pregnant thought and illustra- tion, he stirred the dormant faculties of thousands of Wis- consin's farmers to new life, and gave not only great prac- tical value to the institute work, but gave it a peculiar charm and a widespread popularity. No record of the early history of Wisconsin farmers' institutes would be complete without reference to the work of Prof. W. A. Henry, of the state university. From the be- ginning he saw in the institutes an unlimited and fruitful field for labor. He saw the opportunity which they gave to popularize the study of agriculture as an art. He saw in them a means of bringing the university closer to the peo- ple. From the institute platform he addressed the farmers of every agricultural county in the state. His earnestness, his evident love of his work, his freedom from any pride of opinion, his conservative judgment, his strong equipment of definite knowledge, his unbounded faith in the capacity of the average farmer for development, his intense loyalty and love of the agricultural interest, his talent for putting the meat of modern knowledge in form for popular digestion, enabled him to sweep away many prejudices against " book learning" and college professors, and to aid greatly in making the Wisconsin farmer a more self-respecting and successful business man. Other gentlemen with distinctive talents aided materi- ally in the effectiveness of the institute work. C. R. Beach, Theodore Louis, H. C. Adams, J. M. Smith, C. P. Goodrich, George McKerrow, George Wylie, and a host of others have been developed by the work, and their names are spoken with thankfulness and pride in thousands of Wisconsin homes, and many have rendered efficient service in other states. Prof. Robertson, of Canada, who had studied the agri- culture of the leading nations of Europe, stated that he never met in the fields of agricultural education so able a body of men as the institute workers of Wisconsin. The institutes were popularized by systematic and ingenious 382 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. advertising. In the beginning they were looked upon with indifference and suspicion by the majority of the farming population. If conservatism is rock-rooted anywhere, it is in the rural districts. The institute worker was charged with being made up of visionary theories. A tasty business suit, clean linen and polished boots condemned him as no farmer. The isolation of the farmer is fatal to liberality or progress, and every young farmer who has aspirations for better methods, better stock, is censured, criticized and pulled down. If every school district could have its monthly farmers' club meeting at each other's homes it would accomplish wonders in elevating the social and material prosperity of rural neighborhoods. The quickest and warmest sympathizers of the institute work were found among the professional and business men of the state. Lists were secured of these and of farmers within a radius of twenty miles of each institute, and per- sonal invitations sent to five hundred persons, representing all lines of business, two weeks in advance of each meeting. A sample of the advertising is contained in the appendix to this paper. The points were printed on cards and mailed with circular letters and programmes to tens of thousands of farmers' homes. Clergymen were requested to announce the institute from their respective pulpits. Teachers were asked to prepare and conduct the evening session with their schools. The local press was induced to give generous ad- vertising. The leading dailies of Milwaukee sent corre- spondents with the institutes and gave their proceedings a wide publicity. The evening sessions were largely devoted to educational and home topics, and men, women and chil- dren of all classes thronged the meetings. Prejudice against the institutes began to disappear in the light of their suc- cessful work. Men came to criticize and went away to think. Cranks were sent to the rear, and men who were a success upon the farm and knew things were brought to the front. The men with baseless theories found the institutes an ene- my's camp. The man with facts and sound reasons found warm appreciation, whether he had the polish of the schools or the plain accomplishments of the farm. The standard of knowledge was not only raised, but love and respect for farming strengthened. The doctrine was steadily taught that sufficient power lay in the farmer himself to bring profit and dignity to his life and business, and that farm- ers, as a class, would never gain power or respect in busi- WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 383 ness, social or political life by simply denouncing other in- terests and classes. The institutes became educational in many ways. The most successful farmers in the state are employed as speakers to give their experience. The pro- grammes are meaty and practical, and are formulated entirely with the view of better farming, better stock, better homes, better schools and a broader social life for the farmer and his family. The institutes are held in small towns and cities, often eight miles back in the country, away from railways. In many instances one-half the attendance is composed of townspeople. Farmers, professional and business men are brought into closer relation, the proceedings interest them and broaden their judgment of the possibilities of farm life. Children from the public schools are often interested listen- ers. The idea that farming was a business for brain as well as muscle received new lodgment in city residence as well as country home. The merchants of the state have be- come almost a unit in the support of the institute work. With intelligent selfishness they see in it a means of making richer and more prosperous farmers, better customers and more public-spirited citizens. Out of the addresses and discussions came a universal familiarity with the alphabet of the sciences which make up agriculture. The word nitrogen began to mean something to the average farmer. The microbe dropped from an elephant of the imagination to a tiny manufacturer of fertile soils. The farmers' boys began to know something about carbohydrates and phos- phates. Farm life began to take on a new charm when il- luminated with scientific knowledge and healthful senti- ment. The institutes give good training in debate. They teach farmers to think and express themselves upon their feet. The hesitation of farmers to talk in public is beginning to disappear because of the easy opportunities afforded by these meetings. They are rapidly learning that when a man has anything to say, he can interest an audience even if his grammar or clothing is a little awry. The institutes have done good service in turning the light of discussion upon the domestic side of farm life. The talks about cook- ing, about household conveniences, about family govern- ment, about the recreation needed by the hard-worked farmers' wives and their children, about social obligations, about the educational influences which can be brought into 384 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. every farmer's home through newspapers, magazines, books, music, and a thorough study of the real refinements of life, have borne their fruits in many a farmer's home. But the institute work, as it has been done and as it is being done in Wisconsin, will be measured in the public judgment whether properly or not by its value to the state in dollars and cents. When an annual appropriation of $12,000 was made for them by the state legislature, it was done in deference to no sentimentality, but to make an in- vestment of that amount of money in an undertaking to in- crease the wealth of the state, to increase its taxable property and thereby its revenues. It was a plain business proceed- ing, like a purchase of government bonds, and it has paid great dividends. The agriculture of every state and country 011 the globe is capable of improvement. Wisconsin is no exception. The native richness of her soils had been sold off, as Theodore Louis once remarked, in the half bushel. The average wheat yield of the state had dropped to ten or twelve bushels per acre against a yield of twenty-eight bushels in England. The profits of the farm are dependent upon thoughtful, intelligent management. The institute appro- priation was made to stimulate and enrich the farm mind of the state and so raise the average of production. It operated to bring the wisdom and practices of the successful farmer home to the comprehension of his less thrifty neighbor. The following topics treated in the institutes are given to indicate the character and tendency of the work: Mak- ing, Saving and Applying Composts. How Shall We Re- store the Fertility oi the Farm ? Green Manures. The Manurial Value of Different Kinds of Feed. Clover as a Fertilizer. Animal Husbandry Conduces to Rich, Produc- tive Soil. Plowing and Cultivation. Thorough Tillage. Deep Cultivation and Surface Cultivation. Clover and Grasses. Pastures and Meadows. Blue Grass. Feed Rations. Oats and Peas. Grain Raising. Clover Hay Making. Corn Culture. The Importance of Good Seed. Noxious Weeds. Soil Preparation and Planting of Potatoes. Cultivation of the Potato Crop. Harvesting and Storing Potatoes. The Bordeaux Mixture for Potato Blight. Corn Growing. The Silo. Best Forage Crop for Silage. The Farmers' Garden. Small Fruit Culture. Orcharding. Cooking Demonstration. Domestic Economy. Literature in the Farmer's Family. Rural Architecture. The Home. How Shall We Improve Our Country Roads ? Shall We WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 385 Have Pure Food? Swine Husbandry. Feeding for Lean Meat. Early Maturity. Sheep Husbandry. Management of tbe Breeding Flock. Mutton Sheep in Wisconsin. Crops to Grow for Sheep. Winter Lamb Raising. Selection and Breeding for the Dairy. How I Feed Dairy Cows. How to Avoid Losses of Butter Fat in Butter Making. Co- operative Creameries. Butter Making on the Farm. Cheese Making. The Separator for the Farm. Pig Pens. Con- struction of the Cow Stable. Ventilation and Sunlight in our Stables. Construction of Stable Floors to Save the Liquid Manures. The Most Profitable Horse for the Farmer to Raise. Beef Production. Poultry on the Farm, etc., etc. Every phase of rural economy receives attention. The consideration of these subjects, ably presented to tens of thousands of farmers, could not fail to raise the aver- age of knowledge and of farm revenues. Breeders of pure bred cattle stated that increased demands for their stock followed the path of the institutes, and it is a notorious fact that the grade of Wisconsin butter has been raised at least twenty per cent, during the last* five years. Merchants in the towns where institutes have been held, state in some cases that the average quality has been improved one hun- dred per cent. The value of the butter product of the state is at least $8.000,000 per year. If the institutes were to be credited with only one-tenth of this increase, an absurdly low estimate, they would have added to the annual value of the butter product alone $80,000, or enough to pay the state appropriation for their support for six years. The change from exhaustive grain-raising to the dairy business in some counties has produced wonderful results. One county at the commencement of the institutes, eight years ago, reported one creamer}^, just built. The dairy product from that county the past year gave a revenue to its farmers of over $500,000. The loss to the state through injudicious hand- ling of manures has been estimated by Prof. Roberts and others at $12,000,000 per year. The institutes have helped stop a proportion of the waste large enough to pay its cost for forty years. In the improvement of stock, in its care, in the renovation of soils and the better handling of products, they have done a work wonderfully rich in its financial fruitage. The present winter one hundred institutes are being held, and the improvement of country roads is being discussed. Mutton sheep production is receiving marked attention. At present we only have 800,000 sheep in the 386 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. entire state. Scotland with no larger area than ours has 8,000,000. With such large cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, Si. Paul and Minneapolis to supply, the production of first- class mutton sheep will prove very remunerative. The practical workings of the institutes have been peculiarly desirable in one respect. They have been help- ful to all other forms and kinds of agricultural education; to the agricultural press, to the agricultural societies, to the granges and farmers' clubs, and especially to the agricul- tural department of the state university. Not only in these ways, but through a wide distribution of the definite knowl- edge of the experiment station, they have helped all the organized agencies which help the farmer. The cream of the institutes of each year is published in a bulletin containing several hundred pages of concise dis- cussion of leading topics. Six numbers have been published. Each one records the best of the year's work. One hundred and ninety thousand copies have been issued, the great expense incurred being paid for by advertisers. The bul- letins of the preceding year are distributed free at each insti- tute, and become a permanent reminder of the facts and ideas there stated, and form a digest of the latest and best agricultural thought. Members of the legislature are sup- plied with all the copies they wish for their constituents. Every cheese factory and creamery in the state, there being over 1,600, is supplied upon request for copies to furnish their patrons. They are called for from Maine to Texas ; from California and Oregon, and the states of New England. They are appreciated and quoted in England and conti- nental Europe. Only a short time ago the London Live- stock Journal devoted two entire columns to an exhaustive review. Peter Collier, director of the New York experiment station, says: "I question whether better work in behalf of agriculture is being done in the world." A. L. Crosby, the noted breeder of Maryland, writes of the bulletin : " It is agricultural hash, not made from left-over, but out of fresh material just from the best markets." Editorially the Breed- ers' Gazette declares: "The fame of the bulletins of the Wisconsin farmers' institutes has spread over two continents. They are a small agricultural library in themselves." Pro- fessor Jas. W. Robertson, the dairy commissioner of Canada, says that " the Wisconsin farmers' institute bulletins have always been packed full of useful information, put in such a winsome way that those who read it are likely to act upon its recommendations." WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 387 The free distribution of the bulletins into every agricul- tural district of the state is accomplishing an educational work beyond the reach of the institutes. The fellow who knows it all who will not read an agricultural paper nor attend farmers' institute meetings, receives a bulletin, which is read more from curiosity than a desire for more knowl- edge, and unconsciously drifts into better and more profit- able methods, and becomes a convert to the institute idea. The farm institutes will only touch their highest point of efficiency when they reach this class. Although in the past eight years nearly five hundred institutes have been held, yet we doubt if over one-fifth of the farmers of our state have ever attended one of the sessions. The work in the future will be in a measure directed to reach these non- attendants, first, by establishing permanent organizations of county institutes, then by an organization of town insti- tutes, which shall hold regular meetings and send delegates to the larger organizations. In this way the institute work can be pushed into every neighborhood, and its influence extend to every farm home. Lists of names have already been obtained from three thousand school districts. This work will be continued until the names and post-office address of nearly 160,000 of Wisconsin farmers will be upon file in this office, and the foundation well begun fora mammoth educa- tional organization. The institutes, in their organization and development, are the results of no ephemeral impulse. They have become a fixed part of the educational system of the state. They have helped the state university. A member of the execu- tive committee, a cultured gentleman, an able lawyer and a broad-minded student of educational forces, recently re- marked that the institutes had not only lifted the farming interests of the state, but they had gone over the state like a great rake, drawing many of the brightest and best of Wis- consin's youth into the splendid discipline of the university courses. W. H. MORRISON. APPENDIX. BENEFITS OF FARMERS 5 INSTITUTES. The farmers' institutes are sources from which knowledge can be drawn. They stimulate a pride and respect for farming. They bring farmers together in closer social relations. 388 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. They make public the latest discoveries in agriculture. They give the farmers of the state an opportunity to meet men who have made their business a science as well as an art. They are banks for the deposit of experience, that may be- come the common property of all. They are the organized friends of good crops and good prices. They teach the duties of home and citizenship. They tend to keep a fair portion of the best boys upon the farm. They energize and fertilize local thought and arouse attention. They cost less than a single cigar to each farmer of the state. UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. Closing Wisconsin Farmers' institute, Fond du Lac, March 1, 2 and 8, 1893. Better farming, better homes, better schools, and a broader social life. Prior to the first session, between the hours of nine and ten o'clock, several hundred books will be distributed free. The first session will commence at ten o'clock sharp. PEOGEAMME. POTATO DAY, MARCH 1. Soil preparation and planting of potatoes, J. M. Smith, Green Bay, Wisconsin. Cultivation of the potato crop, George Martin, Hudson, Wis- consin. Harvesting and storing of potatoes, M. T. Allen, Waupaca, Wisconsin. How to grow the cheapest bushel of potatoes, T. B. Terry, Hudson, Obio. How to grow potatoes of superior quality, F. A. Huebner, Manitowoc, Wisconsin. The Bordeaux mixture for potato blight, Prof. E. S. Goff, Ex- periment station, Madison, Wisconsin. SHEEP DAY, MARCH 2. Selection of breeding sheep, A. 0. Fox, Oregon, Wisconsin. Management of breeding sheep, Eobert Miller, Brougham, Canada. Crops to grow for sheep, George McKerrow, Sussex, Wis- consin. Feeding sheep, Prof. J. A. Craig, Experiment station, Madi- son, Wisconsin. Diseases, remedies and care of the flock, C. D. Smead, V. S., Logan, New York. Winter lamb raising, J. S. Woodward, Lockport, New York. WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 389 DAISY DAY, MARCH 8. How shall we secure profitable cows? B. S. Kingtnan, Sparta, Wisconsin. How to produce the best cow feeds at the least cost. How shall we feed her for the greatest profit ? C. P. Good- rich, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. How to avoid losses of butter fat in butter making, Dr. S. M. Babcock, Experiment station, Madison, Wisconsin. How the best and choicest butter is made, W. H. Gilbert, Bichland, New York. In connection with this topic there will be an exhibit of butter from some of the most noted dairies in the Union. How and where our fancy cheese is manufactured, J. H. Monrad, Chicago, Illinois. With the discussion of this subject, samples of the best fancy cheese known, both domestic and foreign, will be exhibited. In addition to the above there will be two evening sessions, at which President Adams, of the state university, Prof. Henry, T. J. Van Matre, and many others will take part. T. B. Terry will also give his popular lecture, "The Wife's Share." Miss M. L. Clarke, of the Milwaukee cooking school, has been engaged to give a cooking lesson each afternoon to the ladies. Questions and discussions after each topic. Come to the institute, and bring your wife, your sons and daughters. Invite your neighbors. The institute is yours. Bring samples of grain, butter, cheese, vegetables, fruit, etc. This is a free feast. Come for your share. Bring this programme with you to the institute. EOCK COUNTY. FARMERS' INSTITUTE. Evansville, February 23 and 24, 1893. Conducted by M. A. Thayer. Better farming, better homes, better schools, and a broader social life. Prior to the first session, between the hours of nine and ten o'clock, several hundred books will be distributed free. The first session commences at ten o'clock sharp. PEOGEAMME. THURSDAY MORNING SESSION, 10 O'CLOCK. How shall we maintain the fertility of the farm ? C. H. Everett. Clover as a fertilizer, C. A. Hatch. 390 WISCONSIN FARMERS' INSTITUTES. AFTERNOON SESSION, 1 :80 O'CLOCK. Sheep for profit, W. L. Ames. How shall we secure profitable cows ? C. H. Everett. My experience with a farm dairy, E. 0. "Wheelock. EVENING SESSION, 7 :30 O'CLOCK HORTICULTURAL SESSION. Music, Congregational choir. The farmers' garden, M. A. Thayer. Improvement associations, Prof. E. S. Goff. Kecitation, Miss Grace Alsop. Horticulture for young people, M. A. Thayer. An address, B. S. Hoxie. Music. FRIDAY MORNING SESSION, 9 :30 O'CLOCK. Clover hay-making, C. H. Everett. Grain raising, C. A. Hatch. Corn culture, W. L. Ames. AFTERNOON SESSION, 1 :80 O'CLOCK. Testing milk with the Babcock test. Swine husbandry, C. H. Everett. Improvement of country roads, C. A. Hatch. Question box, free for all. Questions and discussions after each topic. Come to the institute, and bring your wife, your sons and daughters. Invite your neighbors. The institute is yours. Bring samples of grain, butter, cheese, vegetables, fruit, etc. This is a free feast. Come for your share. Bring this programme with you to the institute. University Extension in Wisconsin. As early as 1885 provision was made in Wisconsin for a form of university extension, both novel and eminently suc- cessful. This was the creation of the farmers' institutes, under university direction, described elsewhere in this volume. This system is Wisconsin's original contribution to university extension, and it has promoted both the agri- cultural prosperity of the state and the solidarity of interests between the university and the farmer. Writing in Har- per's Magazine in April, 1888, Charles Dudley Warner said : " Wisconsin is working out its educational ideas on an in- telligent system, and one that may be expected to demonstrate the mil value of the popular method I mean a more intimate connection of the university with the life of the people than exists elsewhere. * * * The distinguishing thing, however, about the state university is its vital connection with the farmers and agricultural interests. * * I know of no other state where a like system of popular instruction on a vital and universal interest of the state, directed by the highest educational author- ity, is so perfectly organized and carried on with such unity of purpose and detail of administration ; no other in which the farmer is brought systematically into such direct relations to the university." With the establishment of the chair of the science and art of teaching, in 1885, the university reached out to the teachers' institutes of the state its helping hand. The pro- fessor in that department was made lecturer at the institutes, and during the spring and fall, when the institutes are in session, devotes most of his time to their service. In this way from thirty to forty lectures have been delivered each year. Although Wisconsin had thus extended university influence directly to the farming and teaching classes it was not until 1891 that university extension of the English type was systematically organized in the state. The germs of the movement had long existed. Individual members of the faculty had given frequent lectures about, the state, and the studies of individuals and clubs had been directed by cor- respondence. In January, 1888, the Contemporary club, of 391 392 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN WISCONSIN. Madison, acting on the suggestion of the late William F. Allen, professor of history in the university a scholar quick to see and promote all helpful movements arranged a course of six free lectures on the history of the old Northwest. Of the lecturers, the majority were then or later members of the university faculty. The course was modeled on the " Old South Work " of Boston. A syllabus was distributed and courses of reading suggested. The state historical so- ciety, under the direction of its secretary, Reuben G. Thwaites, one of the lecturers, promoted reading by rendering its books easily accessible. In the following year a second course was given on the "Far West," and in 1890 a third course on " Crossing of the Alleghanies." The first two courses were repeated in Milwaukee, and calls were received for them in other parts of the state. In the winter of 1890-91 the writer conducted courses of six lectures in American his- tory at Columbus and Stoughton. At the close of December, 1890, Dr. T. C. Chamberlin, the president of the university, addressed the state teachers' association, at Madison, out- lining a proposed systematic organization of the work in Wisconsin. Two weeks later Professor H. B. Adams, of Johns Hopkins university, gave the biennial address before the state historical society, taking for his subject "The Higher Education of the People." At the opening of the academic year in the fall of 1891 the university issued circulars offering courses by ten mem- bers of the faculty. The unit course consisted of six lec- tures. Upon completing the required work candidates were given certificates entitling the holder to university credit, equivalent to one hour a week extending through one term. The fee was sixty dollars and all expenses, including the cost of furnishing syllabi to all the audience. Applications were considered from any suitable local organization. In several cases special extension societies were formed. In Milwaukee the movement was particularly well organized through the efforts of the people's institute, of which Mr. R. C. Spencer was the president. The response to the circu- lars was so quick and extensive that the university was unable to supply the demand. One hundred and seven requests for courses were received and fifty courses were given. Thirty-four cities were represented in these centers, five of which took two courses, and one (Milwaukee) nine. It is carefully estimated that the number of people who listened to the lectures was 8,500, and the attendance in class UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN WISCONSIN. 393 exercises aggregated 4,500. In the same year the estimated aggregate attendance upon farmers' institutes was 30,000. It is evident that the university activity was widely spread outside the class-room and laboratory. The usual audience was about one hundred and seventy-five. Of the courses given, seventeen were in English literature, eight in Ameri- can history, seven in geology, six in bacteriology, three in economics, two in botany, two in Scandinavian literature,, and two in electricity. Ninety-three persons passed the examinations entitling them to university credit. From all parts of the state reports came of increased interest in the formation and use of libraries. At the opening of the present academic year a staff of seven special extension lecturers was organized in addition to the nineteen members of the faculty who offered courses. In all, forty courses were offered, covering almost the entire range of university studies. The fee was raised to ninety dollars, and Mr. Lyman P. Powell was made secretary of the university extension department. Particular efforts were made by him to organize and stimulate the class work, and the formation of circuits. In spite of the additional fee and the added emphasis upon the purely educational side of the work, the secretary reported at the close of December, 1892, that fifty three calls had been accepted and ten courses com- pleted. The classes of Mrs. S. L. Sheldon (extension lec- turer in history), four of which are in Madison, three in Mil- waukee and one in Kenosha, are conducted on a special basis, the work being entirely class work, conducted largely by the topical method and occupying a much longer period of time. These classes have been organized for some years, and are now given as a part of the university's extension work. The people's institute of Milwaukee is also conducting classes in economics and history supplementary to the exten- sion lectures. In the case of at least three lecturers a select class in addition to the general class has been formed to pursue the study more minutely. Thus it is evident that the work of the year shows a hopeful increase in distinc- tively university character. The summer school of the University of Wisconsin- supplements the extension teaching, though organized on an independent basis. At its last session an attendance of 191 was reported. The university extension idea has also been incorporated into the university itself. Each department 394 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN WISCONSIN. offers a series of synoptical lectures on its subject, calculated to give the general student an insight into the vital features of the various lines of study which lie outside of his own course. It will be seen that Wisconsin has organized her educational activity on a distinctly democratic basis. A sys- tem of accredited high schools and affiliated normal schools enables the student of her public schools to pass directly from them to the university. Her farmers' institutes and the bulletins of her agricultural department bring the fruit of laboratory experimentation directly to the farm. Her general extension work is broader in the lists of subjects offered, reaches all quarters of the state, and the centers are more numerous than those of any other state university. F. J. TURNER. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE : Material for the history of the extension movement in Wisconsin is to be found in the following sources: University Extension, Vol. I., pp. 311-324; Catalogue of the University of Wisconsin, 1891-92, pp. 47. 64-66; Madison Democrat, December 22, 1892; University Extension World, January, 1893, pp. 17-18; Wiscon- sin Journal of Education, monthly, beginning September, 1892; Re- port of President C. K. Adams to the regents, January 4, 1893; Inaug- ural Address, January 17, 1893. The State Historical Society of Wisconsin. THE SUGGESTION. In the autumn of 1845, Richard H. Magoon, an early settler of what is now La Fayette county, Wisconsin, sug- gested to C. C. Britt, editor of The Mineral Point Democrat, the advisability of organizing an historical society "to collect from the pioneers then alive, such facts in regard to the early history of Wisconsin as they might possess, as well as to treasure up those concerning the future." In an article in his journal of the date of October twenty-second, 1845, Editor Britt forcibly seconded the motion, and asked his brethren of the press "to keep this ball in motion until the object is attained." The Madison Argus, of the twenty- eighth of October, fell in with the idea, and very soon all of the papers of Wisconsin Territory responded favorably to the call, while General William R. Smith, a distinguished pio- neer of Mineral Point, privately urged the matter in his neighborhood. It was hoped that, as a consequence of this agitation, something would be done in this direction during the forth- coming session of the territorial legislature at Madison ; but the session was a brief one, lasting only from January fifth to February third, 1846, and other affairs occupied the minds of the representative men gathered at the capital dur- ing that period. But in September, 1846, Mr. Britt renewed his editorial advocacy of the scheme, in The Milwaukee Courier, with which he had been connected, and advised that, during the convention that had been called to frame a state constitution, a meeting be held to perfect the historical so- ciety scheme. The Madison Democrat and several other journals followed The Courier's lead in this suggestion. THE FIRST ORGANIZATION. The first constitutional convention opened at Madison the fifth of October, 1846, most of the principal men of the territory being chosen as delegates to the body. Judge Thomas P. Burnett, of Grant county, one of the members, was nine days late in reaching Madison, owing to illness, 395 396 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. but upon his arrival he proceeded amid his other duties to do what he could to carry out the project of an historical society. He called a meeting of a few prominent delegates at his room in the American House, among those present being Governor J. D. Doty, General William R. Smith, Thomas W. Sutherland, George Hyer, A. Hyatt Smith and D. A. J. Upharn. Judge Burnett, who was among the most eminent of the early jurists of Wisconsin, addressed the meet- ing, and it was resolved to organize such a society. A more formal meeting was held in the state library room of the old capitol, a few evenings later, bolh confer- ences being held between the fourteenth and the twenty-fifth of October ; no record exists of the exact dates, and the local newspapers failed to notice the affair. A. Hyatt Smith of Janesville is reported to have been chairman of the second meeting and to have been chosen president of the society ; Judge Burnett and Governor Doty were selected as vice- presidents, E. M. Williamson of Madison as treasurer and Mr. Sutherland as secretary. A constitution providing for life and active members was adopted, and the officers were to hold until the first annual meeting in January following. Governor Doty was selected as the first annual orator. But at this annual meeting in January, 1847, held soon after the commencement of the legislative session, the governor failed to make the requested address. New officers were chosen, Morgan L. Martin of Green Bay being selected as president, while Sutherland and Williamson were re-elected to be secre- tary and treasurer respectively. There were, however, neither records kept nor money paid into the treasury, and the new president did not deliver the address he had been invited to prepare. The year had passed without progress or the perform- ance of any official duty. In January, 1848, during the second constitutional convention, another meeting was held, General William R. Smith being elected president. But the gathering was a failure, both as to numbers and interest, less than a dozen persons being present, and the first organiza- tion of the society may be considered as having died when the gavel sounded for adjournment. THE SECOND ORGANIZATION. There was, in after years, when the society became successful, some dispute as to whom the honor should be awarded for reviving the historical society idea a twelve- THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 397 month later. The parties to the dispute have now passed away, and we may safely inquire into its merits. To Eleazer Root, of Waukesha, Wisconsin's first state superintendent of public instruction, is doubtless chiefly due the credit of " the efficient movement " in this direction. From this time forward the records of the society are complete, and from them we gather that, on the twenty-ninth of January, 1849, nineteen days after the opening of the first session of the state legis- lature in Madison, a number of citizens and members of the legislature held a meeting at the American House to take the project of forming a state historical society into consid- eration, the previous existence of the old society, now defunct, being ignored. Of this meeting John Y. Smith, of Dane county, was chosen chairman, and E. M. Williamson, also of Dane, secretary. Superintendent Root explained the ob- ject sought. It was voted to organize such a society, and George Reed, of Waukesha, and Mr. Root were appointed a committee to draft a constitution and circulate a call. The following evening, as a result of this call, a well- attended popular meeting was convened in the senate cham- ber in the state house. Mr. Root was called to the chair and General William R. Smith, of Iowa county, officiated as sec- retary. Judge Charles H. Larrabee, of Dodge; Samuel Crawford, of Iowa; Alfred Brunson, of Crawford; General Smith, and John Y. Smith, made explanatory speeches. It was again formally decided to organize a society, and George Reed, John Y. Smith, and I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, were appointed a committee to draft a constitution. A brief and simple document was unanimously adopted, giving the name of the organization as "The Historical Society of Wisconsin." About one hundred and fifty persons, chiefly members of the legislature, signed the roll. Governor Nelson Dewey was chosen president of the society, as a compliment to his official station. The list of vice-presidents comprised one from each county in the state. I. A. Lapham, the distin- guished scientist and antiquarian, was elected corresponding secretary; Rev. Charles Lord, of Dane, was appointed record- ing secretary; E. M. Williamson, treasurer, and John Catlin, Beriah Brown, and Alexander Botkin, all of Dane, consti- tuted the executive committee. The other business of the meeting consisted solely of the passage of two resolutions : the first, inviting General Smith to deliver an address at the next annual meeting; and the second, asking the surveyors of the state to furnish to the society " actual measurements 398 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. of the ancient mounds and artificial earthworks in their vicinity." On the evening of Tuesday, January fifteenth, 1850, General W. R. Smith delivered, in the assemby cham- ber, the first annual address before the society, the judges of the supreme court and the regents of the state university being present as invited guests. The recording secretary has entered upon his journal that " the discourse was elabo- rate in its researches, felicitous in its style, classical in its tone, and pervaded throughout with a spirit of accuracy and of beauty, and by a warm sympathy with the truth uttered and the events and persons described." And, indeed, the printed copy of the address, which lies open before me as I write, warrants this warm encomium ; it carefully mapped out, for the first time, the general course of early Wisconsin history, and later explorers in that field have but added details to our knowledge. On Tuesday evening, January twenty-first, 1851, Mor- gan L. Morgan delivered the annual address; and March sixteenth, 1852, Lewis N. Wood, of Walworth, was the third annual speaker. But beyond these three addresses, nothing of importance was done during this period. The discourses, in pamphlet form, were sent out to perhaps a dozen other learned societies, and a library of fifty volumes was slowly accumulated all of these books being state laws, legislative journals, miscellaneous public documents, two volumes of the " Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," and a volume on American bibliography. The meagre collec- tion was contained in a small glass-faced case, kept on a table in a corner of the governor's office, and this case is now exhibited as a curiosity in the society's museum. THE REORGANIZATION. It was evident that the society would never amount to anything, at this rate of progress. What was everybody's business was nobody's ; somebody must devote his entire time to the work, becoming personally responsible for the conduct of the society's affairs, and giving to it life and individual character. The man for the place was imported to Madison in October, 1852. He was Lyman C. Draper, of Philadelphia, who had already spent about fifteen years in the accumulation of materials for Western history, achieving such success in his manuscript and book collections, in a time when collectors of Americana were few, as to attract the THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 399 attention of scholars throughout the Eastern states. Dr. Draper was then thirty-seven years of age, full of vigor and push, kindly of disposition, persuasive in argument, devoted to his life task of collecting, self-denying in the cause, and of unimpeachable character. For various reasons, not necessary here to recite, it was the eighteenth of January, 1854, before the society was thoroughly reorganized for work on the new plan. Dr. Draper was at that time chosen secretary, and at once entered with joyous enthusiasm upon the undertaking of accumu- lating books for the library, relics and curiosities for the museum, portraits for the gallery, and documents for publi- cation in the Wisconsin Historical Collections. In the course of a few weeks the little library case was too small. By the close of the year the secretary was enabled to report to the society the acquisition of one thousand volumes and one thousand pamphlets and documents certainly a remarkable showing as compared with the fifty books which had been the product of the five years preceding his active adminis- tration. For want of library space the greater part of the acquisitions were stored in Dr. Draper's residence until, in August, 1855, a small room in the corner of the basement of the local Baptist church was secured for the society's use. On the first of January, 1856, Daniel S. Durrie, a book- seller formerly in business at Albany, N. Y., was chosen librarian, and held this useful and honorable position for over thirty-six years, until his death, August thirty-first, 1892. He was succeeded by Isaac S. Bradley, for seventeen years his chief assistant. The society soon securing legislative aid, the collections grew apace until nearly the entire basement of the church was occupied. This place was, however, dark, damp, and dingy, but little suited to library purposes. In January, 1866, the institution library, portrait gallery, and museum was removed by authority of the legislature to quarters especially prepared for it in the then new south wing of the capitol. It was thought that there was now ample room for the accessions of at least a quarter of a century. But such was the rate of increase that in less than ten years' time these quarters were a tight fit. By 1881, cords of volumes, pam- phlets, and relics were piled in out-of-the-way corners and rooms throughout the capitol, there being no space to shelve or display them. Secretary Draper, as the executive officer of the society, 400 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. now opened a vigorous campaign for a new building; he awakened interest in many of the leading men of the state, and gained the unanimous support of the newspaper editors. But there were certain complications which made it impos- sible to carry a separate building scheme through the legis- lature. A compromise resulted in the society being given the second, third and fourth floors of one of two large trans- verse wings ordered by the legislature of 1881 to be attached to the capitol. In December, 1884, the transfer was made to the new and greatly enlarged quarters, the library occupying the second and third floors of the wing, and the museum and portrait gallery the fourth. These several floors are reached by a passenger elevator. Having seen the society established in its new rooms, Secretary Draper resigned his position on the sixth of January, 1887, with a record of thirty-three years of arduous labor in behalf of the state.* It was Dr. Draper's desire to devote the remainder of his life to forwarding some private literary work, but he was pre- vented by ill-health from accomplishing his long-cherished plans in this direction, and died on the twenty -sixth of August, 1891. The Wisconsin historical library, which he practically founded, and so successfully managed and pur- veyed for through a .third of a century, will remain an enduring monument to his tireless energy as a collector of Americana ; while the first ten volumes of Wisconsin His- torical Collections attest to his quality as an editor of mate- rial for Western history. f THE SOCIETY AND THE STATE. From the first, the Wisconsin legislature, with enlight- ened liberality, looked kindly on the undertaking, and made appropriations with which to purchase accessions, meet the greater part of the running expenses, and pay the necessary salaries. The relationship of the society to the state is not generally understood, even in Wisconsin. It is, however, easy of comprehension. By statute, the society, which operates under a legislative charter granted in 1853, is the trustee of the state, and holds all of its property for the commonwealth. It can neither sell nor give any of the property it thus holds in trust, nor remove any of it from *He was succeeded by tbe writer of this paper, Mr. Thwaites, who had been the assistant secretary for two years previous. ED. fSee Wisconsin Historical Collections, Vol. XII., pp. 1-22, for Sec" retary Tliwaites's memoir of Dr. Draper. ED. THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 401 the capitol without special consent of the legislature. As to rooms, lights, fires, janitorial service, repairs, mechanical supplies, stationery, printing, and postage, the society is on pretty much the same footing as any of the state bureaus. The machinery of the society serves to remove the manage- ment of this enterprise from partisan control ; the members are gentlemen of prominence throughout the state, of all shades of political opinion ; and for forty-three years there has not been even a suspicion of "politics" in the conduct of its af- fairs. The Historical Society is an institution which all good citizens unite in declaring should be free from such baneful influences. The work is thus left in the hands of those having a keen interest in it, and trained to its performance. As for the official interests of the commonwealth, they are looked after by the governor, secretary of state, and state treasurer, who are by law ex-officio members of the execu- tive committee and serve on its most important sub-commit- tees. The fact that these officers have the power to report upon the society's operations, and the further fact that the leg- islature can at any time investigate its affairs, tend to make the management scrupuously careful. THE LIBRARY. The society is actively engaged in several departments of research and accumulation, has. a fairly-equipped histori- cal and ethnographical museum, and a portrait gallery of Wisconsin worthies, containing 185 portraits in oil, and numerous pictures of portrait statuary. About forty thou- sand persons visit the gallery and museum annually, the three large halls devoted to these departments being possibly the best patronized exhibition rooms in the state. Yet, what- ever reputation the society may have won among scholars, has been chiefly the outgrowth of its library ; in this it takes great interest and is doing its best educational work. In 1875, the miscellaneous books in the state library, at the other end of the capitol, were transferred, by order of the legislature, to the Historical Society's library, leaving the former purely a state law library, under the control of the justices of the supreme court ; while the latter became, to all intents and purposes, a miscellaneous state library in charge of the Historical Society. The relations between the two libraries, both the property of the commonwealth, are har- monious. 402 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. The society has published twelve volumes of Wisconsin Historical Collections, averaging five hundred pages each ; the catalogue of its library in seven volumes, of seven to eight hundred pages each; the proceedings of its annual meetings ; two special class catalogues, one containing titles of "Books on the United States Civil War and Slavery," and the other an exhaustive "Bibliography of Wisconsin Authors ;" three editions of its portrait gallery catalogue, and numerous his- torical pamphlets. The Wisconsin historical library now numbers about 90,000 volumes and 70,000 pamphlets. The average annual increase is 3,000 volumes and 2,500 pamphlets; nearly two- thirds of the former are purchased, but not over ten percent, of the latter. In the West, large private libraries are not so numerous as in the East, and these are generally in the possession of young or middle-aged men. Thus we have not that source of supply enjoyed by the older libraries of the Atlantic slope in the receipt of books by bequest. Only once have we had a large gift of this character. In 1866, Mrs. Otto Tank, of Fort Howard, gave to us the library of her father, a scholarly Amsterdam clergyman, named Van der Meulen ; this came to her by will, and having no place to store the books, she presented them to us on condition that we pay the freight charges from Holland, which we were glad enough to do. The Tank library consists of 5,000 old and rare volumes, mostly in the Dutch language, probably the largest collection of Dutch books in the United States. Nearly half of them are richly bound in vellum, and many are profusely illus- trated with seventeenth-century copper-plate engravings ; in the collection are numerous Bibles, atlases and charts, old editions of the classics, early lexicons, and historical works. These old Dutch books are among the most precious of our treasures. The principal daily and weekly newspapers of the state are sent gratis to the library, for binding and permanent preservation. Some two hundred stout volumes are annually made up in this manner, three years of the smaller weeklies being bound in a volume. These files generally reach back to the first issues of the journals represented. We find that the state papers are frequently referred to by judges, lawyers, members of the legislature, and special investigators of every sort; while, as the society's files are in many cases the only full ones in existence, editors themselves have not seldom THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 403 had occasion to examine them in the library, or write for data contained in early issues. Our collection of bound news- paper files outside of the state amounts to about 5,500 volumes. The earliest London file is that of the Public In- telligencer, bearing date 1656. From that time on there are few years not represented by the file of some prominent English or American journal. From 1750 forward, the col- lection is unusually strong, especially in the American depart- ment. Regarding the scope of the society's library, I may explain that it is a general reference library, with the lines of local and general American and English history, econo- mics, and description, developed with especial care. On account of the proximity of the State University of Wisconsin a mile away about eighty per cent, of our readers are students from that institution, and in purveying for the State Historical Library their wants are taken into consideration. University students doing original work of some importance are, under certain restrictions, allowed access to our shelves, the same as other special investigators, as it is greatly to their advantage to have in sight all the resources of the library on a given subject. To be as useful as possible is the aim of the library, and the attendants are instructed to grant to deserving students whatever privileges are consistent with careful management. The university historical and eco- nomic seminars are given the use of rooms adjoining the library. The students and professors are, in fact, encour- aged to use our library as freely as they would that of the university itself. The University Library, of some 24,000 volumes, is at present more especially devoted to tech- nical works, and duplication of books already in the State Historical Library is avoided so far as possible; the students appear chiefly to rely upon the latter as their own literary laboratory. In addition to the university students, specialists from all parts of the West seek the state historical library, espe- cially in the summer months. THE FUTURE OF THE SOCIETY. The annual state appropriation of five thousand dollars forms the society's general fund. This appropriation has been found, of late years, to be too small satisfactorily to meet book purchasing, the salaries of assistants, and miscellaneous requirements, for the output of the press in every department 404 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. of human research is increasing in extent, and the library has a reputation to sustain and a wide variety of demands to satisfy, with the growth of culture in the state. It has been the aim of the managers to relieve the pressure on the gen- eral fund by the cultivation of special funds, for it is not considered desirable to ask increased legislative assistance ex- cept as a last resort. Citizens of moderate means have from time to time been generous to the society the binding fund (of some $24,000), is largely a monument of mites, with the accumulated interest thereon ; the society has as yet, how- ever, received no large benefactions. But these benefactions must come, if it is to achieve its greatest success. Large endowments would enable the society to manage its own af- fairs without the possibility of political meddling; to conduct historical enterprises on a large scale, and secure original material for literary investigators in every branch of knowl- edge. The legislature has certainly been generous to the so- ciety; with a few notable exceptions, the latter's relations with the governing body have been harmonious, and it must be confessed that the society could not have been successfully maintained in this state far removed from the intellectual centers of the nation, and thereby laboring under peculiar dif- ficulties without liberal state aid. But the lack of inde- pendence is, in a certain degree, the inevitable price of such aid, however necessary and well intended the subsidy ; and the conditions incident to this are not altogether health)'. All thoughtful friends of the society must recognize that it cannot hope to enter upon its highest possibilities until private munificence adequately endows the institution and enables it to stand forth from the shadow of the public wing. The most immediate need of the society is a new, com- modious, fire-proof building, designed on the most approved models. It present quarters in the state capitol are quite in- adequate in extent, badly constructed in every way, and in no sense fire-proof ; moreover, the state government needs for the use of legislative clerks and committees, the space oc- cupied by the society. The expense of erecting a new build- ing, however, would be far beyond our financial capacity; and our earnest appeals to Wisconsin's men of wealth, to erect in such a structure an enduring monument for them- selves, have as yet elicited no response. There is no need of disguising the fact that the receipt of state aid is apt to deaden private interest in an institution of this character ; yet with- THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 405 out state aid it would, under existing conditions, certainly be impossible for the society to prosper. It seems inevitable, then, that we must persistently press upon the legislature our claim for official recognition in this regard. The commonwealth has made our society its cor- porate trustee, and has taken unto itself the proprietorship of our collections. The duty of the commonwealth is clear. It must properly house its own possessions. We are commis- sioned to manage the trust, but cannot properly do so as it is at present situated. We fail of our duty as trustees, if we do not call public attention to the present unfortunate condition of affairs, and take active measures for their betterment. REUBEN G. THWAITES. The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The Wisconsin academy of sciences, arts and letters dates from 1870, when a call for a meeting was circulated and received the signatures of one hundred and five of the prominent men of the state scientific, literary, political and otherwise the list being headed by the name of Lucius Fairchild, the then Governor. On February 16th the con- vention met and was presided over by Governor Fairchild. Ex-Governor Nelson Dewey and Dr. G. M. Steele were made vice-presidents of the convention, and Dr. I. A. Lapham and Prof. T. 0. Chamberlin acted as secretaries. A constitution was adopted at this meeting and the following officers of the academy were elected : President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt ; general secretary, Dr. I. A. Lapham ; treasurer, General George B. Delaplaine. Measures were immediately taken for the incor- poration of the academy by the legislature, and an act was approved March 16th, which duly incorporated the Wiscon- sin academy of sciences, arts and letters. In section 2 of the academy's charter the functions of the institution are set forth in the following terms : " The general objects of the academy shall be to encourage investigations and disseminate correct views of the various de- partments of science, literature and the arts. Among the spe- cific objects of the academy shall be embraced the following : 1. Researches and investigations in the various depart- ments of the material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences. 2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state, with a view of determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources. 3. The formation of scientific, economical and art muse- ums. 4. The encouragement of philological and historical re- search, the collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general library. 5. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of origi- nal contributions to science, literature and the arts." 406 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS. 407 The same act provided rooms in the capitol for the meetings and for the storing of the books and specimens of the academy. The state having provided for the publication of the proceedings and the scientific papers of the academy, three small bulletins were printed, giving the record of meetings that were held previous to the permanent organization of the academy. The scientific papers of the academy and the proceedings have been published under the name of Trans- actions, of which eight volumes have now appeared. The eighth volume contains 476 pages in all, and 400 pages of papers. A statute provides for the publication of a volume every two years, and hereafter each volume will be printed in two parts, so that a part will appear each year. Among the papers that have appeared in the academy's transactions, those dealing with scientific subjects are the most numerous. Some of the more notable of these are : In zoology, the papers by George W. Peckham, on the attidae ; by Edward A. Birge, on cladocera and on the motor ganglion cells of the frog's spinal cord ; by W. K. Higley, on reptiles and batrachia of Wisconsin, and by William M. Wheeler, on the abdominal segments of embryo insects. In botany, by William Trelease, on Wisconsin fungi, and by C. R. Barnes, on a key to Lesquereux and James' Manual of the Mosses of North America. In geology, the papers by T. C. Chamber- lin, on quaternary geology ; those by R. D. Irving, on the geology of the crystalline rocks of Wisconsin ; a paper by C. R. Van Hise, on the origin of the iron ores of the Lake Superior region; two by Frank Leverett on the raised beaches of our Great Lakes, as well as papers by Salisbury, Culver and others. In the domain of the humanities are included a number of historical papers by the late William Francis Allen; papers on the classical and oriental languages by C. E. Bennett, F. L. Van Cleef and others ; on the Free- dom of the Will, by John Bascom, etc. The generosity of the state in printing an edition of two thousand copies of the Transactions has made it possible for the academy to accumulate a valuable library through ex- change with other scientific societies. The publications of over two hundred and filty societies or institutions are regu- larly received by the academy, thus bringing into the state a collection of scientific books which is largely supplementary to those in its other libraries. At present the academy library contains between two and three thousand volumes of such 408 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS. books, besides a considerable number of pamphlets. A card catalogue of these books is now nearly completed, and a printed catalogue will soon be prepared for distribution. At the last annual meeting of the academy provision was made for the binding of its books, and this is now being done as rapidly as is practicable. Simultaneously with the catalogu- ing of the books of the library, an effort is being made to complete the series of the more important journals. Within a few months at most the catalogue will be ready and the books neatly bound. The need of better quarters for the books than those which they now have at the capitol will then be emphasized, and it is hoped that other quarters can soon be provided for them. When this is done plans look- ing toward the greater accessibility of the books to members throughout the state will doubtless be adopted. The collection of type fossils collected and described in the reports of the geological survey of Wisconsin is the property of the Wisconsin academy, and is now stored in the geological museum at Science hall. The officers of the academy are the president, vice- presidents for each of the three departments of sciences, arts and letters; the secretary, the treasurer, the librarian and the custodian of the paleontological collection. The presi- dent, vice-presidents, secretary and treasurer together con- stitute the council, or executive committee, of the academy. There are also standing committees on the library and on publication. The officers are elected at the annual meeting and hold office for a term of three years. Those who have held the office of president are: Dr. J. W. Hoyt, of Madi- son ; Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine ; Dr. A. L. Chapin, of Beloit ; Professors Roland D. Irving, William Francis Allen and Edward A. Birge, of the university of Wisconsin, Madison; and Professor George W. Peckham, of Milwaukee. The academy is composed of life members, honorary corresponding members, corresponding members and active members. Life members have paid a fee of $100 to the treasury of the academy, or have been elected for conspicu- ous services rendered to the academy. The others are elected, the active members from residents of the state who are engaged in study along the lines indicated by the several departments of the academy. In the earlier days of the academy meetings were held three times each year for the reading and discussion of papers. More recently this has been reduced to one, the ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS. 409 annual meeting, which is held during the last week of De- cember. In 1892 the summer field meeting was revived, the academy convening at Ripon. This plan will be con- tinued if a sufficient number of members find it possible to attend. The rapid growth of the state university during the last few years, and the increased activity in scientific and literary lines, which still continues, have greatly strength- ened the Wisconsin academy, and the meetings promise to increase in interest. The volume of Transactions, too, will be larger and will appear with greater regularity than hereto- fore : and to secure more convenience in printing and more prompt publication of investigations, each volume will ap- pear in two parts, a part appearing annually. WM. H. HOBBS. School Libraries in Wisconsin. The constitution of the state of Wisconsin provides for "the support and maintenance of common schools in each district and the purchase of suitable libraries and appara- tus therefor." The first legislature passed a law author- izing each town superintendent to set apart ten per cent, of the school fund income for each district for the purchase, by the district, of a school library. In 1859 the legislature amended this law and set apart ten per cent, of the school fund income, together with the proceeds of a general tax of one-tenth of a mill on a dollar, to purchase town libraries. The financial necessities of the state, caused by the war, led the legislature to turn the first fund collected under this law into the general fund, and to repeal the law. Many of the larger cities and villages secured good school libraries under this early legislation. Many rural districts were also provided with libraries which contained a large proportion of books of great merit. In many cases the high character and grade of the books prevented their general use ; they were too diffi- cult for the average pupil and patron of the school. In such districts the law was ignored after a few animal purchases. From 1862 to 1887 there was no legislation to secure a general system of school libraries, although all school dis- tricts, and the boards of education of villages and cities, were given authority to establish and maintain libraries for school use. In 1887 many remnants of the old district libraries were still in the country school houses of southern Wisconsin, but the most interesting volumes had long been absent. They had been worn out, lost, or had fallen into the hands of persons who liked them so well that they thought they owned them. To many people these rem- nants had become typical "school libraries," arid the preju- dice against them forced the advocates of a new law to con- sent to an imperfect statute which has gone limpingly to its work. The law of 1887, known as the "township library law," authorized town treasurers, when apportioning the school fund income among the districts of their respective towns, 410 SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN WISCONSIN. 411 to withhold ten cents for each person of school age for the purchase of a town library. The expenditure of these moneys was given to the town clerks, who were required to distribute the books purchased among the several districts, in proportion to the amounts withheld from them, and were authorized to collect and re-distribute these volumes "to the end that each district may have the use of all the books purchased." During the first five years of the operation of the law the number of towns which purchased libraries steadily in- creased. Four hundred and seventy-eight towns, which in- clude fully one-half of the districts, have bought one or more times. Seventy-three of those which purchased before 1891 bought but once, while one hundred and eighty-nine pur- chased three or more times. This fact goes far to prove that the people are pleased with the results of the law, where they have had a fair chance to test it. It is the duty of the state superintendent, under this law, to publish a list of books from which the town clerks, with the aid of the county superintendents, are to make their selections. The lists published in the years 1887 to 1890, inclusive, gave the titles of a large number of books, and included volumes for all grades of pupils, from the primary to the high school. These books were carefully classified, and town clerks were urged to buy mainly from the lists for the lower grades. Unfortunately some of them argued that they could force the children to read the histories and scien- tific books recommended for high schools by putting little else in the libraries. In the towns where such selections were made, a prejudice arose which it is difficult to over- come. Few town clerks were willing to assume the labor of collecting and redistributing the books, and the dislike of in- curring this labor frequently operated as a bar to prevent these officers from advocating compliance with the law. In four cases out of five the books remained indefinitely in the districts to which they were first sent. These facts led to a change, in 1891, in the list of books recommended by the state superintendent. The list selected for town clerks was carefully winnowed, and these officers were advised to buy enough copies of the choicest books for school use to make a small library for each school. Thus, if there were ten dis- tricts in a town, each district would secure a set of the "Young Folks' Cyclopedias, " and single copies of " Seven Little Sisters " and its sequel, Eggleston's " First Book in American 412 SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN WISCONSIN. History," Scudder's " Fables and Folk Stories," Wood's simple " Natural History Readers," and others which the consensus of opinion among teachers had shown to be so help- ful that each school needed them for almost daily use. Forty volumes of the most interesting and helpful books for young people were added to give opportunity for selections. Under this plan 2.000 copies of the "Young Folks' Cyclopedias " were put into the schools of the state in 1891. To one who has used these books with children, in the family or the school, this fact alone will stand as strong evidence of the value of the law. The change proved a happy one in many ways, and the results have made new friends for the movement in behalf of school libraries, who are doing effective work in nearly every county. The results of the law cannot be fairly measured by the statistics, which show only the number of towns which have taken advantage of it. Its advocates have felt that the best results could only come as teachers were trained to use the books wisely, and therefore there has been a persistent effort to give this training. In teachers' institutes and meetings, through educational journals, and by official pamphlets and circulars, the leading educators and the state department of public instruction have united to disseminate information as to the best books and their uses. The zeal of teachers, thus aroused, has led to the purchase of scores of small libraries by districts in localities where the town officers would not take the responsibility of establishing town libraries. While the law does not apply to cities and villages, the interest which it has excited has been so strong as to cause nearly all of them, to purchase more books than formerl} 7 . The discussion as to the best books has also aided them to purchase more intelligently. While the " township library law " is by no means per- fect, it has been the means of placing at least 3,000 good, though small, libraries in the country schools ; it has stimu- lated hundreds of people to a more intelligent study of children's reading, and has created a public sentiment that will secure more effective laws and a better use of them in the future. F. A. HUTCHINS. Free City Libraries. Since 1876 Wisconsin has had an excellent law for the establishment and maintenance of free city and village libraries. The bill enacted into law at that time was pre- pared by the American Library Association. It provides that the common council of a city, or the board of a village, may submit to a popular vote the question of establishing and maintaining a local library. If a favor- able result is secured an annual tax, not to exceed one mill on a dollar of the taxable property, may be levied for library purposes. The control of such libraries is vested in a board of nine directors, whose members are appointed by the mayor or the president of the village board, subject to confirmation by the council or board. These directors are divided into three classes and each class holds for a term of three years. Every library and reading-room established under the act must "be forever free for the use of the inhabitants of the city, town or village where located, always subject to such reasonable rules and regulations as the library board may find it necessary to adopt and publish, in order to render the use of said library and reading-room of the greatest good to the greatest number." The liberal spirit that inspired the last provision has shaped the management of the libraries founded under it, and has made them worthy models for those that may be established in the future. In older communities and states most of the libraries have been fettered by traditions and prejudices. Too often they have seemed to be held in trust for book-worms and men of scholarly habits, the shelves have been jealously guarded, and working people and children have not found in their hushed cloisters a constant temptation to enter the fairer fields of literature. The thought that a library, supported by the public, should, first of all, be an educator of the masses, win- ning patronage by every fair art, inviting confidence, making its treasures free and accessible to the poor and ignorant, and leading them to feel a sense of ownership and pride in its possessions, has been too often lost under a mass of traditions relating to the necessity of rigid rules for its conduct. Our 413 414 FREE CITY LIBRARIES. library boards have been met at the outset of their work by the injunction of the state to make rules and regulations "to render the use of the library and reading-room of the great- est benefit to the greatest number." In addition to the libraries established under the state law a few have been founded by private beneficence, but these have been influenced by the generous spirit of the law, and the Washburn library at La Crosse, the Vaughn library at Ashland and the Scott library at Merrill have been as free as the libraries in Milwaukee and Fond du Lac. At first most of our libraries issued cards to draw books only to persons fourteen years of age or older, and younger children could get volumes only upon the cards of their parents or friends. Many libraries have recently relaxed their rules so far as to allow all children twelve years of age or older to hold their own cards. In Milwaukee small col- lections of books are sent to the public schools and loaned to the pupils by the teachers. It is not the purpose of this article to deal mainly with the founding and history of individual libraries. The tables presented below give the important facts in connection with each library, and the special articles upon the Milwaukee public library and the great collections of the state historical society give the history of the institutions which have more than a local interest. It is thought more useful to show the best, safest and most practicable lines of library growth and development, with the hope of aiding and inspiring com- munities which ought to found them. There lies in the popular heart a deep-rooted conviction of the value of free libraries, and every community which lacks this blessing mourns its want of opportunities. There are tew villages or cities which cannot show a record of efforts to establish a local library, and the state is dotted with the wrecks of such institutions, which were started with bright hopes. The failure of these efforts is to be attributed, in the main, to the want of a proper understanding of the first mis- sion of such libraries, and an unwillingness to start in a small way and develop along natural lines. A public library should be established with the primary purpose of educating the children and then of helping the masses. It should present, first, a list of wholesome books good in matter and style which experience has proved are interesting to children and to the every-day people. When the interest of the masses has been caught and fastened 416 FREE CITY LIBRARIES. the process of education can be hopefully begun and fol- lowed. Too often the first small list of books purchased for a library includes only the great books of the language, and the untrained people who couae to it for instruction and in- spiration become discouraged. The first purchase should include a large proportion of interesting books for children, for the following reasons : 1. The love of good reading is far more easily estab- lished in childhood than in later life. 2. It is through the children that the homes are most easily reached. When the child has been helped by the library the parents and family become attached to it by the strongest ties. 3. The great books for children are frequently the best books to start the reading habit in older people. Any librarian of experience can offer many illustrations of the truth of these facts. It is very common to hear a father complaining : " I must stop my boy from getting books at the library. He reads late every evening," but the ring of gratified pride in the tones belies the apparent complaint in the words. Every father is proud of his son's delight in good books, and the more ignorant the parent, the greater the pride. It frequently happens, too, that a boy will return to the library a book like the " Boys of '76," with the remark, "My father wants another book by the same man." Libraries with limited resources are frequently dragged to an early dissolution by a reading-room attachment. Such rooms are expensive, and drain the library, when its most urgent need is to keep ahead of its patrons by frequent purchases of small lots of fresh books. A library in a small town will meet all demands at first if kept open two or three afternoons and evenings of each week. A reading-room is expected to be open every day. This involves additional expense for librarian's salary, for fuel and light, besides the cost of newspapers and periodicals. " But," so many good people will say, " we want something to keep the boys out of the streets." Then give them books so interesting that they will stay at home to read them. Teach them, first, to read books. Papers and periodicals should be secondary to books. The reading-room should be secondary to the home. Commence your work aright, and when you expand to the reading-room it will take its proper place. Many towns in the state are waiting for some wealthy citizen to build and endow a local library. Libraries thus FREE CITY* LIBRARIES. 417 founded are not the best. The library that grows out of the sacrifices of the people the one which they unitedly labor for is the most efficient. When, from small beginnings, they have gained a fair library, when they have learned by experience to manage it wisely, it will attract gifts. As an illustration of this, the history of the Williams free library at Beaver Dam maybe used. It is taken because the writer is more familiar with it than with any other. In 1884 Beaver Dam had a population of somewhat less than 4,000. A number of fruitless efforts had been made to estab- lish a library. In the summer of that year a number of citizens met to discuss the advisability of getting a vote on the question of establishing a library under the state law. It was finally agreed that such a proposition would be defeated unless public sentiment could be educated by a prac- tical illustration of the blessings flowing from such a library. A popular subscription of &1,200 was raised, the individual subscriptions ranging from $2 to $50; the use, rent free, of a room in the city hall was obtained ; $700 was expended in books and a library was opened on the first day of Decem- ber. The room was opened two afternoons and evenings of each week. It was free, and people were not only invited but urged to draw books. The superintendent of schools secured the active co-operation of the teachers, and thus the children carried the books into many homes which could not be reached by other means. After four months of this object teaching, in April, 1885, the citizens, by a vote of two to one, decided to accept and maintain this library as their own. It soon became necessary to keep the library open three afternoons and three evenings of each week and Saturday mornings. Societies for active library work were formed and a reference department began to grow. Children and their elders were allowed access to the shelves, and tables were placed to give all opportunities for study. With a few lead- ers general reading gave place to study, and habits of inde- pendent research were developed. The use of indexes and of the best reference books became more common, and fellow- students learned from each other how to glean needed knowl- edge more quickly and accurately. The room became crowded, and, in 1886, the common coun- cil, in addition to levying the annual tax, purchased a build- ing adjoining the city hall, and gave the library the use of a much larger room. The children drew their parents in in- creasing numbers, and the wider demand made larger acces. 418 FREE CITY LIBRARIES. sions of books necessary. In four years this room was fre- quently too crowded for comfortable work. In April, 1890, one of the leading citizens, Hon. J. J. Williams, who had been quietly watching the loving care with which the poor boys and girls carried the books to and from the library, said to the board of directors: " If you will secure a suitable site, I will expend $25,000 in erecting a library building and give it to the city." The offer was quickly accepted, and an excellent site, in the heart of the city, was bought by the common council at a cost $12,200. The vote to make this purchase was unanimous and hearty and was cordially endorsed by the citizens. Before the build- ing was completed another citizen, William Drown, Esq., had left to the library, at his death, $10,000 as an endowment. And thus through the influences of its own kindly benefi- cences this library won, in one year, $47,000 in cheerful gifts besides the annual tax levy. Five times this sum given with- out the aid and co-operation of the people would not have made this institution of so much worth to the mass of citizens. While a grateful public has inscribed on the beautiful building " Williams Free Library," and has placed a tablet in its portals to the memory of Mr. Drown, it still feels a sense of ownership and a pride of possession that make its halls and treasures a common property and a common blessing. " Things that grow are best." The tree planted in the home yard by the family and watched and nurtured by their loving care, has a beauty and blessing more constant and fruitful than that of the statelier monarch of the forest. The best of all libraries is a collection of choice books in the home, where the volumes greet the eye daily and stand as constant incentives to reading. The public library should approach this ideal as closely as possible. Except in the largest cities its shelves should be open and accessible to every boy and girl. Children should browse among the books and learn to select their reading ; they should be given an opportunity to learn something of many books which they have not the time to read. They should be wel- comed as students and taught to bring the problems of the home and school. They should be trained to get from books the fact they need at the time they need it ; to enjoy the mas- terpieces of the bookmaker's art ; to handle books carefully. They should be encouraged in the study of subjects for which FREE CITY LIBRARIES. 419 they have special aptitudes, whether these may be in the higher forms of literature and art, or whether they relate to the practical processes by which mechanics earn their live- lihood. The librarian should not be a mere keeper of books. Money saved by employing a forceless man or woman is worse than wasted. The librarian should be a leader and teacher. He should be earnest, intelligent, enthusiastic and pleasant, able to win the confidence of children and wise to lead them by easy stages from good books to the best and to train them to habits of intelligent study and investigation. He has the greatest opportunity of any teacher in the com- munity and should be the teacher of teachers making his library not only a school for the young, but a college for the older people a constant center of educational activity that shall make wholesome and inspiring themes the burden of the common thought. The prospect for future library growth in Wisconsin is hopeful. The progressive spirit that is founding libraries and leading them into broader lines of usefulness in other parts of the nation is felt within our borders. Our growing school libraries are educating a generation that will demand more libraries and be able to use them more wisely. Teach- ers are anxiously inquiring how they may secure good libra- ries and use them most profitably. Our list of libraries is annually increasing. A better public sentiment is steadily gaining ground. The collections of our state historical so- ciety have grown to be the subject of a worthy state pride. The chief city of the state is about to erect a public library building that will be noteworthy among the public edifices of the state. The state university and the normal schools are rapidly making their libraries more efficient agencies in the training of their students. A state library association was formed at Madison, Febru- ary llth, 1891, "to promote the library interests of the state of Wisconsin." March llth of the same year the first annual conference was held at the same place. There was a fair attendance of librarians and directors of libraries, and some interesting and helpful discussions. The association has done some work in aiding a few small communities in establishing libraries. 420 FREE CITY LIBRARIES. Librarian. < s ^_c w .ENT INSTITUTIONS. J. E. Armitage. Lizzie A. Bingham. Henry Lind. Reading Room? f Ill Annual circulat'u. ~"~% No. of pamphlets S 1 : : cs : : r ) o ; : No. of volumes. ^}OCOOOOOOCOt*--*OQ Hi -J i-l II. CONNECTED WITH BENEVO ^ Income. H- I..u i | Year est'blish'd iSSISSBillllS o -*r t-~ a J i * * as I * 3 o j$ jJ x | w |||||||il|l ! ; National Home Janesville Winnebago Name of Library. : I = ! i U. S. National Home Wis. School for Blind North. Hosp. for Insane. o 5 ^2 : : 00 S * & FREE CITY LIBRARIES. 421 1 ^ > Wnupun Hudson Manttowoc Milwaukee Edwin Hillye E. M. Richard C. B. Frost W. W. Wight Membership fees. Dues & entert'mt Dues & entert'mt Annual dues. &2 a H <="i rs OC jO OD OC X 1 ~l C; Go Vi I- 1 3* O O Cs ^KSI^S^^ii ?^""H- - M l - i '^'^ g-i^^Saa "^ C M ^ ** ^ :"E2 = JO C/i tO JC JO _.&. Cji O-" JS> _CO W OOMOOOQOO! - o. . . MOtOOS WOOO C C C P "4C ^ -^ -^~r; P- < < Occ Occ En Stu Col n n ' es f ft ft 0, Annual Circ'l'L If 3 a. Milwaukee Public Library. Dr. Holmes opens "Our Hundred Days in Europe" with a striking summing up of the changes which fifty years had made in the Europe which he first saw as a young medical student. Such a period gives the necessary perspective to enable us to better measure the heights really won in the slow step by step climbing through the years. The date of Dr. Holmes' first visit to Europe. 1836, was the year in which the first statistics concerning libraries in the United States were published, and that year may be said to be the dawn of the new era in the library world. For it is a per- fectly recognized fact that the United States have led the world in the new thought about what is the true work of a public library. Perhaps no more significant change would be seen in a long look backward over the progress of the educational world, as Dr. Holmes looked back over political and scien- tific Europe, than the contrast between the old facts and the new ideals of a public library. The old library has been likened to a cistern which collects and preserves, and from which, given a certain amount of determination, one may draw water for use. But at best the reservoir is hidden and dull and stagnant. The ideal library of to-day is a true fountain, which pours its waters freely out into the sunlight, flashing an invitation to whosoever will to come. The two thoughts are but the natural, legitimate out- growth of the different times, and the reason for the ideal has, partly at least, a material basis. The old library was the child of the cloisters, born when books were rare and precious, the result of toilsome, expensive processes. The new library is the child of the steam printing press and nurtured by all its allies, the reproductive graphic processes. The central idea of the old was to preserve the books. The central idea to- day is to help mankind into fuller, freer, more perfect life. Not quite fifty years ago, and yet before the new library day was far advanced, there came into existence the library of which the Milwaukee public library is the direct heir. In 1847, the year succeeding the incorporation of the city, on the 422 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY. 423 night of December eighth, a group of young men met in the parlors of the United States hotel to take the first step to- ward the organization of the young men's association library. S. Osgood Putnam was chairman of the meeting, Edward P. Allis, secretary, and John H. Van Dyke, Edward D. Hoi ton, H. W. Tenney, Garret Vliet and I. M. Mason were, with the chairman, the committee to draft the constitution for the em- bryo society. The early records of the association have nearly all disappeared, having probably been lost in the hands of some secretary who did not realize that time to come might find interest in what, to him, was a small affair. The first annual report still remains, having been printed as an introduction to the first publica- tion of the society. This document was a pamphlet of twenty-six pages all told, from cover to cover, and contained, besides the report, the constitution of the society, list of officers, by-laws of the library and reading-room, and the first catalogue. The report is a curiosity in several respects. The board of directors evidently felt their responsibility and, not hav- ing met with that enthusiastic response which their efforts certainly merited, began thus early that complaint which seems to have echoed down all the decades since, that " the citizens of Milwaukee were slow, apathetic, lacking in interest for what is for the intellectual good of the city." It seems, however, that this reproach was hardly merited in this matter, and is perhaps the fitter prototype of later ones. This pamphlet bears the date 1848. in 1849 Prof. Charles C. Jewett made his first official report to the Smithsonian institution on the libraries of the United States. Only 154 institutions are mentioned and the young men's association library is one of them, noted as having 1,000 volumes. No institutions of the kind report from the sister cities Chicago, Cincinnati or Cleveland. The Boston Public, the great mother of American public libraries, was not opened until 1854. A touch in the report which opens up a vista of differ- ent conditions and surroundings is in the plea which the directors make for one thousand dollars, to be used to buy books, which they wish to raise "before the opening of navi- gation." What a picture of the little, isolated, ice-bound city this conjures up! March 8, 1852, the association was incor- porated, and again, as is the case of the first committee, the 424 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY. roll of names of the incorporators has a very familiar sound. Henry W. Tenney, Martin J. Burke, Benjamin K. Miller, William J. Bell, John P. McGregor, John K. Bartlett, Charles F. Ilsley, Joshua Stark, Winfield Smith, Henry J. Nazro and Robert Menzies are the specified incorporators, and how many of them have since been identified with every movement for the intellectual and moral upbuilding of the city. From this time on to about 1867 the society seems to have led a prosperous existence. At first it depended entirely upon the membership fees for its income. Later, courses of lectures were organized whose proceeds filled the coffers of the society, while the lectures were among the principal events in the life of the growing city. After 1867 came a period of discouragement and debt. The prestige of the lecture platform had waned, over all the country ; the association had no endowment, and the mem- bership fees were not adequate to the running expenses. Many spasmodic efforts were made, and again and again the society would clear itself of debt only to fall back again as the interest cooled. For about ten years the library led a very hand-to-mouth existence,the new purchases not filling up the gaps caused by books lost and worn out. It is a rather remarkable fact that the losses in books in the public lib- rary to-day are far less than were endured by the association at this time. It is one more striking illustration that "the public may be trusted to care for what is intended for the public enjoyment," to quote the famous sign in the French parks. In 1876, owing to various causes, to no other single one so much probably as to the congress of librarians held at Philadelphia, a distinct movement was felt all over the country in favor of free city libraries. Milwaukee, too, felt the impulse. But not until the fall of 1877 was the first open suggestion made that the young men's association should transfer its books to the city, in trust, as the founda- tion of a free municipal library. The time was ripe, but still much work for the good cause was done, in season and out of season, by friends of the movement. Outside of the directors of the young men's association no one did more efficient service than the Nestor of the present library board, General Harrison C. Hobart, then a prominent member of the city council. The enabling acts were passed by the legislature of that winter; and in March, 1878, the city formally took pos- MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY. 425 session of the library. The first board of trustees, as organ- ized under the act, were the four citizens-at-large, Messrs. Matthew Keenan, John Johnston, Gustave C. Trumpff and William Frankfurth ; Aldermen G. E. Weiss, W. E. Kitt- redge and Thomas H. Brown ; the president of the school board, Joshua Stark, and the superintendent of schools, James MacAlister. Among the first acts of the new board was the ordering of an inventory, and this inventory accounted for 9,958 bound books which were thus given to the city. The rooms in the Academy of Music building, on Milwaukee street, were retained until May, 1880, when the young library had far outgrown them. The rooms in the Library block, on Grand avenue, which are still occupied, were rented; and the library, consisting then of about 15,000 volumes, was moved in. The growth of the public library during the fifteen years of its existence has been steady and wholesome. The fact that it now has 65,000 volumes \vhich have been se- lected by a catholic, yet scholarly taste, and that its circula- tion is now counted by the hundred thousand, tells very little of its true growth and power. The best growth and power of a public library is never to be measured, even approximatefy, by the numbers of volumes on the shelves, but far more justly by the success it has in reaching into and influencing the homes of the people. It is as danger- ous for library officials to fall into a ruling ambition to swell the number of volumes as it is for teachers to measure the success of the school, necessarily, by the number of pupils graduated; and for much the same reasons. For instance, in the work of the reference room it is not possible to gather statistics without seriously crippling the freedom with which the books are used. When the Milwau- kee public library first threw its reference shelves absolutely open to visitors, with simply the check of the presence of an attendant in the room, it was regarded as a somewhat radical and dangerous step. The recent inventory shows the loss of but six books in ten years. The officials look forward now with hope to the time when the rooms of the library may be such as to make it possible to throw open the shelves of the whole library, for some hours of the day, at least, to any visitor. This experiment is being tried in the public libraries of Cleveland and Minneapolis, and is being watched with the greatest interest in the libraries throughout the country. The vision of librarians is that this innovation may 426 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY. help, by doing away with much of the routine work, to bring on the day when much more personal assistance may be given to visitors. This, as every other educational or phil- anthropic work, fails of its best results by being forced to deal with masses, not individuals. The intelligent, patient help of an attendant who knows the library is far more satisfactory in most cases than any printed catalogue, however full, lucid and well arranged." To the student the catalogue is a convenient tool, satis- factory to the extent that it is explicit and exact. To the unlearned, and after all it is to the unlearned that public libraries are chiefly addressed, any catalogue is apt to be a labyrinth in whose mazes time and patience are lost. The main catalogue of this library was published in 1885 and contains about thirty thousand of the books. The material is well in hand for the publication of a supplement, on the same lines of construction, which will bring the record of the resources of the library up to date. Some few experiments have been made in a direction that well repays all the effort extended, viz.: the preparation of special lists containing references to all the accessible literature on given subjects of popular interest. But time and strength may be lavished to an almost incredible extent in this wav, for " the field is the world." In one department we already reach, by the help of the teachers, some small part of our public in the personal way whicli we desire. Any teacher is gladly welcomed to the library, where she may select, having free access to the shelves, books enough to supply her class. These books are sent to the school and there issued to the children. The success of the plan is limited only by the strength and en- thusiasm whicn the teacher, ordinarily overburdened with routine duties, has left to put into the work. It is here, per- haps, that the touch between the library and the school may be closest. It is here that the school may help the library to carry on work that it must itself drop. School statistics show that more than half the children who enter leave before they are twelve years old. If they go out with the little formal education that so limited a school time can furnish, and knowing nothing of the great world of instruction, of inspi- ration, of enjoyment into which all may come by the gate of reading, they go with lessened chances for happy lives and, just as surely, with lessened chances of being safe and useful citizens. Teachers and the home must help the library before it can by any means do its best work. MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY. 427 In the line of the much discussed university extension, little effective work can be done without close union with the library. With the much needed and hoped-for facilities of the promised new building, the library, and its sister insti- tution, the museum, will be equipped to enter witli all pos- sible good will into every like attempt for the enlightenment and benefit of Milwaukee. To the idealist the Milwaukee public library stands to-day on the border land of a fair country into which she may enter. May she have skillful leading to bring her into the inheritance. THERESA WEST. Milwaukee Public Museum. The beginnings of our public museum, as of almost all institutions of learning and science, were small and insigni- ficant. In 1851, the late Mr. Peter Engelmann, director of the German-English academy, and an ideal instructor, be- gan to make collections with his pupils. Excursions were made with them through field and forest, upland and mead- ow. An enthusiastic lover of nature, Mr. Engelmann in- spired almost all who came into contact with him, but es- pecially his pupils, with a tender regard for all that is inter- esting and beautiful in nature. These collections, which at the begining consisted mostly of herbarium specimens, were made for the purpose of illustrating lessons in natural history given at his school. In 1857, Mr. Engelmann, Christian Preusser, Adolph Meinecke and other educated Germans, founded the Natur- historischen Verein von Wisconsin and, with the collection of Mr. Engelmann as a foundation, organized a museum of natural history at once. The officers and members of the society commenced with great earnestness to secure for the museum specimens in all departments of natural history and from all countries, and books for a library. The collection, which gradually increased, was exhibited in a spacious hall in the German-English academy. In 1881, it became so large that its friends thought best to secure more ample accommodations in some central part of the city, where it could be easily seen at any time and where it would better serve the purposes of instruction and entertainment. Mr. August Stirn, at that time alderman of the Second ward, an enthusiastic friend of the so-called "Engelmann Museum," inaugurated a movement to "have the museum presented to the city, in trust, to have it supported by direct taxation, and encouraged as a free public institution to serve as a means of public instruction." Mr. Stirn was soon able to present to the common council a numerously-signed petition, and committees of conference were appointed by that body and also by the Naturhistoris- chen Verein (natural history society). A law was prepared. 428 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM. 429 enabling the society to donate its collections, in trust, to the city, and another authorizing the city to accept and main- tain it. Both laws were enacted by the legislature in 1882. On February 20, 1882, the first board of trustees of the public museum was organized, took charge of the collection, and secured room for its accommodation in the Exposition building. This board consisted of the following members : F. C. Winkler, president; Christian Preusser, Adolph Mein- ecke, Thomas A. Greene, Joshua Stark, ex-officio ; J. Mac- Alister, ex-officio; Aldermen August Stirn, C. H. Swan, T. H. "Wood. The first officers were: Carl Doerflinger, secretary and custodian ; Carl Thai, assistant. In 1883 the board of trustees purchased from Prof. H. A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., a very valuable collection of fossils, minerals, mounted mammals, birds and reptiles, and a collection of casts of quaternary animals, for the sum of 12,000. The collections increased rapidly, partly by large donations made by Adolph Meinecke, August Stirn and Christian Preusser, and partly by purchase. At present the two large halls in the museum and all the cases are crowded, and many beautiful specimens are stored away in the drawers for want of room to exhibit them. A new and spacious building will soon be erected on corner of Grand avenue and Ninth street. Already the public museum of the city of Milwaukee ranks high as an educational and scientific insti- tution and as a centre of learning. The present officers are: H. Nehrling, secretary and custodian ; Carl Thai, assistant custodian; George B. Turner, taxidermist; Miss Fanny Rauterberg, assistant. The board of trustees consists of the following members : George W. Peckham, president ; Adolph Meinecke, Christian Preusser, Thomas A. Greene, August Stirn, W. J. Turner, ex-officio ; Aldermen Theobald Otjen, Herman Fehr and Frank Niezorawski. H. NEHRLING. The Wisconsin Journal of Education. In Wisconsin the effort to establish and maintain an educational journal has been connected more closely than is usual with the general educational history of the state. For a long period the publication was fostered by the state, and for a still longer one was managed and edited by the depart- ment of public instruction. It had its origin, however, in private enterprise. In 1856 the Wisconsin teachers' associa- tion, then in its fourth annual session, received from the Hon. James Sutherland, of Janesville, a proposition to trans- fer to them, free of charge, the Wisconsin Educational Jour- nal, which he had established the year previous. The pro- position was accepted, and a board of nine editors was ap- pointed by the association to take charge of the publication. This first board consisted of Geo. S. Dodge, J. L. Fickard, D. Y. Kilgore, J. G. McMynn, A. J. Craig, W. C. Dustin, A. C. Spicer, W. Van Ness and V. Butler. The committee adopted the name, The Wisconsin Journal of Education, and com- menced the issue of a monthly of thirty -two, six by nine inches, double column pages. John G. McMynn was elected resi- dent editor, and Racine became the place of publication. The first number stated its purposes : "It will aim to secure a higher standard of qualifications on the part of teachers, to obtain the establishment of normal schools, to furnish the schools with more direct supervision, and to call public atten- tion to union or graded schools." It was thus launched as an instrumentality for furthering great movements, a posi- tive and formative factor in the educational development of the state. A glimpse of the world into which it was issued is afforded by the list of educational publications in the United States, given in the first number, as follows : The American Journal of Education, Hartford, Connecticut. The American Journal of Education and College Review, New York. The Massachusetts Teacher, Boston. The Connecticut Common School Journal and Annals of Education, New Britain, Connecticut. The Rhode Island Schoolmaster, Providence, Rhode Island. 480 THE WISCONSIN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 431 The Xew York Teacher, Albany, New York. The Ohio Journal of Education, Columbus, Ohio. The Michigan Journal of Education and Teachers' Maga- zine, Detroit, Michigan. The Illinois Teacher, Peoria, Illinois. The Indiana School Journal, Indianapolis, Indiana. The Wisconsin Journal of Education, Racine, Wisconsin. On that list the reader is borne onward to the West, where he finds the new venture on the outer verge of educa- tional journalism. One turns over the first volume with interest for what it reveals of the days of small things. The programme of commencement at the state university shows a graduating class of four. The report of the Madison schools shows an enrollment of 750, complains of great irregularity and habitual tardiness, and declares the school accommoda- tions "shameful." The Platteville academy has forty-nine in the classical department and 176 in the English. From the second number we learn that the state super- intendent is authorized by law to subscribe for enough copies to supply one to each organized school district in the state ; the money for this is to be drawn from the income of the school fund, and the price is limited to fifty cents for each subscription, which the editor says will hardly pay for the paper and printing. How vital this help is to the con- tinuance of the publication subsequent events show. "We commence the second volume," says the editor, "with but few subscribers aside from the state subscription," which is stated as calling for 3,400 copies. With the second volume, A. J. Craig became " resident editor," and continued his work to June, 1860. The publi- cation was removed to Madison in 1858. With the second volume also appears on the title page the legend : " Organ of the State Teachers' Association and of the Department of Public Instruction." The association kept up its rela- tion by the appointment every year of a board of editors, which was composed of nine members in the beginning, but had grown to fifteen in 1862. This, however, does not indi- cate that the usefulness of the board was increasing. The " resident editor " in these years repeatedly calls for the help of his colleagues, and when, in 1861, the association forgot to appoint a board, " the secret of the empire was made pub- lic" and the "editorial committee " disappears from view. The Journal, however, continued to be the organ of the asso- ciation, and faithfully and vigorously promoted its interests. 432 THE WISCONSIN JOURNAL OP EDUCATION. In 1860 J. B. Pradt became editor. The state aid kept the enterprise alive, but perhaps hindered that substantial growth of which a good subscription list is the evidence. The editor urges: "Our own journal is the only one, so far as we know, that does not depend principally on private subscriptions for support. The bulk of our edition is taken by subscription by the state." Besides the natural effect of such aid in repressing business enterprise, it must be re- membered that the copies circulated gratuitously went to the school clerks and were intended for them and the teachers, who thus in many cases had access to the publica- tion and did not feel called on to subscribe for it. Now, the time of stress had come for the nation and the state, and the main stay of the Journal was threatened by the pressure of other demands upon the treasury. In 1862 the legislature came near taking away the state aid from the publication, which the editor describes as "inflicting upon it a stroke of palsy." In 1864 the blow came. Some appeals for help, bids for subscribers by lowering the price, a reduction of the number of pages, and, finally, in June, 1865, the abandonment of the enterprise, followed. The "stroke of palsy" proved fatal. There are thus nine volumes of the first series. For the next five years the publication was discontin- ued. Private enterprise at once started other journals. One issued at Mineral Point continued about two years, and the one at Milwaukee, the School Monthly, became the organ of the association, and was issued for three years. The time was not propitious and the antecedents were not favorable for securing a paying constituency. When the original enterprise was resumed in 1871, the department of public instruction of the state, at the request of the Wisconsin teachers' association, assumed the respon- sibility and management. The state superintendent, Sam- uel Fallows, and his assistant, John B. Pradt, became its editors. Thus were established the relations which held throughout the second period of the history of the Journal. For the next fourteen years it continued the official organ of the department of public instruction, not only in the sense that it published the -opinions and furthered the projects of the department, but also in the sense that the department owned and controlled it. The only trace of the old relation of dependence on the state treasury is found in the law of 1871, which authorizes school clerks to subscribe for the THE WISCONSIN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 433 Journal, and pay for it out of the school money of the dis- trict. This provision has been practically of very little im- portance. School clerks as a rule are not interested in an educational journal; and in rural neighborhoods, if disposed to subscribe, are restrained through the jealous criticism of their fellow citizens. They are not the true constituency of such a publication. This must be found chiefly among the teachers and superintendents of the state. As compared with the old issues, the new series contained more articles by leading teachers of the state, and served more effectively as a medium for the dissemination of educational opinions and information. The numbers kept more exclusively to matters pertaining to school education. There is, indeed, a growing appreciation of what the field of an educational journal is, and a consequent closer adaptation to its re- quirements. It results from the arrangement just described that changes in the state superintendency are also changes in the editorship of the Journal. Thus, in the beginning of 1874, Edward Searing took the place of Mr. Fallows. His con- nection with the publication was not a merely nominal one; the issues of the next four years bear the the impress of his scholarly tastes and strong convictions. The Journal deals more with principles, and the editorials are concerned with broad, practical purposes. At the beginning of his second term he writes : " For the past two years the editors of the Journal have devoted no little time and hard work to make it a useful and creditable representative of our educational interests. It has paid nothing for the labor." He proposes, however, to make it better than ever, arid hopes for the sup- port of teachers. The volumes show the earnestness of the effort, and the sense of only partial success in securing needed support. When Mr. Whitford succeeded to the superintendency, in 1878, his salutatory dwelt upon the improvement of the country schools, and this may be considered the key-note of the Journal for three years. The editorials set before us a man circulating among the schools, commenting helpfully upon the things he sees, and reflecting the trend of opin- ions. Association papers now make a larger part of the con- tents than heretofore, and there is considerable effort to in- troduce school-room helps and hints. Mr. Pradt, who had been editorially connected with the publication since its re- vival, retired in 1880, and his place was filled by S. S. Rock- 434 THE WISCONSIN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. wood, whose interest in graded schools and in mathematics appeared in its columns. On retiring, a year later, he spoke of having "discovered two great stumbling blocks in the way of its (the Journal's) best interests, and both grow out of its relation to the department of public education ;" they are, as he thinks, the pressure of official duties which demand the time of its editors, and the lack of independence and free- dom of opinion and of criticism necessarily incident to the relation. The utterance was manifestly true, and fore- shadowed the coming of the close of this second period of tutelage in the history of the publication. Mr. Graham and Mr. Chandler assumed the charge of the Journal in 1882. The management fell largely into the hands of the latter, who expressed his wish to make it a " helpful adjunct to the common school teachers of the state," with whose youth and need of help he was strongly impressed. Thus the matter presented took still more the form of hints and practical suggestions for common school teachers. The limitations referred to by Mr. Rockwood were more and more felt both by the editors and by intelli- gent teachers and superintendents. Moreover, the growth of the state was so increasing the work of the superintendent's office as to make it every year more difficult to give time to editorial duties. At length, in 1885, a movement was made in the associa- tion, with the support of the department, to separate the publication from its dependence upon the state superintend- ency, and it was transferred by vote of that body to J. W. Stearns, who had just been elected professor of the science and art of teaching in the University of Wisconsin, and who still continues its editor. In 1891 a combination was effected with the Midland School Journal, edited by A. O. Wright, who thus became associated in the management of the Wis- consin Journal of Education. Thus the era of maturity was entered upon, in which the Journal lives as a business enter- prise, occupies an independent position as a critic of educa- tional movements and institutions, seeks to make itself a factor in promoting growth and developing sound educa- tional opinion, while still remaining the organ of the asso- ciation and of the department of public instruction. With its history, which has been thus outlined, it can hardly be less; and if true to the principles which led to its latest de- velopment it can hardly fail to be more. J. W. STEARNS. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. The Milwaukee Public Schools. EARLY SCHOOLS. The first schools established in Milwaukee, in the year 1836, were pay schools, that is, the patrons thereof employed the teachers and paid them for their services. The cir- cumstances were such that free public schools, such as we now have, could not then have been established. The in- habitants of the primitive village could not rely upon any public money to support schools, as the tax-gatherer and the treasurer were not then commissioned to do business. Their duties began later. The first schools were essentially primitive. The first teachers were, like most of the other inhabitants, persons who had come West with the tide of emigration, intending to build up their fortunes. The pay of teachers in those days, both in the East and in the West, was hardly as much as that of a farm laborer at the present time. It barely suf- ficed to purchase the necessaries of life. Scanty fare and threadbare raiment were then trade-marks of the profession. As there are no records of the earliest schools, the fol- lowing is the nearest outline sketch which the earliest in- habitants have been able to cull from the pictures of mem- ory. A crude log hut or rickety frame shanty, thirty feet long by twenty feet wide, with a door in one end, a fire- place and chimney on the opposite end, four small windows, two on each side, each about thirty inches square, was the school house of the early da} T s. There was a wooden floor, long benches placed along the side of the walls for the smaller children, and two or three small tables with appro- priate benches for the more advanced pupils, who were able to write. The schoolmaster had a chair, a small pine table, a ruler, a pen-knife, a few old books, an ink-bottle with ink in it, and a quill pen. The larger pupils were provided with copy-books, slates, arithmetics and readers of various kinds, and the younger pupils with such specimens of primers, first readers or "alphabet" cards as could then be found or extemporized. Classes, there were none. The variety book- supply rendered it impossible to have classes. Blackboards were not then known as far west as Milwaukee. 436 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 437 The school-master was obliged to be his own janitor in those days. Sometimes the patrons chopped the wood re- quired, and sometimes the school-master himself wielded the ax in the early morning. He was obliged to be at school at least half an hour before the pupils began to assemble. The sweeping and the fire-making must be attended to. Occasionally, the school-master succeeded in securing the assistance of one or two of the larger boys in doing this work. There were no engraved headlines in the copy books in those days. The school-master was usually expected to be able to "set" a copy, which was nearly as perfect a specimen of writing as the engraved copies are now. After getting the house in order, the making of the pens, viz., preparing the quills for use as pens, engaged his attention, and after this he wrote the copies. The owners of the copy-books usually stood around the table in earnest, admiring groups. The disorderly boy was not an unknown factor then in school experience. Hence there was an occasional interruption for the purpose of administering corporal punishment on the disorderly party. While the more advanced pupils were writing, the younger pupils were coming up in single file to the master's chair, each to read or spell. Reading, writing and arithmetic constituted the sum total of the course of study, except in rare instances, when an old map could be found and used for giving some desultory instruction in geography. The years thus were spent, numbers steadily increased, but the school-master's financial resources did not improve much, neither did the means of imparting instruc- tion. That children were taught to read, write, cipher and spell, under such discouraging circumstances, was alike creditable to the school-master's proficiency arid to the pupils' scholarly earnestness. The conditions gradually but surely improved. Commercial activity soon succeeded in bringing even to this far-west little village of Milwaukee many of the school conveniences that were at first unknown. The very first school taught in Milwaukee stood on what is now East Water street; but when the street was opened it was moved to the corner of East Water and Wis- consin streets. The name of the first teacher was Dr. Heth. His pupils consisted chiefly of the children of Solomon and Peter Juneau, who were the first white settlers. In 1836, another school was opened on the east side, one block south from the location of the first. The name of the teacher of this school was David Worthington. Soon after the open- 438 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ing of the latter, a school was opened on the west side, on Third street, a short distance north of Chestnut street. Mr. West was the teacher. The number of pupils attending all of the Milwaukee schools in 1837 hardly exceeded thirty. The first lady teacher, whom traditional history honors for teaching services rendered, was a Miss Church, who after- ward became Mrs. Olin, of Waukesha. Her school was kept on the southeast corner of Huron and East Water streets. The territorial law of Michigan territory, enacted in 1827, provided that as soon as twenty families were settled in a town, they should select three commissioners of common schools, who should hold their respective offices for three years, whose duties should be to lease the school lands, and apply the proceeds to the establishment and maintenance of said schools. Wisconsin was at that time a part of the Mich- igan territory. As the public lands were then so plentiful, but little, if anything, could be realized from the school lands. Hence whatever schools were established must have been maintained by local, voluntary, self-imposed taxation or assess- ment. No wonder, then, that the school houses were poor, the teachers ill-paid, and the school supplies limited in ex- tent, and of the cheapest kind. The Milwaukee Sentinel, of October 13, 1837, gives us in the following article a very correct estimate of the edu- cated thought of that day upon the question of common school education. "There is probably no one subject of so much importance to this territory, and which will be more conducive to the future happiness and prosperity of the people, than the adoption of a wise and liberal system of common school education. A careful observer will perceive in the older-settled portions of the Union, that the general mass of the people are the most enlightened, and well-informed, where a liberal and judicious common school system has been adopted. The foundation is laid at the com- mon school, and it is necessary that it be properly laid, of the right kind of material, under the care and superintendence of a master- workman, else the superstructure may fail in the end for the want of a right commencement." The editor who penned the above wrote in full view of all the schools that then existed in the village of Milwaukee and in the territory of Wisconsin. His estimate of the value of good schools is as good for the present time as it was fifty- five years ago. Notwithstanding this enlightened view of what was required, many years of deficiencies in the schools that the village was obliged to rely upon, had to be borne .THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 439 before much improvement came. True, there were good teachers, some probably much better than many of the teachers that we now have. Men and women were educated in those village schools who were well-equipped for dealing with the ordinary affairs of life. The earliest settlers of Mil- waukee embraced a very large proportion of quite well edu- cated American ladies and gentlemen. No one can name twenty of the oldest settlers without including many names that have been and are well-known representatives of edu- cated intelligence. This was the factor that supplemented the work of the ill-paid, poorly-supplied village school- master of the thirties. As an evidence of the protracted struggle that the early village schools experienced, and the difficulties that were encountered in making improvements, the following, taken from the Milwaukee Sentinel of June 7, 1845, will give the readers of this sketch a clear estimate. This was at a time, be it remembered, which was nearly ten years after the first schools were established. ' ' There is not a public school in Milwaukee, nor has there ever been one. The building used for school purposes in the first district " (east side of the Milwaukee river) "is old, dilapi- dated, unpainted and half unglazed, without play-ground or shade, and has not any kind of retreat for the performance of Nature's most private and necessary offices. " In this school, out of a school population of 325 children, between the ages of four years and six years, only about thirty are in the school, and these are of both sexes, and of all ages, pursuing their studies in text-books whose name is legion. Three hundred and eighteen dollars is all that is appropriated for the entire maintenance of this school, not one dollar for each child entitled to receive a common school education." This tells the story of the condition of the schools in the year just preceding the year when the Milwaukee city charter was adopted. Evidently the press of that day was a powerful factor in awakening the public to a realizing sense of the educational shortcomings then prevailing. We are told by the Sentinel that a public meeting was held at Trustees' hall on the west side, on the evening of December 12, 1845, for the purpose of taking some action looking towards the improvement of the schools. L. W. Weeks was president, and I. A. Lapham and A. W. Hatch secretaries, of the meeting. At this meeting Rufus King, from the committee on schools and school systems, reported as follows: 440 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. "The whole number of school children between the ages of 5 and 16 years in the town of Milwaukee is 1,781. There are 13 schools in operation within the corporation limits, viz., 4 public schools and 9 private schools. Actual attendance at the public schools, 228; at the private schools, 356, or 584 in all. There is no public school house in the east ward" (east side of river). "There is only a small-sized and inconvenient public school house in the west ward" (west side of river). "In the southward," (south side of Menomonee river), "there is a good public school house. There are upward of 1,000 children for whom no adequate provision of school accommodation is made. There are but two public school houses, one of them hardly deserving the name." In view of this report the meeting adjourned till Dec- ember 17, 1845, and the committee, consisting of F. Ran- dall, Rufus King, E. D. Smith, Richard Murphy and Moritz Schoeffler, was instucted to report at the next meet- ing a general plan of revision. At the next meeting, Dec- ember 17, 1845, the committee recommended that all of the common schools be placed under the control of a board of commissioners elected or appointed annually from the sev- veral school districts or wards, which should have full con- trol of the public schools, employing the teachers, prescrib- ing the text books, and determining rate bills to which recourse may be had for defraying a portion of the ex- penses. Lastly, the committee recommended, "that the school board shall have power to elect its president, who shall serve the board as its clerk, and who will be required to make periodical examinations of the schools and report the results thereof to the board." This report was adopted, and became, in substance, the outline of that part of the first city charter which related to the public schools. This report was the first important step that had been taken to improve the schools and was the first well-defined plan of improvement that had been presented. BEGINNING OF CITY SCHOOLS. , The city charter was adopted the next year, viz., 1846 r and the first election under the charter was held on April 7, 1846. The city was divided into five wards, viz., the First and Third on the east side, the Second and Fourth on the west side, and the Fifth on the south side. The First ward public school was first opened in the basement of the old St. Peter's cathedral on Martin street, which was kindly offered THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 441 to the school board by the late Right Rev. John Martin Henni, Archbishop of Milwaukee. Evidently the church authorities in those days had no prejudice against the public schools. In the Third and in the Fourth ward the first public schools were held in rented houses. The Second and Fifth ward schools were held in the school buildings that had been in use before. These five schools were opened in June, 1846. The following is the first annual report of these five schools. Ward Schools. Whole Number Average Daily Enrolled. Atteudance. First 80 50 Second 113 45 Third 200 125 Fourth 85 50 Fifth... 170 85 Total 648 355 The city government had now come, a definite form had been adopted for the establishment and maintenance of the schools, but the means to supply even the most limited requirements were still utterly deficient. The population was rapidly increasing, the commercial necessities of the city were so urgent and the tax income so limited, that, notwith- standing the popular appreciation of good schools, six whole years must elapse before anything like adequate school-room was provided. In 1852 five new brick school buildings, which were then considered quite large, were ready for use. Two of these were on the east side, viz., one on the northwest corner of Van Buren and Division streets, and one on the northeast corner of Detroit and Jackson ; two on the west, one on the northwest corner of Eighth and Sycamore streets, and one on Fourth street, near Galena. The Fifth ward (south side) was supplied with one on or near the site of the location of the present Fifth district school building. Each of these new buildings was intended to accommodate about 350 pupils. r From the date of the establishment of these five schools, authentic written records of the school board's doings are preserved. Besides the duties that now devolve upon the school board, the board in those early days had still more extended powers ana responsibilities. The erection and repair of the buildings, the furnishing of them with school furniture and with school supplies,the providing of fuel,etc., all devolved upon the board. There was then one very bad defect in the sys- 442 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. tern of that period,and that was lack of professional supervision. Supervision seemed to be rather an uncertain element in the school organization of forty years ago. A committee of the school board was appointed to visit the schools, and report impressions received. The visits were seldom made, and the impressions were too dazzling to lead to anything helpful in future school work. It may truthfully be said that from 1852 till 1859, when General King was elected as first super- intendent of the Milwaukee public schools, lack of supervision was the most important of all the conditions that were then most needed. From the early village school of the thirties,, the charter school of 1846 followed, and in 1852, the five large, well-equipped schools heretofore noticed. Uniformity of text-books, classification into grammar, intermediate and primary departments were now established. Many of the best teachers that Milwaukee ever had were in the employ of the school board in the fifties. Among the latter, we need but nameF. C. Pomeroy, whose fame as principal of the Third ward school was known not only in Milwaukee, but through- out the whole Northwest. Until the time of Superintendent King, whatever of good there was in the schools did not ex- ist so much as a requirement by well formulated conditions presented by the school board, as by the excellent abilities of the teachers who then served the city. During the seven-year interval from 1852 till 1859,. there was but a semblance of uniformity in the work done in the schools. An ambitious teacher might take up draw- ing, another might teach the German language, and an- other might teach astronomy, etc., notwithstanding the fact that other teachers pursuing the same presumed ends taught none of these. In some of the schools the German language was taught, long before its formal adoption by the school board in 1857 as one of the branches of the curricu- lum of studies. MR. KING'S SUPERINTENDENCY. The election of a superintendent, who was presumably chosen on account of his fitness to supervise the work of the schools, was a great step in the development of our present splendid school system. General Rufus King, the first superintendent, was a man eminently fitted to perform the duties of the office. He was a man of liberal education, and had long been a member of the school board. There was a decided improvement in the schools from and after the date of his becoming superintendent. THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 443 Had General King been permitted to continue his ser- vices, the schools would have been the gainers. The salary then paid, although it was considered liberal for the time, was not sufficient pay for the entire services of such a man as General King. His editorial management of the Sen- tinel probably demanded too much ot his time to permit his giving the full scope of his splendid powers to the work of the schools. .MR. FORD'S SUPERINTENDEXCY. May 4, 1860, Jonathan Ford was elected as General King's successor. Mr. Ford had been a teacher in the Mil- waukee schools. He probably knew more of the details of the work than his predecessor. But in breadth and general powers of developing the system and of improving its faulty conditions, he was not up to General King's standard. Besides the time given to the examining and certifying of teachers, the superintendents of those days devoted most of their spare time to the examining of classes. Teachers' meetings were seldom held. Monthly reports were then required, which contained the enrollment, attendance, ab- sence, and number of visitors that honored the schools with their presence. There were no reports upon the subject of corporal punishment, teachers' meetings, etc., such as are now required. There was one feature of school experience then known which has been almost forgotten. That was the giving of prizes for the best standing in the respective branches. Mr. E. D. Holton gave medals, Mr. R. C. Spencer scholar- ships in his commercial college, and Mr. Alexander Mitch- ell, cash or book prizes for the pupils that attained the high- est standings. These contests served a good purpose for the time. They awoke a healthy emulation, and thereby tended to establish a higher standard of scholarship. Un- pleasant comments, however, .were not unknown. Favor- itism, prejudice, unfairness in making the decisions, were often heard as charges against the deciding or examining committees. It was during Mr. Ford's term of office, that the financial crisis in the Milwaukee school board history occurred. The panic of 1857, like all general panics, left long- lasting penalties to follow in its wake. School orders were seeking purchasers at a discount of from twenty to twenty- five per cent. Finally, the school board closed the schools 444 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. for more than two months, which act brought the common council to a definite decision in making the provisions nec- essary to meet the financial requirements. To the credit of the teachers be it said, none of them deserted their ill-paid positions in consequence of the loss sustained in having their pay stopped at a time when they could ill-afford to suffer any loss. Sixteen teachers were dropped from the service, the two high schools were discontinued, as essential steps of retrenchment. The work of the schools was resumed, and, in spite of. the depressing financial difficulties, the Milwaukee schools did good work in those days when the dark clouds of civil war ominously darkened the southern horizon, and the boys left the schools to blow the patriotic strains of the fife or tap the war drum to give the marching columns time, or, still oftener, to join the ranks and march away to the front. The stern demands of the war did thin the upper grades of the schools, but the work still went on. Those stirring, sad days of war lent an impetus to the rhetorical work of the schools. The speeches of John Adams, Patrick Henry and Daniel Webster were rendered with adjuncts of feeling and passion befitting the times. The war music aroused the spirit of patriotism. All of the older teachers can well remember with what spirit the pupils sang "Rally Round the Flag," "The Red, White and Blue," "John Brown's Body Lies Mouldering in the Grave," "Lay Me Down and Save the Flag." How those stirring lines on Sheridan's Ride, by Buchanan Read, were spoken by the boys and girls almost as soon as they were taken from the press ! History teaching received a new impulse. It was no longer regarded as a study of secondary importance. The history of the times was told by the pupils in well written compositions, and the schools received a mighty impulse from the great deeds that were being performed on the bloody fields of the South. MR. DE WOLF'S SUPERINTENDENT. Mr. Sharpstein, one of the editors of the Milwaukee News, was elected superintendent in 1862. But his political duties to his paper were such as to prevent him from giving as much time to the duties of the superintendent's office as its importance required. He resigned after a few months, and Mr. De Wolf, a member of the school board, was elected. A glance at the records left by Superintendent De Wolf show quite plainly that a mistake was made in electing him to the THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 445 office. Whatever prosperity or success was attained during the years that Mr. De Wolf served must have been due to the ability and devotion of the teachers. The superintendent could not have known whether the work of the teachers was well or ill done. His own scholarship was manifestly too weak to entitle him to any position in the schools. He probably tried to do as well as he knew how. But what he knew was not sufficient to make him a competent judge of the teacher's ability either as a scholar or a teacher. The selecting of such a person was the weakest act ever performed by the Milwaukee school board. It showed only what< an abl and to them is due whatever of merit or success they attained. During the last year of Mr. De Wolf's term of office, the following were the principals in the employ of the school board: First ward, P. C. Pomeroy ; Second ward, Jacob Wernli ; Third ward, Patrick Connolly, Jr.; Fourth ward, C. K. Martin ; Fifth ward, Galen B. Seaman ; Sixth ward, F. C. Lau ; Seventh ward, H. B. Furness ; Eighth ward, O. M. Baker ; Ninth ward, Louis Hillmantel. With the active work of the schools in such hands, the deficiencies of the superintending power hardly reached to the work of the class teacher. Probably the mistake that was made in selecting Mr. De Wolf as superintendent was so manifest to all that when the board chose his successor, a very excellent choice was made. MR. POMEROY'S SUPERINTENDENCE. May 15, 1865, Mr. F. C. Pomeroy, who had been recog- nized and conceded by all to be one of the ablest and best teachers that ever taught in the Milwaukee schools, was elected as superintendent. Mr. tomeroy's supervision was uniform, constant and painstaking. Trained in the work himself, he knew what was attainable, and, by his careful examinations of all the classes in the city, he was soon able to make intelligent and fair comparisons of the relative status attained by teachers engaged in the same grade of work. Yearly examinations of teachers had been required up till the time of Mr. Pomeroy's administration, and hav- ing himself been required to go through this humiliating annual test, he soon induced the school board to abandon it. Since his time, a teacher's certificate is required but once. The department system, viz., grammar, intermediate and 446 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. primary departments, constituted the three divisions of a school. One teacher in each department was designated as principal of that department, the principal of the grammar department being recognized as principal of the school. In 1868 the graded system was adopted instead of the depart- ment system. But one principal was named for the school after that time. Under the graded system, the principal .was not required to teach a certain class, but was expected to devote most of his time to the more important work of supervision. Principals have taught classes since then, at times, but only temporarily. During Mr. Pomeroy's admin- istration mental arithmetic attained a very high standard of excellence in the Milwaukee schools. This was chiefly due to Mr. Pomeroy's special proficiency in dealing with that branch of teaching. Pupils in the highest, or first, grade could with the greatest rapidity analyze problems that usually require an algebraic solution. During the year 1868 to 1869 of Mr. Pomeroy's administration, a question was raised as to the jurisdiction of the superintendent, under .the laws as they then existed, to grade and promote pupils. The question was referred to the city attorney, who decided that he had such legal right. The denial or questioning of his right probably came from the optional powers that had been exercised by the principals prior to that time. This optional power had been exercised so far that text-books other than the ones prescribed by the school board had been used in some of the schools. In January, 1868, the high school, as it now exists, was opened in the Seventh district school as a part of the -system. The whole number of pupils enrolled in the high school during the first year was one hundred, and the aver- age daily attendance was sixty-eight. The branches taught during Mr. Pomeroy's term of service embraced reading, spelling, writing, grammar, arith- metic, mental and practical, geography, United States his- tory, physical geography and music ; German was optional. ME. PAUL'S SUPERINTENDENCY. August 25, 1870, Mr. Pomeroy died, and Geo. H. Paul was shortly afterward elected to fill the unexpired term. Mr. Paul had been a member of the school board, but was not known as a teacher. He followed Mr. Pomeroy's plan of superintending the schools. He examined teachers and pupils as Mr. Pomeroy had done, but did not attempt THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 447 any change, either in the work as he found it, or in the man- ner of doing it. MR. LAU'S SUPERINTEXDENCY. In May, 1871, F. 0. Lau, who had been principal of the Webster or Second ward school, was elected as Mr. Paul's successor. He attempted more than any of his predecessors : (1) He had mental arithmetic dropped as a separate branch of instruction. (2) He undertook to revolutionize grammar teaching by eliminating most of what is known as technical grammar and by substituting composition or language exer- cises instead. .(3) He tried to have "Morals and Manners" made a part of the course of study. (4) He recommended the following text-books to be used by the teachers as a guide or basis of instruction: Willson's Manual, Hadley's Lan- guage Exercises, Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, Our World, by Mrs. Hall, etc. Mr. Lau's theories tended largely toward an entire change of the matter used and methods followed prior to his time. There was so much change attempted that confusion and uncertainty followed as a matter of consequence. Such extensive change in school work never improves the exist- ing order of things. School work is rarely so bad as to war- rant an entire change in all that relates to it. During Mr. Lau's term of service, in 1873 to 1874, music and drawing were added to the curriculum. Professor F. W. H. Priem and Charles F. Zimmerman were appointed as superintendents thereof, respectively. A normal depart- ment or division of instruction was added to the high school, and Miss Sarah L. Denton was appointed as teacher thereof, and Miss Sarah A. Stewart as assistant. The establishment of the normal department proved to be the wisest investment ever made by the school board. Prior to that time, but few of the Milwaukee teachers had any professional training other than what they acquired by experience. Year by year, the city normal school graduated classes of teachers that were trained to enter upon the work of teaching with the experience that made their work suc- cessful from the very commencement. There is probably no other single factor in the history of the Milwaukee schools that has contributed so much to their high standing as did the city normal school. Its founders hardly realized the ex- tent of its future influence upon the Milwaukee schools. 448 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. MR. MACALISTER'S SUPERINTENDENT. In May, 1874, James MacAlister was elected to the of- fice of superintendent. He had been a principal of the schools, ten years or more before that time, and was at the time of his election president of the school board. Mr. Mac- Alister had unbounded faith in the normal department, and one of his first important official acts was to recommend making the normal department independent from the high school. Miss Sarah Stewart was the principal, and for many years she gave the very best proofs of her fitness to train the graduates of the high school to become teachers. Of Mr. -MacAlister 's superintendency of the Milwaukee schools, much has already been said. After entering upon the duties of the office, he devised a system of blanks which were intended to meet every phase of school administration. Before Mr. MacAlister's time, the highest classes of the district or ward schools were examined in their respective schools for promotion to the high school. Mr. MacAlister, in 1874, changed this plan and instituted therefor one general examination for all the first grades of the city. He prepared the questions, and called upon the principals to assist in con- ducting the examinations and examining the papers of the pupils. This plan led to a clearer knowledge of the relative scholarly status of the highest grades in the respective schools. It led also to a healthy emulation in reaching a high standard of scholarship. The Centennial exhibition, which was held at Philadelphia in 1876, afforded an oppor- tunity of making an exhibit of school work. Mr. MacAlis- ter, with the aid of some of the principals, laid out the plan of the exhibit contributed by the Milwaukee schools. It em- braced specimens of school work from all of the grades in which the pupils were able to write. The time for doing the work was uniform throughout the schools, and, as soon as finished, the work was forwarded to the superintendent's office, where it was appropriately arranged and classified. It was then bound into one hundred and fourteen volumes. Large photographs of the school bui4dings were taken and framed. A silk banner was prepared upon which was printed the number of schools, school enrollment, attendance, number of teachers, total cost of schools, etc. These became a part of the Milwaukee exhibit. The work, and particularly the plan of presenting it, received well-merited distinction. The presideut of the commission of education of the French THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Republic, M. Buisson, was so impressed with the work that he made a two days' visit to Milwaukee for the purpose of seeing the schools and studying more closely the manner of doing the work. In 1878, upon receiving an invitation from the educa- tional department of the Paris universal exhibition, the same work exhibited at the Philadelphia exposition with some additional work was forwarded to Paris, and a silver medal was obtained in recognition of its merits. Eight vol- umes of the work exhibited were given to Japan, ten to Italy, and the remainder was given to the minister of public instruction of France, to be placed in the pedagogical museum and library in Le Palais Bourbon. During the year 1875 to 1876, the school board redistricted the city, and changed the names of the schools as follows : First ward, Juneau school to First district school ; Second ward, Webster school to Second district school ; Second ward, Jefferson school to Second district primary ; Third ward, Jackson school to Third district school ; Fourth ward, Plankinton school to Fourth district school ; Fifth ward, Mitchell school to Fifth district school ; Sixth ward, Humboldt school to Sixth district school ; Sixth ward, Union school to Sixth district primary ; Seventh ward, Hathaway school to Seventh district school ; Eighth ward, Douglas school to Eighth district school ; Ninth ward, Quentin school to Ninth district school ; Tenth ward, Wash- ington school to Tenth district school; Eleventh ward,. Franklin school to Eleventh district school ; Twelfth ward, Lincoln school to Twelfth district school. As the district numbers of the schools corresponded with the numbers of the wards, there was less difficulty in locating the schools than there had been when they were known by the personal names, Juneau, Webster, etc. In 1876, calisthenics was added to the course of study, and placed under the general direction of Professor George Brosius. As the teachers were not all conversant with the work, they were obliged to attend class instruction under Professor Brosius, sometimes after the regular school hours, and sometimes on Saturday mornings. This requirement added so much physical labor to the teachers' work, that there was quite a popular opposition aroused in consequence. Calisthenics direction was after a few years discontinued, as it was claimed that the teachers were all able to conduct the exercises without special supervision. For nearly ten years 450 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. there were no directors or superintendents of calisthenics. Finally, in 1890, the school board again appointed four special directors of calisthenics for the entire city. They visit the schools, conduct the exercises, and thus give the teachers the example of conducting physical training as practiced in the best turning schools. Several changes were made in the graded course of study during Mr. MacAlister's term of service. Algebra was dropped from the course in the district schools and elementary mensuration and bookkeeping were added. The use of a text-book in teaching spelling was discon- tinued. Several of what were designated as the impractical rules found in the text-books of arithmetic were discon- tinued. Among these were the following: Alligation, pro- gression, both geometrical and arithmetical, and foreign exchanges.' Only the following tables of compound numbers were retained, viz.: Dry measure, wine measure, avoirdu- pois weight, 'long measure, square measure and cubic meas- ure. These changes were all intended to make the school work more practical than it had been. MR. SOMERS' SUPERINTENDENCE. In May, 1878, J. J. Somers was elected superintendent of schools, and served until May, 1880, when James Mac- Alister was again elected. No change of moment occurred during Mr. Somers' administration. During the summer of 1878 a protracted discussion 'Over the adoption of text- books occurred. The chief fight was over the adoption of a geography. A part of the members of the school board favored Harper's and a part the Eclectic geography. The latter was finally adopted, and has remained in use from that time till the present. School-book fights have frequently lerd to very bitter contests. Among the most notable strifes of this kind was that which arose over the adoption of a spelling book in 1887, and that over the adoption of a grammar in 1888. The most peculiar circumstance about these contests was the fact that the superintendent opposed in each instance the book recommended by the principals. In 1891, a text-book in arithmetic was adopted without consulting either teachers or principals. The text-book question has other queer phases. The queerest is, that pupils moving from one city to another, not to speak of moving from state to state, are almost invariably THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 451 compelled to provide a new set of text-books. There is room for legislation that will make the text-books uniform, and thereby lessen the expense involved. Some aver that by requiring uniformity in text-books, a lower standard of text- book will be the outcome. There is just as much reason to maintain the opposite position. There is no reason what- ever to suppose that a national board, selected with a view to the competency of the members thereof, could not produce books quite as good as the ones that are now written for the publishers. There is a well-founded complaint, quite often heard, that too many text-books are required under the present system of education. Milwaukee is probably not an excep- tion in this matter. It is an indisputable fact that great improvement is noticeable in many of our text-books. The readers are better printed, more clearly illustrated and more fittingly arranged with reference to the successive mental development of pupils for which they are intended, than they were twenty years ago. Great improvement, too, is noticeable in the arrangement of the spelling books now used as compared with those formerly in use. Not much improvement has been made in the text-books in grammar. Many of them are poorer books than the ones used twenty years since. Great improvement has been made in the geography text-books. The matter contained is more sys- tematized, more important as information or fact, and the maps are representative of the advancement made in the engraving and printing arts. EVENING SCHOOLS. During Mr. MacAlister's last period of service, viz., in the school year 1880 to 1881, evening schools were first estab- lished in Milwaukee for both sexes. Three evenings, viz., Monday ,Wednesday and Friday evenings, the boys' evening schools were held ; and on two evenings of the week, viz., Tuesday and Thursday evenings, girls' evening schools were held. At first, the school board supplied books, slates and stationery for the pupils, and required a small fee to be paid by the pupils. This plan \vas soon abandoned, as it was found to result in diminished attendance. For several years the school board furnished readers, slates and stationery for evening schools free. This plan was changed two years ago, and pupils since then have been required to furnish their 452 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. own books. The pay of the evening school teachers has been, for most of the time, two dollars per night for assist- ants, and two and a half dollars for principals. In 1890 most of the principals refused to teach for two dollars and a half per night, as they had during one winter received three dollars and fifty cents per night. The school board refused to increase their pay, hence many of the principals discon- tinued serving. A good deal of disappointment has been experienced in evening school work. As a rule, the attendance is quite large when they are first opened in the fall, but it gradually decreases as the term advances. Several expedients have been resorted to for the purpose of securing greater regularity of attendance. So far, it is not claimed by any one that a cure has been found. One thing has been noticed by all evening school-teachers, and that is that the persons that need to use them most are the ones who are the most irregular in their attendance. Pupils who have progressed into or beyond the middle grades of the district day schools are the ones who make the best use of the evening school, viz. : they are the most regular in attendance as well as the most diligent pupils. The cost of the evening schools for the year 1884 to 1885, for teachers' and janitors' salaries, was $4,742.25, and for the year 1890 to 1891, $5,449.75. The minimum number of pupils for whom the school board ap- portions one evening school teacher, is fourteen. Although this seems a small enough number of pupils for a teacher, still it seems difficult to assure even that number for the entire term. The chief cause for the seeming lack of inter- est in the evening schools arises from the fact that most of the young boys that attend, work during the day, and hence are too tired to have much enthusiasm for books, slates, or for work involving their use. There is one evil consequence that grows out of evening schools. It is this: Many poor people withdraw their boys and girls from the day schools, to engage in low-priced jobs, under the mistaken belief that they can get as much education as is needful in the evening schools. The school board has found some difficulty in secur- ing suitable -teachers for the evening schools. Many who apply to teach and are employed, prove to be utterly unfit for the work. Judgment, tact, energy, organizing capacity are the indispensable requisites in good evening school teachers. The difficulties in the evening school problem are not yet entirelv removed. i. Hnfcerson, Mr. Anderson, ex-superintendent of the Milwaukee public schools, was born at Rugby, England. He came to Wisconsin at about twelve years of age to engage in farming. At seventeen years of age he volunteered in the twenty-second Wisconsin infantry, fol- lowed the war to the close, having made the memorable march to the sea with Sherman's army before he was twenty years of age. For two or three years after he was mustered out he spent his time in working in a machine shop and preparing for admission to college. As a means of earning the support for this under- taking, he planned teaching for two or three years. Entering the normal school at Whitewater, he soon became an enthusias- tic student of pedagogy, and abandoned the purpose of becom- ing an engineer. After graduating, he taught one term at Brookfield, and then was appointed principal of the union high school at Waukesha, where he remained three years. He was appointed to the principalshjp of the Fifth district school of Milwaukee, which place he occupied for nearly eight years. At the age of thirty -seven he was elected superintendent of schools of Milwaukee. He held this place for nine years, and then accepted an agency in the Northwestern Mutual life insurance company of Milwaukee, but is still interested in education, and willing to serve the cause as a private citizen. He was the author of the Manual of Matter and Method, a work which supplemented the usual bare outlines of the city school curriculum, with full and complete directions on the methods best fitted to the particular subject and grade ; and at that time a new departure in the style of publishing courses of study for city schools. The work has been widely distributed and in some places the suggestions on method appropriated wholesale without acknowledgment. Besides the attention Mr. Anderson has given to the im- provement of methods of instruction, he has introduced the teach- ing of science by experiments throughout all the higher grades. He has always been interested in education in the state at large, has been president of the state association, member of the board of regents of normal schools, and at the present time, is chair- man of the state committee on educational exhibit for the Columbian exposition. THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 453 MR. ANDERSON'S SUPERINTENDENCE. April 3, 1883, James MacAlister resigned the office of superintendent of schools to accept a similar position in the city of Philadelphia. At a special meeting held soon after, William E. Anderson was elected superintendent, and served till March, 1892, a period of almost nine years. The special changes that were made during Mr. Ander- son's term of service include the following : Teachers' meetings were held oftener than they had been prior to his time. True, the other superintendents called meetings, but not nearly as often. An entire change in the method of language teaching was attempted. Reproduction, from memory, combination of separate statements into one state- ment, paragraph w r riting, are some of the new features of what was attempted in the upper grades. A very limited amount of technical grammar was taught in the mth, sixth, and seventh grades. But the work in the eighth grade was confined to so-called construction exercises, the basis of which work is found in Swinton's New Composition. There is considerable division of sentiment as to the merits of the plans which have been followed for some years past. In the year 1884 to 1885, Mr. Anderson recom- mended the introduction of experimental physics into the eighth grade. Since then this has been a part of the eighth grade work. Some of the work formerly included in the physical geography work of the eighth grade was dropped. There is now less of the geographical part of the work than there was formerly. Five years ago, viz., during the year 1887 to 1888, a text-book in spelling was adopted. For many years prior to that time there w r as no text-book used. Formerly all of the branches taught in the eighth grade w r ere continued till the close of that year's work. Mr. Ander- son adopted the plan of finishing geography and United States history in the seventh grade, civil government at the close of the first term of the eighth grade year, arithmetic and mensuration at the close of the second term, and the other branches at the close of the year. This plan has some advantages and some disadvantages. It is probably advan- tageous to very strong pupils, but not to the weaker ones. More attention has been given to supplementary read- ing since Mr. Anderson's term of service began than had ever been given to it before. Many of the district schools have now quite a large collection of well-selected supplement- 454 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ary reading matter. As a means of interesting pupils in reading, and as a means of imparting useful knowledge, supplementary reading matter adds very much to the scope of the possibilities of what may be gained in school reading. In the year 1888 to 1889, the cooking school was added to the Milwaukee public schools as a department of special instruction. Girls from the fifth grade upward are eligible to receive the instruction. Two classes from each school have been taught each year. The course embraces ordinarily about twenty lessons, and includes most of the essential branches of cooking. Mesdames Young, Sanderson, Pereles and Crosby deserve great credit (1) for establishing a cooking school which demonstrated the practicability of the schemes ; (2) for convincing the school board of the necessity of adopt- ing it. During Mr. MacAlister's period of service as superin- tendent, in 1877, he recommended the consolidation of the upper grades'. The proposition was not at that time ap- proved by the school board. The same proposition was advocated by Mr. Anderson, and during the year 1891 to 1892, it was applied to certain schools. The eighth grade of the Ninth ward was consolidated with that of the Second > and that of the Twelfth with that of the Eleventh. The object professed to be subserved was to make room for ncreasing numbers in the lower grades, and also to save expense in teaching the upper grade. The proposition has not been received with popular approval. Many hold that the removal of the highest grades from a school deprives it of the link that connects the school with the high school, and hence removes a powerful agency for inducing pupils of the district schools to try to win the coveted distinction which the diploma of graduation confers. It is also main- tained that the rooms occupied by the higher grades are not suited either by position or by desk accommodation for lower grade pupils. The saving, it is held, is not much. THE SCHOOL FOR DEAF-MUTES. In September, 1885, the school board gave the use of a room in the primary school building, on the corner of Seventh and Prairie streets, to be used for the instruction of deaf-mutes. Mr. Paul Binner was chosen as instructor. The state legislature, during the session of 1885, provided by enactment for the support of said school, by making an allowance of one hundred dollars per annum for each pupil. THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 455- When first opened the school for deaf-mutes was sup- ported by a humane society known as the Wisconsin phono- logical institute, of which Mr. R. C. Spencer has been presi- dent ever since it was founded. Since the opening of the school the principal, Professor Binner, visited Europe for the purpose of examining into the methods of instruction practiced there. The oral or articulate method of instruc- tion is practiced, and the graduates of this school are ena- bled thereby to enter the high school and take instruction under ordinary teachers. Printing is taught in this school as a branch of manual training. Oral instruction, however, embraces shqemaking,. carpentry, book-binding, etc. W T hen Professor Binner first took charge of the school he had eight pupils, but when it became a part of the public school system, in 1885, it had twenty-six pupils. The en- rollment is now forty -one. At first, Professor Binner was the only teacher in the school, now he has five assistants. The average age of pupils entering the deaf-mute school is eight and one-half years, and the average age at time of graduation seventeen years. All the branches taught in the other schools, except singing, form the course of study in the deaf- mute school. There are now about twenty -five such schools in this country, viz., deaf-mute schools taught by the oral method. The advantages of this method are as follows : 1. The deaf are given the power of speech, are taught to read the speech of others, and are thus brought into nearer relations with their fellow-men who are not thus afflicted. 2. The graduates are enabled to speak with their employers, to take orders "from their lips," and are not de- pendent upon writing as a means of transacting their duties. The state appropriation of $100 dollars for each pupil taught is quite liberal, but not quite enough to defray all of the expenses incurred. Milwaukee can well afford to supply the deficiency. This is one of the latest accessions to our Milwaukee school system, and one to which all may point with pride. MR. PECKHAM'S SUPERIXTENDENCY. After nine years of service, Mr. Anderson was super- seded by Mr. George W. Peckham at the school board meet- ing in March, 1892. Mr. Peckham was connected with the 450 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Milwaukee high school for nearly twenty years, and for the past eight years was principal. The Milwaukee high school has had the following principals since its opening on the first Wednesday in January, 1868 : August Gaylord, J. C. Pickard, S. R. Winchell, Albert Hardy, J. J. Mapel, George W. Peckham, A. J. Rogers. Mr. Peckham's term of service was longer than that of any of his predecessors. During Mr. Anderson's term of service as superintend- ent, in the year 1889, an "assistant superintendent " was elected in accordance with an act passed by the legislature of the same year. The superintendent has the power of nomi- nating the assistant. The choice of a person to fill the of- fice therefore devolved upon Mr. Anderson, and he named Mr. H. 0. R. Siefert as the first incumbent of the new office. The assistant superintendent has renewed the work of examining classes in the schools. In doing this work he has given the superintendent more time for attending to the general duties of his office. At the time of the appoint- ment of Mr. Siefert, in 1 889, the superintendent's salary was raised from $3,000 to $4,000 per year, and the assistant superintendent's salary was fixed at $2,500 per year. The salary of the secretary of the school board was, at the same time, raised from $1,400 to $2,000 per annum, and his compensation for taking the annual school census from $600 to $1,000. In 1881, during Mr. MacAlister's second period of ser- vice as superintendent of schools, a single kindergarten school was opened. KINDERGARTENS. The popular appreciation of kindergarten work is best told in the bare statement that at the present time there are thirty kindergartens and fifty-seven kindergarten teachers in the Milwaukee public school system. The October re- port for 1892 showed an enrollment of 3,165 pupils in the various kindergartens, which was 11.7 per cent, of the en- tire enrollment. The amount paid for salaries of kindergarten teachers for the year 1891 to 1892 was $25,650, and the total expense, including salaries, pianos, tuning pianos, and material used, was $28,502.55. The entire amount paid for teachers' salaries in the year 1861 to 1862, which is just thirty years -ago, was $25,052.58 ; i. e., $597.42 more was paid for kinder- .garten teaching in the year 1891 to 1892 than was paid the THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 457 sixty-nine teachers that constituted the whole Milwaukee corps of teachers in the year 1861 to 1862. The pay of prin- cipals of schools in the latter year was $800 ; now it is $1,700; that of the highest assistant teacher $400 ; now it is $900 ; that of the lowest priced assistant $250 ; now it is $450. Most of the assistant teachers at the present time receive $600 per annum, salary. Kindergarten directors receive the maximum salary of $600, and assistants $450 per annum. We may be able to estimate the growth of kindergarten work and its expenses by a comparison with the year 1885 to 1886: In the latter year there were nineteen kindergarten teachers ; now there are fifty-seven, gain 200 per cent.; then there were 945 pupils enrolled, now there are 3,195, gain 235 per cent. Then the total kindergarten's annual pay-roll was $8,999.92 ; while in the year 1891 to 1892, it was $25,650, increase 185 per cent. The increase for the present year will be much larger, as several new kindergartens were opened at the commence- ment of this year. A glance at these figures will convince anyone that kindergarten enrollment, kindergarten teachers, and kinder- garten expenses, grow far more rapidly than the general enrollment, the general corps of teachers, and the general expenses of the schools. That there may be no question about the facts, the following are the actual figures : Average Number Enrolled. Total Expense of Schools. Whole Number ol Teachers. 1890to 1891 23.635 $460,389.05 -73,630.06 538 378 160 W% 1885 to 1886 16,615 7,020 8186,758.99 6S% 42^ Since the kindergarten enrollment, expense, and num- ber of teachers are included in this estimate, the increase of the latter would be still greater if the comparisons were made with the enrollment, expense, and number of teachers in all the other branches of school work. It may be claimed that it did not exist at all prior to ten or eleven years ago, and that it has now reached into a larger proportion of the schools of the city. These facts will not be questioned. Still there will be room for inquiry as to causes of said abnormal growth in the kindergarten department. The friends of kindergarten work should be more in- terested than any one else in preventing unreasonable increase of expense in this department, for a sure way to 458 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. bring about the abandonment of any department is to make it too expensive. Of the value of kindergarten work there exists consider- able difference of opinion even among school-men and school- women. No one denies its utility as a means of making the first year of school life attractive and therefore agreeable to the pupil. Its music, games, marching, and handwork are all attractive. But when the pupil leaves the kindergarten and takes up the slate, pencil and book, he begins something which is entirely new, and not a continuation of his kinder- garten experience. But free kindergartens will remain. GERMAN IN THE SCHOOLS. The very large proportion of German-speaking patrons of the Milwaukee public schools was the cause of making German a branch of the course of instruction. In the Ger- man-speaking districts, such as the Second, Sixth, and Ninth, German was spoken and incidentally taught even before the school board made it a part of the course of in- struction in 1867. Teachers of German were at first ap- pointed only for those schools in which the German-speak- ing children largely predominated. Soon after, however, the argument was presented, that there were some German- speaking children in all of the schools, also that there were many others who desired to study German. The advantage of understanding a language, which was spoken by more than half of the whole population, could not be questioned. There was another reason advanced for the study of Ger- man in the public schools, and that was, that it afforded the surest means of leading the German-speaking children into the public schools, and thereby to learn the English lan- guage. Soon after the adoption of German as a part of the course of instruction, there was a marked increase of en- rollment in the public schools, and a corresponding de- crease in the German private schools. In July, 1869, three of the Mitchell prizes were given for the best German trans- lations. F. C. Winkler, P. V. Deuster, and Carl Kunz, were the members of the committee that made the decision, and August Schattenberg of the Quentin or Ninth ward; Her- man Weeks, of the Humboldt or Sixth ward, and Albert Schloemilch, also of the Humboldt school, were the pupils that won the prizes $15, $10, and $5, respectively. For the first three years after the adoption of German, there were no formal reports as to numbers studying that THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 459 language. In fact, the records contain but little, if any, reference to it. November 1, 1870, the school board adopted the following rules: (1) Applicants for the position of teacher of the German language should not be deemed qualified for such position until they had passed a satisfactory examina- tion, showing their capability of writing and teaching both the English and German languages. (2) Monthly reports to the superintendent should, after that time, include the num- ber and percentage of those studying the German language in the respective grades. (3) Pupils studying the German language presented for promotion should be examined with reference to their proficiency in that language. The Second, Ninth and Sixth ward schools were the exemplars in Ger- man-teaching proficiency. Principals Lau, Hillmantel and "\Vahl took charge of the work, and German, in their hands, attained a high rank of proficiency. In the English-speak- ing schools, German has made but slow progress, especially among English-speaking children. In a few instances, it is true, individual pupils of the latter class have mastered the power to speak and write the German language. For many years after its introduction, the supervisor of the teaching of German was not especially provided for under the rules of the school board. In the year 1886, Mr. B. A. Abrams, who had been teacher of German in the high school, was appointed as superintendent or director of the teaching of German. Since then about one half of his time has been devoted to the work in the high school, and the other half to the supervision of the work in the other schools. This has resulted in a marked improvement. The whole number of teachers of German in the employ of the school board in the year 1871 to 1872 was eight, one of whom was in the high school, and one each in the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Eighth and Ninth ward schools. For the year ending July 3, 1871, 3,543 were reported as study- ing German out of a total enrollment of 7,632, or forty-six and one-half per cent. Of the number studying German, 2,596 were reported of German parentage, or seventy-three per cent. In the year 1890 to 1891 the total enrollment of pupils was 25,303, of which number the total enrollment of those studying German was 16,255, or seventy-three per cent. This shows that the proportion studying German, compared -with the whole enrollment, is about the same as it was twenty years ago. The salaries paid for teaching German in the year 1870 to 1871 amounted to $9,380, and the whole amount 460 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. paid in salaries for that year was $92,991.30. The whole amount paid for German teaching in that year was 10.9 per cent, of the whole amount paid as teachers' salaries. In the year 1876 to 1877 there were 206 teachers employed, of whom fourteen, or 6.8 per cent., were teachers of German. During that year the average enrollment for the Milwaukee public schools was 9,581, of which number 5,703 were studying German, or almost 60 per cent. The total amount paid as teachers' salaries for the year 1890 to 1891 was $346,929.50, of which sum $40,950 was paid to teachers of German, or 11.8 per cent. ; 536 teachers were employed during that year, of whom fifty -four were teacehrs of Ger- man, or more than 10 per cent. THE HIGH SCHOOL. In accordance with Chapter 252, of Local Laws of the Wisconsin legislature of 1867, the Milwaukee high school was opened on the first Wednesday in June, 1868. At first theschool was held in a room in the Hathaway or Seventh ward school. The course of study first laid out embraced the follow- ing branches : Algebra, geometry, surveying, natural philoso- phy, chemistry, astronomy, physiology, geology, natural history, botany, Greek, Latin, French, German, English analysis, rhetoric, general history, political economy, consti- tution of the United States, mental philosophy. The present course of study in the high school is as follows : Algebra, science of common things, drawing, etymology, arithmetic, physiology, general history, physics, rhetoric, chemistry, English history, biology, English liter- ature, American constitutional history, political economy, English classics, Latin, Greek, German, French, psychology, trigonometry, geometry, ancient history, geology, astronomy, bookkeeping, short-hand, type-writing, letter-writing, criti- cism. There are now six optional courses in the Milwaukee high school, viz. : High school, college preparatory or classical, college preparatory or general science, German normal, normal, business. The first requires four years; second, four years ; third, three years ; fourth, four years ; fifth, three years ; sixth, three years. The Milwaukee high school, since it was opened in 1868, has had seven different principals, viz., Gaylord, Pickard, Winchell, Hardy, Mapel, Peckham and Rogers. Its corps of assistants, as a rule, have been more constant. Messrs. Peckham and Rogers, both of whom have been principals, THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 461 were connected with the school for almost twenty years. The high standing of the high school is due chiefly to the following causes : (1) the high standing required for admis- sion ; (2) able men and women have been employed in the school as teachers and as principals. The whole number enrolled for the first year was 100, and for the present year 687. Within the next year there will be another high school, which will be located on the South side. SPECIAL BRANCHES. A manual training class was begun in September, 1891, as a part of the higli school work. H. M. Woodward was appointed as director. Only wood has thus far been used in the manual training work. Quite early in the history of the Milwaukee schools, music was practised as the first part of each day's pro- gramme. So much interest was taken that a melodeon was purchased for each school in 1859. But technical music was not begun till the year 1872 to 1873, when three professors of music, viz., Ehlman, Kuschbert and Heiss, were ap- pointed. Professor Ehlman had direction of music in the South side and in the Fourth ward schools, Professor Kusch- bert in the northwest schools, and Professor Heiss in the East side schools. In the year 1873 to 1874, Professor F. W. H. Priem was appointed as superintendent of music for the entire city. His work was divided into three parts : (1) To instruct the teachers. (2) To conduct musical instruction in the high school and in the three higher grades of the ward schools. (3) To conduct monthly examinations in the other grades ef the ward schools. He organized a concert, which was given in the Academy of Music, March 5, 1874. The chorus consisted of fully 1,000 voices, made up of pupils from the high school and from the ward schools. It was a great success. Professor Priem served till the close of the school year, 1879 to 1880. Pro- fessor Ehlrnan was appointed as his successor, and has served ever since then. At the commencement of the year 1873 to 1874, Charles F. Zimmerman was appointed superintendent of drawing and served till the year 1878 to 1879, when Miss Hannah M. Brown was appointed as his successor. Miss Brown 462 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. served till 1883, when Mr. Caleb N. Harrison was appointed as her successor. Mr. Harrison served till the close of first term in 1893. The " Walter Smith " system of drawing was adopted at first, but after Mr. Harrison began service as director of drawing instruction the Prang system was adopted. Drawing has attained considerable success in the Milwaukee schools. Many of the high school pupils have succeeded in- securing positions as draughtsmen in architects' offices. Singing has always ranked high in the Milwaukee schools. For many years the Tonic Sol-Fa system was prac- tised. This was finally discontinued and the Mason music readers were introduced instead. THE SCHOOL BOARD. The Milwaukee school board, as first organized in 1846, consisted of three school commissioners from each ward, ap- pointed by the common council. March 17, 1859, the state legislature repealed the former law and enacted that, com- mencing with the next school year, the Milwaukee school board should consist of two members from each ward. Com- mencing with the school year 1859 to 1860 and continuing till now, the present representation, two school commissioners from each ward, has existed. The school board at present consists of thirty-six members, viz., two for each of the- eighteen wards. Formerly the full term of the school com- missioners was two years, but the law was amended by the last legislature fixing the term at three years. As the law now stands, at least one-half of the school board will have two years' experience. Under the old law, one-half of the board might have but one year's experience. The officers of the board are a president, secretary, superintendent and assistant superintendent. The board grants the superin- tendent the services of a clerk and typewriter the latter is also a stenographer and the secretary a clerk. The school board has entire control, under the city charter and laws of the state, of all school matters except the selection and purchase of sites, and the erection and repair of buildings, which are controlled by the board of aldermen. The board has power (1) to elect its own officers, (2) to appoint teachers, and fix salaries thereof, (3) to make rules for the government of the schools, (4) to estimate the amounts necessary for the proper maintenance of the schools, (5) to appoint janitors, (6) to purchase school supplies and fuel, (7) to select text books, (8) to require obedience to laws and rules THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 463 governing the schools. These are the chief powers exer- cised by the Milwaukee school board. This board has been singularly free from political influences. Republi- can aldermen have nominated democratic school commis- sioners, and democratic aldermen have nominated republi- can school commissioners. Inside the school board, politics are unknown. In the appointment of teachers and in the election of school board officers, they have never been known to exert any influence. The meetings of the board are held on the first Tuesday of each month, and the monthly meeting held in May is designated as the annual meeting, at which the president is elected. One half of the board is elected at the annual meet- ing as the executive committee. Through the executive com- mittee, all appointments are made, viz.: This committee nominates, and the board confirms or rejects the nomina- tions. The other standing committees are "high school, finance, German, examinations, text books, supplies, print- ing, evening schools, industrial and art education, rules, libraries, discipline, council legislation, buildings, visiting, apportionment of teachers, truancy, non-residents, kinder- gartens, school for deaf." Standing committees meet upon the call of the respect- ive chairmen. The following committees meet regularly at the time specified, unless otherwise ordered : High School On the Thursday next preceding the monthly meeting of the board, at 8 P. M. Finance On the Monday next preceding the monthly meeting of the board, at 7:30 P. M. Executive On the Friday next preceding the monthly meeting of the board, at 7:30 P. M. School Supplies On the Friday next preceding the monthly meeting of the board, at 7 P. M. me e Printing On the Friday next preceding the monthly ting of the board, at 7 P. M. The school year begins on the first Monday of Septem- ber, and closes on July 3, unless otherwise ordered. The first term closes December 23. The second term begins on the second of January, unless the first of January happens to be on Saturday, and closes on the Friday next preceding Palm Sunday (the Sunday next preceding Easter Sunday). The last term begins on the Tuesday next following Easter. Sunday, and closes July 3. Besides the foregoing, Thanks- giving Day, "Washington's Birthday," and Decoration Day 464 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. (May 30), when they occur upon school days, are also school holidays. During September, May, and June, the schools open in the morning at 8:30, and the forenoon session is closed at 12:00; and during the same months the afternoon session begins at 1:15 and ends at 3:30. During the other months, the regular time of opening the forenoon session is 9 o'clock, and of closing, 12 o'clock ; and the afternoon ses- sion begins at 1:15, and closes at 4:15. A recess of 'fifteen minutes is prescribed for each session. The school year usually consists of about 400 half days of actual school time. SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Most of the district schools have school libraries. These libraries were first started by the efforts of the principals and teachers of the respective schools. School entertainments, readings, lectures and picnics were held, and the net pro- ceeds used for the purchase of books. (In some instances, pianos have been purchased from funds obtained in the same manner.) Some of the schools have now more than one thousand volumes of valuable books. Some of these books are used for reference purposes in the schools, some are dis- tributed to the pupils to be read at home, and a large pro- portion are used in the schools for supplementary reading. Periodicals are also purchased for use in the schools. For the past five years small sums have been allowed by the school board to the respective schools to be used for library purposes. ENROLLMENTS. Year Ending Total Enroll- ment. Average En- rollment. Whole Cost. Average Cost Per Pupil of Average En- rollment. 1853 1 662 $ 6 376 16 $ *3 84 1857 3353 23 408 00 *6 98 1862 4 9 1 30 879 85 *7 68 1867 9424 5 878 60 836 52 10 35 1872 11 200 7,359 109,313 37 14 86 1874 11 750 7 474 141 724 14 18 96 1876 13881 9,460 164,210 15 17 36 1881.. 17 636 12 330 209,768 15 17 01 1886 2^598 16 615 273 630 06 16 47 1891 28,074 22,303 424,221 43 19 02 1892 26 195 23635 460 398 05 19 48 'Estimated on total enrollment. THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 465 NUMBER OF TEACHERS. Special teachers 10 High school 18 Principals of district schools 20 Principal of deaf-mute school 1 Principals of primary schools 17 First assistants 20 Eeserve corps 25 Teachers of German and assistant teachers of German 57 Kindergarten directors and assistants 57 Assistant teachers 3b8 Total number of teachers 613 SALARIES. Superintendent $4,000 Assistant superintendent 2,500 Secretary 2,000 (Compensation for taking school census) 1,000 Principals of district schools 1,400 (For first year, and $100 additional per year till salary is $1,700.) Principal of high school 3,000 Principals of primary schools from $1,050 to 1,350 Director of German 2,000 First assistants 900 Teachers of German 1,100 Assistant teachers of German 400 (First year, and $50 increase till salary is $650.) Assistant teachers 600 (Commencing on $400 and increasing $50 per year.) Kindergarten directors , 600 (Beginning on $500 and increasing $50 per year.) Kindergarten assistants 500 (Beginning on $350 and increasing $50 per year.) Directors of music and of drawing 1,700 Assistants in high school from $700 to 1,700 Principal of deaf-mute school 1,700 Present value of school property.. $1,500,000 PATRICK DONNELLY. The Green Bay Schools. EARLY HISTORY. The confidence and familiar intercourse which the French settlers in the New World at once established in their relations w r ith the Indians gave them an easy access to the unknown interior, quite impossible to the more cautious Englishmen, who, regarding their savage neigh- bors with distrust and fear, rarely ventured beyond the coast. So soon as they had made their first settlements in. Canada, the French sailed up the St. Lawrence river, and in a short time had made their way across the Great Lakes, into the heart of the wilderness. Jean Nicolet, in 1639, visited Green Bay, and sojourning among the tribes on Fox river, made a treaty with them, laying the foundations for that close union of the French and Indians, which gave its character to the early settlements of Wisconsin. Father Claudius Allouez opened a mission at Green Bay in 1669. With this date begins Wisconsin history. For many long years Green Bay was the chief station in the great Northwest. Hither came Joliet, and Marquette, and La Salle. The missionary and the adventurer jour- neyed together, building now a chapel and now a trad- ing-post. In 1745, De Langlade came from Mackinaw and settled at Green Bay. He was followed by others, and a village grew up around him. He became the leader of the Indians, who were the natural allies of the French, in their frontier wars with the British, and took an active part in the defeat of Braddock. Green Bay, or " La Baye," as it was then known, re- mained essentially a French settlement even after formal possession had passed to the British and an English fort had been, for a time, maintained here. One hundred years ago, while the Mississippi was still the western boundary of the United States, and there were but fourteen states in the Union, the first schoolmaster in all this 466 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 467 broad northwestern wilderness came to Green Bay. Al- though education was not general among the early French settlers, private instruction was given in some instances. Notable among the early friends of education, we find the Grignon family. Pierre Grignon, a resident of Green Bay prior to 1763, married a daughter of Charles De Langlade, the " fathei of Wisconsin." In 1791 he instituted a school for his own children at his home, employing, as teacher, Mr. James Porlier. This gentleman was educated at Montreal and devoted to the priesthood, which he never entered. He came to Green Bay to fill the office of clerk for Mr. Grignon and to teach his children, this latter being then considered rather the less dignified profession of the two. The instruction given under him was of a very simple character. Up to- 1816, the few young persons who were educated were sent to- Detroit or Montreal. Mr. Porlier spent a long and useful life in Wisconsin, dying at Green Bay in 1839, after having served most creditably in several positions of public trust. With the establishment of the first American military post at Fort Howard, in 1816, came the first real schools. In his "Recollections," Colonel Ebenezer Childs, an old settler, tells us that the first schools were established soon after the advent of the first steamboat. The children of the garrison, and sometimes those of the prominent families in the neighborhood, were instructed by the chaplain of the post, or, in some instances, by some other person hired a& teacher. These schools were under the supervision of the commander of the post. From the year 1817 schools seem to have been main- tained with more or less regularity, not only at the fort, but also on the east side of the river, Judge Lawe, Louis Grig- non and Lewis Rouse being among the early and fast friends of education, building or furnishing school houses, and ever ready with their influence and support. All honor to these pioneers in a noble cause. Miss Ursula Grignon, daughter of Louis Grignon, deserves honorable mention among the early teachers of Green Bay. Educated at a con- vent in Kentucky, she devoted many years of a long life passed in Green Bay to the instruction of the young, teach- ing in private and in public schools. Mrs. French, in her " History of Brown County," states that a boarding and day school was opened in 1817 by Monsieur and Madame Canon, of Montreal, in a house belonging to Judge- 468 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. Lawe. In the same year, T. S. Johnson opened an English school on the West side, Louis Grignon, Judge Lawe and James Porlier being among its patrons. Mr. Johnson agreed to teach reading, writing, arithmetic and English grammar for nine months, at six dollars a month for each scholar. Mr. J. B. S. Jacobs, father of the late John B. Jacobs, of Green Bay, taught a French school in 1821. Louis Grignon built the school house in 1822, near the present residence of Mrs. M. L. Martin, and Mr. Amos Hoi- ton was engaged to teach the school. Mr. Grignon was its most active patron, and his own children were among the foremost of its pupils. By agreement Mr. Holton was to receive four dollars per quarter for each pupil, and to teach seven hours a day and five da}*s a week, the terms to consist of twelve weeks each. The fuel necessary for heating was to be furnished by the patrons of the school. These schools, being supported by tuition fees or by subscription, owed their existence to the people in common, as it were, and, becoming objects of common interest, paved the way for the public schools of a later day. Daniel Curtis, a former captain in the army and the grandfather of Mrs. P. H. Sheridan, taught a school in 1824 and 1825, the population of Green Bay being then 600, with but a small proportion of Americans. It would seem that text books were furnished by the trustees of the school, for in a letter addressed by Mr. Curtis to Robt. Irwin, Jr., L. Grig- non, and Lewis House, he makes a requisition for three dozen spelling books and six Murray's grammars. General A. G. Ellis, the father of Hon. E. H. Ellis,of Green Bay, received the appointment of teacher in the Protestant Episcopal mission at Green Bay in 1823, under Eleazar Williams (afterward notorious as the reputed dauphin of France). Mr. Williams was the duly commissioned mission- ary to the Western Indians. The school was conducted suc- cessfully during the following winter, but on the approach of spring it w r as closed by Mr. Williams, who desired to occupy the school-room as a residence upon his marriage with Miss Jourdain, one of the pupils. Mr. Ellis then accepted an offer made to him by General McNiel, commanding at Fort Howard, to teach the garrison school. After three months' service in this position, he re- visited Xew York, and was -again commissioned by the board as mission teacher at a salary of $300, Rev. Norman Nash being superintendent of the mission. Mr. Nash THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 469 questioned the authority of the board to appoint a teacher in his district without consulting him ; whereupon, to obviate further trouble, Mr. Ellis severed his connection with the mission. At the solicitation of the citizens, he opened a school in the " Rouse " school house with over eight} 7 scholars, about one- half paying tuition, the others receiving the privileges of the school gratuitously. Mr. Nash at the same time engaged in teaching a school at the old " Agency " building, where he continued for some months. In 1825 a new school house was built for the garrison, and Mr. Ellis became its teacher, the attendance of the chil- dren of the post being made compulsory. Thirty children from outside families were also received. The new school building was much superior to its predecessors in size and convenience, and in its furniture and equipments. Good discipline was maintained, and the pupils were well in- structed. The school was regularly visited in the afternoon by the officer of the day, and on Friday afternoon by General Brady and his staff, who inspected the school. Here Mr. Ellis remained until the school was discontinued on the de- parture of the main body of the troops, in 1827. In 1823 a school building was erected by the Catholic church and placed under the charge of the Rev. Gabriel Richard, of Detroit, vicar-general of the Northwest. This gentleman was afterward delegated to congress from Michi- gan territory. In 1826, 1827 and 1828, Friar Fauvel had charge of this school, having been sent for that purpose by the vicar-gen- eral. He taught both French and English, and was much beloved. But being charged with dishonesty and irregular- ities in office, he was ordered to appear before a tribunal at Detroit, where he was found guilty. In 1828 a log school-house was built by subscription at Shantytown, the name then commonly given to the settle- ment some two and a half miles south of Green Bay. Miss Caroline Russell was engaged as teacher for the children of the five American families living in that vicinity. Some four years later Miss Frances Sears presided over the same school. These two ladies were highly esteemed, and are said to have been most excellent teachers. They gave instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar and geog- raphy. The scholars were little chil'dren of both sexes. At this time there were also the mission schools for the Indians, both Catholic and Episcopalian. The Catholic 470 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. school was, in 1830, placed under the charge of the Rev. Samuel Mazzuchelli, an Italian Jesuit priest. This talented gentleman remained here during four years, the school being assisted from the Menominee Indian annuity fund. In 1827 the Episcopal mission was entrusted to Rev. Richard F. Cadle. During the five years of his labors here extensive buildings were constructed, costing $9,000. The site was a beautiful one, on high ground overlooking the lovely Fox river. Here was established a boarding and day school, designed especially for Indian children. The new school was opened in 1830 with every appearance of success. In 1831 there were 129 scholars, and at one time seven teach- ers were employed. In 1832 Mr. Cadle resigned his posi- tion. The prosperity of the school was short-lived. Although a large sum of money had been expended upon it, it con- tinued to decline, until 1839, when it was closed with thirty- six pupils, after an existence of sixteen years. Associated with Mr. Cadle, as assistant in his work during -several years, was Mr. John V. Suydam, who came to Green Bay in 1831 as a teacher in the mission school. After the closing of the school, Mr. Suydam continued to reside at Green Bay. He maintained through a long life his interest in educational matters, lending his assistance in a liberal manner, even to building at his own expense two school houses for the use of private schools. Shantytown, like its mission school, began to lose its prosperity, and it became nearly absorbed by its rivals, Astor and Navarino (divisions of Green Bay). Mr. Daniel Whit- ney, the original proprietor of Navarino, built a school house there in 1831, on the south side of Cherry street, between Washington and Adams streets. Among the teachers employed in this building and in the Suydam school, were Mr. William White, Miss Sears, Miss McGulpin, Mr. Marshall, Mr. Lufkin, George W. Featherstonhaugh, Edward Outhwaite, Chauncey Hall, and John W. Arndt. Mr. Featherstonhaugh and Mr. Outhwaite, in addition to the ordinary English branches, taught French ^nd Latin, and Mr. Featherstonhaugh, drawing and painting. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. In 1840 a school tax was levied and the first public school was opened, witn John F. Lessey, Henry Sholes and David Ward, commissioners. Only the common branches ivere taught, and the furniture and apparatus were of the THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 471 rudest character. For some years the school was not main- tained regularly, through lack of funds, and not until 1850 was it firmly established. In that year Mr. Gildersleeve became its teacher, with two ladies as assistants. Mr. A. Kimball, who is still a respected citizen of Green Bay, taught three terms, in the years 1853 and 1854, there not being money enough to complete the year. Mr. S. S. Childs taught in 1855. The year 1856 was made memorable in the annals of the school by the building of the " Old Brick," the .first school house owned by the city. Mr. Theron K. Bixby was chosen to preside over it and he made the first attempt to grade the schools, although but little was accomplished towards this end for fifteen years. The site was donated by John Jacob Astor. The building was remodeled in 1885, and is now used as a high school. It was one of the first brick buildings in Green Bay, a very plain two-story house, costing about $2,500, and capable of accommodating two hundred pupils, but before the year was completed the enrollment far exceeded that number. Only the common English branches were taught. Special attention was given to com position- writing, and much interest aroused in the weekly rhetorical exercises. These compared very favorably with any similar work done here for years afterward. The art of memorizing was practiced to a great extreme geography, history and even the rules of arithmetic and grammar all taught through certain forms committed to memory. Recitations were sometimes conducted without a word from the teacher, the pupils rising in turn and reel- ing off a certain fixed portion of the allotted lesson. The multiplication table was set to music and sung in concert, with a chorus to the tune of "Yankee Doodle," and the capitals of the states were recited in a similar manner. Mr. Bixby continued two years as principal, when he returned to the East and entered the Congregational min- istry, dying some years later in Pennsylvania. He was suc- ceeded by Mr. G. S. Baker, who remained only one year. In this year the city purchased a house of Dr. Ayres, on the corner of Madison and Chicago streets, and after mak- ing the necessary alterations, used it for a primary school until 1868, when it was sold and the present South ward school house erected. This building was reconstructed in 1886 and enlarged to more than double its former capacity 472 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. In 1860, Mr. H. J. Furber, now of Chicago, became principal of the Green Bay schools. He raised the grade of the school, adding to the course of study Latin and ad- vanced mathematics. He proved a most efficient teacher, continuing at the head of the school for three years, when he abandoned the profession of teaching for the law. In 1863 the number of children of school age was 175 less than in the previous year. A report of the clerk shows the cost of tuition per pupil to have been fifty cents. It would be interesting to know how this estimate was made, as the teachers' salaries alone were $1,900, and the number of pupils about 400. Mr. Charles G. Atkins was the princi- pal this year. He was succeeded, in 1864, by Mr. Werden Reynolds, of Worcester, Mass., where he had been president of the Worcester female college. He taught in Green Bay four years, and was later principal of the Fort Howarid schools. He is still a resident of Green Bay, having retired from the profession of teaching, which he followed for over fifty years. School facilities were very poor at this time, and quite inadequate to the requirements of the city. To supply this need, private schools were established. In 1867 there were five private schools, with a larger enrollment than that of the public schools. Among these was the Green Bay acad- emy, incorporated by Miss Sara Mahan and Miss Ruth K. Gillette, of Cleveland, as a boarding and day school. It was opened with fifty-six pupils, but increased to an average daily attendance of eighty. The course of study was that of a high school, and was supplemented by instruction in music, drawing, and French. This school had a prosperous existence of four years, when it was closed on account of the failing health of Miss Mahan, who returned to Cleveland, where she died a few years later. Miss Gillette became a teacher in the Green Bay public school in 1875, and was principal of the Pine street school for five years. Among other private schools worthy of mention were those of Miss Lizzie Crosby, in 1854 ; Mrs. Jeremiah Porter, in 1853 and 1854; Mrs. Willey, in 1859 and 1860; Mr. A. C. Lehman, who taught a German and English school for twelve years ; and the parish school organized by Rev. L. P. Tschiffely, rector of Christ church, in 1865. In 1866 the charter of Green Bay was changed and the schools passed under the control of a board of education, consisting of a member from each ward elected by the com- THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 473 mon council, in connection with a city superintendent chosen by the board of education. A. H. Ellsworth was chosen the first superintendent. Charles A. Cutler became principal of the schools in 1867, and was succeeded by Miss Mary A. Butz in 1868. Then came Mr. W. C. Bailey in 1869, and Mr. George R. Klee- berger in 1871. The Pine street school house, the largest in the city, was built in 1871 a three-story brick structure. The old frame house, standing on the same ground, was moved across East river, and used as a primary school until 1888, when it was removed to make way for a new two-story brick building. Mr. L. W. Briggs, of Racine, became principal of the schools in 1871, and thoroughly reorganized the school. To him is due in a large measure the present organization of the school. He established nine grades and a high school. He brought in efficient teachers, and most carefully super- vised their work. Firm discipline was maintained in all de- partments, and a wide-spread interest created in school matters. . In 1875 the first graduates of the high school, six in number, received their diplomas. The teachers at this time were better paid than they ever were before or have been since. Apparatus and reference books were purchased to some extent, shade trees planted on school grounds, and other improvements made. All this could not be done without money, and the school tax had so increased that taxpayers began to talk of retrenchment. In 1874 the council author- ized a school tax of $17,000 for the ensuing year. In 1875 the school census showed 2,204 children of school age. In 1876 Mr. J. D. Williams was chosen superintendent, to succeed A. H. Ellsworth. The reduction of teachers' salaries was ordered ; also the publishing of the proceedings of the board of education. The school hours were shortened, to close at 4 p. M., and the question of reading the Bible in the schools discussed. In 1877 the state teachers' association met at Green Bay. In this year, because of the low condition of the finances, and of the insufficient appropriation of the preced- ing year> it was ordered that school should be held but thir- ty-six weeks hi the ensuing year. Upon the resignation of Mr. Briggs, Alfred Thomas was chosen principal of the schools. Mr. Briggs removed to Manitowoc and, after teach- ing there two years, became a member of the faculty of the 474 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. Oshkosh normal school, where he is now professor of civics and penmanship. In 1878 a small building was purchased, and moved to the high school grounds, and used to relieve the over- crowded grammar grades. This was called the "Grammar B." school, but was popularly known as the "Hen Coop." After a few years use it was condemned by the board of health, and was torn down. In 1879, Mr. Williams resigned the superintendence of the schools, and Mr. J. H. Leonard was chosen to the office. Early in the year 1880 occurred the deaths of Edson Sherwood, an old resident who had served several years on the board of education, and of Laura V. Altan, a highly es- teemed teacher. With the opening of the next year, under the able man- agement of Mr. J. C. Crawford, principal, the school entered upon a new existence. The master's hand was felt on every line. The standing of the school was materially raised ; the course of study was raised and extended ; newer methods in- troduced ; the Green Bay school came to be acknowledged fully abreast of the times ; and, in 1882, official notice was received that it had been placed by the state university on its accredited list for the general science and modern classi- cal courses. In 1883 the Mason street school was built; and in 1884 the Jefferson street school was purchased and rebuilt. In 1885 Mr. Crawford became superintendent as well as- principal. In the fall of that year a night school was or- ganized for boys and young men who were engaged at work during the day, and with two teachers it was continued for four months. Rooms in the high school were used and 125 pupils enrolled, a large proportion of them being unable on the opening of the school to read English. The next winter the school was again opened with 83 pupils enrolled, and was continued three months ; but as the attendance had been reduced to 41 by the third month, the school was dis- continued. Mr. Crawford tendered his resignation as principal in June, 1888, and entered upon the business of insurance, soon after removing to Milwaukee. He had resigned the office of superintendent some months before, and Mrs. Cor- nelia B. Field had been chosen for the same. Mr. Adelbert Gardinier received the appointment of principal on Mr. Crawford's resignation, but resigned after THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 475 four months' service, when the position was given to Arthur J. Clough. This gentleman, a very fine classical scholar, and a man of truly refined Christian character, remained two years, when he returned to New York, where he entered upon the duties of associate principal and professor of mathe- matics in the North Granville seminary. In 1889 Mrs. I. M. Cooke was elected superintendent, and in 1890 Mr. John Hancock was made superintendent and principal, the two offices being united, as they had been under Mr. Crawford. Mr. Hancock remained two years, when, in the present year, Mr. F. T. Oldt was elected super- intendent. This gentleman was for seventeen years city superintendent of Lanark, 111. Columbus day was fittingly celebrated by the schools and reflected great credit on Superintendent Oldt's manage- ment. In the morning all the schools of the city followed the official programme as prepared by the national super- intendents' association, the Catholic and Lutheran schools joining in the services with their neighbors of the public schools. In the afternoon all joined in a procession, with probably about 5,000 people in line. Perhaps the happiest feature of the celebration was the cordial spirit with which the parochial and public schools united in the exercises of the day. The public schools of Green Bay are classed among the most efficient in the state. They include nine grades and a high school, showing in their careful gradation the work of years. The high school offers to students either an English or a Latin course of four years, and prepares grad- uates for entry into the university of Wisconsin. The course of study includes Roman and English history, civil govern- ment, rhetoric, one year in English literature, one term in elocution ; mathematics, through solid geometry ; a four years' Latin course in Cresar, Virgil and Cicero ; physiology, philosophy, chemistry, psychology, and a two years' course in German. A large part of the very fine philosophical apparatus belonging to the high school was the gift of Professor J. C. Crawford, who so ably conducted the school for seven years. The board of education that administers school matters consists of seven members elected by the common council for two years, and a superintendent of city schools elected by the board of education for one year. To the late Mr. L. B. Sale, who acted as president of the board for six years, is 476 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. due, in a large measure, the high standing of the Green Bay schools. There are, at present, twenty-eight teachers employed in the schools ; 1,400 pupils are enrolled, of which number ninety are in the high school. The school buildings are six in number, and represent a value of $75,000 ; and they are fairly supplied with needful apparatus ; all are well yentilated and heated. The running expenses of the school last year aggregated $19,230. It is earnestly to be hoped that in the near future a high school building may be erected, better adapted to the present needs of the school. The house now in use was erected in 1856, as already noted in these pages. It has done good service all these years, but, in the nature of things, is no longer adequate to the times. The question of erecting a new r building is now being agitated. The earnest co-opera- tion of the citizens with the board of education, in this mat- ter, is to be hoped for, that Green Bay may possess a high school building more creditable to herself, and a more fitting exponent of the excellent schools furnished to her citizens. CATHOLIC SCHOOLS OF GREEN BAY. CATHEDRAL SCHOOL. This school was first taught by Miss Lizzie Stemper in the vestry of St. Mary's (German) church, under the super- vision of Rev. Father Schrnedding, who was appointed pas- tor in 1856. Miss Stemper taught until 1861, w r hen a build- ing for school purposes was erected on the ground where the Cathedral now stands. On invitation of Rev. Joseph Albers, who took charge of St. Mary's, in 1861, the Domini- can Sisters came to Green Bay, and assumed the responsi- bility of the school, March 29, 1861, occupying the new building, which was to serve the double purpose of school house and Sisters' dwelling. Mother Benedicta, Sister Thomasina, and two postulants constituted the little " com- munity," and school was commenced with an enrollment of about sixty pupils from Green Bay, Fort Howard, and even from Marinette. The Dominicans remained in charge of the school until November 1862, when they returned to Racine. Rev. F. T. Pfaller, now of New Franken, was appointed rector of St. Mary's in 1862, and on his invitation the Sisters of Notre Dame came to this city to continue the school work begun by the Dominicans ; they were accompanied hither by Rev. F. X. Krautbauer, afterward Bishop of Green Bay. THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. 477 In 1865 the school was attended by 255 children, distributed in three school-rooms. To furnish more accommodation, a separate Sisters' house was begun in 1870, and finished the following summer. The space thus gained formed a new class-room, and the school now numbered some 300 children. Of these some 75 belonged to French and Holland congre- gations, and formed a separate department, where all branches were taught in English exclusively. When Bishop Melchers intended to build a new Cathe- dral, another place had to be bought for a school and Sisters' house. Mother M. Caroline, of Milwaukee, the superior of the Sisters, bought the lots opposite the present Cathedral, September 28, 1872. The present Sisters' house was built, while the former school building was moved across the street, where it stood in front of the present brick school. In 1880 sixty children, belonging to other parishes, left St. Mary's school, as they had then obtained their own schools. But the number of children kept on growing, so that in 1884 the new school had to be erected. The old school was sold to the city of Green Bay, and moved to Jefferson street, where it still serves as a public school. The present St. Mary's school is a solid brick building 52 by 52 feet, and consists of two stories ; it has six class- rooms, but no school hall. There are at present 400 chil- dren taught there by six Sisters. ST. WILLEBROD'S SCHOOL. In 1880 Rev. N. Kersten, then rector of the Holland church, rented a small house near by, in which two Sisters instructed ninety children. In the following year the pres- ent school building was erected. It contains three class- rooms, and numbers at present 225 children. ST. JOHN'S SCHOOL. This school was organized in 1880 by Rev. Greisch, S. J. His successor, Rev. Joseph Fox, had two small rooms fixed up in the old Cathedral, where two Sisters taught the chil- dren until 1885. In the following year the school was moved into the old priest's house of St. John's congregation. In 1890 the new stately brick building was erected with four class-rooms, and a large school hall, with stage. The build- ing is 55x70 feet, and presents a fine appearance. There are at present 175 children in the school, with four teachers, Sisters of Notre Dame. 478 THE GREEN BAY SCHOOLS. LUTHERAN SCHOOLS. CHERRY STREET GERMAN-ENGLISH SCHOOL. This school, established in 1863, is under the superin- tendence of the pastor of the Cherry street church, Rev. J. Siegrist; a school house, one -story high, was built in 1866. It was destroyed by fire in 1889, and a new building was erected in the same year, of veneered brick, 29x56 feet, and two-stories high. From 1883 to 1891 the school was divided into two classes, and two teachers were employed. At present there is but one teacher, Mr. August Becker. There are now fifty-nine pupils in the school. The branches taught in English are : Spelling, reading, writing, grammar, geography, history, arithmetic and drawing. Those taught in German are spelling, reading, writing, grammar, and religion. The school is supported by the congregation. ST. PAUL'S EVANGELICAL SCHOOL. This school was established in 1883. Rev. Mr. Doen- feld, pastor of the church, was its first teacher. A small school house was built on Stuart street in 1884. Rev. W. H. Huth became pastor and teacher in 1886, and still performs those duties ; but with the year 1893, a separate teacher will have charge of the school, and the pastor be relieved of this labor. The school numbers fifty-one pupils, and is supported by the congregation. The branches taught in English are reading, writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, and geog- raphy. Those taught in German are reading, writing, spelling, grammar, history, and religion. MRS. CORNELIA B. FIELD. The Public Schools of Madison. THE WILDERNESS. In the summer of 1836, there were, so far as now known, but five white men residing within the territory comprised in the present county of Dane : Ebenezer Brigham, the origi- nal settler, at the East Blue Mound ; Eben Feck, who lived with Brigham, boarding the latter and his farm and lead- mining hands, and entertaining chance travelers along the military highway between Forts Crawford (Prairie du Chien) and Winnebago (Portage) ; Berry Haney, a ranchman living on the military road at what is now Cross Plains ; a French- man named Oliver Armel, who maintained a temporary trading shanty, half brush and half canvas, near what we call Johnson street, on the isthmus between Third and Fourth lakes ; and Abel Rasdall, an Indian trader, whose lonely cabin was on the eastern shore of First lake, about half a mile north of its outlet. A French half-breed trader, Michel St. Cyr, lived on the bank of Fourth lake, at what are to-day known as Livesey's springs, three-fourths of a mile north of Pheasant branch. Green Bay, a straggling settlement, by this time hoary with age, had come down from the seventeenth century, maintaining a sickly existence on the fur trade and the lake traffic ; Forts Howard (opposite Green Bay), Winnebago, and Crawford had attached to them meagre hamlets ; the min- eral region in the southwest, although sparsely settled, con- tained the bulk of the population, with Mineral Point as its center a village having at the time apparently a brighter future before it than the new settlement at the mouth of Milwaukee river ; there were a few notches cut out at wide intervals in the gloomy forest bordering the western shore of Lake Michigan ; but outside of these settlements above enumerated, Wisconsin was practically uninhabited by whites. Here and there was to be found an Indian trader, the Yankee successor of the couriers de bois of the old French regime, or some exceptionally adventurous farmer ; but their far-separated cabins by contrast only emphasized the density of the wilderness, through which roamed un- 479 480 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. trammeled the shiftless, gypsy-like aborigines the com- paratively harmless Chippevvas, Menomonees, and Winne- bagos. SELECTION OF THE CAPITAL. July fourth, the territorial government was organized? with Henry Dodge as governor, and the first territorial legis- lature convened October twenty-fifth, in the hamlet of Bel- mont, at Platte Mounds, in what is now La Fayette county- At this session Dane county was set off among eleven others ; acts were passed creating the nucleus of a common school fund, protecting all lands given to the territory by the gen- eral government for the aid of the schools, and adopting the Michigan school code ; and the territorial capital was estab- lished at Madison then a town on paper. It was stipulated in the act, that the legislature should meet in Burlington (now in Iowa) until March fourth, 1839, unless the public building at Madison, which was provided for, should be sooner completed. James D. Doty, John F. O'Neil, and Augustus A. Bird were chosen building commis- sioners. THE FIRST FAMILIES. On the way home from the Belmont session, which had adjourned on the ninth of December, several of the north- ern members of the legislature stopped en route at the Blue Mound and informed Landlord Peck of the selection of Madison as the capital. Thereupon Peck conceived the idea of opening a house of entertainment for the accommodation of visitors to the proposed seat of government, and of the workmen whom he heard were soon to be sent out to erect the public building. With that end in view, he purchased some lots on which to build his prospective tavern. In March he sent on two Frenchmen to raise the house, the first inhabi- ted building in Madison, and on the loth of April, 1837, Peck, with his wife Roseline and their four-year old boy, Victor E., arrived on the scene the pioneer white family at the capital.* This primitive tavern, which was practically three log cabins united, was styled the Madison House and stood upon lot 6, block 107 (011 the southwest side of Butler *Mrs. Peck now lives at Baraboo. Her son, Victor E., is manager of the St. Paul Railway- Hotel at West Madison. Eben Peck started overland to California in 1845, and is supposed to have been killed by Indians on the plains. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 481 street), until, old and crumbling, it was torn down in 1857 to make room for a more modern structure. On the morning of the 10th of June, Building Commis- sioner Bird arrived from Milwaukee with thirty-six work- men, after a dreary and toilsome overland journey of ten days, through rain and mud, with no roads, and having had to ford or swim the intervening rivers. In this party was Josiah Pierce, with his wife and five children the second family in the place. The Pierces had been brought by Bird to cook for the mechanics, and for that purpose they erected a log boarding house on the corner of Butler and Wilson streets, a few lots southeast of the Pecks. In this es- tablishment the bulk of the men were accommodated, the Peck tavern being patronized by the overflow. Pierce had two young lady daughters, Rhoda and Marcia by name. Rhoda was the second school mistress of the settlement. On the 6th of September came John Stoner and wife, with their seven children. Prosper B. Bird, brother of A. A. and one of his original party, soon after introduced his wife and three children to the colonists. A. A. Bird brought out his wife and six children to the scene of action, late in De- cember or early in January. On the 14th of September had occurred at the Madison house the first white birth on the isthmus Wisconsiana Victoria Peck, now Mrs. N. W. Wheeler, of Baraboo. A little later James Madison Stoner made his appearance, the first white boy born in the settle- ment. The families of Peck, Stoner, Prosper B. Bird, and A. A. Bird, Isaac H. Palmer and wife, the few workmen at the capital who had not returned to Milwaukee, two or three merchants and officials, the little cluster of families at the Blue Mounds, the Haney household at Cross Plains, and perhaps three or four widely-separated Indian traders, con- stituted the entire population of Dane county during the winter of 1837-38. The little colony in Madison did not lack for amuse- ment during this period, despite the physical barriers be- tween it and the civilized world to the far East. Mrs. Peck has given us, in Durrie's History of Madison, a lively account of the dances, euchre parties, turtle-soup suppers, etc., with which the settlers whiled away the first winter in the Four- lake wilderness. That lady and her brother-in-law, Luther Peck, both appear to have been excellent violinists, and the puncheon floors 'of the Madison house were worn smooth with semi- weekly hops, in which the Virginia reel and Monie 482 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. Musk constituted the chief numbers of the impromptu pro- grammes. Any who had not been initiated in their mys- teries, previous to " settling/' were obliged to submit to in- struction, as one of the prime duties of frontier citizenship. Travelers from Milwaukee, Fort Winnebago, Galena, and Mineral Point were frequently present, and are said to have greatly enjoyed the giddy society at this sylvan capital. THE FIRST SCHOOL-MISTRESS. The frontier community was not complete, however, without a school-mistress. Deacon Jeremiah Brayton, liv- ing on the Crawfish river, two miles south of Aztalan, had two daughters, Lavina and Louisa M. The former was passing the winter with Mrs. A. A. Bird, as a companion, and later married Charles H. Bird, a brother of A. A. In February, 1838, Charles H. Bird drove down to Deacon Brayton's farm, in a one-horse sleigh, and engaged Miss Louisa to come to Madison and teach the first school. The weather was extremely cold, and the sleighing poor, so that they had a very uncomfortable trip, Mr. Bird having to walk much of the way. The salary, two dollars per week, to be raised by popular subscription, was agreed upon between them before leaving the farm. Miss Brayton boarded in the family of A. A. Bird, who lived in a story-and-a-half frame house on the south corner of Wilson and Pinckney streets, the spot now occupied by the residence of Mrs. John M. Bowman. For this accommodation she paid one dollar per week fifty per cent of her allowance. Nearly hid in the thicket, two blocks away, was the little school-room, the front end of Isaac H. Palmer's log dwelling house, on lot 5, block 105, south corner of King and Clymer streets, the site of Alex. Findlay's grocery store. In these limited quarters, on the 1st of March, 1838, Miss Brayton assembled her little flock of some dozen or fifteen scholars. The benches were of oak slabs with the bark on, roughly- whittled pegs driven into auger holes serv- ing as legs. With a chair for the teacher, this outfit com- pleted the furnishings of Madison's first temple of learning ; and the curriculum was as crude as the surroundings. The merest rudiments of education were all that were aimed at in the backwoods schools of those days, with their total lack of appliances and proper text-books, without any well- defined system of district government, with no school fund, and the count}' treasury barren. As a rule the teachers were THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 483 the young men and women in the pioneer families, who were imbued with an ambitious spirit and chanced to un- derstand " the three R's " a trifle better than their fellows. The professionally educated schoolmaster was not . then abroad he did not reach Madison until a dozen or more years later. There are probably few schools to-day in the most inaccessible portions of our country that are so meag- er ly equipped as were the majority of those scattered at wide intervals throughout the Northwest, in the period of which we treat. Madison was, however, peculiarly fortunate in its pion- eer school teacher. Miss Bray ton was a young woman of fine appearance, of a firm, but sweet disposition, and during her three months' experience in the little hamlet, came to be highly regarded by both adult and youth. At the close of her three months' engagement, Miss Brayton was offered a more advantageous salary at Jefferson than the Madison patrons could afford to pay, and removed thither. After a residence of about fifty years in Jefferson, where she was married to Mr. George Sawin, whom she survives, Madison's first schoolmistress is again living at the capital, being now in her seventy-seventh year. THE FIRST SCHOOL HOUSE. In the spring of 1839, Dane county was organized for judicial purposes. The territorial school code had been somewhat modified by the legislature of that year. "The rate-bill system of taxation, previously in existence, was repealed, and a tax on the whole county for building school houses and supporting schools was provided for." With the county organization came an immediate influx of population ; this fact, together with the improvement in the code, gave rise to a revival of in- terest in educational matters, which had lain dormant in Madison since the close of Miss Brayton's school. The num- ber of children had increased materially, as many of the new settlers were accompanied by their families. There were now in Madison fully a score of proper age for elemental in- struction, and their parents, though busily engaged in ex- tracting a living from each other and the virgin soil, were not unmindful of the great duty they owed to the offspring whom they had introduced to the backwoods of Wisconsin. The taxable value of property was at a low stage, and the 484 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. fund accruing from the sale of school lands could not be made available until the organization of a state government, so that for many years the public school moneys had necessarily to be supplemented by rate-bills, even to pay the beggarly salaries then in vogue among district pedagogues. But the spirit of local pride always induced the pioneer residents of the infant capital to be generous even beyond their means ; and with large hopes of the future, and a desire not to be outdone elsewhere, a movement to build a school house was successfully carried through in April. Governor Doty gave permission to the settlers to use for the purpose lot 4, block 98, on the north corner of Pinckney and Dayton streets. And there, out in the "brush, "was erected, in time for the summer term, the first building constructed in Madison for school purposes. In these days it would be denominated a shanty, but in those was thought to be a creditable affair. It was a one-story frame structure, sided with oak "shakes," standing some 18x20 feet on the ground, and cost about $70, the amount being raised by assessment of the leading citizens. During the first term it was unplastered and badly glazed. A few slab benches were put in, of the kind used in the Brayton school. In that period, sawed lumber and "store" furniture were scarce articles, and in many a Madison house the seats were but rough, three-legged stools. The school house was often used for other public pur- poses. Wood's brass band practiced there for a few seasons, two or three times a week. The first Sunday school was established within its walls. One of the early Congregational pastors, in alluding to this latter fact, thus describes the rude structure : "A few rods northwest of the park, in a thicket of brush, through which a few foot-paths only led, was the primitive school house, a building rudely constructed and poorly seated ; size, almost 18x22 feet upon the ground, and having only one low story. * * * Here the first Sunday school in Madison was started by a few ladies, prominent among whom was Mrs. James Morrison." When the Little Brick was built, in 1845, the old build- ing and the lot, which had by that time come into the pos- session of the village, were sold to Richard T. Davis, who lived there for a time ; but the house was torn down in 1846. A dwelling occupied by Mrs. Louisa Menges now covers the site. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 485 PIONEER TEACHERS. Miss Rhoda Pierce, daughter of Josiah Pierce, who will be remembered as one of the earliest settlers, was the first teacher in this school house, serving only during the sum- mer term of 1839. Edgar S. Searle taught during the succeeding winter a bright, intelligent young man, with a good academic edu- cation, who had come to the village that fall from New York state. Like several of his successors, Mr. Searle "boarded around" among the patrons of the school. His salary was but four or five dollars per week in addition to his board, which, in those primitive times, was generally worth not to exceed two dollars. The privilege of boarding a teacher w r as one much sought after, for the "master" was necessarily one of the best informed persons in the community, and parents not only enjoyed his society for themselves, but deemed it an advantage to have their children placed under his immedi- ate domestic influence. Mr. Searle's wages were paid, so far as they came out of the public funds, in county orders which he could only convert at face into county dues, and it is re- membered of him that he speculated necessarily in a mild way in tax certificates. The entire population of the village at the close of 1839 was but 146, and the school tax raised in the county that year amounted only to $393.13. In the spring of 1840, James Morrison moved his family to Madison from Porter's Grove. With them came Miss Clarissa R. Pierce, who, on the first Monday in May, opened a "select school for young misses," in a little frame building within the limits of the Capitol park. This structure had originally been put up as a tool-house and office for Con- *ractor Morrison while the capitol was being erected. It vas an uncouth, one-story box, about 12x16 feet on the ground, with low ceiling, and situated some 200 feet in front of where the state bank is now located. For several seasons it did duty as a school-house, private and public, and for a time was the place where the village debating club was wont to assemble in the evenings and wisely discuss questions which had puzzled sages since the time of Solomon the forum "Where village statesmen talked with looks profound." It was in this modest building that Miss Pierce opened the first "select" school in Madison. Her terms were $3 per quarter, for each pupil. There were some fifteen of them 486 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. all "young misses," except one lonesome little boy. During the same summer, the seven or eight larger boys of the settlement were instructed in the public school by E. M. Williamson. During the succeeding winter (1840-41), Timothy Wilcox, M. D., who found an abundance of pro- fessional leisure in so healthy a community as Madison, con- ducted the pablic school, boys and girls being then reunited, Miss Pierce having temporarily abandoned her enterprise. In the summer of 1841, two teachers were engaged, Miss Clarissa R. Pierce having charge of the oldest scholars in the public school house, while Miss Lucia A. Smith taught the little ones in the old tool-shed in the Capitol park. During that fall and the ensuing winter, Mrs. James Morrison, who was always much interested in educational matters, conducted a free night school in the American Hotel opposite the present State Journal building of which her husband was the proprietor. She had about ten scholars, between the ages of nine and fourteen, who were instructed in the English rudiments. The public school was at the same time conducted by Darwin Clark, one of the earliest settlers. THE DISTRICT SCHOOL. On the twenty-fifth of December, 1841, the county school commissioners, in accordance with a formal petition signed four days previous by five citizens, set apart the town of Madison as a separate school district, denominating it " Dis- trict No. 1, town of Madison." This was the first official ac- tion taken in Dane county, relative to the organization of schools, under the territorial laws. Heretofore public edu- cation here had been quite informally carried on, in part by county tax, and in part by private subscription, with no well-defined regulations. In 1840 the legislature had passed an act designed to secure the more adequate support and government of the schools. Thereafter there was more sys- tem, but it was not until twenty years later that Madison teachers began to receive anything approaching adequate compensation, in regular payments. This was owing chiefly to the poverty of the settlers, who were unable to pay heavy taxes. In May, 1842, several public-spirited citizens organized the Madison select female school, that the older girls of the community might obtain a higher education than they could get at the common school, where the -grade was still THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 487 very low. Mrs. Maria M. Gay of Marietta, Ohio, was im- ported as preceptress. Mrs. Gay was well qualified to success- fully conduct such a school, under more favorable circum- stances. But Madison could not then support an institution of this character. Her terms were too high for those early days in the backwoods, and, not meeting with sufficient en- couragement, she was obliged to abandon the enterprise after a year's trial. The settlement made very slow progress in point of population. The census, in 1842, revealed the presence of 172 people, a gain of but 26 in two years: in 1844 there were only 216 Madisonians. Nevertheless, the little band of pioneers were full of hope, and courageously pushed affairs, as though the capital was growing apace. June 12th, 1842, a public meeting was held, to vote a tax for the building of a new school house, as the old one was getting to be over- crowded, but owing to various complications nothing came of this action. During the summer of 1842 Miss Smith taught the girls in the public building, and Theodore Conkey the boys in a small building in the rear of the American Hotel. Rev. A. M. Badger was the teacher during the summer of 1843 ; he had been a Methodist preacher previous to coming to Madison, and occasionally occupied the pulpit during the few months of his sojourn here. He had from twenty-five to thirty scholars. Text-books were as varied as the colors in Joseph's coat, in all of these early schools. They were such books as the settlers had brought into the territory with them, or as some Eastern friend chose to forward when an indefinite request would be sent to the old home to ship " so many arithmetics," or " so many spelling books," to meet the wants of the growing population. It caused, therefore, no inconsiderable flurry when Mr. Badger attempted to in- augurate something like textual uniformity. He issued a mandate that the scholars were to come armed, on a certain day, with Smith's arithmetic. As there chanced to be more copies of Adams's arithmetic in the school than any other one variety, the order was regarded as smacking of despo- tism. It was decided as a bad precedent to allow the teacher to dictate the kind of text-book to be employed. Neverthe- less, Mr. Badger quelled the rebellion and came off with banners flying, not only securing the supremacy of Smith, but carrying other changes which brought about a fair degree of uniformitv. 488 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. In the summer of this year (1843) Miss Lucia A. Smith opened a private school in Mr. Parkinson's building on But- ler street, the site of the present Simon's Hotel. She con- tinued her enterprise during the succeeding summer (1844). Contemporaneous with Miss Smith's mixed school in the summer and fall of 1843, a girls' select school was kept across the way, in David Brigham's house, by Miss Eliza Kimball, from Ohio (now Mrs. Reynolds, of Omro). She had about fifteen pupils, most of them being from Mrs. Gay's seminary, to which her's was practically the successor. District No. 1 returned this summer ninetj^-two per- sons of school age, between four and twenty years. The county school commissioners, at their meeting on the third of May, had apportioned $492.06 to the district, from the school tax collected for the year.* In July the board of county commissioners estimated that the support of schools and the erection of school houses in the county would necessitate this year a levy of $820, the rate being estab- lished at two mills on the dollar. Benjamin Holt was the teacher of the Madison public school for the winter of 1843-44. In April, 1844, the dis- trict reported 159 persons of school age, and to it was ap- propriated $306.87 of the county school tax. As Madison was now growing perceptibly, and the district income had become established, it was voted by the directors this spring, hereafter to conduct the school throughout the year, instead of during the winter and summer terms of three months each, as had been the custom up to this time. The pioneer period had now closed, and the Madison public school was at last fairty on its feet. From May, 1844, until the summer of 1845, David H. Wright was the pedagogue. In the summer and fall of 1845, Miss Matilda A. Smedley, from Ohio, instructed the young ideas, being the last teacher to officiate in the little Pinckney, street school house. THE " LITTLE BRICK." The number of pupils had by this time become so great that more extensive accommodations were a cry ing necessity; and in the summer of 1845 the village erected a small red- *There were at this time two school districts in Dane county. District No. 2 being the town of Sun Prairie, which reported twenty- one of school age. The total school tax collected in the county for 1843 was $604.39, there being 113 of school age. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 489 brick school house subsequently known to the pioneers as " The Little Brick " on the site of the present Third ward school. The Little Brick cost from a $1,000 to $1,200, and though in later and more ambitious days it was the fashion to sneer at it, the contemporaneous press " pointed with pride " to this evidence of a spirit of progress. For many years it was almost the only hall for public meetings, and many important political gatherings were held within its walls. The Methodists conducted their early meetings there, and afterwards the Baptists and the German Methodists. Royal Buck initiated the Little Brick, as the puplic school teacher, he occupying one end of the building, while a private school was conducted in the other by Jerome R. Brigham. By spring the attendance at the public school had increased to a hundred, and it became necessary to crowd out Mr. Brigham, and occupy both rooms. In the winter terms Buck was now allowed a young lady assistant at $15 per month "she to board herself" but in summer time, when many of the boys were employed at home, the master was obliged to teach alone. This arrangement continued until June of 1847, Buck's salary being for the most part " $30 per month and board himself," although in the last year re- duced to $25, for the village was financially embarrassed about this time ; and it was not until 1848, even at that sal- ary, that he was able to get his pay. The summer of 1847 is memorable in the school annals of the capital, for the erection of the brick building of the Madison Female Academy, which structure was afterwards occupied as the high school. It cost $3,000, was considered at the time something of an architectural triumph, and was opened for females only, on the same general plan as the school organized for Mrs. Gay five years previous. After being occupied for academy purposes for seven years by Miss Matilda S. Howell, from Coldbrook, Conn., the building was first rented and afterwards purchased by the city board of education, being used as a central and high school until 1873, when it was demolished to make room for the present high school building on the same site. From February to August, 1849, Prof. J. W. Sterling conducted the preparatory department of the state university on the lower floor, and there the first collegiate class of that institution completed its preparation. Miss Howell's pupils numbered from thirty to fifty, in different years, and averaged about forty. Among them was Yinnie Ream Hoxie, the sculptress, who was born 490 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. in the first dwelling built in Madison Peck's old Madison House. Samuel E. Thornton held forth in the Little Brick from November, 1847, until the summer of 1849, a part of the time having a young lady assistant. His successor was Sherman H. North, whose salary, in gross, for a three month's engagement, was $60. North's successor, George D. Chapel, was able to command $30 per month. The village charter, granted by the legislature in 1846, placed the management of school district No. 1 in the hands of the village board of trustees. In order to save expense and avoid a constant and irritating conflict of authority, the charter was amended, by act approved February 7, 1850, so as to return the district to town control, placing it on the same footing as other districts in the town of Madison. This condition of affairs continued until 1855. The population of the village in 1850 was 1,525, a gain of over one hundred per cent in three years. There were strong signs of prosperity, this season, and over one hundred new buildings were erected. Among them was the Metho- dist Episcopal brick church, on the east corner of Pinckney and Mifflin streets; its basement was afterwards used dur- ing several years for public school purposes, and the build- ing, transformed into a store in 1878, still remains. During the year a sale of 5,320 acres of school and university lands in Dane county brought $29,280.03 to the common school fund. The census, in April, showed the presence of 317 persons of school age, of whom 153 were in attendance. In September, there were 503 of school age, showing a consid- erable growth of population during the summer. James L. Enos was engaged, May 11, to teach for three months at $30 per month. He was continued in the service for three years. A graduate of the New York state normal school, he was the first professionally-trained teacher in charge of the Madison public schools. Heretofore the in- structors had been persons who had engaged in teaching as a temporary occupation in lack of some more profitable em- ployment. The coming of Mr. Enos, therefore, marks the beginning of a new epoch in our school history. He was succeeded, in the fall of 1853, by J. Lyman Wright, and he in turn, the following April, by Damon Y. Kilgore. The next fall term there were 267 pupils on the roll. The Little Brick was full to overflowing ; for a year previous to this, and for several seasons to come, the primary department THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 401 was conducted by one of the two assistants in the basement of the Methodist Episcopal church, while the principal held forth in the little Congregational church on Webster street (now owned by the German Presbyterians), which had been built some years before. THE VILLAGE BOARD. By act of legislature, approved February 13, 1855, the village of Madison was incorporated into a separate self-gov- erned school district, apart from the town, with six directors who were styled " The board of education of the village of Madison." The present city school board is its lineal descendant. Mr. Kilgore now became superintendent, but though Madison was in the midst of a "boom" the popula- tion had jumped to 8,863, a gain of 3,737 in twelve months he complained in his annual report that the schools had not yet shared the general prosperity ; that from 150 to 300 children were in private schools at home or abroad, and that COO were attending no school whatever, and "as far as they are concerned might as well live in Central Africa as in the capital of Wisconsin." THE CITY SCHOOLS. Madison received a city charter on the 4th of March, 1856, the population being divided as equally as practicable into four wards. Contracts were entered into for the erection of the First and Third (now Sixth) ward houses, to be com- pleted by the 1st of January, 1857 the former to cost $4,500 unfurnished, and the latter $5,000. The central or high school was still conducted in the church on Webster street with three teachers, the Little Brick with two, and three ward teachers were now employed. The Madison schools were at last on a firm foundation, after twenty years of tribulation, and henceforth kept pace with the growth of the town. The following chronology will sufficiently indicate for our purpose the chief steps in their progress : 1856 City school board organized, with Damon Y. Kilgore as city superintendent. 1857 First and Third ward school buildings opened ; school commenced in Farwell's addition. 1858 Madison female academy building purchased and opened as high school ; Greenbush school commenced. 1859 Northeast district school commenced. 492 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 1860 Mr. Gallup served two weeks as superintendent ; succeed- ing Kilgore ; owing to lack of funds, all schools closed in summer term ; September 18, David Atwood chosen super- intendent pro tern., succeeded during winter by 0. M. Conover. 1861 High school conducted by^Miss Lucy L. Coues as select academy. 1862 James W. Ward chosen superintendent, January 7 ; suc- ceeded May 3 by Charles H. Allen, who resigned July 10, 1863. 1863 High school reopened in fall ; August 22, F. B. "Williams elected superintendent, serving throughout the school year. 1864 William M. Colby elected superintendent September 6, resigning January 17, 1865 ; auxiliary school opened on Uni- versity avenue. 1865 William Welch elected superintendent pro tern., January 17, serving till spring, when J. T. Lovewell succeeded him as superintendent, the latter serving through school year. 1866 Fourth ward building opened January 7 ; B. M. Reynolds elected superintendent in fall, serving through summer term of 1872. 1867 Second ward building opened. 1870 Fifth ward building opened. 1872 Walter H. Chase assumed superinten den cy in fall, serving through school year. 1873 High school building erected and opened ; Samuel Shaw commenced in fall as superintendent, serving through summer term of 1884. 1875 July 2, high school graduated its first class. 1877 Auxiliary building erected in Third ward ; March 17, state university admits high school to its accredited list. 1878 High school commercial course inaugurated. 1879 Shaw prize instituted. 1882 Large addition to Second ward building. 1884 July 19, William H. Beach chosen superintendent. 1887 Large addition to high school building doubling its capacity costing $28,000. The Third ward having been divided, its school building became that of the new Sixth ward, and a new Third ward school was erected at a cost of $21,000, on the site of the "Little Brick," demolished this year. 1890 A four-room addition to the First ward building, costing $11,000. 1891 Greenbush school erected, costing $6,000 ; Superintendent Beach resigned at the close of the school year in June ; R. B. Dudgeon elected as his successor, July 2. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 493 The following table shows the city school census, en- rollment, and expenditures, since the organization of the city board : Year. Census. Enrollment. Expenditures. 1856 694 $5,08229 1857 1,865 934 18.160 21 1858 934 524 8,611 67 1859 11,27246 1860 2,240 .... 7,624 40 1861 2,310 650 3,855 61 1862 2,380 481 5,084 95 1863 2,417 826 7,24611 1864 2,797 921 7,47489 1865 3,193 1,389 8,789 13 1866 3,366 1,347 9,436 05 1867 3,559 1,626 17,599 06 1868 2,087 34,815 88 1869 2,080 19,315 00 1870 1,992 31,351 67 1871 3,700 2,256 29,149 56 1872 1,927 25,366 21 1873 3,797 1,183 34,76062 1874 3,668 1,371 34,193 75 1875 3,766 1,409 33,184 93 1876 3,619 1,348 32,800 07 1877 3,926 1,378 32,884 00 1878 3,951 1,352 27,352 95 1879 4,011 1,380 24,50336 1880 3,517 1,335 23,30516 1881 3,480 1,480 23,02882 1882 3,711 1,635 27,566 83 1883 3,707 1,787 32,68323 1884 3,702 1,712 28,836 17 1885 3,802 1,871 24,61038 1886 4,146 1,810 25,696 23 1887 4,231 1,772 62,63853 1888 4,349 1,899 50,086 50 1889 4,581 2,031 32,777 34 1890 4,571 1,970 51,24059 1891 4,749 2,037 44,514 21 1892 4,488 1,848 39,974 07 Without explanation the enrollment figures given in the above table would be misleading. Until the close of Superintendent Shaw's administration (1884) the method of arriving at the enrollment was by counting the scholars on the rolls at a given time. Now, the enrollment includes all 494 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. who have attended school during the year. The decrease in the census from 1891 to 1892 is accounted for by the fact that previous to 1892 the state university students were included in the enumeration ; but State Superintendent Wells object- ing to this, they were omitted in 1892. RETROSPECT. Fifty-five years have now elapsed since Miss Brayton gathered her little flock in Judge Palmer's modest log house on King street, and thus inaugurated public education at the Wisconsin capital. For a long period, progress in this direction was almost imperceptible, but in reviewing the backwoods epoch of our history we can see that there was substantial advancement from year to year. The settlers were poor, the ambitious colony was oppressed by many difficulties, the outlook was often most discouraging ; but local pride in the district school being always marked, its rate-bill was cheerfully responded to even at much personal inconvenience, and the children were treated to the best educational facilities at command. In the village period and in the early years of the city, the guardians of the schools were frequently met by serious financial em- barrassments, and occasionally it seemed as if the prospect would never brighten, but persistent pluck enabled them each time to weather the storm. For the past twenty-five years, there has been comparatively smooth sailing, yet were the inside history of the school board written, there would be found many unforeseen rocks quietly avoided in the nick of time, innumerable troubled seas privately quieted by the oil of shrewd management. But the main fact of complete suc- cess is all that we can here deal with. The history of our schools is a reflex of the career of our community. Early growth was slow and often dangerously hampered ; later development, while not rapid, has been eminently sound. The first school had but one teacher and a dozen pupils, of all ages and conditions. To-day, we have fifty teachers, a salary list of $25,550 per annum, and over two thousand carefully graded pupils. As successors to Miss Brayton's rude school-room, with its slab benches and bare walls, we have nine comfortable buildings, supplied with the best modern furniture and appliances conveniences far better than ever dreamed of in the wealthiest metropolitan schools as late, even, as a decade ago, while the board of education has in charge about $235,000 worth of school property, real THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MADISON. 495 and personal. In the place of the rude curriculum of the backwoods is now an elaborate system, which receives the unlettered child, and, after twelve years of careful training, graduates him equipped to enter the state university or almost any other college in the land. Few cities in the country, of 15,000 inhabitants, have so excellent and well- managed a system certainly none such can boast the posses- sion of its superior. REUBEN G. THWAITES. Racine City and Her Schools. In November, 1834, Captain Gilbert Knapp, a young naval officer in the revenue service of the United States, conceived the project of locating a village on the west shore of Lake Michigan, and thus founding a future city and achieving fortune and fame for himself. While in the ser- vice of the government, previous to 1828, he had visited the mouth of Root river, and the recollection of that visit in- duced him to seek again the place and claim it for the real- ization of his enterprise. Starting from the village of Chicago with two retainers, the party, on horseback, took the old Green Bay Indian trail to the north, past Grosse Point, and came on to Jambeau's trading post, at Skunk Grove, in the town of Mount Pleas- ant, then a noted point in this section. Here he secured the services of an Indian guide and set off with his companions to revisit the mouth of Root river. Selecting a location near the lake shore, between Second and Third streets, he erected his claim cabin and located his claim, it being the east frac- tional half-section 9, of town 3, of range 23, containing, on both sides of the river, about 140 acres, which now consti- tutes what is known as the original plat of Racine. Captain Knapp did not remain on his claim during that winter, but leaving his men as his agents, he returned to Chicago, seeking the aid of men who were able to assist him in his enterprise, whom he found in the persons of Jacob A. Barker, of Buffalo, and Gurdon Hubbard, of Chicago. The village received the name of Port Gilbert at first, in honor of its projector. The little claim cabin on the shore of Lake Michigan soon became a landmark for those who had turned their steps westward, seeking homes in this new and promising region, and settlers made their claims, and built their homes in its vicinity. The name of Port Gilbert soon gave place to the more pretentious title of Racine, but Root river still remains Root river, though it is to be regretted that the original and more euphonious Indian name, Chip- pecothen, had not been retained, or at least commemorated in the street that once bore it. 4% RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 497 In the spring of 1832, Captain Knapp returned to his claim, and set about building the city. The river found its shifting and uncertain course through the sandy beach, sometimes reaching the lake waters as far south as Fifth street. A straight harbor was to be dug, dredged, docked and fitted to receive that lake shipping which was to bring commerce and wealth to the city. Bridges were to be built, KACINE HIGH SCHOOL. Erected in 1853. From which the first high school class was graduated in Wisconsin, December 24, 1857, consisting of ten young gentlemen and ladies. streets to be opened, and highways were to be laid out. to reach the farms that were being taken up in Southern Wis- consin, whose trade it was hoped would centre in Racine. These enterprises, and the manifold material wants that ever cluster around the settlers' cabins, for a time absorbed the entire energies of the people. Thus for a season, itinerant preachers administered religious privileges to the people, and soon the volunteer schoolmaster opened his primitive 498 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. temple of learning, of which he was the sole authority, finan- cial, educational, and otherwise and furnished educational facilities to the generation that soon began " to rise " quite rapidly around the settlers' cabins. Nor are these early set- tlers to be censured, if, in the midst of their numerous cares and labors, they were con tent' to make use of these volun- teers, to the exclusion of free public schools. In May, 1837, a post-office was established at Racine, and Dr. Bushnell B. Carey was appointed the first post- master. From this time the village made good progress. Hotels were erected, stores were opened, a court house and jail were built, and Racine was fairly launched among the embryo cities of the great West, with glowing prospects of success, which have been and are still being fully realized. Frqm 1818 to 1837, Wisconsin formed a part of the territory of Michigan, but when Michigan became a state in 1837, Wisconsin, with a vast section of country west of it, was established as the territory of Wisconsin ; and, by act' of congress, the laws of Michigan were extended over it, and with them, a school law. But little was done for public schools in Racine under that law, except that, on the 12th of June, 1837, Benjamin C. Pearce, Ammi Clark and Sidney S. Derbyshire, who had been elected county commissioners on April 4th of that year, divided the county into school districts, of which District No. 1 was the town of Racine, including the village. In 1836, the first school house was built in the village, located on the northeast corner of Third and Main streets. It was a very unpretentious structure, sixteen feet square, a frame building, and was presided over and managed by a man named Bradley, who was the first schoolmaster of Racine. This was not a free school, nor even a public school, but it was the pioneer of a long line of select schools, academies and seminaries, which served the public by taking care of the intellectual training of their children, at the expense of their patrons. In the session of the territorial legislature of 1839-40, a school law was passed, establishing and regulating common scnools, and providing for the management of school lands, which law was revised and improved in the session of 1840-41. In the management of the schools, it was modeled closely after the system then in operation in the state of New York. Racine at once availed herself of its provisions, and at the first annual town meeting, held on the 5th day of April, 1842, Marshall M. Strong, Eldad Smith and Lyman K. RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 490 Smith were elected the first school commissioners for the town. Their duties were to take charge of the school sec- tion, to collect the revenue therefrom, and to apportion the same to the several school districts in the town. Section 16 being located, as it is in this town, essentially in the village, required considerable care, and was productive of consider- able revenue. They were also required to divide the town LINCOLN GRAMMAR SCHOOL. into school districts, to examine and license public school teachers, and to take general supervision of the schools. Each district was provided with three trustees, a clerk and collector, who were authorized to levy and collect all neces- sary school taxes, and to manage the affairs of their districts, the village or town authorities not meddling with the schools. This town was divided into four school districts 500 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. one comprising the village, one north of it, one west of it, and one south of it. Steps were immediately taken for the erection of a public school house in the village, and for the permanent establishment of a public school. .The lots where the Sec- ond ward school house now stands, being on Section 16, which the town was then supposed to own, were selected as a proper school site, which has since been considerably enlarged by the purchase of property on the south of it. During the summer of 1842, a one-story brick school house was erected on the west end of the site, near the corner of College avenue (then Barnstable street) and Seventh street. This was the first public school house in Racine ; and later, in the same year, Samuel W. Hill opened the first public school. Mr. Hill had acquired reputation in a private school southwest of the village, and seems to have been a satisfactory choice. He was succeeded by Simeon d Yout, until quite lately an old resident of this city. Almost immediately after the opening of this school, there was a loud cry for " more school room." This call was met by the erection of a frame building on the east end of the same lot, which was used as a school for the girls and the small boys, over which, in 1844, Miss Margaret Carswell (afterwards Mrs. Samuel G. Knight) presided, whose daughter, Miss Margaret Knight, has for so many years served in the Fifth ward school, as a primary teacher. From 1842 to 1852, during the village organization and the first three years of the city organization, the public schools were managed under the general laws of the territory and state by trustees and other district officers, as neither the village nor the first city charter made any provisions for maintaining them. On April 4th, 1848, the last town meet- ing for the town of Racine, including the village, was held at the court house preparatory to Wisconsin becoming a state, and Racine a city. For obvious reasons, it was re- solved at that meeting that no election of town officers should be made, but that all the officers should hold over until the next annual meeting, which for the town was held at Daniel Slauson's cooper shop on April 3d, 1849, and at that meet- ing Mr. Floyd P. Baker was elected superintendent of schools for the town. In consequence of no election being made in 1848 Isaac J. Ullinan, Thomas J. Emerson and Thomas G. Burgess continued to act as town school commissioners, a position which they had held for several years, greatly to- RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 501 their own credit and to the profit of the schools of the town. They were the last school commissioners elected under the territorial organization. On the second Monday in March, 1848, Wisconsin became a state, and the care and ownership of the school section, which was rapidly becoming city resi- dence property and hence quite valuable, passed into the hands of the state. This period, from 1841 to 1852, had been a period of considerable growth, of transition and of evolution in the schools of Racine. In 1845 the village was divided into three districts, on the north, the south and the west sides of the river respectively, and schools were established and main- tained accordingly, hi 1849 the school on the West side, on Marquette street, between Liberty and State streets, en- rolled over 140 pupils, all of whom could not find seats in the school house, but were accustomed to resort to the shade of the trees, that then covered that section, to pursue their studies. At the first city election, held on April 13th, 1849, Mr. A. Constantino Barry was elected the first superintend- ent of schools in the city of Racine and held that position until April, 1853. He was a man of good attainments, of versatile talents and of various callings a preacher of some reputation in the Universalist church, the editor and pub- lisher of " The Old Oaken Bucket " (the organ of the Sons of Temperance), and an educator of considerable pretension. Acting, as he did, under the general school law of the state, he did not have that opportunity to impress himself upon the schools that later superintendents, acting under the special city law, have had. On June 26, 1855, he became state superintendent of schools, which position he held until January 4th, 1858. In 1861 he became chaplain of the Second Regiment of Wisconsin volunteers, in which capacity he served during the war. The divided and discordant condition of educational af- fairs in the city, under the state law and the district system, could not by any possibility be productive of satisfactory educational results, though the school offi- cers and the teachers made strenuous exertions, through county societies and in other ways, to improve the pub- lic schools ; and yet that these early schools did do much good work, and did serve the people fairly well, is evi- dent from the testimony of Colonel John G. McMynn, con- tained in a recent letter touching this point, in which he- says: "I am of the opinion that the schools were much 502 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. better than they are generally supposed to have been. This opinion is based upon the fact that when I commenced teaching in Racine in 1853, I found very many well-taught children, who had attended only these district schools. I think there can be no doubt that the private schools of Ra- cine, previous to 1853, must have been of a superior charac- ter. In 1851 or 1852 I attended a public examination and exhibition of the public schools, held in Union hall, and I recollect that I considered it very creditable to both teachers and scholars. During my frequent visits to Racine, I often talked with Dr. Wadsworth, A. C. Barry, Marshall M. Strong and others, and found that they were deeply interested in education. I have always considered the change in the school system, which occurred in 1852, as an evolution rather than a revolution, and it seems to me that the great credit received by those who managed the schools after 1853 ought to be shared with the educational pioneers in the good cause during the ten years previous." In 1851 the school interests of the city were taken ef- fectually in hand by those citizens who realized the necessity of a thorough re-organization of educational affairs. On the 14th of April, 1852, a special school law for Racine was en- acted by the legislature, modeled closely after the school sys- tem then in operation in Rochester, Western New York. By this law all public schools of the city were consolidated into one district, and ample powers were placed in the hands of a board of education, consisting of two commissioners from each ward, and a city superintendent, all elective. Some of the more important powers have since been repealed, and the school law, considerably modified, has been made a part of the city charter. The first board of education under the new law was organized in April, 1852, and was as fol- lows: President, Robert Gather ; clerk, A. C. Barry ; commis- sioners, Orville W. Barnes, Robert Gather, Edwin Gould, Warner W. Wadsworth, Charles Herrick, Nathan Joy, John Osborne, Seneca Raymond, Edwin A. Roby, Sidney A. Sage ; city superintendent, A. G. Barry. At the same time the city council authorized the selec- tion of a site for a high school, and the issue of the city bonds to the amount of $6,000, for the erection of the proper build- ing. The site chosen was one already in the possession of the city schools, and a substantial brick building, 50 by 75 feet, two stories with a high basement, was at once erected. Ibon. 3obn (5. The Hon. John G. McMynn, a graduate- of Williams col- lege, Mass., class of '48, began teaching in September of that year a private school at Southport (now Kenosha), Wisconsin, the public school system of the state having been organized in 1848-9, Colonel McMynn was employed in the public schools of Kenosha from 1849 to 1853, and here did work for which he will long be remembered as a strong and thorough public school teacher. In 1853 he accepted the principalship of the Racine high school. Here his ability became generally acknowledged and the school took high rank, and was known as a most thorough and efficiently conducted educational institution. From 1853 to 1861 the city of Racine had the reputation of having the best high school and the most efficient school system in the state. In 1801, Colonel McMynn was commissioned as major of the Tenth Wisconsin infantry, and, after two years' service, he resigned, having in the meantime been promoted to the colon- elcy of his regiment. He Avas then employed by the board of normal school regents as their agent, and after holding this posi- tion about one year, was elected state superintendent, which office he held until January 1, 1868. He was a regent of the state university for more than twenty years at different times from 1856 to 1887. In 1868 he was employed by the J. I. Case Threshing Machine company, of Racine, to take charge of the sales and collections of the company, which position he held until 1875, when he resigned in order to found and conduct a school in which he could realize the results of his experience and his educational theories better than was possible in the pub- lic schools. He founded Racine academy, Avhich he conducted with signal success until 1882. A severe attack of insomnia caused him to transfer the charge of this school to other hands ; and, as his partial deafness, caused by his military service, gradually increased, he did not resume his active educational work. In 1886, the family removed to Madison, Wis., for the purpose of having the children at home while receiving their collegiate education in the state university, Avhere their home still remains. In his official duties Mr. McMynn Avas unceasingly active. A vigorous, and intelligent advocacy of the common sense of practical pedagogy characterized his Avork and Avon for him the confidence of the communities where he was called for advice or assistance. During the earlier years of his residence in the state, he Avas widely known as a lecturer on educational matters. In the conduct of teachers' institutes he Avas able to impart his enthu- siasm and clear notions of method to hundreds of those who, in after years have brought to fruition the good seed so abund- antly soAvn bv Col. McMynn. W. E. A. RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 503 which is now occupied by the Second ward school. It was an excellent structure for the times, and ranked with the best high school buildings in the state. The board then proceeded to select the man who should put the new system into prac- tical operation, and realize the anticipations of the people. John. G. McMynn, then a successful teacher in the public schools of Kenosha, was called to the principalship, and the sequal showed that they had made no mistake in their selec- tion. Mr. McMynn was a graduate of Williams college, and a man of great executive ability, which was valuable in his new position, and of large and successful experience as an educator. Mrs. Ella Wiley McMynn accepted the position of preceptress, and her name will ever hold a high and sacred place in the love and esteem of every pupil who profited by her example and instruction during the five years of her work in the Racine high school, in which she finished her life's work. On taking his position, Mr. McMynn proceeded at once to systematize, organize and unify the workings of the school, to train the teachers in improved methods, and to establish order and discipline, and succeeded fully in making his educational energy and ability felt in every department. In April, 1853, the Rev. M. P. Kinney was elected city superintendent, a position which he continued to hold until April, 1857, and by his intelligent aid and sympathy, strengthened by the cordial support of the entire board of education, contributed not a little to the success of the sys- tem, and the Racine high school soon became the pet and pride of the city. The situation and the plan of work are well set forth in the report of the principal of the high school, made to the board of education in April, 1858, from which the following is taken. " It is now nearly five years since the present plan of organization went into operation. Previous to this period, interest in education was confined to a few of our citizens. Under the district system, which was at first adopted, it was seen that no efficiency could be secured, and little progress could be made. School accommodations were poor and limited. Teachers were embarrassed, and their well laid plans were often thwarted by apathy or opposition. Schools, public and private, were numerous, but not permanent ; teachers were qualified and self-denying, but not successful ; and while money was liberally provided, it was uselessly ex- pended, so that many began to look with disfavor upon pub- 504 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. lie schools, and if not unwilling to try the experiment of a thorough organization, they were not willing to co-operate and earnestly labor to carry it to a successful issue." The original plan of organization, as stated in the re- port, was as follows: "In December, 1853, the high school was opened, and the intermediate and primary departments organized. The plan of organization is as follows : The city constitutes one district, and all residents of the city, be- tween the ages of four and twenty, are entitled to admission into that department for which they are found qualified. There are four departments primary, intermediate, gram- mar and high school. The high school and grammar school districts embrace the whole city ; there are section districts for the intermediate, and sub-districts for the prim- ary schools. From the same report we find that " when the schools were organized (in 1853) only nine scholars were found qualified to enter the high school," and it became necessary to have a large preparatory class in the high school room. In April, 1857, the Rev. 0. 0. Stearns, a liberally edu- cated and earnest school man, was elected city superintendent, and from his report in April, 1858, the following items are taken : "During the past year, a new school library, con- sisting of over a thousand volumes, has been purchased and placed within the reach of the scholars and their parents." This library was well selected, embracing much of the standard literature of that day, and the remains of it still form the basis of our school library. "At the close of the last term (December 24, 1857) a class often young gentlemen and young ladies graduated from our high school, and re- ceived appropriate diplomas. That was an event of too much importance to be overlooked in our annual report. The day of their graduation was a proud one for our city schools ; and could all of our citizens have been present on that occasion, they would have felt amply repaid for the sacrifices they have been called upon to make to sustain them." Let it be here noted, that this was the first class that was ever graduated from a high school in Wisconsin. It was truly a gala day for the friends of the schools in Racine. The exercises were held in the large upper room of the school building, which then was nearly the full size of the building ; but at an early hour standing room alone was available, and many, unable to gain an entrance, were turned away. The music was vocal and was furnished by the pupils. RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 505 From that first class to the present time each year has furnished a graduating class except 1858, 1863, 1866, and 1869. The class of December, 1857, was properly the class of 1858, and hence was not a failure, and the other excep- tions were caused by the numerous enlistments of older pupils from all the schools during the war. The largest class was that of 1889, being twenty-two ; the smallest class that of 1872, being three. The whole number of graduates has been 333, of whom 90 were young men and 243 were young women, a truly noble record, both for the school and for the people. When the war of the rebellion broke out, in 1861, and during its continuance, the high school responded nobly to the country's call, furnishing from thirty to forty soldiers, and many of the older pupils from the ward schools increased the number largely. Six members of the high school lost their lives in the cause, and a marble tablet pre- serves their names and memory in golden letters on the walls of the high school study-room. Principal McMynn also volunteered, and went as major of the Tenth regiment of Wisconsin infantry ; and, after doing soldierly service in the war in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, returned as colonel of his regiment. Since his return he has served as state superintendent four years, and has filled various other public positions. Among the other prominent educators who have served as principals of Racine high school and whose influence has been felt in the school system, mention should be made of Selim H. Peabody, LL. D., who went from Racine to the Chicago high school, has since occupied several high posi- tions of educational trust (including that of president of the Illinois state university at Champaign) and is now chief of the department of liberal arts in the World's Columbian exposition ; George 8. Albee, who went to Oshkosh as presi- dent of the state normal school, a position which for many years he has tilled with great ability, and still continues to hold ; O. S. Westcott, who holds the principalship of the North side high school in Chicago; Colonel E. Barton Wood arid Colonel Henry S. Pomeroy, both veteran officers in the civil war; and all were men of liberal education, being col- legians. In December, 1853, the schools consisted of five prima- ries, one intermediate and one high school, the grammar school being at that time, and for many years after, com- bined with the high school. There were about 700 pupils 506 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. in attendance, and thirteen teachers were employed. The rapid increase in the number of pupils soon made it evident that a large increase in school room must be furnished ; and, in 1855, the city council provided the means for erecting three school buildings, and during the fall and winter they were built in the Third, Fourth and Fifth wards respect- ively. They were substantial, two-story brick buildings, 40 by 50 feet, in each of which there was organized a primary and an intermediate school, with four teachers and about 200 pupils ; and the old buildings were then abandoned. These buildings, commodious and creditable for the times, relieved the great pressure, and they are still doing good duty in their respective wards, but with large additions and improvements made to them from time to time. From 1856 to 1887 the general plan for providing increased school room was by making additions to the old buildings, except in the erection of the Sixth ward school house, a somewhat impos- ing and commodious structure, designed to seat about 400 pupils, which, architecturally viewed, was a marked advance on previous buildings. In 1887, under the direction of Super- intendent H. G. Winslow and the building committee of the board, plans were perfected and the means provided for erecting a portion of what was to be, when completed, a first- class ward school building, in the southwestern part of the city. This was finished in March, 1891, and named the R. P. Howell school, and is a fine, commodious building and a credit to the city. Again, in 1889, the overcrowded condi- tion of the schools on the north and west sides of the river imperatively demanded more school room in that section, and the work of preparing it was undertaken by the super- intendent and the same building committee. A site was purchased on the corner of Northwestern avenue and Pros- pect street. Profiting by their former experience in school architecture, plans were carefully prepared, and the Lincoln school was erected, at once a model of elegance and conven- ience, with a seating capacity of about 400 pupils and eight teachers, which was finished and occupied in April, 1891. These two new grammar school buildings being completed, attention was turned to the urgent necessity for a new high school building, worthy of a flourishing city of 25,000 inhab- itants, and with a capacity sufficient to accommodate the school, and to admit of its natural growth ; and the effort to obtain such a building is now in progress, with fair pros- pects of ultimate success. RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 507 With the natural growth of the schools, the increase in the number of teachers, and the necessary advance in the educational abilities of the great mass of the pupils, many changes, extensions and improvements have been made from time to time in the course of study, and in the organization and working of the schools. As early as 1858, the principal of the high school was made the "Superintendent of Instruc- tion," which he had actually been from the first, and was given full charge of the instructional work for its special su- pervision, whilst the general supervision still remained in charge of the elective city superintendent. This arrange- ment continued, to a great extent, until 1881, and each of the able educators, who trom time to time during about thirly years presided over the high school, made such changes in the schools as the altered conditions seemed to demand. In May, 1881, H. G. Winslow was appointed superintendent of city schools, and at once devoted his time and energy to the work, assuming from the first not only the general supervis- ion as city superintendent, but also the special supervision of the instructional work. He w r as a graduate of Union col- lege in New York, and brought to the office a long and suc- cessful experience as an educator, acquired in the academies and union high schools of western New York, with a liberal education and a native taste and talent for school work. Having left the school-room on account of failing health, he had been long recognized in Racine as a school man, and had done much service in and about the schools. At this time the board had become appointive by the mayor, with the approval of the city council, and the superintendent was elected by the board. In all educational enterprises, per- manency and well laid plans, looking to the future for reali- zation, in the proper order of their importance and urgency, form a very important factor. No school or system of schools can be built up or materially improved in one or two years, but thoughtful study and careful planning, year after year, remedying defects, supplying deficiencies, and strengthening weak places in educational work, are the only sure means of attaining excellence, and these require that experience and permanency in the governing authori- ties which time alone can give. When Superintendent Winslow, in May, 1881, assumed control, there were 40 teachers employed, and the enroll- ment for the year was 2,388, with an average attendance of 1,555. The schools were badly crowded, the course of study 508 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. indefinite, incomplete and disjointed, and the school property in an unsatisfactory condition. With the earnest and in- telligent support of the board, whose permanency and grow- ing experience rendered their service increasingly valuable, he was able gradually to remedy most of these evils. In 1883, a full pamphlet report, with course of study in detail, and manual of instructions for teachers, was issued, being the first of the kind since 1858. It contained about 100 pages of useful educational and statistical matter,and rendered valuable assistance in systematizing and unifying the school work. This was followed, in 1891, by a more complete manual, with a careful revision of the entire course of in- struction, in the preparation of which the superintendent availed himself of the experience and advice of the princi- pals of the high school and of the several grammar schools, and also of valuable suggestions from other members of the corps of teachers. During this administration of over eleven years, the number of teachers employed had increased from forty to seventy-one, the enrollment from 2,388 to 3,493, the average tittendance from 1,555 to 2,739. It had been a long season <>f growth, of development, of improvement in all that goes to form an efficient school system. As now organized the course of study consists of twelve grades, four of which are classed i\s primary grades, four as grammar school grades, and four as high school grades. Each grade, with the exception of the first, is intended to cover one year's school work, and the cases of failure to pass grade at the end of the year, when the attendance has been good, with pupils of average intellectual power, are very rare. In the first grade, the differences are greater. Pupils coming from English-speaking families, in which reading matter is abundant and habitually used, ac- complish the grade work very easily within a year, and many of them in much less time, whilst those coming from fami- lies in which English is not well spoken, or reading is scarce and but little thought of, often require much more time, es- pecially if the attendance is much interrupted. In the division of the work, the aim has been to give a completeness to the fourth grade work, thus marking the transition to the grammar school, or, in cases where the pupil leaves school at that stage, giving him a desirable complete- ness in his knowledge, even though it might be quite ele- mentary. At the completion of the eighth grade, or gram- Jiuir school work, a certificate or diploma is issued to the T-.-^v^ .--vv -v 1bon, Iboratio G, IKHinslow. The Honorable Horatio G. Winslow was born in the vil- lage of Groton, Massachusetts, in the year 1820. He was directly descended from Kenelm Winslow, brother of Governor Edward Winslow, who landed in Plymouth, in 1629, and bore an important part in the affairs of that colony. Mr. Winslow was thrown upon his own resources at a very early age, and during the years of boyhood, from fourteen years of age, he was dependent on no one but himself for support and education. With a courage that bespoke the capabilities of later years, he worked his own way unaided through Union college. He be- gan teaching immediately after receiving his degree and has ever since been actively interested in the practical work of education. In 1852 Mr. Winslow came to Racine, and at once became connected with the public schools, at first indirectly, though his sympathy soon pointed him out as a leader, and he was ap- pointed as a member of the school board, becoming clerk thereof. From this time on Mr. Winslow's influence has been con- stant and helpful to the Racine schools. A decision of the supreme court placed his residence outside the city for a short time, but subsequently he again became a resident, and resumed his connection with educational affairs of the city. In 1874 he was appointed regent of the university. Since 1866 he has been a trustee of Racine college. From 1881 till September, 1892, he has held the honored position of superintendent of Racine public schools. Before this time the office was held by those who performed its services as a duty incidental to school commissionership or that of principal of the high school. It is due to Mr. Winslow to attribute to his faithful and untiring devotion, and to his able direction and clear insight of the true mission of the public school, the great progress made by the Racine schools for ten years, in systematization, or- ganization and improvement of the course of instruction. The excellent standing of the schools at the present day is evidence of his wise labor and industry, sustained by an intelligent board of commissioners, able to appreciate and value the ser- vices of a capable and cultivated leader. W. E. A. RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. 509 pupil, signed by his principal, and by the superintendent, certifying to that completion, and admitting him to the high school at any time within two years from its issue, without examination. At the completion of the twelfth grade, or high school course, a formal diploma is issued, signed by the principal, the superintendent, and the president and clerk of the board of education, and this diplohia admits its recipient to the proper courses in the Wisconsin university or in Beloit college without examination. There are now one high school and eight grammar schools in the city system of schools, each grammar school having four primary and four grammar grades. The effort has been to increase the extent and completeness of the work in the grammar schools, as so many of the pupils never go farther in school work. To this end physiology and hygiene are taught in all grades from the first. Paul Bert's "First Steps in Science,' r bookkeeping, and history of the United States are taught in all grammar school grades, and the work has been much strengthened in language, numbers and geography. The- high school course has also been improved by the introduc- tion of chemistry, with a laboratory in which individual work is done by each pupil ; botany, with the analysis of plants and preparation of specimens; and astronomy, with a study of constellations. The high school numbers 164 pupils, with five teachers. In June, 1881, Mr. A. R. Sprague, a graduate of Beloit college, and a teacher of successful experience in the schools of Wisconsin, was appointed principal of Racine high school r which position he held for eight years with much credit, re- signing it in June, 1889, to accept a place in the Milwaukee high school. On the 26th of July, 1889, Mr. A. J. Volland, a graduate of the Michigan university, and a man of superior attainments and educational abilities, was called from the Grand Rapids, Michigan, high school, and elected principal of the Racine high school, which position he still fills to the entire satisfaction of all parties ; and if a suitable building shall be erected in the near future, and furnished with the proper appliances for a first-class high school as now con- ducted, Principal Volland will surely build up a school in every way worthy of the city of Racine. On the 12th of August, 1892, Superintendent H. G. Winslow presented his resignation, to take effect at the earli- est convenience of the board of education. On the 15th of 510 RACINE CITY AND HER SCHOOLS. August the resignation was accepted, and on motion of Com- missioner Driver, the following resolution was adopted: "In view of the fact that Superintendent Winslow, who has served so long as the head of our schools, has expressed his fixed purpose not to again be a candidate for re-election to this position, be it "Resolved, That we, members of the school board of the city of Racine, desire hereby to express our great respect and esteem for him as a man, and to place upon record our commendation of his long and faithful service in behalf of the schools of the city, covering as it does a period of more than eleven years, during which time he has brought the schools from a semi-chaotic con- dition to their present high grade ; and we feel assured that whosoever may be his successor in office, he will find nothing to undo, but may safely build upon the work already done, as a sure foundation for further advancement. While regretting the necessity of a change, we congratulate the retiring superintend- ent on having attained so large a measure of success, and wish for him much of pleasure and satisfaction in whatever his work may hereafter be." On the 1st of September, Mr. O. C. Seelye, having been elected thereto by the board of education, entered upon the cares and duties of t-he superintendency. Superintendent Seelye is a graduate from the university of Michigan, and has had much experience, both as principal and as superin- tendent of prominent schools in cities in Michigan, and thus brings to his work that liberal education, and educational ex- perience, from which excellent results may reasonably be ex- pected. H. G. WINSLOW. The Evolution of the Free School at Kenosha, Wisconsin. Southport was the original name of the locality where first in Wisconsin was tried the experiment of free education by the state now incorporated as a city known as Kenosha, six miles north of the Illinois line and fifty-nine miles north of Chicago, on the west shore of Lake Michigan. It is by general consent entitled to the credit of originating and per- fecting the Wisconsin school system. Its first settlement was in 1835, and it was incorporated as a village in 1841 ; between these dates schools had been voluntarily kept and maintained in such method as was Eracticable in a new country. Before the confirmation of ind titles by the United States in 1839, no means of acquir- ing a site in any other way than by permit from those hold- ing pre-emptions and occupying under settler's law was pos- sible ; and we find the district, whose record is to be briefly sketched, occupying a school house built of round logs, which stood upon a portion of what was afterwards platted as block 30, on the east side of Main street, in the city of Kenosha. In 1839, David Crosit, one of the proprietors of the town site, filed a plat in which "lot 2, block 58, is given to the school district in which it lies for the use of common schools, and may be sold by the trustees of the dis- trict for that use ;" and immediately thereafter the school authorities took possession and built thereon a plain, one- story wooden structure, with windows on the sides and a door in front, in which school was kept until 1845. Before bringing into notice the part taken by the early settlers and citizens in this grand educational movement, it will be well to bring to view by a brief statement the char- acter of the unbroken prairie waste which met the eye of the pioneer on landing, as well as the character and make-up of the heterogeneous swarm of immigrants which the steamboats from Buffalo daily debarked at the only wharf pier on Lake Michigan a pier projected by the villagers of Southport and sarcastically dubbed "the St. Joe Bridge" by its envious 511 512 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. rivals. The bulk of these emigrants desiring to take up land, having heard that Illinois was burdened with a canal debt, and dreading the timber country to the north, in very large numbers came to the most southerly port in Wiscon- sin, by this pier avoiding lighterage. The lower tier of coun- ties in Wisconsin was settled by a superior class of men long before the northern tier in Illinois was occupied. The very best class of farmers who, from New England and New York, filled up the counties of Racine, Walworth and Rock, had, in the short space of six years, from 1836 to 1842, not only broken and fenced the greater portion of the lands, but on them had built dwellings, churches and school houses, all new and bearing the evidences of thrift and prosperity. On the prairies and oak openings of this magnificently endowed agricultural region was set down a generation of men and women young, confident and hopeful intending to remain there and found a state by first founding homes, and establishing in their ardent perception a far better civil- ization than that which they had left a thousand miles behind. Some came with a little capital, others with barely enough to enter forty acres of land, and others again with nothing but an honest determination to win a home. Some were educated people from New York, Boston and other American cities, others were emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland ; the German population, now so dominant, having not yet appeared. WHO SETTLED THE COUNTRY DISTRICTS? Farmers from Western New York, Ohio and Pennsyl- vania, with a sprinkling from the Southern states north of Tennessee, were the people who with unexampled rapidity took up and occupied the prairie lands, which at this point alone lay close to the lake shore. To reach these lands else- where, it was necessary to travel inland, from any point north of the north line of Kenosha county, from five to fifty miles through a heavily wooded country. In this prairie region, improvements, consisting of new buildings, fences, churches and school-houses, were so rapidly and simultaneously con- structed as to give the wilderness the appearance of a long settled region. The style of building was largely after the Eastern pattern, and fully equal to the standard of what was proper in the region from which the settlers came ; one of the resulting creations being typically known as "the little red school house," many of which even now meet the eye of the traveler at the road crossings. THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KEXOSHA. 513 COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Up to 1849 the country people outside of the villages had spontaneously organized school districts, which were supported by voluntary contributions, or by the practice of "boarding around," as it was called. These districts were only tacitly recognized as such by the law, and were not em- powered to levy taxes for any school purpose, unless specially authorized by the territorial legislature. An examination of the laws of 1844 shows at least five applications for permission to levy such taxes, and power for that purpose granted ; and such applications continued to be made until February, 1848, when the state constitution made provision for free public schools. School District No. 1, of South port, at the time the vil- lage was incorporated, differed little as to government from the other school districts of the territor}- ; it was managed by the district meeting, called as emergency required, and its decisions were carried into effect by directors and a clerk. Each school district being practically independent, down to the time of the codification of the school laws, was in most respects "a law unto itself," except as it found it necessary to ask authority from the legislature for extraordinary means to carry on the business of education. Accordingly, we find "District No. 1, in the town of Southport," obtaining legisla- tive authority for the establishment of free schools in the corporate limits of the village of Southport, subject to an affirmative vote of the people (Private statutes 1845, chapter 33) ; and again, "District No. 2, Southport," which included a portion of what is now the city of Kenosha public school district, applying for authority to levy a tax. (Local statutes 1847, chapter 127.) In still another case District No. 1, Southport, obtained permission to renew a tax warrant which had expired. (Laws 1848, chapter 28.) And similar special legislation was enacted for various purposes, applicable to the needs of other districts in the southern part of the terri- tory of Wisconsin, the northern part not being yet occupied by settlers, to any great extent. VILLAGE SCHOOLS. Among such a mass of immigrants were found a con- siderable number of intelligent people professional men, mechanics and others who could find more ready occupa- tion and employment in building up the then thriving vil- lage of Southport than in cultivating the soil, or acquiring 51 4 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. land for any other purpose than speculation. They were mostly young men with families, often without means ; but, living within easy distance from each other, they could be counted on from their antecedents to provide good schools for the instruction of their children, and also to give the town a high character for advantage in securing an education. Thus it happened that District No. 1, South port, from its foundation until now, has always maintained its separate or- ganization, separate local superintendcy and specific rules ; and it was thus admirably situated to lead the column ag- gressively in behalf of free education. As has been remarked, most of these villagers had been well educated in their Eastern homes ; to many of them such education was their sole capital. They had no sooner landed than they met kindred spirits, enthusiastic to make South- port society the expression of the best literary culture to be found on the western shores of Lake Michigan, and deter- mined to eclipse, in that regard their rival to the north, which had secured the material advantage of being the county seat. Before the incorporation of the village in 1841 they had established a lyceum or debating club, at which all the contested moral, political and social issues were duly discussed; and, following out the New England plan, had within two years more founded the Southport academy, ap- pointing as principal Louis P. Harvey, afterwards governor of the state of Wisconsin. This academy, with the academ- ies at Salem,Wilmot and Bristol, all inKenosha county, were intended to supplement the district schools in a manner sim- ilar to the high -school of the present system. Of course, after the founding and establishment of the free high school, and the division into class grades subsequently introduced, these academies had no cause to exist, or could not exist in competition, and have accordingly disappeared as educational agencies. THE LEADING PROMOTERS. Who, then, were the principal promoters of this scheme to advance education ? It must be borne in mind that this agitation was begun at least eight years before the admission of the territory as a state ; so that it was largely enthusiasm in the cause, aided by some quite fortunate circumstances, which led to the success of their plans. One of these cir- cumstances was, that the chief promoter, Colonel M. Frank, had, in the year 1840, been co-editor with C. Lapham Sholes, KEXOSHA HIGH SCHOOL. 516 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. the proprietor of the South port Telegraph, then perhaps the most influential newspaper in Southern Wisconsin ; and that during his occupancy of the editorial chair, and subsequently, the columns of that paper teemed with articles written by himself and his coadjutors in favor not only of free common schools, but of taxation by the state for their support. This earnest advocacy, and the high standing in the community of those contemporaries who were outspoken in support of the prime mover, made a deep impression on the minds of the voters, so that they were ready to pass upon the initial experiment when it should be offered them by legislative action. The following brief notices of individuals more or less active and influential in obtaining the legislation authoriz- ing the establishment of the free school in Southport, and the raising of the money for its support from the taxable property of the district, are given in this connection as part of the school history. Not to speak particularly of M. Frank, whose biography has been recently published, and whose immediate connection with the scheme has been heretofore enlarged upon, and is now recorded in the archives of the historical society of the state of Wisconsin, may be men- tioned the following : Charles Durkee, who came to Southport from Vermont in 1836, and who, for his public spirit and popularity, was afterwards elected to the lower house of Congress, and subse- quently by the legislature to the senate, and by President Johnson appointed governor of Utah Territory, was an out- spoken advocate of free schools. Reuben H. Deming, who also hailed from Vermont, was a local preacher in the Methodist Episcopal church, and by reason of his itinerant and largely gratuitous labors as such in the country, and his ready speech and frank address, had acquired considerable local popularity. He advocated the support of free schools by taxes to be raised upon the " grand list," as he called it, by which he doubtless meant the general village roll instead of a special district roll, as was then the practice. John B. Jilson, who came to the territory from the state of New York, was a lawyer by profession, who afterwards attained the dignity of county judge. He was an excellent writer and fair speaker, and was ever ready to advocate the adoption of the free school in Southport, and afterwards in the state at large, and upon its adoption to give efficient aid THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KEXOSHA. 517 in the actual administration and practical working of the system. Theodore Newell, a lumber merchant then in business at Southport, afterwards at Muskegon, Michigan, one of the first to supply building material for the village and sur- rounding country, was a rather retired and tactiturn man, but one whose influence gave great weight to the project. Chauncey Davis, then of Southport, a working carpen- ter, afterwards a leading lumberman and citizen of Muske- gon, was another stanch adherent of the movement to make schools free. The " Major," as he was familiarly called, was a forcible speaker, and his influence with the working- men, of whom there were a large number, was greatly effec- tive. C. Latham Sholes, co-editor of the Telegraph, was also in hearty accord with the movement, as was his brother, C. C. Sholes, who for some time was prominent in territorial affairs, and afterwards connected editorially with the Green Bay Advocate and the American Freeman, of Waukesha. The latter served no less than four terms, after the adoption of the system, as mayor of the city of Kenosha. Rev. Martin Kundig, the parish priest of St. Mark's Catholic church, was also known as a sympathizer with all projects to advance education. After the passage of the act in 1845, giving the school district power to enlarge their school accommodations, a district school was established by arrangement with the school board in the basement of this church. There being a considerable voting population of Irish birth or descent, of which nationality his congregation was composed, Father Kundig's influence in favor of schools was another most fortunate circumstance, leading up to eventual success. Charles Clement, who came to the territory from Massa- chusetts, and who lived in Southport long enough to see the free school triumphantly successful, a brilliant speaker and a writer of no mean ability, who afterwards succeeded Sholes and Frank in the proprietorship of the Telegraph, gave the cause great impetus in its inception, and was its able de- fender until it gained popular approval. Warren Chase, a member of the constitutional conven- tion which formulated the provision in that instrument establishing free, unsectarian schools for the new state, was also well known as a ready and powerful advocate of the extension of the Southport experiment under state super- 518 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. vision, and assisted to set in motion the agitation which preceded its local trial. Thomas Howland, an old pioneer, coming to Southport from Indiana, was a man who always took a lively interest in the school question, although living in the outskirts of the district, His sons were educated in the school which he helped to establish, and one of them afterwards was elected to the legislature. A plain farmer, he was determined his children should not lack the advantages of a good school, of which he had of necessity been deprived. Hays McKinley, a physician from Western New York, was also a leading champion of free schools. After the adoption of free education by the state had been secured, and upon the death of C. C. Sholes, he became editor of the Kenosha Telegraph and continued his support of the policy until his death, a few years ago. Others might be named, but they were chiefly men whose opinions and views were largely controlled by these promoters. At the first there were hardly a dozen persons who might be said to be fully in favor of free schools, and of taxation by the state for their support. It was here that by persistent advocacy of the policy, Col. Frank who doubtless foresaw the conditions which would arise when the future state should receive at the hands of the United States government her dower in the grant of the sixteenth section of the lands of every township, and the other liberal grants made to the new states on their admis- sion into the Union, and the necessity for a practical demon- stration of adaptability on a small scale to meet the require- ments of the organic law became the leading spirit in the agitation then commenced, which went on till 1845, when the Southport school district secured the passage of the law which gave it full scope to try the experiment. LEGISLATION* The following extract from a published life of the ad- mitted founder of the present school system shows how public sentiment favorable to its trial was seemed : ' ' Meetings were frequently held for the discussion of the free school question. Col. Frank, being then a member of the territorial legislature, in 1843 introduced the first bill for the establishment of free schools in Wisconsin. It met with no favorable response, and by most of the members was declared impracticable. In 1845 he secured the passage of a law author- THE EVOLUTION QF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. ">19 izing the establishment of free schools in the corporate limits of the village of Southport (Kenosha). This law was passed with the proviso that it be submitted to, and be accepted by, a majority of the legal voters of the town before taking effect. At the first meeting for voting on the acceptance of the law, the excitement prevented voting and the meeting broke up in con- fusion. The injustice of taxing those who had no children to educate, to pay for the education of their neighbors' children, was so strongly pressed that poor men, unable to pay for the schooling of their own children, thought such a laAv 'unreason- able. At a second meeting, the law was approved and accepted. This system, which was at first much opposed, became popular when the people came to understand that education was public property and essential to good government." THE DISTRICT PROPERTY. Before the land sale and the confirmation of titles by the government of the United States, in 1839, the district had built a log school house on land situated on the east side of Main street, afterwards platted as lot 6, block 30 ; but having no title to the land on which it stood, it availed itself of the gift, by the proprietors of the village, of lot 2 in block 58. This lot was given " to the school district in which it lies for the use of common schools, and may be sold by the trustees of the district for that use." The district proceeded to erect thereon a frame school house of one story, w r ith windows on the sides and rear, and door in front. The log school house was then abandoned ; it stood, however, till the year 1843, occupied as a cooper's shop ; it was then, by the march of improvement and growth of the village, torn down to give place for a time to a pretentious two-story, balloon-frame, wooden store building. In this way the first school building served its purpose and disappeared, to be succeeded by the second structure, erected on the district lot, fronting the public park, where it remained and school was kept in it till, in 1845, it was sold to Charles Clement, who converted it into a two-story dwell- ing house. It was subsequently, with the lot, sold to Saint Matthew's Protestant Episcopal church; and through mesne conveyances the building, removed from its original site, has now become the property of the Kenosha branch of the Young Men's Christian Association. Population having increased and children needing education having multiplied beyond the capacity of the frame school building, upon the acceptance of the local school law r by the inhabitants of the 520 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. district, the question arose : How shall the demand for school accommodation be met, the law be carried out, and a suita- ble place had in which to try the experiment ? It would be necessary to erect a new, larger and better building, the school lot was small, and some place must serve till the new .accommodations were secured. It was proposed to sell the valuable lot owned by the district and remove to a location four or five blocks west, the money realized to apply on the cost of the new structure. At this juncture, Sereno Fisk, another devoted friend of the school, came forward with a proposition to give the south- west quarter of block 38, in the first ward of the village, for the site of the proposed new school building, if the district would erect the building on it. A school meeting to decide upon the policy of selling the school house lot was held, and the project strongly opposed. Some said that the lot owned by the district was better in all respects, save area, than the one offered, and that it was moving away from the popula- tion to be accommodated. Others averred that it was a sop to the Irish population, who had homes in the vicinity of the proffered lot. Some of the near residents voted to sell in order to get rid of the nuisance of school children playing in the park ; and others, because the highway, much traveled, which lay between, endangered the lives of scholars. So amid this conflict, the vote to sell was carried, the new lot occupied and planted with elm trees, now nearly two feet in diameter, and the brick building commenced, which was to be occupied until 1890, and was to serve as the nucleus around which, by subsequent purchases, the school grounds were to be in the future enlarged. Such was the advance made by the successful operation of the school that in a short time increased room became nec- essary for the accommodation of the primary grades of scholars. In 1847 the district purchased the northwest quar- ter of block 38, adjoining its property on the north ; and on this acquisition proceeded to erect a two-story brick building, substantial, but of plain design, for the supplying of that want. This structure, being in the way of the erection of the present high school building, was, with the first building erected in 1845, torn down and removed in 1889 to give place to the present imposing structure. Eventually the district pur- chased the northeast quarter of block 38, and recently, the southeast quarter of the block, except a small lot in the south- e;i>t corner, wnich will without doubt be acquired in time. THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. 521 This furnishes a block of land two hundred and seventy-nine feet north and south, by two hundred and sixty-four feet east and west, as the site of the present high school building erected at a cost of $50,000, which has been paid by tax levy RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT. The foundation having thus been laid after fierce oppo- sition, in 1845 the work of classification and organization was immediately commenced, and its subsequent administra- tion under able principals perfected. It was thus left for School District 1, Southport, to formulate a pattern course of study and, by the stimulus of liberal salaries to the best prin- cipals they could find, to attract to its free school scholars from all the country round, scholars living outside the bounds of the district being admitted by payment of a small tuition fee. It soon acquired the reputation of being the most thor- oughly organized school in the West, so much so, that in a few years after the occupation of the first brick building, the school was visited by committees from Racine, Chicago and other cities, who came to take note of its methods and man- agement, and to see a school in practical operation that was of that period not only a free school, but the best school, occu- pying the best school building, in the territory of Wisconsin. Having seen, these visitors returned to devise for their own cities and localities like, perhaps improved, rules, and as good or better buildings. If they had stopped there, the dis- trict would have been content ; as it was, they coaxed away the best principals by offers of increased salary, and as fast as pupils were turned out, qualified to teach and "brought up at the feet of Gamaliel," they secured their services, and turned their scholarly acquirements to account in their own work of educational rivalry. The success of the experiment of the Southport district from 1 845 to the admission of Wisconsin as a state largely influenced, without doubt, the framers of the constitution to insert in that instrument the provision for free schools, and contributed to the selection of the man to put in shape and formulate the first free school code of general application for the state. STATE FREE SCHOOLS. A powerful inducement to the adoption of the free school system by the state was the condition annexed to the Federal grant of lands for the support of common schools, which made it necessary for the state, as trustee, to provide agencies 522 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KENOSHA. not only for the management of the fund to arise from their sale, but also for its distribution. This could be well done in no other way than by creating a general fund which, while caus- ing its distribution to operate as a free gift to education, should make its reception conditional upon the raising of local taxes by local agencies to supplement the gift in this way offering a stimulant and a direct inducement to make the levy. When it was determined by the state legislature to re- vise the statutes as they existed in 1848, and three commis- sioners were elected on joint ballot to make the revision, Col- onel Frank, the prime mover and originator of the agitation for free schools in 1843 which had resulted in its adoption in one locality in the state, was one of the number chosen, and after hesitation he accepted the position. To him was as- signed the work of arranging a free school code to conform to and carry out the provisions of the constitution already re- ferred to. The commissioners submitted their report to the legis- lature in January, 1849, and its adoption was opposed on the ground that the commissioners were appointed to revise ex- isting laws, arid not to propose and recommend the passage of new ones. But as each separate school district had up to that time its own independent constitution or charter, and such laws as existed were not uniform in application, it was im- possible to comply with the requirements of the constitution, Section 3, Article 10, except by new recommendations and ad- ditional provisions. The result was that, after some attempts to make a few unimportant changes, the report was adopted, and, at the subsequent general election a state superintendent having been elected, the school districts throughout the state were re-organized. The laws were frequently amended previ- ous to the revision of the statutes in 1858, but in that revision they were again codified. Since that time various alterations of the school laws have been made (notably one in 1863, chapter 155), and again by the revised statutes of 1878. In that revision the subject of common schools is elaborately treated by chapter 27, and an alternate scheme of township, rather than district government made optional with the towns a scheme which was not adopted in Kenosha county, which has adhered to its original constitution and charter, except as modified by the general law of the state. Thus the grand scheme of free education by the state, originating in the minds of a few, became widely diffused ; and the educational edifice, whose foundations were laid with THE EVOLUTION OF THE FREE SCHOOL AT KEXOSHA. 523 fear and trembling in the Southport school district by the fathers in 1843, through the natural evolution of popular sentiment set in motion by their enthusiastic advocacy of it in the days when it was a despised thing, went up step by step, until its top stone was laid in triumph by its friends, at the time when state sanction and approval crowned the work, and assured its permanency. S. Y. BRANDE. The Janesville Public Schools. A silence rests upon the early history of the Rock river valley, which the antiquarian vainly strives to penetrate. The past years roll by in ghostly procession, but the shadows beyond them are voiceless. No haunting shade of a Wapello or Keokuk returns from the land beyond the sunset to tell us of the tragic life dramas once enacted here. We have only a few aboriginal traditions, and the musical nomencla- ture once applied to adjacent localities will ere long sink into oblivion. Soon only the student of ancient archives will remember the name given by the Winnebagoes to our. beautiful river, " We-ra-sha-na-gra, the River of Rocks." Among the Algonquins it was known by the sibilant appel- lative " Sinsipe." Our records of early settlements in this region are replete with the struggles of those old pioneers, who laid the founda- tions of our civilization, and who " builded better than they knew." There were giants in those days, men mighty in resources, fortitude and courage. The snows drifted and the stars shone through the roofs of their rude dwellings, but they slept soundly and ate heartily of their venison and corn cakes. They could not always pay twenty dollars for a bar- rel of flour, and forty dollars per barrel for pork, but they never hungered. Like the Scotch lassie they were " Content wi' little, for they could na' ha' mair." FIRST PERMANENT SETTLEMENT. On a sunny July morning, in 1835, a party of travelers encamped on the highlands east of the present city of Janes- ville. A scene of enchanting beauty unfolded before them. To the east and south extended the undulating prairie, jeweled with myriads of wild flowers as thick as " the leaves of Vallombrosa." It w r as a land flowing with milk and honey, that blessed realization of their golden dreams. "It is the Happy Valley!" said one. " It is Canaan!" exclaimed another. They named the ridge on which they stood " Mount /ion," for to them it was a mount of prophetic vision. They beheld as in a mirage, limned on the roseate skies of the future, a prosperous metropolis, located in the green valley 524 THE JANKSVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 52-~) of the Rock. Could they behold the city as it now is, the mart of busy traffic, the centre of varied industries, traversed by lines of mystic electric fluid bound in iron chains, they might well exclaim, " Behold what a miracle the divine in- spiration of genius hath wrought !" These early pioneers were joined soon after by others, and in the fall of 1835, the first log cabin was built nearly op- posite the " Big Rock," then covered with scrub cedars. This point had been for years a fording place and rendezvous for fur traders. From the flat summit of the "Rock," only three years before, Mucketay Muckekawkaik (Black Hawk) harangued his warriors, and in the oak openings were still found the embers of his camp fires. FIRST EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. The first settlers had hardly made themselves comfort- able in their rude cabins before they opened a school for their children. They were Eastern people and fresh from the educational institutions of their childhood ; inspired by the lessons learned therein, they believed that culture is a neces- sity of good citizenship. The first school was established in a little log house on the bank of the river in the suburb now known as Spring Brook. It w ? as taught by Hon. Hiram Brown. This primi- tive school house was of the rudest construction, with chinked walls of rough hewn logs and seats of basswood slabs. In the sultry summer days, stray Indians, returning to Lake Koskonong to fish and harvest wild rice, peered in at the open windows and listened in wonder to the busy hum of study. In 1840 a school was opened in the woods near Main street, three rods north of Milwaukee street. There Miss Cornelia Sheldon (afterwards Mrs. Isaac Woodle) patiently sought to impart wisdom to the sturdy little Badgers. She was suceeded the following winter by Rev. G. W. Lawrence. The first debating club was organized that winter. Promi- nent among those who participated in debates was James H. Knowlton, who afterwards displayed marked forensic ability. His contemporaries at the bar a few years later were Hon. Matt. Carpenter, Hon. Isaac Woodle and Hon. Chas. Jordan. Other instructors in the village schools for several years there- after were Messrs. Little, Bennet, Wood and White. The path of the teacher was not strewn with roses in those brave days of old. Schoolma'ams were hired for the summer and 526 THE JAXESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. masters for the winter, for it was a festive pastime for the big boys to inaugurate a rebellion and " chuck " the master into the snow-drifts. A few years later two brick school houses were erected. One of these was lately razed on Division street, in the Sec- ond ward. It was considered a model of convenience, and regarded with feelings of pride by those citizens who planned its erection. For years it has been used as a stable. To what a base estate relentless time oft brings the vaunted works of man. THE JANESYILLE ACADEMY. In 1843, a charter was granted to A. Hyatt Smith, W. H. Bailey, Charles Stevens. J. B. Doe, E. V. Whiton and others, for the purpose of establishing an academy in Janesville. A stone building of commodious proportions was erected on High street, and in 1844 a school was opened therein with Rev. Thomas J. Ruger as principal. Messrs. Allen, Woodruff, Woodard, "Webb, Spicer and Gorton successively took charge of this institution, and about 1855 the property was purchased by the city for use as a public school, and was known for a brief period thereafter as the Janesville free academy. This ancient landmark has been torn down, and the imposing edifice known as the Lincoln school erected on its site. Many of the older busi- ness men of Janesville owe their education to the curriculum of the old academy. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM THE GROWTH OF THE IDEA. No state in the Union has made such liberal provision for free education as Wisconsin. The delegates sent from Janesville to the conventions as- sembled in 1846-47-48 to draft a state constitution, were Hon. E. V. Whiton and Hon. A. Hyatt Smith. After a notable par- tisan controversy the present constitution was adopted in 1848. Therein provision was made for a school fund of more than $5,000,000, only the accrued interest of that sum ever to be expended. For nearly ten years, under the village charter, Janes- ville maintained her district schools, but these were crude in methods, and, as the population increased, a higher grade of culture was demanded. A few enterprising citizens, with wise forethought, determined upon a thorough organization and gradation of the schools. Among those who were en- THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 527 thusiastic promoters of this achievement were Hon. J. J. R. Pease, Dr. L. J. Barrows, Hon. Wm. A. Lawrence, Hon. Jas. Sutherland, Judge M. S. Prichard and Hon. B. Eldredge. Surprising as it may seem, there were " moss-backs" in those days, who blocked the wheels of progress. In April, 1855, the present system of schools was adopted, although not in practical operation until the schools were thoroughly graded, in 1856. At this time the record of educational and literary insti- tutions of the city embraced a central high school, eight schools of lower grade, three select schools and the state In- stitute for the Blind; also the Janesville Lyceum and the Mechanics' institute, the latter society assembling for im- provement in arts and sciences. That the improvements made since that early period may be more apparent by comparison, the following statis- tics are compiled showing the practical operation of the graded school system in the first two years of its existence and in the present year (1892) : EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS FOR THE YEARS ENDING JULY, 1856, 1857, 1892, RKSPECTIVELY. 1856. 1857. 1892. No school buildings 6 7 7 No. teachers 10 17 45 No. pupils enrolled 375 1,332 2,000 Average No. to teacher 37* 78 44.4 Total expenses of schools, including new buildings $3,819.10 $7,390 $33,283.81 No. children school age 2,560 3,363 4,182 Amt. tax levied for school purposes- Valuation of school property $13,649 .850,000 $5,000 $18,000 $200,000 The following is a comparison of average attendance se- cured in the high school in 1859-1860, with that of the high schools of Cincinnati, St. Louis, Oswego and Chicago: Oswego high school 94. Woodward high school, Cincinnati 95.4 Hughes high school, Cincinnati 97.2 St. Louis high school 95.5 Chicago high school 97.1 Janesville high school 98. By reference to the former tabular statement it will be observed that during the year preceding the one in which the present system was in practical operation (1855-56), there were 375 pupils in the schools. The first year of its operation 528 THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. there was an increase of 952. For four successive years there was an advance in attendance of twelve per cent. For the first four years the average cost per scholar was $4.38, less than under the old district system, demonstrating the econo- my of the graded system of education. In 1842 (first census), there were 75 school children in Janesville ; in 1845, 273 ; in 1850, 1,000 ; in 1853 (date of first charter), 1,600. In the present year (1892), 4,182. It has been estimated that about forty per cent, of the school population of the city are non-attendants upon the public schools. The causes operating to produce this result are the local manufacturing interests and the private schools. The parochial schools, St. Joseph's convent and the German Lutheran, are largely patronized by the foreign element. The wages offered by the cotton factories prove strong inducements to the parents to deny their children even an ordinary amount of scholastic training. The attendance during the last year (1892) was the largest in the history of the schools. ROSTER OF TEACHERS. The following is a list of educators, who have succes- sively had charge of the public schools of Janesville since their organization: Levi M. Cass, J. G. McKindley, Dr. Brewster, S. T. Lockwood, C. A. Hutchins, O. R. Smith, W. D. Parker, R, W. Burton, C. H. Keyes, F. W. Cooley. Professor O. R. Smith died in 1879. At the time of his death he was principal of the high school at Sparta, Wis. He ranked high as an educator, and many of the old teachers and alumni hold in grateful remembrance his conscientious work. In 1859 the teachers in the high school department were L. Cass, Ava Morgan, F. Bacon, B. Webster. Those in charge of ward schools about that time were Messrs. Parker, Woodman, Spaulding, Case -and Dewitt. Other old time teachers were Misses Graham, Moon, Wingate, Herkimer, Martin, Bradley, Richards, Armstrong and Riker. The present corps of teachers in the high school is Frank W. Cooley, superintendent ; Florence Sanborn, vice-principal; Carrie F. Zeininger, Clara Weyer, Emma Paulson, Carolyn Kimball, assistants. THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. The first school meeting under the charter was held May 31, 1855, and was composed of the following gentlemen: An- THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 529 drew Palmer, president; S. W. Smith, secretary; James Suther- land and Rev. G. W. Lawrence. The first superintendent of schools was C. P. King ; Hon. J. Sutherland was elected next, and under his administration much was done towards gradation and selection of text books. During the intervening period the following gentlemen have at various times filled the office of president or secretary of the board of education: H. W. Collins, Rev. H. Foote, Levi Alden, O. J. Dearborn, B. B. Eldredge, Hiram Bo wen, James Armstrong, H. A. Patterson, W. B. Strong, E. F. Spauld- ing, H. N. Comstock, C. Gibbs, F. Pendleton, A. S. Jones, S. Holdredge, W. A. Lawrence, L. F. Patten, G. R. Curtis, J. B. Whiting, L. J. Barrows, E. C. Smith, James Shearer, Lewi* Hunt, S. C. Burnham, C. Bowles, A. O. Wilson. The records of the board for 1861 show a remarkable struggle for official preferment. Candidates for the presidency were Rev. G. W. Lawrence and H. A. Patterson. On the eighth ballot the lat- ter was elected. The candidates for the secretaryship were E .F. Spaulding and James Armstrong. Three adjournments and twelve ballots were had before James Armstrong was made clerk. The following gentlemen compose the present board of education : Horace McElroy, president ; A. 0. Wilson, clerk; Frank W. Cooley, superintendent ; T. W. Goldin, John Slight- am, Victor P. Richardson and A. G. Anderson. SCHOOL BUILDINGS. In 1856 commodious buildings were erected in the Second and Fifth wards, and the schools were graded into high school, grammar, intermediate and primary departments, the old academy becoming the central or high school of the sys- tem. With its several departments, in which were pursued studies taught in our best academies, with its ability to grad- uate pupils with a thorough English and classical education, the old academy became a magnet of superior force and an important factor in municipal affairs. A demand for more room secured the erection of the pres- ent high school building in 1858, at a cost of $40,000 ; and in 1859 the high school, with Levi Cass as principal, was trans- ferred to its present location. An increase of population soon rendered additional accommodations necessary, and in 1866 and 1873 buildings were erected in the First and Fourth wards. In 1876 the requisite appropriation was made for the Lincoln school building. Since then three more school houses 530 THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. have been erected ; and thus year by year the school property has been increased, until now its valuation may be estimated at $200,000. THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. Every history of sequent events has its epochs. An era in the history of the schools was the construction of the new high school building. Words are tame to express the feelings of pride with which the pupils took possession in May, 1859. It was to them the " school house beautiful." although when first occupied there was only one coat of plas- ter on the walls, no inside woodwork, and no school appli- ances except crayons. It is located on a beautiful eminence commanding a charming prospect. The selection of this location occasioned an exciting controversy between east and west side factions, which old settlers recall with interest. This plat contained the old village cemetery. A new burial ground, Oak Hill, had been purchased ; and the removal of the dead was deemed by some advisable and expedient, by others a sacrilegious desecration of sacred ground. Com- bine certain elements in nature and an explosion follows. Antagonistic moral elements must have been assimilating at this time, for a disturbance arose that sent a thrill of excite- ment through the city. Laborers were hired by east side councilmen to disinter the dead, and wagon loads of unknown anatomies, in miscellaneous heaps, were carried across the city and again buried, to await in peace the last trump. This uncanny business, being hastily done, was the match that ignited the fuse. Injunctions were threatened and there was much wordy warfare. But at length wiser counsels prevailed and peace was established. And thus above the ashes of the dead, arose a commodious institution of learning, the alma mater of com- ing generations, the proud Acropolis of the tree-embowered city below it. OLD-TIME DISCIPLINE. Among the old-time pedagogues was one whose methods of punishment were unique if not effective. His inventive genius was superb. The ruler, the hickory switch and the strap, were constantly employed. At the least provocation his ruler was hurled across the desk, with unerring precision aimed at the head of the offender. Woe be unto the luck- less wight who did not duck his tow-head in time. For THE JANKSVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 531 minor offenses delinquents were compelled to stand upon a chair with one foot uplifted and whittle a hardwood stick, or they were caught up "scruff and heels" and thrust into the long box stove, if perchance the fire was out. In lieu of chewing gum, they were given chips from the wood box to ruminate. The punishment "sitting on the wall " deserves more than passing mention. The unhappy culprit caught "in derelicto," was compelled to brace his spine upon the wall, place his heels a foot from the base- board and maintain a sitting posture upon an imaginary seat for an interminable period. If through weariness the miserable sufferer tried to support himself on his heels, a smart blow from the omnipresent ruler, deftly applied, promptly elevated his knees to the required angle. With the dawn of Prof. Cass's administration there came a reform in methods of discipline. Corporal punishment was rarely resorted to, and pupils were taught the higher law of individual moral responsibility. Opposition to the graded school system still existed. The privileged few patronized "select schools," and were averse to taxation for the higher education of the son of labor in his patched suit of jeans. A new era dawned in the history of the schools. The pupils in the high school department in the old academy led in the march of progress, inspired by the thought that upon them depended their success or down- fall In that little school-room world were set in motion the higher moral forces of the divine workshop. Pictures were hung, and evergreens festooned above the smoke-grimed cracks which time was tracing on the old walls. By volun- tary subscription a piano was hired, and music lent its charm to school exercises. From songs that purified and ennobled the soul, to soap that cleansed their surroundings, both boys and girls digressed with apt facility, and as often as necessity demanded brought soap and water and scrubbed the desks and floors, and polished the windows until they shone. All honor to the revered master whose genial influence let in the sunshine on the cobwebs of the past. A tribute should here be given to Prof. Levi Cass. Stand- ing on the dividing line, between the old and the new regime, his work was eminently typical of modern educational meth- ods. Gifted with rare intuition, he stirred the pulses of young life to earnest aspirations for future greatness. The principle of his work and the secret of his success were these words of poor Keats, "Axioms are not axioms until they have been proved upon our pulses." 532 THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. REMINISCENCES. In the exigencies of the financial crises of the ante- bellum period, the strictest economies were necessary. Those were the days of depreciated currency. Every bank in Illi- nois failed, as also banks which supplied half the issue in Wisconsin. Notes were redeemed at rates which averaged fifty or sixty cents on a dollar. The city's bonded debt was large and the treasury was empty. Teachers were paid with orders which were discounted at twenty per cent. Only one firm of merchants (McKey Bros.) would accept them in payment for goods. A lady teacher, now residing in Chicago, thus relates her experi- ence: "I received $6.00 per week salary, paid 84.50 for board and washing, leaving a margin of SI. 50 per week 860.00 per year for clothing and support during the twelve weeks of vacation. Most of my spare time was spent in wearisome plans for 'Mak- ing auld claes look amaist as weel as new.' " And then came the darker days of the civil war, days of disaster and defeat. Financial disaster and personal pri- vations were of minor importance. The lessons of patriotism taught our youth at the fireside and by faithful teachers bore abundant fruitage. A wave of patriotism surged through the schools. Members of the board of educa- tion, teachers and pupils responded to the call to arms. Among the former were Dr. Amos Jones, James Armstrong^ E. E. Woodman and Moses Dewitt. Prof. S. T. Lock wood, of the high school, was commissioned captain of company A, fortieth regiment Wisconsin volunteers. Military drill was established in the schools. Little ones in the primaries shouted the "Battle Cry of Freedom," and "Rally Round the Flag," in mimic battle array on the play- ground. Then sadder days came, and there were sung pathetic songs of the dying on the camp ground, "Amid the circling tents, in the evening dews and damps." When at last the shadows lifted and the sunlight of peace flooded the land with golden light, there were requiems chanted for the gallant lads who returned no more. The following pupils in the schools who were Wisconsin soldiers are sleeping in "Oak Hill :" Henry Wingate (killed at Vicksburg), William Trask, Gage Burgess, Howard Hoskins, Theodore Tripp, George Marshall. There was one high school boy (H. Howell), who died in hospital and was buried THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 533 in Memphis. His last days were full of pitiful longing for home and mother, and vainly he pleaded in his dying hours, "Take me home! I must go home!" But they are not dead ! They marched on unto Day, Theirs was the victory, we wait by the way. They fell, that Columbia might rise from her fears, And fling forth her banner through cycles of years. He was our strength, when the night of our pain Grew dark and darker with storm-clouds and rain. His truth etemal, a star in the night, Foretold the dawning of justice and right. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL EXPOSITIONS. In 1876, views of the city school buildings were sent to the Centennial exposition at Philadelphia. In 1886, the annual meeting of the National educa- tional association was held in Chicago, and in connection therewith, there was an exposition of "school work and appliances," as a fit celebration of the settlement of the Northwest territory. The legislature appropriated $2,000 for the suitable exposition of Wisconsin's work, and Superin- tendant C. W. Keyes, of this city, was chosen director for Wisconsin. Janesville schools were thoroughly represented. Upon the solicitation of the managers of the Milwaukee exposition, the work was afterwards transferred to Milwau- kee, where it was placed on exhibition. TEACHERS' MEETINGS, INSTITUTES, ETC. Twice each month Janesville teachers meet for profes- sional study and general improvement. The work of the Wis- consin teachers' reading circle has been carried on, the subjects being physiology and hygiene, general history, theory and art of teaching. The entire teaching force rely greatly on these meetings for aid in their work, believing that success depends upon frequent interchange of schemes and "free trade in the product of the brain in educational opinions." An important factor aiding the teachers in their work, has been the normal training received in the teachers' in- stitutes. It is a notable fact that the first discoverable legis- lation in the state upon the question of normal education is found in the senate journal for 1856. From this it ap- pears that Honorable James Sutherland (second superintend- ent of Janesville schools) introduced " A bill for an act to provide normal instruction and teachers' institutes." As 534 THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. chairman for the committee on education, he took an active part in holding up to public condemnation the machinations of certain individuals known as "The Forty," who had been defrauding the school fund of the state by a fictitious sale of school lands. In 1857, a bill entitled "a bill for the en- couragement of normal schools and academies," was cham- pioned through the senate by Mr. Sutherland, and became the law by which our .state has the most perfect system of normal schools in the Union. The first teachers' institute ever held in Rock county was convened in the high school building, November 14, 1867. Professor O. R. Smith was elected permanent presi- dent and M. L. Martin (Mrs. M. L. Beers) secretary. Emi- nent educators from different parts of the state were in attend- ance. Among those who enthusiastically joined all the dis- cussions was Professor J. G. McMynn, then superintendent of public instruction. A giant in strength of intellect and soul-wealth, his impromptu lectures stamped him as a model orator and educator. There have been few among modern educators more learned and profound teachers than he. Others present were Honorable J. L. Pickard, Professors Twining, Chadbourne, Whitford, Parker, Woodman, Rev. J. B. Pradt and Superintendent 'Foote. The eminent editor, author and poet, J. G. Holland, was secured for a lecture. In the years 1886-87, respectively, the second and third teachers' institutes were held. The state superintend- ent of instruction furnished an efficient corps of instructors to aid in the work, among whom were Hon. Robert Graham, Prof. J. W. Stearns, SuptThayer. COURSE OF STUDY. In 1889, the course of study was extended by the addi- tion of German and Greek. The faculty of the state univer- sity thereupon voted to admit the Janesville high school upon the list of schools accredited for all the courses of that institution. Arrangements have also been made whereby graduates may also enter the freshman class of Milton col- lege. The curriculum now embraces five courses of study, as follows: Ancient classical course, commercial course, English course, general science course, and modern classical course. During the present year (1892), a portion of the kindergarten methods the "occupations" was introduced into the work of the first grade, viz.: They include (1) prick- ing, sewing, weaving, paper-folding, peas-work and modeling; THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 535 (2) occupation songs. This has been of great educational value, and a source of inspiration to the entire force of primary teachers. A systematic training of the senses will prove val- uable to the pupil in all his school life. Another change of importance in the course of study was the introduction in the last year of a commercial course. This has proved a success, about forty per cent of the first year pupils selecting the same. It was designed especially for those who cannot attend college, and who wish to qualify themselves for business life. IMPROVEMENTS, APPLIANCES, ETC. The necessity of a library for supplementary reading and reference was urged for several years. At length a begin- ning was made, and by subsequent accretions a valuable li- brary has been obtained for the high school, containing 328 volumes. In the various city schools there are, collectively, 384 volumes. The schools are supplied with a set of Yaggy's geographi- cal studies and Yaggy's anatomical charts; also a fine collection of specimens illustrative of work in various studies. A valuable outfit of physical and chemical apparatus has been secured. One of the large recitation rooms of the high school building is fitted up as a science room, containing laboratory table, cases for apparatus and chemicals, geological specimens, and science reference books. NORMAL TRAINING. As the law now requires instruction in the theory and art of teaching in all free high schools, two terms of the senior year are devoted to careful study of this topic, supplemented by observation of the methods of teaching in the city schools. During the present year (1892) a "graded course of in- struction" was compiled by Superintendent Frank W. Cooley, approved by the state superintendent, and adopted by the board of education. This course of study is designed for the special use of teachers. It aims to "afford such suggestions in regard to subject-matter and methods of instruction as may be helpful in securing systematic work with the best results. A course of study is a development. It represents the ideal towards which the schools are striving, and should always be in advance of them." ALUMNI. At the close of the school year 1891 , the resident grad- uates of the Janesville high school organized an alumni asso- 536 THE JANESVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. elation. At the annual banquet, in July, about two hundred graduates assembled for a renewal of old-time friendships. The following officers were elected for 1892-1893: Mr. Victor Richardson, president ; Mrs. M. L. Beers, vice-presi- dent; Miss Mary Clark, treasurer; Miss Mary Davis, secretary. The first formal graduation occurred in 1859. The mem- bers of the class were: W. D. Parker, Emma Wood (Mrs. J. Winans), Mary Brown, Mary Douglas, Jennie Williston, Mary L. Martin (Mrs. Beers). In the preceding year, E. E. Wood- man, S. Scofield (Mrs. Parker) and R. Moon (Mrs. Sharp) completed the course, but had no public graduation. During a period of thirty-three years, 303 alumni have completed their school work and assumed the responsibilities of life. Among those whose vocation is known, there are two physicians, three lawyers, twenty students in colleges and uni- versities, two telegraphers, sixty-eight teachers, twenty-one merchants and salesmen, four stenographers. One is secre- tary of the board of normal regents; one (a lady) is engaged in sheep-raising, eighty are attending to home duties and housekeeping; there are also a tailoress, an architect, a farmer, a civil engineer and a publisher. Janesville has just reason to be proud of her alumni. In the various industries, in business circles and in the profes- sions, its members hold high rank. The refinement and cul- ture received in the schools goes with them in all the sacred relations of life. The sum total of such influences is beyond computation. The roll of honor is a long one. But the ranks are broken. There are fourteen vacancies. They have only been promoted from the preparatory school below to the high school above. There are smiles for the dear ones, courageous and brave, Who carved out their lives with triumph and skill, And tears for those in their low, mossy graves In the city of silence on the hill. And some of us still must labor and wait. Reward cometh some time, sooner or late, When school is dismissed, and the shadows fall, And we turn to the Home awaiting us all. The story of fifty-seven years of school life in Janesville is a pen-picture vivid with glow and color. It is a record of high aims accomplished, of successes achieved. The found- ers of the present system of schools may be regarded as the greatest benefactors of the city. MARY L. BEERS. Appleton Public Schools. The public school system of the city of Appleton, Wis- consin, had its beginning in the fall of 1851, when the town of Grand Chute was organized into a school district, known as District Xo. 1. W. S. Warner was elected clerk, and after much discussion it was determined to have a free school the following winter. Lawrence university had for some time maintained a pay school for all comers, to which such par- ents as chose to pay tuition had sent their children. The objection to a free school was that it would take support from the struggling college, which then, as now, was held to be the hope and pride of the city. In due course Daniel Huntley, a young man of some experience, from Vermont, was put in charge of the first public school, in a rude build- ing on the southeast corner of Oneida street and College avenue. He taught singing school in the evenings, and had to take pay for all service in orders on the stores, the current money of the period. He had to collect some in Little Chute and bring his goods home on his back. His pay as teacher was $28 per month, of which 10 was reckoned in lieu of boarding around. He had about 60 pupils, many of them young men and women who had not before had opportunity. Rev. W. H. Sampson, president of the university, was then town superintendent, of whom he obtained a certificate after a rigid examination. The city grew from three points, Grand Chute, Apple- ton and Lawsburg. The latter adhered to the college school, but Grand Chute formed a new district in 1852, now the third district ; and James Gilmore was its first teacher, in a building now standing, twice enlarged, on the southwest cor- ner of Lawrence and Elm streets. After Mr. Huntley, came Joseph Rork (1853-4), Mr. Huntley going to the third district, where he was succeeded by S. N. Griffith. The first woman in the public school was Mary Hillard, assistant, in 1853-4, in the present second district, followed by Mrs. T. W. Lyman and Jane Lawrence. H. S. Eggleston was the next clerk, succeeded by Anson Ballard, in this district. A school house was built on the site of the Hercules (burned in 1854); and a brick building, now the central part of the Hercules, was erected. 537 538 APPLETON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Appleion was organized as a village in 1853, and as a city in 1857, when the numbers of the pre-existing districts were changed to correspond to the wards. Anson Ballard, as clerk and citizen, took great interest in schools and was a firm adherent of Pestalozzi. Under his influence a kindergarten was organized in Lawsburg, which lasted several years, under the charge of different teachers, among whom was D. S. Jordan, now president of the Leland Stanford, Jr., university ; B. F. Van Vleck, professor of natu- ral history, Harvard ; and Professor Anderson, of De Pauw university. Meanwhile, under the city charter, a sort of union of districts was attempted ; but from jealousies and misunder- standings, it soon fell through, and the districts resumed their independence as they now exist. They also passed from the jurisdiction of the town superintendent to that of the county, and then to the city superintendency. Under the union scheme, Professor C. N. Sowers was principal and super- intendent, but he resigned and was replaced by Jesse Fuller. He was succeeded, about 1866, by A. H. Conkey, who had been principal of an academic boarding school in Mississippi, but was driven thence at the outbreak of the rebellion. He was a man well fitted for the position, and did much during his eleven years' service to build up the schools of the city. He was succeeded by A. B. Whitman, of Lawrence university, who held the place for five years and kept the work of the schools well to the front. After him came I. N. Stewart, of the university of Wisconsin, for two years, and then the present incumbent, Mrs. M. R. Winslow. About 1861 the Fourth ward was organized as a school district, and built a house, subsequently burned. Mrs. Halstead, Miss B. A. Strong and O. W. Pond were among the first teachers. Mr. Whitman served as teacher for six years before being superintendent. A new brick house re- placed the old building, which was condemned as unsafe, in 1888. A new building, very handsome and commodious, was dedicated January 1, 1890. The first district also lost its first building by fire. The frame building succeeding it was abandoned in 1881 for the brick structure now in use. But a large addition was made to it in 1885. The second district added to the Hercules, and then built the Amicus. In 1882 it erected the Ryan high school building, and is now about replacing the Amicus with a ten-room building of the most complete and modem structure. The Third district APPLETON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 539 erected, in 1885, a large and commodious brick building, now in service. A convenient four-room building was erected by this district in the Fifth ward in 1877. The Richmond building in the Fourth district, the only frame building in the city, was erected about 1887. The Second district free high school was organized in 1876, and graduated its first class in 1878. It has graduated in all 144 pupils, sixty-one boys and eighty-three girls. This district issued its first catalogue and course of study in 1874. R. H. Schmidt had already been principal two years, and he continued in charge till 1884. He was succeeded by I. N. Stewart, who remained four years, when Mr. Schmidt re- sumed {he principalship for two years, making in all fourteen years of service. 0. H. Ecke, the present incumbent, then took charge. These three principals are all graduates of the university of Wisconsin. Mr. Stewart has served for many years as conductor of teachers' institutes. Under his princi- palship, the school established in 1886 a manual training de- partment, equipped at first with one bench, one set of car- penter's tools and one set of wood-carving tools, but without a special teacher. There are now several benches, a lathe, a forge and a special teacher, who also has charge of the draw- ing. The Third district free high school was organized under its present principal in 1891. The preparation for this ad- vanced work was begun by his predecessor, Oliver E. Wells, now state superintendent. It will graduate its first class in 1893. There is a conservatism in the school affairs of this city rare enough to be worthy of note, as shown in the way its officers and teachers have been retained. Mr. Conkey served as superintendent twelve years. Mr. Whitman, as teacher and superintendent, eleven years ; John F. Rose, as treasurer of first district, and Sam Ryan, as clerk of the second district, twenty-one years each ; Mr. Schmidt was principal for four- teen years. Mr. Burk, still in service, worked as assistant for six years and as principal eleven years. Emma E. Baily has seen twenty-two years in the schools of the city. Annette C. Purdy has put in twenty-one years continuously in the second district, while Bertha A. Strong has filled her position in the same school twenty years, without break, and was previously one "year in the fourth district, Mrs. L. J. Newell has been twelve years in the first district and seventeen in the city; Miss M. L. McCormic and Miss Delia Grimes, 540 APPLETON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. fifteen years in the second district ; Miss Frank Bailey fifteen years in the city. Few cities so new can show such a record. The graduates of the common schools of the city, not including the high school, are required to pass elementary algebra, physical geography, elementary botany and physiol- ogy. The First district sent out its first class in 1880, and has graduated, in all, 104. The Third district began in 1886, and has sent out 44. The Fourth district began in 1885 and has graduated 28. The alumni of the Ryan high school have a strong association and keep up annual reunions and banquets. Each of the other schools maintains its alumni association, which does good service in sustaining active interest in their respective schools. The two high schools have libraries, accessible to all the pupils of the district, of about 100 volumes each. The other schools have smaller libraries. The report of last year shows the total number of chil- dren between the ages of four and twenty years of age is 4,303, of whom 1,990 attended the public school, and 1,025 are reported as attending private schools in the city. Fifteen of the city teachers hold state certificates. Fifty -three teach- ers are employed. The total sum expended in public schools during last year is $48,892. The records of the city superin- tendent were burned in 1873, thus destroying all recorded histor} 7 of the schools previous to that date. It is impossible to convey in so brief a sketch more than enough to bring out a contrast between the beginning and the present condition of our schools ; to suggest, merely, some of the difficulties met in their growth, and to indicate something of the spirit and purpose constantly exhibited by the citizens in the few years of school history, looking toward the betterment of the people of the city. I. N. STEWART. The Fond du Lac Public Schools. The first school house in the city of Fond du Lac was built in 1843, on a piece of land owned by Dr. M. C. Darl- ing, and located on what is now Main street, between Second and Third streets. It was a small, wooden structure, and, in 1848, was moved to the north side of Fifth street, between Marr and Main streets, and near the present Farnsworth resi- dence. It was partially destroyed by fire in December, 1848, and, lots becoming more valuable in that vicinity, the black- ened shell was soon removed to another part of the village, but never afterwards used for school purposes. The first teacher to try his skill and fortune in inspiring young ideas in this city was Theodore Conkey, afterward of Appleton. He taught in the modest school building, but did not continue long in the work. No doubt, he was called to a more lucrative, if not more congenial, field of labor, and was superseded by John A. Eastman, who, in the fall of 1844, opened a " select school " in the same building. Mr. East- man's register showed an enrollment of twenty pupils, not all of them, however, being residents of Fond du Lac. The first free public school in this city was organized in accord- ance with an "act of the territorial legislature, passed in the winter of 1846, and was known as the Franklin school. The district was known as School District No. 1, and included the village and town of Fond du Lac. The inhabitants of said school district, who were qualified by law to vote, were author- ized to raise a tax not exceeding $2,000 in any one year for the purpose of building and repairing a school house, pro- viding the necessary fixtures and appendages thereto, for the payment of teachers' wages, for fuel, for the purchase of all needful apparatus, and for defraying the necessary incidental expenses for keeping the school in operation. Three years later, the number of school children having increased from thirty or forty to 100, the matter of providing better accommodations was vigorously agitated. Several plans were proposed to secure a suitable building either building anew or adding to the old structure but all proved abortive. Soon after this agitation developed, the board of 541 542 THE FOND DU LAC PUBLIC SCHOOLS. trustees and superintendents of the Franklin school, consist- ing of Edward Pier, J. A. Eastman, Isaac Brown, J. M. Gil- lett, M. C. Gibson and M. C. Darling, reported a set of by-laws for the government of the school, and recommended the erection of an addition to the school house for primary chil- dren, and the purchase of suitable apparatus for, teaching and illustrating the higher branches of education among which we may mention a globe, geographical maps and charts, and a " planetarium." The same authority ordered that every Thursday afternoon be set apart for the reception of visitors and school officers. Neither the records nor tradi- tion furnish the least hint as to whether these receptions were well attended or not. For a little more than two years, or until March, 1848, the Franklin school had been maintained free to all resi- dents of the district. But this plan proved unsatisfactory, and, at the latter date, the bill chartering the school was amended so that the expenses should be paid by the pupils, at a rate not to exceed $1.50 each for a term of three months, the debt against any parent or guardian to be collected in the same manner as any other tax. The affairs of the Franklin school were not always pros- perous, but, from a good beginning, they soon fell to a very unsatisfactory condition, and rapidly went from bad to worse until, at a meeting held in the school house on December 4, 1848, they culminated in the passage, by an overwhelming majority, of a resolution to raise no tax whatever, either to pay arrearages, or to support the school for the ensuing winter. Eight days after this strange action of the voters, by which the children were deprived of educational facilities, the school house was totally destroyed by fire. Thus ended the Franklin school, and the trials through which it passed are only such as may come to all educational enterprises before they attain strength and influence. During the winter of 1848 and 1849, owing to the incident narrated above, Fond du Lac had no school, and, in July, 1849, a meeting, held in the old court house to elect school officers and levy a tax of $2,000 for school purposes, adjourned without effecting its purpose. The tax of $2,000 for a school house was considered extravagant, and the motion in its favor was summarily tabled. On the 19th of November following, F. R. Kinsman was secured, "as a proper person to teach youth," to conduct a school on the "normal plan" in a building rented for that purpose of Mr. Carmin Wright; THE FOND DU LAC PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 543 and the next year, 1850, the building now known as the Marr street school house was erected. It was then the only school-building in the village. Much complaint was made because this school house, in which school was at once opened and continued regularly thereafter, was made so large, but in a short time it was found to be too small, and, in 1852, having grown out of its village clothes, the city was divided into four common school districts. This division prevailed until August, 1854, when E. Hodges, who had in the mean- time been elected city superintendent of schools, and the officers of districts Nos. 1, 2, and 3, issued an order consoli- dating those districts into one, called the Union district No. 1, or the North union district. Edmund Delaney was elected director; John L. Henry, treasurer; and Robert A. Baker, clerk, of the new district, and bids were at once called for to build a school house. A site was purchased of E.H. Galloway for $500, and a building, costing $2,000, was erected on the spot now occupied by Cotton street school house. At the same time, district No. 4 was, by the proper authority, changed to district No. 2, or the South union district, now known as the Marr street school. Before the consolidation took place, the reports of the clerks of districts Nos. 1, 2, and 3, showed a school attendance of 203 pupils, and an expense, for ten months of school, of $932, which was nearly equally divided between salaries of teachers and expenses for fuel and other purposes. Those two old and familiar landmarks Marr and Cotton streets school houses are still standing and utilized for school purposes. School matters after this developed a deep and perman- ent interest, and both North and South union districts were well patronized and supported, and ably and efficiently taught, In October, 1858, the citizens of the two districts into which the city was divided petitioned for the establishment of a union high school ; and on the 8th of October, of that year, George B. Eastman, superintendent of schools, in accordance with the expressed desire of the people, formed such district, to be called the union high school district of the city of Fond du Lac, the same to take effect at once. This act cut off that portion of the town of Fond du Lac which had hitherto enjoyed the benefit of the village and city schools, and, by the authority vested in him, Mr. Eastman appointed Robert A. Baker, clerk, and W. H. Hiner and B. F. Moore, directors, of the new district. Those officers held a meeting in Amory hall on October 21, 1858, and authorized $1,961.40 544 THE FOND DU LAC PUBLIC SCHOOLS. to be raised for room rent, teachers' wages and fuel. Tuition was fixed at $7 per term of thirteen weeks for non-resi- dents. The first high school in the city was organized and opened in January, 1859, in what was known as the Sewell store, on North Main street, between Johnson and Merrill streets, with Edwin C. Johnson and Miss M. S. Merrill as teachers. The teachers and the nearest streets having the same names led to many ft joke and gibe by the pupils at the expense of their instructors. The school opened with nearly one hundred students, and was free to the children of residents on condition that they could pass a prescribed examination in geography, grammar and arithmetic. Mr. Johnson resigned in i860, and his place was filled by Selim H. Peabody, who opened the school in the Marshall block on Second street. The location was changed the next year to the Warner block, corner Main and Second streets, this being the last change prior to the erection of a high school building, the first steps to secure such a struct- ure having been taken in July, 1859. In 1862, O. C. Steenburg was elected principal of the high school, and in 1864 he was chosen city superintendent of schools, in addition to his position as principal, both of which positions he held until the beginning of 1869. In January, 1860, the school board purchased a high school site of S. B. Amory, on the north side of Merrill street, and east of Amory street. In October, 1863, a bond was ex- ecuted to raise money to build a high school and a mortgage executed to Mr. Amory ; in February, 1864, a plan of the proposed building was accepted and the contract let to Wm. M. Phelan and William Heathcote ; and, the structure being rapidly pushed to completion, a public dedication was held, and the building taken possession of by the high school, with O. C. Steenburg as principal, in 1865. W. D. Conklin deliv- ered an interesting dedicatory address, and great joy and en- thusiasm marked the entire proceedings. In 1862-63 Mr. Steenburg was authorized to grade all the schools of the city, and to make a course of study to extend over a period of thirteen years of school life and to embrace every possible degree of advancement in scholarship. In a published report to the school board in 1867, Mr. Steen- burg recommended and urged the compulsory attendance at school of all healthy children of school age, this being the first published educational document in this state contain- THE FOND DU LAC PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 545 ing a recommendation for the passage of a compulsory school law. The high school building, above referred, to was three stories high, with brick outside, and had a seating capacity nearly equal to the present high school. On the night of December 4, 1868, the building was en- tirely destroyed by fire, and from then until September, 1873, the high school was continued in rented rooms on South Main street, where Post's second-hand store now stands, and on Forest street, now occupied by Coughlin's meat market. In the above month and year the present splendid four- story structure of brick and stone was occupied under the principalship of Prof. C. A. Hutchins. The present high school building is generally conceded to be one of the "finest in the state, and has one of the most attractive and beautiful school yards in the Northwest. The building contains ten large school-rooms, a fine office, a large and very pleasant assembly room, fine halls, commodious wardrobes, a large and choice library, a rare and extensive museum, well- equipped physical and chemical laboratories, and a well- furnished and well-patronized reading-room. The school is supported with the most commendable generosity, and is conducted with great thoroughness and efficiency. It af- fords the best commercial, scientific and classical advantages, and its graduates are numbered among the most cultured and successful men and women of the state. Professor Hutchins, having resigned the principalship and city superintendency of schools in 1866, was succeeded by Professor I. N. Mitchell, who was, in 1892, succeeded by the present incumbent, Dr. Ed. McLoughlin. 0. C. Steenburg graduated at Union college, Schenectady, New York, in 1861, and has for many years past been the proprietor of a large sash, door and blind factory in this city. Professor C. A. Hutchins was educated at the Norwalk, Ohio, academy, and afterwards pursued his studies under his brother at the academy and at home. From 1858 to 1861 he taught Latin and Greek at Wayland university, Beaver Dam, Wisconsin. He had charge of the Janesville schools for two years ; of the Ionia Michigan schools four years ; the schools of Baraboo, Wisconsin, one year ; was county superintend- ent of schools of Sauk county two years ; principal of the Beloit high school two years, and is now assistant state su- perintendent of schools of Wisconsin. Professor I. N. Mitchell graduated from Michigan uni- 546 THE FOND DU LAC PUBLIC SCHOOLS. versity, Ann Arbor, and for several years prior to his coming to Fond du Lac had successful charge of city schools in Michigan. He is at present instructor in Latin in the state normal school at Milwaukee. Dr. Ed. McLoughlin graduated in 1875 at the Oshkosh normal school. He was principal of the New London high school from 1875 to 1878 ; county superintendent of schools of Fond du Lac county from 1878 to 1886 ; conductor of teachers' institutes ten years; editor of the Fond du Lac Journal two years ; candidate of the democratic party for state superintendent of public instruction in 1888; graduated from Rush medical college in 1890 with the honors of his class ; was elected mayor of Fond du Lac in the spring of 1892 ; and w r as practicing medicine in this city when he was elected principal of the high school and city superintendent ofschools. Fond du Lac employs forty-six teachers, all capable and competent, several of whom have been connected with the city schools for twenty years and upwards. Those engaged in the high school, besides the principal, are A. W. Phelps, teacher of Latin and Greek ; Miss Elizabeth Waters, geome- try, English history and English literature ; F. L. Abbott, natural sciences ; Miss Emma D. Everdell, algebra, sentential analysis and English composition ; and Miss Elizabeth A. Eastman, bookkeeping, stenography and algebra. While Fond du Lac can honestly boast of an. excellent school system and an excellent corps of teachers, its citizens carefully avoid calling attention to its school houses, aside from the High and First street buildings. But a strong and earnest movement is already under way, having for its pur- pose the division of the city into five or six districts and the construction of as many handsome, comfortable and thor- oughly equipped school houses. The world's fair year will undoubtedly see two of these buildings in process of construc- tion. Transeat in realitatem. ED. McLouGHLiN. Waukesha Public School History. The growth of the public school system of Waukesha is an evolution of a distinctly American character, and com- prises so short a term of years as to make its study a com- paratively easy task. In 1834 there was not a building in the territory now included within the boundaries of Wau- kesha, except two " claim shanties " constructed of poles and serving as the dwellings of Alonzo R. and Morris D. Cutler. These were erected in the early summer of that year, one of them near the present site of Blair's iron works, and the other near the Indian mounds in Cutler's park. In 1835 half a dozen more pioneers settled in the vicinity of the two Cut- lers, two of them courageously bringing their wives with them to "keep house." During the succeeding year the population of Waukesha (then called Prairieville) was in- creased by about twenty settlers, some of them having fami- lies ; and a little private school was established in the winter 1836-37, at which probably not more than half a score of pupils were gathered together. The tide of immigration became distinctly promising in the spring of 1837, however, and the settlers all of them of New England lineage decided, after their harvests were completed, to found a public school, and proceeded without delay to carry out their project. A piece of ground was secured at the foot of the hill near the present crossing of North street and Madison avenue, and a little building of tamarack logs, laid in the usual log-house style, was com- pleted by the joint labors of all the ambitious settlers. Benches and long desks were made out of split timber, smoothed as well as could be done with the rude tools at hand ; and, a tar barrel having been duly lined with clay and set up for heating purposes, Mr. John Moore Wells was selected to preside over the youthful assemblage in the building during the ensuing winter. In 1838 the census showed a population of about 150 at Prairieville, and people kept coming from month to month thereafter ; but the log school house did duty for educational purposes for ten years, until the erection, in 1847, of a stone school house at the 517 548 WAUKESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. crest of the same hill (where there is now a diminutive park). Into this building about 80 scholars could be crowded, and it served the purposes of a public school building for the whole village for three years, and for its own section until 1890. The existence of Prairieville academy and other private schools on the east side of the river delayed the division of the original district for some years longer than would have been the case under other circumstances; but in 1850 the eighty qualified school district electors living on the easterly side of the Fox river, in the old district, were notified to attend the preliminary meeting for organization of a new district, "No. 12." Among the names of voters then returned are found those of John Gasper, Fred Slawson, Andrew Aitken, Isaac Lain, W. D. Bacon, O. Z. Olin, C. Jackson, David Howie and Silas AVare, still living at Waukesha; Nelson Burroughs, Dr. Robert Dunlap, George Hyer, G. H. Barstow, A. W. Randall (afterwards governor of Wisconsin and post- master-general), Wm. S. Hawkins, Lemuel White and A. F. Pratt all subsequently prominent in the annals of Wauke- sha, but now deceased and H. N. Davis (afterwards state senator, etc., father of Senator C. K. Davis, of Minnesota) ; E. M. Randall (at one time chief justice of the appellate court of Florida), and Dr. W. D. Holbrook, all still living in other localities. On November 9, 1850, the committee, appointed for the purpose, reported to the adjourned school meeting of the new district that they had rented Mrs. Baker's school house for sixteen weeks at a dollar a week, and the school was opened very soon after. The first annual meeting of the dis- trict, September 29, 1851, placed on record that the school had been kept up for eight and one-fourth months during the preceding year, that $115.50 had been paid for teachers' wages, $33.00 for rent of school room, $10.54 for fuel, and 19 cents for a broom, making the aggregate expenditure for the year $159.23. Several adjourned school meetings were held during October and November of the same year to decide the question of purchasing a building and lot for school pur- poses, with the final result of buying the old Episcopal church building, 011 Barstow street between South and Main streets, with the lot on which it stood, for $490, including certain alterations. At the annual meeting of 1852 the whole number of chil- dren in the district between the ages of four and twenty was reported at 156, of whom 90 had attended the public school, WAU^ESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. 549 conducted for four months by C. S. Hartwell and for there and one-half months by Miss M. H. Van Yechten, at the respective salaries of $28 and $16 per month. The total school tax of the year had been $535, and the total expendi- tures, including the school house and equipment therefor, $692. During the school year ending in September, 1853, there were ten months of school, equally divided between J. O. Potter and Miss M. A. Olin, as teachers, at salaries of 8125.25 and $87.21 respectively, per term of four months. At this time a reorganization of the district took place, and as then constituted, it took the old nomenclature of " No. 1," and dropped its former numerical designation of " 12." Coincidently with this change, it was determined that a new public school building should be erected more in accord with the rapid material development of the village. A great con- test grew out of this determination, one party desiring to locate the proposed building on a small lot near the Presby- terian church, while the other wished to purchase the three- acre lot where the high school now stands. At an adjourned school meeting, held October 10, 1853, the committee in charge reported in favor of buying the first-mentioned lot for $300, but after voting to hire the basement of the Presbyte- rian church for the coming winter school, the meeting was adjourned without taking action on the committee's report. On October 24, it was voted to raise $2,000 for a new school house, and on December 17, the school meeting resolved that " it is expedient to purchase three acres of Cutler, near the grove south of the Baptist church, for a site for a school house," and also, that the "board be instructed to purchase said site, provided they can obtain it for the sum of $600." At the next adjourned meeting, December 24, these resolu- tions were rescinded, and the board was instructed to sell the lot opposite the Presbyterian church that on which the re- modeled Episcopal church school house already stood and to buy the Cutler three acres. From this time on, school meetings were held weekly, and seemed to have been the principal entertainment of the village for a considerable period. On January 12, 1854, the board was instructed to procure a warranty deed of the Cut- ler property, and on February 11, it was directed to proceed to the erection of a school house there. During the ensuing summer one member of the board moved out of town and another resigned, so that no progress appears to have been made with the proposed new building. At the annual 550 WAUKESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. meeting of September 1, 1854, the records show that five months' school had been taught during the preceding year by Mr. Conklin, assisted by Miss Olin, Miss Jackson and Miss Thompson, and four months by Mr. O. R. Bacon, assisted by Miss Williams and Miss Johnson. The gentle- man first named was paid $70 a month for the services of himself and all his assistants, and the latter $72 for his own and the ladies' work. Fuel for that year cost $25.25. The text books used in the school were McGuffey's readers and speller, Morse's and Mitchell's geographies, Bullion's En- glish grammar, and Thomson's, Ray's and Colburn's arith- metics. A. F. Pratt offered a resolution in the school meet- ing to rescind the instructions of February 11, for the loca- tion of the school house on the Cutler land, and the ayes and noes were called and are still on record. Twenty elec- tors voted for Mr. Pratt's resolution and thirty-one against it. After this vote there was plain sailing, $2,000 being promptly appropriated for the new building, and the board instructed to sell the grounds belonging to the district in the vicinity of the Presbyterian church, and to contract for the erection of a stone school house in the middle of the three-acre lot just purchased from Mr. Cutler. O. R. Bacon continued as principal of the school during the next year at $40 per month, with two assistants at $16 and $12 per month respectively. In the meantime the new school house, a substantial, box-shaped stone building which now forms the nucleus of the Waukesha high school struct- ure, was completed and accepted. In December, 1855, Prin- cipal Bacon was succeeded by A. A. Griffith, who received $70 a month and had three assistants. Mr. Griffith was con- tinued as principal until the end of the summer term of 1857, with six assistants during the latter year. The amount paid for teachers' wages for the year ending September 28, 1857, was $2,081.15, but the branches taught were the same as in 1854, with the addition of Green's "Analysis." The estimated value of the school house and grounds was then reported to be $8,000, and it is recorded that six blackboards and a set of outline maps were among the appurtenances of the school. From this date up to 1862 there was little to disturb the even tenor of public school work. In 1858, 635 children of school age were recorded, of whom 515 attended school. Ira Colby, Jr., had succeeded Mr. Griffith at a sal- ary of $800, and he again was succeeded by J. H. Magoffin, the following year by E. S.' Green (1860), A. A. Proctor (1861), and D. T. Potter (1862). WAUKESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. 551 At this juncture there was a feeling among some of the land owners of the district that school taxes were getting pretty high, and an attempt was made clandestinely to de- tach a part of the "mill reserve" from the territory of the district. An order to this effect was obtained from the town board of supervisors, but was afterwards nullified by the state superintendent, on account of irregularities in the proceed- ings. In 1864 a similar attempt was made with relation to the farm of A. C. Nickell, and with precisely similar results. Good male teachers were hard to find during the war, and Miss M. J. Dickerman (afterwards Mrs. I. N. Stewart), acted as principal in 1863 and 1864, T. N. Wells assuming charge at the winter term of the year last mentioned, and giving place to Miss Dickerman again in the fall of 1865. From the local newspapers of September, 1865, it seems that Mr. Wells claimed to have been re-engaged at that time and un- dertook to teach in the school yard, on account of the school- house being locked against him. The Waukesha Plaindealer said : "We learn that Mr. Wells succeeded only in getting through the picket fence, where a picket was broken off, but the prevailing fashion prohibited his better half from follow- ing him through the hole. Now, Mr. Wells, take our advice, dry up, and retire to some new field where your talents will be appreciated. You know, as all do, that your contract was executed by an officer whose successor had already been elected." No advance appears, from the records, to have been made in the curriculum of the school for the ten years preceding 1867, and the annual amount paid for teachers' wages had decreased during that time. With the advent of Professor Alex. F. North as principal, in 1866, however, a new era be- gan, and the school as a whole never afterwards retrograded in any respect. Mr. North was one of the most energetic and enthusiastic of the old school of teachers, and his own vim seemed to pervade every room in the school house with as- pirations for the best results attainable. The higher mathe- matics were given a place among other studies, history and natural science were not deemed unworthy of attention, and the school became a busy, though a somewhat noisy, work- shop. In the school year 1867-8, $2,560 were paid for teach- ers' wages, the number of teachers still remaining only six ; and the old indebtedness of $2,000, which had been outstand- ing ever since the school house was built, was settled in full. After three vears of Professor North's administration, Pro- 552 WAUKESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. fessor I. N. Stewart took charge of the school, and was suc- ceeded, in 1872, by Professor W. E. Anderson at $1,000 for the first year and $1,200 for the second, third and fourth years respectively, at the end of which period he was called to the principalship of one of the Milwaukee ward schools, and afterwards became the superintendent of all the schools of that city. A. A. Miller, a graduate of Milton college, assumed charge in 1877 and continued as principal until 1883, when he was succeeded by Protessor George H. Reed, whose serv- ices have been retained ever since in the same capacity at a salary of $1,200 at the outset, which has been increased to $1,500 annually. The curriculum now embraces a complete high school course, including Latin; and three additional commodious and elegant school buildings, in various parts of the village, perfectly equipped in every respect, serve as tributaries to the main school, now enlarged to a capacity for the accommodation of over 600 pupils, and provided with the finest school grounds in the state. It remains now to trace the development of the Union school district in its material and business aspect from the establishment of the first stone building on the three-acre site " in the grove south of the Baptist church." By 1870 the pressure of population in the Union school, as it had then come to be called, was a matter hard to deal with, and on July 26, of that year, it was decided to enlarge the main building by an addition at the rear, transverse to the original structure and of the same height and material, at a cost not to exceed $3,500. This work was soon completed and afforded temporary relief from the crowded condition of the pupils. At the school meeting of 1872 it was reported that eight teachers had been employed during the year at an aggregate cost of $3,463, that the school-rooms had been refurnished and that $229.45 had been expended in planting young maples and elms on the school grounds. At that meeting also Mr. A. J. Frame, the present district treasurer, began his term of service as a member of the school board, which has continued ever since with the exception of one year's in- terval (from 1876 to 1877). This is the longest service on the school board which appears to the credit of any one per- son, and it is not too much to say that every advance made in the village school system since 1872 has either originated with Mr. Frame or had his hearty and earnest co-operation and support. In 1884 the work of building a new front to the main WAUKESHA PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY. 553 building, raising the old stone building four feet, and making a basement for the whole, was undertaken, and carried out in 1886 at an expense of $15,000, making the building one of the finest in architectural features, as well as one of the most convenient and roomy, of any in the West. In 1886 also the original district was again united by the annexation of the portion west of the river, and in 1887 the Hadfield school building was constructed at a cost of $11,000. In 1889 the district was further enlarged by attaching that part of joint school district No. 6 in the vicinity of the Fountain Springs hotel, and a new school building established in the Hyde park addition, and named the Blair school, costing $11,000. In the same year the old Union school became a high school under the state law. In 1891 the new school house on White Rock avenue was added to the system at a further expenditure of $7,500, since which time there have been no important changes. The total value of school sites in the district (ex- clusive of an independent public school on "the Flats"), is re- ported by the board as being $22,300, and that of the buildings at $43,000, though the actual values are believed to be considerably greater. A valuable library .is a part of the equipment of the district, and it has the latest and best Earaphernalia for teaching. Twenty teachers were employed ist year, under the general supervision of Professor Reed, at a total cost of $10,205, and the other expenditures amounted to nearly $9,000. The whole number of children of school age in the district at the enumeration of 1892 was 1 ; 387, and the number actually in attendance at school during the pre- ceding year was 1,069. The school board now consists of Frank R. Fuller, director; Ira Kimball, clerk, and A. J. Frame, treasurer. Under the generous system now in effective operation, young people are fully prepared for en- trance into the university, in some classes to advanced stand- ing. Of the many things of which Waukesha has occasion to be proud, by no means the least are her admirable public schools. THERON W. HAIGHT. The Eau Claire Public Schools. EAST EAU CLAIRE DISTRICT NO. 2. The first elements of civilization in Eau Claire county came in 1854. Land was first entered in this year, and in 1855 a few families were found in Bridge Creek and the vicinity of Eau Claire. The town of Eau Claire was east of the Chippewa and south of the Eau Claire river, at the junction of the two streams. The land north of the Eau Claire was constituted a town, named North Eau Claire, and that west of the Chippewa formed two towns, Half Moon and Oak Grove, which were called a union district. Three school districts were therefore organized in these four towns, which were closely joined together, and now constitute the city of Eau Claire. These school districts were unchanged when the city charter was obtained, and remained separate until the consolidation in 1889. There had been a small saw-mill on the Eau Claire river for ten years, owned by Reed arid Gage, and in the spring of 1856, one log house was to be found here. The following winter witnessed the erection of perhaps twenty dwellings in consequence of the coming of as many families. The question of school accommodation was early discussed, and in December, 1856, a school district was organized. In that month the first school house was built of green pine boards, 16x24, with a board roof. In that room religious meetings were held every Sabbath, until the next autumn. The first teacher was Miss Mary Arnold, who taught the school in the winter and spring of 1857. This district and population were in the first settlement east of the Chippewa and south of the Eau Claire rivers. This school house was superseded in the autumn of 1857 by a one-story building of primitive style, and the first teacher employed therein was a Mr. Fletcher. When this house proved insufficient, another room was obtained on Farwell street, and two de- partments were organized. Very early in the educational history of this city, 1858, Professor C. H. Allen came here to conduct a teachers' insti- 554 THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 555 tute. It was a marked success, and was followed by others, which gave new impetus to the cause of education in city and country. Rev. A. Kidder was elected first county superintendent of Eau Claire county, according to provision made by the state legislature in 1861, and entered upon the duties of the office December, 1862. All the school districts of the county were visited, and lectures were given having special refer- ence to practical teaching work, and particularly to reading, in which the methods and practice had been most imperfect. Professor J. L. Pickard had been elected state superin- tendent of schools in 1860. He convened the county super- intendents of these northwestern counties in Eau Claire in 1862, and gave such direction to their w r ork in examinations as to secure as much uniformity as possible. The institute work introduced by Professor C. H. Allen became very pop- ular, and institutes were held in succeeding years by Super- intendent Pickard, Professor Allen and Professor J. C. Pick- ard. These were most important factors in the progress of education in this vicinity. In 1864 a large and commodious school building was erected on Farwell street, and three rooms on the lower floor were finished and furnished. In this building J. C. Barrett was the first teacher, followed in the spring of 1865 by Mr. H. C. Rowland. Three assistant teachers were employed; and the next year all the rooms, six in number, were finished and occupied, so rapid was the growth of this place. In 1872 twenty-five hundred dollars was raised by taxation for additions to and repairs upon this school house. The building was raised for a nine-foot base- ment, two heating furnaces put in it and a good system of ventilation introduced. The house now had seven good school-rooms, and some years later a large addition was made to these. Under Mr. Rowland's administration, with a most ef- ficient corps of teachers and the aid of the county superin- tendent and numerous institutes, new methods of instruction were adopted. Advanced methods of teaching were now introduced throughout the county. In 1882 six lots were purchased in the Eau Claire Lumber Company's 6th addition to the village of Eau Claire, and in 1883 a building was erected there at a cost of $3,000, known as the Thorp school. In 1884 a building was erected in the south part of the Third ward, at a cost of $1,500, to accom- modate the primary pupils of that ward, and named the Lockwood school. 556 THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. In 1887 free text-books were provided for pupils by the district. In 1889 the high schools of East, West and North Eau Claire were united and formed thenceforward the high school of Eau Claire, under the management of a board of education. The following item upon the school records is worthy of insertion in this history : Resolved, Whereas the Honorable William P. Bartlett has been identified with the schools of our city, since it was a small village on the borders of civilization, and has watched over them with fatherly care, nursing them from infancy, until to-day they will compare with any in the state of the same grade ; and whereas, it becomes the privilege of the citizens to show marks of respect to officers who never fail in their duty, even when such services are rendered without compensation. Therefore be it Resolved, By the electors of school district No. 2, city of Eau Claire, this 2nd day of July, 1888, that the school site, known as .the high school of the village of Eau Claire, be and is to be hereafter known as the Bartlett school." Mr. Bartlett had served the district as director for twenty-nine years. DISTRICT NO. 1. WEST EAU CLAIRE. The village of Eau Claire consisted of land entered by Adin Randall and platted in 1856. The school district was organized in 1858 and the first school taught in a small room on Chippewa street. This was the joint district of Half Moon and Oak Grove. Late in the autumn of 1858, a school house, 30x40 feet, was built on the corner of Fifth ave- nue and Broadway, consisting of two stories. The lower story was soon completed, and a school conducted by Rev. A. Kidder, then pastor of the Congregational church, followed by Mr. R. Ehvell. In the fall of 1862, Rev. A. Kidder, hav- ing resigned his pastorate, was chosen as principal of the school. In 1863 the upper story of the building was finished, and the first graded school of two departments was instituted, and continued under the direction of Mr. Kidder for four years. He was succeeded bv Mr. Tillotson and Mr. C. D. Tillinghast. In 1860 a primary school house was built at Shawtown, consisting of one room. In 1869 a central school house was built on the site of the old one, which was removed to an ad- joining lot. The new building contained four good rooms on the first story and three above. The building known as THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 557 the Washington school was veneered with brick and was at that time the finest in the city, heated by hot-air furnace and well ventilated. Mr. Buell was the first principal in this house, entering in 1869, and remaining for two years. In 1871 Professor A. J. Hutton became the principal. A high school department was now established and a regular cur- riculum of study arranged in harmony with the university courses at Madison. He held this position for eight years with marked success, and few, if any, schools in the state sur- passed this under his administration. The growth of the city northward was so rapid that in 1874 a substantial house was built in the Sixth ward, costing $3,000. In two years it was destroyed by lightning, but speedily replaced and soon filled to overflowing. It is now known as the Lincoln school. In 1882 the district secured the Methodist seminary lot and building, in which a private school had once been maintained for a few years by the Methodist church. It w T as an excellent location. This is now the Garfield school. In 1884 the Alexander school w r as built nearly opposite the Washington school, at a cost of $3,000. In 1885 the Playter school house was built in the north- ern part of the city. In 1889 a large addition was made to the Lincoln school house, which now contains seven depart- ments, under the -charge of Mrs. J. C. Sherwin, principal. In 1891 a school house was built in the southern part of the city, on Menomonie street, at a cost of $1,000. For two years rooms have been rented on Water street to accommodate two departments for which room could not be found in the school buildings. During the summer of 1890 the Garfield building was moved to the southwest corner of the lot, repaired and refitted for the occupancy of the high school until the proposed new edifice should be ready. On the resignation, in 1879, of Prof. Hutton, to teach in the normal school at Platteville, J. K. McGregor was ap- pointed to fill the vacancy. He held the position until the consolidation of the city schools, in 1889, w r hen he was elected city superintendent of schools. M. S. Frawley at that time took the place of principal of the city high school. A proposition to establish a manual training department was brought before the school board in July, 1884, by Com- missioner Ellis. Eight hundred dollars were raised to defray the expenses, and the lower rooms of the Alexander school 558 THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. fitted up for the purpose. Three double benches, costing $55, with two sets of tools for each bench consisting of chisels, gauges, planes, squares, etc. were provided. Classes were formed of forty pupils each, working in relays of ten. Three lessons per week were given in shop work and two in mechanical drawing. Mr. Kneely, a granduate from the St. Louis manual training school, was the first teacher. Mr. Kneely was suc- ceeded by Mr. Barnes, a graduate of the same school. Dur- ing the first year of his instruction, blacksmithing was added to the department, and a shop was fitted up with forges and all necessary appliances for the work, at a cost of $80. A wood lathe and an iron lathe, foot power, were added at a cost of $85. After two years, Mr. Barnes resigned and was succeeded by Mr. Joseph Swearingen, a graduate of Terre Haute manual training school. Additional outfitting of tools was added and a regular course of study was arranged for this department, including forty exercises in wood-work, twenty-eight in iron work, and turning in both wood and iron, and a course of engraving. The enrollment for 1892 is as follows: Boys, 73; girls, 18; total, 91. In drawing classes: Boys, 73; girls, 9; total, 82. In shop-work: Boys, 73; in forging, 5; in wood carving, girls, 14. During the week ending March 6, 18^)2, the attendance from the high school was 31 ; from the eighth grade, 16 ; from the seventh grade, 23, a total of 70. The writer, who w r as present when the project for add- ing this department was first considered, was doubtful as to its success or permanency; but after a few visits to tke shop became fully convinced of its value, and an earnest advocate of its support. Some pupils who have little taste for books, have me- chanical ability, and are kept from truancy by their love for the work. Many acquire skill that enables them to secure occupation at fair wages, upon leaving school. The leading principles of mechanical work, and the use of tools in prac- tical work, are well taught. The knowledge acquired in this department is carried into practice in many homes, con- veniences are secured, a love of art fostered, and a respect for labor promoted. These are a few of the advantages already manifest from the successful operation of this department. The new high school building has been well equipped with rooms and apparatus for carrying on this branch of THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 559 work in its various forms, and it is hoped that increased in- terest will be given to this department, which is now open to all pupils of the city. This was the first school in the state to introduce manual training into its regular work. Institutes for the teachers of this city and county have been frequently held here, lasting from four days to two weeks. The best teachers of the state have been secured as leaders of these, and much lasting benefit has been derived by those who have attended them. DISTRICT NO. 1. NORTH EAU CLAIRE. This district was organized in 1859. Miss Marianne Lawler was the first teacher. The school was then held in a frame building, afterward used for a store on the present site of E. Burkhardt's Central Hotel. Various buildings were rented for school purposes until 1872, when a good brick building, costing $6,700, was erected on the present site. This house was destroyed by fire September 30, 1875, and re- built that year, at a cost of $6,500. The school had been graded, and was, in 1873, under the charge of Principal A. M. Graves, with two assistants. In 1875 Thomas F. Fraw- ley was principal, and he was succeeded in 3880 by his brother, M. S. Frawley. The property owned by the Catholic parish school was purchased by the city school board and the school-house thereupon is known as the Frawley school. The Summit street school was built in 1886, the Dells Mills school in 1870. The records of the district have suffered severe loss from fire, and this is, therefore, but an imperfect sketch of an important branch of Eau Claire schools. HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. During the summer of 1892, the question of a new high school building was under consideration by the board of ed- ucation. The plans of Architect S. D. Allen, of Minneapolis, were accepted. The building consists of basement, first and second stories and attic. The basement is of Dunville gray sandstone, twelve feet in clear, and contains a room for blacksmith's shop or forge-room, 26x50 ; a carpenter's shop, 23x40 ; a chemical laboratory, 20x25 ; room for heating ap- paratus, coal and wood, and suitable halls, all well lighted. All the floors of this basement are of concrete and cement. The first story contains two class-rooms, 26x29.6 ; two class-rooms, 20x23 ; one class-room 26x32.6, with cloak-rooms, 560 THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 6x11 ; one class-room 27x30; one, 16x25; superintendent's office, 16x25 ; secretary's office, 16x25, with vault and ward- robe ; two large cloak-rooms, 22|x24| ; a drawing-room 19x 20. The south front is 191 feet in length, the east and north ninety-four. On the southeast and northeast corners are well- built circular towers. The main entrance, on the south side, presents an im- posing appearance, as also the east and north entrances, all having arched doorways of cut limestone, and all leading into spacious halls. Two stairways lead to the second story from the east and south entrances. The second floor con- tains five class-rooms, a drawing-room with side and roof lights and an assembly-room 40x50, lighted from side and roof. The floors of the first and second stories are double, the upper one of maple or birch, two inches wide, well finished in oil, and floors at entrance are tiled. All inside finish is in oak ; stairs, railing, doors, wainscots, finely finished. All the doors have large transoms opening into the halls, and all out- side doors swing outward. From the main hall to the rear of the building is a hall six feet wide with a large window at the end opening upon a platform with fire-escape. On each floor are two marble drinking-fountains, also wash-rooms, sinks and water-closets, all connected with city sewers, and supplied from city water-works. The building is heated by hot air from steam engime, forced through the rooms by fans, and is well lighted by gas and by electricity. The third story is finely adapted for gymnasium uses and will be fitted for that purpose. This building is of brick, with trimmings and window- sills of gray limestone the outside tier of a uniform red, laid in red mortar. The partitions are of brick and the whole as nearly fire-proof as circumstances will admit. The loca- tion of this building is excellent, centrally placed on the line of the street car service, with room for a fine lawn on all sides. The whole cost, including heating apparatus, gas and electric fixtures and school-room furniture, is about $40,000. This edifice, of which the citizens of Eau Claire are justly proud, was formally dedicated to its future use, on January 27, 1893, the dedicatory address being delivered by Dr. C. K. Adams, president of the university of Wisconsin. The following statistics are from the last (1892) annual report of the city superintendent : THE EAU CLAIRE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 561 Whole number of children of school age in the city 5,745 Whole number of children of school age in public schools 3,440 Number of volumes in the school library 551 Total expenditures for schools during the year $49,026.62 Number of school housesownedby the city 15 Number of private schools in the city 8 Number registered in them who have not been in the public schools 813 Highest salary paid to male teachers during the year $1,750 Highest salary paid to female teachers during the year $675 A. KlDDER. The Public Schools of Florence. In reviewing the development of the public school in Florence, one is impressed with that rapid growth, from crude beginnings to an ordered system, typical of Western life. For it was in the spring of 1880 that the village of Florence was platted, in what was then a wilderness of pine trees, with a single trail passing around the east side of the forest lake. Yet, with this location, within three miles of the extreme northeastern boundary of Wisconsin the very farthest from the center of the strong currents of her commercial and in- tellectual life, and to-day, with no town of importance, nor any but scattered settlements, within a radius of fifty miles, the schools of Florence present no discreditable differences in method or equipment from the schools of " old " New Eng- land, as is repeatedly testified by traveling visitors. It is this region, with its mines and forests, of which Whittier wrote those prophetic lines : "I hear the mattock in the mines, The axe stroke in the dell. I hear the tread of pioneers Of nations yet to be ; The first low wash of waves, Avhere soon Shall roll a human sea. The rudiments of empire here Are plastic yet and warm ; The chaos of a mighty world Slow rounding into form ! Each rude and jostling fragment soon Its fitting place shall find, The raw material of a state, Its muscle and its mind." And the most hopeful guaranty of the final right devel- opment of our community, is in the certainty that the " rude and jostling fragment," public education, is so rapidly find- ing its " fitting place " among our social institutions, that the 562 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. 563 " mind " keeps pace in its growth with the " muscle " of our community, and exerts that strong, that god-like guidance which makes man higher than the brutes. The following sketch will show the various stages of the material growth and of the development of the course of study in the Florence schools, from the fall of 1880 to the fall of 1892. As has been stated, the village was platted in the spring of 1880. At that time Florence was not only in the same county and township, but was in the same school district as Marinette, eighty miles distant, by the nearest road ; and in the fall of this year the Marinette school board erected a school house in Florence and supplied one teacher. This was the beginning of the public school in Florence. FLORENCE PUBLIC SCHOOL. In the fall of the next year an addition to the Jbuilding was made, and the schools began with two departments and two teachers, E. L. Parmenter, now commissioner of schools in Dickinson county, Michigan, being principal. By act of legislature in February, 1882, Florence county w r as organ- ized, and the schools were brought under local control. The Marinette board withdrew their teachers to Marinette and there was no school in Florence for the remaining four months of the school year the only time in the history of the town that its schools have been closed out of season. An important election was held, in the fall of 1882, on the question of adopting the '' township system " of school government, resulting in favor of the system. The board of .564 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. supervisors immediately divided the town into two sub-dis- tricts and appointed D. A. Graham clerk of sub-district No. 1, and H. D. Fisher of No. 2. These clerks met and elected H. D. Fisher, president, D. A. Graham, vice-president and A. K. Godshall, secretary, thus completing the organization of the first board of school directors for the town of Florence. Three teachers were engaged to begin school in Septem- ber, 1882, a part of the town hall being used for a school- room. The next spring the school house was destroyed by fire, but was immediately replaced by a building of two de- partments. During this year bonds for $8,000 were voted, and the present building was erected at a cost of SI 0,000, making an epoch in the history of our schools. The build- ing was opened for use in the first week in January, 1884, with four departments running. In 1886 the number was increased to five; two years later to six, and in the fall of 1891 it was found necessary to add the seventh. In 1885 sub-district No. 3, and in 1887 sub-district No. 4, were created and a building erected in each at an expense of $300. in or- der to accommodate families in the settlements ; and school has been maintained in each since those dates. In 1890 furnaces were placed in the basement of the city building and the rooms heated with hot air. In 1889 a fine flag-staff was raised on the building, a large flag pur- chased, and since then the school has floated the highest stars and stripes in town. At the same time the district procured good flags for all the rooms in both city and country schools. Real slate blackboards, four feet high, were placed through- out the building on all available wall space, in January, 1891. In January, 1892, the building was damaged by fire to the amount of $2,000, narrowly escaping complete destruc- tion. This damage was immediately repaired, and at the same time the entire eastern half of the basement was fin- ished with a cement floor, furnishing a good room for calis- thenics, and for a play-room in stormy weather. In Novem- ber, 1892, auxiliary heating was added by putting in a steam heater, with radiators in each room and hallway, in order to furnish needed additional heat and to provide more econo- mical means of keeping the building warm when but little heat is needed. In noting the development of the course of study, and the changes in the grading of the schools, there is more diffi- culty in obtaining the data, as all the records were destroyed by fire in 1888. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. To one accustomed to study the changes in social life from century to century, there is no graded school inWisconsin that has not undergone most wonderful changes in methods of teaching and in matter taught during the past decade ; and in our schools this is doubly true. In the first three years the rapidly growing population and the small number of departments prevented any close grading, or the adoption of a well-defined course of study. The preparation for this work was begun in 1883, when, with the school divided into four departments, Principal O. H. Chamberlin took charge of the work, arid in his two years' service he did much to- ward fixing the future course of the school in the right direction. A vote was taken in the fall of 1886, on the question of having a free high school, resulting in favor of the school. The necessary requirements were found, upon examination, to exist, and the free high school was formally approved, providing for a three years' course of study. This important result was very largely due to the energetic work of J. E. Abbott, who was at that time principal of the schools. While Mr. Abbott was at the head of the schools a good be- ginning was made in the line of physical apparatus for class work experiment, and in a library, which now comprises over six hundred volumes. In 1891 the course of study for the grades below the high school was thoroughly revised by Principal F. W. Barker, outlining eight years of continuous work in the lower departments, insuring more systematic instruction, and placing the whole in line with approved modern methods and thought. During the past year the course of study for the high school was slightly revised ; kindergarten work has been introduced in connection with the regular work in the first primary department ; and a beginning made of systematic work in teaching drawing, singing and calisthenics, while the purchase of a stereopticon and a type- writer has added to the facilities for instruction. A marked improvement has also been made during the past two years, an improvement which promises much for the future welfare of the schools, in the qualifications of the teaching force. Of the corps of nine teachers for 1892-93, only one, and that a teacher in one of the country districts, holds a certificate as low as the third grade, while more than half have had normal or college training. Xo pains have been spared in securing the very best teachers possible for each position, and the people feel a just pride in the uniformly high qualifications of their corps of teachers. 566 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. Thus there is at present a carefully arranged course of study, graded for eleven years of continuous work, affording to the poorest as to the richest the opportunity of obtaining a sound English education, by approved methods of work, and under instructors approved in their profession such an opportunity as is not afforded by many of the oldest com- munities in the country. And this has been accomplished in a short twelve years, in a corner of our state where the Indian still roams, hunting and fishing through a forest, in many a nook of which the deer are feeding and the bear is prowling, hardly knowing the intrusion of man with only the long line of railroad reaching to the outside world, the single artery through which have pulsed the daily currents which have brought new life. Below are given such parts of the school records as have been preserved, and would be apt to interest the reader. A RECORD OF ATTENDANCE FROM 1887 TO 1892. YEAR. H ghest enrollment for any month. No. of half-days ab- sence for year. Cases of tardiness for year. 1887-88 209 235 253 293 309 4,852 4,548 6,612 9,895 5,683 433 260 491 1,063 334 1888-89 1889-90 1890-91 1891-92 One notes a steady increase in enrollment, a movement which is continued this year, September's enrollment reach- ing 327. The total enrollment for the year 1891-2 was 367; the number for other years cannot be determined. Principals: O. H. Chamberlin, September, 1883, to June, 1885 ; J. E. Abbott, September, 1885, to June, 1887 ; W. L. Morrison, 1887, to February, 1889 ; 0. G. Billiard, February, 1889, to June, 1889; F. W. Barker, September, 1889, to 1891; E. D. Rounds, September, 1891, to present time. The town board of school directors are : A. K. God- shall, president; G. C. Youngs, secretary; C. A. Fortier, vice- president; P. Benane, Charles La Salle. The high school board are : A. K. Godshall. director; S. T. Beattie, treasurer; John O'Hara, clerk. The teachers of the schools are : E. D. Rounds, princi- pal, high school department, salary $1,100; Rose Griffith, high school assistant and grammar department, $600 ; Tidy McGillis, third intermediate department, $500; Beatrice Donais, THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. 567 second intermediate department, &500; Allis L. Robertson, first intermediate department, $500; Constance A. Wald, sec- ond primary department, $500; Myrtle Sawyer, first primary department, $550; Eva E. Stewart, sub-district No. 3, $400; Cora E. Bailey, sub-district No. 4, $400. After noting the growth of our system of schools, we naturally look backward to see what have been the chief causes leading to the development of what merit can be claimed for the schools; and it is right that these causes be mentioned h'ere. To those who are in a position to see its workings, the adoption of the "township system" of school government must commend itself as being one factor in the cause of the prosperity of our schools. The ease with which they have been maintained is due in large measure to the provisions of law governing taxation for school purposes under this sys- tem. This will be better understood, perhaps, when it is stated that, under our present system, the expense of main- taining all the schools in the town of Florence is borne equally by every dollar's worth of taxable property within the town. Under any other system possible the expense for our village schools would have to be borne by the property within thirty-six square miles of contiguous territory, or about one-eighth of the territory in the town. The assessed valua- tion of the thirty-six square miles, including the village and the Florence mine, is about one-fourth of the assessed valua- tion of the town; while there are but two small schools out- side of the village. Hence, it will be seen that by any other system possible the taxable property within the thirty-six square mile limit would have to be assessed nearly four times as high as now, in order to maintain the schools on the same plane. To Mr. W. A. Whittlesey, who was ap- pointed county superintendent upon the the organization of the county, and who brought this matter before the people, is largely due the credit of the adoption of this system, which has worked to the advantage of the rich and poor alike. In this connection it is interesting to note, as a feature of our free school system, that in sub-district No. 4 of this town, a school, with an average daily attendance of less than five, is maintained ten months in the year at an annual ex- pense of five hundred dollars, or more than one hundred dollars per pupil. And yet it is not hard to believe that that school pays for itself in the end, for, not mentioning the 568 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. enhanced valuation of the real estate, it is well known that no two things are more expensive to a nation than ignorance and crime, and the one begets the other. Another factor in this prosperity has been the excellent accommodation afforded by the school building erected in 1883. The sound judgment and true foresight displayed by those who had the charge of school matters at this time can not be too highly appreciated. There were many who could see nothing but extravagance in the erection of so costly, and especially so commodious a building. With a school population requiring but four departments, a house was built to accommodate six departments, allowing a fine as- sembly hall, capable of seating two hundred and fifty per- sons, and a convenient library-room, besides. Gradually, however, the enrollment increased, until finally a section of the assembly hall has had to be used for school-room work, thus confirming the judgment of the board. The rooms were made large and high, and well lighted ; the halls and cloak rooms were conveniently located ; and the building was furnished with a complete system of heating and ventilating flues. Its appearance has always been a matter of pride to the citizens of Florence. Situated at the end of a wide avenue, on the brow of an exceedingly suitable eleva- tion, it was long accounted the finest school building on the Menominee range. From the stranger, after miles upon miles of monotonous scenery of trees and stumps, it mutely commands respect for the educational system of our com- monwealth and the local management of our town, extend- ing to the immigrant so cheery a welcome that it has in- duced many a one to settle among us, by its promise of good instruction for his children. "But it requires something more in a community than money and school houses to insure good schools ; and this sketch would be incomplete without mention of the whole- hearted, public-spirited support given to the schools by Florence citizens a support, which, in some cases, has shown itself to be devotion ; and to this assistance, more than to any other thing, is due the constant and rapid advance in the development of our schools, in which we take just pride. Among those who have had educational interests most at heart and in hand, are J. S. Penberthy, who, as county superintendent throughout all but a few months of the county's history, has given noticeable aid by the faithful and judicious performance of his duties ; H. D. Fisher, who, THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FLORENCE. 569 as president of the board of school directors, from its organi- zation, in 1882, until July, 1889, did much toward establish- ing the prosperity of the school, and especially towards secur- ing the present building ; George C. Youngs, secretary of the board of school directors from 1888 to the present time, whose influence is strongly given to the advance of the schools; and A. K. Godshall, who was secretary of the board from 1882 until 1888, who has been president of the board from 1889 to the present time, and who, more than other persons, has given of his time and thought and influence to the improvement of our system of schools. And if there is one lesson more than another to be learned by this history, it is, that, while good schools make good citizens, it needs good citizens to make good schools. E. D. ROUNDS. The Jefferson Public Schools. The first settlement on the site of the city of Jefferson was made in 1836. Three years later the first school house was built, on the west side of the river. It was a rude con- struction, erected from the logs of the forest, with no brick or mortar, except perhaps a little of the latter to serve as filling for the chinks between the rough-hewn timbers of its walls. Modest and homely as was this beginning, it was nevertheless the corner-stone of the present excellent school system of the city. Dr. Bicknell was the first teacher to wield the scepter of authority; whether he "boarded round," as was the wont of early pedagogues, history fails to record. But that the early school days in that log school house saw enacted many of the grotesque and romantic incidents of backwoods Badger life is quite probable. While few of the doctor's old charges are here to tell the story of how he taught the young idea, yet the seed then sown is silently bearing fruit in the up- building of schools and homes in the far West. Some time in the 40's a second school was opened in a frame building on the east side of the river, on the lot where now the residence of Chas. Stoppenbach stands. Clark Walterbury taught this school in 1848. Among the pupils who attended his school that year were W. H. Hake, Elbert and Egbert Masters, Harriet and Moscow Burton, William Sawyer, Alden, Caroline and Anne Sanborn, the Whipples, the Potters, Marshall and Anna Crist, Emma and Henry Howe. " In 1851," says the history of Jefferson county, "as the population increased and the number of pupils seeking to avail themselves of the advantages to be derived from a regular attendance became greater, the school district on the east side was divided, and a brick school building was erected near the corner of Condire and Main streets." The district in which this building was located was known as district No. 1, that on the west side of the river as Xo. 12. Time sped on ; the village continued its slow but firm and steady growth through the 50's and 60's ; the schools kept time with the march of material prosperity, and in 1870 570 THE JEFFERSON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 571 the present Second ward school building on the east side, then in District No. 1, was built at a cost of $10,000. It com- prised three departments. About the same time district No. 12 followed the example of No. 1, by erecting a $7,000 school building of two departments. These two schools kept up a good-natured but efficient rivalry until the two districts were merged into one under the city's charter. During the in- terval from 1870 to 1879 the names of a number of well-known men appear as principals of those schools. Among the east side principals, the names of G. A. Williams and B. F. Anderson appear; some of the west side principals were George Brown, S. S. Corner, W. F. Bundy, E. Ewing and W. C. Gordon. By special act of the legislature, in 1879, Jefferson city was incorporated. The two school districts, Nos. 1 and 12, were consolidated into one, the control of which was vested in a school board of three members (increased in 1881 to six), one from each ward, appointed by the common council. The first board consisted of W. H. Hake, Christopher Grimm and Adam Kispert, with the city clerk and treasurer as ex-officio members. On Tuesday evening, May 6th, 1879, the first board meeting was held in the city hall. Adam Kispert was chosen president. The first business considered was a proposition made by Messrs. Hitchcock and Forsyth offering for sale to the city of Jefferson the property known as the "Jefferson Liberal institute." The board adjourned without taking action, to meet again on May 13th, at which meeting Mr. Clark offered a resolution praying for the purchase of the Liberal institute property at $6,125, and moved the adoption of a resolution recommending to the common council the speedy purchase of the same. The people, at the charter election of April 8th of the same year, had directed by a very decided majority this purchase for school purposes. The common council at once made arrangements for the transfer of the property. Thus was secured to the city commodious accommodation for its increasing school needs at a com- paratively small expense. The Jefferson Liberal institute was, at first, in a certain sense a public school. The idea originated about the close of the war in the minds of the public-spirited and progress- ive citizens of the city in the interest of higher education. Its design was to furnish college preparatory training. The erection of the building was begun in 1865, and the cost, 572 THE JEFFERSON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. when completed, including the four acres of ground, was in the neighborhood of $30,000. For a time the institution was- in a flourishing condition, ample pledges were made for its- financial support, and students were attracted from all over this state, and some from other states. But during the finan- cial distresses from 1873 to 1879, collections could not be made; embarrassment ensued, and the institution was finally com- pelled to close its doors; later, to be sold for debt. The city embraced this opportunity, thereby laying the material foun- dation of the high school. The building is situated on an eminence, the highest point in the city, at the junction of the Rock and Crawfish rivers, commanding a view of those rivers for miles in their courses through the beautiful hill country of Jefferson county. It is built of brick and stone, eighty feet long by fifty wide r three stories high above the basement. In the fall of 1880, after some improvements had been made, the advanced de- partment of the city schools was moved into one of the rooms in the " institute " building with Amos Squire as principal. Two additional teachers were employed, making seven in all. Upward of 300 pupils were instructed in the various depart- ments that year. Amos Squire did excellent service as principal for ten years. He began with a school of two departments in 1874; when he resigned, in 1885, his supervision extended over seven departments. We had seen the schools of Jefferson grow from two districts into a city system, prepared in point of advancement to be placed on the free high school register of the state. In the summer of 1885 H. F. Wieman was chosen prin- cipal. At the first meeting of the board, in the same school year, Commissioner Fisher offered the following resolution : " Resolved, that in the opinion of this board the four years' course of study approved by the state superintendent of public instruction for free high schools should be adopted as the standard of our public schools, and that the course of study, rules and and regulations heretofore adopted by the board should be revised so as to meet the requirements thereof." On the 23d of December, 1885, the examination for admission to the list of free high schools was held, and on March 18 following State Superintendent Robert Graham allowed the same. During the four years that Professor Wieman held sway the school kept up a steady and strong growth. In- THE JEFFERSON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 573 Merest in school work was quickened; the graduating classes were large ; a flourishing literary and debating club was or- ganized and successfully carried on by the pupils, and not least, the nucleus of a library was formed which has since grown to be the pride of the school. In 1889 Professor Wie- man resigned and J. G. Adams was chosen to fill the vacancy. J. O. Perkins, present superintendent of Jefferson county, was re-elected principal of the east side school. Prof. Adams' principalship extended over three years. Meanwhile many improvements were made about the build- ing and in its equipment. The free text book system was adopted in 1889, is still in vogue, and is advantageous in every way. A year ago the Smead heating and ventilating system was put in at an expense of nearly $3,000. Last summer three unfurnished rooms on the third floor were fitted up for permanent occupancy by the fourth, fifth, sixth, .and seventh grades. Since then an excellent fire escape has been placed on the building. Formerly all the grades above the fourth grade were seated in the large assembly room on the second floor, but at present the pupils of the eighth and high school grades only occupy this room, which greatly facilitates the work of the high school. These grades are under the supervision of the principal and one assistant. Half hour recitations are held, each pupil reciting four times daily. In addition to the regular class work each pupil of the eighth, ninth and tenth grades is required to prepare two recitations or declamations each term, making six during the school year, the eleventh and twelfth grades preparing original essays and orations in- stead. The department is divided into five divisions, one rhetorical division employing the last hour of each Friday afternoon in speaking and essay-reading. A most valuable adjunct to the appliances of the school is the physical laboratory, containing apparatus illustrative of .all departments of natural philosophy. This, together with a cabinet of geological specimens, furnish ample material for illustration and objective work throughout the grades. The library of over 400 volumes is kept in constant circulation; from 40 to 75 books are drawn by the pupils every Friday afternoon to be kept for one week. A complete record of books drawn is kept in a record-book provided by the board for the special purpose. It has always been the good fortune of the Jefferson schools to have on the board of education live, energetic, pro- 574 THE JEFFERSON PUBLIC SCHOOLS. gressive business men. Some of those who have rendered efficient service in that capacity of late years are C. F. Roess- ler, Mr. Bird, Mr. Illing, A. H. Porter, H. Fisher and Rich- ard Hoe. Its membership at present comprises Messrs. A. R. Bechaud, president; G. J. Scheid, J. C. Otis, B. H. Straw, J. A. Fernholz and L. M. Smith. Good as the present ac- commodations are, and as well provided for in the line of ap- pliances as the school is, with the membership continually increasing, it will not be long before more commodious build- ings and more extensive appliances will be necessary, if the schools of Jefferson are to continue to increase in potency a a factor of the city's life. ISAAC PETERSON, The Arcadia Public Schools. Arcadia, a village of 700 inhabitants, is situated in the beautiful Trempealeau valley, on the Green Bay, Winona and St. Paul railroad, 192 miles west of Green Bay and 22 miles east of Winona. From the earliest settlement of the town, education has had careful consideration, and scarcely were the most primi- tive dwellings of the pioneers built, before attention was given to the erection of a school house. All the little events of e very-day life are like the stones in a mosaic, each going to make up the whole picture. So the little 14x16 log school house may now seem to have been a small affair, but a picture illustrating the stages of growth of the Arcadia school would be decidedly incomplete without that primitive temple of learning. The log school house was built in 1857, on a lot donated by Collins Bishop, adjacent to and west of the present residence of Isaac Roe. At that time Chimney Rock and Burnside were part of Arcadia, and all was in- cluded in one school district. The early settlers who built the log school house were : David Bishop, killed by lightning in 1868; Collins Bishop, Jesse R. Penny, Ambrose C. Matterson, who still reside in Arcadia ; George D. Dewey, now at Ypsilanti, North Dakota ; George Shelley, now at Kingston, Missouri ; and James Broughton, John McMaster, Noah D. ComStock and Mrs. Armer B. Bishop, all now deceased. David Bishop's wife had the honor of naming the town. The first school was taught in 1857, by Mrs. John Mc- Master, who is now (1892) teaching at West Plains, Howell county, Missouri. There were fourteen, pupils in this school, only three of whom are now living in the district, viz. : Harvey Matterson, Malvina (Matterson) Roe and Blanche A. Bishop. Of the others Isaac Slade lives at Winona, Min- nesota ; Albert Broughton lives at Ypsilanti, North Dakota ; Rose C. (Bishop) Markham lives at Independence, Wisconsin, and the others are all deceased. As the settlers increased in numbers, and the school also grew, and in 1863 the log 575 576 THE ARCADIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS. school house was supplanted by a frame building, 30x40, Arcadia at once took front rank in the county for its public school advantages. In 1874 the school building was again found too small. A house, now a part of Mr. Penny's residence in East Arcadia, was rented for a time, to accommodate a portion of the pupils, and the school was divided. In 1875 the district took steps towards the erection of the graded school building, and on September 9, 1875, the job was let, the contract price being $5,500. The school house site was changed about one-half mile to the west, because of conditions consequent upon the advent of the railroad and the growth of the village. School opened in the graded school building in 1876. In 1884 an addition was built containing two school rooms, a library and a recitation room. In that year the high school was estab- lished, and a library started which has since received yearly additions until it now contains about 1,200 volumes. The first high school principal was J. H. Ackerman, now city su- perintendent of schools of Portland, Oregon. He held the position for five years and did much to improve the charac- ter of the school. A sixth teacher has been added to the corps this season. Non-residents are admitted to the school on the payment of a small tuition fee, and a number of young persons from both Trempealeau and Buffalo counties avail themselves of the privilege. Numerous districts have been organized out of the original log school house district, one of which, at Independence, has a graded school. Thus from the little log school house there has gone out an inter- est in education which seems to have kept pace with the growth in population. The present enrollment is as follows : High school departments 58 Grammar department 37 Intermediate department 43 Second primary department 41 First primary department 63 Total .T242 J. I. JEGI. COUNTY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Sketch of the Early Educational History of Grant County. The educational life of the lead region of Southwest Wisconsin is naturally divided into three periods, first, the subscription school period ; second, the academy period ; and third, the public school period. The second was the logical sequence of the first, and, as might be expected, the third was a gradual development and overlapped the second period. This sketch is almost entirely concerned with the first and second. It should be remembered that the lead region was largely settled by people of Southern birth, who brought with them prejudices in favor of private schools, and who looked forward hopefully to the time when they could organize and support their ow r n academies or colleges. They had little faith in public school instruction, and were opposed to taxing property for educational purposes. In this region was fought the chief battle between the private and public school ideas. Arrayed on the side of education by private enterprise were the prejudices of most of the early and influential settlers and the traditions of the schools of their native states ; on the side of education at public ex- pense were found the few who had hailed from the Eastern,, especially from the New England, states. Though few in number, these did valiant service, and, being in sympathy with the spirit of the age, their ideas finally prevailed. The first building erected for school purposes, and prob- ably the first school opened in the Wisconsin lead region^ was within the present limits of the city of Mineral Point, in July, 1830. It was, like most of the buildings of the day, a log structure, and served the three-fold purpose of school house, church, and justice court-room. SCHOOLS IN PLATTEVILLE. The second school house of the region was built on the east side of Section 16, within the corporate limits of the city of Platteville. It, too, was built of logs, was one story 578 EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. 579* high, and measured 18x20 feet. The first teacher was one- Samuel Huntington, who seemed to have divided his time between teaching school and prospecting for lead. As th& latter employment, no doubt, paid better than the first, it re- ceived so much of his time as to cause much dissatisfaction among the patrons. His pay for teaching was $3.00 a quar- ter for each pupil, and, as the number did not exceed fifteen, it is readily seen that the temptation to eke out his income by mining was a strong one. Mr. Huntington was a man about forty years of age, strict in his requirements, and classed as eccentric. Whence he came or whither he went cannot now be ascertained. In 1836 Dr. A. T. Losey was induced to open a school in a small building a little north of the site on which the city hall now stands. As the doctor was still in active prac- tice of his profession, he entrusted most of the work of teach- ing to his sister, Miss Losey. She and Miss Walker, of Cass- ville, may be considered the first female teachers in the county. This school consisted of about forty pupils, but what income it yielded is not recorded. It is probable that the patrons were not satisfied to have the principal of their school divide his time between his pupils and his patients, as the arrangement seems to have continued for only one year. In May, 1837, Hamner Bobbins, long and favorably known in the political and educational history of Wisconsin,, opened a school in a log house a little south of where the Congregational church now stands, and enrolled about sixty pupils. The excellence of the instruction gave such popu- larity to the school that the tuition was advanced to $4.50 a term. Mr. Robbins taught two or three years, and by his energy and enthusiasm created a" sentiment so favorable to- thorough education that the founding of a higher institution of learning became a necessity. PLATTEVILLE ACADEMY. As early as February, 1839, Major J. H. Rountree in- troduced a bill into the territorial council for the incorporation of Platteville academy. The bill passed, and from that time until the academy was transferred to the state, upon location of the first state normal school in Platteville, that institution was a power for great good in the Northwest, and was prob- ably better known than any other academy in Wisconsin. A. M. Dixon, of Bond county, Illinois, was the first principal,. 580 EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. and he was followed by Rev. Mr. Xolan, and probably by one or two others who served for only a short time. The basement of the Methodist church had been used for some years for academy purposes, but in 1841 a frame building 40x60 and two stories in height, now owned and occupied as a residence by Mr. Charles Loveland, was erected. Mr. John Myers, who prepared the frame of the new academy building, is still living in Platteville. On the completion ot the building, Prof. Carrier was installed as principal. Before long there was another change in the principal ship, Rev. George Magoon assuming the duties of the office. In 1846, Prof. J. L. Pickard, than whom no teacher is better or more favorably known in the Northwest, arrived in Platteville, and took charge of the academy. The institution evidently was in great need of just such wise and vigorous management as characterized Mr. Pickard's administration. He commenced work with but five pupils, but only a few years had passed before a more commodious building was demanded, and forthwith it was erected under Mr. Pickard's direction. For thirteen years Mr. Pickard remained at the head of this institution, and in that time had enrolled a member- ship of 1,111 students. Not the least of his many services was the quiet, but effective, manner in which Mr. Pickard changed the sentiments of the people of Southern Wisconsin from hostility to common schools to ardent support of them. Though at the head of a private academy, no man in the country took more interest in common schools, and in fact in all educational institutions, than did Mr. Pickard. In 1849 he was elected the first town superintendent of the schools of Platteville, and in 1859 state superintendent. After this the academy was in charge of Professor A. K. Johnson for a time, and he was succeeded by Professor George M. Guern- sey, who continued as principal until the transfer of the building to the state, in 1866. Meantime, as the other settlements in this region assumed such proportions as to justify the establishment of a school, private enterprise furnished the equipment or guaranteed a sufficient income to warrant the venture. In 1839 a small school was opened in Muscoda, and taught by Allan Boyer. Not until fifteen years after, was a building erected for school purposes. In 1854 Colonel Hamilton took the contract for building a school house, employing Charles W. Wright to do the carpenter work. George R. Frank, afterwards known as Major Frank, was the first teacher. EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. 581 SCHOOLS IN LANCASTER. The first school in Lancaster was opened in 1841, and was supported by voluntary contributions. The first teacher employed was Miss Jane Ayers, of Rockville. Shortly after this Francis Rigeaud, an old French soldier, opened a school in the building used for a court house. This was suspended in 1843, when the first school house was built. The first school board of Lancaster consisted of J. Allen Barber, Nelson Dewey and Daniel Banfill. This board un- dertook the task of erecting a convenient and comfortable school building, but encountered vigorous and persistent op- position. They, however, were not men to be driven from a purpose. When the building was completed, opponents be- came admirers, and the work of public education was inau- gurated under most favorable conditions. The name of the first teacher of this school is lost, but soon a young man who had been trained in the school of Dr. Edward Beecher became a resident of Lancaster, and was elected to preside over the school of this young Western town. To-day no man in Lancaster takes more interest in education than this same teacher of pioneer days, the scholarly and genial Judge J. T. Mills. It would seem that ere long the Judge found the work of instruction so absorbing his time and attention that an assistant specially fitted to ad- minister discipline to the youth of this frontier settlement was needed. Accordingly J. C. Cover was appointed to as- sist the Judge, with the understanding, so the story goes, that he should relieve the principal from the disagreeable duty of inflicting chastisement. Colonel John G. Clark also served as teacher for a time in the early days of this school.^ Lancaster seems to have been particularly fortunate both in the wisdom of her school board and the eminent ability of her teachers. Under the leadership of such men Lan- caster naturally hoped to have some day within her own borders an institution for secondary instruction that would relieve her citizens from the necessity of sending their youth to remote schools for training in higher departments, and which might at the same time attract the most desirable citizens to their pleasant town. In 1858 this hope was in a measure realized by the organization of the Lancaster in- stitute, under the principalship of Mr. Page, who afterwards became well known throughout the Northwest as Judge Page, of Austin, Minnesota. This institute was closed in 1870, when the structure now used by the high school was erected. 582 EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. SCHOOLS IN HAZEL GREEN AND BLOOMINGTON. The first school in the town of Hazel Green was opened by John Smith, in a frame house on lower Main street, in the fall of 1843. At the opening of spring, school closed and the teacher set out in quest of a " rich lead." The school was taught the following fall by a Mr. Bingham, and he was followed by H. D. York, still an honored resident of the village. Among the teachers of early days were Mr. James A. Jones, for many years a prominent druggist of Lancaster, and LeRoy Lockwood. In 1848 the county was divided into townships and H. D. York appointed town superintendent, assuming office in 1849. The present school building was erected in 1853. In March, 1856, the Hazel Green collegiate institute was organized by the Rev. J. Long- horn, A. M. During the first year 129 students received instruction at this institution, and all indications promised great prosperity. Financial panic, immediately followed by the civil war, proved disastrous to many of our educational institutions, and among the first in this region to succumb w r as the Hazel Green institute. Its doors were closed at the breaking out of the war and were never again opened. In 1844 Bloomington built its first school house and organized its first school, employing D. Angerlist as the first teacher. In 1857 "Blake's Prairie institute," afterwards known as " Tafton collegiate institute," was opened by Rev. M. T. Allen, A. M., a South Carolinian by birth. In a short time the school passed into the hands of Prof. Parsons who, ably assisted by Mrs. Parsons, gave to Bloomington an en- viable reputation as an educational center. The original building was soon found to be too small to accommodate the increasing numbers, so a new one was erected, with a seating capacity of two hundred. The school grew in popularity and efficiency until some time in the 60's, when Professor and Mrs. Parsons withdrew from the management, and little more was ever heard of Tafton academy. The building became the property of the Congregational society and is still used by that body as a place of worship. SCHOOLS IN OTHER TOWNS. The earh r educational history of Boscobel, so far as gath- ered, is soori told. Miss Lucinda Beaudine seems to have been the first teacher. The school building, an annex to Bull's saw mill, served at night as a lodging-place for the mill hands. In 1851 the school was moved to a small frame EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. 583 building, originally intended for a dwelling, and Mrs. Ed. Rogers installed as teacher. A school building was erected in 1852 or 1853, but was not conveniently located. In 1858 or 1859, what is known as " Belfry school " was built, and Mr. Glazier employed as teacher. He was followed by Major Frank, and from this time the school has steadily increased until it now comprises eight or ten departments. Cassville built its first school house in 1835 or 1836 and employed as its first teacher Miss Elizabeth Walker. This lady is best remembered on account of an experience that nearly proved fatal. The floor of the school house was laid with split "puncheons" as they were called, the uneven edges leaving considerable openings. One day her thimble fell through one of the cracks. On thrusting in her hand to re- cover it, she was twice bitten by a rattlesnake. Realizing her danger she ran at once for medical treatment, which fortunately saved her life. In 1860 a part of the building now used for school purposes was erected, and additions have since that time been made as demand arose for more ample accommodations. In 1861, about the time of the abandonment of Tafton academy, an institution of similar grade was organized in Patch Grove under the title of "Patch Grove academy," under the principalship of William B. Clark. It gave promise of much usefulness, yet its career was a brief one. Before the close of the first decade of its existence, it had shared the fate of so many similar institutions of the time, and closed its doors, never to open them again. The acade- my building, which is a very sightly and commodious one, has long been used by the district to house several departments of its graded school. The writer has given a brief sketch of only the leading educational centers of the county. In the rural districts schools were opened at a much later period than in the vil- lages, and in general, such schools have comparatively little of distinctly characteristic history. Up to 1849 there was no organized supervision of schools, as there was no tax levied for their support. That date closes the period of the purely private schools. From that date until 1862, town superintendents exercised jurisdiction as to granting certifi- cates to teachers and supervising the schools. On January 1, of that year, county superintendents assumed the respon- sibilities of their office for the first time in Wisconsin. The first county superintendent of Grant was Professor Parsons, 584 EARLY EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF GRANT COUNTY. principal of Tafton academy. He was followed in the order here given by Major D. Gray Purman, J. B. Hubbard, W. H. Holford, Geo. M. Guernsey, Chas. L. Harper and Daniel Xeedham, the last named being the present incum- bent. Most of the information contained in the foregoing has been gleaned from the history of Grant county, and the writer cannot vouch for accuracy in all particulars. DUNCAN MCGREGOR. The Schools of Iowa County and the City of Mineral Point. "Old" Iowa county was one of the original sections of the territory of Wisconsin and was organized by an act of the legislative council of the territory of Michigan in 1829. Wisconsin territory was established in 1836, and the territory divided into three counties, Brown, Iowa and Crawford. The county seat of Iowa county was located at Mineral Point,under the council of Michigan territory, and continued under the council of Wisconsin territory. The name "Iowa" was derived from a band of Indians, the "lowas," whose hunting grounds embraced the present state of Wisconsin. Mineral Point is distinctive and prominent in the state not only as the center of mineral resources of Southwest Wisconsin, but in relation to the early settlement of the state. Like ancient Rome, it is built on numerous hills, exceeding the historical seven of that classic city. It is about fifty miles from Madison, the capital city, and less than thirty miles from the Illinois bor- der. Very few places in the state can boast of as picturesque and attractive surroundings it is unique in its irregularities of streets and alleys, and herein shows its marks of age. Its manufactures and commerce are extensive for an inland town, and generally profitable. Here is established the largest oxide zinc works in the world, also an extensive wood pulp paper mill, a woolen mill, cheese factory, creamery, foundries, and numerous other manufactures. In nationalities, the English settlers predominate, as Cornwall contributed her sturdy men to the borough in an early day, and their descendants still unearth the various ores, which abound in the vicinity. Their knowledge of prac- tical geometry from the surface to the depth of 100 feet would test the researches of our profoundest scholars in that science ; while the terms crevice, range, openings, lode, pockets, bar, drift, gauge, etc., are the vocabulary of these delvers in the bowels of the earth. The first discoveries of lead ore, by white men, are chronicled as being in 1827, when Indian trails were followed to places where they had been smelt- ing lead. 585 586 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COlNTV AND MINERAL POINT. The first known school in the now state of Wisconsin, is said to have been at Green Bay, started by Rev. Eleazer Wil. liarns,who afterwards claimed to be the lost dauphin of France- He belonged to the Episcopal missionary society, and in 1823, he started a school of whites and half-breeds. The first school of white children w r as taught at Mineral Point, in 1829, by a Mrs. Harker, assisted by Miss Beulah Lamb. As families were drawn here by the reports of the fabulous wealth to be obtained from the lead ore, they did not wish their children to be brought' up in ignorance; and Mrs. Harker was urged to open a school for their benefit as well as her own, and she prevailed upon Miss Lamb to assist her. The school-room was an abandoned sod hut, with a punch- eon floor, the scholars being principally of two families eight pupils constituted the school; and although we cannot vouch for the text books used, yet as both of the instructors were of Puritan birth, no doubt the New England primer was responsible for the advancement of the students. As there was no way of heating this institution of learning, it was closed as the winter months came on. Before this time Mrs. Harker was obliged to give up her place in the school, and Miss Lamb conducted it alone until its close. We may men- tion this school as the pioneer seat of learning, in the new state of Wisconsin, and that it paved the way for the intro- duction of the arts and sciences, which now mark Wisconsin as one of the brightest jewels in the galaxy of states. In 1830 the number of resident families had so increased that one Robert Boyer, an itinerant school master, was engaged to teach the children of the young colony. A new log cabin was built for the purpose, with puncheon floor and seats of the same, where twenty scholars tested the powers of the teacher, both mentally and physically. As this cabin was built exclusively for a school house, a generous fire-place, well supplied with logs, made it comfortable for teacher and scholars throughout the cold of winter, and the school was continued until the breaking out of the Black Hawk war in the spring of 1832. From that date until the spring of 1834, I cannot find any record of a public school. The entire country was disrupted with preparations and ravages, Fort Jackson, at Mineral Point, being the seat of refuge for the women and children living in the radius of twenty miles. In 1834 a Methodist minister, Rev. Roberts, located at Mineral Point, and through his earnest endeavors a log cabin THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. 587 was built by the entire community, which was to be used as a meeting house and school. Rev. Roberts preached on Sundays and Mr. George Gubbage taught school during the week days. This cabin was as primitive as the former ones, but the curriculum of study must have been advanced, as it is recorded that blackboard exercises were principally employed. This blackboard was a very ingenious device. Across two sides of the room were placed wooden troughs, filled with dry sand, when the pothooks of elementary chirog- raphy, and first lessons of Colburn, were traced by the fingers of the student, the eraser being the five digits of the entire hand. This recital is not a figure of rhetoric, but a verified fact, as related by an eye-witness and participator. Mr. Gub- bage gave such satisfaction to his patrons that he taught there several years, to an increasing number of pupils ; and, being a bachelor, when his pupils could not pay the small amount he charged for tuition, he would take his pay in boarding with those scholars. Mr. Gubbage also led in the singing of the hymns on Sunday. The first census of the present state of Wisconsin was taken in 1834, when there were 5,400 white persons, of which number 2,633 resided in Iowa county- At this date I cannot forbear to mention, although irrelevant to my subject, that the first Protestant church in Wisconsin was built at Mineral Point ; this was a Methodist church, the same one that I have described as being built by Rev. Roberts, and used as a school house. In 1837 the borough was incorporated, and the schools placed under the control of the village government. They were principally supported by such appropriations as the vil- lage finances would allow, and when not sufficient for the support of the school, it was eked out by private subscrip- tions. Hence, the first public school in the territory, now state, of Wisconsin, was held at Mineral Point, Iowa county, in the year 1837, public in that the village government sup- ported the school for the benefit of all the children within its jurisdiction. At this date, a log court house was built, and when the school house was too small for the accommodation of those who wished to attend, which occurred in the fall and winter terms, when those boys assisting at agricultural work in the spring and summer were at leisure to attend school, another teacher was employed by the village authorities, and the log court house was utilized as a school house. In these days, when the state holds a proud position among sister states for her advance and progress in school systems, en- 588 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. vironed as she is with educational facilities, the senses fail to grasp these primitive methods of rudimentary instruction. At a special legislative session in August, 1839, an act was adopted dividing the counties into school districts. Iowa county was divided into sixteen school districts soon after the adoption of this act, and in a short time, at a meeting of the county board of supervisors, the number was increased to twenty-one, and inspectors were elected for each district. It was enacted, that every town with not less than ten families should be a school district, and required to provide a com- petent teacher, and from this date Mineral Point was never without public schools, presided over by the best teachers to be obtained. In 1840 a public school was held in the second story of the new Odd Fellows' hall, and, as heretofore, an appropria- tion was made by the village authorities to provide a teacher for the entire school year. Forty pupils were entered on the roll. Up to this date, the village did not own a school build- ing, always renting a place, but in the fall of 1840, by a vote of the citizens, the sum of $500 was raised to build a school house. It was constructed of stone and brick, consisting of one room, twenty-six by thirty feet in area, twelve feet high, with small divisions for cloak rooms. Mr. C. C. Rynersen, who had been teaching in the Odd Fellows' hall, took charge of this school ; but, as before, the increase of scholars in the winter terms necessitated the use of the court house. Dr. Losey, who had previously been employed, was again engaged, hav- ing a large patronage. Mr. J. E. Heaton followed Mr. Ry- nersen as teacher in the public school. An excellent private school was started by Mr. Hollow, a preacher, assisted by his two daughters. This school was well patronized by parents who did not wish their children to associate with the rude boys of the public school. From time to time other private schools were held for a brief time, by those who could not find any other employment. There were not any other important changes in the schools until 1844, when the county board of school com- missioners was organized, and those persons wishing to teach were obliged to be examined, according to an adopted standard. At that time, all rents on ores raised on school lands (every sixteenth section) reverted to the school fund. The receipts from these mineral rents, in 1844, amounted to nearly $400, which was distributed among the school districts, at the rate of eighteen cents a scholar. Until the state law THE SCHOOLS OF KWA coCNTY AND MINKKAL 1'OINT. 589 went into force, in the spring of 1849, there was no dearth of good schools in Mineral Point, as fine as were in existence at that time. A private school, taught by Mr. Moore, in the basement of the Methodist church, a substantial stone struc- ture, one taught by Percival T. Millette in the basement of the Presbyterian church, and one in the basement of the Episcopal church, taught by a lady these, with the two public schools, made five desirable schools. After the admission of Wisconsin as a state, and the adoption of the system of public schools as established by law, a county con- vention was called, which resulted in favor of at once pro- viding ample accommodations for the two hundred scholars, and bringing the new school system into immediate use. This gave a fresh impetus to the advancement of the existing schools, and the reports of general progress were excellent. One of the private schools in existence at this date was a Roman Catholic "sisters' " school, of St. Paul's church, which was started by Rev. Victor Jouanneault, a French priest in charge of the mission, and taught by himself, until some Dominican sisters of Sinsinawa Mound were procured. The school was successfully carried on, until within a few years, when the system of our public schools was so satisfying to all classes that this early school of St. Paul 's church was closed. No marked change was exhibited in Mineral Point schools until 1856, when a city charter was drafted, which was accepted and approved by an act of the legislature. By this charter, the city of Mineral Point was divided into two wards, and the feasibility of building a " Second ward school," as the two school houses were both situated in the First ward, was broached, and decided by the authorities in favor of building. Subsequently this decision was postponed and a brick building, usod as an " old school Presbyterian " church, was bought by the city, and fitted up for a school house. The principal reason for this change of base was the project of starting a Methodist seminary, with a large board of trustees, and as a majority of the people were Methodist-, it was the opinion of the city fathers that a new school house in the Second ward would be unnecessary. In 1857, the Methodist seminary was built, a large, two-story brick edifice, substantial and commodious, on one of the best sites in the city. Rev. John Nolan was the first teacher in charge and conducted it until 1861. The projectors proved not equal to their promises, either in paying off the mortgage, or support- ing it by their patronage. The mortgage of 5,000 was 590 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. owned by the city, and as the institution was not profitable, a proposition was made to the city authorities to purchase it for a public school. An unanimous vote of the citizens was in favor of the purchase, which was at once completed., and the building so arranged for occupancy that the school was divided into seven departments one high school, three in- termediate, three primary. The first teacher employed by the city as principal of the high school was Mr. I. E. Pills- bury, one of his daughters being first assistant. An an- nual salary of $1,800 was paid Mr. Pillsbury. A city super- intendent was elected, ancl up to the present date the estab- lished school system has been in operation. In 1867, by a vote of the citizens in its favor, a Second ward school building was erected, built of the native sand- stone, containing four spacious rooms for primary and inter- mediate departments, to be used by the children residing in the Second ward of the city. A large and pleasant play- ground surrounds the school, with a shaded avenue leading to the entrance. In 1891 it was found necessary for the ac- commodation of the children to add two rooms. The addition harmonizes with the old structure in material and architecture. All the rooms are sunny and cheerful, having a south exposure. In winter they are well heated by hot air and well- ventilated by cold air flues. In discipline and over- sight it is subject to the principal of the high school. It com- prises a preparatory department, taught by Mr. Peterson, where those who have nearly completed the studies required to admit them to the high school, but are not quite prepared in one or two branches, instead of remaining in the grammar school to repeat a whole year's work, have their ambition aroused to master the failures in their examinations, as well as enter the high school in class C instead of class D. The other rooms are used for three intermediate departments and two primary. The number of scholars at present date is 285; the number of teachers is six. The First ward school house, before mentioned as originally a Methodist seminary, has six rooms, besides recita- tion rooms and office. The present course in the high school department extends through four years, and may be either English or modern classical. In the English the studies are arithmetic, grammar, geography, reading, physical geography, physiology, United States history, rhetoric, constitutions, physics, algebra, general history, geology, bookkeeping, geom- etry, English literature, astronomy, political economy, peda- THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. 591 gogy. The studies in the classical course are the same, with three years of Latin added. The enrollment in the high school is ninety, with an average attendance of eighty-six. Three teachers are employed. Mr. Jolley is principal. The present standing of Mineral Point schools is not below any in the state. The buildings are commodious and well furnished. There is a fine piano in the high school-room, and a very useful library, which is being annually added to by the united efforts of the pupils. In 1869 a parish school house was built, in connection with the Episcopal church a plain, one-story frame house, but commodious, well-lighted, and well-ventilated, with two recitation-rooms, and three entrances one for boys, one for girls, and the other for small children. This school house has a capacity of 150 children. Rev. Lyman Phelps, the rector of Trinity church, at that date, was the projector and principal, assisted by several teachers of ability. The school was a great success during Rev. Phelps' charge, many appli- cants for admission being denied, for want of room. Before the school house was built the school was held in the base- ment of the church, until it overflowed hence the parish building. The school was in successful operation until the failing health of the rector caused him to resign, in 1874 after the school had been in operation for nine years. After the close of the school the building was used for various purposes, connected with church affairs, until 1889, when the city authorities decided to rent it from the church, to use as a public primary school, as the First ward school building was too crowded for comfort. The parish school building was leased for five years, and the wisdom of the decision is attested in the increased interest and proficiency of the little students. Two teachers are employed here, and some kinder- garten work is in use. Enrollment of children 120, average attendance, 95 ; ages of the children from four to nine years. The total number of children attending the public schools of the city of Mineral Point is 650 ; the number of teachers em- ployed is fifteen. The city of Dodgeville is the present county seat of Iowa county, and is very nearly the geographical centre of the county. In priority of schools in Iowa county it is next to Mineral Point. The first school taught in the town of Dodgeville, the present city, was in 1834 by Robert Boyer, whom I have before mentioned in this chronicle as an itin- erant school master. This school was opened just after the 592 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. close of the Black Hawk war. The earliest school held in the village proper was in 1845. The one-story building then used is yet pointed out by the pioneer as the first cradle of learning, where now exists the finest school building in the county. This early school was supported by the parents of the pupils, who paid pro rata. Until the year 1853 Dodge- ville did not own a school building, the different buildings occupied for schools being rented. The town of Dodgeville was organized in 1849. At this date the citizens held several meetings, in the interest of erecting a public school house, numbers urging that a tax for building be voted ; but, as a majority were not in favor of building, the matter was drop- ped. However, a superintendent of schools was elected, Rev. A. S. Allan. In 1 853 the village government was authorized to erect two small buildings to be used as public schools, one to be built of the native stone, the other a frame. The text books used were Goodrich's readers, Colburn's mental arith- metic, Adams' practical arithmetic, Bullion's grammar, Smith's geography, Webster's spelling book, Fulton's and Eastman's penmanship. In 1864 the two districts were con- solidated, the town hall rented for a high school, while the old buildings were occupied as intermediate and primary de- partments. Mr. Merrill Fellows was the first principal of the high school, followed by J. T. Pryor, Jr, in 1866; M. T. Curry, 1867; Philip Eden, 1868; J. T. Pryor from 1869 to 1874 ; Mr. Frawley, 1875; J. H. Pike, 1876, 1877 ; J. W. Livingston, 1878 to 188S ; L. L. Clark from 1888 to present date. To-day, Dodgeville has the finest school building in the county a handsome, modern structure of red brick, with every appliance and convenience for good work. The grounds are extensive, well-laid out and well-cared for ; it being the pride of every pupil to endeavor to excel all other school grounds in the county. To Professor J. W. Liv- ingston may be attributed the project and execution of this fine school house and its surroundings (aided and abetted by the hearty co-operation of Dodgeville's progressive citizens) as well as the formulation of the present course of study, the general standing of the pupils attesting to its character. The building consists of ten rooms, besides library, office and halls. The high school room is 25x42 feet, eight rooms each 25x33 feet, one room 15x33 feet. The enrollment this Columbian year is 500 girls 268, boys 232 ; the excess of girls is in the high school. Many of the graduates become students at the university, as the citizens are enterprising and prosperous. THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. 593 Outside of the two cities of Iowa county, viz., Mineral Point and Dodgeville, there are fourteen towns in the county Arena, Brigham, Clyde, Dodgeville, Eden, High- land, Linden, Minim, Mineral Point, Moscow, Pulaski, Kidgeway, Waldwick, Wyoming. ARENA. As the developing of the mines of Iowa county was the prime factor in the settlement of the pioneers, and Arena was not embraced in the mining belt, the earliest settler of this town was in 1843, on government lands. As subsequent farms were scattered over a large territory, no school house was built until 1846, when the few children in the district often had to walk four or five miles to school. But educa- tion has not been neglected, from the earliest founding of the school house ; and as the population increased, school houses were added in different parts of the town ; until now Arena has fifteen separate school districts, and fourteen school buildings, with an attendance of 447 scholars, and their standing is pronounced by the county superintendent to be as advanced as any in the county. BRIGHAM was a portion of the large township of Ridgeway, but the advent of railroads, and the location of stations, has made a business center of the village of Barneveld (the only village in Brigham township) and its enterprising citizens have converted a school section, as it was formerly called, into a busy market town. With the gathering of the various ele- ments of social life, the intellectual needs of a community arc soon felt. The village of Barneveld has a commodious school house, with two departments, while the six districts of the town show eleven school houses, with an attendance of 408 children. CLYDE was first settled in 1849, and in 1850 a private school was held in a carpenter's shop, but in 1851 a small school house was built for the accommodation of the few children living in the section ; and from this schools have continued to increase, until now Clyde supports five school houses in good condition, benefiting 170 children. As the citizens of Clyde realize the importance of competent teachers, they are very generous in giving excellent salaries; consequently, command the best in the countv. 594 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. DODGEVILLE town is coeval with the city, and therefore the early his- tory of the town of Dodgeville as regards education is the same as of the city. The state school system is in force throughout the town, and the number of school districts wholly within the town is ten ; number of school houses, six- teen ; number of children attending school the past year, 466. All the school houses in the township are in excellent condition, and the pupils are stimulated to good work by the excellent and efficient corps of teachers employed. EDEN was originally a part of the township of Highland, but be- came independent at the desire of a majority of the residents in the vicinity. The name of the post-office is Cobb. The Northwestern railroad has a station at this place, which is a flourishing village, with a modern school building, attractive and desirable. It is divided into four departments a high school, two intermediate and two primary. At present there are five school houses in the township, and 259 children in attendance. HIGHLAND is an important mining town and vies with Mineral Point and Dodgeville in the early emigration of miners; but its educational advantages were not developed as early as the others, probably owing to the heterogeneous population, which was constantly fluctuating. The village of Highland has a fine public school, graded according to the established sys- tem. For many years a Roman Catholic school, connected with the church, has had a flourishing existence, and is yet a power in the village. The town of Highland, including the village, reports six districts, eight school houses and 538 pupils. The earliest school house was erected in 1845, and was also used as a Methodist church. The present building has been in use since 1875, and is well arranged and equipped for the three departments into which it is divided. Its man- agement is a credit to Iowa county. LINDEN is an ancient town, as judged by the settlement of Wisconsin. The first immigration was in 1827, when valuable ranges and lodes of mineral were first discovered. The population gradually increased until the breaking out of the Black THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. 595 Hawk war, when the town, for a time, was deserted. But in 1837 a generous immigation was again attracted. Some of the finest farming lands in the county are located in Linden township. The prevailing nationalities are English and Welsh. The first school in the town was held in a Metho- dist church in the present village of Linden, formerly known as "Peddler's Creek," and consisted of twenty children, taught 1 iv Mr. Seaburv. The sturdy miners appreciated the value of early storing the mind with useful knowledge and paid pro rata for their children. There are two villages in this town- ship, Linden and Edmund, and in both villages are well- built school houses, with graded schools, having three de- partments. Much interest is taken in the welfare of their schools by the residents, and from those who have graduated at the high schools many competent teachers are employed in the county. In the township are eight school districts wholly within the the town, and four joint districts. The pupils attending number 503, occupying ten school houses. MINERAL POINT township is also identified with the city. The development of education throughout the area has been steady and progressive, and hardly a mile can be passed over without noticing the neably painted school house. As soon as the pupils are advanced enough to enter the high school in the city, there they are to be found. Number of school districts wholly within the town of Mineral Point is twelve; parts of joint districts, three; school houses existing in 1892, four- teen ; pupils attending, 347. MOSCOW, Iowa county, is principally settled by Scandinavians, and almost as soon as a settlement was made in the town, schools were introduced. The first school (1847) was held in a log cabin, and when the town had an organization, the school house was supplanted by a neat frame building. Since the building of the Illinois Central railroad through the town, several villages have sprung up. In the ten dis- tricts of the town there are nine school houses, accommodat- ing 360 pupils. MIFFLIN, like Linden, and adjoining it, lies in the rich mining belt of Southwest Wisconsin, though the fertile farming lands of Linden township are extended into Miftiin. The first cultivation of the beautiful prairie lands was under- 596 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. taken in 1830 by immigrants from Kentucky, and the rich- est farmers of Iowa county live in the towns of Mifflin and Linden. A large settlement of Welsh occupy a portion of the town, and these sturdy people fully appreciate a good education for their children. The first school was established in 1842 at the village of Mifrlin, also one on the border line of Grant county. Two villages are in the town, Mifrlin and Rewey. The old school house in Mifrlin village has been replaced by a substantial stone structure, which is large enough to comfortably seat 300 children, and is divided into three compartments. This year the report of the county superintendent gives nine school districts in the town and three joint districts ; school houses, nine ; children attending school, 353. The figures include the village of Rewey, which was not platted until 1880, but now has an excellent school building of graded character. PULASKI lies on the banks of the Wisconsin river. It was first settled in the year 1835, for the tilling of the lands of this fertile valle} T , and its present condition of thrift fully meets the expectations of the pioneers. The Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul railroad runs through the village of Pulaski, and also through Avoca, another village in the township. The earliest school was held in a private house, in 1846. Only one room formed the entire house, and the family lived there at the same time that the ten children were being taught their three R's. This school was continued in the same manner until, under the law of 1847, the township was entitled to state or territorial money for school purposes. This was utilized for the purpose of erecting a school house, which was also used for a church and town hall. The vil- lage of Avoca, in this township, was created in 1857, and the first school was taught here the same year, in a primitive log house. In 1858 a new two-story frame school house was built, which now constitutes a wing of the present building, Another wing of equal size was added in 1877. There is a good high school here. The school has three departments, and is well supported and protected by the citizens. The township of Pulaski has five school districts, six school houses, and an attendance of 327 children. RIDGEWAY is the largest town in the county of Iowa, as its area is ten milts from east to west, and eleven miles from north to south. THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. 597 In the township is the highest point of land in the valley of the Mississippi, the West Blue Mound ; many Scandinavians are settled here, and it is the seat of the Lutheran church in Wisconsin. The mining interests are large, and contest with the dairy products in the importance ol exports. The numerous schools in the township are well attended and well patronized. A number of private Lutheran schools are located within its boundaries. Barneveld, the only village in the town, was settled at an early day, but did not arrive at its present importance, until it was made a station on the Northwestern road. Now the village has a good public school, besides a private Lutheran school. Some of the school houses in the township are said to be the best country structures in the county. The earliest school was held in a private house, built of logs, and occupied by one Richard Williams, in 1840. Now the conveniences for educating the youth are literally spread over the entire surface of the township, as the Lutheran schools dot every hamlet, and the strict nature of their methods precludes everything superficial in educating the children under their tutelage. The public schools note an attendance of 261 children. WALDWICK is the center of a large and important agricultural district. As early as 1841 a school of twenty-five children was taught in a private house, by Mr. Grizzle, at a salary of $11.00 per month ; his school only lasted three months, and in 1842 a school house was built. There are now in the town six school houses, with a capacity for 305 children. Six teachers are employed at an average salary of $21.00 per month. Being only a few miles from the city of Mineral Point, chil- dren, even in the lowest grades, enter the city schools. WYOMING nestles in the picturesque valley of the Wisconsin river. Educationally it is superior to a large majority of the county towns. A public school house was built in 1845, when there were but sixteen children, all of school age, in the town. Six neat and attractive school houses have superseded the log structure of 1845, in which 124 pupils are preparing for the race of life. But the school par excellence in Wyoming is "Hillside Home," a private school which was projected and established by the principals and proprietors, the Misses Lloyd-Jones, in 1887, on the site of their home farm, which is charmingly located in the bluff region of the Wisconsin. 598 THE SCHOOLS OF IOWA COUNTY AND MINERAL POINT. Every natural beauty has been enhanced by cultivation The "home" proper is an irregular frame structure, three stories high, after the style of modern architecture, with par- lors, library, music-room, dining-hall, dormitories and small reception rooms, where are displayed samples of the flora and fauna found in the vicinity. Broad porches are on every side, from which can be seen the grand and impressive scenery of the surrounding country, as well as the sloping lawn, level tennis court, gay flower beds, and neighboring farms. This is only one of a group of six buildings, devoted to the "character building" ot its pupils, which is the aim of the institution. The formulated course of study is "an at- tempt to apply the principles of Herbert Spencer, Froebel, and other exponents of the new education." A large corps of teachers is employed, of superior ability ; moral and physi- cal training are added to the intellectual. As a summary of the schools of Iowa county, in this Columbian year, they rank with the best in the state, outside of the large cities, and are still advancing. MRS. J. MONTGOMERY SMITH. Sauk County Schools. I. THE FIHST SCHOOLS, AND THE SYSTEM OF TOWN SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. The educational history of Sauk county naturally falls into two periods, viz.: That of the organization of the first schools, and the system of town school superintendents and the system of county superintendents. What is now called Sauk county was first settled in the year 1838, hy one John Wilson, who located at Wilson's Creek, in what is now the town of Troy. The present Sauk county was then a part of Crawford county. In 1840 it was attached to Dane county, and in 1849 was organized as a separate political division, comprising the towns of Baraboo, Eagle, Honey Creek, Kings- ton, Prairie du Sac and Brooklyn. Even in this chaotic period, the necessity of education was felt, and, soon after the earliest settlements, the school and the school-master appear. The first settlements were made in the town of Troy, at Sauk City, Prairie du Sac, Baraboo and Reedsburg, and we must therefore look to these places for our first schools. BARABOO SCHOOLS. Probably the first school established in Sauk county was the one founded by E. M. Hart, at Baraboo, in the year 1843. It was a private school, and was very humble in its beginnings, but it was prosperous. Soon after a school district was organized and a public school was established, of which Mr. Hart became the first teacher. The principal teachers that succeeded Mr. Hart, until 1850, were R. P. Clement, D. K. Noyes and William Joy. In 1850 a commo- dious frame school house, two stories high, containing three departments, was constructed. This building was used for school purposes until 1868, -when the new high school build- ing was erected. The following were the principal teachers from 1851 to 1862, the beginning of the county superinten; dency system : 1852, D. G. Moore; 1858, George R. Clark - 1854^ Nancy Wyman ; 1855, Mr. Smith ; 1856, J. Lovell ; 1857, S. J. Hart; 1858-1860, A. L. Burnham ; 1861, Mrs. O. W. Fox. During this period the work done by Mr. 596 600 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. Burnham deserves especial mention, since his ability as an instructor and manager made the schools of Baraboo famous for their superiority. During this formative period the many private schools of Baraboo were very popular institutions, because the public schools for various reasons were poor. In addition to the enterprise of Mr. Hart, Miss Marie Train opened a select school in 1854, and conducted it for about two years. Mr. A. Bassett then obtained a charter for a female seminary, and in 1856 it was opened at Baraboo, the first and only school of that kind in Sank county. The school continued under the management of Mary Potter for three years with excellent success. In 1859 Mary Mortimer took charge of it, and it continued to prosper until Mr. Bass- ett, on account of failure in business, was obliged to withdraw his support from the school. In 1854 another institution, known as Cochran's high school, was established by Rev. Warren Cochran. Not long after plans were developed for founding a college, and the Baraboo collegiate institute was incorporated with Warren Cochran as its first principal, and Miss Savage and A. L. Burnham as instructors. After the new college building was erected Professor Pillsbury, of New York, was called to the principalship, but did not serve long. Professor E. F. Hobert, of Beloit college, suc- ceeded him. His abilities soon filled the room of the col- lege with students from various parts of the county and state. Three years later he was succeeded by Professor J. S. Kimball, a Dartmouth graduate, who became sole proprie- tor of the college, which now gradually declined in numbers, in consequence of the development of good free public schools. The district school of Lyons, a suburb of Baraboo, was organ- ized in 1848, and the first school was taught by Daniel Ruggles in 1849. SAUK CITY. The territory of Sauk City and Prairie du Sac was at first united in one school district. No record is now existing to show who was the first teacher, or when the first school house was built, but the district was organized August 7th, 1847, and John Russell was probably the first teacher. Teachers' wages were very low at that time, as one contract with Jane White shows. She was to teach six weeks for $21, and another with J. B. Bates shows that he was to teach for $6 per month and board himself. Joseph Pound, J. B. Quimby, Peter Conrad, Phelinda Stevens and Mr. Lindner were the SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 601 principal teachers during this period. In 1855 the district already possessed a library of 113 volumes, and during the succeeding year thirty volumes of German books were added. In 1853 the district had its first Arbor day, which was prob- ably the first observed in the state. The idea was brought from Germany. Some of the trees planted on that day grace- the school grounds to-day, and are large and beautiful monu- ments of the first Arbor day. Charles Hallasz performed the work of planting the trees. During the period of the town superintendency, school supervision and teachers' examina- tions were easy tasks. It sometimes happened that the super- intendent could neither read nor write, and teachers were obliged to make out their own certificates. At best, they were- only examined in reading, writing, arithmetic and spelling, spelling being generally the most important branch. One- superintendent was known never to examine his teachers in any other branch than spelling. It may be interesting to read a copy of a teacher's certificate issued by one of the best superintendents of the town of Prairie du Sac, which reads as- follows : STATE OF WISCONSIN, ) COUNTY OF SAUK, >-ss. TOWN OP PRAIRIE DU SAC. ) I do hereby certify that I have examined N. S. Ferris, and do believe that he is qualified, in regards to moral character, training and ability, to teach a common school in this town for one year from the date hereof. Given under my hand this 9th day of November, 1854. Signed, CYRUS LELAND, Superintendent of schools, town of Prairie du Sac. In 1857 Edward Schroeder, a teacher from Germany,, founded a private school. He had at first only twelve pupils, but later on the school became quite prosperous. After the public schools became better it had to be discontinued, as was the case everywhere with private schools. In 1854 was opened Turner's French academy, by H. .1. Turner, of Utica, New York. The school at once had about thirty students from many of the best families of the state. For a long time this academy was known as the best French school in the state. PRAIRIE DU SAC. What is said of the early educational history of Sank City, applies to Prairie du Sac, since the two villages at first 602 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. comprised one school district, and were always under the same town superintendents. The most noteworthy educa- tional institution of Prairie du Sac was Lovell's academy, in which many of the best teachers of Sank county received their training. The school was conducted by Prof. L. Lov- ell, a graduate of Yale college, assisted by Harriet I. Lovell. The school continued from 1858 to 1865 with uniform suc- cess. REEDSBURG. The first school in this village was taught by Mrs. Amanda Chase during the school year 1849 and 1850, in the Saxby house. The school reached an enrollment of thirty- one pupils in the winter term. This was a private school, and the next year was discontinued when a public district school was organized. R. M. Strong was the first teacher of the district school. The schools of this village were quite prosperous during this period. In 1854 a private school was founded, known as Barbour's select school, which was con- tinued for two years with good success. In 1856 a large two- story frame school house was erected, which continued in use until 1868, when it was destroyed by fire. Several of the town school superintendents during this period were able men, and were of much service to the schools. HARRISBURG. This village has now ceased to appear on the map of the state, but since it was one of the oldest villages in the county, and in the town of Troy, which was the first to be settled in the county, it deserves at least a passing notice in this sketch. The first school house was built in 1849, and the first school was taught by Lucinda Drew in 1850. James Watson, John Young, Charles Parker, Jacob Remy, James L. High, D. V. Crandall were the principal teachers of this period. Most of the teachers of this school had, for the times, a superior education, some being graduates of academies of Massachusetts, Ohio and other states. Some of the higher branches were taught, and during one year Miss Seymour con- ducted a high school for teachers. CONCLUSION. This period, from the establishment of the first schools in 1843 to the election of the first county superintendent of schools, is rightly called the formative period. It was in many ways a chaotic period, for in those days it was hard to SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 603 find well-qualified teachers, and school supervision was very imperfect. Many of the town school superintendents were not as well qualified as the teachers they were required to examine, but we find germs of good and promise of growth. There were, after all, quite a number of able teachers ; teach- ers ahead of the times and the systems by which they were hampered. Sauk county was especially fortunate in this respect. There were on an average during this period about thirty teachers in the county who had received their educa- tion in the academies of the East, and in some cases in such institutions of learning as the Albany normal school, Yale, Harvard, Dartmouth, Trinity college (Dublin), and some other European institutions. Schools in which the alphabet and algebra were taught in the same room were quite com- mon, and many of the pupils who attended the schools were of a maturer age, some twenty years old or more. These pupils had received their primary training on the farm, in close contact with nature, and so had, in some essential re- spects, a better preparation than many primary schools of the present day offer. The teachers of those days were also of maturer age and in many cases did more vigorous work than the boy or girl teacher of the present. All in all, this period was not so bad educationally as some modern teachers" are prone to imagine. II. THE SYSTEM OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENCE. With January first, of the year 1862, a new school era opened in the educational history of Sauk county. It was at least a beginning of system. It is thought best to treat the rest of the educational history of this county by epochs, making one for each superintendent's administration. J. W. Morley was the first county superintendent of school in Sauk county and assumed the duties of the office January 1st, 1862. He was a graduate of an Ohio seminary, and a teacher of considerable experience. Sauk county owes much to his organizing talent. As the first superintendent, he had to bring system into the chaos, and to accustom the schools to supervision and the teachers to new methods and new standards. Knowing the value of training, Mr. Morley organized and conducted the first teachers' institute, at Del- ton, and continued it for four weeks. This was undoubtedly one of the most profitable institutes ever held in the county. Mr. Morley was an untiring inspector of the schools, and a judicious supervisor. He was a fair though not rigid examiner. 604 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. The experience of the teachers at examination was quite varied. Some, who had passed rigid examinations under well- qualified town superintendents, found the county examina- tion easy; while others complained bitterly of the new and unjust system. Mr. Morley served the county in this capacity for four years, and though not now teaching, still takes a deep interest in our educational affairs. Robert B. Crandall assumed the duties of the office of county superintendent of schools January 1st, 1866. Mr. Crandall had previously been a teacher, and his re-election for a second term testifies to the fact that he did his work satisfactorily to the majority of the people. The records of the office of superintendent during his incumbency were not kept in books, and consequently have been lost or destroyed ; but little can be satisfactorily ascertained about his work. After retiring from office Mr. Crandall was for a time prin- cipal of the Kilbourn City high school. Nothing new seems to have been introduced during this administration, except the option system in examinations. Under this system teachers were given from fifteen to thirty-five questions on each branch of study and were allowed to chose any ten of these to write on. In this way nearly all obtained high 'standings. With the beginning of the year 1870, Charles F. Vie- bahn entered upon the duties of the superintendent's office. Mr. Viebahn came to the office eminently well qualified ; he was a college man and held an unlimited state teacher's cer- tificate, which was also the first that had ever been granted in the state of Wisconsin. Men of Mr. Viebahn's qualifications were indeed rare in those times. His term of office is noted for his searching school inspections and his rigorous teachers' examinations, which made him many enemies. The people of Sauk county are now better able to appreciate the value of this effort to secure better qualified teachers, and they now love Mr. Viebahn for the enemies he made. His next step was to present to each school board of the county his famous "Regulations for school management," which provided for 1, permanent classification; 2, examinations and promotions at the end of each term ; 3, keeping of register and class record ; 4, weekly reviews, which were to be both oral and in writing; 5, the keeping of written examination and re- view papers for the superintendent's inspection ; 6, com- plete weekly reports of teachers to parents; 7, rules of order to govern schools; 8, legal adoption of text books. SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 605 The greatest act of this administration was the adoption of a wisely arranged course of study, which was no doubt the first of the kind in the state of Wisconsin. Language and arith- metic were made the basis of classification in this course, and parallel to these, work in the other branches of study was provided for. Institute work was vigorously pushed during this term and also teachers' reading. One of the famous regulations during this term was that teachers should conduct their recitations withoui using a text-book. Those that followed this regulation say that they were much benefited by it. Mr. Viebahn was also the pioneer in beginning to keep a permanent record in book form of all the proceedings of his office. It is hard to understand how he could inaugurate so many well-planned reforms in so short a time, and also attend so closely to all the minor details of the office, as he did. He will be long remembered as the great reformer of the educational affairs of Sauk county. Since retiring from this office, Mr. Viebahn has been principal of the Sauk city and Manitowoc high schools, and is now the city superin- tendent of Watertown, Wisconsin. Moses Young assumed the duties of office January 1st, 1872, but did not perform any of the duties of his office and resigned in March of the same year, because he was not an educational man. The state department of instruction was then petitioned to appoint J. H. Terry, of Spring Green, to fill the vacancy. He entered upon his duties March 16th, 1872. Mr. Terry was a teacher by profession, being a grad- uate of the famous Albany normal school. At the time of his appointment he was principal of the Spring Green acad- emy, which was discontinued until he resigned the office of superintendent. Mr. Terry continued nearly all of the reforms of his predecessor, but did not spend as much time in school visitation, for in the twenty months of his incumb- ency he had not yet visited all the schools once. He con- sidered it his greatest object to arouse interest in school affairs and endeavored to do this by lecturing and writing for local papers of the county, as well as by means of circu- lars to the school boards and to the teachers. He had the county divided into five lecture circuits, in each of which he delivered lectures, from time to time, on educational topics. He also made it his especial business to confer with school boards and patrons on school matters while upon his lecture tours. Institute work was especially prosperous during his 606 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. term, since he was an able conductor himself and did not depend much on outside assistance. The number of school districts in the county at that time was 159, the number of teachers required at one time to teach the schools 179, but the whole number of different teachers required to teach all the schools during the year was 295. The average wages of male teachers was $41. 39, while that of the female teachers was only $26.40. The number of persons over twenty years of age attending school was fifty-four. The length of the institute terms was twenty days, and the attendance averaged sixty- five members per institute. Mr. Terry resigned his position in the autumn of 1873, as he found most of his salary absorbed by his traveling expenses ; and he resumed work as a teacher. In his last report to the county board of supervisors, he urged upon them the need and wisdom of paying a higher salary to the county superintendent. December 3d, 1873, James T. Lunn, being appointed by the state superintendent, took the oath of office. Mr. Lunn was also the superintendent-elect for the succeeding term. He was well qualified for the position, being a teacher of large experience in various kinds of schools, from the common school up to a high school. He had been principal of schools at Ironton and Richland Center, and teacher in the Baraboo schools. His opportunities for securing an education in our public schools had been very limited, but he had already ob- tained a limited state certificate when he assumed his posi- tion, and soon after obtained the unlimited state certificate. He therefore was, almost wholly, a self-made man. Mr. Lunn's administration was a vigorous one. He drew the reins tighter than they had ever been drawn before. His school inspection was sharp and searching, and his teachers' examinations rigid and critical. Again complaints went up from disappointed teachers who had failed at examination, but the people had learned a lesson since Mr. Viebahn 's ad- ministration, and were unwilling now to condemn a super- intendent for rendering them service by weeding out poor teachers. As a result Mr. Lunn grew in popularity among the people. Early in his administration he introduced the plan of requiring full reports from the teachers of their re- spective schools, to be made to the superintendent and the dis- trict clerk of their district. During the year of 1877 to '78 teachers' wages averaged as follows: Males to principals of schools of over two departments, $105.47; to principals of schools of only two departments, $47.75; to teachers of SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 607 schools of one department, &33.30. Females to assistants in graded schools, $32.66; to teachers of schools of one de- partment, 24.68. During this year the course of study for country schools was placed in the hands of teachers and its adoption urged upon school boards. Teachers were urgently requested to grade their schools according to it. Institute and association work was raised to its maximum, both as to attendance and quality of work done. Mr. Lunn's presence at any of these gatherings seemed always to be an inspira- tion. During this year 1,238 volumes are reported as belong- ing to the school libraries of the county, over one-third of which belonged to Prairie du Sac. Thirteen towns had not even a single volume. In his report of 1880, Mr. Lunn has this to say about the course of study: " The course of study for country schools has been persistently pushed for trial. Interested observers have long lamented that few terms' work have much relevancy to what preceded or follows them un- der different teachers; and also that many pupils, especially boys, spend most of their time in ' doing sums.' Instead of taking a fairly rounded course of several branches of study, reading and spelling are merely glanced at a few minutes each day, while grammar and history, and other studies are considered useless, or too flimsy for their giant intellects, which require the stern logic of mathematics, of which it is safe to say they know little more at twenty than at ten years of age." During the year 1881 Sauk county had its first graduates from the country schools that passed the ex- amination as required by the course of study. They were twelve in number. Every year after this there have been pupils to graduate. During the same years was also established a "teachers' course of reading," which provided four years' work with a proper selection of four books for each year. The reading of teachers' periodicals was also pushed to quite an extent, so that during one teachers' institute alone, Mr Lunn took subscriptions for such papers to the value of $71. About this time a school register and classification record, according to the plans of the Wisconsin course of study, was prepared by Mr. Lunn. It certainly did a great deal for the schools in helping to establish the course of study for country schools. Mr. Lunn served Sauk county as superintendent of schools for eleven years and one month, and a more untiring superintendent this county has never had. January 1st, 1885, Elvin C. Wiswall became county 608 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. superintendent of schools. Mr. Wiswall was well quali- fied for the position; an excellent scholar, a teacher of considerable experience, and a graduate of the state univer- sity. He had taught in country schools of the county, and had been principal of the SaukCity and the Prairie du Sac high schools, and held an unlimited state teacher's certificate. Mr. Wiswall acted wisely in making provision for the continuance of all worthy plans which had been introduced by his predecessors, especially those of his immediate pre- decessor, J. T. Lunn. In 1885 the number of children of school age was 9,484, excluding the city of Baraboo; the en- rollment in the schools was 6,430, and the average attendance of each pupil enrolled was 74 days. The number of teachers required to fill the schools at one time was 186, but the whole number of engagements made still reached the num- ber of 263. During this administration many new school buildings were erected, and many supplied with better seat- ing and apparatus. In 1885 the number of graduates from the common schools reached twenty-five. The work of teach- ers' institutes and associations was well managed, so that from year to year there has been a manifest improvement in the quality of work done at these gatherings. Mr. Wiswall always assisted in conducting the institutes held in the county. He made special effort to derive all the benefits that could be obtained from the " teachers' reading circle movement," and soon swelled the number of those prosecut- ing the work to 144, which was the largest of any county in the state. When the expense involved in this scheme is con- sidered, it seems surprising that it attained such success. During all his administration considerable effort was made to keep all pupils employed during school hours. It re- quired considerable time, patience, and energy to train and advise teachers about methods and devices in providing <; busy work " for the little ones, but in time, by constant effort, much was accomplished. The plan of reporting to district clerks the condition of the school as found by the inspection, was tried for some time, but the heedlessness of many of these officials made this information of little effect. Arbor day received appropriate attention, and in the course of a few years nearly all of the schools began to observe it regularly. In many school districts much has been accomplished in beautifying the school grounds. There are to-day thousands of trees and shrubs which have been planted since the first Arbor day was observed in this county. In 1887 a circular SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 609 -was issued to all the schools of the county calling for work in writing and drawing, which was to be exhibited at the National educational exposition at Chicago. Most of the schools, including some of the high schools, responded, and considerable material for an exhibit was obtained. The display at the exposition was a credit to the county. The same exhibit also appeared at the annual county fair and at the session of the Sauk county educational association at Reedsburg. The town library law found in Mr. Wiswall a warm supporter, and in a few years the plan was adopted by quite a number of the towns. The progress of the schools during this administration was all that could be expected, and very much of the progress was directly due to the wise management of the superin- tendent. Mr. Wiswall served six years, and during this time also served as member of the state board of examiners for state teachers' certificates, and also frequently as institute conductor outside of the county. Since retiring from this office he has been principal of the Marinette high school, and is now the city superintendent and principal of the high school at Baraboo. W. H. Schulz became superintendent of schools January 1st, 1891. Mr. Schulz is a self-made man. His opportunities of attending school were limited to seventeen months. After being licensed to teach he worked himself up through all the grades of county certificates, and then to an unlimited state teacher's certificate. He came to the office with twelve years' successful experience in country and graded schools, and at the time of his election he was principal of the Argyle high school. Mr. Schulz's endeavor has been to continue in operation, and, where possible, to develop more fully the plans of his predecessors, especially in establishing the course of study more fully, and making institute work more effective. Dur- ing 1891 the whole number of school districts was 163 ; num- ber of teachers required to fill the schools at one time, 181 ; the whole number of teachers' contracts made during the year, 250 ; the whole number of children between four and twenty, 9,158 ; average wages of male teachers, $36.50 ; female teachers, $27.50 ; 105 districts that have adopted text books; fifty-three have rules of school government; 149 Webster's dictionaries ; ninety-six supplied with outline maps ; ninety-eight with globes; thirteen towns h-ive the library system. The amount of money spent for school purposes 610 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. was $55,090.02 for the year. Arbor day observation has now become universal for the schools of the county, and 675 trees, mostly evergreens, were planted in one year, besides innumer- able shrubs and flowers. One pupil from each school is re- quired to report the doings and programme of the Arbor day exercises to the superintendent. Two examinations for graduation from the country schools are now held during the year, and on an average about seventy-five pass the examination each year. Graduation exercises are held in each school that has graduates, and one of the graduates is required to report the exercises to the superintendent. A study of the records of the superintendent's office reveals the following facts : 1. That more than half of the teachers that have graduates in any year have had graduates in former years. 2. That two-thirds of the teachers having graduates hold higher grades of certificates, and most of the remainder are teachers of considerable experience ; hence it is safe to conclude that higher qualifications and experience- make the eminently successful teachers. The work of the regular teachers' institutes is kept up to its former standard of excellency. A new plan for local teachers' institutes has been introduced to take the place of the former teachers' meetings or associations. The plan provides for four such local institutes at each of fifteen different places in the county,, with one principal conductor and six assistant conductors at each place. The scheme has been exceedingly successful, since it provides work for nearly all the teachers of the county in one way or another, and it has been a success in getting nearly all interested in institute work. Summer re- view schools have been held in the county during 1890 and '91, with uniform success. The one held at Spring Green in 1891 was the largest ever held in the state and had an attendance of 130 ; over seventy pursued higher branches. W. A. Cundy and W. H. Schulz were the principals. Now over one-third of the teachers of Sauk county hold the higher grades of certificates and the number aspiring for such is constantly increasing. An educational exhibit was held in connection witli the annual county fair in September, 1892, at which 5,300 productions, from various schools of the county, were exhibited. On the whole the exhibit reflected much credit on the teachers and pupils of the schools of Sauk county. Some of these productions will be on exhibit at the World's fair at Chicago in 1893. Mr. Schulz has also given much attention to the constant and profitable employment of the SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 611 little ones, and to aid his teachers has written a little volume on "Systematic busy work and manual training." He i& also the author of another work on the science and art of teaching United States history, which is steadily growing in popularity. Mr. Schulz has been re-elected for a second term, and is the present incumbent. INSTITUTIONS. A brief review of the establishment and growth of some of the most noted schools during the county superin- tendents' period will bring this sketch to a close. BARABOO. The graded schools of this village kept steadily grow- ing in enrollment and in departments. In 1862 D. N. Hitchcock was principal, and from 1865 to 1867 John Barker, and after him James T. Lunn, later county superin- tendent of schools. J. M. True was the principal during 1869 and taught the' last year as principal of the Baraboo graded schools, for during the next year the Baraboo high school was organized with Isaac A. Sabin as principal, who taught for two years. C. A. Hutchins, now assistant state superintendent, succeeded Mr. Sabin. He made many needed improvements in the school. T. H. Terry took charge of the school in 1873. In 1874 W. A. Willis was elected principal, and was retained for ten years, and until he was called to Iowa City, Iowa, where he still remains. Mr. Cabeen, his assistant, succeeded him for one year, and was followed by W. J. Brier, now professor in the River Falls normal school. Mr. Brier remained at the head of the Baraboo schools for three years and left to take his present position at River Falls. In 1889 L. H. Clark, now also a professor in the River Falls normal, was elected principal and city superintendent. In 1891 Mr. Clark was appointed high school inspector of the state of Wisconsin, and E. C. Wis- wall, the present incumbent, succeeded him. Besides the pub- lic schools of this city, another institution deserves attention. A kindergarten school was started by Grace Grossman, in 1874, who conducted it for one year. Miss Grossman was succeeded by Miss Crandall, who continued the school until 1891. This was one of the first schools of this kind in the state and for a long time was one of the most successful. 612 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. REEDSBURG. During this period A. P. Ellinwood, Albert Earthman, J. H. Gould, J. L. Thomas, Edwin Marsh, J. Boyle and Allen B. West have been principals of the high school. Mr. West has given such satisfaction that he has held this position for ten years and is the present incumbent. Mrs. Perry was the first city superintendent. Then James Stone served for two years, and by his searching inspection made many improve- ments. Orie E. Ramsey is now holding this office, and is making her service valuable by the interest she takes in the work. During the year 1868 the fine school building erected in 1856 burned down. During the same year a new structure was erected at a cost of $5,500. Albert Earthman was the first principal to take charge of the schools in the new build- ing. The high school was organized in 1870. The school has a library of 350 volumes, and physical and chemical ap- paratus valued at $100. There are two parochial schools in the city: The Lutheran school, with an enrollment of 115 pupils, and the St. Peter's school (German), with an enroll- ment of 30. SAUK CITY. The principals of the Sauk City graded schools from 1867 to 1877, in their proper order, were, C. F. Viebahn, Herman Studer, W. F. Bundy, John Nagle, John Molholland and W. F. Bundy. In 3877 the Sauk City high school was organ- ized and Mr. Bundy was elected first principal. He was fol- lowed by E. C. Wiswall, C. F. Ninman, B. F. Schubert and J. S. Roeseler, the present incumbent. The schools of Sauk City have always been noted in Sauk county and even abroad for their superior management and instruction. Hav- ing had the service of many of the best teachers of the state, this is not at all surprising. The school library contains 575 volumes of the best reference books, and the physical and chemical apparatus is valued at $400. Sauk City has a new high school building, which was erected in 1891 at a cost of about $6,000. It is one of the most convenient structures in the county. German has always been taught in this school. This sketch would not be complete without the mention of the Honorable C. C. Kuntz, who lives at this place. Although Mr. Kuntz never taught school much, he has been one of the greatest promoters of education in the state of Wisconsin. Mr. Kuntz was born in Germany, and is a graduate of a German teachers' seminary. He has been five times elected SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 613 as a member of our state legislature, generally serving as chairman of the committee on education. His first effort was to have the state establish county normal schools for teachers; failing in this he began to advocate the establish- ment of high schools, and finally succeeded. He was the author of numerous bills affecting our common schools, nor- mal schools and even our state university. PRAIRIE DU SAC. James O. Buckley was one of the most noted of the principals of the Prairie du Sac graded schools and had charge of them for three years. In 1887 a high school was organized. John Jones and J. F. Bergen have been the high school principals. The high school is now in charge of Mr. Bergen. The library numbers about 250 volumes, and the physical and chemical apparatus is valued at about $150. Prairie du Sac has a new high school building, which was erected in 1891 at a cost of $10,000. This is one of the finest buildings of the kind in the county. SPRING GREEN. This little village first became known educationally through the reputation of Prof. J. H. Terry's academy, which was conducted by him during a part of the sixties and seventies, with the exception of a short period of twenty months while he seived as county superintendent of schools of Sauk county. In this academy many of the best teachers of this county received their education. In 1877 a new high school building was erected and a high school organized. Mr. De La Matyr became the first principal of the high school and had charge of it for six years. G. W. Reigle fol- lowed him. In 1886 J. H. Terry, the former principal of the academy, took charge of the school and two years later W. A. Cundy. During Mr. Cundy's administration the number of foreign pupils increased to about forty. Since then J. D. Rouse has been principal. The number of graduates in 1892 was twentv, which is the largest class ever graduated in Sauk county. "During 1890, 1891 and L892, summer review schools were held at this place, the one of 1891 being the largest in the state. BLACK HAWK and its vicinity has long been noted for the high qual- ity of its schools. It always has more students at high schools, normal schools, colleges and universities than any 614 SAUK COUNTY SCHOOLS. other place of the county. At one time there were twelve students at the university of Wisconsin alone, not counting those at other institutions of learning. Here also resides Captain W. S. McCready, one of the oldest and most success- ful teachers of the county. He has, no doubt, had more pupils that have taken courses in higher institutions of learn- ing than any other teacher of this county. From the preceding sketches it will be seen that in many reforms in educational affairs Sauk- county was the pioneer, and now stands foremost among her sister counties, yet the margin for improvement is still very, very broad. What has been accomplished is largely due to the early in- fluence of the academy and college-trained young men and women who settled in this county at an early date ; the strong educational sentiment of its large foreign population, mostly German; the large number of graded and high schools of the county, which are fifteen in number; and the able superintendents of schools during the past twenty-two years, during which time all had the qualifications requisite for a principal of a high school, and last, but not least, to the influence of such men as C. C. Kuntz and W. S. McCready. W. H. SCHULZ. Polk County Schools.. FIRST SETTLEMENT. In September, 1837, just after the treaty was made with the Ojibways ceding the St. Croix valley to the general gov- ernment, Mr. Franklin Steele and Dr. Fitch, accompanied by a number of employees, came up the St. Croix river to the head of navigation and took up two land claims on the eastern bank, including the falls. The men were immedi- ately employed in the erection of a log house on each claim; and when the work was completed they returned to Fort Snelling, from whence they came. In the spring Messrs, Steele and Fitch went to St. Louis, where a co-partnership was formed by Messrs. Steele, Fitch, Libbey, Hungerford, Livingston, Hill and Holcombe, and named the St. Croix Falls lumber company. Calvin A. Tut- tle was chosen millwright, and the company made immedi- ate preparation for the erection of a dam and saw mill at St. Croix Falls. The "Palmyra," which carried the company, crew, provisions and necessary material for the erection of the mill, was the first steamer that navigated the St. Croix river. The company flourished, and in a short time men brought their families, and homes were established. Soon after this settlement was formed, farms were opened in the vicinity. SECOND SETTLEMENT. In 1844 M. N. Nobles and L. N. S. Parker laid claim to the present site of the village of Osceola. A mill company was formed and a saw-mill was completed in 1845. It was located on the St. Croix river, at the mouth of Osceola creek. About this mill a settlement was formed and in a short time other occupations attracted the attention of the people. The little village and the country in the vicinity were called Le Roy, in honor of Le Roy Hubble. The rich prairie lands to the south and east invited those who sought permanent homes. The first settler on the southern prairie was Har- mon Crandle, in 1848. and the second was William Town. Many of those who came in 1850, or a little later, still live there and are now well-to-do farmers. 615 616 POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. FIRST SCHOOLS. The first school taught within the present limits of the- county was in St. Croix Falls, by Mrs. Tainter, of Prairie du Chien, in 1848. It was a private school taught in a room of one of the first dwellings. She was paid by voluntary contri- butions and " boarded around." The school was continued on the same plan by '"Doc" Jones in 1849, Ansel Smith, 1850; Miss H. Thomson, 1851 , and by Miss Amanda McCarthy (Mrs. Ay era), in 1852. In March, 1853, by an act of the legislature that portion of St. Croix county north of township 31 was set off as a new county and named Polk, in honor of Ex-President James K. Polk. It extended to Lake Superior on the north, and in- cluded the present Chippewa, Sawyer and Ashland counties on the east. From time to time new counties have been formed from this territory until at present it includes that portion on the western boundary of Wisconsin which lies north of St. Croix county west of range 14, west and south of township 38 north, ranges 15, 16, 17, and township 37, ranges 18, 19 and 20. It contains twenty-four whole and five fractional townships. At the organization there were but two towns, St. Croix Falls including the northern part and Le Roy the southern. Town superintendents were chosen to take supervision of the educational work, but noth- ing was done that year. The county seat was located at St. Croix Falls, but at the first election it was removed to LeRoy. During the summer of 1853 the second school in the county was taught in Le Roy, now district No. 1 of Farm- ington, by Miss Amanda Scott. She had received her edu- cation in the East, and had had considerable experience in teaching. This was also a private school taught in a small log house belonging to Mr. Tea. There were about ten chil- dren, and little ones who went to school for the first time were taught from McGuffey's spelling book. THE FIRST PUBLIC SCHOOLS. In the spring of 1854 two school districts were organized in the town of Le Roy, and one in the town of St. Croix Falls; and schools were taught in these districts during the summer. These were the first public schools taught in the county. In the fall a third school district was formed, east of the village, in Le Roy, where a school was taught the fol- lowing winter. The following are copies of the first two- annual school reports : POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 617 To THE CLERK OP THE BOARD OP SUPERVISORS OF THE COUNTY OF POLK. Annual report of the town superintendent of schools -of the town of Falls of St. Croix, in the county of Polk, for the year ending on the 31st day of August, A. D. 1854. Dated October 1st, 1854. There has been one district set off within said town called district No. 1, from which we have received an annual report dated Sept. 1st, 1854. The number of months school has been taught by competent teachers 6 Number of children taught ... 40 Number of children residing in the district on the 31st day of August over four and under twenty years of age 36 Number of male children resident on August 31 23 Number of female children resident on August 31 13 The school has been taught by females. The average amount of wages per month $ 18 00 The whole amount of money received and paid to teachers has been by tax and voluntary subscription 108 00 There has as yet been no money raised for school house or books for a library. There has been no set of school books introduced into the school. As to the other items set forth in the form for an annual re- port, I have nothing to report. L. B. SMITH, Town superintendent of schools in said town of St. Croix Falls. 2. To THE CLERK OF THE BOARD OF SUPERVISORS OF THE COUNTY OF POLK. Annual report of the town superintendent of schools of the town of Le Roy in the county of Polk, for the year ending on the 31st day of August, A. D. 1854. Number of months school has been taught in each of said districts by a qualified teacher: In school district number 1 3 " " " " 2 3 Number of children residing in each district on the 31st day of August last, over the age of four and under the age of twenty vears : District number 1 23 " 2 25 3 23 71 618 POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. Number of male children residing in all of said districts 30 female " .... 41 Whole number of children residing in town over the age of four and under the age of twenty years 71 Number of children taught in all of said districts 43- The whole of the time schools have been taught in said town has been by qualified female teachers. Average wages per month $13 00 No money has been received by me. The amount raised by tax and expended in said district from which reports have been received by me is as follows : For teachers' wages $126 00 " stove 1500 ' ' contingent expenses 25 00 There are no school houses in said town owned by the school districts. Dated at Le Roy, October 10th, A. D. 1854. ISAAC W. HALE, Town superintendent, common schools. The first school in the present village of Osceola (then district No. 2, Le Roy) was taught by VV. A. Talboys in 1854 in a frame building erected by the Kent Brothers, and for several years loaned to the district. Mr. Talboys received a common school education in England, from whence he came in 1852, and prior to his teaching was employed as a book- keeper for the Kent Brothers, then the principal business men of the place. He did not follow teaching as a business. Osceola has been his home until about six years ago, when he engaged in business with his son in St. Paul. In 1858 the first school building in the county was erected in Saint Croix Falls at a cost of $1,000 and a new district was formed north of the village. During the same year Le Roy was divided into three towns. The .Northern town was named Osceola, the southwestern Fartnington, and the southeastern Alden. At this time Osceola had three schools, one in the village, another east of the village and the third north of the village. Farmington had but one school district, and that built an $800 school house that year the second school building in the count} 7 . In the spring of this year two new school districts were organized in the town of Alden and schools were maintained that summer. The school in district No. 1, known as the " Horse Creek n school, was taught by Miss Pauline Williams, and the school in district No. 2, known as the "Wagon Landing" school,. POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 619 was taught by Mrs. A. B. Peabody, in the original " shanty " built on Varnum Kittel's place (I think this is the first build- ing in the town of Alden). Mrs. Peabody is a lady of rare talents and has even since been an influence for the upbuild- ing of the young people of that community. She still lives in district No. 2, and has ever since the teaching of that school, with the exception of three years during which her husband served as pastor of Saint Paul's church at Plymouth,. Sheboygan county. Her husband, Rev. A. B. Peabody, was the first superintendent in the town of Alden. Prominent among the early educators in the village of Osceola was Miss E. Resell Fisk, who received special train- ing for teaching in Olean, N. Y., and taught four terms in succession in the village school, beginning May, 1857. She established the first school- exhibition, projected the first ly- ceum plan, and succeeded in interesting the people in school and educational work. She has a local reputation as writer of prose and verse. TOWN SUPERINTENDENTS. While the schools were under the supervision of town superintendents the examination of teachers received but little attention. The teacher would first secure the school, and when she and the superintendent found it convenient they would meet (usually at the superintendent's house), for examination. If the teacher was examined at all it was orally, and the questions were very simple. Very often the superintendent would dismiss the candidate with, " Well, I guess you know more about these things than I do," and grant the certificate. There was no set time for examina- tions, but they were granted upon demand. The principal part of the superintendent's work was to grant certificates and make out the annual report. The superintendents could not afford to spend much time in school supervision,, had they possessed the ability and interest, because they were very poorly paid for their services. COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. In the fall of 1861 Hon. Henry D. Barron was elected first county superintendent. He was at the same time elected to the assembly and, as he was then one of the most promi- nent men in the St. Croix valley, he found his time so fully occupied that he had none to devote to the interest of the schools, hence he resigned and Rev. Samuel T. Catlin, of Osceola, was appointed to fill the vacancy. 620 POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. In the fall of 1863 Robert H. Clark was elected superin- tendent. He was a man of strong personality, and a teacher by profession. He had the interest of the schools at heart, and was an inspiration to both teacher and pupils when he visited the schools. He served six years, and during his superintendency the real work of school supervision was es- tablished. He organized the first teachers' association, and the first thorough and written examination' of teachers was then instituted. The first settlers of the county were Americans, or peo- ple from the Eastern states thoroughly Americanized, and it was not until Superintendent Clark's last term of office that the foreigners commenced making settlements. To them much credit is due for the rapidity with which the heavily timbered and rough portions of the county have been opened into beautiful farms. There are at present large settlements of Scandinavians, Irish, Germans and French. The Scandi- navian population is at present the largest in the county. In 1869 Charles E. Mears was elected county superin- tendent and held the office six years. He had been one of the leading teachers in the county before his election, and was perfectly acquainted with the work of his predecessor and the needs of the schools. During his administration the teachers' associations met annually in three days' sessions in the spring. They had a constitution, and admission and membership fees were paid. The proceeds of these were used in the purchase of library books. The library increased to about fifty volumes. Mr. Mears was thorough in his work and the schools prospered under his supervision. In the fall of 1875 J. W. Dean, of Black Brook, was elected to the superintendency and served one term. He was also a prominent teacher and interested in educational work. He followed the work of his predecessors. His suc- cessor was Mr. Tozer of Little Falls, town of Alden. He had received his education in the East, and had taught in Maine, and for several years in Polk county. He was considered an excellent teacher and was liked as county superintendent. Mr. H. B. Dike, of Osceola, was superintendent two terms, from 1880 to 1885, inclusive. He was a teacher and lawyer by profession. He is at present a prominent lawyer in Osceola, and our present assemblyman. At the close of his second term Mr. Tozer was re-elected and served one term. In 1886 Mr. L. B. Dresser, of St. Croix Falls, was elected nnd served two terms. He is a graduate of Valparaiso and POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 621 was principal of the school at St. Croix Falls before his elec- tion. He is at present one of the leading merchants in St. Croix Falls. GROWTH OF THE SCHOOLS. The following table shows the growth of the schools: YEAR. No. of Towns No. of Districts. No. of school houses. Children of school age. Ave. wages of male teachers Ave. wages of female teachers 1860 . .. 4 12 9 348 $234 00 $ 164 00 1866 6 21 16 630 414 00 23400 1870 .... 10 31 31 1,191 394 00 304 00 1875 1880 13 19 54 71 50 71 2,381 3,523 384 00 344 00 32400 281 00 1885 19 84 84 4,418 394 00 304 00 1891 \ 23 & f 98 99 5,175 394 00 304 00 1892 J3vlgs \ 98 100 5,246 414 00 32400 Our first school houses were nearly all small log build- ings. These have gradually been replaced by good, comfortable frame buildings, and the long, home-made benches by the comfortable patent school desks. Our school houses are nearly all sufficiently comfortable to enable teachers to do good work. TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. Since 1875 the teachers' association had several times almost died, and then revived again for a short time. The library had been reduced to sixteen volumes, and they were not in circulation. In January, 1891, a meeting of the teachers was called by the county superintendent, and a new association was organized, to consist of all the teachers in the county, and to be free to all without fees or dues. This asso- ciation had its regular meetings about once a month for the discussion and consideration of practical school questions. Owing to the size of the county and the 'few railroad accom- modations, the teachers found it very difficult to attend the meetings, hence at our first meeting, in 1892, the association divided itself into five local associations, which were to work under the supervision of the county superintendent, and re- port at the close of each meeting to said officer. The work of the Wisconsin reading circle was taken up in connection with the regular association work. Eight meetings for the year were planned immediately, and the programmes for all the meetings were issued the next week. The associations now meet at five different places on the same days, and all use the same programmes. 622 POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. ARBOR DAY AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. The history of the observance of Arbor day practically begins with the spring of 1891, though it had been observed by individual schools prior to this. The observance was not general, however, until the spring of 1892. The Arbor day prize offered by the governor, in 1891, was sought by many, but received by district No. 4, Eureka. The teacher, Mr. John E. Hale, deserves much credit for the will with which he worked and the influence he brought to bear upon the children and the people of the district. His work in this case is only an exemplification of all his work as a teacher. The history of our first school library dates back to 1861. It was in the town of Sterling and valued at $1.50. The growth of school libraries has been very slow. In the past we have had several district libraries, but the books were not always selected with care, and have never been used advantageously. The growth of the town library has been more rapid during the past two years than ever before. There are at present twenty-three towns and three incorporated villages in the county, and fourteen of these towns and all the vil- lages have libraries at present. This growth, as well as the Arbor day movement, is the result of the work done by our state superintendent, Hon. 0. E. Wells. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. Polk county has tried the township system of school government and made a failure of it, hence all our schools are at present under the district system. Our officers are often negligent in regard to their school duties, owing to the fact that they are human, and do not enjoy working without compensation. During the past two years special attention has been given to improved methods of teaching; plan and prepara- tion of work by the teachers ; records of work done, and education for the work. SUMMER SCHOOLS. The first summer school for teachers was held at St. Croix Falls in the summer of 1891 and the second in 1892- The first was conducted by Messrs. H. M. Coldren, F. S- Hyer and George W. Walker, and the second by Messrs. Coldren, Hyer and F. B. Webster. The work was planned with the superintendent, and an attempt was made to make it as practical as possible. POLK COUNTY SCHOOLS. 623 INSTITUTES. State normal institutes have been held regularly and have been a source of much good. They have been the means of keeping the teachers in contact with the work out- side of the county, and sources of inspiiation to those who have a desire to make advancement. The institute is the strongest link in the chain which unites the county schools of the state. May it long live and do good ! The present county superintendent of Polk county is Miss Carrie Asp, the writer of this article, who will be super- seded by Mr. H. M. Coldren, of St. Croix Falls, in January, 1893. Mr. Coldren is a college graduate and has been prin- cipal of the schools at St. Croix Falls about four years. He is well qualified for the work, and we hope the educational interests of the county will prosper. CARRIE ASP. St. Croix County Schools. St. Croix county is unfortunate in having on file no records of its schools previous to the year 1874. Such facts as are given in the following sketch of the early history of its schools have been gathered under many difficulties. The first settlement in the county was made at Hudson, and here the first school was maintained. This place was early incorporated as a city, with a school system separate from the rest of the county, and no further mention will be made of it in this history of the county schools. Originally the county embraced a large extent of terri- tory, but the legislature of 1853 gave it its present bounda- ries, extending from Polk county on the north to Pierce on the south, a distance of 24 miles, and from 'the St. Croix river on the west to Dunn county on the east, a distance of 30 miles. At this time there were organized within its boun- daries but three towns, and these in the southwestern part. The early settlers were mostly from the Eastern states and valued schools, so we find schools established as soon as pos- sible in the different settlements. As early as the summer of 1852 a school was kept in a private house in the town of Kinnickinnic by a Mrs. Lynch. Again, in 1853, Miss Van Meter, now Mrs. Dyer, of Hudson, kept the school, receiving for her services $8 a month and her board. In the fall of that year a school house was built in the district, and school regularly kept from that time on. In 1855 another district was organized in the town, a school house built, and school regularly maintained. From 1853 the county was rapidly settled, new towns organized and school districts formed. In 1860 there were sixteen towns, and about forty school districts. The first school in the village of New Richmond was kept in a store in 1856. A school house was built in 1858, and a second, and much better building, in 1863. The schools at this time were under the direction of town superintendents, as were the schools throughout the state. In 1861 a change was made in the system, and 624 ST. CROIX COUNTY SCHOOLS. 625 county superintendents were placed in charge of the schools, and the first superintendent for the whole of St. Croix county was elected in the fall of that year. The following is the list of superintendents : Dr. J. N. Van Slyke, Hudson, 1862-63 ; Prof. A. H. Weld, Troy, 1864- 69 ; E. S. Reed, 1870-71 ; J. R. Hinckley, Hudson, 1872-73 ; K P. Chapman, New Richmond, 1874-77 ; Miss Betsy M. Clapp, New Richmond, 1878-81 ; Mrs. E. I. Dwelly, Hudson, 1882- 84; Miss Betsy M. Clapp, New Richmond, 1885-88; Miss Lovila M. Mosher, New Richmond, 1889-92; Frank W. Bixby. Hammond, 1893. In 1861, when the first superintendent was elected, there were in the county 44 school districts, and 1,043 pupils of school age, 1,519 of whom are reported as having attended school during the year. The salary of the first superintend- ent was fixed by the county board at $400 a year. They afterwards voted, however, to pay him $100 additional sal- ary for extra services rendered. The wages paid to the teachers at that time were very low, many of them receiving only $8 and $10 a month and boarding around. Among the early superintendents Prof. A. H. Weld left a lasting impression upon the schools of the county, and did much to lay the foundation which has given to St. Croix county its excellent schools. Prof. Weld had recently come from the East, where he had been engaged in educa- tional work. He was a graduate of Yale college, and had taught in several schools and colleges East. He was quite widely known as the author of several Latin books, and also of Weld's " English Grammar," which many of the settlers of the county had used when attending school in the East- ern states. Prof. Weld was eminently fitted to take the schools of the county in charge, and organize and improve them, as was needed just at that time. He required a higher standard of scholarship on the part of teachers in order to secure a certificate. Teachers' meetings and institutes were held. A six weeks' school for teachers was held in River Falls, which gave the teachers the opportunity needed to improve their scholarship. School visitation was also made an important help to the teachers, each school receiving at least two visits each year from the superintendent. All this work, continued faithfully for six years, counted for much in the welfare of the schools of the county. In 1870 the school districts had increased to fifty-three and the children of school age to 4,101 3,749 of whom attended school. 626 ST. CROIX COUNTY SCHOOLS. St. Croix county was among the first counties of the state to elect a woman for superintendent, the first one being elected in the fall of 1877, and the office has continued in the hands of women for fifteen years. Very efficient work has been done by the three ladies who have held the office, each one giving her whole time and attention to the work entrusted to her. Miss Clapp, of New Richmond, served for four terms, and under her wise management the schools steadily improved. Institutes were held each year, and some of the foremost educators of the state aided her in these meetings. The teaching force in the county grew more efficient each year, and those engaged in the work were in- spired by her faithfulness and example to do the very best work possible. Miss Clapp left an influence in the schools of the county that will loner continue to be felt. In 1880 the number of schools had increased to 99, and the pupils of school age numbered 5,721. The total amount expended that year for school purposes was $34,999. The present year of 1892 finds in the county 114 school districts, requiring 139 teachers when all the schools are in session. The number of children between the ages of four and twenty years is 7,755, and of this number 5,341 have attended school during the year. The total amount paid out for school pur- poses is $65,053, of which $38,771 was expended for teachers' wages. The average salary paid to male teachers for the year is $46.60 a month, and to female teachers $33.32 a month. The school houses of the county are in very good condi- tion, as a rule; only eight out of the 114 buildings are in poor condition. The majority of the districts are well sup- plied with maps, globes and other apparatus so useful in teaching. The teachers of the county are progressive, and avail themselves of every opportunity afforded for self-im- provement. Teachers' meetings and institutes are always well attended. The standard of scholarship required to ob- tain certificates is as high as that required in almost any county in the state. The teachers show a desire to obtain as good certificates as possible, and many of them attend sum- mer schools that they may obtain a higher grade certificate. The majority of the country schools are following the manual of course of study for common schools, and about thirty diplomas were granted the past year. Much good has come from this, as a large number of those who thus finish the course in the country school immediately attend some ST. CROIX COUNTY SCHOOLS. 627 good graded or high school of the county, while a large number from this county are fitting themselves for teachers at the River Falls normal school. The county has but one free high school outside the city of Hudson, and this is at New Richmond. About seventy pupils are enrolled and the school is in charge of a principal and one assistant. In the lower grades six teachers are employed. The school has an excellent reputation for the work done in it. The school house is a substantial brick building. The Glenwood graded school employs a force of eight teachers. It will undoubtedly become a free high school, as will that of Baldwin, during the present year. The latter school employs four teachers. Wilson employs three teach- ers, Hammond three, Wildwood two, Houlton two, and Deer Park two. The work done in all these schools is of a good character. The course of study for common schools is made the basis of the courses pursued in these graded schools. There are in the county three parochial schools, one in Hudson, one in Somerset and one in New Richmond, all in charge of Sisters of the Catholic church. The school officers and patrons of the school throughout the county manifest a real interest in the welfare of the schools and are willing as a rule to pay fair wages to good teachers, and to keep the school buildings in good repair. Arbor day is observed by most of the districts each year, and the school premises in many places are much improved by its observance. There is room for great improvement in many ways in the schools of the county, yet one who watches them from, year to year cannot fail to see a steady growth, that indicates a continued improvement, and shows that the county will continue to keep abreast of the times in educational affairs. LOVILA M. MOSHER. Buffalo County Schools. The most of the early settlers of Buffalo count} 7 were im- migrants who had received the benefit of an elementary education, and were determined to provide means for the education of their children. For this reason, as well as for the constitutional provision relating to public schools, the educational history of Buffalo county covers a period which coincides very nearly with that of its settlement. No sooner had the early settlers provided for the most pressing wants, such as shelter, food, etc., than the question of organizing school districts was agitated, which invariably resulted in their establishment. School districts being organized, the next, and undoubtedly more difficult, task was that of erect- ing school houses. Those who remember the pioneer log school house, especially those who received their own train- ing in it, will readily testify to the fact that it was a model of neither architecture or convenience. However, when we consider the difficulties then encountered in the way of providing skilled mechanics and the necessary material for building, we must accord credit to the projectors, even though the structures erected were wanting in all the essentials of good school houses. As time passed on, these temporary structures were replaced by comfortable frame or brick build- ings, so that at the present time we find them as a rare ex- ception only. Our educational history begins with the year 1856 r when we find three organized school districts within the present limits of Buffalo county, all of which maintained schools for a few months during the year. Two of these districts were in the town of Belvedere, while the third one was made up of territory then belonging to the town of Buffalo. The county being first settled in the southern part, I need not mention that the first districts organized were located in that section. As the population increased graded schools were established at Fountain City, Alma, Mondovi, Cross and Cochrane. Those at Alma and Mondovi have subsequently been changed into free high schools. 628 BUFFALO COUNTY SCHOOLS. 629 To show the rapid development of the educational facil- ities, and the increase in the school population, I submit the following table from Mr. L. Kessinger's history of Buffalo county. The figures are based upon the official reports for the year indicated : Tear. No. of Districts. School Population. 1856 8 190 1866 62 2,445 1876 74 5,865 1886 82 6,851 1892 84 6,128 From the above it will be observed that the per cent, of increase in the school population, as well as in the number of districts, was greatest during the first decade. Whether there was a constant increase in the school population until it reached the highest number in 1886, or whether there was a period previous when it decreased for a few years, I am not prepared to state. Since 1886, however, there has been a constant though slight decrease in the number of pupils of school age. Of the free high schools in the county, the one located at Alma was organized as a common district school in 1857, a lew years later changed into a graded school, and in 1887 into a free high school. The high school at Mondovi was organized as a district school in 1858, subsequently changed into a graded school, and in 1889 into a free high school. The first-named now consists of seven and the latter of four -departments. The buildings in which these' schools are maintained are substantial and commodious structures; having been erected within the past five or six years, they are provided with approved modern conveniences, such as furnaces, ventilating apparatus, and dry air closets, so that they may properly be ranked among the best equipped school buildings in the state. Besides the free high schools, there are three graded schools of which mention may be made in distinction from the com- mon district schools. The one located at Fountain City is, I think, one of the three schools organized in 1856; conse- quently the first graded school in the county. It consists at present of five departments, with a total enrollment of about 225 pupils. The graded school in the town of Cross con- sists of two departments, with a total enrollment of about 75 pupils. This was a common district school up to four C30 BUFFALO COUNTY SCHOOLS. years ago, when it was decided to add another room and change it to a graded school. The graded school at Cochrane, consisting of two departments, is of quite recent date, this being the first year that a graded school is maintained in. that district. The first teachers' institute was held at Fountain City in, the fall of 1871. Since then there has been at least one an- nual institute held in the county. The first summer school was organized in 1889 by Principal A. M. Locker, of Mon- dovi. Ever since a summer school has been maintained at Mondovi, excepting one year, when it was held at Alma. Teachers' meetings were held at various local points dur- ing the past five or six years. That these meetings and institutes have been the means of elevating the standard of scholarship, and of creating a professional spirit among the teachers, there is no reason for doubt. Efforts at introducing a course of study in the common district schools were made as early 1878, with variable re- sults. Fifty-three of the seventy-nine district schools are now reported as being organized in accordance with the man- ual of the course of study. Thirty-three diplomas were granted to graduates of the common district during the past year. The total number of diplomas granted to common- schoool graduates since 1889, the time when the plan of grading the country schools was revived, is 112. Until 1887 but three schools in the county possessed a sufficient number of books as to deserve the characteriza- tion of libraries. The total number of volumes now in the district libraries is 899, which are distributed as follows: Alma high school, 387 ; Mondovi high school, 133 ; Fountain City graded school, 250 ; leaving 119 volumes to be divided among three common district schools. The total number of volumes purchased under the town library law since 1887 is 850. Eleven of the seventeen towns in the county have at one time or another purchased books in compliance with this- law. Ninety-nine teachers are required to teach the several schools in the county. Of the 6,128 children of school age- 4,057 were enrolled in the public schools during the year, the average attendance of each pupil being eighty-seven days. A majority of the school-rooms are well furnished and pro- vided with necessary apparatus. The often-criticised board benches, whose only known good quality was durability,, have yielded their title as an article of furniture, to the great: satisfaction of pupils and teachers. BUFFALO COUNTY SCHOOLS. 631 The total amount of money paid for teachers' wages dur- ing the past year was $23,536. The average wages paid to male teachers per month was $41, while the average wages paid to female teachers per month was $28.90. The total amount of money paid out in the county for school purposes during the past school year was $41,010.18. GEORGE SCHMIDT. Barren County Schools. Barren county is one of the new or later settled counties of the state, and its early history is not rich educationally. Schools became noticeable about 1870, at which time there were four within the present limits of the county. They were under the township system, the whole territory included in one town. About this time the educational interests of the county seem to have taken new life, for in 1879 we find the county with sixty-two schools, each containing but one department and scattered among ten towns, which had generally adopted the township system. There seem to be stages in the settlement of a new, especially a timbered, region, when this system is favorably and unfavorably received. Upon the first advent of the permanent settler, who is usually poor, the broad expanse of the lumber king and speculator is grasped and utilized for school purposes, and the township system is at once called to aid in this. As the county advances, rival settlements in the towns become jealous of each other ; and some of the older districts are quite ready to adopt the single district sys- tem, under which their thickly settled and wealthier portion more than pays its own share of the school tax. The district system is generally well received and popular until the country is well opened and a uniformity of property through- out established, when the township system is again resorted to. The first teachers' institute, of which I can find any account, was held at Rice Lake, in 1873, A. B. Finley being at that time county superintendent. There are now one hundred and eight school districts in the county one, Rice Lake, being independent and contain- ing ten departments, the upper one being a state high school. In addition to the above there are three tree high schools in the county, namely, at Barron, Cumberland and Chetek. There are also two graded schools in the county besides those already mentioned, Cameron and Turtle Lake. The teachers in the county have mainly been furnished by the free high schools of the county, and many of these teachers have proved quite successful. 632 BARRON COUNTY SCHOOLS. 633 The course of study for ungraded schools has been gen- erally adopted in this county, and five graduates from the course have been given diplomas. Much pride is manifested in the buildings, and useful appurtenances connected with the schools, arid new build- ings, are to be seen in every town. N. E. CARVER. Shawano County Schools. The first school district organized in the county was No. 1, town of Richmond, in 1855. Julius Murray, William Grimmer and Charles D. Westcott constituted the first school board, being clerk, treasurer and director, in order of names just given. This board engaged Miss Mary Murray as teacher of a school opened the winter of 1855, in a building located on section 25 in that district. This was the first public school taught in Shawano county. The district erected a school house on section 30 the same year, in which Mrs. Nancy Munn taught during the spring and summer; this was the first school taught in the county in a house erected expressly for school purposes. Mrs. A. P. Knapp and O. A. Andrews were among the earlier teachers in this district. .These were typical frontier schools; for west to the Pacific, northwest to Bering sea, and north to the Arctic ocean, there lay the almost unknown wilderness with its aboriginal inhabitants ; Indian trails and nature's highways, the lakes and streams, constituted the only available thoroughfares. All supplies were obtained from Green Bay by passing up the Fox and Wolf rivers by the way of Lake Winnebago. Settlers came into the county slowly, and it was not until about 1860 that schools were established in the towns of Hartland and Pella. From 1863 to 1866 inclusive, schools were maintained in the towns of Grant, Herman, Belle Plaine, Fairbanks, Waukechon and Washington. Schools were maintained during the ensuing years, from 1866 to 1872, in the towns of Navarino, Lessor, Angelica, Hutchins and Seneca. The county superintendent's report for 1872, the earliest on file in the office, shows twenty-seven districts in the county for that year, and 1,267 children of school age, 518 of whom were in school some portion of the year. By this report, it appears that the school buildings were valued at $6,660, and would accommodate 1,165 pupils. After the completion of the Milwaukee, Lake Shore & West- ern railroad through the county, in 1880-81, settlers occu- pied much of the western portion, and districts were formed in the towns of Aniwa, Birnamwood, Almond, Wit- 63i SHAWANO COUNTY SCHOOLS. 635 tenberg, Morris and Geruiania, until, by the report of June 30, 1892, there were 98 districts, and 8,014 children of school age. Commencing with the report of 1872 and ending with that of 1892, each successive fifth year gives the exhibit here- with appended. Year. No. of School Houses. Children of School Age. Children in Schools, Per Cent, of School Population Enrolled. Value of School Houses. Number Ac- commodated in Schools. 1872 . 27 1,267 518 41 % $ 6,660 1.16& 1877 . 53 2,586 1,713 Q&% 14,753 2,563- 1882 . 59 3,972 2,066 52 % 18,722 3,191 1887 . 87 6,066 2,988 49 # 23,541 4,035 1892 . 98 8,014 4,253 53 % 52,834 5,305 Since the adoption of the county superintendency, the following persons have held the office in the order and for the time stated : Myron H. McCord, two years ; A. P. Knapp, two years ; Clark Colburn, four years ; C. R. Klebesadel, four years ; Miss C. A. Magee, two years ; William Sommers, four years ; E. E. Breed, three years ; W. A. Gralapp, four years ; L. D. Roberts, four years, ending with the present term. He has been elected as his own successor for the ensuing two years, commencing with January, 1893. At present writing, November 18th, 1892, the following summary in reference to schools under the county superin- tendent's supervision will be sufficient : (1) In general, the course prescribed in the manual for common schools, pre- pared by the state department, is being followed. (2) During the past year several pupils were graduated from this course, receiving the common school diploma. (3) Lists of questions to test the competency of prospective graduates are sent to each school. The papers of those who write are forwarded to the county superintendent's office for inspection. (4) A uni- form classification record has been adopted for the county, which exhibits, for the benefit of each succeeding teacher, the following items, a copy of the same being sent to the county superintendent : (a) standing of each pupil in each branch studied during the term ; (b) pupils of each class, and work done during the term; (el programme in use at the close of the preceding term ; (d) explanations and suggestions by the outgoing teacher. There are four graded schools in the county at present, located as follows, and having the number of departments 636 SHAWANO COUNTY SCHOOLS. noted : In each of the villages Tigerton and Wittenberg, two departments ; the village of Birnamwood, three departments ; city of Shawano, five departments. In 1860 the first school building was erected in the limits of what is now the city of Shawano. It was located in that portion of the city now known as the Third ward. Mr. Bell and A. P. Knapp were among the earlier teachers in this building. Later, about the year 1869, a larger building was put up in what is now the First ward. The first graded school of the county was taught in this building. Harriet Vesey, H. Hamilton, L. D. Roberts and G. W. Currier were successive principals of this school. The building just re- ferred to was afterwards enlarged to accommodate the high school. The Shawano free high school was organized during the winter of 1880. It did not open, however, until spring. This term was taught in a hall of the McCord building, the addition to the school house not being ready for occupancy until the fall of 1880. L. D. Roberts was the first principal of this school. He continued in this capacity, having the supervision also of the graded school in connection therewith, until the close of the spring term of 1888, excepting one school year, however, that ending with the spring term of 1883. J. J. Thompson was in charge during this time. The first class graduated at the close of the spring term of 1881. It consisted of four members. A class has been graduated for each succeeding spring term, except in 1892. The exception was caused by adding one year to the course. W. H. Hickok, the present principal, has been in charge of the school since the beginning of the fall term of 1888, 'at which time the new school building, occupying the site of the one last mentioned, was completed and occupied by the graded and high school. This is a commodious two-story brick structure with eight rooms. It is constructed after the most approved modern plans, and is supplied with the Ruttan system of warming and ventilation, including the dry closet accessories. The four years' course, English and scientific, as outlined by the state superintendent, was adopted for the school, commencing with the fall term of 1891. Ger- man, however, was dropped, and Latin is substituted, at the option of the pupil, for ancient and English history, and English literature. At this time also, 1891, an assistant was added to the teaching force of the high school. The first class will be graduated from this course at the spring term SHAWANO COUNTY SCHOOLS. 637 commencement of 1893. The school will doubtless be placed on the accredited list of the state university during the ensuing year. Fifty-three persons have been graduated from the school since its organization in 1880. At the present date, November 18th, 1892, the public school system of Shawano county comprises ninety-four schools of one department, four of two or more departments, and one free high school. There are 8,014 children of school age, and 107 teachers are required when all of the schools are in session. L. D. ROBERTS. LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. The Parochial School-System of the Evangeli- cal Lutheran Church in the State of Wisconsin. I. GENERAL FEATURES. The instruction of the children was, from the beginning, a leading feature of the Lutheran church, wheresoever it has found followers. Mindful of their great leader's word : " Where God's word does not rule, there I do not advise anyone to send his child to," Lutheran congregations and ministers in Wisconsin have generally followed the rule to establish a school for the children within each congregation or parochial district, whenever means and circumstances would allow it. Whilst acknowledging the necessity and usefulness of free public schools for the public welfare, and willingly contributing their share toward their support, they always held that the youth should be trained inside the church and not outside of it; that the education of their children should be in the hands of professedly Christian teachers, should be tempered and seasoned with the Gospel, and should include the moral, as well as the intellectual nature ; that the schools should be nurseries, not only for good citizenship, but also for good membership in the church, and that it is a function incumbent on the pastor to lead in the establishment of schools within his parish and not only to superintend, but also, circumstances not allowing the appointment of a professional teacher, to impart instruc- tion himself. II THE OLDEST LUTHERAN SCHOOLS IN WISCONSIN. The oldest Lutheran synodical bodies represented in Wisconsin were the Buffalo synod and, closely following it, the synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states. Following ^he above principles, their congregations in Milwaukee, lown Lebanon, Dodge county; Cedarburg and Freistadt, Ozaukee county; Kirchhayn, Washington county, had parochial schools from their beginning. The venerable Father A. Stiemke, the first teacher of the school at Kirch- hayn, is still among the living, though retired from active service. In Milwaukee, however, the oldest Lutheran congregation belonged to neither of those two synods, but was gathered and served by an independent Lutheran min- 640 LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 641 ister, the Reverend Kluegel. So far as known, he, too, founded a school in connection with his church. Ill THE SYNOD OF WISCONSIN. The Evangelical Lutheran synod of Wisconsin w perhaps a decade after the spreading of the above named synods into Wisconsin, founded in December, 1849, at Mil- waukee. Its first officers were the Reverend J. Muehlhaeuser, of the Gnaden-Gemeinde in Milwaukee, as president; Rev. J. Weinmann, of Racine, as secretary ; and Rev. W. Wrede, of Granville, treasurer. Each of these had a school con- nected with his church. Mr. W. Weigle, one of the first teachers of the Gnaden school, is still in active service at Milwaukee. Since that time the Wisconsin synod has steadily in- creased so that, according to the latest returns, it now num- bers 134 ministers, and 239 congregations with 77,755 com- municant members. There are 150 parochial schools, with about 8,000 pupils. These are taught by 110 regular teachers a few of them ladies besides whom 75 pastors of congregations serve, 'at the same time, also as teachers in their respective schools. These schools are scattered all over the state, excepting the following counties : Adams, Bayfield, Burnett, Douglass, Eau Claire, Florence, Forest, Iowa, Jackson, Langlade, La Fayette, Oconto, Lincoln, Oneida, Ozaukee, Price, Sawyer, Rock, St. Croix, Washburn, Pepin, Pierce, Richland, Shawano. In the other counties they are represented as follows : Countv. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Barron,! Cameron 1 (the Pastor.) Brown, 2 Green Bay 1 (P.) Wrightstown 1 (P.) Buffalo,! Fountain City 1 (P.) Calumet, 2 Brillion ." 1 (P.) Dundas 1 (P.) Chippewa,! Eagleton 1 (P.) Clark,! Neillsville ' Columbia, 4 Columbus ;Leeds , Randolph 1 Fountain Prairie., f Crawford, 1 Prairie du Chien Dane, 1 Deerfield Dodge, 14 Juneau Hustisford.. \ Bethany j Lowell.'. i Oak Grove., i KP.) KP., (P.) P.) 76 50 24 16 2o 37 25 29 64 28 48 36 118 642 LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. County. Schools. Teachers. Dodge-Continued. Theresa 1 (P.) :Brownsville 1 (P.) North Woodland....! 1 (P.) Town Herman, 3 ...I 2 and P. Iron Ridge 1 (P.) Theresa 1 (P.) ;BeaverDam 1 (P.) Door, 3 Sturgeon Bay 1 (P.) Dunn, 2 Menomonee 2 iHatchville 1 (P.) Fond (lu Lac, 4 iFond du Lai- 3 Van Dyne 1 (P.) iEldora'do 1 (P.) Town Forest 1 (P.) Grant,! iPlatteville 1 (P.) Green, 1 Sylvester 1 (P.) Green Lake, 3 [Manchester! j ,p x Markesan... \" Princeton 1 Jefferson, 13 Waterloo 1 (P.) Fort Atkinson..) Cold Spring j '" Rome 1 (P.) \Vatertown ^ jRichwood.. i IleLenville 1 (P.) Jefferson 1 Lake Mills (2) 1 (P.) Ixonia Center (3).. 2 Juneau, 1 Wonewoc 1 (P.) Kenosha, 3 IKenosha 2 [Soniers 1 (P.) ISlade's Corner 1 (P.) Kewaunee, 2 Kewaunee 1 (Ahnapee 1 La Crosse, 4 ; Burr Oak 1 (P.) La Crosse 2 North La Crosse 1 (P.) Barre Mills 1 Manitowoc, it Manitowoc 4 Rosecrans 1 (P.) Larrabee 1 (P.) Keedsville 2 Centeryille 1 (P.) Two Rivers 1 Newton 1 (P.) Rube 1 (P.) Marathon. :! MacMillan 1 Naugart 1 (P.) Marathon 1 (P.) Marinette, 2 Marinette 1 Peshtigo 1 (P.) Marqnette, :'> Montello 1 (P.) Macane 1 Germania 1 Milwaukee Citv... 12.... .. 32 Pupils. 24 2* 37 151 45 4(5 30 2:5 111 20 210 36 46 52 45 5 28 m 18 246 47 77 78 <>3 40 140 30 41 UK 27 120 103 40 !7 20 (>:; 44 82 1(5 2,(>00 LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 64:; County. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Milwaukee Coun- tv 7 .. ( hi k wood . ... 1 (P.) 1 (P-) 2 1 > 1 (P.) 1 P. 1 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 2 1 (P.) 1 (P-) 1 (P.) 1 and 1'. 1 and P. 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 1 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 and P. 1 and P. 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 iP.i 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 (P-) 1 (P.I 1 (P-) 1 2 1 1 (P-) 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 and P. 1(P.) 1 1 (P.) 1 (P.) 1 d>.) 83 71 98 .V) 17(1 73 .-54 16 12( 31 24 16 60 10:; 38 4."> 65 66 24 2-2 66 7(i :i4 12 4-> 27 21 36 22 15 !):; 72 65 us IKS 47 40 SO 53 HS 70 *) 45) 81 Monroe 4 Root Creek Granville 1 West Granville. f '" Town Franklin Wauwatosa AVauwatosa Clifton . . Outagamie, l> Tomah Ridge ville Milton .. Appleton Polk, 1 Hortonville Centerville Bungert Apple Creek Kaukauna East Farmington.... Caledonia... 1 Racine 4 Sank, 2 rrankville. i Racine Burlington Baraboo Merriniack .. Sheboygau, 4 Mosel \ Tuvlor, 1 Bcnieswig t Howard's Grove (2) Medford Trenipealeau, 1 Vernon 1 Arcadia Chasphnro'li .. Walworth. > \VliitPu-atf>r Washin r ton, 7 Klkhorn Lake Geneva Kewaskuin Waukesha, .' Hartford West Bend Kirclihavn (2) Town Wayne \ Oconoinowoc Waupaca. 4 Tess Corners Waukesha We vau wega AVaushara, 1 New London 1 Caledonia .... > Maple Creek J Town Bloomfield... Oshkosh AVinnebago. "> Wood 1 XtH'iiah Winchester... \ Winneconne J " Mcuasha Marslifipld ! ! . . Summary: Schools, 149; teachers (including pastors), 175 ; pupils, 9,059. 644 LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. Each of these schools is owned and controlled by the congregation to which it belongs. The congregation calls and appoints the teacher, and also pays his salary. In most, especially larger schools, a monthly tuition fee of twenty-five cents is charged for each pupil. The superintendence and general management of the school is in the hands of the minister, aided by a committee of deacons. The branches taught in all of these schools are religion, reading and writing of the German language, arithmetic, in most of them also reading, writing and grammar of the En- glish language; common and United States history, geog- raphy, singing, in some also drawing. In some, especially country schools, no English is taught, the children attending, for the greater part of the year, the public school. The medium of instruction in sixty-two schools is German, in the others German and English. A committee appointed by the synod is engaged in lay- ing out and publishing elaborate courses of study tor the dif- ferent grades of schools. One course adapted to the use in one- class schools, and another for a four-class school, have been finished and published for the present only in German in the " Lutherische Schulzeitung." In order to supply vacant schools with suitable teachers, the synod, several years ago, established a normal department in connection with the Northwestern university at Water- town. The teachers of each .synodical district hold regular monthly or quarterly meetings, or institutes. A yearly gen- eral teachers' meeting is held in connection with the meeting of the synod. The teachers of the synod have an organ, the " Lutherische Schulzeitung." It is a monthly, published by the synod, at its Northwestern publishing house, 310 Third street, Milwaukee. The editor is Dr. F. W. A. Notz, aided by his colleagues of the Northwestern university. It is now in its seventeenth year. The editor is also secretary to the synod for matters relating to parochial schools and, in 1889, successfully started the opposition to attempts at oppressive school legislation made by politicians, which of late has been a prominent feature in Western politics. IV. THE SYNOD OF MISSOURI. The organization of the parochial schools belonging to the Evangelical Lutheran synod of Missouri is essentially the LITIIERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 645 same as that of the schools of the Wisconsin synod, as out- lined in the foregoing. It may be added that the Missouri schools draw their supply of teachers from the normal school at Addison, Du Page county, Illinois, arid that the organ of their teachers is the " Lutherische Schulblatt," a monthly now in its twenty-seventh year, and published by the Con- cordia publishing house at St. Louis, Missouri. So far as reports are on hand, the schools of this synod are distributed over the following counties of Wisconsin. Counties. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Ash Ian d '. 5 4 (3 Pastors.) 179 Bavfield 1 1 (P ) 20 Brown 1 1 (P.) 52 Buffaio 1 1 (P.) Calumet 1 63 Chippewa 2 2 (P.) 73 Clark 8 2 (P.) 39 Columbia 1 2 108 Dodge 9 7 (3 P.) 307 Door 1 1 (P.) 38 Douglass 1 1 (P.) Kau Claire 5 4 (3 P.) 169 Fond du Lac 1 1 (P.) 32 Grant 2 1 (P ) 21 Green Lake 1 1 50 Jefferson 3 3 284 Lincoln 3 3 (1 P.) 165 Marathon 3 4 (3 P.) 181 Alarquette 2 2^ } 105 Milwaukee city ... Milwaukee county Ozaukee 9 2 3 35 (1 P.) 3 (2 P. 4 (1 P. 2,756 79 251 Portage 5 6 2 P. 292 Racine 2 4 1 P. 226 Richland A 1 P.) 50 Rock 5 4 2 P.) 275 St. Croix 1 1 P.) 53 Sank Shawano 2 10 2 9 (5 P.) 153 516 Shebovgan () 15 (4 P.) 1,129 Wash,! ngton 1 1 59 AVaupaoa 5 7 (4 P.) 375 Waushara 123 Winnebago 1 3 250 Wood o 2 (1 P.) 86 Summary: Schools, 107; teachers*, 140; pupils, 8,499. * Including pastors who, nt the same time, are teachers in their schools. 646 LUTHERAN EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. V. PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS OF OTHER LUTHERAN SYNODS. County. Synod. .Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Brown Danish Lutheran S 1 1 ( P ) '- Chippewp Iowa S 1 Dane Iowa S 3 > (IP ) 8i Dane Norwegian S 4 4 ->oo Dane Augsburg S > 9 (1 P ) 4'! Douglass Iowa S 1 I )odge Independent... . > 1 (P ) 40 Dodge OhioS 1 1 Iowa S 1 Dunn Iowa S 1 1 80 Kau Claire Iowa S > Fond du Lac Iowa S..- > ( P ) o? (Irani Iowa S > 2(P ) HO (irant Augsburg S 1 1 44 Jackson Norwegian S 1 1 70 Jefferson Iowa S 4 5 (4 P ) ">75 Ohio S 1 1 ( P ) 30 Independent 1 1 (P.) Lu Favette Norwegian S 4 > 190 Alarquette Iowa S 1 1 (P.) 39 Milwaukee Citv... Buffalo S 1 ( )utagamie OhioS 2 2 (P ) :!! Ozaukee Iowa S o 2 (P ) 121 Pepin Iowa S 1 1 (P ) 17 Pierce Minnesota S 1 1 (P.) 7 Racine OhioS 1 1 (P ) ->7 Racine Norwegian S > 2 (M Richland Iowa S 1 Rock Ohio 1 1 (P.) ' 7 5 St Croix Ohio 1 1 (P) ''5 St Croix Norwegian S 1 JL (f). Sank Iowa S > 2 (P.) 91 Tavlor (jeneral S 1 1 (P ) 18 AVal worth Ohio 1 1 Walworth Norwegian S 1 1 80 ^ Vas h i n gt o n Buffalo S 1 1 (P ) >> AVaupaca Ohio S | 1 1 (P.) 47 AVaushara Iowa S j 1 AVinnebago Iowa S i 1. 1 (P.) ')> Ohio S 7 (> P ) 1 4!Ki Norwegian S 1 1 23 i Summary: Schools, 63; teachers, 57; pupils, 2,464. F. W. A. NOTX. Northwestern University, Watertown, Wis. No sooner bad the Lutherans of this state organized themselves than they began to make provisions lor the higher education of their youth. The motives for this were a desire to keep up the standard of education to which the clergy were accustomed, and also the knowledge that young men educated in this country were needed to build up congregations amongst the newly arrived immigrants, who were then flocking in such large numbers to our shores. Since the majority of Lutherans, at that time, were thrifty peasants or artisans, means were not abundant. Moreover, the time was singularly unfavorable, for the war between the North and the South was still waging. Never- theless the Lutheran synod of Wisconsin resolved to build a college and a seminary as soon as possible. After the matter had been thoroughly discussed, it was decided, at Milwaukee, in 1863, to found a college at Water- town. Here on the 14th of September, 1865, the first session of the Northwestern University began. After some ex- perimenting under the first two presidents, the whole course of studies was reconstructed by the new president, Prof. A. F. Ernst, who entered on his duties in 1869, and who has ever since been at the head of the institution. Presi- dent Ernst, after being graduated from a German gymnasium pursued his academic studies at Giessen and Goettingen. For seven or eight years he had a charge in New York, after which he entered on his present position, for which his studies in pedagogy and philosophy have especially qualified him. The Northwestern does not pretend to be any more than a college. The course of studies is made to extend through seven years, the average age of the students at their entrance being little more than thirteen. The plan of studies is modeled on that of the German gymnasia, schools that are acknowledged by the foremost educators of this country to give the best secondary education. The students, therefore, have more recitations than are usually required in 647 648 NORTH WESTERN UNIVERSITY. American colleges, the average number for each class being thirty a week ; and, secondly, there are very few optional studies. Both the English and the German languages are used in giving instruction. In the lower classes English predominates, in the upper, German. Mathematics, the sciences and history in the lower classes are taught in English ; Latin, Greek, and history in the higher classes in German. The object of the course is to give young men a good, liberal education, which will enable them to take up after- wards and pursue with success any one of the learned profes- sions. In the classical languages the thoroughness of German schools is aimed at. In this department German text books, as a rule, are used, the juniors and seniors making use of the same books as the German primaries. As the school is bi-lingual, a good knowledge of both the English and the German language and literature is demanded. To history more attention is paid than is customary at American insti- tutions. This study is pursued for six years, two recitations a week, except in the junior and the senior year, when four recitations a week are required. Thus the students obtain a fair knowledge of the political history and civilization of mankind. To mathematics the same attention is paid as at most of the American colleges. The sciences are pursued so far as a liberal education seems to demand. The first class was graduated in 1872. Since then 118 students have finished the classical course and received the degree of B. A. For the last five years the average number of students attending has been 170. The whole number of students attending during the twenty-eight years of the ex- istence of- the institution is in the vicinity of 2,500. Apart from the classical department there are an academic and a normal department, both of which embrace a course of studies covering five years. In addition to the building erected in 1864-5, there have been added two others, one in 1875, the other in 1888. In 1876 the students built a gymnasium, which is still entirely under their control. The institution is supported mainly by the congrega- tions of the Lutheran synod of Wisconsin. As yet it has no endowment fund ; but strong hopes are entertained that en- dowments will be secured within the next five and twenty years, thus enabling the college to attend still better to the wants of its patrons. 650 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY. At present the faculty consists of eight teachers. They are : A. F. Ernst, president, and professor of ethics and psychology ; F. W. A. Notz, Ph. D., Greek ; J. H. Ott, Ph. D., English; W. F. Weimar, B. A., mathematics; John P. Koehler, B. A., history and Latin ; Andrew Schroedel, B. A., Latin and German; H. R. Plum, sciences; Herman Schu- macher, preparatory department. J. H. OTT. Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Concordia college, located in Milwaukee, is an institu- tion of the church, being conducted and supported by the " Evangelical Lutheran synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other states," one of the largest branches of the Lutheran church in America. The special object of the education afforded in Concordia college is to prepare Christian young men for a thorough course in theology. The college may therefore be considered a preparatory institution for such Lutheran divinity schools as require for admission a good speaking knowledge of Latin, a thorough acquaintance with Greek and Hebrew, the lan- guages ot the Old and the New Testament, and a mastery of English and German. At the same time it is the general aim of Concordia col- lege to fit young men to pursue successfully the advanced courses of study offered by the best universities of the country, as well as to instruct and preserve its charges in the true Christian faith as taught in the Evangelical Lutheran church. With this end in view, Concordia college was modeled after the " gymnasia " of Germany, where most time and energy are expended on the classics. But in order to give the young men committed to the care of the college a cul- ture somewhat more suited to their wants as American citizens, certain branches of knowledge were added to the curriculum not commonly included in that of the Latin schools of Europe. The subjects in which instruction is provided are as fol- lows : Religion, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English, German, French, including American, mathematics, natural sciences, geography, drawing, penmanship, music. This course of studies covers a period of six years. Each study is obligatory upon all pupils ; but it is believed that a young man of good parts and close application will readily pass from class to class. There are no seniors, juniors, etc., at Concordia college, as the classes are designated by Latin names. The graduat- ing class is called prima. " The others are respectively termed secunda, tertia, quarta, quinta, sexta. Sexta, 651 652 CONCORDIA COLLEGE. which means sixth class, is the lowest class, and is composed of the first-year pupils. The college is in western Milwaukee, near the city limits, between State and Wells streets. The site is elevated, healthy and beautiful, and possesses every advantage of country and city life. The grounds contain somewhat more than six acres of land, intersected on the south by Cedar street. The smaller part thus cut off has been appropriated to the use of the professors. The larger tract affords a roomy campus, divided by the college buildings into three sections. The north- west section has been laid out to be used as ball grounds; the northern section is parked, furnishing in its close clipped lawns, in its shade trees and retired nooks and corners, a de- sirable place for recreation ; the southern section, north of Cedar street, was formerly used by the base ball nines of Concordia, but has now been transformed into a park. A conspicuous attraction of this park is a flag-mast, seventy-two feet high. The banner suspended on this pole is of regulation pattern and twenty-four feet long. It was flung to the breeze on Decoration day, when words of pa- triotic earnestness were addressed to the students. Both the flag and the mast were provided by the gentlemen of prima. Among the friends to whom they appealed for contributions, and who responded most liberally, were the Messrs. Stark Co. and F. Wollaeger, Luedke, etc. All the trees that ornament Cedar street park were pre- sented by Mr. John Koch, one of the directors of the insti- tution. Concordia college is largely indebted to the same gentle- man for the ownership of the northwest section of the grounds. Friend that he is of the institution, he bought this property before real estate commanded the phenomenal prices that it does at present, and held the same for several years, until, in 1890, he offered it for sale at the original cost to Joint synod, which naturally closed the bargain with the utmost pleasure. The grounds of Concordia college are much admired by visitors on account of their singularly advantageous situa- tion in a region abounding with elegant homes, fine private parks, and all facilities for rapid transit. The roof of the main building commands a magnificent view of the beauti- ful scenery that surrounds the city of Milwaukee on all sides. 654 COXCORDIA COLLEGE. Concordia college has three halls and six residences. The main building, consists of two wings and a central edifice, is constructed of cream-colored brick, with sandstone dressings. Its length is one hundred and five feet ; the depth of the wings is thirty-seven feet, and that of the central part fifty-nine feet. The wings, which contain two stories and an attic, are fifty-three feet high, while the central building, which contains three stories and an attic, rises to a height of seventy-one feet. The basement is occupied by the kitchen department, two spacious dining halls, storage rooms, and a lavatory. The first story contains the living apartments of the steward and the matron, and three large recitation rooms. The second story contains.in addition to a few suites of rooms for pupils, the museum and janitor's room, a class-room and a stationer's stall. The attics of the wings and the third story of the main portion are filled with bed-rooms, while the attic of the main edifice is set aside as a trunk-room. The second building, situated southwest of the college building proper, is a home or dormitory. It is an attractive building of wood, and two stories high, with basement and attic. A series of shower-baths and a number of lavatories are located in the basement. On the first and the second floor are living rooms for the pupils; the attic is used for sleeping apartments. All the bed-rooms are furnished with locker accommodations. Another structure has been erected directly south of the frame dormitory. It is built of brick, with trimmings of light Illinois sandstone. It is three stones in height above a well-lighted basement. In the first story, which is sixteen feet high, is the chapel, with a seating capacity of 300 per- sons. Adjoining the chapel, are two large class-rooms. In the second story are the library, a number of rooms for pupils, and the hospital rooms. The last mentioned apart- ments are lofty, admirably lighted, thoroughly ventilated, and so situated that all intercourse with the patients and nurses can be avoided by the pupils. The third story is taken up by bed-rooms, most of which contain wardrobes. As a rule, the college buildings have wide and commo- dious halls and light, airy, comfortable rooms. Each build- ing is provided with a set of fire-escapes. As to sanitary qualities, the buildings are firmly believed to be of the first order. It has not yet been stated that some fifty feet due west of the main building is situated the residence of the presi- CONCORDIA COLLEGE. 655 dent. This is a plain brick building, which was purchased with the grounds. Besides this residence, the college owns five other dwell- ing houses, situated south of Cedarstreet, on what might fitly be called Concordia place. These five dwellings are neat- looking frame buildings, furnished with all modern improve- ments. They are set back from the street some twenty-five feet. There are no fences, which leaves a continuous margin- of greensward in front of the residences and renders this- scholarly region a most charming abode. There is space left for one more dwelling on Concordia place. The professors- pay no rent. The museum is located in a large room on the second floor of the main building. It is made up of a mineral cabi- net, containing many rare and unique specimens, a valuable collection of mounted bird skins, a well-selected cabinet of physical apparatus, a large collection of shells, an entomolo- gical cabinet, a limited number of mounted skins of animals, a collection of American antiquities, and several smaller col- lections of objects of general interest, besides a full series of maps, charts, models to illustrate crystalline forms, etc. The various cabinets and collections, united in the museum, are of great value, but are not seen at their best, as, for want of available space, the museum is too cramped in its present location. There are two libraries, one for the exclusive use of the teachers, the other for the pupils. The former, placed ill the office of the college, in building No. 3, is rather small ; but though counting may result in disappointing figures, weighing will give some satisfaction. Among the eight hundred books already on the shelves are Teubner's Latin and Greek texts, the historical works of Mommsen, Ranke r Becker, Guizot, Davila, and Justin Winsor, Geology of Wis- consin in four volumes with numerous sets of charts, a very valuable copy of the Weimar Bible, etc., etc. The last mentioned work was donated by Mr. William Plankinton. A number of other gentlemen, among them the Messrs. August Luedke, Gustav Wollaeger, William Starke, etc., have become interested in the library, and will, no doubt, make some handsome additions to the same. The pupils' library is well stocked. It is almost evenly composed of standard English and German works, which cover all departments of literature. Books are issued once a week ; but the pupils are not at liberty to draw those books 656 CONCORDIA COLLEGE. for which they have a momentary fancy, the reading of the pupils being superintended and guided by the librarian, a member of the faculty. The history of Concordia college is quite interesting and encouraging. The institution was founded in 1881 by the "Evangelical Lutheran synod, of Missouri, Ohio, and other states/' Organized as early as 1847, this notable body of congregations established an institution of the same kind many years ago at Fort Wayne, Indiana. This latter school, the prototype of the Milwaukee institution, has grown to be one of the largest and most prominent institutions of learn- ing in the state of Indiana. Yet a need for a second Latin school was sorely felt in the course of time, as the growth of synod is proportionate to the astonishing growth of the Lutheran population in this country. Accordingly, Joint synod, in its convention at Fort Wayne, in the spring of 1881, encouraged three of its districts, viz., Wisconsin, Illinois, and Minnesota districts, to establish a "gymnasium" at Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This was done, and the institution was named Concordia college. It was then that Trinity German Lutheran congregation, of this city, was generous enough to place at the disposal of the college a large room in its school on Ninth street. Mr. C. Huth, C. R. M., a graduate of Concordia seminary, of St. Louis, was appointed professor. On the 1st of September, 1881, the college was opened with an enrollment of thirteen pupils. This was, indeed, the day of small things ; but in the second year of the existence of the institution the number of pupils had already so in- creased as to necessitate the appointment of a second pro- fessor and the erection of a large building for the accomino- modation of the school. Rev. E. Hamann, a graduate of the university of the city of New York, was found willing to accept the chair of mathematics and natural sciences. A splendid piece of property, located near the western limits of the city, was purchased for $9,000, and a large and striking building was put up at a cost of $16,000. The new home was taken possession of January, 1883. In the fall of the same year, Rev. W. Mueller was added to the teaching force as professor of English. At the same time, two residences, designed for the use of professors, were built on the college grounds. The growth of the institution during its fourth year was such as to render necessary the erection of a dormitory, which CONCORDIA COLLEGE. 657 cost upwards of $4,000. Mr. O. Hattstaedt, C. R. M., a grad- uate of Concordia seminary of St. Louis, was made head of the German department. The course now embraced four years. In the fall of 1885, the former well-known pastor of St. Stephen's, of this city, Rev. C. H. Loeber, was prevailed on to take charge of a professorship. At the same time he was appointed presi- dent of the college. But no further class was added, although a six years' course had been originally con- templated. This compelled the graduates to pursue their studies for two more years at Fort Wayne, Ind., before they could qualify for St. Louis. In 1887 the three districts that maintained the institu- tion made a gift of it to Joint synod, which gladly accepted the same, but made no provision for the extension of the course. In 1890 ; however, when Joint synod met at Mil- waukee, one of its first acts was the passage of a resolution to arrange a full six years' course in the Milwaukee institu- tion. In accordance with this resolution, a new class was formed the same year, and Rev. C. Ross was chosen professor of Hebrew. In the fall of 1891 the sixth class was organized and Mr. E. G. Sillier, Ph. D. (J. H. U.) joined the faculty as pro- fessor of classics and history. Thus Concordia college be- came a full-grade collegiate institution, and the graduating class of 1891-92 was the first to conclude its studies at the Concordia. In March, 1892, Dr. E. G. Sihler resigned his position, having assumed a professorship in the university of the city of New York. The vacanc}* was filled by the election of Mr. Gottlieb Kroening, professor of classics in Concordia seminary, Springfield, 111. It may be added that in 1887 a third dormitory was erected, an annex to which was completed in 1891. Of the live new residences belonging to the institution two were ljuilt in 1883, one in 1885 and two in 1891. G. W. MUELLER. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN, Catholic Schools and Institutions. [The following account of Catholic schools and institutions was kindly furnished for this book by Right Rev. Mgr. August Zeininger.] A. SCHOOLS. In placing their schools beside those of the state, and allowing both to appear in friendly array, the Catholics do not consider this union strange. The purpose of both is the same the advancement of knowledge. If the Catholics have erected their own schools, it is not because they are enemies of universal education, but because they would add religion to the branches taught in public schools; they will have religion be the soul that pervades and sustains secular instruction. If the end of both systems is the same, the results achieved by the Catholic schools make good their claim to rank as peers of their sister schools erected by the state. They do not fear unbiased scrutiny ; they have testimonies of their worth from friends of the public schools. To a cer- tain extent the advantage is theirs. Their teachers are for the greater part members of a religious community who have assumed the profession of teaching not to gain a liveli- hood, but make it their life's task because they consider it meritorious and are convinced of a hereafter where they expect their reward. They are the heirs of that faith and spirit which has changed the swamps and forests of Europe into highways and abodes of a flourishing civilization, and gave the first explorers and forerunners of civilization to this country. Of their work in Wisconsin we can present but a very brief summary in the shape of figures. The erection of the first Catholic schools dates back to the time when Wisconsin was still a territory; they grew and strengthened with the infant state. At present, there are in the three dioceses into which Wisconsin is divided, 279 pa- rochial schools. Of these 140 are in the archdiocese of Mil- waukee, 77 in the diocese of Green Bay, and 62 in ihe dio- cese of La Crosse. These schools are attended by 44,669 children; 23,939 children in the archdiocese of Milwaukee, 660 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 661 being nine-tenths of all its Catholic children; 12,200 chil- dren in the diocese of Green Bay, and 8,530 children in the diocese of La Crosse. The branches taught in the Catholic schools are essen- tially those of the public schools. There is not a Catholic school in Wisconsin in which English is not taught. Even in parishes composed entirely of those whose mother-tongue is not the English, the latter language predominates in school. In the majority of these, English is the only lan- guage heard, excepting the instruction in religion and in the mother-tongue. A number divide the time equally between English and the tongue spoken by the parents of the chil- dren; the time devoted by the others to English and branches taught in that language ranges between two-thirds and nine- teen-twentieths of all school hours. These figures and facts are based on official reports and hence are absolutely correct. B. HIGHER INSTITUTIONS. The following are among the leading Catholic higher institutions in the archdiocese of Milwaukee : Marquette College. This is a Catholic educational institution for day schol- ars under the direction of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, in the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U. S. A. It took its name from Marquette, the French priest, the Jesuit pioneer missionary, the discoverer of the Mississippi, one of the first white men to set foot on Wisconsin soil to bring the Cross -and the Gospel to the home of the red man. Its buildings are few; its endowment, debt; its hopes, in the patience, perseverance and noble purpose of its laborers, and in the goodwill of its friends; with these equipments it has already accomplished much in the cause of higher education, in which it ranks among the first in the Northwest. The establishment of the college was long projected before actually begun. While in Europe, in 1848, in the interest of his diocese, Rt. Rev. John Martin Henni, Catholic bishop of Milwaukee, was offered in trust a sum of $16,000 by Chevalier J. G. De Boeye, of Antwerp, Belgium, to establish in his diocese an institution under the direction of the Jesuits. This was thenceforth his favorite scheme, for the realization of which he prayed daily and made effort on every occa- sion that presented itself. In 1853, two Jesuit Fathers, Rev. J. L. Gleizal and Rev. I. J. Boudreaux, the latter afterwards president of Marquette college, preached a mission in St. John's cathedral, Milwaukee, at which time they were in- formed by the Rt. Rev. Bishop of his design and invited to take steps to carry it into execution. As the opening of a college then would have been premature, the charge of St. Gall's church and congregation was offered as a preparatory step, and accordingly assumed September 12th, 1855, by Rev. P. J. DeSmet, the celebrated Indian missionary, and Rev. F. X. DeCoen, in the name of the Society of Jesus. In September, 1857, ST. ALOYSIUS' ACADEMY, as the arched sign over the gate read, was begun, and a truly small beginning it was. The one-story frame building, which had hitherto served as a pastoral residence, was moved to an adjoining lot, raised ten feet for the erection of a story underneath, and thus metamorphosed and placed under the 662 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 663 direction of Rev. S. P. Lalumiere, struggled on its mission until 1864, when it was absorbed and superseded by the more pretentious St. Gall's academy. These humble be- ginnings prospered and did good educational work. But time and the growth of the city were demanding their development into a college. In 1855 the Right Rev. Bishop had purchased property on the " Hill " with the sum donated by Mr. De Boeye and transferred it to the Jesuits. These Fathers, in 1863, bought adjacent property sufficient to give them the ownership of the entire block bounded by State and Prairie, Tenth and Eleventh streets. In 1864 a charter for Marquette college was obtained from the legisla- ture, granting powers " to confer such literary honors and de- grees as the trustees may deem proper ;" and in 1875 another step was taken by the erection of Holy Name church paro- chial school on the new site. On August 15, 1880, a throng of people, in numbers and enthusiasm exceeding any hitherto seen in Milwaukee, marched in procession or crowded along the streets to witness the laying of the corner-stone of Mar- quette college. As the Most Rev. Archbishop Henni was too unwell to officiate, the Most Rev. Coadjutor, Archbishop Heiss, assisted by the clergy of the city, performed the cere- mony, while Hon. W. J. Onahan, of Chicago, delivered an address in English, and Very Rev. L. Batz, V. G., one in German. One year later the first of the proposed college buildings was finished, blessed and opened for the reception of students. To introduce the applicants gradually into the curriculum generally prevailing in Jesuit institutions, only the three lowest classes of the course and a preparatory de- partment, numbering in all about one hundred pupils, were begun the first year. The steadily increasing attendance and advance of the students necessitated the addition of a higher class each succeeding term, until the course had its full quota and the college was enabled in June, '87, to grad- uate, with the degree of bachelor of arts, its first class. It has since conferred the degree of A. B. on thirty-three young gentlemen, and that of A. M. on seven. It has steadily increased in numbers, averaging a yearly attendance of over two hundred, and has at present about two hundred and seventy-five students, while its alumni and graduates are already numerous in the city, working their way to prom- inence in business and the professions. The faculty, which consisted of five members during the first year, has kept pace with the development of the college, 664 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. and at present includes eighteen professors. Unfavorable comment is occasionally heard on the frequent changes of professors and the absence of individuality in Jesuit institu- tions. But, after subtracting the exaggeration usual in criti- cism, inquiry will prove that neither in fact nor in theory have the disadvantages complained of existence. For it must be remembered that the Jesuits are a teaching body, not a mere number of teaching individuals, in consequence of which a change of individual professors does not entail a change of method, with the accompanying disadvantages ; while a perfectly systematized method leaves ample scope for healthy individuality in its application, though it regulates or excludes idiosyncrasies. The curriculum of studies is the same as that of other colleges in the United States under the direction of the Jesuits. It embraces two courses, the com- mercial and classical. The commercial course is completed in four years and is calculated to impart a practical knowl- edge of those branches which are requisite for business life. The classical course is more comprehensive and the main one. It is divided into two departments the academic, a three years' course of thorough training in the rudiments of En- glish and the classics, arithmetic, algebra and accessory branches, and the collegiate, embracing three years of classics, English rhetoric, oratory and literature, mathematics and sciences, and one year of mental and moral philosophy, English literature, higher mathematics and sciences. The completion of this course entitles the graduate to the degree of bachelor of arts and fits him to enter upon any career of life. Thorough and systematic instruction in Catholic doctrine is continued throughout both courses, while the study of Ger- man and French is optional. The method is that of the famous Ratio Studiorum of the Society of Jesus, adapted to present times and circum- stances. Models are studied and imitated; principles are learned and applied; there is prelection, study, recitation, fre- quent repetition. But little time is allowed during the hours at college for study; this work must be done by the student at home; in class he must recite, listen to explanation, pro- pose his difficulties. He is taught to read that he may be- come a full man, write that he may become an exact man, talk that he may become a ready man. Tests of his appli- cation and progress are frequent, in the daily recitations; the occasional specimens, private and public; the quarterly com- petitions, and semi-annual examinations; and he is spurred. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 665 on by awards of premiums and reports sent to parents. The dullard and the drone find this method unbearable, the ordi- nary boy feels it a demand on his energy, the student derives from it an ample return for his labor in the result a thor- ough education. Some educators find fault with the catechetical method and laud the lecture system. The acquiring of knowledge is a process of mental assimilation which is in proportion to the mental vigor and activity exercised. Knowledge is useful only in so far as it can be expressed in word or action. The teacher's sphere therefore is to rouse activity and elicit ex- pression. This is accomplished by the question and answer and by discussion. This is the only method to assure the teacher that he is awakening thought in the youthful mind, and that the youthful mind is going through the process of healthy assimilation. The recent reaction in favor of the catechetical methods is a proof of its excellence derived from experience; the fact that the men of deep and accurate thought have been produced by this method is proof from results. It is only the mature and trained mind that can grasp analytically and assimilate knowledge conveyed in the catch-who-catch-can lecture style. The lecture method is indeed easier on the professor, for it requires of him only a grasp of his subject, a clear head and fluent expression; it is easier also on the pupil, of whom it demands only such attention and application as human nature, prone to indo- lence and giddy amusement, may choose to give. But the drill, drudgery I may call it, of training, demands of the professor all the above requirements, and is moreover a severe test of his tact, patience, perseverance and inventive- ness; to the pupil it applies the spur requisite to rouse up slug- gish human nature to the energy of attention and applica- tion necessary to enable the mind to grasp and assimilate knowledge. Were the catechetical method more generally adopted, there would be fewer men and women whose knowledge seems to be in an inverse ratio to the number of their years at school, less superficial knowledge, less conceit and presumption, more energy and strength of character, more solidly educated, thinking people. It will go for the saying that at Marquette college morals and discipline are insisted upon, and preserved about as per- fectly as the shortcomings and thoughtlessness of youth make possible. In a Catholic institution, morals and fidelity to the dictates of true religion are about the same thing 666 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. While regulations are made and enforced to secure external order and the performance of the duties of the student, they are but auxiliary to the more important object of securing moral, religious formation of character and habit. As the grace of God is requisite to attain this end, exercises of piety, the daily attendance at mass, the monthly reception of the sacraments, frequent religious instruction, cultivation of devotions conformable to the season of the ecclesiastical year, are given their due place, and, instead of interfering with, promote the fulfillment of student duties. Cleanliness and good manners, in general, the observances of good breed- ing, are inculcated. The health and comfort of the students are by no means neglected. Light, fresh air and exercise, the temperature and convenience of the various apartments, and suitable changes of occupation are made objects of spe- cial attention. In the training and development of young men, there is much that cannot be accomplished, at least practically, in the class-room, or by private study. This is attained by means of the various societies conducted by the boys them- selves under the direction of a member of the faculty. Membership is optional, nay, sometimes hard to secure, but in general, few are the boys who are not enrolled in one or several of the associations. There are many who imagine that college life means little besides the learning and reciting of lessons. If they were to witness the working of these associations, they would recognize in college life a real little world adapted to the youthful mind and disposition, which initiates mildly and gradually into the duties of after life. All shades of disposi- tion, degrees of ability, phases of success and failure are there met with, but in an atmosphere more desirable than frequent in after life ; for youth is instinctively honest, can- did, simple and just, in consequence of which real merit at- tains success and wins influence more readily and surely than patronage. * For recreation and physical development there are the various athletic associations and the game-room. To foster piety and a religious spirit, there are the league of the Sacred Heart, the Acolythical society, the Sodality. The Sodality was established shortly after the opening of the college and has always included a large majority of the students among its members. The requisites for mem- CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 667 bership are good behavior, and a spirit of Catholic piety, es- pecially a devotion to the Blessed Virgin. At the weekly meetings the office of the Immaculate Conception is recited and instruction given ; once a month the members approach the sacraments. The Acolythical society was established to contribute to the solemnity of religious services ; the Saint Cecilia society, to develop talent for music and utilize it for religious ser- vices and public entertainments. The library and reading-room association was organized to furnish material and cultivate a taste for useful reading and a knowledge of books. Though of comparatively recent formation, it already contains quite a large collection of books appropriate to the uses of the students, together with a choice selection of papers and magazines. The Marquette college literary society was organized to spur on the literary efforts of the students. The exercises of its weekly meetings consist of readings, declamations, essays, poems, orations and debates on literary, historical, scientific and general questions. Besides the practice in composition, and the information gathered, the members acquire a facility in speaking which will serve them well on many an occasion in after life. In October, '90, the graduates of preceding years organ- ized the Marquette college lyceum. Membership is not restricted to graduates of Marquette, but its requisites are, to have received a college degree or a liberal education, to be a practical Catholic and in good social standing. All kinds of literary work are embraced within its scope, the exercises of the ordinary bi-weekly meetings being readings, declama- tions and papers on questions literary, historical, scientific, philosophical, political (except questions of party politics), followed by discussion. It endeavors also to hold occasionally public sessions, to which friends are invited. Its membership is as yet not large, but its usefulness is undoubted and its de- velopment premising. Marquette college is not endowed. Besides the original donation of Mr. DeBoeye of $16,000, it has received a number of volumes for the library, several paintings, the foundation of several scholarships, a donation of $1,000 from a friend, and a contribution of about $2,000 from a number of generous friends and patrons of learning to enable it to fit up a scientific cabinet. But to pay off' the debt contracted by the purchase of ground, the erection of buildings, to meet the 668 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. current expenses and those entailed by improvement and de- velopment, the college is entirely dependent on the moderate tuition fee of $60 a year paid by the students. Such is a brief sketch of the establishment, career and work of Marquette college. When its foundation was first projected, the noble-souled Bishop Henni desired that it should be named after Pere Marquette, with the hope that his religious brethren, now two and a half centuries after he has gone to his reward, may make it a worthy monument to his great name. The Jesuit fathers have borne in mind their mission. They have experienced the difficulties in- separable from the building up of a new institution and, not least, the financial embarrassments under which Catholic in- stitutions must struggle ; but difficulty is their inheritance. In the near future they will transfer the college from its present location to the more eligible site on Grand avenue, and, with the blessing of God and the good will and assistance of the people of Milwaukee, they will endeavor to make it an honorable resting place for the bones of Pere Marquette, now in its possession, an ornament to the city and a center of higher education. St. John's Institute for Deaf Mutes. St. John's institute is located at St. Francis, near Mil- waukee, Wisconsin. This institute was established in the year of our Lord 1876, by the Rev. Theodore Bruener, and formally opened May 10, 1876, the opening day of the Centen- nial exposition at Philadelphia. The building now occupied by the deaf mutes was erected in the summer of 1879, and dedi- cated in the month of December of the same year. It is a solid, three-story structure, of cream colored brick and pleasing style of architecture; heated by a furnace, wjth liberal pro- vision for ventilation. It is surrounded by ornamental grounds, woods and farming lands, and well adapted for the care of the unfortunates needing its protection. The insti- tute has since been greatly improved, will now comfortably accommodate eighty pupils, and is maintained by contribu- tions and bequests of kind friends of the poor deaf mutes, and a tuition fee, which, however, is so low that it is within the reach of nearly everyone in need of the advantages offered by this humane institution. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 669 This being a diocesan establishment, deaf mutes of the archdiocese of Milwaukee, not able to pay even this small tuition fee, will be admitted on presenting a certificate testi- fying to their poverty and promising to pay all they can under existing circumstances. This certificate must be signed by their respective pastors. The methods of work embrace quite all of those that have proved efficient in similar institutions, and pupils are taught not only secular branches, but also instructed in the truths of holy religion, so as to be enabled to make a living in the world and at the same time attend to their spiritual welfare. Rev. Father Bruener, who worked for the institute with untiring zeal, was called to a new field of labor December 29, 1879, and was succeeded by Rev. John Friedl. This reverend gentleman, who had charge about one year, was succeeded by Rev. Charles Fessler. Father Fessler was at the head of the institute for nine years and his efforts in its behalf during all this time were unremitting. The majority of the inmates being the children of poor parents, and donations for this noble cause so very scarce, it seemed at one time that the institute must be closed. The present rector of the Catholic normal school and Pio Nono college, Rev. M. M. Gerend, was appointed protector of St. John's institute August 15, 1889, by the Most Rev. M. Heiss, of blessed memory. Father Gerend, in order to place the institute on a solid basis and rid it for all time to come, if possible, from financial embarrassment, requested the Most Rev. Archbishop to approve of the building of spacious work- shops for the manufacture of church furniture (altars, con- fessionals, baptismal-fonts, stations, statues, pulpits, and all kinds of cabinet and carved work used in churches). This request the archbishop cheerfully granted. The shops were at once erected February, 1890 and well furnished with all the necessary machinery, and at the present the institute can boast of having the best plant of its kind in the Northwest. Orders come in from every side, and $20,000 to $30,000 worth of work is turned out annually. The institute resorted to the manufacture of church furniture for two reasons : In the first place, because this industry com- bines many trades, such as carving, cabinet-making, carpen- tering, painting, decorating, gilding, drawing, designing, etc., and thus gives every pupil ample opportunity to fit himself to compete with his fellow-man in making an honest living 670 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. after he leaves the school. In the second place, because it brings to the institute a class of patrons who would naturally prefer to purchase from an establishment having so laudable an object. At present the institute has three departments, viz. : school, industrial and domestic. 1. The school department, in which pupils are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, catechism, Bible history, etc., is under the control of competent teachers. Prof. L. W. Mihm, who has been connected with the insti- tute for thirteen years, has charge of the boys, and Sisters of St. Francis instruct the girls. 2. The' industrial department, where the boys are taught various trades, is superintended by Mr. E. Brielmaier,. who has established a reputation as an architect and altar- builder throughout the Northwest. 3. The domestic department, in which girls perform the usual household duties and learn baking, cooking, sewing, needle-work, etc., is under the supervision of Sisters. This plan, which gives time for study, work, and recre- ation, develops the moral, intellectual and physical nature of the inmates, and prepares these poor, unfortunate beings, who would otherwise be a burden to the community, for a useful life. The results accomplished have surpassed even the most sanguine expectations. God has apparently blessed the undertaking. Adjoining the St. John's institute a beautiful chapel in memory of the late Archbishop Heiss, the earnest friend of these unfortunates, was built last summer. Catholic Normal School of the Holy Family, and Pio Nono College, St. Francis. Half a mile south of the city limits of Milwaukee, and within a few rods of St. Francis station on the Chicago & North-Western Railroad, there rises a stately gothic edifice de- voted to the education of Catholic youth, and known under the name of Catholic normal school of the Holy Family and Pio Nono college. The name clearly implies that the fore- most object of this institution is the education of young men CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 671 for the profession of teaching in the Catholic parochial schools. Until now it is the only institution of its kind in the United States. It owes its existence to the untiring ef- forts of the late Dr. Joseph Salzmann, a man who united within himself unusual talent, energy, zeal and piety, and devoted his life entirely to the development and advancement of Catholic education in the great Northwest. As earl} 7 as the year 1863 Louis I., king of Bavaria, who was an admirer of Dr. Salzmann as well as an ardent promoter of learning, art and religion, had donated the sum of 3,000 florins for the purpose of erecting a Catholic teachers' semi- nary in the United States. This sum was increased by vari- ous contributions, large and small, collected through the un- ceasing efforts of Dr. Salzmann. With the generous aid of the German Catholic Central society, at whose annual meet- ings the zealous priest was present in 1869 and 1870, it was at last possible to lay the corner-stone of the present imposing structure. This event occurred on Trinity Sunday, June 12, 1870. The Right Rev. Joseph Melcher, bishop of Green Bay, performed the ceremony, which was witnessed by thousands of Catholics from Milwaukee and other parts of the state. The work was rapidly pushed, and on January 2,1871, the build- ing was so far completed that the dedicatory ceremonies could take place. The school was opened the same day with an attendance of nineteen students. In the year following a commercial department, known as Pio Nono college, was added. Dr. Salzmann was the first president and procurator of the institution. Owing to feeble health, brought on by overwork, Dr. Salzmann was obliged to resign his position into the hands of Rev. Theodore Bruener, who, in 1875, erected St. John's institute for the deaf and dumb. Since the opening of the normal school the position occupied by Dr. Salzmann and Rev. Theodore Bruener has been held by Revs. William Neu, John Friedl, Charles Fessler and M. M. Gerend. During the twenty-one years of its existence many improvements have been made in the building, which is tasteful in its proportions and well adapted for its purpose as a boarding school. All modern appliances of convenience and safety are found in the house. Water is furnished by an artesian well. The rooms and corridors are lighted by gas and heated by steam. There are bath-rooms, supplied with warm and cold water. The halls and dormitories are spacious, well ventilated and comfortable. Every necessary precaution has been taken against fire or accident, and 672 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. everything is arranged to make the students' sojourn pleas- ant and homelike. For recreation in bad weather a large gymnasium is provided, in which turning poles, parallel bars, Indian clubs, swings, etc., furnish healthful and amus- ing exercise. The grounds surrounding the college build- ing are carefully kept and adorned. The good work done by the Catholic normal school, through its graduates, exercises a beneficial influence upon thousands. It may not be out of place to mention that it was at the Catholic normal school the " American Cecilian Society," for the cultivation and promotion of true ecclesiasti- cal music, was founded in 1873. Here, also, the official organ of the society, the " Caecilia," a monthly magazine is issued. The present staff of officers and teachers comprises the following : Rev. M. M. Gerend, president, Rev. M. J. Lochemes, prefect of studies and professor of pedagogy, history, literature and elocution ; Rev. H. B. Ries, master of discipline and professor of German, Latin, and drawing ; Rev. H. T. Stemper, professor of Christian doctrine and Ger- man ; Chevalier John Singenberger, professor of music ; Mr. John Healy, B. L., professor natural science and English ; Mr. T. D. Hart, professor of mathematics, bookkeeping, commercial law and penmanship ; Mr. John Hart, professor of English and arithmetic, preceptor of violin. The annual attendance of late years averaged about ninety students. During the present year (1892-93) upwards of a hundred students have been enrolled. On account of the steady growth of. the attendance, the question of increasing the capacity of the school building is already seriously dis- cussed. The Provincial Seminary of St. Francis of Sales (Salesianum). This ecclesiastical institution, whose object is the remote and immediate preparation for the priesthood, now ranks among the largest and most prominent Catholic seminaries in the United States. Its beginning dates back to the year 1853, when two zealous and learned priests of the diocese of Milwaukee, Rev. Joseph Salzmann, D. D., and Rev. Michael Heiss (subse- 674 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. queutly archbishop of Milwaukee), appeared before their bishop, the Right Rev. John Martin Henui, and volunteered to erect a seminary for the education of priests. Their object in undertaking this great and arduous work was to provide for the spiritual welfare of the thousands of Catholics scattered in the different parts of this young and flourishing state. In 1855 the building was begun, and on January 29th, 1856, the feast of St. Francis of Sales, the seminary was solemnly blessed and opened by the bishop of Milwaukee, Right Rev. J. M. Henni. In the first scholastic year it num- bered twenty-five students. The Very Rev. M. Heiss was appointed first rector, and Rev. J. Salzmann procurator of the seminary. Soon the number of students increased and the good work steadily prospered despite the continual financial troubles and embarrassments, which, during the first years of its history, often imperiled the existence of St. Francis seminary. When, in 1868, Rector Heiss, who for upwards of twelve years had adorned the institution by the renown of his learn- ing and piety, was appointed first bishop of the new diocese of La Crosse, Very Rev. J. Salzmann succeeded him as the second rector. He held this important office till January, 1874, when his premature and much lamented death inflicted an unexpected loss, long felt by the institution which he had founded and which mainly owed its success and prosperity to his untiring energy and enlightened zeal. His worthy successor, very Rev. Charles Wapelhorst, provided for the increasing number of students, by enlarg- ing the original building and adding a new wing, almost as large as the first structure, with about ninety rooms for students of the theological department. This was in 1875. When, in 1879, Rector Wapelhorst entered the order of Saint Francis, the Very Rev. Kilian C. Flasch, once himself a pupil of this seminary, became its able and beloved rector, and after his elevation to the episcopal section of La Crosse (1881), Very Rev. A. Zeininger was appointed his successor. Under his efficient management several important improve- ments were made, among them an artesian well of more than 1,300 feet in depth, furnishing the institution with an abundant supply of very wholesome mineral water. In 1887 Rector Zeininger was appointed chancellor of the archdiocese of Milwaukee, and Very Rev. Joseph Rainer succeeded him, who is still at the head of St. Francis semin- CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 675- ary. Its present flourishing condition sufficiently appears from the continually increasing number of students. More than 600 priests who now labor in the Lord's vineyard in al- most every state of the Union, as also some of our most suc- cessful and reverend bishops, including the present Arch- bishop of Milwaukee, Most Rev. Frederic X. Katzer, grate- fully call the Salesianum their alma mater. The situation of the seminary is very picturesque and attractive. Its majestic dome can be seen from afar towering above the surrounding woodlands and commanding a beau- tiful and charming view of Lake Michigan. It has pleasant and spacious recreation grounds, surrounded, as it is, by grassy plats and shady woods. The education imparted in the seminary embraces the study of the classical branches,, philosophy and theology. St. Lawrence College, Mount Calvary, Wis- consin. (Fond du Lac County.) This college, conducted by the Capuchin friars of the province of St. Joseph, was founded in 1861 by the Very Rev. Francis Haas, 0. M. Cap., who with the Very Rev. Bonaventure Frey, 0. M. Cap., had established the first Cap- uchin monastery in this country. In 1868 the college was destroyed by fire, but was soon- rebuilt and equipped with all modern improvements. The college stands on an eminence of considerable height, and commands a charming view of the surrounding country. The location is remarkably healthy, and the buildings can accommodate 150 students. The institution, which is primarily intended as a pre- paratory seminary for the order, from which the province receives its recruits, was also founded for the purpose of in- structing and training young men cDnformably to Catholic principles, with a view either to prepare them for the holy priesthood, or to give them a thorough education in general. To attain this end more successfully, the institution admits only Catholic pupils of a good moral character. There are two courses at the college a classical and a commercial course. The classical course embraces a period 676 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. of six years, the commercial of three years. The following branches are taught: Religion, Latin, Greek, English, German, French, rhetoric, poetry, literature, history, geography, physical geography, bookkeeping, commercial law, arithmetic, mathe- matics, natural philosophy, drawing, penmanship, instru- mental and vocal music. The various branches are taught by members of the community, except bookkeeping and music. Since the members of the faculty receive no salary, but give their ser- vices gratis, the college is able to receive boarders at a very low rate, the average cost being only $140 per annum. This circumstance affords parents of less means an opportunity of giving their sons a higher education and a sound Catholic training at a very moderate expense. The number of attending pupils (boarders) varjes from 100 to 120 annually. The school year begins on the first Wednesday in Sep- tember, and ends the last week in June. St. Catherine's Academy, 'Racine, Wisconsin. HISTOKY OF FOUNDATION. This institution for the education of Catholic young ladies was founded in 1862 by Mother M. Benedicta Bauer and Sister M. Thomasina Guiker of Ratisbonne, Bavaria. They were members of the Dominican community of the " Convent of Holy Cross," founded in Ratisbonne in the year 1237, only sixteen years after the death of the illus- trious founder of the order, St. Dominic. Mother Benedicta had been prioress of this convent for a number of years, but wishing to undertake missionary labor in America, she, with Mother Thomasina, by permis- sion of their superiors and ordinary, Bishop Ignatius Sen- estry, left Ratisbonne September 22, 1858, and came to Williamsburg, N. Y., where Mother Benedicta had a few years previously, while superior of the convent of Holy Cross, established a mother house, which has grown to be a very prosperous community. They remained here some months, and after visiting their co-religionists at Somerset, CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 677 Ohio, accepted the invitation of Bishop Henni, to establish a mother house in the diocese, now archdiocese, of Mil- waukee. They were sent to Green Bay in 1861, where they pur- chased two lots now occupied by the cathedral and episcopal residence. They brought with them two postulants, who were received into the order, one of these being the present superioress, Mother M. Hyacintha. In Green Bay they took charge of St. Mary's parochial school and conducted a small select school and music class. Finding the future prospects of Green Bay rather discour- aging, Bishop Henni advised the Sisters, who had mean- while increased their number to six, to locate at Racine, where the now flourishing community has been ever since. At Racine they took charge of St. Patrick's, St. Joseph's and afterwards St. Mary's parochial schools. For a short time the little community had a home in a private dwelling house opposite St. Patrick's church, until they succeeded in obtaining four lots and a two-story brick building on Twelfth street, south side. In the spring of 1864 an addition thirty-three by seventy feet was erected, running west from first building. It was built of brick and had four stories, including basement. The young Sisters, among them the present assistant, Sister M. Cecilia, did all of the lathing in this wing to lessen the expenses. A chapel was fitted up on the fourth floor. In September, 1864, a day and boarding school was opened. This was the small beginning of the present St. Catherine's academy, whose growth has been slow, but steady and solid. In 1865 a chapel, running east of first building, was erected at a cost of $800 ; it was dedicated on Rosary Sunday, 1865, in honor of St. Dominic. PERIOD OF TRIALS. Trials and afflictions threatened more than once to annihilate the struggling community. Mother Benedicta was taken sick in May, 1865, with cancer of the stomach; she lingered through this painful illness till October 13th, when she breathed her last, fortified by the rites of* the church, at the age of sixty-three. She had the happiness of living long enough to see the new chapel dedicated. She was a woman of noble character, highly educated and a fine musician, a veritable piano and organ virtuoso. 678 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. Her career in America had been full of hardships and pri- vations, but her indomitable energy overcame all difficulties .and she knew not the word fail. At the time of her death the convent property was val- ued at about $8,500. There was considerable indebtedness and little or nothing with which to liquidate it. The com- munity now numbered twelve Sisters and had charge of St. Mary's and St. Patrick's schools in Racine; St. Mary's, Port Washington ; and St. Norbert's, Roxbury, Wisconsin. After Mother Benedicta's death Mother Thomasina was appointed prioress by Bishop Henni. She was a noble and heroic woman, willing to undergo any amount of hardship, and truly sacrificed her life for the good cause. Besides at- tending to her onerous duties as prioress, she also had charge of St. Mary's school, where she had taught for three years. She was seized with typhoid fever, contracted while nursing a young novice, who had brought the disease into the house from the mission at Port Washington. This novice, Sister Petrina, died August 15, 1866. Mother Thomasina's strength having been exhausted by her attendance on Sister Petrina, the fever at once took a firm hold, and she succumbed to the disease after an illness of two weeks, at the early age of thirty- three, having been prioress only eleven months. It would be difficult to describe the condition of the poor Sisterhood at the time of Mother Thomasina's death. Six members were down sick with typhoid fever; there were no funds, consequently no credit, which can be illustrated by one instance: A package was brought by the express to the con- vent one day, but as the charges of delivery, twenty-five cents, could not be found in the house, the parcel was taken back to the express office, until the sum was procured for its re- lease. In fact, the community was on the point of dissolu- tion. But the all-seeing eye of God watched over the strug- gling community, and, sustained by His grace, they remained faithful under their heavy crosses and trials. November 2, 1866, Sister M. Raymunda Graf, of Ratis- bonne, who had joined her companions, Mothers Benedicta and Thomasina, in 1863, died of consumption. Her death was certainly hastened by grief at their early death. Thus the founders of St. Catherine's academy passed -away within the short space of three years from the time of first foundation, and left the young Sisters to their own re- sources, totally inexperienced in all business transactions .and the wiles of the world. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 679 During Mother Thomasina's administration two and one half lots had been added to the property. Value of property at the time of her death, $9,600.00 ; number of Sisters seventeen. APPOINTMENT OF NEW PRIORESS. Since the required number of Sisters necessary for a formal election of prioress was lacking, the Reverend Bishop Henni appointed Sister M. Hyacintha Oberbrunner, and Sister M. Cecilia Fox, aged respectively twenty-five and eighteen years, prioress and sub-prioress. They still hold these offices, having been formally elected in 1881, and re- elected in 1889, the number of Sisters necessary for an elec- tion being complete. In this time of financial distress, the good and kind Bishop Henni, who had always been a true friend and counselor, recommended the struggling community to the generosity of the late King Louis I. of Bavaria, who greatly relieved the distress by liberal donations. But trials of a more serious nature visited the much- tried Sisterhood; one of the Sisters, thinking the convent could not flourish under the many trials besetting it, left, and caused the withdrawal by their parents and pastor of five novices and some promising postulants. This was a ter- rible blow to the house, and the remaining few becoming disheartened, were again on the point of dissolution, but the all-merciful God sent help when all hope was gone. On the urgent appeal of the late Rev. F. X. Weinhart, who had always been a warm friend of the much-afflicted Sisterhood, Bishop Henni at once sent Rev. J. A. Birk- haeUser to take charge of the convent as resident chaplain. He came in March, 1868, and remained as stationary chap- lain until March, 1870, when he was appointed pastor of St. Mary's church ; he attended the convent, however, as the regular Father Confessor. He is the author of "Birk- haeuser's Church History," used in most of our seminaries as well as in Great Britain. Rev. Patrick Seibold, an elderly, infirm clergyman, was then sent by Bishop Henni as resident chaplain, his func- tions being to read mass and administer Holy Commun- ion to the community. He led the saintly life of a recluse, and remained from March, 1870, until April 23, 1884, when he died of old age and infirmity. 60 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. Father Birkhaeuser was appointed professor at St. Francis' seminary in 1873. From there he attended the convent as regular confessor, coming weekly in sunshine or rain for eleven years. After Father Seibold's death he again became resident chaplain, which position he still holds. Under his direction, with Mother Hyacintha's wise and prudent management, the precarious condition of the com- munity gradually improved. In 1869, an addition, 70x33 feet, was built, extending south of the old building, at a cost of about $4,500.00. In 1874 another addition, 82x33 feet, was built, extend- ing south, in the same direction as the building of 1869. During the erection of this addition an incident occurred which caused a sudden interruption, and the building could not be completed until the following spring. INVOLVED IN A LAWSUIT. About July, 1874, the community received the startling intelligence that the will of the late Mother Thomasina was to be contested on the grounds of illegality. Her relatives, the Guiker family, in Bavaria, laid claim to the convent property, which was held by the community at the time of Mother Thomasina's death. Mother Thomasina, ignorant of the laws of the country, had bequeathed the property to Sister M. Hyacintha and Sister M. Cecilia, to be held " in trust " by them for St. Catherine's academy and for no other purpose. A lawsuit was brought by these relatives against the communny, and in two instances, in the circuit and the supreme courts, was decided in favor of the plaintiffs, on the ground that Sisters M. Hyacintha and Cecilia could not hold the property " in trust " for St. Catherine's academy, as this institution had never been incorporated ; consequently it was not known .as a corporate body, and no property could be held or willed " in trust " for the same, as worded in Mother Thomasina's will, which had been drawn up by an inexperienced attorney. After the two decisions against the defendants, they de- cided to engage Messrs. Fish and Lee instead of Messrs. Dyer and Dixon, ex-chief justice of the supreme court, who had heretofore conducted the suit. Messrs. Fish and Lee asked for a new trial, taking up the case on a different basis. They alleged that as the property had accumulated and in- creased in value by the joint labors of the entire commu- CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 681 nity, Mother Tliomasina, not aware of the fact, had no right, consequently, to make any such will or testament. Against this charge the opposing party saw they could lay no legal claim, and therefore the day on which the case was to be tried offered to settle, which offer was accepted by the com- munity. The Sisters had on several previous occasions offered to compromise with the Guiker party for $1,500.00, but they would accept nothing short of $7,000.00. Now, however, the presumptive heirs were glad to accept the first offer of $1 ,500.00. The Sisters had to pay the costs of court, which, with lawyers' fees and settlement, amounted to $4,000.00. The community being short of funds at the time, Messrs. Fish and Lee at once forwarded the amount of set- tlement ($1,500.00) to Messrs. Van Buskirk and Ritchie, lawyers for the Guiker family. The lawsuit lasted three years, a time of probation and anxiety, yet, thank God, the trouble was borne by the much- tried community with true Christian resignation, and the holy bonds of sisterly affection were thereby much strength- ened. From this time forward, God's blessing visibly seemed to rest on the convent, as the improvements made in quick succession would indicate. The old chapel, erected in 1865, no longer adequate to accommodate the fast increasing number of Sisters, was torn down to make room for a more commodious edifice. The corner-stone of the new chapel was laid on Pente*- cost, June 1, 1884, and the first services were held on the Patron Feast of St. Joseph, April 28, 1885. It was solemnly consecrated by Archbishop Heiss, on the 16th of July, 1885, Feast of Our Lady of Mount Carrnel, under the title of "Our Lady of the Rosary." Cost of chapel and furnishing, includ- ing a fine pipe organ, $16,000. In 1885 an extensive wing, 42x95 feet, was added to the academy, fitted up with all modern improvements at a cost of $21,000. Among the benefactors of the community special men- tion must be made of Rev. Michael Bauer, brother of the late Mother Benedicta Bauer, who was a fast friend of the house from the time of its foundation until his death, which occurred in 1879; and Father Inama, of Roxbury, Wiscon- sin, who donated a farm of one hundred acres, on which has been erected a commodious edifice for Sisters and boarding pupils. 682 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IX WISCONSIN. In the summer of 1891 a fine brick parsonage was erected for the resident chaplain, also property bought in Wrightstown and a convent built in Sturgeon Bay. GROWTH OF COMMUNITY AND SCHOOLS IN CHARGE. The community now numbers 120 Sisters, and twelve postulants. They conduct all the parochial schools in Racine, viz.: St. Mary's, St. Joseph's, St. Patrick's, Holy Name and St. Rose's, also the following: St. Xorbert's, Roxbury, Wis. ; St. Barnabas, Mazomanie, Wis. ; St. Mary's, Oshkosh, Wis. ; St. Paul's, Wrightstown, Wis. ; Holy Cross, North Kaukauna, Wis. ; Guardian Angels, Sturgeon Bay, Wis. ; St. Mary's, Schleisingerville, Wis. ; St. Andrew's, Knowles, Wis. ; St. Mary's, Mineral. Point, Wis.; St. Louis, Caledonia, Wis. ; Holy Cross, Holy Coss, Wis. ; St. Mary's, Belgium, Wis., and others in Michigan and Iowa. ST. CATHERINE'S ACADEMY, RACINE, WISCONSIN. The mother house a"nd novitiate are also located here and were affiliated to the " Third order of St. Dominic " by letter of the late Master General Joseph Maria Sanvieto, July 12, 1877. The limited accommodations of S.t. Catherine's academy in the early years of its struggle for existence necessarily limited its educational scope, but with the growth of the community the academy has also developed and done good, solid work. The addition of the extensive wing, erected in 1885, in- creased the accommodations for boarders. The academy now has all the modern improvements ; it is heated by steam, well furnished with bath, and lighted by gas. The institution is situated in the most beautiful part of Racine, which, on account of its delightful, almost peninsular location, is called the Belle city. It has pleasant and ex- tensive recreation grounds with a view of Lake Michigan, into which the city extends for a distance of seven miles. LOWEST DEATH RATE. The delightful climate of Racine is well known to seekers of a health resort, and medical statistics show that Racine has the lowest death rate of any city of like popula- tion in the Union, making it a most healthful location for an academy. It is easy of access, as the electric railways from .all depots pass the institution. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 680 AIM OF THE INSTITUTION. In 1874 St. Catherine's academy was chartered with full powers for conferring degrees. Its aim is to give a thoroughly solid education, fitting young ladies for any position in life, and above all for true Christian womanhood. Education in the hands of a truly Christian woman, is a sceptre that rules the greatest dominion on earth. Without Christianity education proves a siren to thousands, alluring them on to certain destruction. " Ceaseless growth toward God, this is the ideal ; this is the law of human life proposed and sanctioned alike by re- ligion, philosophy, and poetry. ' Dulcissima vita sentire in dies se fieri meliorem.' "* This ceaseless growth toward God has ever been the aim of the Sisters of St. Dominic, faculty of St. Catherine's acad- emy, in educating the young ladies under their charge. The educational sphere of St. Catherine's academy may be limited and hampered by social and religious environ- ment, but is like a circle in the ocean, steadily and surely in- creasing. DEPARTMENTS. Primary and preparatory departments : These depart- ments are designed for students who are too young to enter the academic department. Academic department : This course requires four years ; it embraces every advantage for the thorough and refined education, suited to young ladies of the present day, to pre- pare them for any changes wrought by the fickleness of for- tune, so that, should circumstances demand it, they would be able to earn an independent living. Students who complete this course will receive a diploma. Normal department: At the urgent request of some of our friends and patrons a normal course was established in 1888, with the most gratifying results. The religious orders are taxed to their utmost to supply teachers for the parochial schools, but withal, there still remains a great dearth of teaching force, and it is, therefore, to meet this want that we have established a normal department. Two courses have been adopted: I. An elementary course of two years. II. An advanced course of two additional vears. *Spalding, " Education and The Higher Life." 684 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. The elementary course is to prepare teachers in the shortest possible time for either parochial or public school. The advanced course is for those who have the leisure and desire for a higher culture. Students who complete the elementary course receive a certificate, those completing the advanced course receive a diploma. Although music is an optional study, still we would ad- vise its pursuit by every young lady pursuing either course, as organists are always in demand in the parochial schools; for this reason special attention will be paid to church music. Commercial department : This course requires but one year, provided the student is proficient in the preparatory studies. It aims to prepare pupils to earn their living as ac- countants or bookkeepers. Many young ladies are filling these lucrative positions. English literature department: Some parents prefer to have their daughters devote less time to the sciences and mathematics than to general literature, for which purpose this department has been established. The time required is two years. Art department : The work requires two years, and in- cludes drawing in pencil and crayon, pastel, water color and oil painting, also use of the air brush. Department of music: Two courses have been adopted in this department. I. Preparatory: This course is specially adapted for those who wish to become organists, but cannot devote longer time to the study of music. Special attention is paid to the Cecilian church music, the efficient corps of teachers having had the advantage of a complete course of instruction direct from the fountain source. II. Graduating: Upon completing this course the pupil will receive a diploma. Each course requires three years, though pupils with talent and close application may complete the course in a shorter time. Societies, religious: The Children of Mary, composed of all the pupils who have made their first communion; the Children of the Holy Angels, composed of the pupils under twelve years of age; the Living Rosary, to which all of the pupils may belong. Literary : St. Catherine's, composed of pupils of the advanced classes, no others being eligible to membership. Music : St. Caecilia's, to which all the music pupils are admitted. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN .WISCONSIN. 685 St. Clara's Academy, Sinsinawa Mound, Wis- consin. St. Clara's academy, situated on the southern slope of Sinsinawa Mound, a beautiful eminence in the extreme south- western corner of Wisconsin, is conducted by Sisters of the Third Order of St. Dominic, and was founded in March, 1847, incorporated in 1852 by Very Rev. Samuel Charles Mazzuchelli, of the Order of Friars Preachers. Father Mazzuchelli, or " Father Samuel " as he was lovingly called by his people, who found the long Italian name difficult to pronounce, was a Milanese of a distinguished family, who left his native city at the age of twenty-one, leaving behind him riches, influence, all that could dazzle a cultured, highly-trained youth, for the accomplishment of his early boyish dream of preaching the gospel to the savages of America. Spending several years among the tribes of Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois, he was finally drawn to the service of his own race, whose needs were cer- tainly greater than those of the Indians ; and as colleague and bosom friend of the saintly Bishop Loras, first bishop of Dubuque, he traversed this broad region in his Master's ser- vice. Father Mazzuchelli was a man of heroic mould, one of those rare souls sent into the world at times as if to show what humanity can achieve when inspired by purest charity. What he did for the salvation of souls as missioner apostolic between the years 1828 and 1865, what he did for the tem- poral interests of this whole Northwest as jurisconsult, pro- fessor, architect and builder, as civilizer and pacificator of savage tribes, sounds like exaggeration when told ; it will be told in the near future, however, and the testimony is too real and too wide-spread to be disputed. His spirit was that of an enlightened educator, and he impressed his spirit on his last work, the establishment of an educational community, the congregation of Dominican Sisters at Sinsinawa Mound, who have moved from the first on the lines laid down by Father Mazzuchelli. Their marked and steady success in the matter of making the higher education of girls solid, progressive and practical as well as elegant, is the result of the intellectual training and habits of thought, rigidly insisted upon by Father Mazzu- 686 .CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. chelli in the infancy of this religious community, of which lie was literally the teacher as well as spiritual guide. He strove to advance the higher education of young men also, by himself building and endowing a college, an imposing structure for those early days, which is now occupied as part of the convent by the Sisters. After putting affairs on a solid and prosperous basis he made the college over to the Dominican Fathers from Kentucky, and turned his energies to building churches, founding parochial schools before the first stone was laid in his churches, however ; and in addition to all these to promote the growth of the little community of Dominican nuns whom he had just established, and who, like their founder, seemed to be ubiquitous, from the number of parochial schools they were obliged to conduct. In 1852 he removed the Sisters to Benton, Wisconsin, where he had already built the church now standing, moved the old church across the road, and founded St. Clara's acad- emy, which was incorporated in that year, 1852. And here were educated some of the noblest, loveliest and most influ- ential women whom this country is blessed with, women who as wives and mothers have moulded in great part the destinies of this Northwest. Could the record of these past graduates of St. Clara's be written, it would form a brilliant and instructive page in the educational history of Wis- consin. In 1867, St. Clara's academy was again transferred to Sinsinawa Mound. The Dominican Fathers having decided to close the college, and, having sold the property, the Sisters succeeded in purchasing it ; and, as if Father Mazzuchelli himself guided the transaction, the beautiful mound which his prophetic eye had early marked out for religion and science, which he had secured for God's service at such im- mense exertions of body and soul as only his kindred souls knew, was still a Dominican inheritance, falling into the hands of those who had imbibed his spirit, who had been privileged to behold most clearly the heroic sanctity and enlightened zeal for the improvement of humanity pos- sessed by this great man. The site of Sinsinawa is more suitable than Benton for educational purposes, which is the aim exclusively of this institution, and its rare healthfulness, in addition to its picturesque beauty, shows the wisdom of those who dictated the change. The Sinsinawa Mound itself, or the " Mound," CATHOLIC EDUCATION IX WISCONSIN. 687 as old settlers delight to call it, is the most beautiful of that remarkable line of hills running from east to west across Southern Wisconsin, too isolated to be considered a range, yet all possessing some common connection. The theory of the lamented Senator Carpenter, as given in his Geology of Wisconsin, offers the only satisfactory solution as to the cause of these remarkable conformations. Sinsinawa Mound itself is a truncated cone, forming the " cap " or termination of a broad mount whose base is at least twelve miles in diameter, and whose ascent is so gentle that it is hardly per- ceptible until it reaches a point about 300 feet from the sum- mit, at which point stand the academy buildings, sheltered thus from the sweeping north winds, yet favored with the freshness of the hill atmosphere in the fiercest summer heat. Behind the academy rises suddenly the smooth round sum- mit of the mound proper, capped by an outlying mass of Niagara limestone, which, disposed in parallel beds, appears like colossal masonry. The exceeding beauty of the mound is too well known to need description. Nature has done so much for St. Clara that art needed only to lend itself to preserving the native growth of forest, instead of creating beautiful scenery. A stroll "around the mound " by a circular avenue arched by a continuous belt of oaks, is a memory that a visitor carries with him forever if he finds delight in nature. The height of the buildings above the Mississippi, while giving no impression of a hill to be climbed, secures immunity from all miasmatic influ- ences, and this is a great factor towards making Sinsinawa Mound so remarkable as a health resort. This is consum- mated by the perfect system of sewerage, made possible by the simple yet unique plan of waterworks. This plan is at- tracting much attention from the perfection of its results, most simple, most secure, and never failing. An artesian well, sunk close by the steam works, yields a stead}*, abun- dant supply of purest water for all purposes ; this is forced by a steam pump in a straight line up the hill, to a reser- voir on the flat summit of the mound, not built as is usual, but hewn out of the living rock; nothing short of an earth- quake can ever burst the walls of this reservoir, therefore, and the freedom from the usual anxiety on this score, is not the least agreeable feature connected with the plan. From this reservoir the water, by the simple force of its own fall, is sent everywhere through the buildings, and as the supply is exhaustless, secures perfect sewerage, an easy solution of the 688 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. problem now vexing sanitary reformers. This arrangement also makes it easy to supply the fountains throughout the grounds. Through the generosity and public spirit of the citizens of Dubuque and of Sinsinawa Mound, a fine causeway is now being laid between the above named city and St. Clara's, which being a genuine macadamized road, will add to the facility of reaching the academy in any weather. The buildings are extensive and furnished with all mod- ern appliances. The academy building, erected in 1883, is a magnificent structure in Byzantine style, furnished with every invention that can promote improvement in mental acquisitions or health. More room is called for, however, by the constantly increasing needs of the growing school, and an addition, almost as spacious as the former, is nearly ready for use ; it will contain besides an additional suite of music rooms, a library, Juniors' study hall, class-rooms, play- rooms, science-rooms, dormitories and a large calisthenic hall. A new system of steam heating was introduced last fall, superseding the old and well-tried one in use for twenty- five years, and the advantage of the change is proved by the fact that this phenomenally cold winter has not been felt by the pupils of St. Clara. The estate, while affording ample space for recreation in the open air, gives the isolation from distractions and ex- citements of town life that parents desire who would secure solid and steady mental culture for their daughters. The mother house is also situated at Sinsinawa, and .supplies an able corps of teachers for many parochial schools throughout this country, from AVashington, D. C., to Denver. The congregation shows marked adaptability and success in parochial school w r ork, as is fitting for the members of an order founded for educational purposes only. St. Clara's academy is, of course, a boarding school, car- ried on by an extended community of teachers. The regular academic course extends through five years, but the ele- mentary course, that is, a thorough proficiency in the ele- mentary English branches, is of obligation; it must be com- pleted before entering upon the academic course. Pupils who desire to follow special studies, however, can do so, if the faculty are satisfied by test that these pupils are well grounded in the essentials, otherwise this deficiency must be supplied before merely ornamental branches are entered upon. CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. 689 The academic course in English is divided into five de- partments, the Christian doctrine department, embracing catechism throughout, faith of our fathers, church history, evidences of religion; the mathematics department, English language department, history department, science depart- ment. In addition are the departments of modern languages, music and art. Latin constitutes a course in itself and is ob- ligatory unless a student is anxious to devote herself to some other language, but one is of obligation. A system of special teaching in each department has been followed with decided advantage, securing concentra- tion, and the best effort of the most experienced educator for beginners as well as advanced pupils. The department of music, which is a specialty, need not be dwelt upon; its best testimony is in the pupils whom it sends out. In art the aim is to impress the student with a respect for true art, not for the production of pretty trifles. The indi- viduality and intelligent appreciation of true art as evinced by the students called forth, during his visit to St. Clara, the approval of no less a critic than Signor L. Gregori, the illus- trious Italian artist. The libraries are well supplied with the best works, and the plan of instruction necessitates constant and intelligent use of the library, which last, as thinking persons know, is a branch in itself. Societies exist for improvement in the different depart- ments, notably the German, music, literature and history societies. This all tends, under wise guidance, to teach the young girl a taste for good literature, and a distaste for the worse than worthless reading whose abundance is such a trial to thoughtful parents. Every attention is paid to physical culture, the securing of a " sound mind in a healthy body." The academy is connected by telephone with all the neighboring cities. The aim of the religious order which conducts this school is purely educational. The order, instituted in 1206 in France by the great patriarch, St. Dominic de Gusman, is the third great branch of the order of Preachers, who, as their names implies, were founded to teach; and the adapta- tion of the spirit of this great teaching order to the capabil- ities of women by its very aim called out the wisest and most vigorous efforts from learned women from the begin- 690 CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN WISCONSIN. ning of the institute. So thoroughly was the principle of intellectual advancement understood that, at the time of the invention of printing, the nuns of the Dominican convent in Florence carried on an academic school which the literati of that cultured city held in high honor, and the nuns them- selves worked their own printing press. And when the great upheavals of society hrought destruction upon the in- stitutions of learning,the nuns, suffering as did the other citi- zens, earned their bread by their writing and printing. So proud were even the socialists of that day of their learned countrywomen, that, though hating the religious communi- ties on principle, they spared the buildings of the Sisters, and thus left them the bare chance of supporting themselves by their talents. All the pursuits tending to the intellectual advancement of women were imposed by obligation on this body of religious persons, in order to satisfy the require- ments of a teaching order in the only direction possible for women. So in this age all things that go to form a solid and elegant intellectual training for women are, by the very object and aim of their institute, obligatory on the Domini- can Sisters. Each order has its distinctive spirit, in obedi- ence to which it is most readily developed this is the Do- minican spirit. The aim of the institution, therefore, founded for a single purpose, has concentrated the energies of its members upon the accomplishment of that purpose. The young girl is trained to believe that she owes a debt to God, to her own soul, and to the world wherein she is a worker; to believe that education is but a means to this end, and so that this education does not end on the day when she receives her hard-earned diploma, but continues as long as there is anything to be learned that, through her, can work good to her fellow creatures ; that modesty, and gentleness, and industry, and all womanly gifts are not incompatible with the highest intellectual attainments, but that home should be dowered with her best gifts, not with what can be spared after the world is satisfied. That this is not too high or exacting a standard, the strong, beautiful and useful lives of most of the graduates of St. Clara are a living and daily proof. Mary Mortimer. Milwaukee College. It is hard to think of Milwaukee as a little village with only one school, but such we find it in 1834 ; and, although from this nucleus sprang many small schools, yet in 1848 we find the town still deplorably lacking in that most neces- sary acquisition, educational institutions. It was in the year 1848 when a meeting was called to consider this question, and to take steps towards the accom- modation for the growing youth of the city who were to be- come its mainstay, and whose children were to be the citizens of the future. Among those \vho attended that memorable meeting were many of Milwaukee's most prominent citizens. They talked the matter over, viewing it from all sides ; all agreed that the schools were totally inadequate, especially those for the daughters ; the girls must be educated, ignorance is the vice of civilization, schools they must have and schools they should have ; and every voice in that enthusiastic assem- bly shouted approval, believing in his heart that means would come to further so worthy an object. So it began, our Milwaukee college of to-day, and the faith of those men has been rewarded year by year with the increasing influence of the beloved institution of their foundation. " The Milwaukee female seminary " was opened Septem- ber 14th, 1848, in a two-story frame structure purchased and moved upon the lot, now an alley, in the middle of the block on Oneida street, between Broadway and Milwaukee street, and back of the Free Congregational church, which stood upon the site of "Engine house No. 1," on Broadway, between Mason and Oneida streets, with Mrs. W. L. Parsons, wife of the pastor of the Free Congregational church, as principal, and three teachers besides. Circulars were issued about the middle of August, stat- ing the purpose of the school and the curriculum of study. " The object contemplated in this enterprise is to estab- lish a permanent institution of high order for the education of young ladies. * It will be the design of this institution, by a systematic 691 692 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. course of physical, moral and intellectual discipline, to secure to young ladies the formation of a useful and accomplished character, fitting them not only to adorn the higher circles of society, but to meet the varied and practical responsi- bilities of life." " The course of instruction proposed is fitted to take young misses from the primary schools and conduct them systematically onward to a thorough knowledge of the whole circle of science as taught in similar institutions." Classes were arranged into preparatory, junior, middle class and senior, bringing tuition fees of three, four, five and six dollars, respectively ; and the studies embraced were, be- sides the " four R's " and their usual attendants, trigonom- etry, natural and mental philosophy, logic, criticism, evi- dences of Christianity and Butler's Analogy. The boarding department was conducted by Mr. and Mrs. Seth Parsons, parents of the Rev. W. L. Parsons, in the east half of the double brick house still standing at the north- west corner of Oneida and Milwaukee streets. Here the girls were given " parental supervision over the health, habits and manners," and here they lived at an expense of $2 a week for board, and 25 cents a week for washing, with the privi- lege of doing their own washing if they desired. For two years Milwaukee female seminary flourished and grew in these poor quarters, gradually growing stronger and becoming a feature of the city, until 1850, when a more convenient house was found in the west half of the boarding house, and here it is that we first find the names of Catherine Beecher and Mary Mortimer connected with Mil- waukee college. Catherine Beecher had for nearly twenty years past been formulating a plan for the education of women, giving them equal opportunities with men, and had been gathering con- tributions from Eastern cities to establish professional schools where women might be prepared to acquire liberal profes- sions, remunerative like those of men. Upon invitation she visited Milwaukee and set forth her theories of schools with such success that Milwaukee female seminary, upon removal to the new quarters, became incorporated under the name of " Milwaukee normal institute and high school." The new school was one to be proud of, and, looking back over the history, the citizens of Milwaukee cannot but feel pride for the list of trustees, including Messrs. Increase A. Lapham, whose fame as a scientist has reached far across the waters of the Atlantic, J. P. Greves, G. P. Hewitt, J. H. MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 693 Tweedy, A. Finch, Jr., G. J. Fowler, J. H. Van Dyke, W. P. Flanders, W. L. Parsons ; for the list of teachers, including Mrs. Parsons, Mary Mortimer, Miss E. B. Warner, who had been a teacher in the old frame building in the Oneida street alley, and Mary J. Newcomb ; for the list of pupils, which numbered 200 ; and for the guiding hand of Catherine Beecher, which displayed itself in the policy and the princi- ples of the schools. In the days of the middle of the century, women's pro- fessions comprised : "1. The care and development of the human body in the earliest period of life. 2. Training of the human mind. 3. Care and nursing of the sick. 4. Care of the home." Miss Beecher argued that as one of these functions was training of the mind, every school should have its normal department ; that as in newer settlements multiplicity of re- ligious sects rendered agreement and sympathy impossible, sectarianism must be done away with, every denomination should be represented and every creed tolerated and have equal privileges. Her economical plan was simple and ad- vantageous, and could these plans, at least in purpose if not in detail, have been carried out, Milwaukee college would have stood beside Wellesley and Smith colleges at the present i lay. So the new corporation started out on the plan of a col- lege and an endowment of $25,000 promised, which it unfor- tunately never received. It soon became apparent, however, that the Oneida street house was too small, and the desira- bility of a permanent home became a necessity, so with $1,675 on hand negotiations were begun for the purchase of a build- ing site, trusting, with an inspiring faith, in money forthwith coming wherewith to build upon it. They succeeded in so far that the Milwaukee college to- day owes to those hopeful founders her lot of 127 feet on the south side of Juneau avenue, and 217 feet on the east side of Milwaukee street. They paid for it $2,500 and a purchaser of to-day would not be able to get it for $70,000. How happy was that normal institute and high school when in June, 1852, they laid the corner-stone of their new building ; with what interest did they listen to the address in Plymouth church by Rev. Z. M. Humphrey, formerly presi- dent of Amherst college; with what rejoicing did they occupy those college halls in October, looking with delight and par- donable vanity upon the Gothic front, with its pointed arches 694 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. and towering pinnacles, reaching toward the sky, as if they would tell the world of their faith and of their foundation. The study hall of the old building is the only part that now remains the same as the original. It, with the corridors and recitation rooms beneath it, constituted the body of the building ; wings to the north and south of these were occupied by recitation rooms below and by music room and library on the second floor, adjoining the study hall ; one story wings to the north and south of these were occupied by class rooms, the one to the south by the primary department. It seems that here the story ought to end with, "and so they prospered," but here the story only begins ; the real life of Milwaukee college dates from 1852, and may it never out- grow its youth. New difficulties appeared, new necessities arose, poverty stared them in the face, discouragement dared their bravery, complications challenged their skill. The teachers in a letter to the trustees, after telling of the inadequacy of the tuition fees to pay their salaries and board, closed by saying : " We crave your patience with our reiterated pleas for "more," even after you have furnished us with spacious and beautiful halls. Alas ! their very beauty, and spaciousness but the more im- pressively remind us of their nakedness." The mysterious disappearance of the records from this time to 1867 makes an accurate history of the college ex- tremely difficult to obtain, but its connection with the " American Women's Educational Association," of New York, formed in June, 1852, has thrown some light, and other sources supply a meagre history. The plan of the association just mentioned was to estab- lished permanently endowed institutions for women where they might be educated in their proper departments, train them in their professions as set forth in the plan of Catherine Beecher, and supply them with remunerative employments. The conditions were first, that a school, such as the col- lege was then, should be established with a primary and high school department, and pupils enough to support four teachers of equal rank and power constituting a faculty, and in return receive $1,000 in library and apparatus from the association. The first board of teachers was to be appointed by the association and thereafter the faculty was to have the nominating power, and the trustees the appointing power. The Institute was in 1852 competent to meet the second part of the plan. When the school was sufficiently 696 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. established the citizens were to erect a building of not less than $10,000 cost and provide scholarships for twenty nor- mal pupils, and the association would then endow the school with $20,000, enough to provide for the salaries of three teachers who, with as many others as wished to enter, con- stituted the normal department. Here we see plainly the plan of Catherine Beecher, who was indeed, with Mrs. Sigourney, Mrs. Stowe, Miss Mortimer and others equally well known, upon the board of managers of the association. This was the plan adopted by Milwaukee college in its early days, and it is to the lament of the present board of trustees, the faculty, the pupils and the citizens of Milwau- kee, that it ever deviated. As the school met the requirements of the association, part of the promised endowment was paid, to the amount of $5,000, and the financial difficulties were abated for the time. Trouble, however, was imminent, and to fortify them- selves against it, the board of trustees was enlarged from nine to thirteen, the four new members being John W. Medbury, Alexander Mitchell, Eliphalet Cramer and R. N. Austin. The trouble was not long in coming; money as usual was lacking and money must be had, so it was raised by a mortgage, given to a produce dealer on Fourth and Walnut streets, who paid them $3,000 for a claim on the lot and buildings. This afforded temporary relief ; but it was not for long, for the carpenter came with a claim for materials, and the mechanics filed a lien, and matters went from bad to worse, sinking under the burden of debt that could not be alleviated. The following year saw every resource resorted to for raising money; scholarships were sold for $100 each, one- fourth paid down, the balance in one, two and three years, with an interest of ten per cent.; several subscribers to scholar- ships paid their notes before they became due, and at last all the judgments, carpenters and mechanics and all, were cleared up. The Baasen mortgage was not due, but the arrears in interest were so great that the mortgage was brought to ma- turity before its time expired, and the owner began to fore- close ; the college property was advertised for sale. What should be done? The citizens read the adver- tisement with dismay, they said it should never come to pass, MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 697 and a meeting was called lo see what should be done. Great enthusiasm prevailed, eloquent speakers pictured the situa- tion, told of the magnificent undertaking, of the disgrace of failure ; and the audience rose to the occasion, for when the subscription list had gone the rounds it showed a promise of nearly $11,000. The mortgage was paid. The treasurer's book showed 65 cents in money, S500 worth of stock in the Milwaukee & Mississippi railroad company, and $4,525 in subscription notes, payable at different times. In order to allow these notes to mature, four of the trustees gave their personal notes for 1,000 each, thereby founding a stock company. Stock was then issued at $25 a share and the pecuniary embarassment was relieved, the excitement sub- sided, and a note in the catalogue of that year says that the financial matters are in " the most prosperous condition." Meantime another important event had occurred ; the "Milwaukee normal institute and high school "no longer existed, for, contrary to the advice of the teachers, the name had been changed to " Milwaukee female college," and the new corporation was vested with the power to hold money, issue stock and carry on all business transactions that became necessary. The first certificate of four shares of stock was taken by Charles F. Ilsley, of Milwaukee. The new corpo- ration had two more trustees. The first catalogue of Mil- waukee female college was issued in 1853, with Miss Mary Mortimer as principal, and a roll of 252 pupils; it also re- cords the planting of 43 shade trees, 14 large ones and 29 small ones, which have now attained that grand height and luxuriant growth for which American trees are pre-eminent, and those that have not fallen prey to the axe in the triumph of their pride, now afford a grateful shade in the heat of summer and beautify the street, softening the lines of the old building. A newspaper notice of that time said that the institu- tion was fairly established, and destined to play an impor- tant part in the history of the city and state ; it was called by the value of the real estate and advance of stock, self-sus- taining, speaking quite at length upon its stability and use- fulness, and finally stating its greatest want to be a good boarding house. Since the days of the Oneida street school there had never been a boarding department connected with the col- lege, it being in the plan of Catherine Beecher to keep " crowded boarding houses " distinct from educational msti- G98 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. tutions, and pupils from out of town had found their own abodes, often in the same places with the teachers, more or less distant from the school. This plan did not suit Miss Mortimer, however, who year by year cherished the plan of attaching a home to the school, bringing all the girls together under a home influence; and even Miss Beech er yielded that point and would have been glad to see a home established which would savor in no way of a boarding house. In 1857, after five years' service as principal and nine years' con- nection with the school, Miss Mortimer, worn with men- tal and physical labors and anxiety, gave up her position, regretted by trustees and pupils, and was succeeded by Mary E. and Caroline E. Chapin. These two sisters remained six years, assisted the last two by Elizabeth Watson. Their success was hampered by the financial crisis of 1857, and the opening of the public high school, both of which causes materially crippled the college. During this time the standard fell so that Miss Beecher in a letter com- plained that the school was no more than a high school, car- ried on by one principal, instead of a faculty of equal im- portance, and it might as well be merged into the public school system. At the same time she offered $2,000 to relieve the financial trouble which again presented itself, which was refused probably on account of delicacy of feeling. At length the time came when the girls from other cities and towns, and from the country, were to have a home ; and after much correspondence between the association who was to furnish the money, and the trustees, and Miss Beecher, who was to take charge of the home, it rose to the height of two stories with a basement foundation. Miss Beecher never took charge of it, however, as she could not come to an understanding with the board ; and the new building was leased for five years to the Chapin sisters and Miss Watson, "to be used exclusively as a residence and boarding house for teachers and pupils, and for no other purpose." Although it had been hoped that the new building would be an impetus, it did not prove so, and the expendi- tures overreached the constantly decreasing income till debt again stared them in the face, but sixty students were enrolled in September, 1862. The lessees terminated their tenancy in June, 1863, and left Milwaukee college. MILWATKKE COLLEGE. 699 Again the educational association was asked for funds, again none came, and fears arose that the $5,000 already given might be considered forfeited by the departure from the college plan prescribed by the association and agreed upon by the board. This was, however, never required. Meanwhile a new proposition came from Samuel S. Sher- man, one of the trustees, to take the school, paying a small annual rental, and make it self-supporting, employ his own teachers, and set his charges for tuition and other details, thus relieving the board of responsibility, and eventually enabling them to pay the present indebtedness. After the recitations of their past discouragements, who shall blame them for yielding to this alluring plan, and quieting their consciences by the thought that it would be only a few years, and rest from anxiety would be so welcome ? And so it came to pass that the college that had started out with such noble purpose, like many a forlorn creature of this world, fell for want of the sustenance it needed. Prof. Sherman was perfectly competent to take charge of the school, for he had conducted a school of from 450 to 500 pupils, girls from the most cultivated and wealthiest families in the South, at Marion, Alabama, and had been a highly successful teacher. He was extremely popular there, and only left on account of the breaking out of the civil war, for being a New Englander his sympathies were hardly with secessionists. Coming to Milwaukee, his ability was at once appreciated, as the friends he made will always testify. He was of modest and retiring disposition, but his in- tellectual ability and business energy, unhampered by lack of means, built up Milwaukee college into a stronghold of learning, while his free hospitality, the warm welcome of his wife and family, and his own sociability, kept the doors of the school and home wide open and made of its rooms a delightful meeting place for the citizens, whether directly interested or not. To him is due the new life which now took hold, the pupils that poured in, and the money that came with them ; the standard was raised, and Milwaukee college was again pop- ular and flourishing. The sensitive nerves and firm pur- pose of Miss Beecher received such a shock at the news of these proceedings that she wrote a long letter and soon fol- lowed it to Milwaukee, offering every inducement if the board would but dismiss Mr. Sherman, and return to the old methods. Mr. Sherman expressed himself as agreeable to the 700 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. proposition, but the trustees refused it ; they were satisfied with the work that was being done and the manner of doing it ; but by the end of the third year of Mr. Sherman's incum- bency matters became so complicated between Miss Beech er, the board and the association, that he was glad to retire from what he termed " a short and not very brilliant episode " in his life. Compromises were made peaceably, and in accordance with an almost unanimous public sentiment, Miss Mortimer was recalled. But her recall did not mend matters, for she took the same terms upon herself that Mr. Sherman had agreed to, and paid $500 a year for three years' lease, with the privilege of three more if she so desired. Affairs were amicably settled between the board and the educational association, and all promised well ; the college was exempted from further interference from the association, and a partial return to the original plan of carrying on the in- stitution took place under Miss Mortimer. This was the last connection between the association and the college, the endowment was never furnished, and in 1878 the American Women's Educational association died with its founder, Catherine Beecher. Looking at the life of this earnest and intellectual woman one cannot but feel sadness at her unsuccessful end. Her noble nature, her high aims and indomitable will, her unselfish devotion to her cause, her energy and courage in overcoming obstacles, command our admiration, while we lament the lack of adaptability of her mind and plan to circumstances and influences. Her desire was to make of girls self-reliant, moral, intellectual women, and her plan was straight to the mark ; but she forgot that each girl is an individual, and each disposition requires a modification of any one design, that each one of us must live our own life as it lies before us. Yet the good she did will not be for- gotten, and the influence of her efforts will forever be felt among the women of the United States. The idea of a seminary was repugnant to the mind of Miss Mortimer, and with the authority with which she was vested under the terms of the lease she put the college upon its old basis, having a faculty of four teachers of equal authority ; and her first catalogue showed 296 pupils, the largest number ever in attendance at Milwaukee college. MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 701 More accommodation was required and an east wing was added to the body of the building, where were located the gymnasium in the second story, directly adjoining the study hall, and music-room and studio on the first floor. Miss Mortimer renewed her lease according to the former terms and took twenty shares of stock, which gave her large powers. She used these powers in placing three women upon the board of trustees, where not less than five have remained ever since. The next year, although there was a falling off of eighty pupils, the women of the city, stimulated by the sight of five women in the board, made an effort to clear the $3,000 mortgage taken out in 1865, but their efforts were of no avail, and not until the following year, under the wise policy of Prof. Farrar, was the debt paid. Miss Mortimer felt that her time of usefulness in the college was over, and accordingly tendered her resignation, which was received with deep regret by the entire commu- nity. Those who knew her personally love her, and seem as the years advance, increasingly to appreciate her beautiful character ; their faces light as they recount her many virtues and her tender, womanly nature. She seems not to have been the energetic, aggressive woman that Miss Beecher was, but rather to exert a quiet, uplifting influence, showing by her own life that gentleness will conquer when all the force of battle may fail. With her severance from the school her efforts did not cease, for she was most assiduous in trying to secure $10,000, which was to meet the immediate needs of the college ; and her contagious enthusiasm in spite of past discouragements made all her friends put their shoulders to the wheel, and the money was raised. Prof. Farrar had always been an object of Miss Morti- mer's admiration, and upon her resignation she recom- mended him to the board, and he was invited to pay Mil- waukee a visit. Charge of the school was offered him and he accepted, and the first year showed such good manage- ment, such enterprise and so much promise, that it was resolved to lease to the new president the entire property, real and personal, for ten years, free of rent, he being re- quired to pay all expenses, including repairs, taxes, assessments, insurance and interest on the mortgage of $2,000.00. 702 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. He was indeed given the entire control of the college, making his own terms of tuition, etc., adopting his own course of study, in fact, clothed with all the powers of a president in the ordinary college for men. Alas, Miss Beecher ! how far has this departed from your plan. Why could not the sunset of your life have been bright, and the reward of your labors gratified you ? Why must it be that the fruits should not be gathered till many years after your great spirit had found its rest? None shall say, but we look with fond hope to the future, trusting that the money still may be forthcoming, and your dreams shall be realized at last by those who, although they knew you not in life, still honor and love you for what you endeavored to do. Miss Mortimer retired from public life when Prof. Farrar was installed, and bought a home on Milwaukee river, where, with her many friends about her, she lived in peace. Her peace soon changed to everlasting rest, for in three years she died, at the age of sixty-one. Her interest in the school which she had labored for, and loved, never abated ; and although her methods failed, her influence exerted over 1,500 women was elevating and enduring, as is amply shown in the tributes to her memory which have never ceased, coming from the high and lowly, and especially from those who were members of the school when she was principal. The trustees passed resolutions to the effect that the college mourned the loss of one of its earliest, most loving and faithful friends, an able educator, a skillful teacher, and a noble Christian woman. Four years after her death the alumnae raised about $500 which they offered to the trustees to found a Mortimer library, stipulating that the trustees should furnish $35 annually for the purchase of new books to add to this me- morial library, and Prof. Farrar offered to pay the $35 as long as he remained president of the school. Shelving was given by Miss Mortimer's sister, and the library now contains over 600 volumes, including Miss Mortimer's be- quest of her own library. Later, however, the shelving was replaced, by the alum- nae, with oak book cases, and a crayon portrait of her whose memorial it was, was hung in the alcove above the books, while a mural tablet was placed by twelve graduates of Bar- aboo seminary, where Miss Mortimer went after her first work here in 1857, with this inscription : MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 703 MARY MORTIMER. A TRIBUTE OF AFFECTION FROM ALUMNAE AND TEACHERS OF BARABOO FEMALE SEMINARY. The most touching tributes came from those who were intimately associated with her, both from teachers and schol- ars. Their reminicsences seem to carry them out of them- COLLEGE LIBRARY AND MARY MORTIMER MEMORIAL LIBRARY. selves, and they seem almost again to be talking with her and allowing themselves to be led by this wise and powerful, yet gentle and unobtrusive little woman, and great lady, Mary Mortimer. Milwaukee's greatest monument is one of her own be- ginning. The " Woman's Club of Wisconsin " now stands a perpetual pride to the women of the city and state, indeed to all women, for it is the only club of any importance in 704 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. the United States, that is entirely governed by women, oc- cupying the halls of a club house, the entire business of which is done by women. The beginnings of this body were in the little home of Miss Mortimer, where she carried on a sort of salon, writing lectures and delivering them to those who could attend, on a sort of post-graduate scale, attempting to keep alive in the minds of women that desire for knowlege that springs into being in the last years of school life. The state of Wisconsin to-day claims possession of the tower of their rearing. Thus does the influence of an in- dividual go forth through generations to eternity. The first } r ears of the college under the management of Professor Farrar were marked by great changes and im- provements. Never for a moment did he think of himself, but entered into the work of building up a school which should be a power felt throughout the Northwest. The first year permanent improvements were made upon the school buildings ; the home was raised to three stories in height, there was a basement placed under the college building ; the extreme north and south wings were raised a story, to be on a level with the wings adjoining the body, to secure greater accommodations ; many conveniences were provided, and Professor Farrar spared no effort and no money to make it an ideal place for study. The number of students increased accordingly, num- bering the second year almost 200 and retaining an average of 250 for nine years after. A good school was supplied, and people were glad of the opportunity to send their daughters where they could learn the classics and languages, physical sciences and arts, natural philosophy, biology, botany, geology, and physiology practically applied, where they could see the realities in the specimens which Profes- sor Farrar amply provided. The teachers were of the best, cultured and refined, giving the pupils, especially the boarding pupils, the benefit of daily contact with good breeding, high moral principles and Christian example, as well as mental developments. Their experience rendered them accomplished instructors ; and there was not one who did not command the respect, admiration and love of the girls. The responsibility of the trustees was not, however, removed, for although they had a president of such ability, still the money they had raised during his first year had TOG MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. gradually slipped away until even the gift received from Mrs. J. H. Rogers, a lot in the Fourth ward, had to be sold to meet current expenses; and an emptiness of the treasury followed, which became chronic. Still Professor Farrar was never discouraged, and from his own purse, which was ever open, he added one good thing after another, far beyond the terms of the lease, never de- manding reimbursements nor, excepting in a few instances, hesitating to give the improvements outright to the college. The board would have had him more reserved, telling him that he would not receive the return of his outlay, but he was bent upon the success and fame of Milwaukee college at any expense, and for twelve years he did have a good reward. Money was to him a small consideration, it flowed like water. Twelve hundred dollars went for specimens to illus- trate lithology, mineralogy, zoology, geology and osteology, which were afterwards purchased by the board. Models and charts, and a full dissected manikin, were provided for the study of physiology, and the chemical laboratory was equip- ped. An addition was made 78 feet in length, where in the basement the primary scholars could have a play-room warmed by furnaces ; on the first floor the older girls could have a large hall for elocution and gymnastics ; and on the second story two large studios and a special room for experi- ments in optics could be obtained. All these expenses were borne principally by the presi- dent, although it was against the desire and purpose of the board of trustees. A few gifts came not in monqy but in improvements. The alumnae gave portraits of Mr. Otis H. Waldo, who for twenty years labored unceasingly as trustee, in behalf of the college, two years as president and four years as vice- president of the board, and whose wife and daughters had always held open house to the teachers and pupils, equally interested and loyal with him; also a portrait of Dr. Lapham. Dr. Lapham's reputation as a scientist, both in the United States and Europe, is too well-known to need even mentioning, and his connection with Milwaukee college is therefore a double honor and cause for gratification. He alone perhaps thoroughly understood the plan of Miss Beecher, and from the time he signed his name to the char- ter till his death in 1875, he served on the board of trustees, for many years its president and always a faithful and in- terested member. Through twenty-five years he hoped and MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 707 worked with tireless energy and fidelity; striving to estalish the college upon a firm foundation, giving his personal guid- ance to some of the excursions for investigation, which were frequently taken under Prof. Farrar; and many a pleasant hour has been spent by students in botany and geology, examining his beautiful specimens, some of which he after- wards gave to the college. Another gift that the college received in 1876 was a telescope " to meet all the practical and present needs of our students in astronomy," from Mr. Hiram Barber, of Horicon, Wisconsin, and an observatory constructed upon the college grounds by Mr. William P. McLaren, the present president of the board. The visitor to the college to-day will wander from hall to hall, from room to room looking in vain for all these val- uable acquisitions, and will ask where they are, what has become of them, thinking it extravagant policy that ever disposed of such equipments. Alas! the tale is soon told, the one word fire expresses it all ! Early in the morning of January 26, 1883, the smell of smoke pervaded the apart- ments of those near by, and before the flames could be ex- tinguished, irreparable damage had been done. Insurance could not cover the loss of the two portraits of Mr. Waldo and Mr. Lapham, the copy of Guido Reni's "Aurora" ob- tained by the alumnae at a cost of $300, through Miss Mor- timer, who brought it from Italy, and presented to the col- lege ; money could not replace the gift of specimens from Mr. Lapham, and money would never be raised again to restore even the things it could. Money did some things though, it put a fire-proof ceil- ing in the boiler room, it refitted the study hall and furn- ished additional room in the crowded boarding department, and replaced some of the damaged philosophical apparatus. Untiring vigilance has kept watch over the insurance pol- icies ever since. In 1886 Prof. Farrar submitted a proposal to the trus- tees to enlarge the home, which was altogether inadequate, promising it should be done at his own expense. The trus- tees disapproved of the plan, fearing that patronage would not warrant, it and endeavored to dissuade him, but he per- sisted ; and as the promise to pay all the expenses himself gave them no real ground for refusal, they finally gave their con- sent. The result was as they had feared ; as to inviting more pupils it had no such result, but the decrease in the more 708 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. advanced pupils was a small loss compared with that re- sulting from the taking out of the primary department by the trustees, whose object was to raise the minimum age of the school and enable the instructors to give more attention to higher grades of study. Two years later Prof. Farrar, no doubt discouraged with his poor success for the past four years, and the fifteen years spent in Milwaukee seeming to count for naught, pre- sented his resignation, to take effect at the close of the school year, 1888-9, which was accepted by the trustees. The average number of boarding students was upheld to the last, but the number of day scholars was decreasing year by year and the president would rather go than stay to see the idol of his hopes perish under his hand. Closely connected with a history of "Milwaukee col- lege" (its legitimate name since 1875) is a history of the "Ladies Art and Science Class" from which indeed it can- not be separated, for it was through Prof. Farrar that it had its being, and the weekly attendance to-day of two hundred or more women at the college hall, where it still holds its meetings, as well as the library connected with the college library, attest its relation. A year after Professor Farrar's entrance upon his duties in Milwaukee, eighteen years ago, seven women, headed by Mrs. C. D. Adsit, and including Mrs. Theodore Yates, Mrs. I. N. Dana, Mrs. Winfield Smith, Mrs. Follett, Mrs. H. R. Vedder and Mrs. A. C. May, applied to him to lead them in the study of chemistr}^. He gladly complied ; arid with their permission he advertised the class ; and fifty- three women attended that first course and enjoyed the lectures illustrated by experiments, so much that the following winter three courses were given, treating of cul- inary chemistry, pottery and porcelain, dyeing and printing. In the third winter twelve lectures in sculpture changed the " science class " into the "art and science class," its pres- ent name. Up to the end of the third year the class had no formal organization, the chair occupied by Mrs. Adsit carried on whatever business was necessary ; but when a new course \vas projected in Italian painting, it was proposed to organ- ize and, accordingly president, vice-president, and other officers were elected and it became a club. Illustration had been so prominent a feature hitherto that no one thought of dropping it, in fact it was adopted MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. 709 upon a larger scale, and large lanterns for throwing pictures on a screen twenty-two feet in length were purchased ; lan- tern slides were made from photographs procured by Prof. Farrar when he was in Europe, and the windows were sup- plied with opaque shades so that the pictures might be ex- hibited in the day time without the interference of light. These equipments were the personal property of Prof. Far- ART CLASS. rar and he still uses them in his classes, which he conducts now in other cities as well as in Milwaukee. Under the articles of organization it was ruled that all casts, pictures, books and other acquisitions which should be made by the class should become the permanent prop- erty of the college, subject always to their own use ; and a slight payment for the use of the college hall as a class room and the library as reading room was to be made weekly. 710 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. The project succeeded admirably and an evening class was formed in "Imaginary Travel" so that men as well as women might have the benefit of the research Prof. Farrar had made. The "ladies' art and science class" has year by year fol- lowed art in all its phases from one country to another, mak- ing every member feel that she has seen the very places and objects themselves. It will readily be seen what a power such a class would prove, rousing interest in what before was unknown by many of the listeners, and guiding the reading and thoughts of all who attended. After the class had existed for eight years it had in its possession so many books and art works that with Prof. Farrar it sought permission to extend the south wing of the main building which should supply the much needed library. Permission was granted, and the wing was erected at a cost of about $2,500, $1,800 of which was supplied by Professor Far- rar. The room is cozy and attractive, with its crackling grate fire throwing its luminous reflection on the rows of books which line the walls, beaming on the pictures and statuary, and playing with the sunshine which pours in through the windows. This year, 1893, has already seen a change in the art -class, it has " reached years of discretion," it has become in- corporated and stands henceforth upon its own feet ; but it is still the child of the college and it is not likely to be severed from it so long as it is possible to remain within its walls. Professor Farrar still conducts the class and probably will as long as he is able to do so. In 1889, as before stated, he terminated his tenancy of the college and took up his home in Chicago. His interest and love for the school had prompted him to spend nearly $14,000 in endeavors to place it beside the foremost colleges of the United States ; but for some unknown reason, he failed and his fortune, which should have supported his declining years, was never replaced by those within whose power it lay, only to the extent of a small amount, less than one-fourth the sum. He was succeeded by Charles R. Kingsley, who holds a lease for five years. Some four months after Professor Kingsley's accession the college was destined to come in contact with another as- sociation, not this time existing at a distance, but in the very MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. ' 711 midst even of the trustees, the Milwaukee College Endow- ment association, whose name indicates its purpose, and made up entirely of women, numbering at present nearly one hun- dred members. Looking over the sad history of this school some of Mil- waukee's strong and able women determined to proffer a helping hand, and if possible obtain that substantial endow- ment of which the college had always stood so much in need. In response to an invitation issued to the women of Mil- waukee to attend a meeting to consider the best methods of advancing the interests of Milwaukee college, twenty-two presented themselves at the " Athenaeum," December loth, 1890. The chairman was Mrs. Winfield Smith, and the sec- retary, Mrs. J. H. Warner. Mrs. Warner stated the object of the meeting to be that the women of Milwaukee should have an opportunity of banding themselves together to assist in raising an endow- ment fund, three gentlemen having subscribed the sum of $5,000 each, provided the amount should be raised to $50,000 by January 1st, 1892. Mrs. W. G. Fitch presented a plan which was not calcu- lated to raise any large sum of money, but by inducing women to become members, the " ball should be kept rolling," and people should be kept interested. The club was organized and officers elected, of whom Mrs. Fitch was president, and $2,500 was pledged within a few days. At the second meeting a more definite plan took form and a perfect and thorough organization took place. The society was not acting at all in opposition to the trustees, but desired to be a sort of right hand to that body and act entirely in accord with it. Money poured in with all the ease that it might do if it had been its custom, and before long so much had been given into the hands of the trustees that it was necessary to incor- porate, in order that the association might hold its own money and dictate its own terms. Seventy-five thousand dollars had come like magic ; $37,000 was bequeathed to the college by Mr. E. D. Holton, and many generous citizens gave various sums ranging up to $5,OOOJ It was proposed by Mrs. H. R. Vedder, who succeeded Mrs. Fitch as president, in January, 1892, that various chairs should be endowed, thus placing each department upon its own basis, beginning with a Mary Mortimer chair. 712 MILWAUKEE COLLEGE. Miss Beecher, is your shade rising again to direct us? Does not this plan savor of your own, a faculty of five shall have equal power and authority ? Shall it be, after all, as you desired ? The friends of Miss Mortimer are gladly giving large and small amounts as they desire, and not many years hence shall see a college in plan and detail with a generous endow- ment, sending forth such women as the world needs. The influence of the school has always been for the up- building of the character, toning down the roughness and polishing the whole till an evenly balanced mind, a womanly disposition and a Christian principle dominated every life. The Milwaukee College Endowment association, besides its quarterly and annual meetings, which the charter pro- vides for, holds monthly social and intellectual meetings, when bright women read bright papers, followed by open discussion of the subject, which show the interest that the members take. The many applications for membership reveal the influence that the society has inspired in the women of Milwaukee, who have ever been ready to be edu- cated and now show themselves equally ready to educate, if not in actual fact, at least in the example they set by their membership in this association. LILLIAN BACOX MALLORY. Layton Art Gallery. Among the many attractions of Milwaukee is one that is daily growing in interest and influence, the Layton art gallery. It stands upon the site formerly occupied by St. Paul's church, at the corner of Jefferson and Mason streets, and presents an inviting aspect to the passer-by. The building is of white stone, smooth-faced, and designed by Mr. E. T. Mix, after the style called Thompsonian Greek. It is a sin- gle story in height, being intended for pictures and statuary only, and the simplicity of the tall granite pillars and the delicate, graceful carving around the windows and cornices lend a dignified air to the building, which is not often seen. The floor plan is convenient and commodious, providing a hall for statuary and three large galleries for pictures, besides private rooms for the curator and one or two small rooms besides. The gallery was formally opened and presented to the city by Mr. Frederick Layton April 6th, 1887, and given into the control of twelve trustees, of whom Mr. Layton has always been president. An endowment of $100,000 accompanied the gift, so that pictures might be supplied from time to time without the necessity of waiting for special gifts from friends. A few paintings were immediately placed upon the walls, among them an oil portrait of Mr. Layton, painted by George Yewell, of New York, and presented by the subject ; and also a marble bust of the president, executed by Albano, of Florence, and the gift of Mr. Layton. Another bust of Mr. Layton was executed by Trentanove, of Florence, and presented to the gallery by Wallis and Son, of London. Mr. Layton is one of Milwaukee's oldest citizens, having come to the city in 1843. An Englishman by birth, he is thoroughly American in sympathy, and devoted to Milwau- kee from long and pleasant associations vvith her people. In 1845 he undertook the packing business with his father, and has maintained an untarnished business record and unsul- lied reputation ; and through him perhaps, more than any 713 714 LAYTON ART GALLERY. one person, has come the high standard that the provision trade of Milwaukee holds to-day, both at home and abroad. For eight years, from 1853 to 1861, he was associated with John Plankinton in the same business, while he still held his partnership in his father's firm. He is a man of quiet disposition, fond of travel and study, and his liberality has shown itself always in his private as well as his public life, finally culminating in his beautiful gift to the city. The five years of the life of this institution have shown how much such a place is needed and how much it is appre- ciated by those who come in contact with it. No new picture is given or bought that is not made the subject of conversa- tion, and of newspaper notice, and the question, " Have you seen the new picture at the Layton gallery ? " is one that greets one on all sides. Visitors to the city are glad to spend a part of their time within its walls, and artists enjoy the opportunity to study the works of some of the world's great- est living painters. Three days of every week the doors are open to the public, beside Sunday afternoon, when the rooms are filled with those whose week days are crowded and who enjoy a quiet hour in the company of art. Two days a week an admission of twenty-five cents is charged, to give the artists who go to copy pictures more freedom from intrusion. It was a long time, about four years after the opening of the gallery, before it was opened on Sunday ; but finally popular sentiment prevailed, and for two hours in winter and three in summer, the public is admitted Sunday after- noons. The large attendance every w T eek attests the appre- ciation of the citizens of Milwaukee and bears witness to the growing influence of the gallery. Milwaukee has not failed to give evidence of her gratitude for the generous gift of Mr. Layton, both to him personally and in following his example in gifts to the institution. After the city had for some time been the owner of Lay- ton art gallery, a number of leading citizens proposed a torch-light procession or some such public demonstration, in honor of Mr. Layton and as an expression of public grati- tude for his gift. But, with characteristic modesty and deli- cacy, he suggested that for this personal tribute there be substituted contributions for the purchase of a picture, say- ing that that would be an enduring testimony of their appre- ciation. The picture has not as yet been procured; but when the money is raised it will be purchased from Carl Marr, LAYTON ART GALLERY. 715 whom Milwaukee has the honor of claiming as a native, and who has expressed the pleasure he feels at being chosen to represent his fellow-citizens. To say that this gallery is the idol of Mr. Layton is to say no more than the truth. He loves it as only one who appreciates pictures is capable of doing, and in his trips to New York and across the ocean it seems never to leave his mind, for he rarely returns without some new addition to its treasures. Mr. Layton is often commissioned on behalf of other donors to make selections for the gallery, but more fre- quently the selection is his own gift. It would be impossible to mention the many gifts that have come with liberal hand from the men and women of Miwaukee, as well as some from other cities. They are all treasures of art, nothing but what is choice and rare adorns the walls. The attention of the visitor, as he enters the door of the corridor, is attracted by a picture hanging immediately oppo- site, on the east wall of the east gallery. It is the gift of Frederick Layton, bought from the Stewart collection, and the work of Wm. Adolphe Bouguereau, the subject, " Homer and His Guide." The picture is not in Bouguereau's usual style, although idealistic in subject ; the familiar Cupid and the delicate girl are not seen ; instead there is the powerful figure of the aged Homer, made helpless by his blindness, led by a half-grown boy through the wilderness. The colors are soft and the flesh such as only that master can paint, and the pathos of the subject is strongly brought out. Close to " Homer and His Guide " hangs a picture by Adolphe Schreyer, who is so famous for his Arabian horses. This is not perfectly characteristic of him, for, although the subject is horses, they are Wallachian post horses dashing along the road upon their errand. The idea is magnificently carried out and might make the artist famous were he not already without a rival in his line. He is now sixty-six years of age, but he continues to paint his beloved horses when his health will allow it. The " Wallachian Post Car- riza " is 77 by 46 inches and is the gift of Mr. Washington Becker. To the right hangs a canvas, 99 by 75 inches, presented by T. A. Chapman in 1891. It is quite characteristic of its painter, Ridgway Knight, and many a happy smile has overspread the spectator's face looking at the simple ship- 716 LAYTON ART GALLERY. herd boy and his two simpering girl visitors. His sheep are seen grazing at some distance, tended only by the dog, while he entertains his friends. Mr. Knight is an American artist, of whom his country- men are justly proud. He studied under Meissonier for a time during his long sojourn in Paris. He has four times taken a medal, twice at international expositions, and in 1889, the Legion of Honor. He loves to paint the peasant girls of Brittany, with their quaint faces and wooden shoes, and the simplicity of peasant life everywhere seems to touch him and is his favorite theme. A picture somewhat similar to that of Knight is one of nearly the same size, entitled " Minding the Flock," by Julien Dupre, a native of Paris, the gift of Edward Sanderson. The scene is laid, like the last mentioned, in Brittany, but the shepherd has no companion save his dog. t At the north end of the same room hangs a large canvas by Emile Van Marcke, a Frenchman, who studied under Troyon. " The Water Gate" was purchased at the Seney sale in New York, and given to the gallery by Mr. P. D. Armour, who, although living in Chicago, never forgets Milwaukee, where he got his start in life. Upon the opposite wall hangs " The Hospital Garden," by C. Frithjof Smith, presented by Mr. W. H. Metcalf, a trustee up to the time of his death. The scene depicted shows the old and young convalescents enjoying the sunshine and fresh air, a few in the foreground taking their lunch as they gossip and the children play together. " Sunday Afternoon," by Franz von Defregger, is the gift of Miss E. A. Plankinton ; and " The Cabaret," by Jules Dupre, that of Rev. David Keene, D. D., a trustee till his death. The Layton gallery is honored by the presence of Rosa Bonheur in a small piece, "Two Goats." They are not ordinary goats, but aristocratic mountain goats ; and only their heads timidly appear upon the canvas. It is needless to repeat her history how r she studied under her father and how she soon outstripped him in her genius, how she loved animal life and lived among her pets, how she rose from one dignity to an- other until she was decorated with the " Commander's Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella," how she was the first woman who ever wore the cross of the Legion of Honor ; all that is familiar to everybody, and it is necessary only to state that the gallery possesses a Rosa Bonheur and the world will know how rich a possession it is, LAYTON ART GALLERY. 717 Another valuable possession is "At the Opera Ball, 1792," by Charles Louis Muller, called Muller of Paris, from the city of his birth. He is an historical and portrait painter, and his principal work is the famous " Roll Call of the Last Victims of the Reign of Terror." A memorial of the late Edward P. Allis, given by his wife and daughters, hangs in the north room. It is a wood- gatherer with his child, painted by Jules Bastien-Lepage, the artist who figures so conspicuously in the journal of Marie Bashkirtsetf. His greatest work is the one so often mentioned in the Journal, "Joan of Arc," which is in the pos- session of the Metropolitan museum in New York city. The latest acquisition of the gallery is one by Munkacsy, entitled " In the Studio." It is in reality a portrait group of the artist, his wife and child ; but instead of the old-fashioned grouping he has followed the custom of to-day of appar- ently catching the subject of the picture in some every-day occupation, a snatch of his life and expression of his person- ality. This has been done in the picture just mentioned. Munkacsy has invited Madame to see and criticise his picture, which stands upon an easel partly finished, and she is ex- amining and talking about it, while he sits in critical thoughtfulness upon the table beside her. Their young daughter stands with her doll behind the easel, a picture by herself. This is by no means an exhaustive enumeration of the pictures in the gallery which are by famous artists, and there are many of little fame here represented whose names are destined to become great. To mention all who are worthy of praise would be to include the complete catalogue of theLayton gallery, which would be impossible in so short a sketch, and, indeed, words are small praise, the pictures must be seen to be appreciated. LILIAN BACON MALLORY. Index. Academies and seminaries, 7, 14, 16, 45, 197-226, 647-f >S5. Agricultural college, 34, 39-42, 104; experiment station, 40, 105; in- stitutes, 40, 106, 378-390. American Women's Educational Association, 694, 700. Appleton public schools, 537-540. Arbor day, 71, 601, 610, . Arena public schools, 593. Arcadia public schools, 575. Art and science class, 708. Attendance, statistics of, 1,24, 68. Attendance, compulsory, 1-3, 544. Baraboo public schools, 599, 611. Barneveld public schools, 593, 597. Barron county public schools, 632. Beloit college, 133-153. "Bennett law," 3. Bible case, Edgerton, 74. Black Hawk (town) public schools, 613. Black Hawk war, 11, 134. Blind, school for, 77, 333-347. Bloomington public schools, 582. Boscobel public schools. 582. Buffalo county public schools,628. Carroll college, 202-215 Catholic, education and institu- tions, 660-690; normal school, 249, 670 ; parochial schools, 660, 682 ;"of Green Bay, 476. Certificates, teachers'. 15, 601. Certificates, state, 51, 63. Clyde public schools, 593. Cobb public schools, 594. Co-education, 14, 38, 96, 100, 244. Colleges, normal instruction in, 45, 47, 129, 191, 239, 244-248, 251 ; special articles on, 117-196. Columbus day, 71, 475. Compulsory attendance, 1-3, 544. Concordia college, 651-658. Constitution of Wisconsin, adopt- ed, 19 ; introduced in schools, 70 ; provision for education, 22, 233. Cooking schools, 76, 454. Courses of study, 49, 59, 67. Curriculum required by constitu- tion, 67. Deaf, Catholic school for, 375; oral method for, 356-360 ; pub - lie day-schools for, 354-375, 455 ; text-books for, 373 ; Wisconsin school for, 322-332, 354. Dictionary .supplied to schools,70. Diplomas countersigned for state certificates, 51, 63. District libraries, 72; officers, 15, 55; schools, 15, 22; system, 54- 56; taxation, 56-57. Districts, joint, 55. Dodge ville public schools, 591-594. Dominican Sisters, 685, 689. Downer college, 197-201. Early schools in Wisconsin, 78- 82. Eau Claire public schools, 554-561. Edgerton Bible case, 74. English language, 3, 21, 67, 661. Evening schools, 75, 451-452. Examinations, teachers', 64, 65. Exhibits, educational,76, 448, 533, 610. Experiment station, agricultural, 40, 106. Extension, university, 43, 108, 391. Federal appropriations. 40; land grants, 10, 14, 22, 24, 29, 34, 38, 45, 89. Fines, penal, 22, 31. Flags, national. 71, 564. Florence public schools, 562-569. Fond du Lac public schools, 18, 66, 541-546. Foreign languages in public schools, 70. Forfeitures, accruing to state, 22, 30 ; of lands, 46. French settlers, 10, 79. Free high schools, 59-62 ; text books, 4. German language, in Milwaukee schools, 458-460. German -American teachers' sem- inary, 317-319. German-English Academy, 317. Government schools, 11, 82. Graded schools, 49, 58-60 ; course of study for, 59. Grant county schools, 578-584. Green Bay schools, 466^178. Harrisburg schools, 602. Hazel Green schools, 582. Highland schools, 594. High schools, 41, 58, 460 ; accred- ited to university, 60, 103 ; free, 59-62. " Hillside Home," 597. Historical society, state, 108, 392, 3U5-405. Independent cities, 55, 57, 68, 73. Indian schools, 11, 14, 78, 80-83. Industrial school, for boys, 6, 348; for girls, 6, 350; training, 75, 325, 339, 669. INDEX CONTINUED. 719 Institutes, teachers', 29, 44, 48-52, 110, 242, 294-3H4; farmers', 40, 106, 378. Institute conductors, 301. Instruction, ethical, 75 ; in Eng- lish language, 21, 67, 661 ; in foreign languages, 70 ; in his- tory of Wis. and U. S., 70 ; Jesuit methods of, 664 ; obliga- tory, 67 ; in physiology, 70 ; unsectarian, 14, 22, 74, 344, 361. Iowa county schools, 585-598. Janesville public schools, 524- 536. Jefferson public schools, 570-574; Liberal institute, 571. Jesuit methods of instruction, 664. Journal of Education, 430-434. Kemper Hall, 222-224. -Kenosha, free public school at, 17, 511-523. Kindergartens, 6, 49, 75, 283, 341, 456, 534, 565. 611. Ladies' art and science class, 708. Lancaster schools, 581. Lands, appraisal of, 23, 26,33, 90; commissioners of, 23, 28 ; do- nated by congress, 10, 14, 22, 24, 29, 34, 38, 45, 89 ; five per cent, of sales of, 22, 23, 30 ; forfeited, 46 ; frauds investigated, 27, 28 ; sales of, 24, 25, 34, 490 ; swamp, 28, 45-47, 250. Lawrence university, 1 17- 132. Layton art gallery, 713-717. Legislation, common schools, 13, 15, 28, 522 ; university, 13, 37,39. Library, association, state, 419; academy of arts and sciences, 407; Historical society, 108.401- 405 ; Milwaukee public, 422-427; University of Wisconsin, 112. Libraries, college, 421 ; district, 72. 464 ; free city, 413-421 ; school, 71-73, 410-412 ; for sub- scribers only, 421 ; statistics of, 420-421 ; township, 22, 72, 410. Linden public schools, 594. Lutheran schools, 597 : in Green Bay, 478 ; system in Wisconsin, 640-646. "Lutherische Schulzeitung," 644. Madison public schools, 479-495. Manual training. 76, 283, 317, 325, 455,461,539, 557. Marquette college, 662. Michigan school code, 13, 15 ; school lands, 26, 34, 90. Mifflin public schools, 595. Milton college, 1H9-196. Milwaukee college, 691-712. Milwaukee and Rock river canal, 20, 30. Milwaukee, early settlement, 19, 25; incorporation, 21, 440; li- brary, public, 422; museum, 428; normal school, 267, 447; public schools. 21, 436-465. Mineral Point schools, 585-591, 595. Moscow schools, 595. Museum, Milwaukee public, 428, Music in schools, 461 . National educational association. 66, 362. Normal department of state uni- versity, 37, 38, 45, 233-237, 243 ; in academies and colleges, 47, 129, 191, 239, 244; instruction for deaf, 359, 375, 668. Normal schools, 22, 43-51, 231-293, 319, 359, 375, 670; board of iv- gents, 239,244, 256; courses of study, 274-280; enrollment, 273 ; faculties, 261, 271, 287; fund, 29,47,50,249-256; graduates, 42, 51,63,264,285. North American gymnastic union, 319. Northwest territory, 9. Northwestern university, 647. Oral method for deaf, (see art. public schools for deaf). "Ordinance of 1787," 9, 134. Orphans' home, soldiers', 6. Oshkosh normal school, 263, 264. People's institute, 392. Phalanx, Wisconsin, 10, 154. Phonological institute, 355, 455. Physical culture, 343, 449. Pio Nono college, 670. Platteville academy, 579 ; normal school, 261 ; schools, 578. Polk county schools, 615-623. Population, school, 20, 24, 29, 68; of state, 10,11, 24,81. Prairie du Sac schools, 602, 613. Private schools, 8, 12, 22, 24, 58, 79. Publications, educational, 430, 644. Pulaski schools, 596. Racine public schools, 496 510. Reedsburg schools, 602, 612. Religious exercises, 74, 75. Ridgeway public school-, 596. Ripon college, 154-188. River Falls normal school, 265. St. Catherine's academy, 676. St. Clara's academy, G85. St. Croix county schools, 624-627. St. John's institute, 668. St. Lawrence college, 675. Salaries, principals, 65, 465; teach- ers, 65, 465. 549, 566; superin- tendents, 22, 53. Sank City schools, 600. 611. 720 INDEX CONTlNl'Ki). Sank county schools, 599-614. School administration, (57-71 ; dis- tricts, 15, 52, 55, 57 ; houses. 22, 33, 68-70, 81 ; laws, 13, 15, 28, 522; libraries, 71-73, 410-412 ; popu- lation, 20, 24, 29, 68 ; suffrage, 15, 16, 67 ; tax, 15, 21, 29, 32, 40, 56, 67. School for the blind, 5, 77, 333- 347 ; for deaf, 322-332, 354 ; of history and economics, 42, 107, 109; public, at Kenosha, 511- 528; state public, for neglected and dependent children, 6. School fund, apportionment, 15. 23, 24 32.. 588; constitutional provision for, 22 ; history, 23-33; investment of, 33, 35. Schools, Catholic, 374, 668 ; cook- ing, 76 ; day, for deaf, 5, 354-375, 454 ; for dependent classes, 5 ; early, in Wisconsin, 11, 13, 17, 18, 58, 78, 294. 436, 483, 513, 578, 602, 616 ; evening, 75, 474, 486 ; government, 11, 83 ; graded, 49, 58-60; high, 41, 58-62; inde- pendent city, 54, 57, 68,73 ; In- dian, 11, 14, 78, 80-83; manual training, 76 ; military post, 11, 81, 467, 469 ; mission, 11, 82, 470 ; in Milwaukee, 20, 436 ; normal, 43-51, 231-293, 319, 359, 375, 670; private, 8, 12, 22, 24, 58, 79, 467, 472, 485, 581, 600 ; summer, 40, 42, 109, 314, 393, 610, 622. Shawano county schools, 634. Sinsinawa Mound, 685. Sixteenth section, 10, 23, 26. Soldiers' orphans' home, 6. Speculation in territorial period, 25. Spring Green school, 613. State certificates, 51, 63 ; control of education, 7, 36, 38, 92, ii78 ; Historical society, 1(18, 392, 395- 405 ; library association, 419 ; school tax, 29, 32, 40 ; teachers' association, 44, 66, 240, 305-313. Summer schools, 40, 42, 109, 314, 393, 610, 622. Superintendent, city, 52, 54; coun- ty, 52, 53; state, 22, 51, 193; town, 51, 52, 617, 619. Supervision of schools, 51-54. Swamp land fund, 28, 45-47, 250- 256. Teachers' certificates, 15, 65, 601 ; institutes, 29, 44, 48, 52, 110, 242, 294-305, 610 ; qualifications, 62-66, 230, 565 ; salaries, 65, 465, 549, 566 ; summer schools, 40, 109, 314. Tf achers' Association, state, 44, 66, 305-313. Text books, 3, 373, 450, 487 ; com- mission to report on, 5. Town commissioners, 15, 18, 51 ; school libraries, 72 ; superin- tendents, 51, 62, 619. Township system, 56, 57, 567, 632. Truancy, 2. Trust funds, 23-33, 35,38-41, 45, 50. Uniformity in text books, 5. University school, Kenosha, 225. University of Wisconsin, athlet- ics, 114 ; attendance, 43 ; build- ings, 37-39, 92, 100, 114 ; co-edu- cation in, 38, 96, 100, 244 ; de- partments, 42, 104; degrees, 42, 111; elective studies, 110; en- dowment, 13, 39, 89 ; establish- ment, 13, 23, 36, 91 ; fund and income, 23,33-41, 88-93, 98, 100, 116 ; graduate department, 43, 108, 115; group system, 110; joint debates, 111 ; law school, 103 ; libraries, 112 ; literary so- cieties, 111 ; normal department, 37, 45, 233, 243; pedagogy at, 228; reorganization, 37-39, 96; school of history and econo- mics, 42, 107, 109 ; and state His- torical society, 403 ; synoptical lectures, 110. University extension, 43, 108-110, 391-394. Unsectarian instruction, 14, 22, 74, 344, 361. Waldwick schools, 597. War tax, direct, national, 30, 50. Waukesha public schools, 547- 553 Wayland academy, 216-222. "Whitewater normal school, 231, 262. Wisconsin, admitted as state, 19 ; settlement, 11, 35, 466, 479, 511 ; territory, 10 ; territorial period, 12-19. Wisconsin academy of arts and sciences, 406-409. Wisconsin Phalanx, 10, 154. Wisconsin phonological institute, 355, 455. Women, as teachers, 65; as county superintendents, 66, 626 ; wages of, 65. Women's club of Milwaukee, 703. Women's educational association, American, 694, 700. Wyoming schools, 597. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY V