MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 AND THEIR 
 
 YEHICLES 
 
 THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES CON- 
 SIDERED MAINLY FROM THE 
 PRACTICAL SIDE 
 
 AND 
 
 HOW TO MAKE TINTS FROM THEM 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK MAIRE 
 
 i \ 
 
 EX-EDITOK OF "PAINTING AND DECORATING," AUTHOR 
 
 OF THE "MODERN WOOD FINISHER," THE 
 
 "MODERN GRAINER" 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 FIRST THOUSAND 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS 
 LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 
 
 1908 
 
t 
 
 COPYKIOHT. 1907. 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK MAIRE 
 
 Stanbope 
 
 H. OILSON COMPANY 
 BOSTON, U. 8. A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IT is to be regretted that notwithstanding it is a matter 
 of prime importance that both dealers in painters' supplies 
 and users of the same the painters and decorators 
 should be well posted about the materials they handle, the 
 vast majority have but the faintest ideas concerning 
 the properties of pigments. One would naturally suppose 
 that dealers ought to know all about them, their values, 
 cost of production, qualities and defects. Without 
 such knowledge they cannot truthfully answer the 
 questions daily put to them. This ignorance has made 
 it possible for unscrupulous manufacturers to palm off 
 almost anything upon them. Every manufacturer and 
 dealer has been a law unto himself, each differing from 
 nearly everyone else in the trade. This lack of standards 
 was really due to the indifference caused by the lack of 
 knowledge on the part of both dealers and consumers. 
 It has enabled the unprincipled to fleece an unsuspecting 
 public out of millions of dollars. 
 
 Now that the public is being made fully aware of what 
 they buy in the way of food, and that the general govern- 
 ment and most of the states are working together in 
 enforcing laws which require manufacturers to state 
 upon labels placed upon packages an exact statement of 
 what they contain, it is to be hoped that the same pro- 
 tection will be extended to all other compounded material 
 in the paint line which is subject to adulteration. 
 
 The blame for adulteration does not rest upon the 
 shoulders of the manufacturers and dealers only. Igno- 
 
 iii 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 ranee of what constitutes the value of an article and a 
 desire on the part of consumers to obtain it at a cost 
 below what it is worth are also very strong factors 
 possibly the main ones why goods are adulterated at all. 
 Manufacturers and dealers would not undertake to 
 manufacture or sell material for which there would be no 
 demand. 
 
 The Master Painters' Association has done some 
 excellent work in past years to open the eyes of painters, 
 and through its efforts in showing up the rottenness in the 
 paint trade existing at the time of its inception a great 
 change for the better has been brought about. 
 
 The trade journals, however, have done even more 
 real good by bringing this work of the association to the 
 knowledge of thousands of those painters who are not 
 members of the association and who otherwise would 
 never have heard of it. Thanks to this agitation which 
 has been going on for the past eighteen years, the paint 
 situation is in a much healthier condition to-day. 
 Standards of quality are being established, and it is 
 possible to obtain colors dry, ground in oil, Japan or 
 water, which are exactly what the label represents them 
 to be. 
 
 It is not within the scope of this little book to go into 
 the detective business nor to make a specialty of exposing 
 the tricks of trade. Its purpose is to give a brief and 
 concise history of all valuable pigments useful in paint- 
 ing the main sources of their derivation and supply; 
 their properties and chief uses; their good qualities and 
 their defects will be pointed out and incidentally there 
 will be presented the best methods of detecting adultera- 
 tion. 
 
 While tons of literature have been issued by the trade 
 journals and in book form, very little has been written 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 upon pigments, and most of that has been in short sketches 
 and merely as a side issue to the main subject matter of 
 the volumes containing them. 
 
 Some excellent books on pigments have been published 
 in England and Germany. These were written by 
 chemists and are of use to manufacturers in particular. 
 They mainly treat what may be called the scientific side, 
 the practical being only treated incidentally or ignored 
 entirely. Of this character are such admirable works as 
 Field's Chromatography. Its high cost, even if it treated 
 pigments more fully from the consumer's viewpoint, 
 would prevent its purchase by the bulk of those who 
 otherwise would be interested in it and no doubt procure it. 
 
 It is impossible in as small a volume as this to enter 
 into the chemistry of pigments nor into some of the intri- 
 cate details of manufacture and preparations for use, 
 except in the briefest manner that will give the reader 
 a fair idea of its composition. This is about all that 
 painters or dealers require to know of the chemical side of 
 pigments. Additional details would be of no importance, 
 and none outside a manufacturer of colors would be 
 interested in them. This manual is written for the men 
 who use or sell pigments and who mainly want to know 
 what they can expect of them. 
 
 The author has made use of the best that has been said 
 upon the subject matter in the past. He has consulted 
 some of the best authorities and had access to nearly 
 everything that has been published on pigments, many of 
 these books being now out of print. He was also very 
 fortunate in that for a few years he had the pleasure of 
 having intercourse almost daily with the late lamented Wm. 
 C. Wilson of Philadelphia, who at that time was probably 
 the best posted man on pigments in America. The 
 information thus obtained has been largely drawn upon. 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 This little book will be of value to the young man who 
 is starting out to learn the painter's trade. It will 
 teach him what he ought to know about paints and 
 what he will never learn from the average journeyman 
 who is usually reticent and may very likely not know 
 enough about pigments to answer a novice's queries. 
 It will be useful to many painters who have never had 
 an opportunity to study the matter of pigments, except 
 in a haphazard sort of a way without system and with 
 much guess-work. As to the dealers, many of them are 
 druggists who have a fair knowledge of chemistry. 
 These will find the chemical details sufficient to give the 
 information that is wanted. Other dealers not so well 
 informed find also enough explanation to enable them 
 to know if they are buying the right goods or paying a 
 fair price. 
 
 It is probable that errors have crept in and will crop 
 out when this book comes out in print. Good care has 
 been taken that there be no glaring ones, but it is still 
 possible that some may inadvertently have been over- 
 looked. Be that as it may, infallibility is not claimed, 
 but the author has given out what he honestly thinks 
 is reliable. Such as it is, this little book is confidently 
 submitted to an indulgent public. 
 
 F. MAIRE. 
 
 HAMILTON, ILLINOIS. 
 Aug. 30, 1907. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE .... hi 
 
 PRELIMINARIES 
 
 Definition of the word " pigment." Some substances are real 
 pigments in water, but only so by courtesy in oil. Synopsis 
 of the manner in which the subject matter is to be treated in 
 succeeding chapters. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 WHITE PIGMENTS 8 
 
 Introduction. White lead, history, chemistry, and manu- 
 facture. Dutch process; stack method of corrosion, cylinder 
 method, sulphate of lead, sublimed lead. Dahl process; prop- 
 erties and uses. Blow pipe and other tests for impurities. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 WHITE PIGMENTS (Continued) 32 
 
 Zinc white; its history and chemistry, its properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 WHITE PIGMENTS (Continued) 40 
 
 Earth whites ; their general characteristics. Whiting (car- 
 bonate of lime) ; properties and uses. China clay (kaolin) ; 
 properties and uses. Gypsum (sulphate of lime) ; properties 
 and uses. Silicate earths; properties and uses. Silver 
 white; properties and uses. Baryta white (sulphate of 
 barium) ; properties and uses. 
 
 vii 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 PAGE 
 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS 57 
 
 Ochers; history and early use made of them, methods of 
 mining and preparing for market, divided into two classes, 
 the silicious and aluminous, various characteristics, proper- 
 ties and uses of each. Grinding colors in shops, no econo- 
 my therein. American ochers; their properties and uses. 
 Artificially made ochers. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS (Continued) 73 
 
 The chrome yellows ; their various tones. Medium chrome 
 yellow, only the chromate of lead. Canary and lemon chrome 
 yellows. Baryta lemon chrome yellow ; characteristics, . 
 properties and uses. Adulterations; how to detect them. 
 
 Comparisons and the judging of values by the scale test. 
 Full directions for making it. Useful for many other colors. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS (Continued) 86 
 
 Gamboge; production, properties and uses. Aureolin or cobalt 
 yellow; properties and uses. Indian yellow; properties and 
 uses. Naples yellow; production, properties and uses. 
 Dutch pink, yellow lake, Italian pink, quercitron, etc.; pro- 
 perties and uses. Cadmium yellow ; properties and uses. 
 King's yellow or orpiment; properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 RED PIGMENTS 95 
 
 Vermilion. Quick silver vermilion; its history, chemistry 
 and manufacture ; properties and uses, adulteration. The 
 imitation or vermilion reds ; peculiarities, properties and uses. 
 
 American vermilion; properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 RED PIGMENTS (Continued} 106 
 
 Venetian red; history and manufacture, characteristics, proper- 
 ties and uses. Indian reds; characteristics, properties and 
 uses. Tuscan reds ; properties and uses. Red oxide of iron ; 
 characteristics, properties and uses. 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RED PIGMENTS (Continued.') 116 
 
 Red lead; its chemistry and manufacture, properties and 
 uses. Lakes; what they are. Alizarin and purpurin; their 
 uses in the manufacture of lakes. Rose pink; properties and 
 uses. Rose lake; properties and uses. Madder lakes; 
 include all shades and varieties of red lakes made from alizarin 
 and purpurin, many sold under proprietary names. 
 Indian lake; properties and uses. Carmine and the cochineal 
 lakes; characteristics, properties and uses. Red ochers; what 
 they are. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 GREEN PIGMENTS 129 
 
 Chrome greens; composition, properties and uses. All greens 
 under proprietary names are chrome greens. Green oxide of 
 chromium, true chrome green; properties and uses. Cobalt 
 green or zinc green; preparation, properties and uses. Viri- 
 dian; properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 GREEN PIGMENTS (Continued) 139 
 
 Terre verte; properties and uses. Verdigris; derivation, proper- 
 ties and uses. Paris or emerald green; chemistry, properties 
 and uses. Malachite; properties and uses. Scheele's green; 
 properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 BLUE PIGMENTS 145 
 
 Ultramarine blue; history, character, properties and uses. 
 Prussian blue; chemical constituents, preparation, properties 
 and uses. Chinese (Prussian) soluble blue; properties and 
 uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 BLUE PIGMENTS (Continued) 152 
 
 Cobalt blue; preparation, properties and uses. The artificially 
 prepared cobalt blue. Cceruleum ; properties and uses. 
 Chessylite; properties and uses. Smalt; properties and uses. 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BROWN PIGMENTS 156 
 
 Umbers. Raw umber; characteristics, properties and uses. 
 Burnt umber; properties and uses. Siennas. Raw sienna; 
 where obtained, preparation, properties and uses. Burnt 
 sienna; properties and uses. Vandyke brown; properties and 
 uses. The metallic browns; provenance, properties and 
 uses. Spanish brown; properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 BLACK PIGMENTS 170 
 
 Lamp black; characteristics, manufacture, properties and uses. 
 Carbon or gas black; properties and uses. Ivory black. 
 Coach black. Drop black. One and the same ; preparation, 
 properties and uses. Charcoal black or blue black ; properties 
 and uses. Graphite or plumbago; properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 SYNONYMS 181 
 
 A table to facilitate the finding of pigments known under various 
 names. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 VEHICLES USED IN GRINDING PIGMENTS AND IN APPLYING THEM 189 
 
 What vehicles are. Raw linseed oil. What a drying oil is. 
 What a fixed oil is. The only ones of use for exposed paint- 
 ing. The provenance of linseed oil ; its manufacture and 
 preparation for use. How linseed oil dries ; its proper- 
 ties. Boiled linseed oil; its properties. Nitric acid and 
 other tests for impurities. Poppyseed oil; characteristics, 
 properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 VEHICLES (Continued) 206 
 
 The volatile oils; what they are; their properties and uses 
 in paint vehicles. Spirits of turpentine; how obtained; its 
 diuretic properties. Naphtha and benzine; properties and 
 uses. All volatile oils solvent of gum-resins used as such in 
 varnish making. 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 VEHICLES (Continued) 211 
 
 Varnishes, japans and alcoholic shellac solutions. Varnishes; 
 what they are; their properties and uses as binders and vehi- 
 cles. Japans;' some confusion as to what they are; their use 
 as vehicles, driers, alcoholic shellac solutions; properties and 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 SUBSTANCES USED AS CORRECTIVES AND BINDERS 217 
 
 Waxes. Beeswax used in encaustic painting in earliest civiliza- 
 tion. The vegetable waxes. The paraffin waxes. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 SUBSTANCES USED TO BIND PIGMENTS IN CONNECTION WITH 
 
 VEHICLES 220 
 
 Glues; manufacture, properties and uses. Gum arabic; prove- 
 nance, properties and uses. Starch, dextrin, honey, sugar, 
 molasses and glycerine. Their properties and uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 DRIERS AND SICCATIVES 229 
 
 Boiled linseed oil as a siccative; properties and uses. The lead 
 oxides ; the oxides of manganese. Acetate of lead. Sulphate 
 of zinc. Their action upon linseed oil and other fixed oils 
 considered. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 THE COMPOUNDING OF PIGMENTS ..." 235 
 
 Philosophy of color. Rules to guide one in the compounding 
 of tints. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL TINTS AND OF PIGMENTS REQUIRED 
 
 TO MAKE THEM 243 
 
 A few cautionary words followed by the list of tints. 
 
F THE " \ 
 
 UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 OF / 
 
 MODERN PIGMENTS AND THEIR VEHICLES 
 THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PRELIMINARIES 
 
 IN subsequent chapters it is intended to take up a study 
 of the various pigments which are used in ordinary 
 painting, as well as those employed by decorators for 
 either distemper or oil painting; those used by coach 
 and car painters will also be reviewed. The whole field 
 will be covered, with possibly the exception of a few pig- 
 ments which have become obsolete, and which have been 
 replaced by better ones. 
 
 The vehicles which are used in the application of pig- 
 ments will also be noticed, as in some respects they are 
 really of more importance than the pigments themselves. 
 Binding substances and correctives will also be described, 
 and their character and uses noted. 
 
 The word " pigment " is applied to coloring substances 
 which, when mixed with suitable vehicles, form paints. It 
 means " color," the word " color " being used indifferently 
 to mean a compound of various pigments, or a pigment 
 which has been ground ready for use; the various pig- 
 ments put up in cans and found for sale at the supply 
 stores are commonly known by that name. No matter 
 
 1 
 
2 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 what medium has been used in the grinding of pigments, 
 be it linseed oil, japan, varnish, or water, all are known 
 as " colors" either simple or compounded. The word 
 "pigment" is therefore much more restricted than 
 that of " color." 
 
 Strange as it may appear, this word has not yet 
 received its final definition. It is vaguely applied 
 to designate any substance that may be used in the 
 preparation of paint, fillers used in wood finishing, 
 etc. It is given to any solid substance used in com- 
 pounds, and is replacing that word in paint parlance 
 at least. 
 
 Strictly speaking, the name of pigment should never 
 be given to any substance unless it has the inherent 
 power of its own to impart color to other substances with 
 which it may be mixed. Originally it was used in this 
 strict sense only, and it should be so restricted. As it is 
 now, the adjunct substances possessing no coloring matter 
 of their own which are usually added to true pigments 
 with no other purpose in view than that of adding weight 
 without changing the original color of the pigments in 
 combination, are all called pigments too. It is a mis- 
 nomer. Possessing no coloring matter, the makeweights 
 are certainly not entitled to the name. 
 
 Correctives sometimes useful adjuncts to a pigment 
 are frequently of the same colorless character as the 
 makeweights, and therefore not entitled to be classed 
 with them. To illustrate exactly what is meant, the 
 following example is given: Starch and glue are solid 
 substances, but after they have been converted into thin 
 paste by the addition of hot water they are colorless, and 
 when they have been mixed with whiting or zinc or any 
 "colors," a distemper color has been prepared of which 
 either may form a component part, though not as a pig- 
 
PRELIMINARIES 3 
 
 ment ; the addition does not change the color of the com- 
 pound in the least. 
 
 Here is another example: Liquid fillers, and fillers for 
 the light hard woods, contain some transparent solid sub- 
 stance, such as very finely ground silex, quartz, etc.; the 
 manufacturer in his pamphlets calls it the pigment part of 
 the filler. He uses it in this connection actually in place 
 of the word "solid." This is wrong, and befogs the real 
 meaning of the word, which originally seemed admirably 
 adapted to express the thought of coloring matter. 
 
 By courtesy some few substances will be designated as 
 pigments that do not possess any coloring matter of their 
 own to impart to other materials with which they are 
 mixed. For instance, barytes has no coloring matter to 
 impart to other pigments ground with it in oil or japan, 
 but when used alone in water it has a white color. Several 
 such substances which do not deserve to be classed as colors 
 when mixed in oil, have coloring when mixed with water; 
 and to save a double definition of them, the term " pig- 
 ment," which is applicable to them when in water but 
 which would not apply when mixed in oil, is nevertheless 
 retained in this instance, but to which they are really 
 no more entitled than is starch or glue. For similar 
 reasons, carbonate of lime (whiting), sulphate of lime 
 (gypsum) , finely powdered silicate stone or earths (silver 
 white or English kalsomine), will also be included in the 
 list of pigments, for they are properly so called when in 
 water (if not in oil). 
 
 To facilitate the search of any particular pigment, so 
 that they can be readily found without even taking the 
 trouble to look them up in the index, these have been 
 placed in groups of the principal colors, and all pigments 
 of that tone or order will be found under the proper 
 heading in the class to which they belong. The principal 
 
4 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 pigment, or that which is mostly used, will be placed at the 
 head of the list, and others will follow in the order of 
 their usefulness. 
 
 Under each will be given, as far as practicable, a brief 
 historical sketch of its origin and derivation, its manu- 
 facture and preparation for market, its properties and 
 uses, the best and easiest methods of detection if subject 
 to adulteration, the enumeration of other substances 
 which are injurious and with which it should never be 
 combined, and, lastly, any other points of especial interest. 
 
 It was stated in the preface that it was not within the 
 scope of this book to treat the subject matter "pigments " 
 from the standpoint of the chemist or color-maker, and 
 reasons were given why; but the chemistry of most all the 
 pigment will at least be briefly noticed simply the 
 giving of their component parts, or, where they have a 
 recognized formula, the giving of that. In a few of the 
 better known ones, a full enumeration of their constituent 
 elements will be given, as this is frequently an index as to 
 their character; but when the desirability for this occurs, 
 it will be done in a way that can be understood by those 
 not familiar with chemistry, and in words as free of 
 technical expressions as possible. A person needs not to 
 be a chemist nor familiar with that science to understand 
 a great deal of what constitutes the chemistry of paint; 
 good common sense will go a long way with the reader 
 to enable him to recognize the true from the false. 
 
 The researches and experiments made in the field of 
 color by eminent scientists within the last century 
 many by men of the greatest ability, and who were guided 
 more by a love of attaining knowledge than with the 
 monetary inducements have made the task of writing 
 up " pigments " a comparatively easy one. The author 
 cannot claim a great amount of originality, nor has he 
 
PRELIMINARIES 5 
 
 made any great discovery himself, so that what he has 
 to say is none of his finding out, nor is it the first time 
 that it has appeared in print. The present treatise is, in 
 the main, one of compilation and arrangement. Nearly 
 half a century of practical handling of pigments, and 
 experimenting with them in paint factories and in the 
 ordinary practice of the paint shop, have helped him 
 form some decided opinions about the application and 
 mixing of most pigments, and upon this fund of knowl- 
 edge the writer has drawn freely and without stint, 
 and it is embodied in this treatise with that of others. 
 
 A good knowledge of the properties of pigments is 
 imperatively demanded of any one who wishes to be up 
 in the paint business, either as a dealer or user. There 
 is much to be learned about the proper mixing of pig- 
 ments and about vehicles suitable for the various pur- 
 poses: the future has a fine field for research in that 
 direction, for we do not know it all by long odds, and there 
 remains much to be revealed at some time or another. 
 Much of what is known now is not of such a character 
 that one can absolutely rely upon it; hence so many 
 opinions which are diametrically opposed to each other 
 about the preparation or application of the simplest of 
 mixtures. Humiliating as it may be to one who has 
 made a lifetime study of the paint business, the truth 
 requires and compels one to acknowledge as much as 
 appears above, for what now passes as orthodox in many 
 good paint shops, will be classed as rank heresy in others 
 of equally good repute. Therefore it is only by a thorough 
 and intimate knowledge of pigments, vehicles, and con- 
 ditions that any one can hope to grope to half-way 
 certainty in sundry instances, and to a fuller one in a very 
 few others. If it is so hard to get at the truth for those 
 who are constantly studying, what must the practice be 
 
6 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 of those who do not study? Assuredly they can have 
 nothing but routine and guesswork. 
 
 There is much to be learned, all are agreed upon that. 
 Chemists in the employ of paint manufacturers, and 
 others who are inclined to researches in the same direction, 
 usually make these their life hobbies; but as it is com- 
 monly on the side from their regular work, they are 
 somewhat hampered ; but every once in a while one hits 
 upon some process or other which is beneficial and help- 
 ful in the manner of fixing the coloring matter contained 
 in certain pigments more permanently than was ever 
 done before, or indeed it may be the discovery of entirely 
 new ones. Much has been done, but much still remains 
 to be done by the chemists. On the practical side, 
 however, there is still a great deal to be learned ; and here 
 is work for the thinking painters, and also for the asso- 
 ciations of master painters, who can do a great deal of 
 good by bringing together those who, while they differ 
 in opinions, can compare results, and thus aid in getting 
 at true solutions of vexatious questions. 
 
 Many important discoveries of the chemists were 
 prompted by suggestions made to them by the tests of 
 practical men. Theoretical chemists and practical men 
 generally cannot afford to work aloof from each other. 
 Either one without the help of the other is more or less 
 of a failure. Theory must be proved by practical tests 
 to be right. Many chemists are too apt to belittle the 
 value of suggestions made by well-posted painters, and 
 to regard them too much in the light of useful machines 
 for the proper application of paint. There can be little 
 wonder that many of their compounds and discoveries 
 of new preparations prove of no practical value. The 
 Patent Office at Washington, D.C., is a cemetery where 
 thousands of inventions in the paint line lie buried, 
 
PRELIMINARIES 7 
 
 unknown and undisturbed, simply because of their 
 impracticability. 
 
 On the other hand, the painter too often looks at the 
 researches of scientific men with a sneer and turns up his 
 nose at them. All would find it advantageous to study 
 the writings, and make use of the information they would 
 find in them, of such men as Chevreuil, G. Field, L. E. 
 Andes, J. Lefort, A. H. Church, and many others. Unfor- 
 tunately, some of these men's works are now out of 
 print, and are to be found only in a few of the larger 
 public libraries. 
 
 The German language is richer with valuable scientific 
 works on pigments than is the English, but these are 
 very expensive, and mainly of interest to men well up in 
 chemistry. It is hoped that translations of some of their 
 best works may be made, adapted to the popular 
 understanding. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 WHITE PIGMENTS 
 
 As it was stated in the preceding chapter, to facilitate 
 the search for any one given pigment, all have been 
 classed into groups of certain colors, and within each 
 will be found all which belong to it by being nearer in 
 tone than to any other group. It is fitting to commence 
 with the whites, as this group is the most important of 
 all. The whites are not only important to the painter 
 on account of its " self " color and the one self color 
 mostly used in painting, and rightly so on account of 
 cleanly tone and brightening effect, but also because the 
 whites form the base upon which nearly all tints are 
 made by the addition of colored pigments. 
 
 The ideal white pigment, is probably present to the aver- 
 age painter's mind, but the realization of it, as yet, has 
 been far from the ideal one. Every practical user of paint 
 who has given much thought to it, has some such ideal 
 pigment mapped out in his head. He has ideas of what 
 it should be like, all good qualities, with none bad, 
 but when he goes out among the realities of life and looks, 
 he does not find it. His ideal white pigment is to be found 
 only in his mind. A feeble portion of the good qualities 
 desired in a white are to be found unassociated with some 
 very bad ones in any one white pigment. In actual 
 practice it turns out that for every good quality shown, 
 there will be found a counterbalancing defect which 
 will prove a thorn in the flesh. 
 
 8 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 9 
 
 The above is written for the purpose of preparing the 
 reader for the defects which are found in all the most 
 prominent white pigments, and also to guard him against 
 over-confidence or extravagant expectations from the 
 use of any. 
 
 WHITE LEAD 
 History 
 
 White lead is the most prominent and best known 
 of any of the white pigments on the list. There are few 
 persons to be found, even outside of those connected with 
 the paint trade, but who are not more or less familiar with 
 or at least have heard of it in some way. Mankind has 
 known white lead a long time. It is of very ancient 
 antecedents. That the oldest civilizations knew it, is 
 evidenced by the remains of their pottery the. glazing 
 upon it being obtainable only by the use of white lead. 
 Such Latin writers as Pliny and Vitruvius give the 
 process of its manufacture from lead and vinegar. It 
 was then known under various names, some of which 
 have come down to our own times, and which are used 
 to designate it to-day. For instance, "Cerusa, minium 
 album " in Continental Europe is still known as ceruse 
 and white minium. Recent excavations have brought 
 to light a number of well-preserved specimens of white 
 lead which show that it must have been an article of 
 common use in ancient Greece and Egypt. 
 
 The above details are given because many people 
 suppose white lead to be a comparatively new dis- 
 covery, or at best dating back but a few centuries. It 
 is true, however, that only a little over two hundred 
 years have elapsed since white lead commenced to be 
 manufactured on a large scale by what is known as the 
 
10 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 "Dutch Process." Really, the principles of that system 
 are the same as those described by Pliny, the only dif- 
 ference being that a different application of the same is 
 made use of in the Dutch process. 
 
 While Holland has the honor of having given its name 
 to the process that is usually employed in the manufacture 
 of white lead to-day, that is, no doubt, due to the fact 
 that it was in that country that were made the first efforts 
 to manufacture it on a large scale in Europe. It had no 
 monopoly of it, for it was not long before manufactories of 
 it were to be found scattered in many European countries. 
 Factories were started in Germany, France, and England 
 not very far behind. Some of these brands of white lead 
 soon attained a high degree of excellence, and have 
 come down to our own times, their names being still 
 used to designate some very fine qualities, such as 
 Cremnitz white, for instance, which was manufactured in 
 the city of Crems in Germany. Not within the past 
 hundred years has there been any white lead manu- 
 factured there, but the name still exists, the lead usually 
 sold under that name being a flake white. So much, then, 
 for good quality; for tradition still preserves it, and per- 
 sists in handing a name down to us more than a century 
 after the original had ceased to be made. 
 
 The Dutch Process 
 
 The "Dutch process" of corrosion has been handed 
 down to us with but few changes from what it was in 
 its primitive days. These changes consist only in more 
 sensible labor-saving devices for handling the various 
 materials used in the manufacture of white lead. 
 
 Before going into the description of the manufacture of 
 white lead by the "Dutch process," it will be best under- 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 11 
 
 stood if its composition be well studied; therefore the 
 chemistry of white lead will now be given. 
 
 The component parts of white lead vary somewhat in 
 the several specimens of it. { It is sometimes erroneously 
 called a carbonate of lead, but that it is not; at least, it is 
 not a pure one. If it was, it would be of little value as a 
 pigment, or rather its value would be greatly lessened. 
 Really, it is a combination of lead carbonate and lead 
 hydrate; the latter is what gives the saponifying and 
 binding properties. This hydrate of lead should be 
 present in the proportion of 30 to 35 per cent, and the 
 carbonate should enter the combination in the propor- 
 tion of 65 to 70 per cent. Lead hydrate has the property 
 of counteracting the chalking tendency of the carbonate, 
 but it has the drawback of rendering white lead less 
 opaque or more transparent. White lead should there- 
 fore in round numbers have two thirds of its weight of 
 carbonate of lead and one third of it the hydrate. Its 
 formula is 2PbCO 3 . 
 
 The usual process employed in the manufacture of 
 white lead is what is known as the stack system of the so- 
 called Dutch process, which name in reality simply stands 
 for the chemical process producing the corrosion of the 
 lead metal by the agency of dilute acetic acid fumes, 
 carbonic acid, hydrogen, oxygen, and heat. The exact 
 manner of conversion of the metal into a carbonate is very 
 imperfectly understood even at this late day by chemists, 
 who in their conclusions merely guess at it with more or 
 less plausibility in their theories. It would seem that 
 first of all it is converted into an acetate of lead, but as it 
 has more affinity for carbonic acid than it has for the 
 acetic, that it is transformed into that. As to the "how " 
 and "when," this is now clouded in mystery, and it still 
 remains for some one to satisfactorily explain. 
 
12 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 The metallic lead used in the manufacture of white 
 lead should be soft and free from antimony, silver, or 
 any other impurity. If any of them are present in an 
 appreciable quantity the corroded lead will not be so 
 white and will also be specky. There are large refining 
 plants in the United States. The largest in the world 
 is located in Newark, N.J., where metallic lead is 
 desilvered at low cost, the silver obtained usually paying 
 the cost of . processing it. This desilvered metal makes 
 the whitest lead. Spanish lead used to be employed by 
 some of the eastern corroders, but what with the duties, 
 its scarcity and increased cost, it is now but little used. 
 Some is employed in making the finer qualities of flake 
 white; it makes a dense, and therefore more opaque, 
 white lead. 
 
 The pig lead the large and heavy bars of metallic 
 lead as they come from the smelters is melted into what 
 in corroder's parlance are called buckles. These buckles 
 are thin, perforated, circular plates of lead, and are about 
 one-sixteenth of an inch thick. The disk-like buckles are 
 placed in porous clay jars. These jars have projecting 
 knobs on the inside upon which the buckles rest. These 
 projections serve the purpose of separating the buckles 
 from each other in the jar. This allows a circulation of 
 air, heat and of the gaseous attacks of acetic acid vapor 
 reaching every part of the buckles, as it can ascend from 
 one to the other through the perforations. There is also 
 a large space left empty at the bottom of the jar into which 
 is poured dilute acetic acid of the strength of vinegar. As 
 vinegar owes what value it has as a corroding agent 
 to the acetic acid it contains, one can readily see that the 
 claim made by some corroders that they use actual 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 13 
 
 vinegar instead of dilute acetic acid, and making for this 
 a point of superiority, is all " bosh." It is very doubtful 
 if any corroder actually uses the vinegar of commerce, 
 notwithstanding the claims made. 
 
 After the jars have been filled with buckles to nearly 
 the tops, they are put into the " stack." To be more 
 accurate, the jars are placed upon the floor of the stack 
 in rows, and are filled from a large box containing buckles 
 of lead which come from the melting room and shaping 
 machine, and placed there in these boxes, which are 
 carried to the corroding stack houses on an overhead 
 railway which takes them wherever wanted, and from 
 which they can be raised and lowered at will. After all 
 the jars in the tier have been filled, the dilute acetic acid 
 is fed to each jar from a hose in short order. 
 
 The stacks themselves are compartments inside the 
 corroding houses. They are boarded up, and extend 
 from the ground floor to the upper one, which is the work- 
 ing floor. The diagram will give an idea of the arrange- 
 ment. The corroding buildings may be of any length 
 with any number or size of stacks inside of them. Many 
 of the big corroding plants have a number of corroding 
 houses. Some of the stacks inside of the same building 
 may be idle or in many of the different stages of corrosion, 
 each stack being independent of the one next to it. Thus 
 one can see in the same corroding house, one or more 
 stacks being filled up with buckles and jars, others 
 engaged in the corrosion process, while others again are 
 being emptied and cleaned out. It was stated that the 
 corroding agent was dilute acetic acid of the strength of 
 vinegar, but that without heat would produce an acetate 
 of lead only. So heat must be generated and carbonic 
 acid must be developed. To produce both of these, the 
 corroder uses spent tan bark, stable manure, or a com- 
 
14 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 bination of both. Most people have seen how the market 
 gardeners generate heat in their hot-beds in the coldest 
 weather by using stable manure; the process is the same 
 that the corroder employs. A layer of this material is 
 first placed upon the ground floor of the stack, and 
 leveled up, and a layer of jars placed upon it. Upon the 
 jars a layer of boards is placed to keep out the next 
 layer of manure which is placed upon the boards, then 
 another of jars, then of boards, then of manure again, 
 and this is repeated over and o.ver until the stack has been 
 filled nearly to the level of the working alley above. 
 
 Each one of the layers in the stack has a chimney of 
 its own. This chimney consists of four boards nailed 
 together, and reaches to the top of the stack and acts as 
 an indicator to what is going on at each tier. The chim- 
 neys are kept open or shut according to requirements. 
 
 The heat generated by the tan bark and manure 
 vaporizes the acetic acid in the jars, and then the process 
 of corrosion goes on until all the acid has been evaporated 
 and all the heat has been spent. It usually takes from 
 75 to 90 days to accomplish this, and when it has ex- 
 hausted itself the layers are ready to take down. During 
 the generation of heat, carbonic acid is produced, and it 
 is from this source that it is supplied to the lead. 
 
 The pots when taken down are emptied into large 
 revolving cylinders which separate the white lead from 
 any that remains uncorroded. The white lead is after- 
 wards washed through several waters to free it from any 
 acetate of lead or from free acetic acid that may be pres- 
 ent with it. Acetate of lead is entirely soluble in water, 
 and can thus be readily gotten rid of. 
 
 The lead is then ground in water to free it still further 
 from any acetate remaining, and finally filtered through 
 a fine silk cloth which catches any specks of tan or 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 15 
 
 manure that may have found their way into the pots and 
 that the numerous washings of the lead have not removed. 
 
 The white lead is now run into large vats, where it is 
 allowed to settle. The "pulp/' as the mass of settled 
 lead is called, is taken to the drying pans, which are in a 
 separate chamber built for that purpose. This chamber 
 is fitted with steam pipes all around it, so that a very hot 
 atmosphere can be maintained until the lead in the pans 
 as the large, low vats are called into which the pulp is 
 placed is bone dry. ' 
 
 The lead is then crushed, and it is ready to sell, either 
 as dry lead for grinding with oil as white lead, or for 
 pottery use and the making of queensware and some 
 varieties of chinaware. Lead ground in oil is the only 
 form in which the painters usually see it. 
 
 To grind white lead in oil, the dry lead is first mixed 
 with the quantity of linseed oil necessary to grind it, 
 say about nine pounds and a half of oil to the hundred- 
 weight of dry lead. It is first triturated in revolving 
 mixers, from which it is carried mechanically to the 
 grinding mills proper, where it is ground either double or 
 single. The double mills pass the lead from the first to 
 the second without manual labor. 
 
 The speed at which the mills are made to revolve 
 during the grinding, and the lesser or greater amount of 
 heat developed consequently by that speed, make the 
 ground lead paste either tough and stringy in texture, or 
 else short and soft. The white lead itself has nothing 
 to do with it, as many erroneously suppose. From the 
 same batch of dry lead, the grinder can turn out either 
 kind or any intermediary degree between the two extremes 
 simply by adjusting the speed of his mills. 
 
 White lead after grinding undergoes some mechanical 
 change in its atoms, but the change is not a chemical 
 
16 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 one. It should be perfectly cooled before it is packaged. 
 Many manufacturers put it in large, tank-like kettles, 
 which are surrounded with water. This makes the lead 
 more unctuous, and gives it better working qualities. 
 Lead so cooled will not harden in the packages, which 
 sometimes happens when it is run directly from the 
 grinding mills into them. 
 
 It was stated in the previous paragraph that lead 
 acquires smoothness and better working qualities when 
 it has been properly ripened in large masses before pack- 
 ing. Few manufacturers give it time enough for the 
 process to become completed; all are in a hurry to turn 
 over the product into money, and four to six months' 
 extra waiting is hard on them after all the time which 
 has been required since the pig lead was melted. 
 
 There is another system of grinding white lead, which 
 is known as the "Pulp Process." The manufacturers call 
 it, pulp ground, but in reality the lead is not ground at 
 all that is, it receives no other grinding than that which 
 it received when it was ground with water previous to its 
 becoming pulp. In that condition it is certainly finer 
 than it is possible or rather practicable to grind the 
 crushed bone-dry lead in linseed oil by many repeated 
 grindings in the mills. 
 
 The wet "pulped " lead is run through presses by some; 
 but nearly all manufacturers who make a "pulp ground" 
 lead, withdraw the pulp as soon as it has settled down 
 from the water, and take it direct to a " chaser." 
 
 A chaser is a circular, low-sided vat, in which revolves 
 a heavy roller. This roller crushes and mixes liquids and 
 solids together into an homogeneous mass. Chasers are 
 used in preparing putty, etc. 
 
 White lead has a great affinity for linseed oil ; for water 
 it has none at all. The pulped lead having been placed 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 17 
 
 in the chaser, linseed oil is poured on it and the machinery 
 is set to work; the lead, having more affinity for the oil, 
 absorbs it, and the water is squeezed out by the weighty 
 roller, a way of escape being provided for it, and in a 
 short time it becomes displaced by the linseed oil which 
 has been absorbed in its stead. 
 
 There is no question about the fineness of pulp lead 
 if it has been properly ground before pulping it, nor can 
 there be any about its whiteness. Many have consider- 
 able doubts about the possibility of extracting all the 
 water out of the lead. Some well-posted men claim that 
 three to five per cent of it remain; others again put these 
 figures still higher. 
 
 Practical painters who have used pulp-ground lead 
 for years say that it has acted no better nor no worse than 
 other leads ground in the usual way. All, however, are 
 not a unit in this testimony, and some claim that it 
 chalks more readily. A person will be on the safe side if 
 slow in adopting its use exclusively, but should proceed 
 slowly in coming to a conclusion. By using it side by 
 side with the old kinds, and noting its action, in time 
 he may decide for or against its adoption. All things 
 being equal, pulped lead has some good points in its 
 favor,~ but time only, and lots of it, will decide its universal 
 adoption. 
 
 There seem to be very little and surely no material 
 differences in the methods of corroding lead used by the 
 lead manufacturers, excepting possibly that some few 
 have more mechanical labor-saving devices than the rest. 
 Few improvements have been made other than those 
 mentioned, and those mainly since the introduction of 
 steam and other motive powers which have replaced 
 animal and human energy wherever it was found practi- 
 cable. 
 
18 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 To sum up the Dutch process of corroding white lead 
 in as few words as possible, it amounts to this: It is the 
 corrosion of metallic lead by aid of acetic acid, carbonic 
 acid, oxygen, and hydrogen. 
 
 When it was said in preceding paragraphs that there 
 have been no improvements to speak of in the manu- 
 facture of lead by the Dutch process, this was meant in so 
 far as the original application of the principle and of the 
 system carried " on by the Dutch and other European 
 corroders of the long ago, the stack method. 
 
 There is a new way of applying the same principles and 
 agents of corrosion used in the Dutch process. Manu- 
 facturers who corrode lead in the new way, claim that 
 they produce a white lead which has absolutely the same 
 chemical composition as that produced by the stack 
 system, that its atomic formation is the same, that its 
 working qualities are the same and in some respects 
 better, in short, that it is the same. 
 
 It is not intended to pass an opinion upon the claims 
 made by these gentlemen, nor to certify to their verity. 
 What is here said must not be construed into an unquali- 
 fied indorsement of them. They have some strong 
 cards in their hands, and they seem to understand how 
 to play them. That their system of corrosion saves 
 much time and many manipulations, cannot be gainsaid; 
 that it appeals to the intellect as being more progressive 
 than the other, is also true. It gives the manufacturers a 
 more perfect control of the action of the corroding 
 agents in the process of corrosion, thus placing them in 
 a position to make more uniform products. 
 
 Several manufacturers representing millions of capital 
 have been corroding by the cylinder system for the past 
 twenty -five years; others are adopting it in America and 
 European countries. In the United States some two or 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 19 
 
 three factories using that system have a very large out- 
 put. The practical men, the painters who use it, are 
 seemingly well satisfied, so it looks very much as if the 
 system had passed out of the experimental stage and that 
 it was going to remain with us. 
 
 This cylinder method is very simple and easily under- 
 stood. To all intents and purposes other than the 
 manner of making the white lead it is entitled to have 
 its product called " Dutch process " white lead as well 
 as that produced by the stack system if the 
 proposition laid down in a former paragraph be the 
 correct one. It is repeated below in a shorter form: 
 That the name " Dutch process" stands for lead 
 corroded by the agency of acetic and carbonic acids, 
 oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
 The operations for the corroding of lead by the cylinder 
 system are few. In the first place, the pig lead is melted 
 and poured in a stream against which a jet of steam is 
 made to play. This pulverizes the lead into fine, sandlike 
 particles. This lead sand is placed in revolving cylinders 
 connected with generators wherein acetic acid and car- 
 bonic acid gases or vapors are evolved, and hydrogen and 
 oxygen supplied to the cylinders at will, the supply 
 being regulated so that correct proportions of each will 
 be available during the period of corrosion. 
 
 The particles of lead sand, being so very small, are 
 quickly acted upon by the corroding agents, as the slowly 
 revolving cylinders keep this fine sand in constant com- 
 motion so that no part of it can remain unexposed to the 
 direct action of the attacking vapors, the particles con- 
 stantly changing their location and presenting new 
 faces to their attacks. Thus in a few days is accom- 
 plished what would have required months by the older 
 system. 
 
20 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 The cylinder system excels the stack system in more 
 ways than one. The corrosion is more perfectly done, and 
 there remains but a very small percentage of " blue " 
 lead as the uncorroded lead is called compared 
 with the other system. To all intents and purposes, it 
 might be called a complete corrosion. 
 
 As most of the condemnation of the white lead produced 
 by the cylinder system can usually be traced to those 
 financially interested in the white lead produced by the 
 older system, one should take such statements with the 
 allowance of a grain of salt, and discount them to their 
 just values. 
 
 It is presumable that poor lead can be and is produced 
 by both the stack or cylinder systems; and again, that 
 good lead can be made by both. If a lead is perfectly 
 white, fine, free of surplus moisture other than that which 
 chemically belongs to it; if it has good opacity and 
 excellent working qualities, we need have no hesitation 
 in using it whether it has been made by one or the other 
 method. 
 
 Properties of White Lead 
 
 White lead stands head and shoulders above any other 
 white pigment in so far as opacity or covering proper- 
 ties are concerned when ground in oil or japan. Con- 
 sequently it is used more than any of the others; in fact, 
 much more than all the others put together several times 
 over. Its working qualities under the brush are superior 
 to any others, this being caused by the white lead com- 
 bining chemically with the linseed oil and forming a 
 linoleate lead soap which works freely and smoothly 
 under the brush, enabling the painter to apply it evenly 
 with a minimum amount of labor. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 21 
 
 It is not alone useful as a white pigment for painting 
 surfaces in its own or self color, but it is used to even a 
 larger extent as a base upon which all the lighter tints 
 are made by addition of coloring matter. 
 
 Were it not for a few defects, white lead would certainly 
 be the ideal white pigment instead of being only the most 
 useful one. It has already been hinted that a lead which 
 contains too much hydrate of lead in its composition 
 would be somewhat deficient in opacity, and that if it 
 contained very much more than two thirds of the car- 
 bonate it would be likely to chalk badly, or worse 
 than the ordinary. No matter what the proportions of 
 hydrate and carbonate the white lead may have in its 
 composition, in time it will chalk if exposed to the action 
 of the elements. 
 
 In the best leads the process of disintegration (for 
 that is what chalking means) commences in about one 
 or two years after its application, usually in an inappre- 
 ciative manner, and continues until in time one can rub it 
 off the building by simply passing the hand over it. As 
 stated, this chalking is very gradual and hardly notice- 
 able at first. The chalking can be hastened or retarded 
 somewhat by the improper or proper use made of the 
 binding vehicle; also by the improper or proper admixture 
 of other pigments. 
 
 White lead is a good drier of linseed oil, and requires 
 but a very small admixture of artificial driers to hasten 
 its drying; and out of doors, excepting in cold or wet 
 weather, none are needed. Driers seem to kill the elasti- 
 city of linseed oil, and to hasten its decay, so that when 
 used at all in connection with white lead, it should be 
 done with very modest doses. 
 
 Only raw linseed oil should be used with white lead for 
 outside painting. The raw oil is much more elastic and 
 
22 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 penetrating than the boiled, nor will the chalking com- 
 mence as soon when it has been employed than it would 
 otherwise. 
 
 The greater the quantity of raw linseed oil that can 
 be incorporated with the lead and make it cover fairly, 
 the longer the time before chalking will begin. It stands 
 to reason, therefore, that as a small proportion of volatile 
 oils should be used in outdoor painting in addition to 
 raw linseed oil as will accomplish the legitimate end in 
 using it at all, i.e., of rendering the paint more fluid and 
 of making it set more quickly. The above applies with 
 even greater force to the last or finishing coat, where 
 volatile oils should be dispensed with entirely wherever 
 possible to do so. It is somewhat harder work to 
 properly spread paint so mixed, that is admitted, 
 but it can be done. White lead seldom chalks upon 
 inside work that is not exposed to the weather, and what 
 has just been said is not applicable to indoor painting. 
 
 White lead is injuriously acted upon by the action of 
 sulphureted hydrogen vapors, which will quickly turn 
 it black. That gas converts it into the black sulphide of 
 lead. This will sometimes occur m a single night, there- 
 fore its use should never be resorted to in localities where 
 this gas is likely to develop. 
 
 There is one grade of white lead which is best known as 
 flake white. It differs in no wise from ordinary lead 
 excepting in that it is a selected white lead. The flakes 
 which drop off the buckles corroded by the stack system, 
 have given it the name. This outer covering of the 
 buckles is superior in opacity to that from which the 
 flakes fell off and which comes next to the core or uncor- 
 roded lead that is more imperfectly corroded, and which 
 in ordinary lead is averaged with the flakes and forms the 
 white lead of commerce. Therefore flake white desig- 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 23 
 
 nates a quality of white lead of superior corrosion and 
 which possesses extra good body. 
 
 The same objectionable features enumerated as apper- 
 taining to ordinary white lead, apply to this with as 
 much force. It is used mainly by decorators and sign 
 painters for striping in car shops and carriage factories, 
 for coaches, buses and wagons, in fact, wherever an 
 extra good-bodied lead is demanded. 
 
 Every nation has its own system of packaging, grading 
 qualities and marketing white lead, therefore one will not 
 find the same rules nor trade customs in the United States 
 as prevail in the United Kingdom, nor upon the continent 
 of Europe. 
 
 In the United States an unwritten law has developed 
 which says that upon all packages on the label of which 
 the manufacturer's name is placed and the words 
 " Strictly Pure" are used that the contents of the 
 package are free of any adulterating material and 
 contain nothing but pure white lead ground in pure 
 linseed oil. 
 
 It is, however, true that some jobbers mark some fake 
 leads as strictly pure, which are far from being so and which 
 are adulterated to the bitter end; but then, they withhold 
 from them their own names and adopt some flaring name 
 or label which misleads no one aside from the unsophisti- 
 cated and ruralists who wish to buy pure lead at half its 
 market value. 
 
 So if a lead package put up in the -United States bears 
 no corroder's name nor the legend " Strictly Pure" upon 
 it, one may take an oath and swear that its contents are 
 adulterated. He can do so without ever having seen an 
 analysis of it, and without the least fear of committing 
 perjury. None such is pure. It is an adulterated lead, 
 or what is known as a compound lead. 
 
24 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is not within the province of this treatise to enter 
 into an endless review of the merits or demerits of com- 
 pounded leads, nor of the superiority and better wearing 
 qualities claimed for them by their manufacturers over 
 that of the strictly pure. 
 
 There can be little doubt, that proper combinations of 
 other pigments with white lead are beneficial for many 
 purposes. The painter should be well enough posted to 
 do this compounding himself to suit the particular job 
 upon which the compound is to be used. Certain com- 
 pounds or combinations of pigments are better adapted 
 to sundry conditions than they are to any other; and no 
 ready-prepared compound, even when honestly made 
 after a uniform formula, is likely to meet his requirements 
 fully in this regard, however good it may be for the right 
 place. 
 
 A man well posted upon the various qualities and 
 defects of the white pigments should be able to pick out 
 the proper corrective ones to combine with white lead to 
 suit any job. If it be old, open or spongy, it certainly will 
 require to be treated differently from a surface which is 
 close or non-absorbing. 
 
 There are, no doubt, very good lead compounds upon 
 the market which will give desirable results for painting 
 under certain conditions to which they are admirably 
 adapted, but which will cause some trouble and always 
 mortification elsewhere. As a rule, there is no real 
 advantage to be gained from their use. They are not 
 as economical as those similar in composition and com- 
 pounded at the shop from strictly pure white lead and 
 other correctives bought as such. 
 
 Barytes, or the native barium sulphate (heavy spar), 
 plays an important function as an adulterant of white 
 lead ; for that matter, it does in the adulteration of nearly 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 25 
 
 all other pigments. But it is preeminently adapted as 
 a makeweight for white lead: its heavy weight comes 
 nearest of any other to that of white lead. Its trans- 
 parency, too, in oil is another reason why that substance 
 is so well adapted for the purpose of its or any pigment's 
 adulteration, because it will not discolor them. More 
 will be said regarding barytes under its proper heading, 
 and the reader is referred there for the particular details 
 and characteristics belonging to that pigment. The one 
 object why it was entered into here is because it was 
 necessary to point out the main source of adulteration in 
 connection with the "off brands" of white lead as are 
 best known and called all brands of lead that are not 
 strictly pure. Compound leads which are sold as such, 
 are not included in the "off brands," but are known in 
 the trade as "compounds." 
 
 Compound leads are not necessarily adulterated leads, 
 because in the first place they do not claim to be strictly 
 pure lead. They are legitimate articles of commerce, 
 and stand upon their own merits. Painters buy them 
 with a full knowledge of what they are, and from having 
 had some previous experience with them, which in some 
 instances has been well paid for. 
 
 The same substances which may be used in a legitimate 
 way in a compound lead, and of whose presence the buyer 
 is well aware, may be and are rightly called adulterants 
 when combined with lead which the purchaser is led to 
 suppose is pure white lead. 
 
 For this reason, gypsum, china clay, carbonate 
 of lime, or even the sulphate of lead, which are all 
 used in the adulteration of white lead, are not such 
 when the purchaser buys a compound lead, as the 
 attempt is not made to parade them as something which 
 they are not. 
 
26 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 LEAD SULPHATE 
 
 This lead salt is never sold under that name in the 
 supply stores. It is only within a comparatively short 
 time that it has come to be talked about in connection 
 with paint or mixtures of paint. 
 
 It is a by-product of several industries, and until lately 
 it has had but little commercial value other than that 
 which inherently belongs to it, as, if it could be 
 reduced to its metallic form, it would be worth the price 
 of metallic lead less the cost of conversion, which is 
 expensive. 
 
 It can be readily made by simply adding sulphuric 
 acid to the solution of a lead salt; then it becomes^ pre- 
 cipitated as a white powder which is insoluble in water 
 and absolutely so in alcohol. 
 
 Its insolubility makes it non-poisonous. If it pos- 
 sessed a good body, or, in other Words, had it more opa- 
 city, it would be a very, desirable pigment^ It is not as 
 pure toned a white when ground in oil as is white lead. 
 It is not readily affected by the vapors of sulphureted 
 hydrogen. Its chemical formula is PbSO 4 . 
 
 Sulphate of lead is never used alone as a pigment, but 
 as an adjunct to some brands of white lead, and largely 
 so in ready-mixed paints. Its chief use in paint mate- 
 rial manufacture is for such grinders as put out a brand 
 of white lead which they mark as strictly pure. It 
 enables them to place a product upon the market for 
 which they can vouch as strictly pure lead, but is no 
 more entitled to be so called than sugar of lead would 
 be. When sold as "strictly pure" lead, sulphate of lead 
 is as much entitled to be called an adulterant as barytes, 
 other substances which have no business to be 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 27 
 
 It is used advantageously in color making such as the 
 lemon or canary chrome yellow but in the above they 
 are really the result of the use of sulphuric acid in 
 the making of the color, and not because they are placed 
 there. 
 
 SUBLIMED LEAD 
 
 Sublimed lead is a certain form of sulphate of lead 
 which is obtained by sublimation in Southwestern Mis- 
 souri, and to which much of what was said of sulphate 
 of lead proper does not apply. While it is still somewhat 
 deficient in opacity as compared with hydro-carbonate 
 white lead, it comes next to it in that respect, and is 
 used extensively by mixed-paint manufacturers in pre- 
 paring those goods. 
 
 It is basic sulphate of lead; contains about one fifth 
 of lead oxide and about five per cent of zinc oxide the 
 ores from which it is made containing zinc in combination 
 with the lead. It is sublimed in a manner somewhat 
 similar to that described under tne heading of Zinc White. 
 
 One property entitling it to consideration is its non- 
 poisonous character. Another good point is that being 
 an oxysulphate of lead it is not subject to turning black 
 by sulphureted hydrogen gases, and is so extremely fine 
 that it does not settle readily in an oily vehicle. It is 
 also very white when mixed in oil, which cannot be said 
 of sulphate of lead. 
 
 DAHL PROCESS WHITE LEAD 
 
 This form of lead pigment is obtained by precipitation. 
 By a modified method of manufacture, it is much superior 
 to the product obtained originally. In this modified 
 process it is first reduced to a downy or feathery state, 
 after which it is placed in stationary tanks where it is sub- 
 
28 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 jected to the action of dilute acetic acid which converts 
 it into a basic acetate of lead. The solution is subjected 
 to the action of a stream of carbonic acid, which, as already 
 said, lead having more affinity for it than it has for acetic 
 acid, combines with it, and is precipitated in the form of 
 basic carbonate of lead. 
 
 It differs from Dutch and similar process leads in that 
 instead of being crystalline it is amorphous in its par- 
 ticles. It therefore does not possess quite so much 
 opacity, but is a greater absorbent of linseed oil. Natu- 
 rally from its amorphousness it is very fine, and runs 
 uniform in composition. It is, however, too soon to form 
 a decided opinion of its merits, whatever it may present 
 theoretically. 
 
 WHITE OXIDE OF LEAD. 
 
 Periodically somebody or other discovers or rather 
 thinks he does something new in a white pigment of 
 lead derivation which in his estimation is sure to 
 displace the hydrate oxide of lead, and that his discovery 
 is sure to fill the "long felt want" of a pigment one 
 that is white, non-poisonous, not injured by noxious 
 gases, and for which they claim a string of virtues too good 
 to be true and too numerous to mention. These great 
 discoverers appear as regularly as the seventeen-year 
 locust, and the wreckage of the last of them is hardly 
 cleared away before somebody else turns up ready to 
 launch out a new venture which proves similar to the 
 ones which have gone before; but as it is launched 
 out under a new name, it takes a little time before it is 
 recognized. 
 
 It seems that some people will never learn that oxides 
 of lead all have the property of solidifying into a hard 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 29 
 
 mass inside of the package containing them in the shape 
 of a ground paste, if ground with linseed oil. Yet one 
 after another of the discoverers seems to be able to enlist 
 men with capital to back their foolish ventures, and men 
 of good business capacity and caution in other respects 
 try to accomplish the impossible i.e., grinding lead 
 oxides with linseed oil. 
 
 The white oxide, the monoxide (litharge), the bioxide 
 (red lead), the teroxide (orange mineral), all have the 
 same peculiarity of solidifying in time when ground in 
 linseed oil. When the retailers who are not posted, have 
 keg after keg returned to them after a few months 
 with occasionally a claim for damages it proves to be 
 the beginning of the end for " oxide of lead " in that 
 locality. 
 
 Some in sheer desperation have gone so far as to grind 
 it in soft linseed oil soap, as, when ground in that, it 
 remains in a smooth, soft paste; but, as one could readily 
 expect, it is soon found out and the " jig is up." The 
 history of defunct concerns in this connection would make 
 good reading on short-sightedness for the rising generation. 
 
 There have been, and some firms are to-day trying, 
 experiments with other salts and forms of lead. Time 
 may prove some of value; none so far have any claim 
 to superiority over the old hydrate-carbonate. All as 
 yet have so many defects that the very grave ones 
 admitted as belonging to white lead look small compared 
 with them. 
 
 The Blowpipe Test 
 
 Adulteration in white lead and many other forms of 
 lead is readily detected by the use of the blowpipe. 
 This simple test is within reach of every paint dealer or 
 painter. It is simple and easily made: A piece of soft 
 charcoal, such as is made from willow, to lay the lead upon, 
 
30 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 an ordinary candle or spirit lamp, and a blowpipe. This 
 is simply a small metal tube curved at the end. The* 
 curved end has a very small aperture, and that is placed 
 against the flame of the candle while the operator blows 
 in the other end of it; this throws a stream of blue flame 
 from the candle to the charcoal, or to that part of it 
 rather where the lead is laid upon it, the operator holding 
 the piece of charcoal in his left hand. The blowing 
 should be regular and steady, and in a minute or two 
 at most the oil will be burned out, and the white lead 
 will be converted into a blue lead globule. 
 
 If it has been adulterated with lead sulphate, barytes 
 or whiting, china clay, etc., the lead cannot be reduced 
 to a metallic state by any amount of blowing. There 
 will be a mass of dry white, yellowish or grayish color 
 according to the adulterant, but no lead will show up. 
 As small a percentage as 10 per cent of adulteration 
 mixed with the lead will prevent its reducing; as no 
 lead is ever adulterated with such a small percentage 
 as . that, there will be no difficulty in finding it with the 
 blowpipe. 
 
 If the adulterant is sulphate of lead, it can be found by 
 the great difficulty of its reduction; few men can use the 
 blowpipe steady or long enough so to reduce it, as it 
 takes much more heat to do so. That form of it men- 
 tioned as sublimed lead is practically irreducible by the 
 blowpipe; it takes over 1200 F. So one may look with 
 suspicion upon any white lead that does not readily 
 reduce in two minutes. 
 
 One can form a good idea of the purity of lead by putting 
 a little of the lead paste upon a sliver of pine wood, and 
 burning a match or two underneath it. If it is pure, little 
 globules of metallic lead will appear in the paste, which 
 will not be the case if the lead is impure. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 31 
 
 The blowpipe test is valuable only to test the purity 
 of hyd-oxi-carbonate of lead the white lead of com- 
 merce. It will not apply to many of the white salts of 
 that metal, as some fuse only at extreme temperatures 
 or by the use of fluxes which none but experienced men 
 can conduct successfully. 
 
 The present tendency in some quarters to recognize as 
 " white lead/' in a commercial way, the basic sulphate 
 of lead or sublimed lead would of course nullify the test; 
 but why, if, as claimed, oxy-sulphate of lead is superior 
 to Dutch process hyd-oxi-carbonate the standard white 
 lead of commerce should it seek to shelter itself under 
 the name adopted for an entirely different pigment? 
 
 Will it not be better for both to retain their present 
 designations which have a definite meaning, and if sub- 
 limed lead proves itself the superior, it should be entitled 
 to a distinctive name by which purchasers can purchase 
 it with a certainty that it has not been adulterated with 
 Dutch process lead, and it should not seek to shelter itself 
 under its time-honored appellation? 
 
 The above is written not as a disparagement or as an 
 indorsement of one or the other forms of leads, but in 
 hope of saving the white lead and sublimed lead indus- 
 tries from future confusion, whereas now the two are 
 distinctly known and recognizable under their commercial 
 cognomen. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 WHITE PIGMENTS (Continued') 
 ZINC WHITE 
 History 
 
 V / 
 
 ZINC WHITE as a pigment is of much more recent origin 
 than that of white lead, and does not date back much 
 farther than threescore and ten years. It was known 
 before that, and it had been used in water colors a few 
 years previously. As an oil pigment, however, it may be 
 called a recent one. It would in all likelihood have been 
 used for years before it was, but for the difficulty en- 
 countered in making it dry properly; and writers in the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century incidentally mention 
 the probability and possibility of its becoming a useful 
 pigment. However, it was in the forties that it was first 
 used as an oil paint with a drying oil by Leclaire in France. 
 From that time to the present, its use has steadily grown 
 and extended. 
 
 It took a long while at first to break down the pre- 
 judices then existing against its use, and which even now 
 prevent many from using it. So the advent of this pig- 
 ment to popularity has been slow. It has had a hard 
 time to establish itself firmly. 
 
 Chemistry and Manufacture 
 
 There are two very distinct qualities of zinc white. 
 The better quality is known to the trade as " French" 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 33 
 
 zinc, and the other as " American" zinc; both have the 
 same chemical composition, oxide of zinc. 
 
 French zinc is that which is made from the zinc metal, 
 while American zinc so-called is made directly from the 
 zinc ore. It will be seen that the terms used to designate 
 these two qualities are more arbitrary than strictly 
 true at least, such is the fact to-day. It does not do 
 America justice to call the poorer zinc after it, but, as we 
 have seen in the case of Cremnitz white, names stick. No 
 amount of reasoning is likely to change it any more than 
 in another glaring instance, i.e., English and American 
 Venetian red. 
 
 The French are no doubt entitled to the honor of 
 having first used this valuable pigment; also of having 
 first produced it in a commercial way; so that importers, 
 brokers, and paint manufacturers gave it the name, and 
 habit still forces the name to remain. France never had 
 a monopoly of its manufacture, and Belgium produces 
 one of the most esteemed of its brands the " Vielle 
 Montagne" zincs. 
 
 Within the past twenty or twenty-five years, works 
 have been established in the United States which are 
 producing zinc oxide by the "French" process which is 
 certainly equal in quality to that made in any country. 
 It is sold as ''French " zinc, and the grinders pay as good 
 a price for it as for that which is imported. 
 
 The process of manufacturing zinc white is very sim- 
 ple. The metal is vaporized by heat in retorts, whence 
 it is carried to a chamber where the vaporized zinc comes 
 in contact with air containing oxygen, for which 
 element it has a great affinity. It combines with the 
 oxygen, and is at once converted into an oxide of zinc. 
 This oxide of zinc is gathered into a series of sacks or 
 small chambers suspended with the mouths opening 
 
34 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 downward. That which is lightest and whitest is 
 deposited farthest from the point of entrance of the 
 vapor; the heavier is also the darker and is deposited 
 nearest. This darkness is caused by impurities con- 
 sisting mainly of unconverted metal, which prevent the 
 grading of the zinc white as first quality. 
 
 Zinc oxide made thus is very light and flocky, 
 resembling in a manner snow or eiderdown. It is 
 selected and graded according to quality, whiteness, 
 etc.; after which it is submitted to the action of 
 powerful compressing machinery under intense heat; 
 then it becomes the article of commerce known as 
 "Dry Zinc White." 
 
 Vast quantities of it are annually consumed in that 
 shape for distemper work, for the better class of kalso- 
 mining, etc.; either alone as a white, or in combination 
 with whiting or gypsum or with coloring matter in the 
 making of certain tints. 
 
 For use in linseed oil painting, it is ground either in a 
 strong drying oil which has been previously treated to 
 discolor it, or in drying poppy seed oil for the finer grades 
 of work. 
 
 It is usually packed in tin cans ranging from one to 
 twenty-five pounds each. Both the French and the 
 American zincs are sold in two qualities according to 
 their whiteness. The whitest and best is sold as Green 
 Seal zinc white, while that which is of a darker shade is 
 sold as Red Seal. These are usually found in the output 
 of all grinders of zinc, and they have come to be under- 
 stood as meaning first and second quality. They are 
 used upon all grades of zinc ground in linseed oil or poppy 
 seed oil, except upon the very lowest and cheapest grades 
 of American zincs, which, in addition to being of poor 
 zinc, are usually adulterated. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 35 
 
 American zinc is made in precisely the same manner as 
 that described for French zinc, with the exception that 
 instead of using zinc metal, zinc ore is employed in its 
 place. It is made from the vaporization of the ore, the 
 oxidation being the same; the process in all respects being 
 identical, and so are the after treatments. 
 
 From the impurities contained in the ore, one may well 
 surmise that the product cannot be equal in either white- 
 ness or quality to that made from the metal itself. Both 
 systems are now used in the United States, but, as stated 
 before, it is only in recent years that it has been made 
 here from the metal. 
 
 The chemical formula of zinc white is ZnO. It is the 
 only oxide of that metal and the only one of its many 
 salts that is of any use as pigment to the painter. 
 
 Tests for Purity 
 
 The purity is easily tested. If it is in a dry powder, 
 it will dissolve readily without effervescence in either 
 dilute nitric or hydrochloric acid. 
 
 If it has been adulterated with barium sulphate, that 
 substance will not be acted upon by the acids. It will 
 be left undissolved in the shape of a white powder at the 
 bottom of the dish. If there is effervescence during the 
 dissolving of the zinc white by the acids, the presence of 
 lime in the shape of carbonate of lime or whiting is plainly 
 indicated. 
 
 If the zinc to be tested is ground in oil or varnish, it 
 should be agitated thoroughly in benzine or naphtha, 
 which will dissolve the linseed oil out of it. Let it rest 
 and deposit after the agitation has been thoroughly done, 
 then pour out the benzine and repeat the same operation 
 until it is thoroughly free from the oil. After drying the 
 powder which will be done quickly if left in the open 
 
36 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 air it can be used in the test precisely as was described 
 for the dry zinc white. 
 
 Zinc white is not affected by sulphureted hydrogen 
 gases, nor by sulphurous vapors of any kind. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Oxide of zinc, or zinc white as it is best known to the 
 paint trade, has had its praises sung to all kinds of tunes 
 in every civilized country where paint is used. It 
 deserves a good deal of this admiration, and is one of the 
 most valuable additions to the list of white pigments, and 
 really is indispensable in the well-regulated paint shop. 
 It should be used as a component part in many a mixture. 
 But much of the praise we hear should be carefully 
 weighed and conclusions slowly reached. It will hardly 
 do to swallow the whole of the flattery, at least not to the 
 extent some would have it, that of discarding the old 
 standby, white lead, and substituting for its use that 
 of zinc white. While some of its friends are extravagant 
 and unquestionably go too far, it is nevertheless an 
 excellent pigment in its proper place. When judiciously 
 used, it is invaluable, and will give every satisfaction. If 
 used, as it sometimes is, in a haphazard, hit-or-miss sort 
 of way, it will not take many years before sorrow will 
 come of it, and the painter's reputation goes a-fishing. 
 
 For interior work in either distemper or enamel, zinc 
 white is greatly to be preferred to any other white pig- 
 ment, and its praises may be sung in a very high pitch. 
 Then it deserves the homage of every painter and 
 decorator in the land. Its freedom from the attacks 
 of white lead's greatest enemies sulphurous fumes 
 compels its use under all circumstances where these are 
 present. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 37 
 
 It is true that the French government is throwing its 
 influence in favor of the use of zinc and discouraging the 
 use of white lead, and has passed some very stringent 
 legislation in regard thereto. Simmered down to its real 
 value , this means that journeymen painters in that 
 country, either through bad habits or careless use of 
 white lead, are more subject to lead poisoning than those 
 of other nations. These have circulated petitions, held 
 mass meetings, and have forced upon the attention of the 
 government what they choose to call " the evils of white 
 lead." The legislation in a great measure is the result of 
 this agitation. True, nothing but zinc can go on to public 
 buildings, etc. This is heralded and made use of to the 
 limit, by those most interested in its manufacture and 
 sale; nevertheless, when all the facts in the case are fear- 
 lessly looked into, it means but little. 
 
 All public buildings, and nearly all others of any sort, 
 are of stone in France. The painting is principally that 
 of the interiors and some of the doors and blinds, which 
 are usually painted in colors and not with zinc on the 
 outside. Some few are painted white, or in tints made 
 from white zinc as a base, and they show very plainly that 
 had the government been as careful to take the advice 
 of more practical men instead of that of theorists, and 
 had not to knuckle under the goods handled by the 
 journeymen who are voters, and their friends who are 
 voters too, there would be less cracked paint to be 
 burned off than there is to-day and will continue to be. 
 It is only a question of time when the practice will have 
 to be abandoned, as the French are no greater lovers of 
 eyesores in the shape of paint scales than any other 
 people. 
 
 The particles or atoms of zinc white have a great 
 affinity for each other. As has been already related 
 
38 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 when describing the manufacture of zinc white, the 
 atoms cling together like snow or eiderdown interweaving 
 each other, and that they are compressed by powerful 
 machinery. This adherence and brotherly embracing of 
 each other in these atoms is remarkable, and stands as the 
 very opposite of that of the atoms of white lead, which 
 have no affinity whatever for each other. This in part 
 explains why lead chalks so easily. When the binding 
 of the linseed oil which holds the atoms together 
 begins to decay, they begin also to drop and loosen 
 from each other they fall singly, having nothing to 
 hold them. 
 
 The reverse condition takes place with zinc white. Its 
 atoms have such an affinity for each other that they hold 
 together in a solid mass. When the oil has so decayed 
 that it can no longer bind the zinc and hold it against the 
 building, the paint cracks and gradually loosens from 
 it, forming a scale which will eventually drop away in a 
 mass in the same way and manner as the bark does from 
 the Buttonwood or sycamore tree. 
 
 While the use of zinc white alone for outside painting 
 is not to be recommended, a combination of it in proper 
 proportions with white lead will in a good measure 
 counteract the inherent defects appertaining to each. 
 The tenacity of the zinc white will retard the falling away 
 of the white lead; and that, in return for the good deed 
 done it, will help to prevent the excessive tenacity of the 
 former. 
 
 There can be no set rule formulated giving the exact 
 proportion that each should have in making up a com- 
 bination. Under certain conditions, lead paint to which 
 25 per cent of zinc white has been added may crack and 
 scale, while again under others as much as 60 or even 80 
 per cent would not affect it injuriously. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 39 
 
 As this treatise is written for the purpose of giving 
 information that concerns pigments, and not upon the 
 application of paint, details therefore which properly 
 belong to a book on painting cannot fully be elucidated 
 here. Possibilities are indicated to show what the 
 properties of the pigments are and how to correct some 
 of their bad points. Generally speaking, therefore, a 
 paint for ordinary surfaces should not contain more than 
 20 to 25 per cent of zinc to 75 or 80 per cent of white lead 
 for outside painting. The figures given are conservative, 
 and circumstances might alter them considerably. 
 
 The non-drying properties of zinc white have already 
 been mentioned. It is therefore necessary to add some 
 driers to the linseed oil used in its application. This is 
 especially the more essential if raw linseed oil be used ; and 
 it is really the only one which should be employed in con- 
 nection with zinc white for outside painting, on account of 
 its greater elasticity, which lessens its tendency to crack 
 and scale, by lengthening the period until decay com- 
 mences. 
 
 For distemper painting, aside from its beautiful white 
 tone when used alone, or the clearness of the tints made 
 from it and the addition of coloring pigments, it has also 
 a soft, satin-like finish impossible to produce with whiting 
 or gypsum whites. Therein lies the secret of many a 
 kalsominer, whose work is so much superior to that of 
 others who do not use it and have not discovered its value. 
 The former are looked for and kept busy while the latter 
 are looking around for work. The clearness of tints made 
 with zinc is not confined to distemper work, but is still 
 more strikingly noticeable when tints are made from pig- 
 ments ground in oil, and zinc white in oil or poppy-seed oil. 
 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHITE PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 THE EARTH WHITES 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 EARTH WHITES are so named to distinguish that class 
 of white pigments which owe their origin to mother earth 
 in contradistinction to those which are derived from a 
 metallic origin, as lead and zinc. 
 
 None of the earth whites are as valuable to the work- 
 man in oil, painting; in this respect they are entirely 
 different from the metallic whites. When mixed with 
 linseed oil, they assume a dirty, dingy, measly-looking 
 white. All are more or less transparent, or at best are 
 semi-transparent. By themselves they may be called 
 useless as oil paints, but, for all that, some are very useful 
 when employed as adjuncts to the metallic whites in oil. 
 Their usefulness lies chiefly in the correction of some 
 defects, and that is their chief use in connection with that 
 vehicle. 
 
 In kalsomining and distemper work they become true 
 pigments in every sense of that word. They impart a 
 color of their own to the other pigments with which they 
 are mixed. In water, they are invaluable. 
 
 Lime, clay, and silica, with admixtures of other sub- 
 stances in small quantities, form the basis of nearly all 
 the earth whites. According to which of them mainly 
 enters into the respective compositions and predomi- 
 nates, they are known by various names. 
 
 40 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 41 
 
 Most all the earth whites are to be found in abundance 
 in many parts of the world. Most of them are cheaply 
 mined and prepared for use, consequently they are inex- 
 pensive. This cheapness makes them very attractive 
 for compounding with white lead or zinc white, openly so 
 in the goods known as compound leads, etc., or secretly 
 so in the preparation of the "off " brands. The greatest 
 harm that any of them do in either the off brands or the 
 compound leads is that they reduce the covering proper- 
 ties in these in nearly the same ratio as the quantities 
 into which they enter. It is said " nearly," but as some of 
 these earth whites are semi-transparent and have cover- 
 ing properties of their own, it is true therefore in the 
 main of most of them. Their spreading possibilities are 
 increased, and pound for pound they spread farther than 
 lead, so that a greater number of square yards can be 
 painted with a given weight. This is due to the fact 
 that they absorb more linseed oil than does white lead. 
 This makes them wear longer, and helps to protect the 
 lead in the combination. Some of these earth whites 
 have strong caustic properties; this causticity saponifies 
 the linseed oil, and as the saponification formed is a 
 partially soluble one, it is necessary to be careful of their 
 use. 
 
 CARBONATE OF LIME, OR WHITING 
 Chemistry and Source of Supply 
 
 Carbonate of lime, or whiting as it is popularly called, 
 whose chemical formula is CaCO 3 , is plentifully supplied by 
 nature in a nearly pure state in the shape of chalk. It is at 
 least pure enough for use as a pigment after the removal of 
 the coarser substances mixed with it, such as silica and 
 other impurities, by levigation. It is sometimes made 
 
42 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 artificially from certain varieties of limestone, which in 
 the United States is more abundant than chalk. 
 
 The principal source of supply is chalk. That is the 
 natural carbonate of lime. All it needs is crushing and 
 afterward levigating. 
 
 Levigating is the technical name used to designate the 
 operation of washing out the impurities present in all 
 natural earth pigments. Whenever that word is used 
 in this treatise in subsequent chapters, one will under- 
 stand that it is employed to designate the washing out of 
 impurities consisting of heavy sand, pebbles, roots, etc. 
 
 After the chalk has been crushed or powdered, this is 
 mixed with water and thoroughly agitated, that it may 
 all be dissolved and held in suspension by the water. It 
 is then run off, conducted through pipes to a succession 
 of vats where the liquid mass overflows from one to the 
 next, and so on. The finer atoms being the lightest 
 they are held in suspension the longest, and they flow 
 to the farthest vats before depositing, the sand and other 
 heavy impurities settling in the first ones, so that the 
 quality of the settlings increases or decreases according to 
 the longer or shorter distance of the settling vats from the 
 first of these where the outflow starts. 
 
 The first, second, and third vats contain nearly all the 
 worthless substances, which are usually thrown away. 
 The rest are graded according to fineness. The pulp 
 is then dried, crushed in large lumps or powdered, packed 
 in barrels, and the last is sold as " Gilder's" whiting- 
 chalk which has simply been crushed and powdered 
 without having been subjected to the levigating process 
 is known by the name of "Commercial" whiting. 
 
 The qualities and styles of packages which a few years 
 ago were to be found upon the market under various 
 fancy names have nearly all disappeared. For in- 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 43 
 
 stance, the small cones of Spanish white, the brands 
 of Paris white, London white, etc., are seldom to be found. 
 
 Some decorators prefer what is known now as "lump" 
 whiting. This is not lump chalk, as some might suppose 
 it to be. That would be too hard to dissolve, in fact, it 
 would not dissolve; besides, the impurities lump chalk con- 
 tains would bar it from use by that class of workmen. 
 Good lump whiting is the same as the best grade of 
 gilder's whiting, with the only difference that after the 
 levigated pulp is dry, instead of being powdered it is 
 simply broken up into chunks for the handy packing 
 of it in barrels. 
 
 That it is better than the corresponding quality that 
 has been powdered, is claimed by some decorators. It is 
 a question requiring a Philadelphia lawyer to decide. It 
 is too hard for the ordinary mortal to answer. It is a rem- 
 nant of the times when the old bosses used the dabs of 
 Spanish white, which were just pulp dipped out and dried 
 in cone-like shapes, and were in those days known to 
 every painter in the land. But to-day, with powerful 
 machinery to crush the whiting, and if this has been well 
 levigated, it looks as if the powdered whiting had the 
 best end of the arrangement. It dissolves in water more 
 readily than the lump, therefore is more desirable for 
 the painter's use, because it saves his time. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Whiting is a very good distemper pigment, and is 
 probably more extensively used than any of the white 
 earth pigments. It is used chiefly by kalsominers, deco- 
 rators in distemper painting, and in immense quantities 
 by the wall-paper manufacturers in preparing their print- 
 ing tints. 
 
44 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 In linseed oil it is very indifferent, to say the least. 
 From its causticity, it must be very active in saponifying 
 and destroying the linseed oil. It never dries very hard 
 with it, and where the oil has been applied thick, it will 
 skin over the soft stuff underneath and will come off with 
 but little provocation. It always imparts a dull, dirty 
 tone to any tints made by adding coloring matter to it, 
 or to white lead compounds where it predominates. For 
 employment alone, its transparency is against it. Small 
 quantities of it added to the megilp used by grainers 
 will make the color comb better and permit it to be put 
 on heavier, and still be more transparent than would be 
 possible without it. 
 
 There are several cretaceous earths which at times have 
 been used as paint or adjuncts to white lead, but none of 
 them have proved very satisfactory. Their use is now 
 obsolete. Far better substances can be had which are 
 fully as cheap as whiting. The chief use of whiting is 
 in water-color painting, and in this connection it is con- 
 sumed in enormous quantities. The wall-paper printing 
 industry uses it in the preparation of its tints. The 
 kalsominers and fresco painters also are large consumers. 
 The putty manufacturers also employ it in the prepara- 
 tion of that article. 
 
 rv 
 CHINA CLAY, OR KAOLIN 
 
 China clay is the only white earth pigment that has 
 any body in oil, but even the best samples could hardly 
 be called semi-transparent. This class of white earth is 
 also known under the general names of argillaceous and 
 clay white. It varies greatly. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The kaolin, or china clay of commerce, is the best repre- 
 sentative of the class. It is nearly a pure clay, and that 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 45 
 
 is why it is better bodied than the cretaceous or silicious 
 earths. It is very much better than whiting as a com- 
 ponent part of off leads and lead compounds. Never- 
 theless it is far from being an ideal substance; it has 
 some grave defects of its own, but it has a better body, 
 and is not an active destroyer of linseed oil. 
 
 Its defects are that it dulls the tone of white lead, and 
 that it muddies that of tints in about the same manner 
 and for similar reasons as whiting does. 
 
 It is also useful as a distemper color, working nicely 
 under the brush; but as it does not make as smooth a 
 job as whiting, it is therefore very seldom employed for 
 that class of work. 
 
 Its chief use is that of an extender, as an adulterant 
 in off leads or compounds, ochers ground in oil, Venetian 
 reds, etc. Its greater body, heavier weight, and being 
 much less caustic than carbonate of lime, render it much 
 better adapted for purposes where these qualities count. 
 
 But in common with all earth pigments which contain 
 a large proportion of clay or alumina in their composi- 
 tion, the great trouble is that clay has the property of 
 absorbing water and of parting with it readily. This 
 hygroscopic property is lessened when mixed with oil, 
 but not altogether eliminated. After the oil has 
 thoroughly dried, and from exposure and decay become 
 porous, clay pigments absorb water from the atmosphere, 
 and when the heat of summer comes, this moisture is 
 given out. This is the main reason why so much trouble 
 has been reported from the use of ochers. There is no 
 doubt that in the majority of cases, this was due to the 
 use of an ocher which contained a very large percentage 
 of alumina in its base. 
 
 This constant absorbing or parting with moisture is 
 bound to produce blistering, and later on scaling, and is 
 
46 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 the principal cause of mildew. It also causes the sinking 
 in of colors, which means a cloudy, fady, muddy, uneven- 
 looking surface. 
 
 GYPSUM (SULPHATE OF LIME) 
 History and Provenance 
 
 Gypsum is plentifully found in the natural state a 
 soft rock in nearly all parts of the globe. It is known 
 to every one in its calcined condition under the form 
 and name of plaster of paris. In this form, however, it 
 is of little use as a pigment. It is therefore chiefly in 
 its uncalcined condition that it will be considered. 
 
 It is first levigated and freed from impurities in much 
 the same manner as has been related was used to clean 
 chalk from its impurities. It is chiefly in this condition, 
 after thorough drying, that it is useful either as an adjunct 
 to other pigments, or as the principal ingredient in all the 
 so-called anticalcimine, gypsine, etc., the prepared dis- 
 temper paints whose manufacturing headquarters are 
 located in Grand Rapids, which is situated in the heart 
 of the gypsum beds of Michigan. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 For distemper purposes and water colors, gypsum is 
 well fitted, although it does not work as smoothly as 
 whiting, nor does it make as solid a covering. In some 
 other respects it is superior to it; it has much better 
 tenacity and adhering properties. It is better to buy 
 it ready prepared for application. It requires a long 
 experience in its preparation. This the manufacturers 
 possess; and experimenting continually, they have been 
 able to correct some of its faults and to put out a line of 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 47 
 
 goods which is much better than any thing the painter 
 could possibly prepare for himself. 
 
 In relief work gypsum is the principal substance used 
 in the mixtures. 
 
 It is also useful in oil, not so much as a pigment as an 
 adjunct; as a corrector or betterer, if it maybe so called. 
 
 It has some of the defects of other earth whites, the 
 main one being its transparency. It possesses no opa- 
 city in oil, or next door to none. When used excessively 
 it dulls tints the same as the rest of them. Unlike many, 
 it has no causticity, so that it does not injuriously affect 
 linseed or any other of the fixed oils. Therefore when 
 used judiciously with white lead, it will retard its chalk- 
 ing, for it is a good absorbent of oil, and is inert. But 
 it must be used in reason, or it will make the white lead 
 look off-color and too transparent. 
 
 It is also used by color makers as a base for certain 
 colors, but of that more will be said as occasion will 
 require under the proper heading. It is chiefly in that 
 connection that its usefulness lies. 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Sulphate of lime when calcined at a heat of 110C. 
 loses its water of hydration and forms the well-known 
 article of commerce, plaster of paris. 
 
 In that condition it absorbs water readily and recom- 
 bines with it, returning to its hydrate or natural condi- 
 tion. This renders it unfit for use as a pigment, as it 
 would harden when mixed with the water used to thin it 
 in distemper work, and would absorb enough moisture 
 from linseed oil, which contains a small percentage, and 
 from the atmosphere, which at times is heavily charged 
 with it, to harden even when ground in oil. When it 
 has become heated to 500 C. then it loses the power of 
 
48 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 absorbing moisture, and it is in that condition that it has 
 to be for the purposes of the manufacturer of pigments. 
 
 It is never found in that shape in a commercial way, 
 and for that reason the painter cannot avail himself of 
 its use in order to compound it with other pigments. 
 
 Should the future demand for gypsum of 500 C. be 
 found to grow, it is highly probable that manufacturers 
 will grind it in oil. At the present it is known only to 
 few aside from the color makers, so there is no market 
 demand for it. Probably the reason is that it is a very 
 hard substance to grind after such high calcination. 
 When it enters in combination with other pigments it is 
 much easier ground, and it is always in that shape that 
 it is ground. 
 
 SILICATE EARTHS (SILVER WHITE) 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Silver white is known to most painters, probably not 
 as a paint or pigment, but as an ingredient entering into 
 the preparation of fillers. 
 
 It is hardly worthy to be called a pigment, as, even when 
 mixed with water for distemper work, it shows but little 
 opacity, and is very inferior to either the cretaceous or the 
 argillaceous earths for that purpose. The chief use is in 
 correcting some of the evil tendencies and defects of 
 white lead and zinc white. As correctives, then, the 
 silicate earths are excellent, and are better adapted to 
 that purpose than are the earth whites of either of the 
 two classes described before. Their benefit is great, and 
 the time is not far distant when a paint will hardly be 
 considered perfect that contains no silicate earth in its 
 composition. 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 49 
 
 The above statement may be considered by many 
 as claiming too much, and it may possibly be so; for it is 
 really possible to make very good paint without it, but 
 such was not in mind when it was uttered. The cost of 
 making a good paint without its use being greater, the 
 chances are that there would be but few so made, and so 
 the truth contained in the statement remains anyway. 
 
 Composition and Chemistry 
 
 Silicate earths, as may well be surmised and as the name 
 indicates, are mainly of silica or sand; but this is so fine 
 and the atoms so minute, that in the best grades of it, 
 they are held in suspension in liquids a very long time before 
 precipitation takes place the particles will almost float. 
 
 The silicate earths occur in various parts of the United 
 States in natural beds, and for once Dame Nature has 
 endowed America with an earth useful in painting which 
 is superior in fineness and quality to anything that has 
 been found so far in any of the European or Asiatic 
 countries. The products of American mines are exported 
 extensively. That will never be the case with its other 
 natural earth pigments, such as the ochers, umbers, and 
 siennas. 
 
 The beds containing silicate earths are mined like all 
 the other earth beds, according as to whether they lie 
 near the surface or are located quite a way below it. 
 The raw earth is levigated to clean it from heavy sand and 
 other impurities, for while it is nearly of the same chemi- 
 cal composition as sand, which is another form of 
 silica, that is as much of an impurity in a silicate 
 earth as that same sand would be if found in an ocher. 
 
 In some of the beds of silicate earths the product 
 obtained is said to be so nearly pure and free from foreign 
 matter as to hardly require levigation to fit it for use. 
 
50 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is again repeated that silicate earths are really not 
 pigments in the sense that these can or do impart color, 
 and their usefulness as correctives and for compounding 
 with other pigments is their chief claim. 
 
 Silicate earths have no affinity for water or moisture, 
 and are absolutely inert when mixed with linseed oil, nor 
 will they injure it in any way. The atoms are so very 
 fine, that they mix intimately with those of either white 
 lead or zinc white to the great benefit of both of those 
 pigments. They will dry hard without any tendency 
 toward chalking, cracking, or peeling off, and, but for its 
 lack of opacity, would be as near the goal of being an 
 ideal pigment as can be well conceived. Its use should 
 become more popular than it is now for all kinds of out- 
 side painting. 
 
 Its value can be inferred by what can be noticed almost 
 anywhere, or by making the experiment for one's self 
 any day. Take some white lead, or white lead and zinc, 
 either in the pure white or with color added to make any 
 tint, and paint the side of a building with it afterwards, 
 and while the paint is still fresh, sand half of it, then 
 notice what the consequences will be say in five years. 
 The unsanded lead will be in a bad state of chalking; the 
 lead and zinc will be in a better condition, but still will 
 begin to show signs of decay; while that part which has 
 been sanded will be on as tight as the day it was put there. 
 The silica did it. This is invariably the case; and as it is 
 a common practice for many places exposed to being 
 marred or defaced to be sanded, one will have little trouble 
 to find samples of it already so painted which have been 
 put on for many years. It can thus be seen and the results 
 ascertained without having to wait several years for it. 
 
 The good wearing qualities of the French and English 
 ochers are due to their being silicate ochers; they contain 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 51 
 
 a large percentage of silica in their base. (See the chapter 
 on ocher.) Had the silicate earth but the opacity of 
 white lead, it would be worth its weight in gold, as the 
 saying is, as a pigment for general painting; but it has 
 not that quality. 
 
 Many of the most valuable colored pigments are 
 natural earths containing a large percentage of silica in 
 their composition, which will be properly noticed under 
 the several headings to which they respectively belong. 
 
 BARYTA WHITE (BARIUM SULPHATE) 
 Composition and Provenance 
 
 Baryta white is better and more commonly known as 
 barytes in the United States. It is found commercially 
 of many different grades and qualities. It is obtained in 
 its natural state in many parts of the world. It is well 
 known under the form of " heavy spar," which is a heavy 
 crystalline rock. It is found in localities of many-vary- 
 ing geological formations. Near Quincy, Illinois, it is in 
 large quantities in the limestone formation of the bluffs 
 along the Mississippi River, also in the Blue Ridge region 
 of Virginia and elsewhere. Again, it is found in the zinc 
 and lead mines of Southwestern Missouri, Northwestern 
 Arkansas, Southwestern Kansas and the Indian Territory. 
 It is somewhat ludicrous, this finding of it in connection 
 with lead in mines as if that substance knew that later 
 on it should be made to parade as and become a still 
 closer neighbor of lead under its new form of "white 
 lead/' and made to renew an acquaintance with its old 
 neighbor where they had lain together for ages before 
 being disturbed from their peaceful slumber by the 
 miners. 
 
52 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Barytes is very transparent. It is the ideal trans- 
 parent pigment element, heavy spar being nearly as 
 transparent as glass. When ground in linseed oil, ordi- 
 nary barytes has no body. This can be best seen by the 
 mixing of barytes with oil, and of painting a board three 
 coats with it, the same mixed to the usual consistency 
 of paint for a like purpose. It will be found that these 
 three coatings, which had they been mixed from any of 
 the usual pigments would have covered the board per- 
 fectly, in this instance have not even hidden the tracery 
 of the grain of the wood. It will be safe to say that one 
 single coat of white lead would have covered the surface 
 of the board more opaquely than five coats of the barytes 
 paint would do. 
 
 That barytes must be a very heavy substance may be 
 surmised from the great weight of the heavy spar from 
 which it is prepared. It is by reason of this heavy weight 
 that it is the chief adulterant used to doctor up white 
 lead. It being nearly of the same specific gravity, it is 
 thus admirably adapted to pass inspection where the 
 lighter weight of better adulterants would be a "dead 
 give away" on account of the greatly increased size of 
 a package of a given weight. That is why whiting, 
 gypsum, etc., are so seldom used for the purpose of adul- 
 terating white lead. They would make entirely too much 
 bulk, and the fraud would be recognizable to a novice. 
 Therefore barytes has almost a monopoly as an adulter- 
 ant of white, its heavy weight entitling it to that eminent 
 position. Another requisite which is of as nearly as 
 much importance, is that of its great transparency. More 
 barytes can be added to white lead without muddying 
 its color, than of any of the earth whites of better body, 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 53 
 
 but which change the color of the pigments they are 
 added to, as has been already said of them. 
 
 Barytes is also the adulterant chiefly used in the mak- 
 ing of the cheaper colors in oil; this, however, more on 
 account of its transparency than that of its weight; as for 
 many of the lighter-weight colors it is greatly against it, 
 it makes the package look too small. Its transparency 
 usually decides the scales in its favor, as the chief make- 
 weight adulterant even for the light-weight colors, some 
 very light-weight adulterant being used in connection 
 with it to give more bulk. Its transparency does not 
 greatly affect the tone of the darker colors with which 
 it is used; and while it can be detected when the adul- 
 terated color is -used in making tints it renders them 
 less clear in tones it will hardly show in the color itself 
 in self-color painting. 
 
 In such extra light-weight colors as Prussian blue, 
 lampblack, etc., it cannot possibly be used alone, as it 
 would be an easy "give away; " so, as was said, it is usual 
 to marry it to a much lighter-weighted partner, but it 
 goes in just the same. 
 
 To show the capacity of barytes as an adulterant and 
 its transparency, fifty pounds of it can be added to one 
 pound of dry Prussian blue medium chrome yellow or 
 lampblack without changing the colors greatly. Thus 
 the enormous quantity of fifty to one is within the possi- 
 bilities in adulterating with it. While seldom used to 
 that extent, it is sometimes found in nearly that ratio in 
 the "cheap John" lines of colors in oil occasionally to be 
 seen frequently more in the cheap dry colors. 
 
 While upon the subject of adulteration it might be well 
 to say here that in a general way colors are not adulter- 
 ated to anywhere near the limit of the possibilities as 
 that of fifty to one. More frequently the adulteration 
 
 
54 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 will be found to be one to one, three to one, or four to one 
 of the genuine color; the latter being the common one 
 in use, and recognized as justifiable for the proprietary 
 greens and many other colors which do not indicate 
 purity by any such claim upon their labels. This adul- 
 teration is, however, to such an extent, but will be found 
 in many whose labels would, to the unsophisticated, 
 create the impression that the colors were pure with- 
 out saying that in so many words. 
 
 As it is mainly as an adulterant that barytes has any 
 serious claims upon the attention of the readers of this 
 treatise, this is the side from which it is viewed. 
 
 Not so, however, of the artificially prepared baryta 
 white, which is better known to artists and decorators as 
 "blanc fixe." The latter is an excellent pigment for 
 water-color painting, and nothing of what has been said 
 of the natural barytes applies to that, except its lack of 
 opacity in oil; but even in that, it is head and shoulders 
 above the ordinary barytes. In water-color work, it 
 possesses a good body. It is a perfect white, absolutely 
 unalterable under all and any circumstances or conditions. 
 It is insoluble in the acids, and is not attacked by sulphu- 
 reted hydrogen gas nor any other sulphurous vapors. 
 It is of great value for uses wherever the painting is sub- 
 ject to such influences where most of the other whites 
 would be unsuited. Its absolute permanency recom- 
 mends it for the highest grade of decorative work, 
 and where the reputation of a man depends upon 
 the intact preservation of his work. It cannot be too 
 highly prized. 
 
 It has another very important qualification aside from 
 those of permanency and whiteness, in that it has a 
 peculiar texture that is entirely its own, and this remains 
 even in the tints made by its use. The same pleasing 
 
WHITE PIGMENTS 55 
 
 peculiar finish cannot be reproduced with anything 
 else, no more than cotton can be made to have the 
 feel of wool. 
 
 The artists and decorators are the ones who are mainly 
 interested in its use. It is never likely to pass into the 
 hands of the general house painter. 
 
 The reader should remember to distinguish between 
 barytes and baryta white or blanc fixe. Dr. Dudley, chief 
 chemist of the Pennsylvania railroad, has had a great 
 deal to say of it, and is probably as good an authority 
 upon barytes in all forms as can be found the world over, 
 he having made that substance the subject of much 
 investigation and experiment. He says that some forms 
 of the atoms in certain grades of barytes are scale-like, 
 and overlap each other in such a way as to intercept the 
 rays of light, and that when colored up with proper pig- 
 ments the barytes does not show transparent. The 
 doctor must have come across a brand that is hard to 
 obtain outside of Altoona. The author has never yet 
 seen it, nor has he ever seen or heard of any one else who 
 has seen it in such a shape. 
 
 There is a legitimate use for barytes as an extender, 
 especially in such colors as the greens or chrome yellows, 
 which in their pure state are very strong. That state- 
 ment should be understood in this sense only: For 
 instance, one pound of pure chrome green or chrome 
 yellow is worth, say, 25 cents per pound. Another one 
 containing 80 per cent of barytes can probably be bought 
 for 12 cents. Now for solid painting the last will go about 
 as far as the pure, and cover the surface well. The latter 
 will be the cheaper for this use, so the extended green or 
 yellow is the most economical for solid painting. Where 
 colors, however, are bought for the making of tints, and 
 where the amount of coloring matter they contain is the 
 
56 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 one thing most needed, the pure color will always be 
 found most economical. 
 
 The above concludes the list of useful white pigments. 
 
 Many others have come up from time to time, staid 
 a little while and were found wanting, or of less value than 
 these which have been noticed in the two preceding 
 chapters. They have about all disappeared, and the list 
 of them would read too much like an epitaph, and would 
 be a needless burden. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS 
 
 OCHERS 
 
 General Characteristics 
 
 YELLOW ochers are natural earths found abundantly in 
 all parts of the known world. It is of small wonder then 
 that among the most ancient and earliest attempts at 
 chromatic embellishment that have been unearthed and 
 brought to light as a result of searches made in the 
 entombed remains of former civilizations, many objects 
 are found whereupon ocher had been used by some pre- 
 historic decorator. 
 
 This yellow was used in the making of many an ingen- 
 ious design upon the covering of the Egyptian sarcopha- 
 guses. In America the Aztecs especially, and the wild 
 tribes of Indians roaming the plains and mountains of 
 North and South America, used ocher also in such decora- 
 tions as they were able to design and execute. 
 
 The Aztecs being the better civilized of them all, one 
 would naturally expect more and better decorative work 
 from them than from the wild migratory tribes; and 
 they have not disappointed expectation, as remains 
 of their pottery and decorated household utensils will 
 show. 
 
 In Asia, ancient objects of Chinese and Tartaric origin 
 have tracings of it upon them. The Greeks and Romans 
 used it profusely; and so far there has not been a nation 
 
 57 
 
58 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 found, where the earliest attempts at decorations have 
 been preserved, that ocher does not appear as one of the 
 pigments. 
 
 Of its uses to-day little need be said. It is a household 
 word, and its praises are sung by everybody interested 
 in using it, let him be painter, decorator, or artist. After 
 white lead, it is probably the one color that any of them 
 could least afford to discard. 
 
 Chemical Properties and General Character 
 
 All ochers are compounds or mixtures of several 
 ingredients or substances. The coloring matter they con- 
 tain is due to hydrate ferric oxide combined with an 
 earthy base which varies with each locality, and some- 
 times with every hill in the locality where they are found. 
 They will vary very much in the same vein of the same 
 bed. Different seams in the vein are often of diverse 
 composition, and are sometimes separated in the mining 
 operations. 
 
 There cannot be therefore any recognized standard 
 nor chemical formula for an article varying as much as 
 this does. They would have to be changed with each 
 new sample that was analyzed. 
 
 Notwithstanding so many variations, ochers may be 
 grouped into two general classes: 
 
 1. Those where the earth base holding the iron oxide 
 is chiefly of silicate earth. 
 
 2. The remaining ochers whose base consists princi- 
 pally of clay earths or alumina. There is a vast difference 
 between these two classes of ochers, not only in the work- 
 ing qualities of each, but in their tones and permanency. 
 
 Then there is between the two classes mentioned above 
 an intermediate one comprising such as vary in the 
 quantity they contain of either silica or alumina, making 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 59 
 
 it sometimes difficult to class them properly, as they come 
 to the border line of each of the main groups. 
 
 Mining and Production 
 
 Volumes might be written upon this one pigment 
 alone without exhausting the subject matter. While 
 it might be attractive to a specialist in colors, much of 
 the matter would have but little interest to the general 
 reader. 
 
 Ocher is mined and obtained from the bowels of the 
 earth in many different ways, depending upon the depth 
 required to reach it, or to the topography of the 
 surface of the land. The price of labor and advancement 
 in civilization, and the consequent use of labor-saving 
 machinery, come in also as factors in the problem of 
 mining. Sometimes shafts are sunk to it in level 
 sections of country if the veins are deep. If, on the con- 
 trary, they lie near the surface, an open cut is made to 
 the veins, and they are simply elevated, or, better still, a 
 track is made and the ocher shoveled right into the car. 
 
 In the hill sections where it occurs as an outcrop above 
 the valleys, it is tunneled out and loaded in small cars 
 which are run out on a track in much the same manner 
 as coal under similar conditions. In many beds, seams 
 are found where for a few feet or inches a better grade 
 of ocher is found than in the rest of the vein. If it be 
 found to be very much better, it is shoveled out separately 
 and handled by itself. 
 
 In its natural state, ocher is usually mixed with many 
 impurities, such as roots of trees or plants, sand, gravel, 
 etc. For the cheaper grade, or what is known as " un- 
 washed " ocher, the earth after having been brought 
 from the mines is simply sifted through a screen and 
 barreled. Only the very lowest or ordinary ocher is sold 
 
60 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 in that way, and the bulk of it is washed, and the very 
 fine qualities re washed ; but with the system of continuous 
 settling tanks it is seldom practiced any more, as the 
 very finest can be obtained from the farthest tanks. 
 This is equal practically to rewashing, and the method 
 was described under the heading of "Whiting." It is 
 needless to repeat it in this connection, as it is the same, 
 there being no difference in the operation nor its principles. 
 
 As already told, the finest is that which settles in the 
 tanks situated the farthest from the outpour, and the 
 settlings are graded accordingly as extra fine, superfine, 
 double washed, single washed, etc. These washings or 
 levigations are no index to the quality of an ocher, and 
 only signify the greater or lesser freedom from impurities 
 contained in the ocher. 
 
 There is still another method of mining ocher, which is 
 sometimes employed in hilly countries. A dam is built 
 across a valley with a sluiceway at its lowest level, through 
 which the water from the pound resulting from damming 
 the valley can be let out or kept in by shutting the gate in 
 the sluiceway. 
 
 After the heavy spring and early summer rains are over, 
 the mining commences. Hydraulic machinery is used, 
 and streams play upon the ocher beds in the hills adjacent 
 to the valley. This dissolves them and washes down the 
 earth into the pent-up valley below; after a sufficient 
 quantity has been washed out, which is gauged by the 
 capacity of the pond formed by the dam, it is allowed 
 to settle. When the water has cleared, it is allowed to 
 escape through the sluiceway, while the ocher remains 
 as a pulpy deposit. It is left in that state to dry out by 
 the action of the sun's rays. This requires some little 
 time, and in wet seasons there is considerable risk attached 
 to this method of mining; but there is usually nice weather 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 61 
 
 in the autumn, when it is taken advantage of to handle the 
 ocher. 
 
 By this system the heavier impurities are deposited 
 long before reaching the pond, and little else than the 
 ochered water reaches there, as the gravel and roots are 
 screened out early in the runways through which the 
 flow is made to reach the pond. The sand settles all 
 along its course, or at its first entering into the pond; that 
 which has been held in solution until it reaches the main 
 part of the depositing pond being usually a fair quality of 
 ocher which requires no further washing for ordinary use. 
 
 When the pulp has dried sufficiently, teams are set to 
 work with plows and scrapers, and are loaded with the 
 loosened ocher earth and hauled out to the packing sheds, 
 which are roughly constructed affairs, but sufficiently tight 
 to keep the ocher from rain and consequent damage. 
 There it is again pulverized, screened, barreled, and placed 
 either in cars for shipment or in storage warehouses. 
 
 This method is by far the cheapest way of handling 
 ocher, but it is limited in that it cannot be made contin- 
 uous. It is ingenious, and might have been the invention 
 of a Down East Yankee, but that is not so. It is that of a 
 plodding Pennsylvania Dutchman; at least, he was the first 
 one to put the system into use in America, and possibly 
 in the whole world. His works are situated near Allen- 
 town, Pennsylvania, and are located in a small valley 
 through which is a runlet which gives the water a chance 
 to reach the larger streams, but which is usually dry 
 except during the heavy spring rains. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The statement was made that ochers could be grouped 
 into two general classes, and so they may for the purpose 
 of examining their characteristics and properties. 
 
62 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 The two extremes are taken as types, but in reality 
 there are some ochers that are so near the half-way mark 
 between the two types, that it takes a good deal of guess- 
 ing to tell where they rightly belong. Besides, there are 
 any number of grades from the one type down toward the 
 dividing line forming the line of demarcation of the other. 
 Speaking in a general manner, the bulk of European ochers 
 belongs to the class of ochers containing a silicate base, 
 while those found so far in America are more argillaceous 
 or alminous in character, and may be so classed. 
 
 If the reader bears in mind what was said concerning 
 the silicate white earths under that heading, he will have 
 no trouble to understand why ochers with a silicate base 
 are much better than those having a clay base, at least for 
 the painting of surfaces exposed to the weather. He will 
 also understand why the clay ochers are best adapted to 
 distemper work. 
 
 One half of the lamentations which many painters 
 indulge in because of the troubles they have had, caused 
 by the use of ocher, and in the airing of which they at 
 times fill the columns of the trade papers, can be easily 
 traced to the use of the wrong ocher. Investigations 
 will always show that it was an ocher with a clay base 
 that was the disturbing element. 
 
 One never hears of troubles from those painters who 
 use the silicate-based ochers under the very same condi- 
 tions where the other kind is said to have gone wrong, and 
 these can hardly find words good enough to utter the 
 approval they have to give. 
 
 Both are truthful in the telling of their experiences, but 
 while each has to tell them from the use of a pigment 
 which has the same name and possibly the same color, 
 each is in reality speaking of something of an entirely 
 different nature and properties. 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 63 
 
 The troubles had by those who used the clay ochers 
 are of the same nature as those to be expected from the 
 use of china clay, as has been related in the former chapter. 
 Clay ochers when thoroughly dry have parted with the 
 moisture which they originally contained. If a building 
 is primed with such an ocher, it may be called hermeti- 
 cally sealed, especially if the priming was a heavy one, as is 
 usually put on for cheap two-coat work. This heavy 
 priming has practically sealed up the wood and prevented 
 the penetrating of the second or finishing coat, the fine 
 particles of the clay and oil combining to make a poreless 
 glazed surface. The supervening coat put over it dries 
 in much the same way as it would upon a piece of glass; 
 it is not able to anchor itself into the non-porous priming. 
 If the priming had been composed of white lead alone, or 
 of white lead with a reasonable quantity of zinc with it, 
 and put on not too heavy, the priming would have been 
 porous. The finishing coat of lead, or lead and zinc, put 
 over a heavy clay ocher priming, dries upon the surface 
 without clinching itself to it, because it is non-porous. 
 This coat naturally dries thoroughly, having contact 
 with the atmosphere, and becomes porous after the linseed 
 oil has lost its glyceride. The ocher underneath is reached 
 through these pores by the moisture in wet weather, 
 which it will absorb in sufficient quantity to make 
 trouble. During dry, hot weather, this absorbed moisture 
 will be drawn out of it in the form of steam or vapor. 
 Much of it will escape through the same pores by which 
 it entered, but some may not because of a surplus of 
 moisture finding its way to some porous part of the wood, 
 and when the heat is great, the steam not being able to 
 escape as fast as it is formed, forms a blister under the 
 coat or coats applied over the clay ocher priming, and there 
 is trouble. This absorption and evaporation continually 
 
64 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 going on tend in time to loosen the superadded coat or 
 coats and to make them part company from the priming, 
 which usually remains intact. This is one of the main 
 causes of complaint made against the use of ocher as a 
 primer. 
 
 Silicate ochers have no such effect. Silica does not 
 absorb water. It has no affinity for it, consequently 
 there can never be any of it, either by absorption or other- 
 wise, to escape out of it in the form of steam during 
 warm weather, so that there is no danger of the super- 
 added coats coming off it, as related of the clay ocher. 
 Being more porous, the finishing coat becomes anchored 
 to it, and if it has been properly compounded will remain 
 attached as long as it would upon a lead priming. It is, 
 of course, possible to mix a finishing coat of dope, but 
 such would come off of anything it was applied upon, and 
 this is not a matter for serious consideration. 
 
 All kinds of ochers are great absorbents of linseed oil, 
 and should be bought ground in oil rather than in the 
 dry state, unless one possesses good grinding machinery, 
 which is something very unusual. 
 
 As may be readily understood, the mere percentage of 
 strength of the colored matter (hydrate ferric oxide) con- 
 tained in an ocher is not always a criterion whereby to 
 judge of its quality or actual value. The better grades of 
 French ochers seldom contain as much as 25 per cent of 
 ferric oxide, and usually much less than that. 
 
 Every painter and decorator is pretty well acquainted 
 with the high character of some of the French ochers, 
 also with some of the English of the Oxford class. These 
 last are considered the best found in England, and justly so. 
 
 The following analysis is taken from Church's "Chemistry 
 of Paints," and was made by Professor Church himself 
 from a sample of ocher which was taken from the Shotover 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 65 
 
 Hill mines near Oxford, and which he says represents 
 fairly the quality of the Oxford ochers: 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture 7.1 
 
 Combined water 9.0 
 
 Ferricoxide . ..... ......;. . 13.2 
 
 Alumina 6.3 
 
 Silica . . . -. . . 61.5 
 
 Calcium sulphate .' .. . . 1.4 
 
 Undetermined 1.5 
 
 100 
 
 The above analysis shows nearly two thirds of the com- 
 ponent parts of that ocher to consist of silica, therefore 
 one can pin his faith to it for all kinds of outdoor painting. 
 But note the comparatively small percentage of ferric 
 oxide, the coloring matter. 
 
 The French ochers proper are somewhat richer in the 
 proportion of oxide of iron contained in them than that 
 of the sample cited above. Notwithstanding that they 
 average stronger in coloring matter than the Oxford 
 ochers, they are commonly of a lighter and brighter tone. 
 This is remarkable, because ochers which usually contain 
 large proportions of ferric oxide, are darker than those 
 which contain less. It is very hard to account satis- 
 factorily why it is that some samples are so much richer 
 in tone than others of nearly the same chemical compo- 
 sition. Some lack in brilliancy, or, if not in that, are found 
 lame elsewhere. It is therefore useless to look to a 
 chemical analysis for a reason to explain these things. 
 
 Some of the better grades of French ochers make 
 beautiful cream and buff tints with white lead or zinc 
 white so rich in fact as to suggest to one used only to 
 the American ochers that possibly they had been doc- 
 tored up with chrome yellow. This richness is inherent, 
 
66 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 and the tints made from them will never fade, as would 
 those from a chromed ocher. 
 
 It is customary with many color grinders to tone up 
 ochers with chrome yellow. When this is done, and sold 
 under the proper name, and labeled as a "Chrome Ocher," 
 it is all right. That is a legitimate transaction; but 
 when this is done to tone up a poor ocher so that it will 
 sell better, then it is all wrong, and is bound to work an 
 injury upon the unwary users of it. 
 
 If such ochers are used for solid painting, the chrome 
 yellow will fade away, leaving the ocher its original ugly 
 color. If such an ocher has been used in making tints, 
 the rich tone will disappear even more quickly. 
 
 The painter using these may possibly have saved a 
 quarter of a dollar in the difference of cost between a 
 good French ocher and what he used in the making up 
 of his tint if the house was a good-sized one, but in repu- 
 tation the loss cannot be computed in quarter dollars. 
 Had he used the right ocher, the gain would have been 
 permanent; the customer would have been better satis- 
 fied, even if he knew little about color. Every neighbor 
 seeing the house holding its color so well and so long 
 would have become a free "ad" for the painter. The 
 wishy-washy, fady, spotty-looking house is another 
 kind of an "ad" loudly proclaiming that the man who 
 did the job did not know his business. 
 
 Page after page of ocher analyses might be given, but 
 would only confuse the mind. All they do or would 
 prove is that there is no such thing as uniformity to be 
 found in them, and this has been said so often here that 
 it is unnecessary to prove it again by crowding in useless 
 testimony. 
 
 The reader has been advised to buy his ocher ground 
 in oil. There are good reasons for it. % Manufacturers 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 67 
 
 of reputation are much more careful buyers than the 
 average painter can be. They know how and where to 
 buy pure French ochers. They have men in their employ 
 who are experts in this line. They can buy direct from 
 the importers, if it be so that they do not import it them- 
 selves, and will receive it in the original packages from 
 the custom house as imported. The painter who thinks 
 he can tell unerringly a French ocher when he sees it, or 
 who depends upon the stenciled marks on the barrels 
 bought from his supply houses or the jobbers, will in nine 
 cases out of ten be imposed upon. Besides, the best 
 reason of all is, that allowing he can buy just the same as 
 the manufacturer, he certainly cannot afford to grind it. 
 The grinding of a good ocher should never be done in 
 an iron mill, as, when it is so ground, it is likely to lose 
 brilliancy, or at least impair some richness. Stone mills 
 are the only ones fit for grinding ocher, or, for that matter, 
 all other colors, including the blacks, if brightness of the 
 color is of any object and it surely ought to be. The 
 above is said for the benefit of the painter who is thinking 
 about the buying of a paint mill so he can buy his colors 
 dry and pure (?), and save his hard-earned dollars instead 
 of giving them away for colors ready ground. The man 
 who owns a collection of paint mills, and has them 
 rusting away down in the back part of the cellar, knows 
 better, and the advice given does not concern him. All 
 the money that a painter has ever saved by the grinding 
 of his own colors can be put inside of a very small pocket 
 book, and in old-fashioned copper cent cart-wheels at 
 that. 
 
 Grinding colors so that they retain their brilliancy of 
 tone, and are ground to the last degree of fineness, is a 
 science and trade by itself. The painter can never learn 
 it thoroughly, nor can he equip himself rightly for it except 
 
68 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 at too great an expense for it ever to pay him to do so. 
 There is quite a capital tied up in such an equipment, 
 which in an ordinary shop will be required to work for 
 possibly one week out of the fifty-two in the year. This 
 machinery will have to lie idle fifty-one weeks yearly. 
 There will be nothing for it to do. If he intends to keep 
 it going so as to sell to others, all right and good but 
 then the painter will find it more profitable to give up 
 the painting business, as he cannot expect to make a 
 success of both at the same time. 
 
 There are few shops, aside from those of large railway 
 systems, where the grinding of colors has ever been done 
 advantageously. In these there is a set of men whose 
 sole business it is to attend to the grinding, and who, if 
 they are not expert grinders at the beginning, soon become 
 skilled by keeping constantly at it. Even in these large 
 shops there is no economy claimed by the master mechan- 
 ics. The cost of installing and maintaining the grind- 
 ing plant, and the wages of the employees detailed to 
 that work, more than eat up the difference in cost between 
 the dry pigments and the ground goods prepared ready 
 for thinners, bought in large quantities, as these shops do. 
 
 The large capital invested in expensive machinery 
 which is constantly needing repairs soon disgusts the 
 most enthusiastic, and, like all dearly bought experience, it 
 comes to stay with them. Hence the discarded machinery 
 in the cellar, or that which goes to the scrap-iron heap. 
 
 This lengthy advice and warning is given here, not so 
 much because it appertains to ocher more than to any 
 of the other colors, but because ochers being the first ones 
 of the colored pigments under consideration, it seemed 
 best to give it under that head, and it will not have to be 
 repeated again. Such advice and warning is needed, 
 and if followed it will save dollars to the man heeding it. 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 69 
 
 During a lifetime, the author has visited in one capacity 
 or another for nearly fifty years several thousand paint 
 shops. In a very few he has seen mills set up; in many 
 more he has seen the self-same mills relegated to some out- 
 of-the-way place. In all instances where the owners were 
 asked about the saving effected by their use, the reply has 
 been nothing. 
 
 Upon returning after a year's absence to shops where 
 they had been set up, they had disappeared, and the same 
 answer was received as the reason for their removal. 
 
 As nearly all the characteristics presented so far apper- 
 tain mainly to the class of ocher known as the " silicate " 
 or the French and English, more will be said now of the 
 special characteristics which belong to the other or 
 argillaceous class those where the clay base predom- 
 inates. 
 
 Reasons have been given why the silicate ochers were 
 the best for outside painting, and why they should be 
 used for that purpose to the exclusion of the clay ochers. 
 But for distemper or water-color work the French and 
 English ochers are not nearly as well adapted as the 
 American clay ochers. 
 
 Most people are better acquainted with them under the 
 name of American ocher than any other. In the markets, 
 the division of ochers into the silicate or clay classes is 
 unknown. The French and English or the American 
 in various grades is all the classification they receive. 
 To all intents and purposes it really amounts to the same, 
 as the imported represents the silicate class, and the 
 American the clay class, because about all found so far 
 in America partake more or less of this character. 
 
 In distemper painting, clay ochers work better. They 
 cover better, and, what is still more prized, they look better 
 than the silicate class does; so that what they lack for oil 
 
70 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 painting becomes their chief redeeming quality in water- 
 color work. 
 
 This class of ocher is very common. It is found in 
 nearly all if not in every state in the Union. Like the 
 other ochers, it varies very much in composition. So far, 
 the best that have been found are mined in Eastern Vir- 
 ginia on the Appomattox River below Petersburg, and 
 in the same section at Bermuda Hundreds. 
 
 Those Eastern Virginia ochers contain a fair per- 
 centage of silica in their base, but the alumina predomi- 
 nates. They carry about 25 per cent of ferric oxide. 
 Their tone is fair, and they may be said to be the nearest 
 approach to the imported many jobbers sell them as 
 " Rochelle." These represent the better grade of American 
 ochers found so far. 
 
 On the other extreme in Missouri down on the 
 Iron Mountain railroad below St. Louis there are found 
 numerous beds of ocher. The remarkable peculiarity of 
 these ochers is the enormous quantity of ferric oxide 
 they carry. Some samples analyze as much as 85 per cent 
 ranging down to 20 per cent. A fair average for that 
 section will be more than double that of the imported 
 class. But what the oxide of iron makes up in quantity 
 it seems to lose in quality, the tone being universally 
 poor. 
 
 Their chief use so far has been found in the burning 
 of them into a red ocher and in compounding them with 
 talc in the making of a cheap Venetian red or rather 
 mortar color for which they are excellent, being so strong. 
 Enormous quantities are sold for that purpose alone. 
 
 Some of these very strong American ochers are also 
 compounded with ground talc, gypsum or silicate earths; 
 some being sold as French and English, but the bulk 
 going under the American name. 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 71 
 
 Most of the American ochers are semi-transparent, and 
 but for their tones could be classed with perfect propriety 
 with the siennas. Some which do come nearest to them 
 are so classed and sold as American siennas. This trans- 
 parency is not apparent in distemper painting, but it 
 becomes decidedly objectionable for oil painting, even 
 when compounded with silicate earths, and thus rendered 
 unobjectionable in all other respects. 
 
 In addition to the natural ochers, tons upon tons of that 
 pigment are made artificially. When a good quality 
 of ferric oxide is used as the coloring agent, and a right 
 base selected to hold it up just right, the product can 
 hardly help being a good one. There surely cannot be 
 any good reasons given why an excellent artificial ocher 
 should not be made as well as an artificial Venetian red, 
 which these all are. What is said under the heading of 
 that pigment regarding preparation will give the reader 
 an idea of how these artificial earths are produced and 
 prepared for use. There is this difference, however, that 
 in the case of ochers no calcination is necessary all that 
 is needed is mixing and triturating. The base is usually 
 either china, clay, talc and silicate earth in such propor- 
 tions as best suit the compounders. 
 
 The great trouble heretofore has been in the finding of 
 an hydrate-ferric oxide of sufficient richness to compete 
 with the French and English imported ochers. So far, 
 all these artificial ochers have had a lame side in that they 
 are all too transparent in oil to be palmed off as genuine 
 French ocher upon the expert ones at least. 
 
 For all that, the French and English ochers are silicious; 
 they are very opaque, much more so than any sample of 
 American containing twice the quantity of coloring matter. 
 It looks as if the atomic formation of the hydrate-ferric 
 oxide from over the water was somehow different from 
 
72 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 that produced on this side of the big pond or is this due 
 to the forms of atoms in some of the bases? There seems 
 to be an opening here for scientists to investigate. 
 
 This kind of transparent ferric oxide appears to be 
 found in Italy, as many of the Italian siennas contain 
 twice as much as many of the French ochers, and yet they 
 are very transparent for all that. 
 
 As soon as the proper hydrate-ferric oxide can be 
 found or artificially produced with as good tone as that 
 in the imported ochers and as opaque, so that they can 
 be duplicated at will here, there will be as little French 
 and English ochers imported as there is now of English 
 Venetian red. In all likelihood it is only a question of 
 time when this will take place. All signs point that 
 way now, and the painter will gladly hail the day when 
 he can depend to a nicety upon the uniformity and exact 
 composition of his ochers. 
 
 Some of these artificial ochers that have been very 
 carefully compounded, can be relied upon as being very 
 superior for outside painting to those that are mined 
 and that are of uncertain composition. Samples which 
 were examined and tested show up nearly as good as 
 many that are imported. 
 
 As ocher is the most important of all the colored earth 
 pigments to the painter, no apology is needed for having 
 given so much space to its consideration. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CHROME YELLOW 
 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 General Remarks Concerning Them. 
 
 THE chrome yellows follow the ochers in the list of 
 yellow pigments, and rank next to them in usefulness and 
 importance to the painter. 
 
 These yellows are all chemically made in color works, 
 and are found of various tones covering the whole range, 
 from a deep orange bordering upon a true red to the 
 lightest of the canary yellows. 
 
 Commercially they are known as "canary yellow," 
 which is the palest; "lemon yellow" comes next to 
 that in paleness ; " medium chrome yellow " is the neu- 
 tral chromate of lead, and its shade borders neither 
 towards the orange nor the lemon. It is neutral in this 
 respect as well as chemically. "Orange chrome yellow" 
 runs in a variety of shades from a very pale tinge of 
 that color to a deep almost scarlet shade of it. 
 Some manufacturers make it up in three shades, 
 which they mark as "pale orange," 'orange," and 
 "deep orange." 
 
 The medium chrome yellow is the only one of the whole 
 range that is the true "chromate of lead." The varia- 
 tions from it are due to the addition of other substances 
 added purposely to produce them. So the medium or 
 neutral chromate of lead, is the base, or standard, from 
 
 73 
 
74 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 which all the others are mere variations. For this reason 
 its character will be the first one considered. 
 
 MEDIUM CHROME YELLOW 
 Its Characteristics, Chemistry, and Manufacture 
 
 Chrome yellow has been known under various names 
 for over a century. As its name indicates, it is derived 
 from chromic acid and a lead base. 
 
 It is easily obtained as a precipitate by simply making 
 solutions of the acetate or of the nitrate of lead, which 
 are soluble in water, and of bichromate of potash, and 
 pouring the two solutions together in a settling tank. 
 The chrome yellow will instantly precipitate. 
 
 Color manufacturers, however, make it from white lead, 
 as it is more economical to produce in that way. This 
 being insoluble in water, requires more manipulations 
 and boiling. The proportions used are about four pounds 
 of white lead to one of the bichromate of potash. 
 
 CANARY AND LEMON CHROME YELLOW 
 Manufacture 
 
 The lighter shades of chrome yellow are made in 
 precisely the same manner as the ,neutral chromate 
 of lead or medium chrome yellow, with this difference: 
 lead sulphate or sulphuric acid must be added to 
 the white lead and bichromate of potash. According, 
 therefore, to the quantity of the sulphate of lead added, 
 will be the canary, lemon, or intermediate light shades. 
 The more sulphate of lead that goes in the mixing liquids, 
 the lighter will be the shade; the less of it used, the nearer 
 will it approach to that of the medium chrome yellow. 
 
 Sulphate of lead is a legitimate component part of a 
 pale chrome yellow, however much of an adulterant it 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 75 
 
 may be when added to an already made and precipitated 
 medium chrome yellow or an orange shade where it has 
 no business to be, and where, if found, it is a sure indication 
 of adulteration. 
 
 The sulphate of lead must be added before the precipi- 
 tation of the solutions so as to produce the lighter shades, 
 as it combines with them then, which it will not do if 
 added afterward. 
 
 Sulphate of lead is frequently used as an adulterant 
 of medium chrome yellow by simply mixing the two by 
 trituration. In such a mixture the color of the medium 
 yellow is not changed. 
 
 Chemists who are not familiar with this fact, and who 
 have not made the study of paint-making a specialty, 
 frequently make queer mistakes in their analysis. They 
 know that chrome yellow is neutral chromate of lead, so 
 that when the lighter samples of chrome yellow are handed 
 to them for analysis they are sure to call the sulphate of 
 lead they are bound to find in it an adulterant, not know- 
 ing enough about color-making to make the proper allow- 
 ance for the difference in the shade between that and the 
 medium. It is only when found in a medium chrome 
 yellow, where it has no business to be, that it can be 
 considered an adulterant. 
 
 As these light shades of chrome yellow vary, so much, it 
 is impossible to give the exact amount of sulphate of lead 
 they should contain. 
 
 Alum and barytes are. sometimes used to lighten the 
 tones, but principally as adulterants. 
 
 ORANGE CHROME YELLOW 
 Manufacture 
 
 Orange chrome yellows are the opposite of the lemons. 
 It has been shown that in the lemon and canary chrome 
 
76 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 yellows, the change of tone from that of the medium was 
 due to the addition of an excess of acid in the form of 
 sulphate of lead or sulphuric acid. 
 
 In the orange chrome yellows, the deepening of tone 
 and reddish hue is due to an excess of alkali from the use 
 of some caustic substance. It may be obtained in many 
 different ways, but, after all, the difference is in the caustic 
 substance added to the white lead and bichromate of 
 potash. As stated under the lemon yellows, they must 
 be added to the chromate of lead, or rather to the 
 solutions of chemicals which are equivalent thereto, 
 and the whole precipitated together. The alkaline 
 substances mainly employed for this purpose are 
 caustic soda or caustic potash. The greater the quantity 
 of these used, the redder will be the tone of the orange 
 chrome yellow. 
 
 In an analysis of orange chrome yellow there will be 
 found, besides chromate of lead, either lime, soda, or 
 potash, according to which of those substances was used 
 before the striking of the precipitate. Therefore, accord- 
 ing to the quantities of the alkali, the various hues and 
 shades of orange are produced from the faintest tinge of 
 orange to those of near approach to a fiery red. There 
 can be no formula given of the proper amount to use for 
 the producing of any given shade. The manufacturers 
 hardly ever strike duplicates of any shade, but produce 
 hundreds which are not alike. They do grade and mix 
 many together which will give a fair average for the 
 standard they have adopted for the required shades of it. 
 
 Properties and Uses of Chrome Yellow 
 
 Chrome yellows of all shades and hues have about the 
 same general characteristics and properties, qualities and 
 defects. It is proper, therefore, to bunch them together, 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 77 
 
 and to review them under the general head which is the 
 common property of all. 
 
 From their composition, one may well surmise that 
 they are hardly fit to be used in distemper or water-color 
 painting owing to the liability of their chromic constituents 
 of losing their oxygen and of thus becoming changed into 
 the lower oxide of chromium, which is greenish. The lead 
 also is subject to the attacks of sulphureted-hydrogen 
 gases which turn it into a black sulphide. It must be 
 easily seen by any one that great risks are run when they 
 are used in water colors for interiors, about the only 
 place where water colors can be used. When used in oil, 
 they are protected to some extent by the linseed oil with 
 which they are mixed, but in water colors there is no 
 protection whatever against deleterious attacks. - 
 
 In oil, however, there are but few colors which the 
 painter or decorator could find more useful than the 
 chrome yellows. While not absolutely unfading when 
 mixed with oil or varnish, in those vehicles the color 
 remains a reasonably long time before changing to such 
 a degree as to be disagreeably noticeable. 
 
 The range of tints obtainable from them covers the 
 whole field of yellows and red yellows, which are easily 
 made and at a very moderate cost. 
 
 There is one thing that is sure : There is nothing in the 
 whole field of pigment that would replace them, let them 
 be good or bad. It is true that some very few tones could 
 be made from combinations of other pigments, but at a 
 greatly increased cost only, almost prohibitive for general 
 house painting, and nearly all these substitutes would be 
 much more subject to fading than the chrome yellow itself. 
 With all their defects, and it is admitted that they have 
 many, they stand high above every other pigment pro- 
 ducing the same range of color. They will continue to be 
 
 
78 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 used until something better is discovered to replace 
 them. 
 
 There are many fancily named yellow colors upon the 
 market, usually with a proprietary name. They are 
 mainly prepared for the carriage trade. Most of them 
 are chrome yellows of peculiar shades. 
 
 The fancy names sometimes mislead the uninitiated into 
 the belief that they are not chrome yellows. This belief 
 is dangerous, as it may lead one into using those yellows 
 upon work where chrome yellow should not be employed, 
 the workman thinking that they are not subject to the 
 same vicissitudes. With a knowledge of their real char- 
 acter, such mistakes need not occur. 
 
 Chrome yellows are extensively used for all kinds of 
 painting. The carriage, car, and implement trades use 
 them in enormous quantities as well as the house painter. 
 
 Decorators and artists are the ones who are the most 
 likely to have trouble with them. They are the only ones 
 who need have any misgivings regarding their use. They 
 know that even when mixed with oil, the chrome yellows 
 are not to be depended upon for use in interior work. 
 They are therefore warned to be shy of them, substituting 
 other yellows as far as they can. 
 
 BARYTA LEMON YELLOW 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 This is a distinct color from lemon chrome yellow. 
 It contains no lead in its composition, baryta being the 
 base of it. It is by far the most permanent form of that 
 color. 
 
 It is made by mixing solutions of neutral potassium 
 chromate and of barium chlorite; both solutions having 
 previously been heated to 100 C. It precipitates as all 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 79 
 
 others made by mixing solutions having an affinity for 
 each other. 
 
 Unlike the lead chromates, it does not blacken by con- 
 tact with sulphureted-hydrogen gases, that lurking 
 enemy of interiors. It may also be mixed with impunity 
 with any of the other permanent pigments. 
 
 This yellow is of great use to decorators and artists, 
 more so to them than to the general house or carriage 
 painter, because it has not so much opacity in oil as the 
 chrome yellows, on account of the transparency of its 
 base. 
 
 It possesses one of the defects which is also common 
 to the chromates of lead. It loses some of its chromic 
 oxide and becomes greenish in hue. 
 
 Adulteration in Chrome Yellows 
 
 To detect adulteration in chrome yellow is an easy 
 thing. It can be done by a very simple operation, which 
 while it is not a scientific one, and while it gives no indi- 
 cation of the nature of the adulterant, is nevertheless 
 very effective. By its use, any one can readily deter- 
 mine for himself whether a given sample of chrome yellow 
 is pure or not. This, after all, is all that either a painter 
 or a dealer cares to know about a color anyway. The 
 test gives approximately the percentage of adulterant 
 contained in the color under examination. Its lameness 
 is that the nature of the adulterant is not revealed. That 
 requires a chemical analysis. As this test is applicable 
 to many other pigments, especially to all made from chem- 
 icals and which possess a recognized standard of purity 
 and composition, and as it is also, in part at least, appli- 
 cable to many of the earth colors in so far as it will fre- 
 quently help one in determining the value of these, the 
 manner of making this test is minutely described, so that 
 
80 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 hereafter, when there may be occasions for reference to be 
 made to it, the reader can turn back to the explanation 
 given here, should he require to have his memory 
 freshened up as to the "modus operandi" of making the test. 
 
 The Scale Test for Adulterants in Colors 
 
 As a detector for adulteration in colors, the test which 
 is about to be described is applicable in full only to those 
 manufactured in color works from well-known formulas, 
 and which, if pure, should contain a known amount of 
 coloring matter. That is what gives them their com- 
 mercial value. This test only becomes a side issue with 
 colors whose chief value consists in their fine 
 tone and their brilliancy, as with most of the earth 
 colors. Even with these, the test will serve to deter- 
 mine which is the more valuable between two 
 samples of equal tone and brilliancy in determining 
 that containing the greatest quantity of coloring 
 matter. 
 
 Every one interested in colors, be he dealer or painter, 
 should possess a pair of fine scales for testing. These 
 should be very sensitive ones, very accurate, and able to 
 weigh with precision as small a portion as a quarter of a 
 grain, or at least a centigram. Such scales need not 
 necessarily be expensive. The knocked-down army 
 surgeon pocket scale is good enough, if one does not care 
 for style. That has a little flat box with a drawer 
 fitting inside. This box serves as a pedestal, and the 
 drawer as a receptacle into which is packed away the 
 standard that screws into the pedestal and across which 
 the arm of the scale is pivoted and supports the two 
 platters, pans, or balances which receive the substances 
 to be weighed. They can be put up and taken apart 
 in two minutes, and will answer every purpose. 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 81 
 
 The testing in substance is done in the following man- 
 ner. Two samples of a given color are procured one of 
 which is of known purity, to serve as the standard in 
 judging the others. A very good plan is to take tubes 
 of, say, Windsor and Newton's artists' colors, or any other 
 make whose purity is as well established. The above 
 firm's make is named because they are universally known 
 and acknowledged as standard in both quality and purity. 
 A sample tube of all the principal colors should be found 
 upon the shelf of every paint shop and of every paint 
 dealer. The cost is very moderate. 
 
 It stands to reason, that if a person should take, say, 
 one pound of color ground in oil, and add thereto twenty- 
 five or fifty pounds of white lead, and that after triturat- 
 ing them properly they will make a tint that should be 
 equal in strength or depth of tone and in its quality to 
 any other sample or samples tested with it if those sam- 
 ples have been weighed out and treated in exactly the 
 same way, they will do so if they are pure and unadul- 
 terated. If, on the other hand, some of the samples do 
 not give as deep a tint as the standard color, it follows 
 necessarily that there must be deficiency in coloring 
 matter. 
 
 It is impossible to determine to a fraction the amount 
 of adulteration contained in the weaker pigment, but one 
 can make a very close guess of it in this way : 
 
 Add enough white lead to the sample which is the 
 strongest in coloring matter so that its tint will be 
 reduced to the same shade as that of the weakest; then 
 reweigh and note the variation. Thus, if one pound of 
 a certain pigment tints twenty-five pounds of white lead 
 to a given shade, and in the other, the one pound of the 
 same color has been able to tint thirty-seven and a half 
 pounds of the white lead to the same shade as the other 
 
82 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 has then the first must have been adulterated with 
 50 per cent of something that was not coloring matter. 
 If, instead of thirty-seven and a half pounds, it had 
 been able to tint fifty pounds of white lead to that 
 same tint, then the adulterant put into the color would 
 be equal to 100 per cent. In other words, the 
 sample contains one half pound of true color and one 
 half pound of adulterating material, so that for tinting 
 purposes it is only worth one half as much as the 
 stronger one. 
 
 Some may think that the above is an extravagant 
 statement to make, even as an illustration to show how 
 the test works, but it will be found very much below 
 the truth. This is especially so in the higher-priced 
 pigments and in those possessing great strength of 
 coloring matter. 
 
 In making tests, there is no need of using any such 
 quantity of color and lead as was stated in the illustration. 
 One grain in weight is as good as one pound, or even 
 better. No weights need be used, as a bit of coloring 
 matter the size of a pea can be put upon one of the plat- 
 ters, while another bit of color can be placed upon the 
 other, and added to or subtracted from until they balance 
 evenly. Each of the colors to be tested should be put 
 upon a little piece of paraffined paper about a square 
 inch in area. That paper will not absorb any of the color 
 or oil, which can be wiped clean off of it. For accurate 
 testing, it is better to weigh the colors separately in cen- 
 tigrams or grains. Next proceed to equal quantities of 
 white lead of same consistency, placing that also upon 
 squares of paraffined paper, but larger than recommended 
 for colors, so as to accommodate the larger bulk of the 
 lead. These are placed upon the platters and balanced 
 in the same manner as for the colors by either adding 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 83 
 
 or subtracting; or, if perfect accuracy is desired, weigh out 
 twenty-five or fifty grain packages of white lead, one 
 each for each color being tested. 
 
 Have several pieces of glass ready which have been 
 properly cleaned, and upon one of these place the first 
 sample, which should be the standard color. Add to this 
 one of the packages of white lead previously weighed out. 
 Triturate the color with the lead until the tint is uni- 
 form all through, using a palette knife for that purpose; 
 add a given number of drops of oil if needed to help the 
 mixing, then set it aside. 
 
 Proceed to treat the next sample in precisely the same 
 way, and stand that aside too. If more than two samples 
 are being tested, keep on treating each in the manner 
 described. 
 
 Now compare each sample with the tint made by the 
 standard color and note the differences. If each shows 
 about the same strength in their tints, well and good; the 
 colors are pure. If, on the other hand, one or more do not 
 come up to the tint of the standard, there is something 
 wrong with them. By adding enough white lead to the 
 standard tint to bring it down to the tint of the next 
 strongest sample being tested, and weighing each, the 
 difference between them will give the quantity of adul- 
 teration contained in the sample. 
 
 If more samples than one are being tested at the same 
 time, proceed to add more white lead to the standard 
 color; continue adding white lead to the standard to 
 bring it down to the tint of the next sample in strength, 
 weighing each time and noting the difference, and continue 
 doing so in like manner until the standard has been 
 reduced to the tint of the last or weakest in the lot. This 
 will give the relative value that each bears to that of the 
 standard used. 
 
84 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Thus if the standard color is capable of producing a 
 tint from one grain of color added to two hundred grains 
 of white lead equal to that which sample 1 does from one 
 grain of color to one hundred grains of white lead, and as 
 sample 2 does with fifty grains of lead, then if the stand- 
 ard color can be bought for twenty cents per pound, 
 sample 1 is worth, proportionately, ten cents. Sample 2 
 is only worth five cents per pound, because No. 1 contains 
 only fifty per cent of the coloring matter as compared to 
 the standard, while No. 2 carries only twenty-five per cent 
 of it. 
 
 In the testing of chrome yellows, samples of different 
 tones should never be tested together, for instance, a 
 very light lemon yellow against a very dark one, or a 
 lemon chrome against a medium or an orange chrome, or 
 vice versa. The tints made will be so much different 
 that it would be very hard if not impossible to judge the 
 results correctly when placed side by side. 
 
 This test usually brings out other valuable points, i.e., 
 the quality of the tints made from two or more given 
 samples. A medium chrome yellow may be nearly pure, 
 but it may be very poor. Therefore, if the tint obtained 
 from it is muddy, and that from the standard is bright, 
 clear, and pure-toned, it follows that the muddy sample 
 was a badly made chrome yellow, and that, notwithstanding 
 its purity, it may possibly be of less value than one which 
 has been adulterated but which is of good tone and well 
 made. This is a test of quality which is brought out inci- 
 dentally by the use of the scale test. 
 
 The testing of the quality of colors does not require 
 the scale test, however, as one can ascertain that by the 
 eye alone. All that is required is to mix some of the 
 color with white lead to' make a light tint of it. The tint 
 will speak for itself. The tone of some samples of chrome 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 85 
 
 yellow may be so poor that the quality can be determined 
 without disturbing it or even taking it out of the can. As 
 occasionally it may belie its looks, it is safer to add some 
 white lead. Then there can be no doubts left in one's 
 mind. 
 
 Color tests made in the above manner are very simple 
 and convincing ; and the painters or dealers who make a 
 start in testing the material they use or sell, hardly ever 
 quit making a regular use of it, thereby gaining an expe- 
 rience in judging of colors and their values that will be 
 very profitable to them in after life. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 t 
 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 GAMBOGE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 GAMBOGE is seldom if ever employed by the house 
 painter, but is still used by a few decorators and artists. 
 Its chief value is as a glazing color; in reality it cannot be 
 used for any other purpose; some few carriage painters who 
 do fancy colored painting use it to obtain certain effects. 
 
 Gamboge is of vegetable origin; being a gum-resin. It 
 should never be mixed with other pigments containing 
 lime or alkali in any form; they would surely darken. 
 
 It cannot be safely used as a distemper color, as it 
 fades rapidly upon exposure to the air and the sun's rays. 
 Its use even in oil is questionable, but it is fairly permanent 
 when well protected by varnish. 
 
 Its chief use to artists is in the peculiar shades of green 
 combined with indigo or Prussian blue. 
 
 The paint world is likely to keep moving on a long time 
 after it has been discarded, as its place can be advan- 
 tageously taken by Indian yellow or aureolin. 
 
 AUREOLIN, OR COBALT YELLOW 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 This is another yellow pigment which will hardly ever 
 trouble the ordinary house painter. A few decorators use 
 
 86 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 87 
 
 it sparingly. It is used principally by artists in water- 
 color work. It is transparent and rich-toned, and is 
 superior to gamboge for glazing purposes. 
 
 It is a non-drying color in oil. When prepared for use 
 in that vehicle it will prove more or less troublesome. If 
 it can ever be prepared in such a way as to make it part 
 with its water of hydration, in other words, rendered 
 anhydrous at a reasonable cost, it may then become a 
 very popular color not only among decorators but for 
 carriage and the allied trades as well as for any other 
 kind of painting. As it is now in its hydrated state, it 
 soon loses its rich tone and assumes a dirty appearance. 
 Hydrochloric and nitric acids do not seem to affect 
 it to any extent, but ammoniacum sulphide destroys 
 its color at once, and sulphureted hydrogen gases soon 
 darken it. 
 
 The future may give us the anhydrous aureolin at a 
 reasonable cost. When this is accomplished, it will be a 
 great addition to the list of yellow pigments. In that 
 form, it dries readily when mixed with a siccative oil, and 
 that is the form in which artists now use it for oil paint- 
 ing. As they use it in small quantities, it does not make 
 such a big hole in their bank account as it would were they 
 to use it in quantities as the house painter or decorator 
 would. 
 
 INDIAN YELLOW 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 This pigment is of animal derivation, but in reality it 
 is of vegetable origin obtained through animal agency; 
 it is found in their urine. In Bengal, cows are fed upon 
 mango leaves, and the urine of cows so fed becomes im- 
 pregnated with the coloring matter which forms Indian 
 yellow. 
 
88 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Church says of it: "It generally occurs in the bazars of 
 the Punjaub in the form of large balls having an offensive, 
 urinous odor." Indian yellow is an impure salt of 
 (magnesium) euxanthic acid. The essential part of it is a 
 compound containing 4.5 per cent magnesia, 18.7 per 
 cent water, 78.7 per cent euxanthic anhydride; but this 
 substance is always associated with various impurities 
 both mineral and organic, even in the most carefully 
 purified samples of prepared Indian yellow. The pure 
 magnesium euxanthate is represented by the formula 
 C 19 II 16 MgO n 5H 2 0. 
 
 " For artistic purposes the crude imported Indian 
 yellow is thoroughly powdered, and then washed with 
 boiling water until the liquid filtered from it is no longer 
 colored; a brown impurity and much of the evil smell are 
 thus removed. The color of the washed product is 
 enriched by leaving it in contact for a day or two with 
 a saturated solution of salammoniac and then repeating 
 the treatment with hot water. Thus prepared and 
 purified, the pigment presents a translucent orange yellow 
 of great depth and beauty. Ground in oil, some specimens 
 remain practically unchanged even after long exposure 
 to sunlight, any darkening which they show being due to 
 either imperfect purification or to change in the associated 
 oil. Such change is reduced to the minimum if poppy- 
 seed oil is substituted for linseed oil, or if the latter be 
 previously treated with manganese bo rate." 
 
 As a water color, Indian yellow is also very useful. It 
 is not absolutely permanent, but fairly so for a water- 
 color yellow. Its fading, being very slow and gradual, is 
 not noticed readily. 
 
 It can be mixed with any of the permanent pigments, 
 and sulphurous compounds do not affect it injuriously. 
 It is too expensive a pigment to ever become extensively 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 89 
 
 used by ordinary painters, but it deserves to be more 
 than it is by decorators, scenic painters and artists, 
 also by the carriage trade as a glazing color. It does 
 all that gamboge is expected to do for that purpose, and 
 much more in that it remains permanently. 
 
 NAPLES YELLOW 
 
 History and Chemistry 
 
 The early history of this pigment is very obscure. It 
 was first brought to notice in a commercial way by the 
 Italians, and imported from the city of Naples in Italy 
 into England, and it was named after the city of its 
 exportation by the English importers. The Italians 
 themselves know it as yellow or gialloline. It is a 
 compound of oxide of lead, antimony and zinc. Twelve 
 parts of the metallic antimony are calcined in a 
 reverbatory furnace with eight parts of red lead and 
 four parts of the zinc. These mixed oxides after being 
 well rubbed together are fused, and the mass broken into 
 a fine powder. 
 
 The hue is rich, fresh, and brilliant. There is a con- 
 siderable quantity of this yellow placed upon the market 
 that is made simply by mixing cadmium yellow or a deep 
 cadmium with the white oxide of zinc. This, while it 
 makes a good imitation of Naples yellow, is not it, for 
 all that it may look like it. 
 
 While it is only of comparatively recent date that it 
 has come back to us, the first notes of its appearance only 
 dating back to the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 it was known to the ancients for many centuries previous 
 to that time. It was used in the enameling of brick in 
 Babylon 700 years B.C., and the Persians used it also 
 in the enameling of their pottery. 
 
90 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It has been used extensively by artists, decorators, sign 
 and carriage painters, and is still used to a certain extent 
 by some of all these to-day, but not nearly to the same 
 extent as it was fifty years ago. The chrome yellows 
 have made quite an inroad upon its use, and have dis- 
 placed Naples yellow in many shops. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Naples yellow is fairly permanent, but, like all com- 
 pounds containing lead, it is blackened by sulphureted - 
 hydrogen gases. It is also darkened by contact with 
 iron, zinc, pewter, tin, and many more metals, to the 
 extent that even an iron palette knife should never be 
 used in triturating it, but a bone one should always be 
 employed for this purpose. 
 
 Naples yellow should never be used in combination 
 with certain organic pigments as cochineal, the various 
 yellow lakes, indigo, etc. Naples yellow is worthless as 
 a water color, as it is very fugitive when left unprotected 
 by the enamel formed by the drying of linseed oil or 
 varnishes. 
 
 It is gradually becoming displaced by the chrome 
 yellows and ochers, or combinations of these two, and 
 with no serious loss. The Naples yellow tone can be 
 readily imitated; and in this one instance at least the 
 imitation is superior to the original, it is more perma- 
 nent. 
 
 DUTCH PINK 
 
 Character and Preparation 
 
 Dutch pink has many synonyms, i.e., yellow lake, 
 Italian lake, quercitron lake, brown lake, yellow 
 madder, and a host of others under which it is known in 
 various sections, especially in England, where it is 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 91 
 
 unknown under the American cognomen of Dutch pink. 
 As under this name only is this pigment listed in pigment 
 catalogues in the United States, and as this is recognized 
 by all color makers in their price lists, the name is used 
 here in preference to any of the synonyms. Why 
 it should be called a pink (?) when it is not a pink, 
 but a yellow, is one of the conundrums that must 
 be passed around to some one else for a satisfactory 
 explanation. 
 
 Dutch pink is of vegetable origin, and it can be and has 
 been prepared from various sources, but it is now chiefly 
 derived from quercitron, a product extracted from oak 
 bark. Our black and red oaks contain the greatest per- 
 centage of it, although it can be obtained from the bark 
 of white oak also. 
 
 A decoction of the bark is made by boiling, and the 
 quercitron is precipitated by pouring into it while hot 
 a solution of alum and dilute ammonia. 
 
 A richer-toned pigment is produced by using dilute 
 boiling sulphuric acid instead of water in extracting it 
 either from the ground bark or alburnum. 
 
 In former days much of the Dutch pink was obtained 
 from various species of buckthorn and of the Rhamus 
 family of shrubs. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It is possible that the variety of names under which 
 Dutch pink is known may have been given to the various 
 extracts at some time or other to note some slight varia- 
 tion of tone in them. This is more than doubtful, as it 
 is next to impossible to ever find any two lots of it that 
 are just alike in this respect. It is useless to keep up a 
 confusing nomenclature, and all lakes of the same extrac- 
 tion should be classed together and known by one name 
 
92 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 only. When an Englishman calls for any of the above- 
 named lakes, the dealer will be perfectly safe in giving 
 him Dutch pink instead of them. 
 
 Dutch pink has but little permanency when used in 
 distemper for wall coloring, and yet, strange to say, that 
 is the purpose for which it is mostly used. Why that is 
 so is one of the unsolvable mysteries. 
 
 Its use in the United States is confined to a few sec- 
 tions where the traditions of its usage have been handed 
 down and inherited without the worth of the legacy 
 having been investigated. 
 
 In oil it is a bad drier, and while it is more permanent 
 in that vehicle than in distemper, because of the pre- 
 serving influence exerted upon it by the linseed oil, it 
 is insufficiently so, and there is no need of one taking 
 unnecessary risks by using it. As a glazing color it is 
 all right while it lasts, and it is used for that purpose in 
 some carriage shops. 
 
 CADMIUM YELLOW 
 
 Chemistry, Properties, and Uses 
 
 This pigment is chiefly useful to the artist and to the 
 decorator. When properly prepared it is fairly perma- 
 nent, but as its cost is relatively high and must ever 
 remain so, for this reason if for no other its use will never 
 become popular with the house painter. As its name 
 indicates, it is a product of the metal cadmium, a near 
 relative of zinc. It is a sulphide of cadmium. The pro- 
 cess required for its manufacture and preparation is 
 too intricate and too lengthy to relate in a treatise 
 of this kind, however instructive it might be. Its use 
 is too limited to warrant giving it the necessary space. 
 It runs from a yellow with a slight orange streak in it to 
 
YELLOW PIGMENTS 93 
 
 all the intervening shades from the lightest to the 
 deepest orange. 
 
 It possesses some very good traits. One is that of 
 preventing the injurious action of sulphureted-hydrogen 
 gases upon white lead when it is mixed with that. 
 
 On the contrary, again, such colors as Paris green are 
 ruined by contact with it, and so are all others which are 
 incompatible with a sulphide. 
 
 The cadmium yellows work well in either oil or dis- 
 temper, and make beautiful tints with white lead. Some 
 of these shades resemble true Naples yellow, and as they 
 are more permanent, they are often substituted for it. 
 When cadmium yellow is used in oil, this should be made 
 siccative by the addition of driers. 
 
 It is, therefore, chiefly used by decorators for interior 
 work. This is more liable to attacks of sulphureted- 
 hydrogen gases than outside painting, and as the chrome 
 yellows are badly affected by them, and therefore unsafe 
 to use, cadmium yellow's chief utility is to replace them 
 under these conditions. 
 
 KING'S YELLOW (ORPIMENT) 
 
 Chemistry and Characteristics 
 
 This pigment is the yellow arsenic sulphide, and on 
 account of its poisonous character should be discarded. 
 
 The only excuse for listing it at all is that, under its 
 heading, a note of warning might be given against its 
 use. It is listed in some of the artists' goods catalogues, 
 and some reference is made to it in some of the past 
 paint literature. 
 
 Under its best aspects it has little to recommend it, 
 and when its poisonous character is taken into account, 
 no one need have anything to do with it. At best, it is 
 
94 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 quickly destroyed by light, and while it possesses a beau- 
 tiful hue, that fades away so quickly as to render it 
 worthless. 
 
 It was used rather extensively at one time, especially 
 in the latter part of the eighteenth century and at the 
 beginning of the nineteenth. It has all disappeared from 
 the paintings of that period which have been preserved, 
 and it is but seldom used to-day even by artists. 
 
 The above ends the list of yellow pigments. It is true 
 a few others are sometimes found listed in artists' cata- 
 logues, such as Mars yellow, etc., but a close inquiry will 
 develop that they are simply ochers or compounds of 
 colors which have been described. 
 
 The endeavor should be made to keep the list of pigments 
 to the least possible number and to simplify the nomen- 
 clature by eliminating from the list all pigments of the 
 same nature sold under various names, thus creating a 
 false impression in the minds of many that they may 
 have different properties. 
 
 Many of the yellows which have received a description 
 in this treatise will be found of little benefit to the gen- 
 eral painter, but most are of use in certain special kinds 
 of work which are named. The very knowledge that 
 they are not adapted to his work is of value, as it may 
 save him money in the making of useless experiments. 
 The aim has been to give warning of all the defects as 
 freely as the giving of praise to the good qualities of each 
 when that was really deserved. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 RED PIGMENTS 
 
 VERMILION 
 
 History and Provenance 
 
 QUICKSILVER VERMILION is usually understood when the 
 word vermilion pure and simple is used alone. All others 
 have some descriptive name added to indicate their 
 character. 
 
 Quicksilver vermilion is commonly listed as English 
 Vermilion, and the name has come to have that signifi- 
 cation to the paint trade of the United States. 
 
 Vermilion is found as a natural product in the shape of 
 and under the name of cinnabar in various parts of the 
 world. It is most abundant in China, and has been found 
 and used in that country from time immemorial. In America 
 it is also found plentifully in the New Almaden mines of 
 California. In Spain, in the old Almaden; in short, 
 wherever quicksilver is mined, there it is usually found. 
 
 It is frequently obtained in masses which vary very 
 much in color, ranging from a light crimson through the 
 scarlet red range of shades to a dark slate gray. These 
 masses after having been powdered become scarlets or 
 reds of various hues. 
 
 The native vermilion or cinnabar is usually singularly 
 pure and free from foreign matter, and the impurities 
 seldom amount to as much as one per cent of its weight. 
 It is friable, readily pulverized. 
 
 95 
 
96 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Chemistry and Manufacture 
 
 Cinnabar is a native sulphuret of mercury, and it is 
 composed of 86 parts of mercury united to 14 parts of 
 sulphur. 
 
 It is most probable that it was used at very remote 
 periods in such decorations and art as then existed. 
 Theophrastus names two varieties of cinnabar as being 
 known to the Greeks. Pliny and Vitruvius also mention 
 it in their writings. 
 
 Vermilion can be made artificially by following the 
 formula nature has adopted to produce the native cinna- 
 bar. The vermilion of commerce is nearly all made 
 artificially. 
 
 The process of manufacturing it, while it may be called 
 a very simple one, becomes rather complex before the 
 end is reached. 
 
 The combination of quicksilver and sulphur is readily 
 accomplished, it is true, but the result is a black mass 
 known as Ethiops. This is the black sulphuret, and it is 
 identical in chemical composition to the red, with this 
 difference that the black is amorphous, while the red is 
 crystalline. 
 
 There are two processes of manufacturing vermilion 
 artificially : one is known as the dry, and the other as the 
 wet. 
 
 In the dry method of manufacturing it, the mercury 
 and sulphur in the proportion of 21 parts of the former to 
 4 of the latter are agitated and mixed in a revolving 
 cylinder. The resulting black ethiops is then submitted 
 to a process of sublimation in vertical cylinders, over 
 which are placed connecting receivers. Upon being 
 heated sufficiently, the sulphuret of mercury sublimes 
 as cinnabar near the retort's heads; the finer quality is 
 
RED PIGMENTS 97 
 
 found the farthest away, and the poorest the nearest, as 
 that contains a quantity of free sulphur. It is afterward 
 separated into various grades. 
 
 The vermilion is mixed with water to a stiff paste, and 
 thinned with a solution of caustic potash and nitric acid, 
 and thoroughly washed with boiling water. There are 
 other processes of manufacturing vermilion, but they 
 differ but little in their essentials from the above, and 
 therefore will not be discussed. All have the same object, 
 the conversion of the black amorphous sulphuret into 
 the red crystalline form by sublimation. Some add one 
 per cent of sulphide of antimony with a view of enhanc- 
 ing the beauty of the product. 
 
 By the wet method, the processes are much simpler, 
 and there are a number of different ones in use. The 
 simplest is that of Bucholz: Take four parts of mercury 
 and one part of sulphur, which are digested together in 
 six parts of water. Potash is added as required. The 
 longer the heat is continued, the stronger and more car- 
 mine will be the product. When the desired color has 
 been produced, the vermilion is thrown into a vessel of 
 water and washed until all the sulphuret of potash has 
 been removed. The color of vermilion is not changed 
 when moistened with nitric acid. 
 
 Carmine is sometimes added to the crimson varieties 
 of vermilion to enhance the tone. The Chinese vermilions 
 are usually of that shade. They are frequently adul- 
 terated with carmine. It can easily be detected by putting 
 a small pinch of it upon a piece of blotting paper and 
 wetting that with a few drops of strong aqua ammonia. 
 If adulterated, a crimson stain will appear upon the paper; 
 otherwise it will not be affected. 
 
 Vermilion that is prepared from the native cinnabar 
 is said to be more permanent than that which is made 
 
98 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 artificially, but one should not adopt the statement 
 implicitly. 
 
 Characteristics and Uses 
 
 When vermilion is used under proper conditions it is 
 fairly permanent, otherwise it is not. 
 
 As to the darkening of vermilion, the common complaint 
 made against it, one must bear in mind that the natural 
 form of the sulphuret of mercury is that of the black 
 ethiops or amorphous, while that of the red or crystalline 
 is a forced one. There is a constant return from the 
 crystalline to its natural amorphous condition, hence 
 comes the gradual darkening of this beautiful color when 
 left to the direct action of light and air. Even when not 
 directly exposed to the action of the elements, the gradual 
 change takes place, but in a much slower way. 
 
 Vermilion prepared by the wet process is usually more 
 crimson than that made by the dry, and this is more 
 likely to fade than the scarlet-toned ones. Another 
 peculiarity of the wet process and of all crimsoned -toned 
 vermilions is that they do not have as good a body or are 
 not so opaque as those of a scarlet tone. Another pecu- 
 liarity of vermilion is that the finer it is ground, the paler 
 it becomes and the quicker it will fade. As a water color, 
 when it is left unprotected from the influences of air and 
 light, vermilion is absolutely unreliable under such cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 In oil or varnish, it is fairly permanent ; and when the 
 painting has been done on a proper ground with the right 
 vehicles, and afterward well varnished over, it will not 
 change readily, and may be called " unfading," com- 
 paratively so at least. 
 
 Linseed oil itself, in its ordinary condition, is not a 
 good medium for it. Gold size, japan, or a good varnish 
 
RED PIGMENTS 99 
 
 are much better for that purpose. This is the principal 
 reason why the coach and car painters have nothing but 
 praise for it and are so successful in its use, while the house 
 painters, who are used to mix their colors differently, and 
 who also in all probability are not so familiar with the 
 peculiarities of that color, usually have little good to say 
 of it. The latter bring in nearly all the complaints against 
 it. 
 
 The genuine simon-pure vermilions can be safely used 
 with most pigments. It is only when they contain free 
 sulphur, as in the lower grades, that there is any danger 
 of mixing them with other pigments. 
 
 Vermilion, owing to its heavy weight or density, pre- 
 cipitates readily when mixed in liquids, therefore it is 
 best to buy it in a dry state. It is found ground in oil 
 or varnish in small cans; in reality it is not ground in 
 them, it is only mixed into a paste with the liquids. 
 This the painter can do as well for himself at the shop 
 without any waste, as he need mix only as much as he 
 wants. The grinding would destroy the color, and manu- 
 facturers or grinders are too smart to want to do that. 
 The coarser the atoms of vermilion, the richer and 
 more brilliant will be the tone. The above statement is 
 not only true of vermilion, but also applies to all colors 
 having a crystalline nature. 
 
 A crimson vermilion is usually more transparent than 
 the pale or finer ones, the crystals of the deep crimson 
 variety being coarser. To this are partly due its greater 
 transparency and brilliancy. The unbroken crystals 
 give a reflection and depth to the finish which is remark- 
 ably beautiful. It is not so fine nor as opaque as the 
 pale vermilion, but richer toned. But it is not so deficient 
 or transparent but that, over a proper ground, it will 
 cover well in one coat. 
 
100 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 The pale varieties, being finer and more opaque, are the 
 ones commonly used for lining or striping, and the only 
 red that can be used to make a solid-looking stripe in one 
 coat over black. 
 
 IMITATION OR VERMILION REDS 
 
 Manufacture and Preparation 
 
 The vermilion reds, as the imitation vermilions are 
 now called, are fast encroaching upon the domain of the 
 genuine or English vermilion, as quicksilver vermilion 
 is usually known in the United States. It is really won- 
 derful to note how much progress and how many improve- 
 ments have been made in the manufacture of these reds 
 within the past fifteen years. All but the opacity of the 
 genuine pale vermilion has been attained in them and 
 reproduced in the imitation. In some respects, as in per- 
 manency, some of these are even superior to the genuine. 
 
 This progress is mainly due to the discoveries in the 
 making of alizarin and other high-grade coal-tar prod- 
 ucts. Some were formerly obtained from madder root 
 at great cost; and later the introduction of the para- 
 diazo reds has completely changed the output in that 
 class of goods. 
 
 A short review will be made of the different grades of 
 vermilion reds. 
 
 Every color manufacturer has his own peculiar way 
 of handling or preparing vermilion reds, the usefulness of 
 which he claims to be "just a little bit" ahead of 
 that of his competitors, and to protect which he gives 
 to his products a proprietary name. 
 
 The multitude of names for these reds has been the 
 cause of no end of worry to painters and paint men who 
 are not familiar with them. There can be but little doubt 
 
RED PIGMENTS 101 
 
 that in the recent past, when every thing in the manu- 
 facture of vermilion reds was new and really in an ex- 
 perimental stage, there was considerable difference in the 
 output of the different manufacturers of these reds. Some 
 seemed to have the coloring matter much better fixed 
 than others; but the field of search has been an open one 
 to all, and what with the aid of chemistry and of "catch- 
 ing on" combined, the competing ones have not been 
 slow to note any improvement in the other fellow's output 
 nor in getting acquainted with it in some way or another. 
 To-day the man who has not been able to keep up his end 
 with those in front, has had to abandon the field or 
 content himself with the making of inferior goods only, 
 and he is known to the trade. 
 
 The result of this competition is that now one can 
 safely say that all prominent color makers make good 
 goods. All make certain lines of low-grade goods, as 
 some trades want them. These are usually colored with 
 a cheap aniline color thrown upon a cheap base. But as 
 long as there are large buyers who are not willing to pay 
 more for a vermilion red than for what a good ocher sells 
 at, they will be catered to. These cheap reds also serve 
 as a type to compare the crude efforts of the beginning 
 with what has now been achieved. They fairly represent 
 the first attempts to make imitation vermilion some 
 thirty years ago. 
 
 The vermilion reds are all made upon a base which is 
 dyed with a coloring agent. The coloring agent is good 
 or poor, an expensive or a cheap coloring coal-tar dye 
 which may be worth 25 cents or $5 per pound. In this 
 as well as in every other instance, the better dye costs, 
 the most money. 
 
 White lead is the usual base taken to make the crimson 
 varieties of vermilion reds, as it absorbs a much larger 
 
102 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 proportion of the dye stuff than does orange mineral 
 the base which is mostly used for the scarlet varieties. 
 
 The two above-named bases are used for the best 
 grades of vermilion reds only, and intended for vermilions 
 which are to be brushed out or painted over by hand upon 
 the work. But there are many other bases used, to 
 lessen the cost and for other and legitimate purposes; 
 for instance, as where the reds are to be used for dipping. 
 
 Such heavy-bodied bases as white lead or orange min- 
 eral would be entirely unsuited for such a purpose. Their 
 heavy weight would soon precipitate them down to the 
 bottom of the dipping tanks. For this purpose the 
 lightest-weight base that it is possible to find is the one 
 which answers the purpose best of any, and will remain 
 in suspension in the thinning liquid a much longer time 
 than the heavier bases without settling down to the 
 bottom. 
 
 Whatever the base may be, or the character of the 
 coloring agents used for their dyeing, the process of 
 making the vermilion reds is a simple one. There can 
 be but little difference in the manner of the handling of 
 the Various manufactures. The claims of superiority, 
 etc., made by some on the strength of these, must be 
 looked upon with suspicion. The superiority rests alto- 
 gether upon the quality of the dye, and of course proper 
 regard to fixing it. 
 
 The base and coloring dye is agitated in large vats and 
 allowed to settle, and after the supernatant liquid has 
 been withdrawn, the pulp color is placed upon filtering 
 cloth and covered with the same. It is then put in the 
 filters, where the liquid is pressed as dry as possible. The 
 flat cakes are then taken to the dry-house and dried out 
 bone hard, after which they are pulverized and are ready 
 for market. 
 
RED PIGMENTS 103 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 For distemper painting, the cheaper vermilion reds 
 are of little value. The coloring matter fades rapidly 
 away when exposed to sunlight, as it is unprotected 
 by varnish. The good reds stand much better, 
 but they will darken and become dingy, losing the 
 charming rich tone which they possess in varnish. 
 The cheap kinds usually bleach white if made on 
 a white base; even those made on an orange mineral 
 base will become of a light pink, eventually changing 
 to white. It is therefore unadvisable to use such in 
 distemper. 
 
 The vermilion reds which are designated as permanent 
 reds and sold by manufacturers, are usually so to a good 
 degree, and are really more so than English vermilion, 
 especially the crimson-toned ones if they are used under 
 varnish, and the varnish coating is renewed as it decays 
 away. This is especially true of the Para red. 
 
 Coach and implement manufacturers use enormous 
 quantities of those reds. Every country repair shop 
 keeps some in stock. Japanning works use them and 
 they may be said to have displaced the genuine vermilion 
 or nearly so. 
 
 For striping purposes they have so far been unable to 
 replace the pale English, as they do not possess the same 
 degree of opacity. In this one instance, the genuine is 
 likely to hold its own. 
 
 Ammoniacal vapors are injurious to these reds, and they 
 should never be used where they are likely to be exposed 
 to their influence. Nor should they be used for the mak- 
 ing of tints. They are injuriously acted upon by most 
 pigments they come in contact with. They should 
 be used alone, just as they are. 
 
104 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 They are usually ground fine enough for use, ready 
 for the thinner or vehicle that is to serve for their 
 application. 
 
 They are also found in the supply stores ground up in 
 oil or in japan. Some manufacturers do not sell their 
 highest grades of Para reds in any other form, claiming 
 that they fear a misuse of the dry pigment which 
 would hurt the reputation of the goods; there may be 
 something in this claim, but it looks fishy. 
 
 AMERICAN VERMILION 
 
 Character and Uses 
 
 So-called " American " vermilion is not an American- 
 made quicksilver vermilion, as the name would indicate. 
 It is not even an imitation of it, and for that reason it is 
 not classed with the vermilion reds or imitation ver- 
 milions, nor described under that heading. 
 
 It is a dark chromate of lead, of a very deep orange in 
 tone. It is crystalline in the form of its atoms, and 
 to this is due its brilliancy. It should not be ground, as 
 grinding crushes its crystals and destroys its beauty in a 
 great degree. 
 
 Previous to the introduction of the vermilion reds, it 
 was much more extensively used than it is now by the 
 implement-manufacturing interests, but to-day on account 
 of its duller color which may be called a brown orange 
 red alongside of the vermilion reds, whose clear scarlet 
 it lacks it is very seldom used by them, as these have 
 entirely supplanted it. 
 
 American vermilion is fairly permanent. Instead of 
 fading, it becomes a darker brown in time. Under the 
 exposure to sulphureted-hydrogen gases it turns black, 
 like most all lead products. 
 
RED PIGMENTS 105 
 
 It is still used by a very few wagon and implement 
 manufacturers in combination with red lead, either as a 
 sort of a trademark to distinguish it from others, or in 
 mixtures with vermilion reds, as it is thought by some 
 to prevent the bleaching out of the cheap reds. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 RED PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 * /ry 
 
 VENETIAN REDS 
 
 History and Manufacture 
 
 As the name of this pigment indicates, at some remote 
 time the Venetians must have introduced it to the world. 
 It is, or rather was, a natural earth, and red earths vary- 
 ing greatly in tone are found in all parts of the world. In 
 Europe, but especially in Italy and near the city of 
 Venice to which it owes its name, it is plentiful. Similar 
 reds have been in use from times immemorial in the 
 decoration of many objects by the ancient civilizations 
 whose long-hidden remains of art have been brought to 
 light in the recent past. 
 
 All these natural earths of a red tone owe their coloring 
 matter to ferric oxide, and therefore vary greatly in tone, 
 in the quality and in the percentage of ferric oxide con- 
 tained in them. This is to be expected, and it could not 
 be otherwise. The base or earth upon which the ferric 
 oxide has become associated varies with each bed from 
 which it is taken. Therefore there is not and cannot be 
 any standard whereby to judge the value or purity of 
 these reds. 
 
 The above does not apply to what is now known as 
 Venetian red, which is made artificially. These arti- 
 ficial reds can be depended upon, not only as to the 
 coloring and its uniformity, but also in the quantity 
 
 100 
 
RED PIGMENTS 107 
 
 contained in a given weight. The late William C. Wilson, 
 whose name has been mentioned elsewhere, describes its 
 manufacture minutely in an essay published in Painting 
 and Decorating a few years ago. The essay is too long 
 for reproduction in full for the purposes of this treatise, 
 but the main features of it are contained in the following 
 description: "Venetian red, like ocher, owes its coloring to 
 oxide of iron-. Oxide of iron does more for color than any 
 mineral. "Venetian red is made in various ways. If 
 copperas be placed in retorts and subjected to a high 
 temperature, fuming sulphuric acid will distill over and 
 a red material will remain. This red residue when reduced 
 to a fine powder by powdering and levigation, becomes 
 colcothar, crocus or rouge, and is a pure oxide of iron. It 
 is mixed with gypsum in varying proportions as desired, 
 or up to a fixed standard established for certain brands. 
 The so-called English Venetian reds are of this character. 
 The standard adopted for a first-class article of Venetian 
 red is about five parts of gypsum to one part of the crocus. 
 Gypsum is sulphate of lime, and experience has proven 
 that it is one of the best bases for colors, and that Venetian 
 reds made from it and crocus are good paints. The 
 Venetian reds are coarse and require considerable labor 
 to bring them to perfection. On this account, it has been 
 customary to consider Venetian red when ground in oil 
 as a coarsely ground color. Finer grades of red are pre- 
 pared that are not only finely ground, but are made with 
 a smaller percentage of gypsum, and then they are known 
 as super Venetian reds or Turkey reds. 
 
 "Gypsum is not alone used as a base for the crocus; 
 barytes and whiting are frequently used for the purpose. 
 The great weight of barytes and its little power to absorb 
 and combine with oil renders it a very undesirable base, 
 the red so made having none of the durability of the 
 
108 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 gypsum red. To the paint grinder, it saves a large per- 
 centage of linseed oil in grinding, and that is the costliest 
 part of it. 
 
 "A gypsum red requires from 25 to 30 pounds of oil to 
 every hundredweight of the color to grind it a barytes 
 red requires only 12 to 15 pounds for the same quantity. 
 
 "But this is not all the saving to the grinder, for the 
 mills will grind nearly twice as much of the barytes reds 
 as they will of the gypsum reds in the same number of 
 hours, and the former will look smoother than the last, 
 and require smaller packages to hold it in. 
 
 "Whiting makes a better base than barytes, but it is 
 still inferior to gypsum, its chief attraction to the 
 grinder being the smooth-looking paint it makes. 
 
 "All reds made by copperas are deep in tone. Certain 
 ocherous earths are found which on "furnacing" or cal- 
 cinating will give bright reds, and some of these give very 
 light shades." 
 
 The terms American Venetian reds and English Vene- 
 tian reds mean very little to-day other than as designa- 
 tions for the low and high qualities of that pigment. 
 The better or higher qualities are sold under the name 
 of "English" Venetian red, and the poorer qualities under 
 the name of "American." 
 
 As good qualities of Venetian reds are made in America 
 to-day as any that are produced in England, and impor- 
 tations of this pigment from that country are very much 
 reduced. The good grades of the reds made in the United 
 States are branded and sold as English Venetian reds. 
 The name signifies quality only, and ours of the same 
 excellence are as much entitled to it as the imported. 
 
 Large manufacturing plants exist and have been in 
 operation for years in Philadelphia, Pa., Worcester, 
 Mass., and on a smaller scale in other localities. 
 
RED PIGMENTS 109 
 
 The so-called American Venetian reds are principally 
 barytes and crocus mixtures, or a calcined ocher of poor 
 quality and but one degree removed from a Spanish 
 brown, much of which is prepared arid marketed from 
 Baltimore, St. Louis, etc. 
 
 Many more pages could be added to the above in 
 describing the processes used in the manufacture of the 
 higher grades of Venetian reds, but they are too intricate 
 and lengthy to be of interest to the general reader, and 
 would be of value only to the color maker. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It is enough to say that Venetian reds made upon a 
 gypsum base will prove much more satisfactory for the 
 painter's purposes than the others. Gypsum seems to 
 have the property of holding up the color and keeping 
 it from fading, or rather of keeping it from darkening, as 
 is natural for the crocus or oxide of iron. 
 
 It has been seen that Venetian red is an artificial color, 
 and that therefore it must contain, and in fact does con- 
 tain, varying quantities of ferric oxide. So one must be 
 prepared to allow considerable latitude for variations in 
 this regard. A good sample should not contain less than 
 20 per cent in its composition. Again, the mere reading 
 of an analysis would throw but little light on quality, as 
 some of the poorest of the natural calcined earths which 
 are sold as American Venetian would show up a very 
 much higher percentage of it than the best of the gypsum- 
 base made ones usually do. Some of these cheap cal- 
 cined earth reds show from 25 to 65 per cent of ferric 
 oxide in their composition such as it is. Most of 
 these are only fit for the mortar heap as colors, and the 
 difference in cost is so slight that they should never be 
 used as pigments for painting when the better qualities 
 
110 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 can be had even if it were at a much greater difference 
 in cost than that which really exists. 
 
 Venetian reds made upon a gypsum base are reliable, 
 and practically unchangeable by exposure to light and 
 air. They darken a trifle, but that is caused chiefly by 
 the darkening of the linseed oil by age. There is a cause 
 for this belonging to the pigment itself, and that is the 
 absorption of a small percentage of hydrogen from the 
 atmosphere, and of a partial hydration of the oxide con- 
 verting it into hydrate-ferric oxide. This is very slight 
 and hardly worth reckoning in the gypsum-based reds. 
 
 Venetian red, either the natural or the artificial, may 
 be mixed with other pigments with perfect safety, and 
 it is invaluable for mixing with white lead for the com- 
 pounding of many tints. 
 
 It can be used for any kind of painting in oil or dis- 
 temper. The better grades contain an excellent body 
 or opacity, and usually will cover solidly over any other 
 color on which they may be applied in one coat. 
 
 It is used as a ground coat somewhat lightened up with 
 white pigment, for the more expensive reds in coach or 
 carriage work, for the reds used in painting agricultural 
 implements and machinery of all kinds. It is one of the 
 few colors that cannot be spared, and if lost (which it 
 is not likely to be) could be replaced by no other red 
 pigments. 
 
 INDIAN REDS 
 
 Production and Preparation for Use 
 
 This most excellent pigment has been known from the 
 earliest ages under various names, usually derived from 
 the countries from which it was formerly produced, as 
 Indian red from India, Persian red from Persia, and so 
 on. By far the greatest quantity of it that found its 
 
RED PIGMENTS 111 
 
 way into England, and from thence was exported to 
 America, was shipped from Bengal. Hence its name of 
 Indian red, by which it is best known in both countries. 
 
 It is a very rich hematite iron ore. Its coloring matter is 
 peroxide of iron. It is an anomalous red of a -purple-russet 
 hue, and highly valued when of good quality for its lakey 
 tones in making tints by compounding with a white base. 
 
 It is a coarse powder in its native state; full of hard 
 and extremely brittle particles of dark appearance and 
 sometimes magnetic. It is greatly improved by grinding 
 and washing. Its chemical composition is such that it 
 has a tendency to deepen. It is most permanent; neither 
 light nor impure air, mixing it with other pigments, time 
 nor fire, seem to cause it to change in any way. 
 
 Being very opaque, it covers remarkably well. The 
 tones of Indian reds vary greatly in their hues; that 
 which is rosy being considered the best, as affording the 
 purest-toned tints. 
 
 As long as Indian reds were imported and consisted of 
 iron ores, and until such recent times as the eighties, there 
 was and could be no recognized standard of purity for it. 
 Containing great strength of coloring matter, it was the 
 usual thing to adulterate it with from 50 to 75 per cent of 
 makeweight foreign matter, and still it remained strong 
 enough to disarm the suspicions of the painters of that 
 period. Now, however, it is different. No Indian red 
 can be recognized as pure that does not show upon analy- 
 sis at least 95 per cent of peroxide of iron, and frequently 
 some are found to analyze 97 and 98 per cent pure. The 
 reason for this great purity is that to-day most of it is 
 made artificially, as pigments having iron as a coloring 
 agent are nearly all so made. It is thus possible to main- 
 tain a specific standard of purity in the processes of their 
 manufacture. 
 
112 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is made in a similar manner to that related of the 
 manufacture of crocus used in the production of Venetian 
 red, with this difference, that instead of sulphate of iron 
 being the source of supply, iron pyrites replaces it. 
 The processes vary to some extent from that also ; 
 these are too complicated for description here, but may 
 be inferred. The sulphuric acid is driven from the pyrites, 
 and the residue forms the base of the Indian red. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 A peculiarity belonging to all iron pigments, and also 
 common to Venetian red, is that the lighter the tone, the 
 stronger it will prove in coloring matter; thus the darkest 
 shades of them are the weakest in this respect. Hence 
 the rosiest of the Indian reds are the strongest. 
 
 Indian reds are selected and graded according to their 
 shade, and it is usual for color grinders to put them up in 
 three different shades the pale, or rose toned ; the medium 
 or the one between that and the dark which makes the 
 violet shades. The pale produces the rosy tints, and the 
 dark the lilac-toned ones. Indian reds are chiefly useful 
 for the making of a wide range of beautiful tints associated 
 with a white base. It is also used as a self color, but in a 
 very limited way. 
 
 It is employed by all classes of painters, decorators, 
 and artists for painting in oil, in japan, or in distemper, 
 and with universal satisfaction. 
 
 TUSCAN RED 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 Tuscan red is a compound color; properly it is an 
 enriched Indian red. All that has been said of Indian red, 
 applies to it in a great degree, as that pigment is the 
 
RED PIGMENTS 113 
 
 base. The enrichment is due to the use of a lake to dye 
 the Indian-red base and give it the beautifully subdued 
 crimson tones. 
 
 As usually the Indian red is entirely too strong, its 
 strength is reduced by combining it with barytes, whiting, 
 or gypsum. The combining is done in a tank by the 
 addition of water with trituration. While still in a 
 diluted state, the lakes are added to the mixture. The 
 color is allowed to deposit, when the supernatant water is 
 withdrawn, the pulp color pressed out, dried and pul- 
 verized, packaged, and sold as Tuscan red. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It stands to reason that the better the lake used in 
 dyeing the Tuscan red, the better that will be in quality. 
 If the red has been colored up with the cheaper and 
 inferior aniline dyes, as in making the qualities of Tuscan, 
 it will fade away upon little provocation, and prove as 
 fleeting as rose pink and as prompt in disappearance. 
 
 Again, in the best grades of Tuscan reds the enriching 
 lake is practically permanent, or the manufacturers could 
 never guarantee them to stand 350 F. of heat before 
 any sign of changes taking place in any way. Tuscan reds 
 made thus are therefore very permanent, and are ex- 
 tensively used for the painting of passenger cars, one 
 of the most rigorous tests for any color; they are also used 
 with good results in the painting of steam pipes, radiators, 
 etc., another very hard test of the permanency of a color; 
 probably Tuscan red is more extensively used for such 
 painting than any other color. The quality test is the 
 all-important one for this pigment. The test for mere 
 strength of the amount of coloring matter contained 
 amounts to nothing, Tuscan reds being never used for 
 the making of tints. In this regard they are very inferior 
 
114 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 to the Indian reds. They are used exclusively for solid 
 self-painting, and for this purpose are very much better 
 adapted than are the Indian reds, because they possess 
 far richer tones. 
 
 It is really difficult to test Tuscan reds. The staying 
 quality of tone is what counts with them, and that is not 
 easily determined on the spot time only can do that. 
 Some of the very poorest ones will show up bright and rich 
 when first taken out of a can. This is where confidence 
 in the name of the manufacturers will have to decide 
 which of two samples one shall buy. If they have an 
 established reputation made for their Tuscan red, let that 
 guide. When so found, better be slow in changing to 
 another that is unknown. 
 
 It is used by many manufacturers of machinery and 
 implements, and when it is properly striped with a light 
 orange it presents a fine effect. The machinery looks 
 rich but not gaudy, and it is a relief from the overdone 
 scarlet that it is customary to use for such painting. 
 
 RED OXIDE OF IRON 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Within the past twenty-five years, the red oxide of iron 
 has been so listed by many color grinders. It is a power- 
 ful red and to be had in many shades. The scarlet shade 
 is the most preferred. These scarlet oxides are the 
 brightest and strongest known. They should be pure, 
 and this the scale test will reveal at once. When used 
 in oil, it should be thinned to the last degree, as it is so 
 strong that the color will not show at best advantage 
 unless it is so thinned. 
 
 It is chiefly valuable for the making of tints with white 
 bases where the least quantity of color is wanted to pro- 
 
RED PIGMENTS 115 
 
 duce the desired effect. It is so very strong that one 
 pound of it will turn a ton of white lead to a decided 
 flesh tint. In other respects, it is of the same character 
 of red as the Venetian red, and it is questionable if it will 
 ever be able to take the place of that red even for the 
 making of tints, because the base (gypsum) in a good 
 Venetian red acts as a preservative to the white lead, and 
 in a small measure helps to retard chalking. This is 
 also partly due to the greater quantity of linseed oil which 
 a tint so prepared will contain. 
 
 Scarlet oxide of iron, notwithstanding that it is abso- 
 lutely pure, has never become popular among the painters. 
 It is now nearly twenty-five years since it was first offered 
 for sale in a regular way, but its growth into favor is so 
 slow that some grinders who listed it a few years ago 
 have abandoned it. At best it is a curiosity. Should 
 it ever grow into favor, it would soon be placed on sale 
 again, as it is as easily procurable as the crocus of the 
 Venetian red. The trouble is that it does not fill a 
 " long-felt want," and that it is only a stronger edition of 
 Venetian red, and that is of questionable value. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 RED PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 RED LEAD 
 
 History and Chemistry 
 
 THIS pigment was known to the ancients, and is of great 
 antiquity. It was known and used in the enameling of 
 pottery, brick, and terra-cotta by the Greeks and Romans, 
 and was used also by them in their decorative paintings. 
 It was formerly known under the name of minium, and is 
 still known under that name in many parts of the world. 
 It is the product of the oxidation of massicot, but it is 
 also obtained by the calcination and oxidation of white 
 lead. It is a double oxide of lead, massicot or litharge 
 being the monoxide of it. Its chemical formula is Pb 4 O 5 . 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Red lead has the property of saponifying linseed oil to 
 the extent of about one third of the quantity necessary to 
 thin it for application with the brush. It is a very good 
 and strong drier of linseed oil, and for that reason, joined 
 to that of the saponification of it, it cannot be ground to a 
 paste form with linseed oil as most other pigments can 
 be, as it will solidify into a hard mass in a short time. 
 Owing to this peculiarity, which is a common property of 
 all the other oxides of lead, it is usual to buy it in a dry, 
 powdered state. 
 
 Red lead is a most excellent paint for use over iron as a 
 primer next to the bare metal. It is also a most excellent 
 
 116 
 
RED PIGMENTS 117 
 
 primer for other metals, and it is becoming more important 
 every year now that so much structural iron and steel are 
 being used in the construction of buildings in all our 
 large cities. Engineers and architects are unanimous in 
 recommending it as a first or priming coat over iron, and 
 many specify it to be applied at the rolling mills. It is 
 the best primer that can be used for such a purpose. 
 
 Formerly it was extensively used in wagon painting for 
 the running gears, and some factories still use it in that 
 way. It seems to adhere with such tenacity on the wheels 
 that it is not easily scratched or marred. The felloes of 
 wheels painted with other materials soon show. 
 
 Like all lead pigments it is easily affected by sulphur- 
 eted-hydrogen gases, and it will turn black when exposed 
 to them. When exposed to the direct action of the sun's 
 rays it has a tendency to bleach. This is no doubt due 
 to the loss of some of its oxygen and to a return towards 
 a monoxide state, the normal condition of the lead oxides. 
 
 As to its wearing qualities, there is nothing in the line 
 of pigments that equals it. It becomes nearly as hard as 
 a coat of metallic lead itself some say harder. As has 
 been said, a wagon's running gear painted with it will 
 stand knocks, friction, and anything in reason without the 
 paint coming off, while any other red would come off to the 
 bare wood. 
 
 At the several navy yards of the United States, but 
 especially at Norfolk, Va., the authorities have come to the 
 conclusion that there is nothing to equal it for the priming 
 of iron, and they specify its use for that purpose in ship 
 construction. Again, when at the end of a cruise ships 
 come in for a general overhauling in the dry docks, and 
 after the old paint has been burned off, they are invariably 
 treated to a coat of red lead as a foundation for whatever 
 may be wanted to go on top of that. 
 
118 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 On account of its heavy weight, it is never used in dis- 
 temper; and from its tendency to blacken under the action 
 of sulphurous fumes and to lighten under strong sunlight, 
 it is never used for that kind of work. 
 
 Its chief and best use is when associated with linseed 
 oil for the purposes already indicated. 
 
 Many of the white lead corroders also make red lead. 
 This they put up in wooden kegs of same weights as those 
 of white lead, viz., 12J's, 25's, 50's, 100's, 200's, and 250's 
 being the usual quantities. It is usually pure when the 
 label says "Strictly Pure/' and is accompanied by the 
 name of the corroding firm. There is some difference in 
 the qualities of it, some being more crystalline than others, 
 and therefore richer in tone. It therefore requires some 
 little knowledge of brands to be able to buy the best 
 without seeing them first. For the priming of structural 
 iron, this does not make any material difference; but if 
 the lead is to be the finishing coat, as in wagon-gear paint- 
 ing, then that is another story. 
 
 The above ends the list of useful red pigments 
 employed in general painting; the remainder are mainly 
 compound pigments and the lakes, which are seldom 
 handled in general painting excepting in tinting or color- 
 ing walls and for decorative purposes. The car and 
 carriage painters, however, use some of these extensively. 
 The japanning works also use them, and some are used 
 for enameling pottery and colored brick. 
 
 LAKES. 
 
 General Remarks Concerning Them 
 
 Under the generic name of lakes, a class of pigments 
 is placed upon the market which differs in one respect 
 from all the others. As a rule they are transparent, and 
 
RED PIGMENTS 119 
 
 are never used alone as a covering coat in oil painting. 
 When used in oil or varnish, it is over some other coat 
 of color which sometimes is similar in tone to that of 
 their own, but which has made a solid covering, and they 
 are used in that case for enriching it. Or if placed over 
 a color which is dissimilar in tone to their own one 
 that will show through their own coating, which permits 
 certain effects to be thus produced which would not have 
 been possible otherwise. This is called glazing, in the 
 parlance of the craft. That is their chief use in oil or 
 varnish. Some also make beautiful tints with white lead 
 or zinc white bases, especially the latter, and that with 
 any of the vehicles. 
 
 Lakes are extensively used by the wall-paper manu- 
 facturers, and in distemper by all classes of decorators 
 and artists. The car and carriage trades also use them 
 largely, and artists would hardly know how to get along 
 without them. 
 
 Lakes are invariably made by the use of a dyeing 
 agent upon a base that it is calculated will best hold it. 
 For this purpose, many substances and combinations of 
 them are used. Alum is commonly the principal one, 
 but gypsum, whiting, and barytes are also employed for 
 the purpose. 
 
 RED LAKES 
 
 Among the reds are to be found some of the most valu- 
 able and permanent of the lakes. This permanency was 
 originally due to the use made of coloring matter 
 extracted from the madder plant. This is now obsolete, 
 as the same coloring substance which was at one 
 time extracted from the madder root is now much 
 more economically extracted from coal tar as alizarin 
 and purpurin. 
 
120 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 ALIZARIN AND PURPURIN 
 
 Extraction and Preparation 
 
 Church says: "Both of these coloring substances are 
 now made from anthracene. This compound occurs in 
 coal tar in a crystalline fluorescent hydrocarbon C 14 H 10 . 
 By a series of processes this substance gives rise to 
 alizarin and purpurin, which are in all respects identical 
 with those coloring matters derived from the madder 
 plant itself. The artificial alizarin of commerce contains 
 several other coloring matters, two of which are better 
 known than the others: these are anthrapurp^irin 
 (C 14 H 5 O 8 ) and purpuroxanthin (C 14 H g O 4 ). Purpurox- 
 anthin is also present in the natural pigments derived 
 from madder root, but it exists in smaller proportions. 
 Of all these compounds alizarin is the most important 
 and best known, and yields lakes having various hues of 
 crimson, rose, purple, violet, and maroon according to its 
 purity, its concentration, and the nature of its base 
 (alumina, iron oxide, or lime with alumina) with which 
 it is associated. The purpurin and anthrapurpurin 
 resemble each other closely, and give pigments 
 which are generally characterized by more orange and 
 red hues than are those obtained by alizarin. The 
 rose and pink madders and madder carmines of com- 
 merce are generally so manufactured as to include for 
 their coloring constituents much alizarin and very 
 little purpurin." 
 
 The process of extracting alizarin and purpurin from 
 madder root or from anthracene is far too lengthy and 
 complex for this treatise. It suffices to know that it is 
 now possible to obtain, at a comparatively low cost, 
 excellent pigments which twenty-five years ago would 
 have been very expensive. 
 
RED PIGMENTS 121 
 
 Manufacture of Lakes 
 
 The preparation and manufacture of lakes from 
 eosine, anilines, alizarin or purpurin, present no difficul- 
 ties. Of course, one must be provided with the proper 
 manipulating devices. 
 
 Madder lakes can be readily prepared from alizarin 
 and purpurin, by dissolving those substances in the 
 smallest necessary quantity of alkali, such as ammonia 
 or sodium carbonate, or some pure, freshly precipitated 
 and thoroughly washed aluminum hydrate. While the 
 above directions are simple, there is more to that simple 
 process than appears upon the surface. There are many 
 little tricks of the trade that are secrets, and which are 
 used in the precipitation of lakes, which enable one color- 
 maker to produce from the very same substances a lake 
 that looks brighter or which is more permanent than 
 that made by another manufacturer. 
 
 Fixing the coloring matter is an important item in the 
 manufacture of lakes. As an illustration of how trifles 
 affect coloring matter and its durability, an incident, 
 the truth of which can be vouched for, is given as follows : 
 The world-wide known and justly celebrated govern- 
 ment institution in France the "Gobelins" where 
 the famous historical tapestries are manufactured, pre- 
 pares all the dyes used in the coloring of the wool. In 
 earlier days there were no underground sewers in that part 
 of the city of Paris, and surface streams were depended 
 upon for the carrying away of all sorts of liquids. It 
 happened that a small brook formed the middle of the 
 street in front of the factory, and that the water used for 
 the preparation of the dyes was taken from it. The 
 water was very impure and fetid, as it was contaminated 
 with animal matter from an abattoir (slaughter house) 
 
122 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 above it. In the course of the city's improvement, the 
 stream was diverted and made to flow into underground 
 sewers, so that the Gobelin factory was forced to use city 
 water in compounding its dye stuffs, but some of the most 
 admired shades could not be reproduced. It puzzled the 
 heads of the institution for many years, searching for the 
 cause of their inability to reproduce the beautiful color- 
 ings made in former years. At last they hit upon the 
 cause, and, as nearly as possible, they artificially con- 
 taminated the pure water furnished by the city to resemble 
 that which they had once used, and thereupon they were 
 able to reproduce the shades as of old. These were due 
 to the impurities contained in the water. This illustrates 
 why it is that some manufacturers are able to and do put 
 out brighter and better goods than another can. This is 
 due in many instances to the water, or rather to the 
 composition of the water used. 
 
 ROSE PINK 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Rose pink is a very cheap lake of purplish-red tone, and 
 about the poorest one in the whole range of red lakes. 
 Its coloring matter is evanescent. It should never be 
 employed for lasting work. 
 
 It is used for coloring fillers in furniture factories, also 
 by some for staining cheap furniture and chairs. It 
 looks rich, and usually remains so long enough to enable 
 the furniture manufacturers to dispose of the goods before 
 it disappears. 
 
 The best of it is usually made from Brazil wood ; some 
 of the cheapest of the cheap aniline dyes seem to have 
 gone in the makeup of many samples of it. As there is 
 danger to those who use this pigment they may be 
 
RED PIGMENTS 123 
 
 using some of the aniline-made ones unless one is sure 
 of the brand being a good one, it will be best to let it 
 alone and take no chances. Much better lakes can be 
 had which produce the same effects, but they cost more. 
 
 ROSE LAKE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 This lake is just one notch better than rose pink. It 
 belongs to the same order and tone of red, but, as usually 
 made, is just a trifle lighter toned and more rosy. It, too, 
 is made from Brazil wood when it is not made from 
 something else (aniline). 
 
 Like rose pink it fades away quickly upon exposure 
 to strong light, and but for the fact that one is charged 
 a little more money for it than for the other, it would be 
 hard to tell which is the poorer of the two. In reality 
 it is simply a lighter shade of rose pink, of a more rosy 
 tone, or not quite so purplish. 
 
 The same caution given under the heading of rose 
 pink not to make an indiscriminate use of it will 
 apply with full force to rose lake. This is also 
 employed for the same purposes. 
 
 MADDER LAKES 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Under this name will be found all the red lakes found in 
 commerce that are of any good at all. Accordingly, all will 
 be listed under the same heading, all such at least that 
 are made by the agency of alizarin and purpurin. These 
 lakes have quite a wide range of tone, and cover the whole 
 field of maroons, violets, and the pinks, including the 
 carmine shades. 
 
124 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is useless to examine them separately, as all have the 
 same general characteristics, the difference being simply 
 one of tone. Each of them will, of course, make a line 
 of tints appertaining to its coloring. 
 
 All color manufacturers usually put out several lakes 
 under fancy and proprietary or copyrighted names. 
 Coach color catalogues and price lists are frequently a 
 puzzle to the uninitiated because of some dozens of red 
 lakes of whose existence but few may be aware. Many 
 are never mentioned by the other competing firms, who 
 have a puzzling list of their own. Dry color lists are also 
 swelled up and loaded down with terms to the confusion 
 of the average reader. Each manufacturer adopts a 
 name of his own for something that is identically the 
 same as that chosen by other competitors, each of whom 
 calls it by a different name. This practice is highly confu- 
 sing to persons who are not familiar with the trade custom 
 nor with the exact character of the goods themselves. 
 Therefore, if a person has been buying a red lake under the 
 glowing name of "Morning Star," and he finds one that 
 matches it but offered for sale under the name of " Setting 
 Sun," he need not worry if he is forced to use the latter. 
 In all likelihood they are identical, and he will not be 
 disappointed in their use. The main point is to insist 
 upon getting an alizarin or purpurin red, and the dealer's 
 guarantee that such a lake is thus made is the main thing. 
 Dealers who handle lakes should be able to answer such 
 questions; and, if they were questioned a few -times, would 
 be forced to post themselves if they do not already 
 know and the y should know what sort of material 
 they handle and offer for sale. 
 
 The madder reds and madder lakes are, all of them, 
 what may be called permanent under proper conditions, 
 and can be called so by contrast and in comparison with 
 
RED PIGMENTS 125 
 
 those made from cochineal, Brazil wood, etc. They are 
 very satisfactory in use. The range of color, covering 
 as it does every shade of red, purple, and maroon, is 
 sufficiently varied for the wants of any one. As they 
 enter into the composition of the better class of vermilion 
 reds, these might also be classed with them; thus the field 
 of reds would include the scarlet tones. However, those 
 reds are solid opaque covering goods, in nowise trans- 
 parent, and they cannot be included with the lakes. 
 
 There are a number of reds made in a manner similar 
 to the lakes, but upon an opaque base. These are used 
 for solid painting on that account, and for that reason 
 these reds cannot be classed with lakes. 
 
 The crimson solid-covering reds are chiefly used by 
 the carriage trade, and are known under various names, 
 unfortunately all proprietary, thereby causing more con- 
 fusion. Of this description are the many road-cart reds, 
 so called. The cheaper kinds of those reds are made 
 from cheap aniline dyes, and are therefore fugitive; the 
 better are from alizarin and purpurin, and they conse- 
 quently are durable. 
 
 The scarlet and the carmine-toned lakes are intended 
 to imitate the true carmine obtained from cochineal. 
 This they cannot do in reality, for if placed side by side, 
 the cochineal carmine is the richer by far for a few days. 
 Change that to a few weeks, and the alizarin carmine will 
 become the brighter and richer of the two. An expos- 
 ure of six weeks will do that. v 
 
 These lakes (the whole range of them) are useful in 
 either oil, japan, varnish, or distemper; in distemper, 
 however, all are less permanent than they are in the other 
 vehicles, as these protect them. 
 
 Certain of the proprietary reds used in coach work are 
 remarkably well-made goods, and but for the impropriety 
 
126 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 of giving some of these a free advertisement, and also of 
 doing sundry others, probably as good, an injustice by 
 not also naming them the author does not claim to 
 have tested them all therefore he refrains from nam- 
 ing any. The mention of their existence is sufficient, 
 because the reader is made aware of their character. 
 
 INDIAN LAKE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Some few decorators and artists still cling to this lake, 
 but there are no good reasons why its use should not be 
 abandoned altogether. It is universally admitted to be 
 very inferior to the madder lakes, but it is somewhat 
 more permanent than the cochineal lakes, and that 
 is probably why some continue its use. The excuse 
 is a very lame one. It is far less brilliant than and 
 very much inferior in durability to the madder lakes of 
 corresponding tone. 
 
 Indian lake is a lac of a resinous character produced 
 by various plants in the East Indies. These are punc- 
 tured by the larva of the Coccus Lacca, and the result 
 of the puncture is the resinous lac, from which the 
 color is derived. It varies in color according to the 
 plant from whence it is derived. This resin is pounded 
 in water, the water becomes red, and after having 
 been boiled down, the residue made by the evaporation 
 is the crude lac dye. This is dried and made into 
 cakes. The above suffices to indicate its provenance 
 and character. 
 
 Its use is lessening daily, and it is only a question of 
 time when it, as well as many other pigments which 
 have been useful in the past, for want of better, will 
 be known no more, except in history. 
 
RED PIGMENTS 127 
 
 CARMINE AND COCHINEAL. 
 
 History and Production 
 
 Carmine is said to have been discovered by a Florentine 
 monk, who, while he was engaged in the preparation of 
 some medicine in which cochineal was introduced, 
 observed a bright red precipitate. For the sale of this 
 red, his monastery afterwards became famous. 
 
 Carmine is a coloring principle found in the body of a 
 small insect called cochineal. It is said that the water 
 used in its manufacture has a great deal to do with the 
 beauty and brilliancy of the pigment obtained from it. 
 Otherwise its extraction is a simple affair. 
 
 The following will explain in a few words how it is 
 extracted. Take one pound of powdered cochineal, and 
 add four or five drams of subcarbonate of soda or 
 potash. When this has been boiled in soft water for a 
 quarter of an hour, add eight or ten drams of alum. 
 After the solution has been effected, take the receptacle 
 from the fire, draw it off into clean vessels, and after it 
 has stood for about a week, the carmine will be found 
 deposited at the bottom. This deposit must be carefully 
 dried, and then it is ready for use. 
 
 There are many other methods of extracting carmine, 
 but the above is as simple as any, and will suffice. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Carmine is a very brilliant color when well made. 
 Alas! it cannot long resist the action of a strong light, 
 and it will quickly fade away if so exposed. Its place 
 is being rapidly taken by the madder lakes, and while it 
 must be admitted that these are not so brilliant at the 
 start, in a very few days they appear the more brilliant 
 of the two. 
 
128 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is very rich as a glazing color over English vermilion, 
 and is still used for that purpose by the carriage painters, 
 although even for that purpose many of them have sub- 
 stituted a madder lake of similar tone, as most individuals 
 prefer a mediocre stability to a short-lived brilliancy. 
 
 It is a pity that such a fine red should be so fugitive, 
 and for that reason painters who value their reputations 
 must go slow about its use, and had better let it alone. 
 
 There are many other reds that can be found listed in 
 artists' supply store catalogues, but many of these can be 
 placed and belong to the reds described, and the rest are 
 for use in padding the lists; most of them are absolutely 
 useless even to decorators and artists. Red ochers are 
 sold under that name and a dozen others. They are 
 natural reds, the same as the yellow ochers. All such 
 should be, and in fact are, most advantageously displaced 
 by the artificially made Venetian reds, as these are uni- 
 form, and have the color better fixed than the natural 
 ocher reds, and possess the same range of color tones. 
 There is no object in retaining the former; they cumber 
 the red list uselessly. Many are little better than mortar 
 colors, and are decidedly poor in working qualities. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 GREEN PIGMENTS 
 
 CHROME GREENS 
 
 CHROME GREEN is the one green which is most used by 
 house painters and decorators, and for this reason it is 
 given first place here. It has been the aim to notice the 
 various pigments in a group according to prominence. 
 It is not possible to do this in every instance. Frequently 
 it is hard to choose between two which seem to have 
 equal claims for prominence. In this instance, it is 
 regrettable that there is no better one to head the list. 
 
 Chemistry and Preparation 
 
 Chrome green is a compound pigment, not only in the 
 sense of many other pigments of various substances com- 
 bined together, but also, in that it is a secondary color; 
 in other words, that it is of two other distinct colors which 
 when combined form greens, viz., Prussian blue and 
 chrome yellow. It can 'be made by a simple mixture 
 and triturating the pair. 
 
 In color works it is never so made. In these estab- 
 lishments they take the equivalents in chemicals of both 
 these colors and dissolve into solutions. Then they mix 
 these together in large vats, and the green is precipitated. 
 This green is what is known as chrome green in the United 
 States. By this process, it is claimed that the color thus 
 produced is more intimately mixed and incorporated. 
 Besides, it gives every manufacturer room to make the 
 
 129 
 
130 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 claim that by his particular method of handling and pre- 
 cipitating, he is able to fix the coloring matter much 
 better than any other maker has ever been able to do, 
 and also claim superior permanency for the same reason. 
 
 Be that as it may, there is one sure thing, and that is, 
 that certain chrome greens are certainly much more 
 permanent than others. Some retain their tone much 
 longer than others, remaining of a decided green after 
 others of equal strength of coloring matter have badly 
 faded. A number seem to fade very soon after applica- 
 tion; others again, like some widows, wait a reasonable 
 time before changing their dresses. 
 
 After the chrome has been precipitated, the supernatant 
 water is drawn off; the pulp green is put into filtering 
 cloths and in presses to free it of water. The pressed 
 cakes are taken to the drying room and left there until 
 bone dry, after which they are taken out, broken up and 
 pulverized in the mills, and are then ready for sale as dry 
 chrome green; or for grinding, in oil, japan, varnish, or 
 water, for the various purposes for which it is adapted 
 and wanted. 
 
 What has been written above, applies to the manu- 
 facture of pure chrome greens; but pure chrome greens 
 are seldom found in the market. 
 
 Owing to their great covering properties, and amount 
 as well as strength of coloring matter, and their great 
 opacity, there is really no absolute necessity for their 
 absolute purity. The reason for this is that green is 
 seldom employed for the making of tints, as are most other 
 colored pigments. Green is used mostly as color by itself 
 for the solid painting of blinds for windows, wagon beds, 
 implements, iron fences, etc. A chrome green contain- 
 ing only 20 to 25 per cent of actual chrome green, when 
 it has been properly prepared upon a good base, will 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 131 
 
 cover solidly in one coat any other color over which it is 
 painted, be it black or white. It would be a waste, there- 
 fore, to use 100 per cent of color chrome green to do what 
 20 per cent of it will do as well. The 100 per cent green 
 might possibly cover a trifle more, as it could be thinned 
 more; but as no one cares to apply too thin a color, even 
 that would not amount to anything, and the assertion 
 can safely be made that one pound of 20 per cent green 
 will cover as much as one pound of 100 per cent. 
 
 Therefore by common consent all color manufacturers 
 put out a chrome green containing three parts of base to 
 one part of chrome green. This mixture then contains 
 25 per cent of absolutely pure chrome green. 
 
 The base, of whatever nature it may be or in whatever 
 proportion it is used, is always added to the chemical 
 solutions just at the moment of their being thrown into 
 the vats and before the color is precipitated. The base 
 and the color are precipitated together. This insures 
 uniformity. 
 
 Nearly all the chrome greens are sold under some pro- 
 prietary name, such as Crylight, Marseilles, Sylvan, 
 Emerald, French Imperial, and a host of others entirely 
 too numerous to mention; but whatever their name may 
 be, they are all reduced chrome greens and belong to the 
 class just described. None contain over 25 per cent of 
 actual color in their composition. 
 
 When chrome green is used for the purpose of making 
 tints with other pigments, either white or colored, the 
 strictly pure greens should be used, because there they are 
 the more economical. Such greens can be bought, but 
 they are in little demand aside from printing-ink manu- 
 facturers, etc. Many painters make pea greens, olives, 
 and the various light-toned tints of those and other greens 
 from ocher chrome yellows, Prussian blues, etc., which 
 
132 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 they compound without the use of any chrome green. 
 Hence the pure greens are not always to be found at 
 paint supply stores, because the demand for them is very 
 slight. 
 
 All manufacturers do not use the same base for the 
 purpose of reducing the pure chrome green to the com- 
 mercial basis of 25 per cent, and this of itself accounts for 
 the difference found in their working qualities. Barytes 
 is that which is most commonly used for the purpose, 
 either alone or in conjunction with others. Gypsum 
 makes the best base for that purpose, as it seems to hold 
 up the color better, and it also works better under the 
 brush. Whiting is used extensively also; and added to 
 either barytes or gypsum to make the paste smoother 
 in texture, it also helps out in the better brushing out of 
 the paint. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Chrome greens come in two tones; and accordingly as 
 it approaches to one or the other of these two, the green 
 is so classed. The two tones are known as the blue greens 
 and its opposite the yellow greens. In some of its blue 
 shades, chrome green approaches somewhat to the tone 
 of the Paris or emerald green. There is a wide range 
 to be found in the tones between a very pale yellow green 
 and a very deep blue green which covers the whole 
 gamut and chromatic scale of the green tones. Each of 
 these two groups of green has some uses to which it is 
 better adapted than the other. As a rule, the yellow- 
 toned greens are stronger in coloring matter than those 
 of a corresponding depth in the bluish ones. 
 
 One peculiarity that belongs to all chrome greens, but 
 in a much stronger degree in the blue than in the yellow 
 ones, is that no matter how carefully they may have 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 133 
 
 been made, if there is any supernatant linseed oil when 
 a can of chrome yellow is cut open the oil shows up 
 tinted with blue as if the blue had separated from the 
 yellow. This property is inherent and does not hurt it. 
 The necessary trituration of the color before using it will 
 remedy this condition and reincorporate the trifling 
 amount of dissolved Prussian blue. 
 
 Some of the well-made chrome greens are fairly per- 
 manent ; but ; as any one may well surmise, anything that 
 would destroy the color of Prussian blue such as lime 
 or other caustic substances will also destroy that color 
 in the chrome green combination. Sulphureted-hydro- 
 gen gases which affect chrome yellow, will in the same 
 manner destroy the color of chrome yellow in the com- 
 position of the green. So these greens have to carry a 
 double load of liability to being injuriously acted upon. 
 
 Notwithstanding that chrome green is anything but 
 absolutely permanent, to all intents and purposes it is 
 sufficiently so, that, for want of a better, it may be fairly 
 depended upon for many situations and certain condi- 
 tions. 
 
 It is used by all classes of painters, in oil, in japan or 
 varnish, and in enameling or japanning works. It is 
 also very useful in distemper work if care is taken in 
 mixing it that none of its incompatibles be compounded, 
 or it would then surely fail. 
 
 In whatever vehicle it is used, it is contra-indicated 
 if it is subject to any of the influences which would act 
 injuriously upon either chrome yellow or Prussian blue 
 as under the heading of either of those colors, this is 
 fully given, and it is unnecessary to repeat it here. 
 
 Chrome green and all the proprietary greens which, 
 as we have seen, are all chrome greens come in several 
 shades. Manufacturers pack it up in cans as: Extra 
 
134 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Light, Light, Medium, Dark, or Extra Dark, each of which 
 makes an entirely distinct set of tints with a white base. 
 
 To ascertain the value of a chrome green, it is proper 
 to make a scale test of it alongside one of the same grade 
 that is of known standard. With that test one can 
 readily determine the amount of coloring matter it 
 contains. 
 
 One should never take a strictly pure green to judge 
 values, and expect one of only 25 per cent of claimed and 
 acknowledged purity to come up to it. If, however, four 
 times as much of the commercial grade is taken as is of 
 the strictly pure, the tints made should be equal. 
 
 The reader will find full directions of how to make these 
 tests at the end of Chapter VI under the heading Chrome 
 Yellow. 
 
 GREEN OXIDE OF CHROMIUM 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The green oxide of chromium is known to the artists 
 and decorators of the world under many names, and in 
 reality is the only green entitled to the name of chrome 
 green, for it is that. But what we know under that name 
 in the United States is a different pigment, which, while it 
 is not entitled to it, is the only one here known by that 
 name. 
 
 Life is too short to start a crusade and to make a 
 quixotic fight against windmills which it would be if 
 the effort were made to change the name and it is simply 
 accepted through sheer compulsion; it cannot be helped. 
 
 Green oxide of chromium is a good enough name if it is 
 a bit long in the saying; as it is, it is so seldom used that 
 it matters but little anyway. Many of the proprietors 
 of paint supply stores would be puzzled if one was to 
 call for it, and would not know what was meant. 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 135 
 
 Owing to its limited use, but little need be said of its 
 manufacture. The intricate processes of manufacture 
 make it an expensive pigment, and that alone will always 
 prevent its use, even if it possessed much better qualities 
 than those which are inherent in it. So that with the 
 cheap imitation chrome greens, which cover better and 
 cost ever so much less, there is little danger of it ever 
 coming into popular use. 
 
 Two distinct processes are used in its manufacture, 
 and these are known as the dry and the wet. Accordingly 
 as it is made by the wet or the dry process, this pigment 
 is either transparent or opaque. The latter is the usual 
 condition under which it is to be found in artists' tube 
 colors. When made by the wet process the sesquioxide 
 is thrown down, and that makes it transparent. It is 
 therefore useful both as a solid color for opaque paint- 
 ing, or the transparent for glazing purposes. This pig- 
 ment is somewhat more permanent than the so-called 
 American chrome green goods which are known and sold 
 here as chrome green, and it can be mixed with most of 
 the permanent pigments. 
 
 COBALT GREEN (ZINC GREEN) 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 This valuable pigment deserves a more extensive 
 use than that which it has so far received in the United 
 States. In Europe, especially in England, France, and 
 Germany, it is much more popular than it is here. In 
 America, it is mainly found in tubes for artists' use, and 
 is seldom ever offered in any other shape. It is imported, 
 and if manufactured in the United States the author has 
 never heard of it. There is no reason why it should not 
 be made here. As I am not familiar with its preparation, 
 
136 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 I give the following extract from Church's "Chemistry of 
 Paints": 
 
 "It has long been known that the oxide or a salt of 
 zinc moistened with a solution of cobalt nitrate and then 
 strongly heated before the blowpipe gives a porous mass of 
 a beautiful green hue. This compound or mixture of the 
 oxides of zinc and cobalt may be prepared by: 1st. 
 Precipitating with an alkaline carbonate a mixture of the 
 nitrates of cobalt and zinc, and then strongly heating 
 (after washing) the precipitate formed thereby; 2d, 
 Making a paste of zinc oxide and water, and adding a 
 solution of nitrate or sulphate of cobalt or roseo-cobaltic 
 chloride; the mass is then dried, calcined at a dull red heat, 
 thrown into water, ground, washed and dried. Method 
 No. 2 gives a finely colored product, the depth of hue 
 being proportional to the percentage of cobalt ic oxide. 
 If the latter oxide amounts to one third that of zinc, the 
 color is a very deep bluish green; with no more than one 
 sixth, the color is still rich. Some specimens do not con- 
 tain more than one twentieth, occasionally even less 
 of cobalt oxide, and yet they are far from pale. An 
 excellent deep sample contained 12 per cent of cobalt 
 oxide. 
 
 "When properly made, cobalt green is a pigment of 
 great beauty and power. The deeper tones of cobalt green 
 are almost transparent in oil. The pigment works well, 
 is quite permanent, and has no action upon other pig- 
 ments. Cobalt green is, in fact, one of the two rare pig- 
 ments which are at once, chemically and artistically 
 perfect. It must be admitted that it is almost exactly 
 imitated by a mixture of viridian and artificial ultramarine 
 with a little zinc white. 
 
 "Cobalt green is again coming into artistic use, as it is 
 equally well adapted for all methods of painting. It 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 137 
 
 was discredited awhile by the inferiority of the product 
 obtained by Rinmann's original process (No. 1 above)." 
 
 It ought not to be an expensive pigment, and if manu- 
 factured here upon a large scale its cost would be low 
 enough for use in general painting. 
 
 Sometimes the green is prepared by precipitating a 
 cobalt salt with an alkaline arseniate or phosphate, and 
 then heating the precipitate with zinc white. 
 
 Cobalt green, as was seen above, is more or less trans- 
 parent according to its depth of tone. The lighter tones 
 are much more opaque, and these would be the best for 
 solid painting, but the deep ones used as a glazing coat 
 over other greens give rich effects. This pigment is good 
 in any of the usual vehicles, and it is hoped it will become 
 better known to the general trade. It would be invaluable 
 to the carriage and car trade; and decorators should use 
 it more in interiors, where it is free from attacks of the 
 deadly enemies of most other greens, 
 
 VIRIDIAN 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Again recourse is had to the same source for informa- 
 tion concerning viridian. Church says of it: 
 
 "About eight parts of crystallized boracic acid and 
 three parts of potassium bichromate are thoroughly 
 mixed and calcined. The mass so obtained is treated with 
 cold water and washed by decantation, ground wet, 
 washed with hot water and carefully dried. The 
 product is an hydrated chromium sesquioxide in 
 which a variable amount of the boracic constituent 
 frequently remains. Viridian, however, is essentially 
 an hydrated sesquioxide of chromium, having the 
 formula of Cr 2 3 2H 2 O. 
 
138 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 "The color of viridian is a very deep bluish green of 
 great purity and transparency. It furnishes with aureo- 
 lin on the one hand and with ultramarine upon the other 
 an immense number of beautiful hues adapted to repre- 
 sent the colors of vegetation and water. 
 
 "It is quite unaffected by sunlight or sulphureted 
 hydrogen, and it has no eyil action of its own upon other 
 pigments. Moreover, it can be safely used with all the 
 painting media and upon all kinds of painting grounds." 
 
 It should be more extensively used by the carriage 
 trade, as it is just the sort of pigment that is needed for 
 a permanent glaze. 
 
 It is chiefly imitated by compounds of chrome yellows 
 and blues, but such are worthless; they possess neither 
 the brilliancy nor the permanency of viridian. 
 
 Its use is confined to the artist's palette and to the 
 decorators. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 GREEN PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 TERRE VERTE 
 
 History and Production 
 
 THERE are to be found in various parts of the world, in 
 the New as well as in the Old, certain earths having a 
 variety of greenish tones. These earths vary greatly in 
 their composition, as one might well suppose, and in 
 consequence of this are diversified in their respective 
 colors. 
 
 Terre verte was made use of in the earliest attempts 
 at decoration, and is found upon ancient Roman 
 wall paintings. The prepared pigment itself has 
 been discovered in pots in the ruins of the city of 
 Pompeii. 
 
 None of the various shades of this pigment are at all 
 vivid, and all partake of the tertiary order. 
 
 It is prepared for use in much the same manner as was 
 indicated for ocher and the other earth pigments which 
 already have been under notice by washing or levi- 
 gating to free it from its heavier impurities, and, after- 
 wards, separating into various grades, then drying, 
 pulverizing, etc. 
 
 The following analysis, made by A. H. Church, is that 
 of a sample from Monte Baldo in Italy. It shows that 
 terre verte is allied to the hornblendes, and that it is a 
 silicious-ferric product : 
 
 139 
 
140 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Analysis of Terre Verte 
 
 Water given off at 100 C. ...... 4.1 
 
 Water given off at red heat 4.2 
 
 Ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) 20.3 
 
 Ferrous oxide (Fe 2 0) 2.6 
 
 Alumina 1.7 
 
 Lime 1.1 
 
 Magnesia 5.6 
 
 Potash . . . ; 6.4 
 
 Soda 2.3 
 
 Silica 52.0 
 
 From the composition shown by the analysis, a person 
 can at once infer that terre verte is little subject to change, 
 as all its constituents are themselves the product of any 
 and all possible change, and incapable of any further 
 ones. 
 
 Terre verte is only semi-opaque in character, and there- 
 fore covers indifferently well when mixed with linseed 
 oil or varnish. Its use in oil is limited to the producing 
 of certain neutral-toned greenish hues with a white base. 
 It possesses the quality of absolute permanency, and pro- 
 longs the life of white lead associated with it in the making 
 of tints. It does this because of its power of absorbing 
 large quantities of linseed oil, and acts in many respects 
 as do all the silicate earths. 
 
 It is chiefly used in water or distemper. In distemper 
 it covers well, and its neutral tones and that of its tints 
 are much better fitted for mural painting than it is in oil. 
 
 Some fine samples of it have been found in various 
 parts of New England, and many manufacturers grind it 
 under their proprietary names. Manufacturers of mixed 
 paints can also use it to good advantage for certain tints 
 on acbount of its imparting good wearing qualities and 
 because of its relative cheapness. 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 141 
 
 VERDIGRIS 
 
 Chemistry and Preparation 
 
 Verdigris is the basic preparation of copper. It is a 
 permanent bluish green, and is made in large quantities 
 in Southern France, where the city of Grenoble is head- 
 quarters for its distribution. 
 
 It is produced from copper sheets or plates upon which 
 the grape pomace, obtained from the wine-presses so 
 abundant in that section, has been spread. By fermen- 
 tation, the acetic acid is combined with the copper, and 
 forms upon the surface a green rust which is verdigris 
 or the subacetate of copper. It can be manufactured 
 in various ways, but as the use of that pigment is becom- 
 ing more restricted every year, and as the description of 
 the processes would require more space than the little 
 usage that is made of it warrants, the above, which is the 
 principal method of obtaining it, will suffice, with this 
 additional note, that the raw product thus obtained is 
 afterwards manipulated to free it from impurities. It is 
 then crystalline, and in that shape it appears upon the 
 markets of the world. 
 
 Verdigris is a perfectly transparent pigment, and its 
 chief use in decorative work is where that effect counts 
 heavily. 
 
 Its main use to-day is as an ingredient in many anti- 
 fouling preparations for the painting of ships' hulls 
 below the water line, especially for the copper sheathing 
 placed upon the bottoms of wooden vessels. It is claimed 
 that barnacles and other sea pests which love to attach 
 themselves to ship-bottoms thereby causing in the 
 roughness of their uneven accumulations an impediment 
 that results in more friction and lessened speed when plow- 
 ing through the water that said pests will not attach 
 
142 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 to vessels whose bottoms have been painted with it. 
 The poisonous character of that pigment may have some- 
 thing to do with that; possibly it kills them. At any 
 rate, their number is greatly lessened when such bottoms 
 have been painted with verdigris. Sulphureted- 
 hydrogen gases darken verdigris. It is not safe nor 
 suitable in any way to use it in water colors, nor is 
 its use in oil desirable, although when mixed in that 
 vehicle it is at its best. 
 
 It is poisonous, and while not of as violent a character 
 in that regard as that other copper-base pigment, Paris 
 green, hereafter described, it is bad enough in that respect 
 even for use in making a successful suicide. One must 
 exercise some caution with it. 
 
 The use of this pigment has been replaced by that of 
 other greens, and it is almost exclusively confined to anti- 
 fouling paint for ship-bottoms. 
 
 It is still used as a glazing color by a few old-fashioned 
 carriage painters. 
 
 MALACHITE, OR GREEN VERDITER 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Under the name of malachite, a natural green 
 carbonate of copper has been a long time in use as a 
 pigment. It is mined in various parts of the world, 
 freed from its impurities, and treated in sundry ways. 
 Its formula is CuCo 3 CuH 2 O 2 . It resembles in composition 
 the azurite or blue verditer, but contains less of the 
 copper carbonate. 
 
 It is fairly permanent; but acquires a dull brownish 
 hue, due to the darkening of the linseed oil; is not 
 safe as a water color, therefore inadmissible for dis- 
 temper work. 
 
GREEN PIGMENTS 143 
 
 It is so seldom used now, even by artists, that it will 
 be cut off with the above mention and with a parting 
 warning for paint students to leave it alone. It possesses 
 no peculiarity of tone but such as can be obtained by the 
 use of less dangerous pigments which can be depended 
 on as having greater permanency. 
 
 EMERALD, OR PARIS GREEN 
 
 Chemistry, Preparation, and Uses 
 
 Paris green is the name under which this pigment is 
 best known in the United States. It is a beautiful, most 
 rich and brilliant, transparent green, but for all its beauty, 
 its violent poisonous properties unfit it for the use of the 
 house painter, and it is only with the utmost care that it 
 should be employed by the coach painter as a finishing 
 glaze. There is, of course, nothing like it for this purpose, 
 and hence it is that one may be excused in taking some 
 risk in its application. With a great deal of care and by 
 the wearing of a sponge at the nostrils during its mixing 
 and manipulation, the danger is reduced to a minimum. 
 It affects some painters more injuriously than others. 
 Some men can never work with it without it making them 
 sick; such should never use it. 
 
 Its use as a glazing color in vehicles is questionable, to 
 say the least. For a time, while it is protected by good 
 coats of varnish, it may be safe enough. But when the 
 varnish decays, and is not promptly replaced, there is al- 
 ways some danger of particles of it becoming absorbed 
 into the human system, especially that of children. 
 They know nothing about the dangerous qualities of the 
 paint, but, attracted by its beauty, are tempted to rub 
 their hands over it, and become poisoned. When a 
 death occurs (and many have happened) from such a 
 
144 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 cause, what useless regrets it must cause. Therefore the 
 reluctant advice is given let it alone. 
 
 This pigment is cupric aceto-arsenite, and is permanent 
 in oil. In water colors it is not, and will not long remain 
 untarnished in impure air. 
 
 SCHEELE'S GREEN 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Scheele's green, or cupric arsenite, is another copper pig- 
 ment. It is an arsenite of copper, and its process of manu- 
 facture need not be given, as it has become obsolete. In 
 every respect but one, it is the inferior of Paris green, 
 and that one is, that, if possible, it is even a stronger 
 poison. As is the case of many another pigment for which 
 generations of painters once found some uses, its use to- 
 day is about nil, and it has been replaced by others bet- 
 ter adapted to any of the purposes to which it was put 
 by old-time decorators. Its place at the tail end of green 
 pigments is well deserved. 
 
 Owing to its frequent mention in the antiquated litera- 
 ture of painters of the eighteenth century, it was thought 
 best to list it here, simply as a warning example and to 
 advise against its use. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 BLUE PIGMENTS 
 ULTRAMARINE BLUE 
 Chemistry and Manufacture 
 
 ULTRAMARINE BLUE is one of the conquests of science of 
 which chemistry may well be proud. As a pigment, in its 
 natural state it has long been known. It can be obtained 
 in its natural state and condition from lapis-lazuli, a 
 semi-precious stone. There is little danger of the natural 
 ultramarine ever becoming a dangerous rival of the arti- 
 ficially prepared ; and if it had to be extracted from the 
 stone now as formerly, it would hardly be employed as 
 lavishly as it is to-day. 
 
 Chemistry, however, revealed its composition; and ever 
 since, its artificial reproduction has permitted it to be 
 furnished at a nominal cost, and put it within the reach 
 of any one, whereas formerly royalty only could have 
 afforded its use as profusely as the average whitewasher 
 could do to-day. 
 
 The processes of manufacturing it artificially are well 
 known, but are very intricate; and until within a com- 
 paratively short time, this pigment was imported from 
 Europe. To-day the largest works in the world are 
 located at Newark, N. J., and produce as good an article 
 as can be imported from anywhere. All the raw material 
 that is used in the manufacture of ultramarine is cheap; 
 it consists of kaolin, or china clay, silica, sodium sulphate, 
 
 145 
 
146 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 sodium carbonate, sulphur, charcoal, and rosin. Calcined 
 alum is sometimes used instead of kaolin. After heating 
 the ingredients together in crucibles and then cooling, a 
 greenish porous cake is found, which is powdered 
 and roasted (after the addition of sulphur) for several 
 hours. It requires several powderings, washings, and 
 dryings, also further calcinations to develop the proper 
 blue color. 
 
 To prepare it for use requires some careful manipula- 
 tion. It should be washed with water free from lime, 
 and requires to be finely ground. This improves the 
 color very much, and any soluble impurities are removed 
 by these washings. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The range of color is great in this pigment. It runs 
 from a pure blue to a purple blue, and some shades even 
 border upon the green, and are called green ultramarines. 
 However, they are not true greens, and they cannot be 
 listed among them. The shades that are free from purple 
 are accounted the best, and for the purposes of the painter 
 are certainly superior, as it is very easy to make a 
 purple-shaded tint from a blue ultramarine, but it is 
 impossible to make a clean blue tint from a purple 
 tone of the same. 
 
 Ultramarine should never be mixed with white lead 
 for the making of tints, on account of the sulphur it con- 
 tains. When it is used with a white base for that pur- 
 pose, zinc white is much the best, and the tone of the 
 tints will be cleaner and purer-looking. 
 
 Sulphureted hydrogen does not affect artificial ultra- 
 marine blue, neither does lime and other alkalies. Weak 
 acetic acid or a saturated cold solution of alum does affect 
 it, and in time will destroy it. It may be called a per- 
 
BLUE PIGMENTS 147 
 
 manent pigment, as sunlight does not impair it, and it is 
 useful in either oil, japan, varnish, or distemper; but to 
 be safe, it should not be used in connection with pigments 
 that have acetic acid or alum in their composition. It 
 is always safe when used alone as a solid color or with 
 zinc white for the making of all blue tints. 
 
 The coach painter finds good use for it, both for the 
 painting of solid surfaces and for the glazing of them 
 with the transparent kind. As this pigment is usually 
 prepared, it covers fairly well, but it is inferior to Prussian 
 blue in this regard. 
 
 There is no particular standard whereby to judge of 
 the value of this pigment other than that it should be of 
 good blue tone, that it should cover well, and that it 
 should be strong in coloring matter for the solid varieties; 
 but the last two items do not apply to the kinds of it 
 which are made upon a transparent base and which are 
 intended for glazing. 
 
 It is also extensively used for house painting, in the 
 making of tints with zinc white, as these stand well, and 
 remain unaffected by sunlight, which cannot be said of 
 those made with Prussian blue. 
 
 For distemper, it is also very useful for wall work and 
 in decorating. 
 
 This pigment may vary a good deal without any 
 intentional adulteration of it. But, intentional or other- 
 wise, it should be up to some good sample, which can be 
 selected and preserved for comparison with it. There- 
 fore the only rule to judge it by, and the one point upon 
 which all would agree, is purity of its blue tone and 
 brilliancy. 
 
 It comes to market in its dry state in boxes containing 
 28 pounds. It also comes ground in oil, japan, or varnish, 
 as well as in water for distemper painting. 
 
148 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE 
 
 History and Chemistry 
 
 This pigment really deserves to be placed first upon 
 the list of blues. It is probably used the most of 
 all the blues by painters and decorators, but, owing to its 
 being more fugitive in sunlight than ultramarine, it was 
 thought best to give it as second on the list. 
 
 Its history now dates back nearly two centuries, and 
 its discovery was accidental. One Diesbach, in 1714, 
 while he was precipitating a solution of alum to obtain a 
 white base for the manufacture of lakes, used some potash 
 that had been rectified with animal oil, and instead of 
 precipitating a white substance, it precipitated a blue one. 
 He had purchased the potash from a man named Dippel, 
 who, having been informed of the occurrence, traced it to 
 the proper cause and was able to produce Prussian blue. 
 The process was kept a secret as long as possible, but in 
 1724 it was discovered by Woodward, and by him made 
 public. 
 
 Its manufacture is as simple as can be, and is done by 
 various processes, the necessary agent being prussiate of 
 potash. This is obtained by fusing the potash of com- 
 merce with blood or other aninial refuse. After careful 
 preparation, it is of a yellow color. It is added to another 
 solution made from two parts of alum and one part of 
 sulphate of iron, the mixture filtered and allowed to settle. 
 A double decomposition ensues, in which the iron com- 
 bines with the potash of the prussiate, forming a sulphate 
 of potash, while the prussiate of iron is thrown down, 
 the sulphate of potash being held in solution. 
 
 On the other hand, a similar decomposition takes place 
 with the alum, and the superabundant carbonate of 
 potash is mixed with the solution of prussiate of potash. 
 
BLUE PIGMENTS 149 
 
 By this means a sulphate of potash is formed, and the 
 alumina or base of the alum is precipitated. These two 
 precipitates, prussiate of iron and alumina, are produced 
 at the same instant of time and are intimately mixed, 
 producing a substance of a brilliant and intense blue, 
 the Prussian blue of commerce; this, of course, after it has 
 been well washed and dried. 
 
 Whatever may be the system and methods of manipu- 
 lation, and these may differ greatly, the equivalents of 
 the above must be present to produce Prussian blue. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Prussian blue is a transparent pigment of great strength 
 of coloring matter, capable of absorbing enormous 
 quantities of linseed oil. On account of the fineness of its 
 particles, and the still greater fineness which can be given 
 them by thorough grinding, Prussian blue is held a long 
 time in suspension before precipitating in that vehicle. 
 
 Plow and implement manufacturers use it to paint over 
 polished steel parts to preserve them from air or moisture, 
 and consequent rust. In the diluted condition in which 
 it is used for that purpose, it is thinned out in the pro- 
 portion of one hundred pounds of linseed oil to one pound 
 of the pigment. 
 
 One may well wonder at the strength and power of 
 coloring matter. A pound of it will tint a ton (2000 
 pounds) of white lead to a decided sky blue. 
 
 There are two qualities of Prussian blue, which may be 
 thus described : Quality No. 1 is very good; quality No. 2 is 
 good for nothing. The good should have a decided blue 
 tone of great clearness; that is the only tone of it worth 
 having. The other has a purplish or dirty blue-black 
 tone, and no amount of trying to doctor it up will help any. 
 The tints made from it are invariably sickly, miserably 
 
150 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 muddy-looking, and never give satisfaction. Any tint 
 made from Prussian blue of good quality and a suitable 
 white base is very clear, clean-toned, and fairly permanent 
 under proper conditions. In time it acquires a slightly 
 greenish hue, but much of this is due, in part at least, to 
 the change that takes place in the oil. When, however, 
 it comes in contact with lime, it bleaches entirely away; 
 even the tints of it made with a white base will suffer. 
 All the alkalies have the same property, which is fatal to 
 it. Therefore it is unsuited for distemper work, especially 
 when the walls are newly plastered, and where it will come 
 in contact with lime which has lost none of its causticity. 
 
 Soluble and Insoluble Varieties 
 
 There are two distinct varieties of Prussian blue that 
 differ only in that one is soluble in water, and the other 
 is not. In the United States it is customary to designate 
 as Prussian blue, only the variety which is insoluble in 
 water; the soluble variety being better known as Chinese 
 blue or as soluble blue. 
 
 CHINESE OR SOLUBLE BLUE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Chinese blue is only a variation of Prussian blue. It 
 possesses all the characteristics of the former with the one 
 exception, it is soluble in water instead of insoluble. 
 On account of its solubility, it is seldom used for distemper 
 painting. A damp handkerchief laid over it for a minute 
 will extract color. It is also subject to the same vicissi- 
 tudes, when it comes in contact with lime and other 
 caustic substances, as Prussian blue. 
 
 After it has dried, when mixed with linseed oil, it is all 
 right, and moisture will not affect it as long as the linseed 
 
BLUE PIGMENTS 151 
 
 oil is undecayed. Therefore for use in oil it is probably as 
 good as the insoluble or Prussian blue. But, as it is 
 identically the same thing, there is no need of cumbering 
 the color list so uselessly as with a separate pigment. 
 Prussian being the same, and furthermore, insoluble, it is 
 the better of the two. 
 
 As soluble blue, it has uses which are mainly in the 
 preparation of bluing, either in the liquid form or in a dry 
 powder for laundry purposes, for the preparation of car- 
 penters' crayons, and many other economical purposes 
 which are foreign to the subject matter of this treatise, 
 and for that reason need not be related here. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 BLUE PIGMENTS (Continued) 
 
 COBALT BLUE 
 
 Manufacture, Properties, and Uses 
 
 UNDER the name of cobalt blue there are several 
 substances sold which claim to be it. The best known 
 is that which is made by a combination of cobalt oxide 
 and alumina. Thenard's blue, another variety of it, 
 is a cobalt phosphate on an aluminous base. 
 
 The first is the less complicated, and can be produced 
 by calcining a well-triturated mixture of aluminum- 
 hydrate and cobalt-oxide. The greatest care must be 
 taken that the material used in the preparation of this 
 pigment shall be free from iron and nickel; these sub- 
 stances injure the purity of tone and the brilliancy of 
 the cobalt blue. 
 
 Cobalt blue is a permanent pigment, unaffected by 
 light, moisture, or by oxygen. Cobalt can be safely used 
 in true fresco, as it is unaffected by lime. It can also be 
 safely used with any of the other pigments. It is not 
 as strong in coloring matter as ultramarine blue, and is 
 decidedly lighter in tone. 
 
 Nineteen twentieths of the cobalt blue that is offered 
 for sale in the United States, is compounded from a good 
 quality of ultramarine blue and an admixture of zinc 
 white, so that its shade may be lightened to that of cobalt 
 
 162 
 
BLUE PIGMENTS 153 
 
 blue, and of which this makes a good imitation. This 
 imitation, in fact, is so close that even an expert would 
 have difficulty in detecting it. To all intents and pur- 
 poses, when the pigment is mixed with linseed oil, it is 
 fully as good as true cobalt ; but if used in distemper, it is 
 subject to the same baneful liabilities which have been 
 indicated under the heading of that pigment, and 
 instead of perfect security, which the true pigment would 
 have given, there are the usual troubles arising from 
 ultramarine. 
 
 It is, therefore, questionable whether it will pay the 
 painter to buy this as long as there is no assurance 
 of its purity to be had. It is just as easy to make it 
 as it is wanted; it is simply an ultramarine tint which 
 can be prepared by any one from the mixing of ultra- 
 marine and zinc white. 
 
 CERULEUM 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Ceruleum is little known in the United States. Church, 
 in his " Chemistry of Paints," has this to say of it: 
 
 "When oxide of tin is moistened with a cobalt nitrate 
 solution and strongly heated, a greenish blue mass is 
 obtained, which after powdering and washing consti- 
 tutes one of the varieties of the pigments obtained from 
 cobalt and known as Ceruleum. There are other ways 
 of obtaining and preparing this pigment. One of these 
 consists in precipitating potassium stannate with cobalt 
 chloride, collecting and washing the precipitate and then 
 mixing it with some pure silica. Some samples contain 
 calcium sulphate or lead sulphate in place of the silica; 
 these are of an inferior quality. 
 
 " Ceruleum is a permanent pigment of a rather greenish 
 
154 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 blue color without any tendency to the violet cast, so 
 noticeable with other cobalt blues when viewed by gas 
 or candle light. It suffers little or no change by exposure 
 to light or impure air, or by commixture with other pig- 
 ments. It is a sub-opaque, rather earthy pigment with 
 a moderate tinting power." 
 
 Although some painters find it useful, it can really 
 become so only when used where such deleterious con- 
 ditions exist as would injure the otherwise excel- 
 lent imitations that can be made of it from mixing 
 together in the right proportions, viridian, ultramarine 
 blue, and zinc white. 
 
 It is never offered for sale in America except as an 
 artist's color in tubes, and is likely to remain so, as the 
 general trade can readily dispense with it and without 
 inconvenience. 
 
 CHESSYLITE, OR BLUE VERDITER 
 
 Production, Properties, and Uses 
 
 Chessylite comes from the village of Chessy near the 
 city of Lyons, France, or rather it is named after it. It 
 is of the same general character as malachite, and, like 
 that pigment, is a copper compound, but contains less 
 hydrate and more of the carbonate of that metal. It 
 can be produced artificially, but when it is so made it is 
 not as permanent as the natural. 
 
 In the past century, and especially in the first half, it 
 was much more employed than it is now. The cobalt 
 blues and their ultramarine imitations have well-nigh 
 driven it out of the market; and as these blues, to all 
 intents and purposes, are non-poisonous while chessy- 
 lite is not there can be no good excuse for continuing 
 its use. It should be abandoned. 
 
BLUE PIGMENTS 155 
 
 ROYAL BLUE BLUE SMALT 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Under the above name, glass and other vitreous sub- 
 stances containing cobalt and of a rich blue tone have 
 long been known. 
 
 It is now very seldom, if ever, used, and the term smalt 
 has itself become diverted from its original meaning, and 
 is applied to coarsely powdered colored glass and also to 
 coarsely powdered colored sand which have been artifi- 
 cially colored not only in blue but in black, or anything 
 else. This smalt is chiefly used to sand grounds in sign 
 work, the grounds having first been painted in oil color 
 of a similar tint to the shade of the smalt thrown over 
 it so as to hold the latter. 
 
 Formerly blue smalt crystals were finely powdered, 
 washed, and the lightest-weighted particles were used as 
 pigment. Owing to its poor covering properties and the 
 difficulty in using it, it is nearly obsolete, but as it is 
 indicative of the origin of what is now known as Smalt, it 
 is well worth notice. 
 
 There are several other blues which at times have been 
 used as pigments either in oil or distemper. All of them 
 are now obsolete and their place taken by better ones. 
 The introduction of artificial ultramarine blue and of 
 Prussian blue has nearly destroyed the trade in other 
 blues; indigo and other vegetable blues of a similar 
 character being too fugitive and unstable in strong light, 
 and all of them are undesirable in many respects. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 BROWN PIGMENTS. UMBERS 
 
 RAW UMBER 
 Provenance and Chemistry 
 
 RAW UMBER is an earth pigment, and is found in every 
 part of the world. As may be supposed, it differs greatly 
 in quality as well as in composition, and its variations may 
 well be called numberless. 
 
 The umbers which have been found and mined so far in 
 America are very inferior in quality to that which has 
 come to be regarded as the standard by the color trade. 
 
 The umbers mined in England and upon the continent 
 of Europe come closer to the standard of excellence than 
 the American umbers do; still, they fall short. 
 
 That which is found in the island of Cyprus possesses 
 in the highest degree all the good points, consequently 
 it is the recognized standard. Some few samples are 
 mined in and imported from Asia Minor that are little 
 short of equaling the Cyprus umbers, and at one time 
 these were so abundant upon the market that umbers 
 of good quality were named after them; and even 
 to-day in the United States all good umbers are sold as 
 Turkey Umbers. 
 
 Umbers are mined like all earth pigments such as ochers, 
 etc., and in their natural state contain impurities which 
 are removed by levigations in the manner described under 
 ochers. 
 
 166 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS . 157 
 
 The coloring matter of umbers is due to both iron oxides 
 and to manganese dioxide. To the latter is no doubt due 
 its excellent drying qualities in oil. The following 
 analysis by Church shows the composition of a good 
 sample of Cyprus umber, such as is imported, and is 
 fairly representative of what the standard of excellence 
 should be: 
 
 Water given off at 100 C 4.8 
 
 Water given off at red heat 8.8 
 
 Iron oxide (Fe 2 2 ) 48.5 
 
 Manganese oxide 19.0 
 
 Lime 1.4 
 
 Magnesia 0.5 
 
 Phosphoric acid (P 2 5 ) 2.1 
 
 Silica 13.7 
 
 Carbonic acid, etc 0.3 
 
 100 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The color of a good raw umber should be a greenish 
 yellow brown, upon the citrine order when dry. It is 
 classed among the semi-transparent pigments. It can be 
 used in oil, japan varnish, or for distemper work, and in 
 any of the vehicles gives good satisfaction. Without 
 doubt it is the most useful of the brown pigments to be 
 found in the whole list. While umber is not so brilliant 
 as the burnt siennas, it can be used for a much wider 
 range of purposes, and it is a pure brown. The siennas, 
 or at least the burnt, should have been classed with the 
 reds, but the raw sienna is a true brown and this saves 
 a double classification of it. 
 
 All classes of painters regard umber as a necessity: 
 the house painter to mix tints from it for his drabs and 
 the various browns; the grainer for most all of his colors 
 either in oil or in distemper; the coach and car painter 
 for mixing many popular brown tints; the kalsominer 
 
158 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 and decorator for making wall tints; the frescoer and 
 decorators for mixing into tints and for solid work; the 
 japanner for the hundreds of browns and drabs of which 
 it is the foundation; and the artists in either oil or water- 
 colors. What would they do without it? 
 
 It is prepared by paint manufacturers in oil, japan 
 varnish, and in distemper. For the grinding of it in paste 
 form in oil, it takes up nearly as much linseed oil as do 
 the siennas. Next to these also, it is one of the hardest 
 of the earth pigments to grind. When ground in oil it 
 should be clear-toned without any muddiness, and when 
 greatly reduced in oil should not show any specks upon 
 glass. When so thinned out it should be transparent. 
 Quality gives umbers their chief value; the strength of 
 coloring matter comes only second to that. The first is 
 an easy thing to determine by one who is used to handling 
 them. To test for quality, it should be spread out with 
 the palette knife and smoothed over the glass. This will 
 enable one to notice the clearness of tone, its richness and 
 the fineness of grinding. If one has supplied himself 
 with a line of good artists' colors in tubes, placing a trifle 
 of that alongside of the one tested there will be no trouble 
 in coming to a right conclusion as to the merits of the 
 umber. It is a hard matter to convey by words, the exact 
 look a color should have, therefore the advice given 
 under directions for making color tests of providing a 
 full line of good artist colors to judge of the quality 
 value of pigments is again strongly urged. 
 
 The scale test as previously described, will easily detect 
 any undue weakness in the amount of coloring matter 
 contained, and, in a certain measure, the tints made from 
 them will help in forming an idea of the quality of the 
 umber. As to the strength of the coloring, one should 
 not be too quick in condemning the weaker simply 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 159 
 
 because it may not be as strong as another. Between 
 two umbers, equal in other respects, the better of the 
 two is the stronger; but between two samples one 
 of which is greatly superior to the other in quality 
 the poorer may possibly be the stronger. In such a case, 
 no mere strength can atone for lack of quality. Usu- 
 ally, however, the better the quality the stronger they 
 are, so that one need not fear the making of a test for 
 strength, as it is almost a sure thing that the best toned 
 will be also the strongest. 
 
 The better class of manufacturers are now putting out 
 their pure umbers under their names and also those of 
 dependable quality in their best grade. The others under 
 their names, also put out a pure umber, but sometimes it 
 is not of the best quality, and in reality inferior to a good 
 one that is adulterated. At the risk of becoming tedious 
 in repeating it, the caution is again given: Purity without 
 quality amounts to little in an umber. 
 
 Umbers are not affected injuriously by sunlight, impure 
 air, nor ordinary heat. By constant exposure to very 
 high temperatures, it becomes more reddish. 
 
 The raw umbers make permanent tints of great beauty 
 with either white lead or zinc white, chiefly of the drab 
 order. It is used also in the compounding of a wide 
 range of tints with other colored pigments, and for the 
 making of certain neutral greens it is indispensable to 
 artists and decorators. 
 
 .' : % 
 
 BURNT UMBER 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It is needless to repeat here what has been said under 
 the heading of raw umber, as very much, in fact nearly 
 the whole of it, applies with equal force to the burnt. 
 
160 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Aside from its tone, which is changed to a deep, rich 
 brown, all the rest applies to it. 
 
 As the name indicates, burnt umber is a calcined umber. 
 This calcination gives its rich brown color; and in the 
 better grades, it will be of a clear and pure tone of brown 
 and entirely free from redness. This is indeed remarkable, 
 and must be a peculiar property of the iron oxide con- 
 tained in the best grades of umber, for such a quantity 
 of iron oxide as was shown in the above analysis of raw 
 umber ought to make it of a decided red brown after 
 calcination, and the poorer sorts do show it. So far no 
 satisfactory explanations have been given which account 
 for this peculiarity. In the American and other inferior 
 kinds of umber, the reddish tone shows up, and that is a 
 "dead give-away" as to their provenance and quality; 
 so to correct it, these cheap umbers are compounded and 
 manipulated with a view of correcting this defect. They 
 are mixed with some of the semi-transparent black earths 
 to improve the tone and hide the reddishness of it as far 
 as possible. While the compounding kills to some degree 
 the redness of the umber, it does not entirely do so, and 
 the addition of the black earths renders the tone muddy, 
 and there is no clearness in them. The eye in most 
 instances is sufficient to detect the imposition. 
 
 Burnt umber is used for all kinds of painting, and for 
 the same purposes enumerated under the heading of raw 
 umber. It makes a different order of tints of drabs and 
 browns with the white bases, and can be associated with 
 any of the other permanent pigments for the production 
 of an innumerable variety of tints. Some painters have 
 complained of the tints made from it with white lead 
 as not being permanent. All pigments which contain 
 oxide of iron in its natural state, usually have it in an 
 hydrate form, and after calcination and constant exposure 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 161 
 
 there seems to be a slight return toward the natural 
 condition previous to calcination; but this in a good 
 umber is so very slight, that it would hardly be 
 noticeable. The probability is that in the case of 
 many of these complaints, the trouble was in the 
 sinking of the oil and the apparent bleaching out of 
 the lead. If linseed oil is applied over the faded 
 part, the color will be restored to its original tint 
 without loss of intensity. If the color is at fault, the 
 applying of the oil will not restore the color, if that is 
 gone. If one has such a trouble, it will be an easy 
 matter to test it, and to ascertain by the above simple 
 test where the fault lies. 
 
 There is such a thing as false economy; and that it 
 certainly is, to buy an inferior quality of burnt umber. 
 Much of the disappointment of painters in its use, arises 
 from the employment of poor or doctored umbers. 
 
 SIENNAS 
 
 General Characteristics and History 
 
 Siennas earths, for earth they are are really a 
 species of ochers and they do not differ greatly from 
 them in their chief constituents. It has already been 
 explained that many of the American ochers border 
 upon the threshold of the siennas, and on this 
 account it is sometimes very difficult to place them 
 properly. The more transparent of them are usually 
 sold as siennas. 
 
 Siennas, then, may be said to be transparent ocher of a 
 brownish yellow tone. The finest qualities come from 
 Italy, and, as their name, Terra di Sienna, indicates, are 
 mined near the city of Sienna. But it is found else- 
 where and of even better quality. The headquarters for 
 
162 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 the distribution of the siennas in Italy is the city of 
 Leghorn, and excellent beds of it are found in the 
 immediate vicinity. 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Siennas usually contain a larger percentage of ferric- 
 oxide hydrate than do most of the European ochers 
 proper, as the following analysis by C. H. Hurst indicates : 
 
 Hygroscopic water . . . . . 8 . 2 to 17 . 5 
 
 Combined water . . . . . .' 9.0 to 12. 4 
 
 Manganese dioxide . . . . . . . 6 to 1.5 
 
 Iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) 45.8 to 59.7 
 
 Silica 5.0 to 17.4 
 
 The above analysis covers the extremes, and varia- 
 tions will be found between the two. 
 
 Siennas are mined as other ochers are, and they have 
 to be purified in the same way and manner as was fully 
 indicated under that heading. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It is an easy matter to judge of the value of a 
 sienna. If the sample to be examined is ground in 
 oil, it should be spread upon a clean piece of glass in 
 the same manner as for the umbers. After smoothing 
 it over with the palette knife, one can judge of its 
 clearness of tone and transparency by holding it 
 between the eye and the light. Spreading with a 
 surplus of oil will indicate the fineness of the grinding. 
 If it has been properly ground it will be entirely free 
 from specks or cloudiness, and it should appear com- 
 pletely absorbed by the oil. In the raw sienna, the 
 tone should be a clear, subdued yellow, with just the 
 slightest tinge of brown showing in it. 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 163 
 
 RAW SIENNA 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Raw sienna is useful for a wide range of work, covering 
 all the various branches of painting. 
 
 To the graining trade especially it is most indispensable; 
 it could not be replaced with anything else. 
 
 The general house painter and the decorators depend 
 upon it for the making of many beautiful cream tints 
 in linseed oil, with the usual white bases or with whiting, 
 etc., for distemper wall work or decorations. 
 
 Raw siennas are absolutely permanent. No change 
 can take place in them when they are used alone and 
 when mixed with other pigments; the only changes are 
 such as take place in the pigments with which they are 
 mixed and which are inherent to them, and, of course, such 
 changes as are natural to the vehicles used in their appli- 
 cation. 
 
 BURNT SIENNA 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 As the name indicates, this is the raw sienna after it 
 has been calcined. The roasting or burning produces a 
 very great change in the color of the raw sienna. It 
 transforms its color from a yellowish brown to a beautiful 
 subdued red-brown of great richness. So rich is it, 
 indeed, in some of the better samples, as to create the 
 impression in the beholder's mind that possibly it might 
 have been tampered with, and had been "fixed up" and 
 enriched by the addition of a lake. Yet in all the best 
 and finest qualities of that pigment, this richness is 
 inherent in the sienna itself and this tone is 
 permanent, which it would not be were it put there by 
 laking it up. 
 
164 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is the practice of some color makers to use two differ- 
 ent kinds of burnt siennas in their grindings. They 
 choose among the samples of native siennas such as are 
 very strong in coloring matter, and these they grind for 
 the general trade, who use siennas mainly in the making 
 of tints with white lead or white zinc in oil or with whit- 
 ing in distemper. A word must be put in here regarding 
 the making of tints with burnt siennas. Even the very 
 best of them do not give as good satisfaction as might 
 be expected from such fine pigments. The range of tints 
 made from burnt sienna and the white bases are at best 
 but indifferent, and as good or better can be made from 
 the use of Venetian red ocher with the faint addition 
 of black, at a less cost for material and with equally as 
 good results as far as durability goes. The grinders, being 
 aware of this peculiarity, therefore, use an indifferently- 
 toned burnt sienna which is strong in coloring matter 
 but deficient in richness; and as this richness is only 
 apparent when the burnt sienna is used as a self color, it 
 does not matter. This is sometimes labeled as House 
 Painters' Burnt Sienna to distinguish it from the other 
 grinding which they make of the rich transparent kind, 
 and which is labeled by them as Grainers' Burnt Sienna. 
 This is intended for use as a self color, and, as such, all the 
 richness is appreciated fully, and by none more than the 
 grainers and decorators; this is selected for the very 
 purpose for which the grainers need them, transparency, 
 richness and clearness, associated with impalpably fine 
 grinding. These are not strong as a rule, and, in testing 
 a sienna for values, the mere strength should never be 
 taken into consideration in estimating the higher grades. 
 
 Volumes might be written, but all would not be said 
 about the uses and abuses of the siennas. They have 
 many friends among all classes of painters and artists, 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 165 
 
 and the few who have any trouble with them will find 
 that they themselves are to be blamed for having used 
 them for purposes and under circumstances where they 
 should not have been employed. 
 
 VAN DYKE BROWN 
 
 Provenance and Preparation 
 
 Van Dyke brown is a pigment of bituminous character, 
 and is usually found in or near bogs. Many theories have 
 been advanced as to what it really is. Some suppose it 
 to be a form of lignite, resulting from the decomposition 
 of vegetation. However that may be, it contains more 
 or less bitumen. It is found in England and Ireland, 
 but the best that is upon the market is that which is 
 imported from Cassel, in Germany. 
 
 Vandyke brown is known as cassel earth in many parts 
 of the world. It contains iron, and should be calcined 
 and well cleaned of its impurities before grinding. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Vandyke brown is used by grainers in both oil and in 
 distemper, and by some in the coloring of fillers for fur- 
 niture factories. It is not a permanent pigment, and 
 becomes lighter and redder by exposure to sunlight. It 
 is a very powerful anti-drier in linseed oil. It therefore 
 requires the greatest of care in use. In tone it has a 
 peculiarly pleasing walnut brown, different from that of 
 any other pigment. It is very transparent, and that 
 would make it an ideal grainer's pigment. 
 
 But, on account of its defects, it is being gradually 
 replaced by burnt umber, tinged to imitate its tone and 
 to correspond so nearly to it as to deceive the casual 
 observer. 
 
166 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that tints made from 
 it with the whites are subject to fade from the same 
 causes which affect the color when it is used by itself, 
 and as all the tints which can be made from it are readily 
 reproduced by using burnt umber, black and blue, and 
 that when they are so made they are permanent, the use 
 of Vandyke brown for the making of tints has nearly 
 become obsolete, and is hardly ever resorted to except 
 by novices. 
 
 The grainers will hardly be willing to part with it for 
 distemper work in the graining of walnut. It is better 
 suited to that than any other, as on account of its trans- 
 parency there is a depth of tone shown under varnish, 
 which is unattainable by the use of any brown pigment. 
 
 METALLIC BROWNS 
 
 Preparation and Manufacture 
 
 Under that generic appellation, some excellent pig- 
 ments are produced in the United States. All are native 
 iron ores or highly ferruginous earths mined in all parts 
 of the country, but especially in the Appalachian system 
 of mountains of the eastern seaboard, extending from 
 Pennsylvania in the north to Alabama in the south. 
 The Rocky Mountain system contains also some fine 
 samples of these, and here and there are found outcrops 
 of them in the great valley between the two. This ore 
 or iron earth is calcined by roasting, pulverized, levigated, 
 dried and barreled, and is then ready for market. There 
 is a great deal of variation in its character and in the 
 amount of ferric-oxide coloring matter it contains. 
 
 The samples vary in the percentage of color contained 
 to a greater degree than any of the earth colors, ranging 
 from nearly nothing to 90 per cent of iron oxide. The 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 167 
 
 bases upon which the coloring iron oxide rests vary 
 almost as much as that. Most of these browns contain 
 so much coloring matter that the color itself is really the 
 base, and the other matter found with it is of so small 
 a percentage that its presence is merely to be considered 
 incidental. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The metallic browns mix readily and absorb a fair 
 quantity of linseed oil as a rule, the nature of the accom- 
 panying base having something to do with that. They 
 range in tint from bright red brown to dark purple, 
 and all sorts of intermediate shades between these 
 extremes. 
 
 Metallic browns are extensively used for roof and barn 
 painting, the painting of iron bridges, structural iron and 
 steel, freight cars, etc.; in short, for nearly everything 
 where a good substantial covering is required, where the 
 main consideration is good service, but does not lie in 
 the beauty of the finish. 
 
 They are also useful in the making of certain brown 
 tints, either alone or as adjuncts to other pigments. 
 The manufacturers of mixed paints use tons in their 
 better grades either as bases for the darker tints or as 
 tinting colors in the making of certain shades. 
 
 They are fairly permanent, showing little tendency 
 to change, other than that pertaining to all iron oxide 
 pigments that of darkening by age but linseed 
 oil probably is the cause of as much of it as the 
 pigment. No one should hesitate to use them for 
 all kinds of work where a cheap, but dependable paint 
 of no special beauty is required. They can be much 
 improved in looks by combining with some of the 
 brighter pigments. 
 
168 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 They possess great covering properties, and one coat, 
 even when thinned excessively with linseed oil, will 
 usually cover solid any other color over which it is 
 applied. 
 
 It commonly comes in the dry state packed in barrels 
 of 300 pounds capacity. It is ground in oil also, and 
 put up in the familiar tin packages and wooden kegs and 
 barrels. 
 
 SPANISH BROWN 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 To all intents and purposes, this pigment might have 
 been included with the mineral browns. As a distinctive 
 appellation to designate a shade of brown color, it has 
 no signification whatever to-day, whatever it may have 
 had in that regard in the past. It is still known and 
 sold under that name in many localities, but this is 
 chiefly confined to Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the 
 eastern and southern seaboard. Since the advent of 
 the metallic browns, the name has become a memory 
 with the older painters of the middle and western states, 
 and is almost unknown to the younger generation of the 
 craft. 
 
 All that can be said for it is that under the name, any- 
 thing, or rather any kind of a dirty red brown earth, is 
 usually sold as such, and the grades of metallic browns, 
 which are sometimes sold as Spanish Brown, are of a 
 lower order than are those sold under other names. 
 
 The use of the name should be discouraged as it is not 
 best to have confusing elements. The nomenclature of 
 pigments is complex enough to suit the most fastidious, 
 and the purpose should be to keep it as simple as possible. 
 
 Other substances have been and are listed as brown 
 pigments by certain houses catering to the artist's trade. 
 
BROWN PIGMENTS 169 
 
 None of these have any special virtues worth noticing 
 here and they are passed by. Most of them are but 
 variations of some of those that are listed and described 
 such as bister and asphaltum and are so undesirable, 
 even for artists' use, that they, as well as the painters and 
 decorators, might profitably learn to dispense with them 
 as pigments, whatever value they may have in other 
 respects. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 BLACK PIGMENTS 
 
 LAMP BLACK 
 
 Chemistry and Manufacture 
 
 THERE cannot possibly be any hesitation or uncertainty 
 experienced in selecting a black for first place on the 
 list. This place belongs by common consent to lamp 
 black. Although it is far from being the blackest black, 
 or the purest toned black, it must be accorded first 
 place, because of its greater usefulness over any of the 
 other blacks. 
 
 Lamp black is a soot, produced by the incomplete 
 combustion of resins, resinous woods, fats and fatty oils, 
 paraffin and paraffin oils. These substances are burned 
 with an insufficient supply of air, so that a considerable 
 portion of the carbon they contain may be deposited as 
 soot. The soot thus produced is far from being pure 
 carbon, and, of necessity, much of the tarry products of 
 imperfect production or destructive distillation are present 
 in combination with it. These foreign admixtures give 
 it the undesirable tones to be found in the inferior grades. 
 Owing to their greasiness it is almost impossible to use 
 them with linseed oil, as they are highly non-drying. 
 Much of the impurity is deposited in or near the first 
 receiving chamber, and the lamp black which is deposited 
 the farthest away from where the substances are burned 
 is the freest from impurities. 
 
 170 
 
BLACK PIGMENTS 171 
 
 Calcination in an intense red heat burns up most of 
 these non-drying oils and tarry products and then the 
 lamp black is perfect. The first that is deposited is 
 usually sold dry in the well-known small paper cones, 
 and these bear no manufacturers' names. The rest is 
 selected and graded according to its color and freedom 
 of foreign matter. Usually there are three qualities 
 selected besides the inferior one mentioned. 
 
 Some substances produce a better lamp black than 
 others, and there are many little tricks of trade and 
 manipulations known to and employed by certain manu- 
 facturers that are probably not known to others, as some 
 do produce much better blacks from the same material. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Lamp black being nearly pure carbon is inalterable 
 and is absolutely permanent and unchangeable. 
 
 The oft-cited signboard left and forgotten for genera- 
 tions in the back yard, and which has had its ground 
 coats of white paint eaten away, and where the board 
 itself is disappearing in the shape of lint picked up by 
 birds, for the making of their nests, until the black letter- 
 ing painted upon it originally, stands out as if carved 
 out from the wood, in bold relief among the general 
 decadence surrounding it, is a very good illustration of 
 its permanency and preserving powers. Such old-time 
 signboards may be found and noticed in any neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 Lamp black seems to act as a preservative from decay 
 to the linseed oil and to help it postpone indefinitely the 
 day when it should go the way of all flesh and perish. 
 
 One of the chief uses of lamp black is in the making 
 of gray tints with white lead and zinc white, as the tints 
 so made are free from the brown gray tones so objection- 
 
172 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 able in some of the bone blacks, and especially of the red 
 brown grays produced by the use of gas or carbon blacks. 
 The lamp blacks give a clear-toned clean bluish gray, or 
 rather the cast of it, as it is not a blue tone at all. These 
 grays are distinctively its property, and through them 
 may be distinguished its purity and quality. Lamp 
 black is very strong in coloring matter, and its strength 
 makes it an economical tinting agent. 
 
 For solid painting, where an intense black is required, 
 it may not be as good as some of the bone blacks, but 
 when any solid black painting is done, where intensity of 
 tone is not of the first importance, its use will prove much 
 the most satisfactory. 
 
 On account of the lightness of its weight and conse- 
 quent bulkiness, it is very difficult to mix it with water. 
 It floats, and no amount of ducking it under will make 
 it stay down. When it is wanted for use in distemper, 
 it should first be mixed to a stiff paste with vinegar, in 
 which liquid it is not so refractory as it is in water. It 
 can afterwards be thinned with glue water and used for 
 the making of tints or by itself as desired. 
 
 From its great bulk it may be well surmised that it 
 absorbs great quantities of linseed oil, and it surely does. 
 In fact, it absorbs more than any of the other pigments. 
 Owing to the great quantity of oil it absorbs, many 
 grinders cannot resist the temptation to add some 
 barytes to it. This can be done without the use of any 
 additional oil, but this can be detected readily by the 
 smaller-sized packages required to pack any given weight 
 of it. The smarter ones put some bulky stuff along with 
 it, and then the eye will not suffice, and a scale test will 
 be required to determine its purity. There should be 
 but very little difference between two samples of equal 
 purity, as to their strength. However, one may have 
 
BLACK PIGMENTS 173 
 
 been ground with more oil than another, or have lain 
 upon the shelves until the oil has risen; therefore the 
 samples should be placed upon a piece of blotting paper 
 and the oil extracted from them so all may be used in 
 the same form of a very stiff paste before weighing them. 
 A good lamp black, even the very best, is never of a jet 
 tone, and alongside of a good bone black it looks grayish 
 black. Therefore, if it looks blacker than it should to 
 a person in the habit of using lamp black, it is possible 
 and nearly certain that it has been bolstered up with an 
 admixture of gas black. 
 
 It is, or rather has been, the habit of some grinders 
 of small reputation as to the class of colors they put out, 
 to use a cheap or poor lamp black and to color it up with 
 carbon black, so that it will pass muster. If this is sus- 
 pected, it can be quickly determined by simply using a 
 little with some white lead which should make a gray tint 
 of it. If it produces the usual gray without any brownish 
 hue to it, the lamp black is all right; if, however, the tint 
 so made does show a brownish tone, a solemn oath can 
 be taken, without fear of perjuring one's self, that 
 the black has been tampered with and that the tam- 
 pering agent is gas or carbon black. Any court would 
 clear one of perjury after reading the evidence presented 
 by a chemical analysis and the sworn statements of 
 its examination by experts. 
 
 GAS OR CARBON BLACK 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Gas or Carbon black, as it is indifferently called, is 
 really only a variety of lamp black. It is produced in a 
 similar manner as that pigment, but with this difference, 
 that it is made exclusively from the incomplete combus- 
 
174 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 tion of natural gas. It is therefore the soot produced 
 by that commodity. 
 
 It is readily distinguishable from true lamp black in 
 that it is by far the blacker looking black of the two, and 
 that for jettiness, true lamp black alongside of it is 
 not in it. 
 
 While the tone of this black is very superior to 
 lamp black, it possesses some very grave defects that 
 have in a great measure prevented its adoption for 
 general use. Should these defects ever be satisfactorily 
 overcome, it then would become the black, for solid 
 painting at least. 
 
 One of its principal faults is that when mixed with 
 linseed oil, it livers it. In trade parlance, liver ing means 
 that peculiar action some pigments have of turning the 
 oil into a jelly-like condition; it thickens to such an 
 extent that it cannot be used with the brush in painting. 
 
 The livering of gas black is prevented to a certain extent 
 by compounding it with other pigments, and the best use 
 that is made of carbon black is when it is associated with 
 other blacks. The sign writer's so-called blacks are 
 usually compounded from true lamp black and carbon 
 blacks. 
 
 Its one other great fault has been noted already. It 
 makes very poor grays, and, while a true lamp black can 
 be improved with it in self color for solid black painting, 
 yet on account of its poorness for tints it must be con- 
 sidered as an adulterant, as the innocent purchaser 
 might want it for the making of tints, and in that case he 
 is simply swindled. Why not sell each for what it is 
 and let the painters do their own compounding? In the 
 case of a sign-writer's black, it is different. Then it is 
 not passed as a lamp black or any particular black, and 
 the name itself indicates that it is to be used for solid 
 
BLACK PIGMENTS 175 
 
 painting. If one uses it for making tints, he does so at 
 his own risk, because the label does not convey any idea 
 of its fitness for it. 
 
 Some manufacturers have put out carbon blacks under 
 various names, but, for probably good reasons, none of 
 them have become very popular so far; and while they 
 seem to have stopped the livering of it, this may have 
 been done at the expense of another quality of the pig- 
 ment which has been disturbed by the addition of the 
 preventive. Be that as it may, it certainly is a fine- 
 looking black, and it is a pity that it does not possess the 
 other good qualities of lamp black; if it did that would 
 not be in it. 
 
 Its best use has been upon ship work. Steamships 
 painted with it look immensely better than when painted 
 with ordinary lamp black. Nearly all the transatlantic 
 lines now use it regularly for that purpose. 
 
 IVORY BLACK DROP BLACK COACH BLACK 
 
 Manufacture and Preparation 
 
 Ivory black, drop black and coach black form a trinity of 
 blacks, but in reality are but one and the same black, with 
 the exception hereafter named. So it is thought best to 
 bunch them under one head. 
 
 The above blacks are all bone black. The bone black 
 selected for their manufacture should be from the hardest 
 and jettiest samples. 
 
 Bone black would be too common a name for these 
 blacks, and probably for that reason it has been dubbed 
 ivory black. It stands to reason that as there is scarcely 
 enough ivory in existence to supply the demand for ivory 
 black in the United States alone for a single year, let 
 alone the demands that exist for it in Europe and all 
 
176 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 civilized countries, the black that is sold under that 
 name cannot be it. 
 
 Bone black is properly animal charcoal. This is made 
 upon the same principle as wood charcoal. The bones 
 are placed in a retort and are calcined in a hot furnace 
 where atmospheric air is excluded. The better qualities 
 of bone black are made from selected hard bones such as 
 animals' teeth, etc. The resulting bone charcoal is pul- 
 verized before placing upon the market. 
 
 The variety of it known as drop black is the same black 
 made into little cones of the shape and size of a large 
 chocolate drop in which form it was more familiar 
 to old-time painters than to those of the present day. 
 These little cones resulted from the bone black, which, 
 after grinding, had been mixed with water (holding a slight 
 adhesive in solution) into a stiff paste, and the little dabs 
 of it placed upon trays to dry were the cones or drops 
 which gave the bone black the name it still carries to-day 
 minus the drops. The drops were placed upon a 
 marble slab and ground with oil with a muller after first 
 crushing it. That made life a burden, or at least the 
 painters of that period thought so, for, if they had a large 
 job upon which it had to be used, it meant the spending 
 of their evenings till ten or eleven o'clock grinding away 
 for dear life. 
 
 Ivory and drop black have a small admixture of 
 Prussian blue added to them to correct any brownish 
 tone. Coach black has no blue added to its bone black 
 composition. That is all the difference that there is 
 between them. A color manufacturer, to whom the 
 writer had once made the same criticism, laughingly 
 replied that there was still another difference which had 
 been forgotten, and when asked what this was replied, 
 " 'The different labels upon the cans." 
 
BLACK PIGMENTS 177 
 
 The ivory blacks are used in oil, japan, varnish and 
 water. They are good blacks when well made and are 
 used in all mediums. As an oil color they are usually 
 too transparent to use for solid painting, except as a last 
 coat over a previous solid one of lamp black, where that 
 color is insufficiently black to suit. They are excellent 
 in distemper, and the grainers find them advantageous 
 for their work in either distemper or oil, for the 
 working in of dark veins, knots or shades, for which 
 they are admirably adapted on account of their trans- 
 parency. 
 
 In japan they are invaluable to the car and carriage 
 painters. The carriage manufacturers use enormous 
 quantities of it in the painting of buggies, surreys, coaches, 
 etc., not only for the solid black painting, but for the 
 mixing of the numberless dark greens used by the trade 
 in the painting of everything that runs on wheels. 
 
 Formerly every carriage shop used to buy the various 
 colors ground separately and mix the various shades in the 
 shop as wanted, but now few of them do so, and these 
 various dark greens under an array of magnificent names 
 are compounded and made to match at color works where 
 the proper facilities exist for handling them to the best 
 advantage and with the most assurance of duplicating 
 them semper idem. The multitude of names given 
 special blacks, or rather grindings of them, is bewildering, 
 as every manufacturer has a long list of his own which 
 he tries to make as puzzling as he can, and besides 
 that he has a number of special-formula blacks which he 
 grinds for certain carriage factories, each having a special 
 name. One may as well look for a needle in a haystack as 
 to try to understand the average coach color list. About 
 the only indication of quality is the net price, and fre- 
 quently even that is not. 
 
178 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 All this confusion about an article which, when let 
 alone, is purely bone black, looks to the disinterested 
 spectator as if there might be some money in it, or it 
 could not be kept up. If goods were simply labeled and 
 sold for what they were, as first, second, third, or fourth 
 quality, or as compounds of this and that, then it would 
 be easy for one to know what he was buying; while, if the 
 average buyer can be puzzled, there exists a chance to 
 demand an undue profit. 
 
 The ivory blacks are also used largely by the 
 japanning plants, enameling works of all kinds, bicycle 
 factories, etc., they are very permanent under any and 
 all situations. 
 
 CHARCOAL BLACK, OR BLUE BLACK 
 
 Preparation, Properties', and Uses 
 
 As the name of this pigment indicates, or at least one of 
 the two names under which it is known in the United 
 States does give an inkling of its origin. Charcoal black 
 is a product due to combustion, and, like ivory black, it is 
 also a charcoal, but there is no bone or any sort of 
 animal matter in its composition. It is a wood charcoal 
 and of vegetable origin. 
 
 The wood used in the making of it has a great deal to do 
 with its quality. This wood should be entirely free from 
 resinous matter. Some of the best of it is produced by the 
 calcination in a close vessel at a high heat of peach and 
 plum pits, cocoanut shells, cork waste, grape-vine cuttings, 
 etc., the powdered charcoal of which forms the blue black 
 of commerce. 
 
 It is, of course, essential in a good black that the cal- 
 cination should be thoroughly done, so that the product 
 may be free from any tarry or empyreumatic substances. 
 
BLACK PIGMENTS 179 
 
 Blue black is unchangeable and entirely reliable in dis- 
 temper work, and for that purpose is the black par ex- 
 cellence. Decorators arid artists use it mostly, and that 
 only in water colors. It is also used occasionally by some 
 grainers. 
 
 In oil it has little if any body, and for that reason is 
 seldom, if ever, used but as a glazing color, or for shading, 
 and obtaining certain effects of depth unattainable with 
 body pigments. 
 
 GRAPHITE, BLACK LEAD, OR PLUMBAGO 
 
 Production and Preparation 
 
 Graphite is the name under which this substance is best 
 known as a pigment in the United States, and is a mineral 
 carbon of a peculiar atomic formation. It is found in all 
 parts of the known world with considerable difference in 
 its quality, sometimes varying a good deal in the same 
 ledge or vein. 
 
 That found in the Ural Mountains in Russia is the best 
 of any mined in the Old World. Mexico produces the 
 best that has been found so far in the New World. There 
 is much of it mined in the United States, especially in 
 New England, and it exists in New York State in the Lake 
 Champlain region. It is seldom found in a state of entire 
 purity, and calcination is the means usually employed to 
 free it from impurities. The ashes of these are removed 
 by levigation. After repeated washings, it should be 
 digested with a strong solution of hydrochloric acid to 
 remove any iron or alumina. After another levigating 
 it is washed in a leaden vessel with hydrofluoric acid to 
 remove the silica. After another thorough washing 
 and grinding to reduce it to a fine powder, it is ready 
 for use. 
 
180 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 For distemper work it can be relied upon never to 
 change. It is also permanent in oil, and when ground in 
 that media it is of a dark slate color. It is an excellent iron 
 paint, and is now extensively used for that purpose and as 
 a paint for tin roofs. The dullness of its color is against 
 it for anything but utilitarian purposes. 
 
 One great fault with it is that it shows markings readily, 
 and a surface painted with it soon resembles a huge slate 
 upon which everything that touches it with a little force, 
 leaves its mark; unfortunately, unlike a slate, it cannot 
 be sponged off. 
 
 There are a number of other black and semi-black 
 pigments that might be added to the above list, but they 
 are mostly obsolete, or of such a nature that they do not 
 deserve notice. For instance, certain black or semi- 
 black natural earths sometimes listed in catalogues as 
 Mineral Blacks have never had any standing, nor have 
 they ever received the recognition of the paint trade. 
 They have mainly served the purpose of swelling the 
 lists of a few paint grinders who may possibly have local 
 trade in them for special purposes to which they may be 
 adapted or used through ignorance of better. 
 
 Such blacks as India ink, which are principally special 
 preparations of lamp black, do not come within the scope 
 of this treatise. 
 
 The above comprises all the useful pigments. There 
 are many compounds that are palmed off upon the public 
 as pigments which will be vainly looked for here. Such 
 have no more legitimate right to the name than would 
 have any others of the thousands of tints made by the 
 combination of true pigments. For instance, the stuff 
 sold under the name of Gray Ocher, is not an ocher at all, 
 and is a poor compound of shale or soft, crushed stone. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 A TABLE OF SYNONYMS 
 
 No little confusion exists in the minds of many men, 
 as to what is the right or proper name for certain pigments. 
 When they happen to know a pigment by a given name, 
 and it happens that this pigment is offered them by a 
 dealer or is listed in a catalogue under another title, they 
 are deterred from using it, as they cannot recognize it 
 under its other name, and they suppose it to be entirely 
 different from the one they want. 
 
 It is deplorable that there is no universally acknowl- 
 edged nomenclature for pigments that would be recog- 
 nized in all languages all over the world, or even an 
 acknowledged nomenclature for the English speaking 
 nations. 
 
 Custom in the United States is beginning to fix definite 
 meanings to certain designations, whereby a few of the 
 pigments and their different, qualities may be known, but 
 the work is far from complete and from being universally 
 acknowledged even by our nation alone. So in Canada, 
 Australia, New Zealand, the British Isles, where trade 
 connections are not very close with us, the variations 
 are bound to be greater than the ones which exist here 
 where the usages of the paint trade have established a 
 quasi-uniformity in a few of the leading pigments at 
 least. 
 
 The names which have been adopted in this treatise 
 and which have been given to the various pigments, are 
 
 181 
 
182 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 those under which they are principally known and sold 
 in the United States. 
 
 In the following tables the name adopted as standard 
 in the preceding chapters for each pigment will be given 
 preference. It will be placed in the left column. The 
 synonyms under which the pigment is also known will be 
 found in the column upon the right, and all bracketed 
 together when more than one is used. 
 
 Thus any one seeking information concerning a pig- 
 ment which he knows under another name than that 
 which is given it in the treatise, can readily find it by 
 looking for it in the right column of the group of colors 
 to which it belongs, then, having found it, look at the left 
 column, where he will find the name adopted for that 
 same color, under which name he will find the des- 
 cription he seeks. 
 
 To facilitate the finding of the names, the same classi- 
 fication and grouping have been followed as in the descrip- 
 tion given the pigments. This renders the finding of any 
 certain color's names an easy task. 
 
 TABLE OF SYNONYMS 
 
 The White Pigments 
 
 White lead 
 
 Flake white. 
 Cremnitz white. 
 Silver white, or 
 
 Blanc d'argent. 
 Cerusa or ceruse. 
 Cremser weiss (Ger.). 
 Blanc de plomb (Fr.). 
 f Chinese white. 
 
 Zinc white 
 
 Blanc de zinc (Fr.). 
 
 {Carbonate of lime. 
 Spanish white. 
 Paris white. 
 
TABLE OF SYNONYMS 
 
 183 
 
 Kaolin . . . 
 Gypsum . . 
 
 White silicate 
 
 Baryta white 
 
 China clay. 
 Sulphate of lime. 
 Silver white. 
 Powdered silica. 
 Barytes. 
 
 Sulphate of barium. 
 Floated barytes. 
 Heavy spar. 
 Permanent white. 
 Permanent weiss (Ger.). 
 Blanc fixe (Fr.). 
 
 The Yellow Pigments 
 
 Ocher 
 
 Chrome yellow 
 
 Baryta lemon yellow 
 
 Gamboge 
 Aureolin 
 
 Indian yellow 
 
 Yellow ocher. 
 French ocher. 
 Roman ocher. 
 Mineral yellow. 
 Brown ocher. 
 American ocher. 
 Oxford ocher. 
 Mars yellow. 
 Mars orange. 
 Artificial ocher. 
 Gelben ocher (Ger.). 
 Mars gelb (Ger.). 
 Ochre jaune (Fr.). 
 Jaune de Mars (Fr.). 
 
 Chrome. 
 
 Chromate of lead. 
 Canary chrome yellow. 
 Lemon chrome yellow. 
 Orange chrome yellow. 
 Crom gelb (Ger.). 
 Chrome jaune (Fr.). 
 
 Baryta yellow. 
 
 Barium chromate. 
 
 Yellow ultramarine. 
 
 Permanent yellow. 
 
 Gomme gutte. 
 [Cobalt yellow. 
 {Kobalt gelb (Ger.). 
 I Jaune de cobalt (Fr.). 
 rPiuri. 
 
 Puree. 
 jPeori. 
 
 Indisch gelb (Ger.) 
 Uaune Indien (Fr.). 
 
184 
 
 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Naples yellow 
 
 Dutch pink 
 
 King's yellow 
 
 Cadmium yellow 
 
 Giallo di Napoli (It.). 
 Neapel gelb (Ger.). 
 Jaune de Naples (Fr.). 
 Jaune d'antimoine (Fr.). 
 
 Yellow lake. 
 Brown pink. 
 Citrine lake. 
 Yellow madder. 
 Italian pink. 
 Quercitron lake. 
 Dunkel gelb lack (Ger.). 
 Laque brun jaune (Fr.). 
 
 Orpiment. 
 Konigs gelb (Ger.). 
 Jaune royal (Fr.). 
 
 Orient yellow. 
 Aurora yellow. 
 Orange cadmium. 
 Sulphide of cadmium. 
 Cadmium gelb (Ger.). 
 Jaune de cadmium (Fr.). 
 Jaune brilliant (Fr.). 
 
 The Red Pigments 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Vermilions Reds or Imitation 
 Vermilions , 
 
 American vermilion 
 
 Venetian red 
 
 Indian red 
 
 Cinnabar. 
 English vermilion. 
 Chinese vermilion. 
 Zunsober (Ger.). 
 Vermilion (Fr.). 
 
 Sold under a multitude of pro- 
 prietary names. 
 Chromate of lead. 
 
 Rouge. 
 
 Crocus. 
 
 Colcothar. 
 
 Caput mortuum vitrioli. 
 
 Burnt ocher. 
 
 Sinoper (Ger.). 
 
 Rouge de Venise (Fr.), 
 
 Ochre rouge (Fr.). 
 
 Persian red. 
 Indian red ocher. 
 Indische roth (Ger.). 
 Rouge d'Inde (Fr.). 
 
TABLE OF SYNONYMS 
 
 185 
 
 Madder lakes 
 
 Indian lake 
 
 Carmine 
 
 Red ocher 
 
 Red lead 
 
 Pink madder lake. 
 Rose madder lake. 
 Madder carmine. 
 Madder red. 
 Rubens madder. 
 Madder purple. 
 Madder lake. 
 Madder brown. 
 Krapp lack (Ger.). 
 Carmm de Garance (Fr.) 
 Laque de Garance (Fr.). 
 
 Lac lake. 
 
 Lack lack (Ger.). 
 
 Laque d'Inde (Fr.). 
 
 rimson lake. 
 Purple lake. 
 Carmin lack (Ger.). 
 "armin (Fr.) 
 Laque Cramoisi (Fr.). 
 
 Red hematite. 
 Red iron ore. 
 Scarlet ocher. 
 Red chalk. 
 Ruddle. 
 Terra rosa. 
 Miltos. 
 Rubrica. 
 Sinopis. 
 Sinoper. 
 
 Ochre roth (Ger.). 
 Ochre rouge (Fr.). 
 f Minium 
 l-Monium rubrum 
 
 The Green Pigments 
 
 Chrome yellow 
 
 Cobalt green 
 
 Extra light chrome green. 
 Light chrome green. 
 Medium chrome green. 
 Dark chrome green, 
 
 and a host of proprietary names. 
 
 Zinc green. 
 Rinkman's green. 
 Kobalt grim (Ger.). 
 Vert de cobalt (Fr.). 
 Vert de zinc (Fr.). 
 
186 
 
 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Viridian 
 
 Terre verte 
 
 Green oxide of chromium . 
 
 Malachite 
 
 Paris green 
 
 Scheele's green 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Emerald oxide of chromium. 
 Mittler's grim (Ger.). 
 Vert panettier (Fr.). 
 Vert de Guimet (Fr.). 
 Vert emeraude (Fr.). 
 
 Green earth. 
 Grim erde (Ger.). 
 Terre de Verone (Fr.). 
 Terra verde (Ital.). 
 
 {Chromium sesquioxide. 
 Opaque oxide of chromium. 
 Grimes chromoxyd (Ger.). 
 Vert de chrome (Fr.). 
 
 Green verditer. 
 
 Green bice. 
 
 Mountain green. 
 
 Green carbonate of copper. 
 
 Berg grim (Ger.). 
 
 Vert de Montagne (Fr.). 
 
 (Emerald green . D K, & f\ {} N/ 
 
 JCupric aceto arsenite. 
 (Schweinfurts grim (Ger.). 
 IVert Paul Verone (Fr.). 
 
 Cupric arsenite. 
 Swedish green. 
 Mittis green. 
 Scheele's grim (Ger.). 
 Vert de Scheele (Fr.). 
 
 Basic copper acetate. 
 Griinspan (Ger.). 
 Vert de gris (Fr.). 
 Vert de Montpelliers (Fr.). 
 
 The Blue Pigmenti 
 
 Ultramarine blue 
 
 Chinese blue 
 
 New blue. 
 French blue. 
 Permanent blue. 
 Gmelin's blue. 
 Guimet's blue. 
 Lapis lazuli blau (Ger.). 
 Lasurestein blau (Ger.). 
 Bleu d'azur (Fr.). 
 Bleu d'outremer (Fr.). 
 
 Soluble blue. 
 
TABLE OF SYNONYMS 
 
 187 
 
 Prussian blue 
 
 Cobalt blue 
 
 Ceruleurn 
 
 Chessylite 
 
 Turner's blue. 
 Antwerp blue. 
 Berlin blue. 
 Prussiate of iron. 
 Chinese blue. 
 Saxon blue. 
 Pariser blau (Ger.). 
 Bleu de Berlin (Fr.). 
 
 fKobalt blau (Ger.). 
 | Bleu de cobalt (Fr.). 
 [Bleu de Thenard (Fr.). 
 
 Coelin. 
 Cerulian. 
 Cerulean blue. 
 Coelin blau (Ger.). 
 Blue celeste (Fr.). 
 
 Blue verditer. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Mountain blue. 
 
 Azurite. 
 
 Berg blau (Ger.). 
 
 Cendres bleus (Fr.). 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Royal blue. 
 
 Dumont's blue. 
 
 Zaffre. 
 
 Srnalte (Ger.). 
 
 Bleu de smalte (Fr.). 
 
 The Brown Pigments 
 
 Raw and burnt umber 
 
 Raw and burnt sienna 
 
 English umber. 
 American umber. 
 Levant umber. 
 Turkish umber. 
 Cyprus umber. 
 Umbraun (Ger.). 
 Terre d'ombre (Fr.). 
 Terra ombra (Ital.). 
 
 Italian sienna. 
 American sienna. 
 Siena erde (Ger.). 
 Terre de sienne (Fr.). 
 Terra di sienna (Ital.). 
 
188 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Vandyke brown 
 
 Cologne earth. 
 Cassel earth. 
 Collen earth. 
 Cassel erde (Ger.). 
 Brun de Vandyke (Fr.). 
 
 The Black Pigments 
 
 T JRuss (Ger.). 
 
 Lamp black | Noir ^ fmnee (Fr }> 
 
 Drop black. 
 
 Coach black, and in japan or 
 
 Ivory black J varnish a host of proprietary 
 
 names . 
 
 Elfenbein schwartz (Ger.). 
 Noir d'ivoire (Fr.). 
 
 Gas black /Carbon black; in oil or japan and 
 
 I a host of proprietary names. 
 
 [Blue black. 
 
 Vine black. 
 Charcoal black {Frankfort black. 
 
 Frankfurter schwartz (Ger.). 
 ^Noir de vigne (Fr.). 
 
 Graphite- /Black lead. 
 
 (Plumbago. 
 
 As many of the artist's tube colors are imported from 
 Germany and France, such as De La Croix, etc., it was 
 thought best to give the names of most pigments in the 
 languages of those countries as the names upon the 
 labels are in those languages. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 VEHICLES USED IN MIXING PIGMENTS 
 THE FIXED OILS 
 
 PIGMENTS require various thinning liquids, so that they 
 can be applied with a brush to the surfaces which they 
 are to cover over. These liquids must possess binding 
 qualities so that the pigments may be adhesively 
 retained upon the surfaces. 
 
 Some of the vehicles, as these liquids are called, possess 
 within themselves the requisite binding properties; others 
 do not, and must be rendered adhesive by the addition of 
 other substances which, when mixed intimately with 
 them, make them artificially adhesive as water, for 
 instance, which is the vehicle used for distemper painting. 
 
 It is highly proper and even necessary that one should 
 know something of what is required from the various 
 vehicles used in painting, and why one is used for certain 
 purposes in preference to another. 
 
 The one which is of the most importance in connection 
 with outdoor painting, must possess some well-defined 
 qualifications, as otherwise it would fail to do what is 
 asked of it. It is an absolute necessity that it should 
 contain within itself perfect adhesiveness, which will 
 be referred to as binding quality, and that after it 
 dries a smooth, waterproof surface may be obtained 
 that will prevent moisture from penetrating into the 
 
 pigment and thus affecting the surface which has been 
 
 189 
 
190 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 painted. The pigments in a powdered condition are 
 helpless to protect themselves, and none contain adhesive- 
 ness to hold to the side of a building. It is the vehicle 
 used in the mixing of the pigment which must be relied 
 upon to do the binding. 
 
 Pigments indirectly affect the durability of the thin- 
 ning liquids, and a few do so directly. 
 
 For outside painting, which is subject to all the inclem- 
 encies of the weather, heat, moisture, and frost, it is 
 obvious that- the binding vehicle must possess water- 
 proofing qualities of a high order. It must harden into 
 a solid mass, for otherwise the paint would be rubbed off 
 or washed away by rain. 
 
 Nearly all oils are waterproof and will shed water; 
 none mix readily with it; but only a few have the prop- 
 erty of solidifying into a hard, waterproof mass, and the 
 oils which possess this power are called fixed oils. 
 
 There are many trees and plants whose seeds give 
 drying or fixed oils, such as the walnuts, hickories, pecans, 
 flax, poppies, and others. 
 
 Flax and poppy are the only plant seeds the paint 
 world need worry about. These are the two used for paint- 
 ing, which can be procured at a reasonable price in a 
 commercial way. The main reason for this is that oils 
 can be expressed from them much more cheaply than 
 from any other known plant seeds. Flaxseed is most 
 abundantly raised as a field crop, and its cost is low 
 compared to that of any others, not excepting poppy seed. 
 These two plants possess peculiarities of their own which 
 make them more desirable than any other for the making 
 of a paint oil. 
 
 Besides possessing the general characteristics which 
 belong in common to all fixed oils, each of these (linseed 
 and poppy seed) has its own which make them differ 
 
VEHICLES 191 
 
 from each other and from every other of the fixed oils as 
 well. These peculiarities fit each one of these oils to be 
 better adapted to a certain purpose than it is to others, 
 and indicates which of the two it is best to use for certain 
 conditions. While poppy-seed oil is superior to linseed 
 oil for some painting (as for zinc white enameling), it is 
 inferior to linseed oil (as flaxseed oil is universally known 
 in English-speaking countries). This and the other very 
 good reason that linseed oil is by far the cheaper of the 
 two, are the main causes why poppy-seed oil is so seldom 
 used in general painting. There can be no question as 
 to which is entitled to head the list of useful vehicles. 
 
 LINSEED OIL 
 Manufacture 
 
 Linseed oil is expressed from common cultivated flax- 
 seed (Linum usitatissimum) . This is grown in all parts 
 of the civilized world. It grows from almost the sub- 
 arctic regions down to tropical countries, and even in 
 these in elevated regions. 
 
 The process of extracting the oil from the seed is a 
 very simple one, and once every little town or hamlet 
 had its crushing mill and extracting presses. To-day in 
 this business as well as in that of every other commercial 
 commodity, the manufacture of linseed oil is in the hands 
 of large concerns, and the small plants have gone out of 
 the business. 
 
 The flaxseed is ground into meal, and this is either cold 
 pressed or heated, and the oil pressed out of it by powerful 
 hydraulic presses. The oil flows out, and the solid parts of 
 the seed remain in what is well known as linseed-oil cake. 
 
 The cold-pressed oil is clearest, palest, and best; but as 
 by that process it cannot be made to yield nearly so much 
 
192 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 oil as when the flaxseed meal, has been heated, that is 
 very seldom practiced now. This is a pity, for cold- 
 pressed linseed oil is superior for painting purposes, and 
 is clearer, more fluid, and free from much deleterious 
 matter which is extracted by the hot system. 
 
 There is still another system in use for extracting the 
 oil from flaxseed, and a still greater percentage of oil is 
 obtained from it than by the use of either the cold or 
 hot system of pressing. This is known as the percolation 
 process. 
 
 After the grinding of the flaxseed into meal, this is 
 placed into a percolating tower running through the 
 several stories of the factory building. When filled with 
 flaxseed meal, this is saturated with benzine or naphtha, 
 and more of that subtle fluid is poured upon the meal at 
 the top of the tower. This is continued until all traces 
 of oil have been dissolved and removed from the meal. 
 The naphtha charged with the dissolved linseed oil runs 
 downward to the bottom of the tower into a pipe, which 
 conducts it to an apparatus where it is heated. The 
 naphtha, being a very volatile oil, is evaporated at a com- 
 paratively low heat. These vapors are conducted to 
 condensers, and the vapors soon condense into what they 
 were originally naphtha. This is used over and over 
 again; there is but very little loss of it. The remaining 
 oil is entirely freed from the naphtha by this heating, if it 
 is properly managed. It is claimed by some that by 
 this system, certain substances are dissolved which 
 would remain undisturbed by pressure, and that the loss 
 injures the durability of the linseed oil for outdoor work. 
 This claim, however, may not be well founded, and may 
 be due to prejudice or the self-interest of concerns that 
 press oil. Some again claim that it is better. However, 
 so many from all parts of the country claim differently, 
 
VEHICLES 193 
 
 that one should be slow in making the change from one 
 to the other. Experiment with them side by side under 
 varied conditions. This system has some good points in 
 it. Naphtha does not dissolve moisture, and linseed oil 
 thus made is as nearly free from it as it is possible 
 for it to be, and this cannot be said of the heat- 
 expressed oils. The real difference between the pressed 
 oil obtained by heat and the percolated oil, cannot 
 be so great as to deter any one from using either, but 
 the chances are that the old-fashioned cold-pressed oil is 
 the best. 
 
 Linseed oil made by whatever system, may vary a 
 good deal in its quality from other causes than those 
 pertaining to the system of extraction. It varies greatly 
 accordingly as it is made from good or from bad flax- 
 seed. That made from East Indies, imported flaxseed 
 (better known as Calcutta seed, from the city from which 
 it comes) is usually better than that obtained from Ameri- 
 can seed. Its product, sold as Calcutta-seed oil, is usually 
 freer from moisture than that which is made from flax- 
 seed of American or Russian origin. Varnish men who 
 ought to be good judges of quality in linseed oil, prefer 
 it to all others, in the preparation of varnishes, as they 
 must have a dry oil, containing but little moisture. 
 American flaxseed, when properly harvested, is as good 
 as any in the world but there is the trouble, it is not 
 harvested properly. In America, flaxseed is harvested by 
 machinery, the same as wheat. Owing to the ease with 
 which it shells out when the sickle strikes the plant, the 
 cutting cannot be delayed until the seed is ripe, as it 
 would all shell out and fall to the ground; so the crop is 
 cut down before it is ripe, just as the seed begins to change 
 from the dough state and begins to harden. In that 
 ccndition, it is saved without shelling but it is far from 
 
194 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 being fully ripe. In the East Indies, where labor is very 
 cheap, it is pulled by hand, when the proper times comes, 
 and thus they are able to secure it in the very best con- 
 dition. This is impossible in America, hence American 
 seed does not equal it. 
 
 So with poor seed to start with, and a larger quantity 
 of oil expressed out of it than in the good old days of 
 cold presses, there can be no wonder at the complaints 
 that linseed oil does not wear as well to-day as it did in 
 old times. 
 
 For good work, it would pay to use cold-pressed oil, 
 even at an expense of several cents more per gallon. It 
 would pay architects to specify it in their contracts, and 
 property owners should be willing to foot the slight 
 increase it would make in their painting bill, if they 
 could only be made sure that they were getting it after 
 specifying it and paying for it. But quien sdbe? 
 
 Linseed oil, after it has been pressed, should be tanked 
 for three or four months to allow it to deposit some of 
 the foreign matter pressed out of the seed with the oil, 
 and with which it is more or less charged. This will 
 settle to the bottom of the tanks, and is called linseed-oil 
 foots. It will do so naturally, if only time enough be given 
 but it is not allowed. 
 
 Manufacturers being human (in some ways) do not take 
 kindly to the idea of having vast sums of money tied up 
 for several months in a tank. They want to turn that 
 money over and over before the oil would be fit to sell in 
 the natural way it has of doing this work, so they arti- 
 ficially hasten this precipitation. 
 
 There are two ways of doing this; one is known as the 
 alkaline process. As this is the poorer of the two, no 
 time will be wasted upon it. The other is by trituration 
 with sulphuric acid. 
 
VEHICLES 195 
 
 Sulphuric acid does not affect linseed oil injuriously, and 
 it acts only upon the impurities which precipitate rapidly. 
 The oil is then well washed with water by trituration 
 until it is free from traces of acid, and is then considered 
 fit for use. Varnish manufacturers who are most careful 
 in the purchase of linseed oil usually still further refine the 
 oil by repeated agitation of it with sulphuric acid; and the 
 grinders of fine pigments requiring refined oil, use it also 
 for the same purpose. With both of these sets of men, 
 clearness and limpidity are of the first importance; but 
 painters of the old school who can remember the time 
 when they went to the town mill and bought cold-pressed 
 oil settled in the old-fashioned way, and used it to mix 
 their pigments with, claim that three coats of such oil 
 and white lead would wear for years before it would com- 
 mence to chalk. Now a like number of coats prepared in 
 the old way, but with oil such as it now is, will appear as 
 so much whitewash in the same number of years. It 
 will require something else besides plausible talk to make 
 them believe that the oil they buy to-day is half as good 
 as the old-fashioned, cold-pressed, naturally settled oil 
 made from pulled flax which it was possible for them to 
 buy some seventy years ago. 
 
 Chemistry of Linseed Oil 
 
 Linseed oil is a complex product, and its drying or 
 solidifying is due to its becoming oxidized. Condit says: 
 "To understand the action that occurs when oil dries, 
 we must know the composition of it. Linseed oil is 
 composed of linolein, palmittin, and olein. To non- 
 chemists, these words are mere names; but let us designate 
 linolein by A, palmittin by B, and olein by C; now A the 
 first is composed of linoleic acid and glycerine ether, 
 B of palmitic acid and glycerine ether, and C of oleic acid 
 
196 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 and glycerine ether. Glycerine ether is the base to 
 which the other constituents are attached. Looking upon 
 glycerine as D, we may represent the other constituents 
 as allotted in this manner: 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 =D 
 
 Chemically considered, these salts (A, B, and C) are sus- 
 ceptible of parting with their base glycerine (D) in favor 
 of some base possessing a stronger affinity for oily acids." 
 
 The Drying of Linseed Oil 
 
 "This kind of decomposition in point of fact really 
 takes place under proper conditions, and the resulting 
 soap varies in its nature according to the base employed. 
 Take an instance: Suppose you have rubbed some linseed 
 oil on a sheet of glass or china (I mention these substances 
 to preclude the idea of the absorbance of any part of the 
 oil which would take place if wood, etc., were used) and 
 it has sufficiently dried not to become sticky, and that 
 when in that condition you wash it with a solution of soda 
 in water, the soda dissolves the glycerine to unite with 
 the oily acids (linoleic, palmitic, and oleic) and forms a 
 soap, leaving the glycerine free. In other words, using 
 the above formula: A, B, and C unite with the soda (or 
 other alkali) and leave D a free agent. Now this D is 
 soluble in water, consequently the soap which is formed 
 (by the union of A, B, and C with the alkali) is also dis- 
 solved. This soap, by the way, is not like the ordinary 
 hand soap, but is a frothy matter that gathers on the 
 glass. Hence, by washing the oil with sufficient soda and 
 water, every trace of oil is carried away from the glass." 
 
 The above explains what would take place if the oil 
 were left in an undried state, and to some extent what does 
 
VEHICLES 197 
 
 take place when linseed oil is washed over with alkalies 
 even when dry. It is the same action which takes place 
 when the alkaline removers take off paint; but to return 
 and find out how oil dries, Condit further says: 
 
 " In speaking of the drying of linseed oil merely a 
 change from the liquid to the solid state is meant. Now 
 the constituents of the four components of linseed oil 
 consist of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon in varying pro- 
 portions; that is, linoleiu A, palmittin B, and olein C are all 
 made up of the above elements, differing in proportion 
 just as the letters A, B, and C are made up of straight lines 
 and curves, differing, however, from each other in the 
 totality. 
 
 "Now in the change from the fluid to the solid con- 
 dition, i.e., the drying process, oils suffer a slight loss of 
 carbon and oxygen, but they gain about one tenth of 
 their own weight in oxygen. It is by this union of oxygen 
 with the component of linseed oil that they dry or harden. 
 Put them out of the influence of this element and they 
 remain fluid. Slow-drying oils lose least in weight; they 
 contain more of the non-drying fats, and for that reason 
 seem to gain more in weight (in time)." 
 
 The process of drying, while it is very simple, in theory 
 at least, is most intricate, and would require too many 
 explanations to follow it up in all its details, so it 
 cannot be given here as fully as some might wish. To 
 properly handle the subject would require a large 
 volume, therefore a resume is given below in short 
 paragraphs, which contains the gist of the process; it, too, 
 is from Condit : 
 
 " 1. Linseed oil is composed of linolein drying oil, 80 
 parts; palmittin and olein non-drying oils, 20 parts, of 
 which 8 parts are glycerine ether which flies away in the 
 process of drying. 
 
198 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 "2. Pure oil will not dry in darkness; and the greater 
 the light, the more vigorous the drying. 
 
 "3. Heat is also a powerful drier of oil; oils heated 
 for a short time continue to dry more rapidly for a long 
 time after the heating. 
 
 "4. Drying appears to be the loss of glycerine ether 
 and the gain of oxygen from the air, the glycerine appear- 
 ing to be loosened from the oil acid as the oxygen unites 
 with the oil, the result of the drying being a light varnish. 
 
 "5. Some of the non-drying oil acid also flies away in 
 the drying, especially under the influence of direct sun- 
 light or when the oil is heated; 100 parts of oil become 
 111 parts (more or less) heated; it loses 3 parts (more 
 or less); net gain 8 parts. 
 
 "6. Most of the glycerine ether which is linked with 
 the oil flies away in the drying. 
 
 "7. When oxygen combines with a drying oil that 
 is, a fixed oil caoutchou or gluten is produced, which 
 in reality is the hard, horny, elastic body that renders it 
 'dry.' It is the ' skin' that forms on top of a pot of paint 
 when it has been left undisturbed for some time. 
 
 "8. The drying of oils appears to depend upon the 
 presence of oxygen, which, by an incipient combustion 
 of hydrogenous oils, fixes them. Whatever contributes 
 oxygen is a drier, as is the case with pure air, sunshine, 
 etc. So also the perfect oxides of metals, including even 
 pure earths and alkalies in due proportion, dry oils; the 
 best are those which contain oxygen in excess, such as 
 litharge, sugar of lead, minium or red lead, the oxides of 
 manganese, sulphate of zinc, white copperas and verdigris." 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Raw linseed oil is penetrating and elastic, and after its 
 oxidation or drying it remains as a waterproof rubber- 
 
VEHICLES 199 
 
 like substance, holding firmly whatever pigment it has 
 been mixed with. Some pigments act chemically upon 
 it, as, for instance, the lead salts, which have the property 
 of turning it into a soap, which, however, is not a readily 
 soluble one (after drying at least); the lead oxides are 
 noted for this property, as red lead and litharge. Not- 
 withstanding that a great deal has been said as to the 
 beneficial influence exerted by the totally inert pigments 
 which in a measure is true it is equally true that 
 some very active ones, combining chemically with lin- 
 seed oil, exert a very good influence over it, as occurs when 
 red lead and linseed oil are combined, the resulting 
 linoleate soap being, when dry, insoluble in water. It 
 is not acted upon injuriously by that element, which is 
 most destructive to linseed oil ordinarily. This, how- 
 ever, is not true of all active pigments, some of them 
 exerting baneful influences upon linseed oil as they com- 
 bine with it to form soluble soaps. Pigments containing 
 lime in a caustic form are of that character. 
 
 The inert pigments naturally do not exert any influ- 
 ence upon it one way or another, and when linseed oil 
 has been mixed with them no chemical action takes 
 place; the drying and longevity of the oil remain the 
 same, generally speaking, as if the pigments had not 
 been added. 
 
 The above statement was purposely qualified by saying 
 generally speaking, because in one way they do exert an 
 influence which, while it is not chemical, is a mechanical 
 one, in this way: Some pigments are very heavy and have 
 no affinity for oil, and naturally take up but little when 
 mixing them into a paint; others again are very light 
 and take up large quantities. It is reasonable to suppose 
 then that the pigment which has not taken up much oil 
 will be a drag upon the oil, as a little of it is scattered over 
 
200 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 a great quantity of pigment atoms, so that but an infin- 
 itesimal portion has to perform a duty that is above 
 its strength, and so it is. Such pigments cannot be 
 depended upon for outdoor work. 
 
 On the other hand, the pigment which holds up large 
 quantities of oil mechanically prolongs its life. 
 
 Again, there is a class of pigments containing non- 
 drying elements in their composition, which prevent the 
 oil from drying, such, for instance, as uncalcined lamp 
 black, vandyke brown, etc. These cannot be safely used 
 without first preparing the oil, so -that it shall contain 
 sufficient drying energy to overcome their deficiencies. 
 Artificial driers must be added to the oil to hasten its 
 drying. Otherwise, these pigments exert a good influ- 
 ence upon the longevity of the oil, as they take up so 
 much of it. 
 
 Linseed oil continues to absorb oxygen after, seem- 
 ingly, it is as dry as it is possible for it to be, or long after 
 it has ceased to feel tacky to the touch. The fact is that 
 when it has reached that stage where no further oxida- 
 tion takes place then its downward grade of decay may 
 be said to have commenced. 
 
 Linseed oil, while it may not be as good as it was fifty 
 years ago, when it was all cold pressed, is usually found 
 pure, such as it is. It is, of course, possible for some of 
 the dealers to practice the adulteration of it, but it is 
 seldom that that occurs. Jobbers, in the past (a few of 
 them), who did not care for reputation, did mix oils, but 
 now such a thing is next to impossible. What with 
 nearly every state having special laws, which no one 
 would take any risk of infringing, and behind these Uncle 
 Sam with his own strict laws to prevent fraud the 
 practice of adulterating linseed oil has about become 
 obsolete. 
 
VEHICLES 201 
 
 Linseed oils are, however, imitated; but the imitations 
 are sold as such. There can be no harm come of it, for 
 no one is cheated. If a painter is foolish enough to 
 believe all the stuff that smooth-tongued strangers tell 
 him regarding the merits of nonpareil, indestructible 
 enamelling liquid, in the way of throwing linseed oil in 
 the shade, and supplanting it everywhere, he has a perfect 
 right to believe and to give his money away for it. The 
 law recognizes him as a free agent and will not forcibly 
 keep him from flinging cash in the river, if he so wills. 
 It takes money to buy experience, and with some men 
 it only seems to last until the next deceiver comes around 
 with another bait 10 cents a gallon below the market 
 on linseed oil! 
 
 Barnum said: "For every fool that dies, two are born." 
 It must be true, or the concerns manufacturing dope oil 
 could not flourish as they do. 
 
 Impurities, and Tests for Them 
 
 It is a very hard matter to determine impurities in 
 linseed oil, and nothing short of an analysis made by an 
 expert chemist used to that sort of work will be of any 
 value. This work is intricate and expensive. But 
 anyone can readily determine to his own satisfaction 
 whether linseed oil is adulterated or not. At least, 
 raw linseed oil can be so tested, but not the boiled. 
 There is no test that one can make for himself that will 
 do .for that. 
 
 There are several tests. One, the most usual, is the 
 nitric acid test. Although it is a simple one to make, it 
 is apt to lead many into error, if they are unused to 
 testing oils. To make the test: Take a bottle, or any 
 other glass vessel, pour into it about equal parts of raw 
 oil and nitric acid one ounce of each is enough for the 
 
202 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 purpose. Shake the bottle, so as to mix the oil and acid 
 well together, and put it away to rest for a quarter of an 
 hour. If the oil is pure, the nitric acid will settle at the 
 bottom of the bottle, where it forms a distinct layer 
 below the oil which floats on top. The nitric acid in a 
 well-made oil will be found clear, but tinged to a light 
 straw, from coloring matter extracted from the oil during 
 the shaking; the oil itself in the upper layer will be- found 
 to have turned to a brownish color, but of a clear tone. 
 If adulterated, the oil will be from dark brown to black 
 and muddy, lumpy or "livered," according to the nature 
 of the adulterant. The acid will be brownish, and often 
 its limpidity even will be impaired; but not always so, 
 this depending also upon the nature of the adulterating 
 oils. It is impossible thus to determine the adulterant 
 that requires a chemical analysis. 
 
 Then there is the specific gravity test, which is always 
 satisfactory, as it is a very hard matter to adulterate oils 
 so that this will not be greatly changed. It requires 
 apparatus to make this test, but that is not very expen- 
 sive: a suitable hydrometer, one that is adapted to oils 
 or fats, with a thermometer, are all that will be needed. 
 The oil should be poured into a vessel, which must be 
 considerably deeper and wider than the hydrometer, 
 which is dropped into it, and which must float clear of 
 the sides and the bottom of the oil receptacle. The 
 specific gravity of linseed oil is, say, 0.932 at 60 F. Now 
 if the hydrometer is placed in the oil and the top of the 
 bulb indicates .928 or .934, if the temperature of the oil is 
 either above or below 60 F., a correction must be made 
 for that, as the oil will show a lighter gravity if below the 
 standard temperature and heavier if above. Deduct or 
 add .00035 for each degree of variation in temperature 
 either above or below the standard, and, if the oil is pure, 
 
VEHICLES 203 
 
 the total ought to be 0.932. If it varies very much, the 
 oil is adulterated. 
 
 Then there is the flash test, but this is rather com- 
 plicated and requires more apparatus to determine cor- 
 rectly. The two above-mentioned tests will be sufficient. 
 Besides, the nose and the eye can be made nearly as 
 efficient as any, at least for certain kinds of adulterants. 
 Linseed oil has a smell all its own, and neutral oils can be 
 readily detected by their odor with the nose, they have 
 also a bluish fluorescent tone that the eye can readily 
 note, so that, with the help of these organs, a double test 
 can be made, and one or the other will be apt to uncover 
 the adulteration. The nose will also detect animal or 
 fish oils, which may be used in adulterating; however, the 
 chances are that it will be hard to find any as long as they 
 stay above the cost of linseed oil. 
 
 BOILED OIL 
 
 As it has already been stated the heating of linseed 
 oil renders it more drying. When it is boiled at a great 
 heat along with some of the oxides of lead or manganese 
 it is rendered thereby still more drying. 
 
 For mixing with some of the non-drying pigments, 
 its use is imperatively demanded, at least for the 
 grinding of them into pastes. Boiled oil is less 
 elastic than raw oil, and, being darker, it tinges 
 the white pigments and some of the light tints to 
 an undesirable degree. It is also much less elastic 
 than raw oil and less penetrating, therefore it should 
 never be used for priming purposes. It partakes of the 
 nature of a varnish, and dries upon the surface with but 
 little penetration. 
 
 It is therefore better adapted for interior painting than 
 it is for that of outside work. Its use is indicated, how- 
 
204 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 ever, for many purposes where penetration and elasticity 
 are not of prime importance. 
 
 Adulteration 
 
 Under the heading of raw oil, it was said that all tests 
 which were indicated for that were useless when applied 
 to boiled oil, and so they are. It requires an expensive 
 chemical analysis. Unless, of course, that the adulterat- 
 ing has been so carelessly done that the nose and eye can 
 be utilized to ferret it out, as is the case when neutral 
 oils have been added. 
 
 The most frequent adulteration, if adulteration it be, 
 is in many dealers taking, say, one barrel of raw linseed 
 oil pouring the contents of it into the boiled oil tank and 
 adding from five to ten gallons of some cheap benzine 
 manganese dryer. Boiled oil thus prepared is called 
 bung hole boiled oil. It is simply raw oil with probably 
 a bigger dose of liquid drier than would have been the 
 case if the painter had added it himself. 
 
 POPPY SEED OIL 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 As the name implies, this excellent paint oil is produced 
 from the seed of the poppy plant opium poppy, or 
 papaver somniferum. It is nearly colorless and very 
 clear, so these qualities render it of great value for the 
 mixing of white pigments or for that of tender 
 light tints. For China finish or interior enameling, 
 for instance, it is invaluable. In this connection 
 it should be used with zinc white in preference to 
 linseed oil, which has the property of darkening the 
 more quickly that it is shut away from the sun's 
 rays. This defect does not belong to poppy seed oil. 
 
VEHICLES 205 
 
 Zinc white of good quality is ground in it to a paste 
 form, and so labeled when offered for sale. 
 
 Poppy seed oil is a slow drier, so it requires a longer 
 time for paint mixed with it to become dry. Its binding 
 properties are no better than are those of linseed oil 
 if as good. Its high cost compared to that of linseed oil 
 will always prevent its use. It is, therefore, but for 
 expensive enameling that its use is ever resorted to by 
 the general painter and decorator. Artists, of course, can 
 afford to use it, ad libitum, in the very small quantities 
 they require. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 VEHICLES (Continued) 
 
 THE VOLATILE OILS 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine 
 
 IN defining the word vehicle, it was stated that it was 
 a liquid medium with which pigments were mixed and 
 properly thinned, so that they could be spread, by paint- 
 ing with a brush, over the surfaces to which the painter 
 wished to apply them; that, through their agency, the 
 pigments were made steadfast to these surfaces by those 
 adhering or binding qualities of the vehicles, either pos- 
 sessed inherently within themselves, or added to them by 
 the introduction and admixture of binding agents, as 
 glue or gum arabic, etc., for water; the volatile oils 
 serve another purpose in painting. 
 
 Their binding qualities are little better than water. 
 This can readily be inferred from the fact that they 
 evaporate entirely away, so that pigments mixed with 
 them alone would have about the same chance of remain- 
 ing upon outside surfaces as they would have if they were 
 mixed with water instead till the next hard rain came, 
 which would wash them away; or some boy, even, without 
 the rains, could rub the painting off with his bare hand. 
 
 The chief use of volatile oils in painting is for the pur- 
 pose of rectifying some defects in the fixed oils that are 
 used as binding vehicles in exterior painting, and for 
 what is called flatting in interior work. 
 
 206 
 
VEHICLES 207 
 
 As adjuncts to linseed or poppy seed oils, they possess 
 the property of intimately mixing with them, and of ren- 
 dering them more fluid (they lessen their viscosity) and 
 also make the fixed oil set quicker. This enables the 
 painter to put on a heavier coat of pigment with less 
 linseed oil than would be possible without the use of the 
 volatile oils. 
 
 For flatting purposes they are used as the main vehicle, 
 A sufficient quantity of linseed oil must be used to bind 
 the pigment. It requires little to accomplish that purpose, 
 so that finishing coats of flatting are nearly entirely of 
 volatile oil. As flatting is usually done over a gloss 
 coat one containing considerable linseed oil unless 
 the flatting is delayed until the gloss coat has dried hard, 
 there will be enough tack in that to hold the flatting 
 thinned almost entirely with volatile oil. If, however, 
 one waits till it has thoroughly hardened, a small quantity 
 of linseed oil must be added to the flatting coat. 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine 
 
 Spirits of turpentine is the commercial term used in 
 the United States to designate what the painter calls 
 turps at the shop. In England, it is best known as oil 
 of turpentine, which it really is. Both names refer to the 
 same liquid. 
 
 It is obtained from several species of pines. That 
 which has been so abundantly produced in America is 
 derived entirely from the longleaf yellow pine of the tide- 
 water section of the Southern States adjoining the 
 Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. It is produced on a 
 large scale by scarifying the trees and collecting the 
 exuding gum which gathers at the wounds. This gum is 
 a highly odoriferous semi-solid resin. This is gathered 
 and hauled away to refining works, where it is distilled. 
 
208 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 The volatile vapors are cooled and condensed into the 
 spirits of turpentine, while the solid parts remain as 
 rosin of many grades of goodness, according as it is 
 very light or dark colored the whitest being the most 
 valuable. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine is the most valuable of the volatile 
 oils used by the painter. Its odor, while it is strong and 
 penetrating, is far from being disagreeable, and unless it 
 is used during hot weather in a close room it is not 
 unhealthy as are those oils derived from petroleum 
 distillation. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine acts promptly upon the urinary 
 organs, and it is strongly diuretic in action. Some men 
 seem to be much more readily affected by it than others 
 some are so to the extent that they cannot endure to 
 work with it long at a time; others again have worked 
 with it daily for years without being detrimentally 
 affected by it. Persons who are troubled with kidney 
 diseases should be careful in its continued use. It is 
 not only absorbed by direct contact through the pores 
 of the skin, but also by the inhaling of its vapors, which 
 soon permeate the atmosphere of a room where it is used, 
 and where, as in flatting, little outside air is allowed to 
 enter, and then it is inhaled at every breath in large 
 quantities. 
 
 NAPHTHA AND BENZINE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 For the purposes of painting, these two volatile oils 
 may be treated together. Both are so nearly the same 
 in composition, working qualities and odor, that they 
 may be regarded as the one thinning vehicle in paint 
 mixing. They are both derived from the distillation of 
 petroleum, and in early days were in very bad repute. 
 
VEHICLES 209 
 
 They possess the properties ascribed to the volatile 
 oils useful in paint mixing, and described under the 
 heading of Spirits of Turpentine. They do not, any more 
 than turpentine, possess any binding properties. As 
 diluents of linseed oil, they are as good as and in some re- 
 spects better than, spirits of turpentine, and in one instance 
 they are not so good. 
 
 They are better, in that it takes less to accomplish the 
 purpose for which they are used (the only legitimate use 
 that can be made of volatile oils in paint), that of making 
 a paint more liquid spreading better. 
 
 But, phew! The smell! That is where the inferiority 
 comes in. Their odor is repugnant to many persons, and 
 to a few it is equal to a dose of lobelia or tartar emetic. 
 They, too, act upon the kidneys and urinary organs, but 
 not in such a marked manner as spirits of turpentine, 
 and in addition they more than tax the stomach. For 
 outside painting, they are better than turpentine, for the 
 reason, already given, that it takes less to dilute the paint, 
 so that more oil can be used and applied, and consequently 
 the paint will not flat out so quick. It evaporates some- 
 what more quickly and sets the paint in a shorter time 
 another advantage. 
 
 The better grades of these oils are treated with a view 
 to removing the disagreeable smell inherent in them, and 
 while thus treated they do not smell nearly as bad as 
 those which have not been deodorized; there is room for 
 vast improvement in this respect. There is hope enter- 
 tained of this. Spirits of turpentine is becoming scarcer 
 and higher every day, and, at the rate that the Southern 
 forests are disappearing under the ax of the lumberman, 
 it is only a question of a few years when the quantity of 
 it obtainable will be so small and its price will have soared 
 so high that it cannot possibly be employed, as it was by 
 
210 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 the general painter. In quantity it will have dwindled 
 down to where there will scarcely be enough of it left to 
 supply the demand of the pharmacists of the world, who 
 all look to the United States for their main supply. 
 
 When that time arrives, and it is plainly in sight now, 
 willy-nilly, naphtha and benzine must ta"ke its place. 
 If completely deodorized, there will be no loss at best, 
 one might as well become accustomed to their use now; 
 and artists, decorators, and others might as well quit 
 shedding tears and accept the inevitable. 
 
 Aside from their uses as diluents, the volatile oils are 
 powerful solvents of certain gums and resins of both 
 hard and soft composition. Varnish manufacturers have 
 been most liberal purchasers and users of them for that 
 purpose, and increase each year, as the phenomenal 
 increase in their output necessarily demands more and 
 more. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 VEHICLES (Continued) 
 
 Varnishes, Japans, Alcoholic Solutions of Shellac, etc. 
 VARNISHES 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 UNDER the general name of varnishes, many differently 
 constituted liquids are to be found. Naturally, 
 according as to how these are composed and com- 
 pounded, they vary in their characteristics, each being 
 better adapted than are the others for some particular 
 line of usefulness. The term varnish seems applicable 
 to any liquid holding gums or gum-resins in solution, 
 which upon the loss of its volatile parts, and upon 
 the oxidation and hardening of its fixed oil and 
 gum-resins, shows a gloss upon surfaces over which they 
 are applied. 
 
 Some liquids will make a varnish (when properly 
 treated) upon drying as linseed oil will, after it has 
 been heated at a high heat but the gloss is greatly 
 improved by the addition of gum-resins of various 
 kinds. 
 
 In point of fact, no varnishes are made thus, and all may 
 be said to be composed chiefly of gum-resins; the liquids 
 used as solvents for these may be fixed oils, volatile oils 
 or various mixtures of those two, or it may be alcohol as in 
 the so-called spirit varnishes. 
 
 211 
 
212 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Varnishes aside from the uses for which they are 
 principally adapted, i.e., the finishing of surfaces with 
 a glossy coating, over paint put on in the ordinary way, 
 in graining, or over car, coach or carriage work, or over 
 the natural wood itself, as in hard-wood finishing, or in 
 enameling or japanning they are also used as a vehicle 
 for the direct application of pigments. Enamel painting 
 depends chiefly upon their use as pigment vehicles. 
 Iron bed manufacturers, bicycle factories and japanning 
 works, use them as vehicles, and they are true vehicles 
 in every sense of the word, with this difference, that 
 the fixed oils and their volatile adjuncts, are so of their 
 own selves while varnishes are not, but become so by 
 the nature of their component elements, which, as was 
 seen, are chiefly of those two classes of vehicles plus the 
 gum-resins which also act as binders. 
 
 The painting must necessarily partake of the nature of 
 its thinning varnish vehicle, some kinds of painting 
 requiring certain varieties of varnish for thinners, and 
 others, again, requiring different ones. 
 
 The varnishes which contain linseed oil as their principal 
 solvent and which have hard gums in their composition 
 such as gum copal are slow driers, but are elastic, 
 and in some degree resist the elements. Such are desig- 
 nated for outdoor or exposed conditions. 
 
 Then for inside work, varnishes whose main solvent is 
 turpentine or the petroleum volatile oils plus some lin- 
 seed oil for binder, will be preferably used for inside work, 
 as they dry hard, and being protected from atmospheric 
 changes and moisture they answer fairly well for the 
 purpose where hurry and expense are to be closely 
 considered. 
 
VEHICLES 213 
 
 It is not intended in this work to give varnishes such 
 attention and notice as would be expected in a treatise 
 upon coach painting, for instance, as the only relation 
 in which they are of any interest in connection 
 with a book upon pigments is as to their use as vehicles 
 of them. As vehicles, their glossy properties are 
 secondary, in fact, of no interest whatever even to the 
 coach painter, with the exception of the enamelers, who 
 do not varnish over their wares afterward. 
 
 To resume, then, in a few words their values as 
 vehicles, the following advice is given: For per- 
 manent outdoor work, select some varnish made 
 from hard gum resin dissolved in linseed oil; mainly 
 of this description will be found the wearing body 
 varnishes of the carriage trade, and some of the better 
 carriage parts varnishes, and the so-called spar varnishes 
 or outside varnishes, which are made to withstand 
 hardships. Some few of the best grades of rubbing 
 varnishes are also of this order. 
 
 For work that is not exposed, the better grades 
 of the so-called inside varnishes are made from 
 less expensive gum resins, and all of softer texture 
 with a larger proportion of volatile oils, and will 
 answer fairly well. There is a wide range between 
 the poorest and the best, and one must be governed 
 by the circumstances when selecting for certain 
 purposes. 
 
 Some manufacturers list varnishes especially prepared 
 for mixing with colors. However, if one has used a cer- 
 tain quality of varnish with good results, he should 
 hesitate to continue its use, as he is likely to have 
 some trouble at first with even a good new one with which 
 he is unacquainted. 
 
214 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 JAPANS 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 It is a very hard matter to give a true definition of 
 what is really meant by the term japan, notwithstanding 
 the daily use of it in the paint shop. 
 
 It is a varnish, and should be classed as such and with 
 them. As popularly known and understood by many 
 painters, it means to them simply a liquid drier. To the 
 carriage trade and to the color grinders, it means a vehicle 
 for the application of paint and for the grinding of it in ; 
 and to the japanners and to the enamelers, a baking 
 varnish. In the last relation, it certainly is a varnish. 
 
 It is needless to say that japans vary as much in their 
 composition as they do in their qualities, according to the 
 formulas under which they have been made, and these 
 are legion. 
 
 They can be divided into three classes. The first, which 
 the house painters chiefly use are liquid driers, and con- 
 sist principally of a solvent and some oxide of manganese. 
 These are not varnishes in any sense of that word. 
 
 The second class, which are for grinding and applying 
 coach colors, are properly varnishes, and of such are the 
 gold sizes and coach japans, and in reality should be 
 classed among the medium grades of varnishes. They 
 make good vehicles for the purpose for which they are 
 used. A great variety of good, bad, and indifferent coach 
 japans are made, and the price paid for them is not always 
 an indication of their quality. 
 
 THIRD CLASS 
 
 The varieties used in baking by enamelers are made 
 so as to stand that operation. They evaporate under 
 heat, and soften sufficiently to permit the coating of paint 
 
VEHICLES 215 
 
 to level up free from brush marks and then dry with a full 
 gloss. There can be no doubt as to the character of 
 these nor of the japans used by the radiator men. 
 According to the gums entering in their composition, they 
 are either good or bad. Manufacturers of bicycles and 
 enameled iron bedsteads, etc., usually immerse all their 
 commodities in a dipping tank and stand them on inclined 
 drying boards, where the surplus color runs off, instead 
 of hand-brushing the color. 
 
 These varnishes are probably called japan from the 
 fact that all the small articles of bric-a-brac found on 
 the market have a smooth finish, usually obtained by 
 what is known as japanning, by baking in ovens specially 
 constructed for the purpose. These articles are made to 
 imitate in their finish the smooth lacquering put on the 
 same class of ware imported from Japan and China. 
 The name, no doubt, was transferred and applied from 
 the country to the finish, and means that here. In so 
 far it is easy enough to understand how such varnishes 
 can be called Japan, but why the same name is used by 
 the trade for mixing varnishes of the coach painter or 
 the liquid drier of the house painter is one of the conun- 
 drums which life is too short to unravel. 
 
 ALCOHOLIC SOLUTIONS OF SHELLAC 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Shellac varnish as it is sometimes called, or simply 
 shellac, which to many means the same thing, and spirits 
 shellac, as it is known in the British Isles, are all one and 
 the same thing. It is simply shellac, either the orange 
 or the white, dissolved in alcohol. 
 
 It makes a fair vehicle for pigments, where speed and 
 quick drying are imperatively demanded. This varnish, 
 
216 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 owing to the volatility of its solvent, alcohol, sets very 
 quickly, in a few minutes, and in a few more it is dry 
 and so hard that the painting done with it cannot be 
 brushed over without marring it. 
 
 Owing to its setting so quickly, it is very hard to apply 
 properly, and it requires an expert to handle it success- 
 fully. Its use must be confined to hurried work, and 
 for that it has no equal. 
 
 The above concludes the list of vehicles used in paint- 
 ing, at least those worthy of consideration. 
 
 There is a possibility of some others becoming very 
 useful at some future time, but their cost is now too great 
 to really entitle them to notice. Of this class is China 
 wood oil or Tung oil, which is said to possess very good 
 qualities. Should it be possible to acclimatize it here, 
 and its cost brought somewhere near that of linseed oil, 
 it might prove a dangerous rival; but it has never been 
 given the proper tests for endurance, etc., which would 
 warrant any one forming more than conjectural opinions 
 concerning its possibilities. 
 
 Correctives are used with vehicles, as was intimated; 
 and, again, some solids are binders to add to vehicles con- 
 taining no binding properties. The next chapter will be 
 devoted to these. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 WAXES 
 
 BEESWAX 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 WAXES are not used as vehicles in painting, as are the 
 liquid vehicles, owing to their property of solidifying in 
 a few moments, at ordinary temperatures, as that makes 
 it impossible to melt them, mix them with pigments, and 
 apply the paint so mixed before it would have cooled and 
 become so hard that nothing could be done with them in 
 the ordinary way. 
 
 Encaustic painting, however, was known and prac- 
 ticed long before the present system of painting was so 
 much as dreamed of. The ancient civilizations made use 
 of it freely, and some of the work of their now unknown 
 artists is occasionally found in as fresh and well-preserved 
 a condition as when it was first applied centuries ago. 
 
 There is still some encaustic work done, but in an 
 amateurish way, as artists much prefer the use of linseed 
 oil to the slow and difficult method of applying paint by 
 the encaustic process. 
 
 In encaustic painting the colors are first put on with 
 a liquid, water will answer as well as any, and after- 
 ward the wax (when it has been melted by heat) is flowed 
 over it. A flat, hot iron is used on it to obtain a per- 
 fectly level surface. The finish is certainly very pleasing; 
 and the colors, being hermetically sealed from contact 
 
 217 
 
218 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 with air, are not injuriously acted upon. It stands to 
 reason that for the finishing of interiors at least such 
 work must be permanent. 
 
 Beeswax was probably the form of wax used in the 
 encaustic painting of the ancients, although they were 
 also acquainted with the waxes derived from vegetable 
 substances. 
 
 Beeswax is used for many purposes by the house 
 painter, in fact, all forms of waxes are, not so much 
 as a vehicle as it is for the finishing of floors or wood- 
 work, and large quantities of it are annually consumed by 
 the paint trade. 
 
 As it comes from the melting pots', it usually is of 
 yellow, but often is found of a brownish tone; tlje latter 
 being impure, it must be rectified and bleached before it 
 is fit for the best work. The process of bleaching, also 
 raises its melting-point and hardens it. 
 
 Beeswax is a vegetable product gathered by bees from 
 plants, and is not an animal production as some errone- 
 .ously suppose it to be. It is permanent for interior 
 work, but when exposed to the inclemencies of the 
 weather upon the outside, it is partially destroyed by 
 oxidation. 
 
 VEGETABLE WAXES 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Many plants produce wax, and in South America, 
 especially in Brazil, it is gathered from the leaves of 
 Copernica cerifera, where it occurs in thin sheets. It is 
 a regular article of commerce in that country. In China 
 and the Thibet there is an extensive trade done in vege- 
 table wax. Its melting-point is high, 185 F. But for 
 its limited quantity and consequent high price, it would 
 
WAXES 219 
 
 be more extensively used here; it makes a hard wax. 
 Vegetable wax is used for all purposes indicated under 
 the heading of beeswax. 
 
 PARAFFIN WAXES 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Paraffin waxes are the' product of petroleum distillation 
 and vary very much. Most of them have such a low 
 melting-point as to unfit them for encaustic painting or 
 any other purpose of the painter. Their melting-point 
 ranges from 105 to 180 F. The very highest qualities 
 of them are very good, and in one respect at least render 
 them superior to the vegetable waxes in that they are 
 not so readily acted upon by the volatile oils, nor will they 
 mix with them as those do. Such will consequently 
 make excellent binders for pigments for encaustic work 
 or for the waxing of floors where their hardness is greatly 
 in their favor. It is also useful to add to such very heavy 
 pigments as quicksilver vermilion, as it helps to prevent 
 the separation and precipitation of that pigment when 
 mixed in linseed or poppy-seed oils, but small quantities 
 of it should be used for such a purpose. 
 
 While encaustic painting is commonly done by using 
 the wax as a covering for the colors previously applied, 
 and not as the vehicle to convey them to the work, yet 
 there have been some very fine pictures painted where 
 it was used as the vehicle for the mixing of the pigment 
 and of its application. This requires great skill, and is 
 not likely to ever become popular, as both the work itself 
 must be kept warm as well as the vessels containing 
 the melted wax and pigment. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 SUBSTANCES USED IN BINDING PIGMENTS 
 GLUES 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 THE substances whose description is attempted in this 
 chapter are not vehicles themselves, being solid sub- 
 stances, but are adjuncts to liquid vehicles which do not 
 possess any binding properties within themselves capable 
 of fastening the pigments for the application of which 
 they serve as a medium to surfaces and which other- 
 wise through their lack of adhesiveness would fall down, 
 wash away, or blow off from them upon on the least 
 provocation. 
 
 In distemper painting, for instance, water is the vehicle 
 used, and no arguments are necessary to show that paint 
 applied with it would have absolutely nothing to hold 
 it after the water had evaporated. These binding sub- 
 stances are added to hold the pigments to their place, and 
 they become parts of the paint itself after the vehicle has 
 evaporated. 
 
 Among the agents which are principally used for this 
 purpose, glue easily holds first place, not that it is the best 
 of all, but because it is the most economical as well as 
 the handiest of any on the list. It is by long odds the 
 one binding substance which is most universally used, 
 and the quantity annually employed for the purpose is 
 something enormous. 
 
 220 
 
SUBSTANCES USED IN BINDING PIGMENTS 221 
 
 It is not only employed by painters in the preparation 
 at the home shop of distemper colors, but the numerous 
 concerns which have sprung up within the past twenty- 
 five years with ready-prepared water paints or kalsomines 
 or anti-kalsomines of all sorts, prepared from gypsum, 
 etc., which are all ready for use by the simple addition 
 of either hot or cold water, these use incredible quan- 
 tities of it in the compounding of said ready-prepared 
 distemper paints. This preparation of wall water-paints 
 has grown up into a great industry and is extended every 
 year, and they are found for sale in every general store in 
 the land. They are uniform, handy to use, and usually give 
 better satisfaction than that which the average painter 
 is able to prepare for himself. The above is not said in 
 order to discourage any one from mixing his own com- 
 pounds, but as a statement of fact. There is no doubt 
 but that any intelligent painter can mix a batch of dis- 
 temper colors just as they ought to be; but although 
 this is simply done, it must be done just right. In the 
 hurry, which is usually the condition existing during the 
 busy season of the spring, trifles are forgotten or dis- 
 carded for want of time. Many a painter who has been 
 too busy to properly prepare a batch of distemper color 
 to be sent out on a job, sees it go out of the shop door 
 with misgivings as to its future. Many an eyesore and 
 heartache might have been avoided by the use of a well- 
 prepared water paint which could have been sent out to 
 a job without loss of time and saved a good bit of worry. 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Glue is an animal product, obtained by the boiling of 
 hoofs, bones, cartilaginous parts of carcasses, hides, hide 
 trimmings from the tanneries, and even parts of flesh. 
 If the treatment is done at a temperature above the 
 
222 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 ordinary boiling heat, the process is greatly hastened. 
 The various processes and manipulations are all simple 
 and well known, but too lengthy to give, and can be 
 summarized thus: Glue is the residue which remains by 
 boiling the animal parts referred to and afterward drying 
 the same when it has been cleansed of impurities by 
 various processes of clarification, etc. 
 
 Its binding properties are due to two distinct yet 
 similar compounds, gelatin and chondrin. The chemical 
 composition of those bodies is carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
 and oxygen in various combinations. Both substances 
 are entirely soluble in hot water and are coagulated by 
 tannin. Cold will also coagulate them, hence the well- 
 known property which is exhibited every time one mixes 
 a pail of kalsomine, it "jells" when it cools, which makes 
 it work smoother and makes it easier applied than before 
 coagulating. 
 
 Glues are thrown in three different classes, according 
 to the material that was used in their preparation. 
 
 1st. Hide glue, made from skins, ears, tendons, hide 
 trimmings from the tanyards, and similar offal. 
 
 2d. Bone glue, from hoofs, feet, bones, joints, and any 
 osseous offal. 
 
 3d. Fish glue, made from the bladders, entrails, 
 scales, and bones of fish. 
 
 All are well aware of the great difference in the strength 
 possessed by various glues. This depends upon the 
 material of which they have been made, and in a lesser 
 degree upon the manner of their preparation. 
 
 Hide glues are the strongest of any, and possess the 
 greatest tenacity. Bone glues are the weakest. It is 
 difficult to make a glue salesman own up that any 
 of his samples are bone glue, but some of them certainly 
 are. Fish glue, especially that made from Russian stur- 
 
SUBSTANCES USED IN BINDING PIGMENTS 223 
 
 geon stock, is very strong. Some of the fish glues made 
 from the bladders are not only very strong, but as clear 
 as glass, offering no obstacle whatever to the passage of 
 light rays, any more than would so much crystal. Isin- 
 glass is only a very fine form of such fish glue. The 
 bone glues usually furnish that form of glue known 
 as gelatin. 
 
 Glues range in color from that which is light and trans- 
 parent to the dark brown stinking refuse, which forcibly 
 reminds one of being very near a spot where animal 
 matter is decaying. 
 
 That which is prepared for the binding of kalsomine or 
 water colors is known to the trade as kalsomine glue. In 
 shape it is in thin sheets, which are broken up in small 
 pieces before packing in barrels. There are many quali- 
 ties of it. That which breaks with an elastic fracture 
 and is of a light creamy tone is usually good. If it 
 is very white and opaque, the chances are that it 
 has been weighted with some adulterating sub- 
 stance. These white weighted glues are not as 
 economical nor as satisfactory as those of a creamy 
 semi-transparent tone. 
 
 Glue comes also in a pulverized form, ground up in 
 small, angularly shaped particles, and it is to be found thus 
 in all grades from poor to good. Usually ^these do not 
 run as strong as the regular kalsomine glues do, but the 
 better qualities answer the purpose well enough. The 
 ground glues dissolve more readily than those that have 
 not been broken up, and the thin ones of the kalsomine 
 glue sorts dissolve quicker than the thick glues. Glue, 
 however, of any and all shapes, can be used for the pur- 
 pose of binding pigments in distemper work. It is only 
 a question of convenience, saving of time, and of a knowl- 
 edge of the strength that they possess, as without that 
 
224 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 it will be impossible to properly gauge the proper quan- 
 tity of it to use for the binding of a given weight of pig- 
 ment. Glue has the property of absorbing moisture and 
 of retaining it when it comes in contact with cold water, 
 but it is not dissolved by it. This well-known pecul- 
 iarity is made use of by painters to hasten its solubility 
 and to melt it. The glue is soaked in cold water over 
 night. During that period, it will have absorbed several 
 times its own weight of that liquid. It will then be 
 swollen much above its normal bulk and softened in 
 texture. This soaked and swollen glue, when placed in 
 a vessel over the stove, will readily dissolve at a low heat, 
 and thus will save much time and worry in melting it in 
 the dry state, as then it requires constant stirring and 
 much more heat besides care, or it will burn at the bottom 
 of the vessel. When melted, it is ready to mix with the 
 pigments, which should always be done before it has had 
 time to cool and become jellied. 
 
 In warm weather, putrefaction commences early in 
 colors thus prepared, and unless one has a refrigerator 
 for the surplus that cannot be used the same day, it will 
 be better and pleasanter to mix no more than will be used 
 up clean that day. 
 
 To lessen the tendency to putrefaction, a few drops of 
 carbolic acid or eugenol (oil of cloves) may be added. 
 This will retard fermentation, but will not prevent it. 
 
 GUM ARABIC 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Gum arabic is probably the best binding substance 
 known for water colors, and if it is given only second 
 place on the list, it is not because it does not deserve to 
 have the first, but because its much greater cost and 
 
SUBSTANCES USED IN BINDING PIGMENTS 225 
 
 also the greater care and difficulty in its use render 
 its universal employment impossible; and also on ac- 
 count of another reason: if gum arabic was used to 
 the same extent as glue is for binding pigments, there 
 would not be enough of it in the market, and its 
 cost would soar so high as to put it out of commission 
 at once. 
 
 Gum arabic is a true gum, and consequently it is of 
 vegetable origin. It is produced from several species of 
 acacia. That best known is supposed to be produced 
 from Acacia Arabica, and its name is derived from that; 
 but in reality it is derived from Acacia Senegal, which is 
 much more common, and the gum arabic of commerce is 
 chiefly obtained from that variety. 
 
 Its composition is a mixture of the salts of arabic acid, 
 these salts being of three bases, potash, lime, and mag- 
 nesia with water. 
 
 The better specimens are nearly all free from color, 
 clear, and nearly if not wholly soluble in water, and the 
 solution clear. 
 
 Gum arabic dissolves very slowly in cold water; boiling 
 water must be used in making solutions. It should be 
 pulverized to facilitate this, as it takes a long time to dis- 
 solve the lumps. After the solution is made, it should 
 stand for a day, and the clear liquid poured off, when the 
 undissolved impurities will be found at the bottom and 
 should be left undisturbed. It should be prepared before- 
 hand, so as to have it at a moment's notice. It will be 
 well to guard against any fermentation by the addition 
 of a few drops of eugenol or of a lump of camphor 
 which will float upon the top; this will prevent it from 
 souring. 
 
 Being so much more slowly acted upon by cold water 
 than the glues, and being so much less subject to putre- 
 
226 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 faction than animal matter, its use is indicated for dis- 
 temper, fresco, and all good water-color work. For 
 artists' use in water colors, it is indispensable. 
 
 The above two substances, i.e., glues and gum arabic, 
 are the two most important substances as binding agents 
 for distemper colors. There are a few other substances 
 used, but to so limited an extent as to deserve little 
 more than passing mention. 
 
 These have been grouped below, and consist of starch, 
 dextrin, honey, molasses, sugar, and glycerine. 
 
 STARCH 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Starch is a substance well known to everybody, 
 and is derived from the cereals and the bulbous roots 
 of plants, as potatoes, yams, etc. Starch mixed 
 with cold water into a stiff paste, and in which 
 hot boiling water has been poured until it has become 
 stiff and unctuous, has been and is occasionally 
 used to mix pigments and apply them to surfaces. 
 Its use for such a purpose can only be tolerated upon 
 the plea of dire necessity, when no other and better 
 binders are procurable, and cannot be recommended 
 even for the cheapest kind of work. 
 
 DEXTRIN 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 The Dextrin of commerce is derived from starch. While 
 its adhesiveness is greater than that substance, it is so 
 much weaker than that of either glue or gum arabic, 
 that its use is very questionable as a binder for distemper 
 painting. It has another fault, in that it softens in warm 
 
SUBSTANCES USED IN BINDING PIGMENTS 227 
 
 weather; and those who have had to do with sticky enve- 
 lopes and stuck-together stamps will know enough not 
 to want to fool with it. 
 
 As a corrective, used in small quantities with glues, it 
 is said that it will prevent the suction of hot walls and 
 keep the color from striking in too rapidly. 
 
 HONEY, SUGAR, AND MOLASSES 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Honey, from its soft condition at all times, is not fitted 
 for the binding of colors; molasses is similarly constituted; 
 while sugar is a solid which by the addition of water can 
 be brought to the consistency of syrup. The three 
 possess about the same properties, and are too weak for 
 the binding of water colors. As correctives to be used 
 with distemper colors mixed with glue, they are fre- 
 quently resorted to for the same purposes as mentioned 
 under the heading of dextrin. Honey is also used as a 
 corrective in the preparation of artists' water colors in 
 the form in which they are so popular now, that of moist 
 pans. It is also used in very limited quantity in the 
 hard cakes to prevent the gum arabic in their compound- 
 ing from becoming too brittle and crumbling to pieces. 
 As honey usually becomes crystalline, and in that condi- 
 tion is as useless as granulated sugar would be, it is 
 treated to prevent its crystallization, and has its 
 dextrose removed. This is accomplished by mixing 
 it with four times its bulk of alcohol and keeping it 
 agitated every few hours for two consecutive days; 
 then the pale alcoholic solution is filtered. It is 
 fit to use in that condition, or the alcohol may be 
 recovered by distillation, and the residue in a syrupy 
 condition may be used instead. 
 
228 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 GLYCERINE 
 
 Properties and Uses 
 
 Glycerine is obtained from oils and fats. Many of the 
 large soap works produce it as a by-product. It is of the 
 consistency of a thin syrup and has a sweetish taste. It 
 attracts moisture readily, and will absorb more than one 
 third of its weight from the atmosphere. That which is 
 found in commerce has always some water in its com- 
 position. This can be readily detected by its specific 
 gravity and the percentage of water computed from the 
 variation of that which it shows and that which it ought 
 to have. Its great attraction for water really makes it 
 superior to honey in the manufacture of cake and moist 
 cake water colors, and many are beginning to use it for 
 that purpose. 
 
 It is also very useful to add to distemper colors and 
 kalsomine for wall-work and for rooms where the plas- 
 tering is in that condition which is known as hot. It will 
 greatly facilitate the application of the paint into which 
 it has been added in the proportion of four to six fluid 
 ounces to the pail of color (about 2J gallons). Its use 
 has saved many a man from profanity. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 DRIERS AND SICCATIVES 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 It has been noted in the descriptions of the various 
 pigments that some of them were called non-driers. 
 The pigments themselves, being powdered solids, never dry 
 any more than they do when ground up with oil to a 
 paste. The term, therefore, does not apply to them 
 really, but to the linseed-oil vehicle with which they are 
 mixed, and refers to the action of the pigment upon the 
 oil. It was also noted that some other pigments on the 
 contrary aided the drying of the fixed oils. 
 
 The main reason for the non-drying of pigments is that 
 some contain fatty oils which do not dry; there are also 
 other reasons which were noted under each head. Again, 
 it was noticed that the lead pigments which were 
 oxides of that metal, and that pigments also which con- 
 tained oxide of manganese in their composition, hastened 
 the drying of the oils. 
 
 The oxides of lead are all very good driers, but also 
 some of the other salts of that metal and acetate of lead 
 are especially so; even white lead itself possesses that 
 property to a good degree but not in such proportion 
 as some others. It will usually dry raw linseed oil in a few 
 hours outside, without the addition of artificial driers 
 unless the weather is cold and the atmosphere too humid. 
 
 In describing the drying of linseed oil, it was said that 
 the heating of the linseed oil of itself rendered it more 
 
 229 
 
230 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 siccative, so that even subsequently, after it had cooled, 
 it would still retain some of its thus acquired drying 
 quality. 
 
 Linseed oil would dry naturally when mixed with inert 
 pigments, as these exert no influence upon its drying one 
 way or another; and with the pigments, which will aid 
 its oxidation the more quickly, as these part with their 
 oxide more rapidly or liberally, and when mixed with the 
 non-drying pigments much more slowly or not at all, 
 according to the composition of the non-drying colors. 
 If the temperature could be depended upon to remain 
 above 70 F., and the barometer at "Beau Fixe," 
 and only pigments mixed with linseed oil which 
 were not inimical to its natural drying, there would be 
 but little need of driers; but, unfortunately, there can be 
 no dependence placed upon it. Neither the thermometer 
 nor the barometer ever remain very long where the 
 painter would like them to be, being proverbially fickle, 
 so, by the use of dryers, he must guard against the 
 possibility of having his work destroyed by changes which 
 are likely to come at a moment's notice. 
 
 Again, in interior work, the women folk are ever hurry- 
 ing up the poor painter, and ever threatening all sorts of 
 evil to him, even to threatening him that this is to be the 
 last job for him there, if he does not put in a little more 
 push to his hastening along with it, when he is doing all 
 that possibly can be done, and more, for the real good of 
 the painting; or in business houses or stores, where the 
 painting has to be done at night, so the paint may be 
 dry in the morning, there is no other alternative left to 
 the painter but that of using siccatives in his paints, no 
 matter whether this is good for it or not. 
 
 There is no doubt but that much of the short life of 
 paint complained of is due, in part at least, to the hurried 
 
DRIERS AND SICCATIVES 231 
 
 drying of linseed oil, which burns it up that is what fast 
 drying means. Where the drying is slow and natural, 
 the conversion occurs without violence. Then the paint 
 will stay on much longer and remain in good condition 
 without checking all over from lack of adhesion and 
 elasticity. 
 
 BOILED LINSEED OIL 
 
 This is the simplest of the siccatives. The heating of 
 linseed oil renders it more drying. Boiled oil, when the 
 boiling has been done, as it usually is, with the oxides of 
 lead or manganese present during the process, renders it 
 still more drying. 
 
 How those substances are capable of imparting oxygen 
 to linseed oil without losing any of it themselves is not 
 well understood. One thing is sure, if a given weight 
 of those oxides be placed in a bag with the oil and all 
 boiled together, these bags may be taken out and the 
 linseed oil carefully washed away with benzine, and the 
 oxide powders dried and weighed, when it will be found 
 that they have not lost any of it by the operation, but 
 the linseed oil will have absorbed oxygen through their 
 agency some way. 
 
 As a siccative, boiled oil has its uses even for outside 
 painting, but it is seldom used for that purpose, probably 
 because the specially prepared liquid driers or japans 
 are more powerful siccatives and smaller proportions are 
 necessary to accomplish the purpose of drying the oil. 
 
 LIQUID DRIERS 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 Manufacturers of varnishes usually prepare siccative 
 compounds for the drying of linseed oil. They are sold 
 
232 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 under many names, such as drying japans, liquid driers, 
 liquid siccatives, and many fancy proprietary names. 
 
 The solving medium used in their preparation is really 
 of little moment, whether it be linseed oil, spirits of 
 turpentine, naphtha, benzine, or mixtures of these. The 
 quantity necessary to dry a given amount of linseed oil 
 is so small that their presence in the oil can exert little 
 influence other than that which is expected of them 
 the drying of the oil. An undue quantity added to lin- 
 seed oil will injure it, but then that would happen no 
 matter what the solvent might be. 
 
 LEAD OXIDES 
 
 The action of these has already been noted, as, for 
 instance, when boiled with linseed oil, etc. All lead 
 siccatives have one drawback that they all hold in com- 
 mon, they subject the oil, or rather the pigments mixed 
 with it, to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 This is not so noticeable in the liquid driers as it is 
 in the paste driers, when the lead oxides themselves 
 become a part of the paint. 
 
 The paste driers will be noted further on more fully. 
 
 Liquid driers are very seldom, if ever, made from the 
 lead oxides, for the very good reason that the 
 
 OXIDES OF MANGANESE 
 
 are much better adapted for that purpose. When made 
 with these, there is no danger of any further discolora- 
 tion taking place, outside of that which is produced 
 immediately after the mixing of the liquid manganese 
 drier with the paint. The greatest drawback is their 
 dark brown color. If, however, the brown borate of 
 manganese is used in the preparing of the liquid drier, 
 the dark tone of the drier will be reduced to a minimum, 
 
DRIERS AND SICCATIVES 233 
 
 The manganese driers are such strong driers that, if 
 they have been well prepared, but little of them need be 
 used, and that little will influence the drying of linseed 
 oil a long way. 
 
 There is absolutely no excuse for using the large quan- 
 tities of liquid manganese driers many painters do. It 
 then becomes dangerous, for it burns the paint, and, in 
 excessive quantities, it will defeat the purpose for which 
 it is used at all the drying of the oil. When will the 
 careless painter learn that a little manganese drier will 
 accomplish the object of drying oil much better than the 
 larger quantities of it. Strange as the above may sound, 
 it is not the quantity used that causes the oil to dry 
 faster, for it will take it up only as it needs it at its 
 convenience, nor will it take up more than the needed 
 amount. Another strange fact, hard to explain, is that 
 when excessive quantities are used the very object of 
 quick drying is defeated, as then it seems rather to pre- 
 vent than accelerate it. One large tablespoonful of a 
 well-made standard average strength liquid drier is 
 amply sufficient for any ordinary pail holding three 
 quarts of paint ready thinned for application. This will 
 dry all ordinary mixtures where white lead is the base 
 of the paint. For Vandyke brow r n and lamp black, half 
 a pint to the gallon of linseed oil will be found suffi- 
 cient those two pigments being the most anti-drying 
 ones on the list. 
 
 PASTE DRIERS 
 
 The oxides of lead, we have already seen, affect white 
 lead compound and others even more, which are not 
 affected by sulphuretted -hydro gen gases, which, when 
 they are used, are affected by their presence. 
 
 Formerly large quantities of acetate of lead paste 
 driers were manufactured, but their defects under 
 
234 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 unfavorable conditions specking and coming out as an 
 efflorescence have greatly reduced their use. Under 
 that form and style they are still used in certain localities. 
 
 Paste fillers are made and prepared according to pro- 
 prietary formulas, so that what might be a good one 
 made by one firm will not necessarily need to be a recom- 
 mendation for some one else's make, simply because it 
 is put up in that form. Acetate of lead is the base of all 
 light-toned ones. They are used for very light tints and 
 whites. Many an artist has had to rue the day when he 
 was tempted to use them, as they are chiefly composed, as 
 was said, of acetate of lead, or may also contain white 
 oxide of lead or litharge, which, however, darkens it some. 
 Aside from subjecting the painting to the action of sul- 
 phurous vapors, deteriorating and specking or efflores- 
 cing, there are other injurious chemical changes affecting 
 them. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc drier in paste form is a fair drier for 
 zinc white, but of little value when used in connection 
 with any other pigment. 
 
 Borate of lime and borate of zinc also make useful 
 driers for zinc paint. 
 
 Some paste driers are now made with borate of man- 
 ganese as the chief ingredient in their composition. Such 
 will be found more effective and more valuable, even if 
 they are a trifle dark, than the other varieties of paste 
 driers, but they are not as advantageous as the liquid 
 driers. They require to be carefully thinned out before 
 mixing with the paint, and for that reason will never 
 become popular. It is a waste of time to triturate them 
 and thin them for use, which, when done, puts them in 
 liquid form and makes a liquid drier of them after 
 all. Why not procure that in the first place and save 
 all the bother? 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 THE COMPOUNDING OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 THE compounding of pigments changes the color of 
 each, imparting to the others a part, and in return receiv- 
 ing a part of theirs, so that the completed mixture becomes 
 a new color different from that of the pigments produc- 
 ing it, but which partakes of the character of each one 
 of them in some degree. 
 
 THE PRIMARY COLORS 
 
 Of colors proper there are but three. These three are 
 called the primary colors. They are the following: 
 
 Red, Yellow and Blue 
 
 White itself is but the product of a perfect combination 
 of the three primaries, black being simply a negative of 
 all color. 
 
 SECONDARY COLORS 
 
 From the combination of two of any of the primary 
 colors together are made the secondary colors, and these 
 are as follows: 
 
 Purple, Orange and Green 
 
 They are thus produced: 
 
 Red and blue = Purple. 
 
 Red and yellow = Orange. 
 
 Yellow and blue = Green. 
 
 235 
 
236 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 TERTIARY COLORS 
 
 From the union of two of the secondary colors comes 
 a third set, the tertiary colors which consist of the 
 following: 
 
 Olive, Citrine and Russet 
 
 They are derived in this way: 
 
 Purple and green = Olive. 
 Green and orange = Citrine. 
 Purple and orange = Russet. 
 
 Further mixtures of these produce the neutral tints. 
 
 From the above three primaries, three secondaries and 
 three tertiaries, with the addition of white and black, 
 are produced the hundreds of thousands of varied tints 
 which form the kaleidoscope of infinite variety adorning 
 everything animate and inanimate upon this mundane 
 sphere. 
 
 It is regrettable that no more space can be devoted to 
 the study and notice of color harmony, but this would 
 unduly enlarge the volume, and it is not strictly within 
 the subject matter. The color student is therefore advised 
 to procure some of the excellent treatises which deal 
 with this subject as their primary object. There is 
 nothing more interesting than the study of the phenom- 
 ena of color. It will greatly help the student, not alone 
 in that it will help him to mix tints properly, but also in 
 the higher object of becoming master of color effects, 
 which is a faculty that few otherwise very good painters 
 possess, and which would be worth to them in after life 
 many times over whatever effort in time and money they 
 may have spent in acquiring a good knowledge of color. 
 
 Expert colorists are in good demand at any reasonable 
 figures which they. may demand for their services. 
 
THE COMPOUNDING OF PIGMENTS 237 
 
 For the making of tints, a base is used upon which to 
 build it. The base is that pigment which enters the com- 
 pound in the greatest quantity. If a white, and that 
 is usually the base of all light tints, it is either white 
 lead or. zinc white, used alone or together in any propor- 
 tions, and still other whites may be added to them as 
 correctives if desired. 
 
 The rules given below are formulated for guidance in 
 the preparation of tints, with linseed oil as the vehicle, 
 and for pigments which have been ground to a paste 
 in the same vehicle. These same rules will apply to the 
 mixing of pigments and the making of tints from them 
 in any other vehicle, japan, varnish or water, with what- 
 ever slight alterations made necessary by the different 
 nature of those liquids. 
 
 1. THE BASE 
 
 The base, as was said before, is the principal color of 
 the tint. Tints usually, but not always, are lighter 
 tones of those of the pigments used in compounding 
 them, so white must be used -to lighten them up. It 
 thus becomes the principal color or the base upon which 
 the tint is built. It may be any white pigment, or 
 combination of them; but to simplify matters, and also 
 on account of its being the pigment in chief use for the 
 purpose, when a white base is designated hereafter it 
 it will be called white lead, no matter if it is that or any 
 other white that one may prefer to use. 
 
 In some few cases, however, where great purity of 
 tone is necessary, and for certain kinds of interior work, 
 zinc white should be substituted. With these explan- 
 ations one cannot greatly err. It will be an easy matter 
 to substitute zinc for lead, when it is well understood 
 that the white lead base that is indicated in the next 
 
238 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 chapter does not stand as meaning that especially, but 
 only a white base as the predominating pigment. 
 
 The white lead or zinc white or other accessory whites 
 must have been broken up, as is called the operation of 
 taking it out of its original package or keg in which it 
 was placed at the factory and thinning it with sufficient 
 linseed oil to make a rather stiff and smooth paste. It is 
 not such an easy matter as it may look, to a novice, to stir 
 up the lead and to get it into a smooth uniform mass 
 free from lumps. It is simple, but it means hard work, 
 requiring strength and effort to perform it properly. 
 Some use a little turpentine with the oil, to make it break 
 up readily, and the small quantity required will not 
 harm it for any purpose of outside painting. If possible, 
 the breaking up should be done the day before prepar- 
 ing the tints; if left over night many of the small lumps, 
 which seem to defy the paddle and constantly escape it, 
 and which are a cause of mental irritation, and thereby 
 of profanity, become soaked up by the linseed oil when 
 left in contact with it over night, and the next day the 
 mass is more easily brought to a uniform smooth paste. 
 The tub or tubs used for the breaking up of the lead 
 should always be ready to furnish the base in just the 
 shape described, as it will be found much better than 
 freshly broken up lead for the purpose of preparing 
 tints. Of course, it is not absolutely necessary that it 
 should be broken up ahead of the time it is needed, but 
 it will be found better, and the better way is what the 
 author is trying to inculcate. 
 
 2. THE COLORING PIGMENTS 
 
 These, too, should have been previously broken up by 
 the gradual addition of small quantities of linseed oil. 
 When the pigment has been beaten up with the oil, and 
 
THE COMPOUNDING OF PIGMENTS 239 
 
 has absorbed all the oil, forming a smooth paste of uniform 
 texture, more is added and triturated with it, till again 
 that is absorbed, and a liquid is obtained which pours out 
 easily as thin as one would wish to apply with a brush. 
 It is only when in this condition that the coloring pig- 
 ments can be added to the base safely, as otherwise they 
 will not incorporate with it with anything like uniformity, 
 and the tint may be streaky, which is an abomination 
 and a sure sign of the incompetency of the tint mixer. 
 
 3. MIXING THE TINTS 
 
 The pigments must be added slowly to the base, so as 
 not to overshoot the intended tint. It is an easy matter 
 to add more pigment to the base, if it is needed, to bring 
 it to the intended tint, but it is impossible to take it out 
 if the addition has been overdone. This overdosing is 
 called, in painter's parlance, drowning the miller. 
 
 Tints made by the simple addition of one coloring pig- 
 ment to the base are readily handled by following the above 
 directions. 
 
 MIXING COMPOUND TINTS 
 
 If more than one coloring pigment is required to pro- 
 duce a given tint, the first in importance in the mixture 
 should be added to the base up to a point just short of 
 that which it is thought its due proportion should enter 
 into the compound. The next one in importance should 
 then be added to the base, and that, too, stopped short of 
 that which it is thought it should be, and the same process 
 continued for each pigment entering the compounding of 
 the tint. After the mass has been well stirred, and has 
 become uniform throughout, it will then be an easy mat- 
 ter to add a bit more of this or that color, if t'here is need 
 of it, to bring it to the exact shade of the tint that is to 
 be matched. 
 
240 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 - If one has been careful to stop short of the quantity 
 thought to be required, as is easily seen, it will be readily 
 remedied; but if, on the contrary, one has not stopped 
 in time, and has overdone it, putting too much of the 
 pigment in it, then the mending will be more difficult. 
 It will require, in the first place, an increase in the quan- 
 tity of the base, proportionate to the excess of coloring 
 pigment used over and above the right amount, so that 
 one will be forced to mix up a larger quantity of the tint 
 than was intended or may be required, which means a 
 loss. 
 
 If one has poured in too much through accident, and 
 is aware of it, it is sometimes possible to dip out the color 
 so poured in, or the most of it, before it has been mixed 
 with the base; it will then not be necessary to add 
 much, if any, of the base color. The waste is then 
 reduced to a minimum. Then proceed to thoroughly mix, 
 after which add the other coloring pigments, as directed, 
 and lastly a portion of that which was dipped out just 
 so much as is needed to bring the tint to the desired 
 shade. The remnant will be so small a loss, that, in com- 
 parison with the other waste mentioned, it will be hardly 
 worth speaking about. 
 
 PREPARING TINTS READY FOR USE 
 
 When a tint has been compounded to the perfect satis- 
 faction of the mixer, as when the lead has been well 
 broken up and used, as it should have been, in the form 
 of a very stiff paste, and if the tinting pigments have 
 been thinned well, so they could be easily incorporated 
 with the base, and the whole has been well stirred up so 
 that the paste is of a uniform consistency throughout, 
 it will be found rather stiff much too stiff for application 
 with a brush. But the condition it is in then is just the 
 
THE COMPOUNDING OF PIGMENTS 241 
 
 right one for transportation, as it can be dipped out into 
 stock pails and transferred to the job where it is to be 
 used, without any danger of its slopping out, as it would 
 surely do had it been thinned out to the point needed 
 for its application. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible to give very definite direc- 
 tions about the thinning, as circumstances vary so much 
 that the experience of the man behind the brush must 
 be used here. No directions, other than the most com- 
 monplace ones, can be given, i.e., thin out more for first 
 and second coats than for third, and more all around for 
 spongy surfaces than for such as have little or no pene- 
 tration. 
 
 The above directions will suffice to enable anyone to 
 mix tints properly in oil. 
 
 For coach painting, the same care must be exercised 
 as directed for tints made in linseed oil in adding the 
 coloring pigments to the base, the main difference being 
 in the thinner, which is either japan or varnish and 
 volatile oils. There is little, if any, compounding of tints 
 in coach painting, the colors used for that work being 
 self ones, or, if compounded at all, that is usually done at 
 the factory. 
 
 For distemper painting, the pigments coloring the 
 base which is usually whiting should be mixed 
 separately as for oil colors, only that they should be 
 made more fluid ; otherwise , all that was said before 
 applies to them also. The thinning fluid being water, 
 instead of linseed oil, japan, or varnish. After the tint 
 has been finished to the satisfaction of the mixer, the 
 melted glue or the dissolved gum arabic can be added. 
 It is much more difficult to tint shades up to a given 
 sample in distemper than it is in the preceding vehicles, 
 for the reason that pigments mixed in water do not 
 
242 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 appear the same as when dry, which in oily mediums 
 they do. In water they appear very much darker than 
 they are after drying. There are no exceptions to that 
 universal peculiarity, so that a tint mixed to the exact 
 shade of a dry sample, when first applied, would be entire- 
 ly too light when dry. The tints should be made very much 
 darker than the sample to be matched, and a small patch 
 should be painted over a piece of paper, and the same 
 placed in a warm sunny spot or over a stove so the water 
 will evaporate quickly, and, when dry, the tint can then 
 be compared to the sample, and if not deep enough more 
 of the tinting pigment must be added until the tint has 
 attained the same tone as that of the sample. This may 
 require several times testing it, by drying it upon the 
 piece of paper, but it is the only safe way, and any 
 other method would be but guess work. 
 
 It requires considerably more experience on the part 
 of the mixer to hit a tint just right in a quick way. Few 
 men can fall into it at once. In time, the experience 
 gained by many former failures will gradually work up 
 into intuition, for that is what it seems to the man who 
 has tried it a few times but could not do it. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 A LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL TINTS AND How TO 
 MAKE THEM 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 IT is deplorable that the English language has no 
 well-defined nomenclature to designate tints. As other 
 languages have not got any either, it is not behind them 
 any in this regard; but it is deplorable nevertheless. 
 
 If one is inclined to doubt this, let him procure the 
 color cards of a dozen manufacturers of mixed paints, 
 where the tints are known and sold by name, as well as 
 by number, and these names printed under the tints. 
 It will be found upon inspection that it will be rare if any 
 two out of the dozen look alike. This is especially true 
 of the neutral tints, or those tints which are neither 
 primary, secondary, nor tertiary. Owing to this lack of 
 uniformity, some persons may think that they have not 
 been successful in obtaining the right tint if they get 
 something which does not come up to their conception 
 of what the tint ought to be, and may think that the 
 directions given as to how to make them are wrong, 
 or that the colors used in the making were off; all but 
 the right conclusion perhaps that what they call a 
 gray may be somebody else's drab. If he follows the 
 directions for making a gray, and his own ideas of a 
 drab being that the gray fits them, it will certainly be 
 a hard matter to convince him that he is wrong, because 
 there is no accepted standard recognized to settle it 
 
 243 
 
244 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 beyond dispute. Again, if the directions be given for the 
 making of a sage green, and the tint happens to be what 
 he conceives is a myrtle green, or an apple green or a light 
 olive, who will say that he is wrong? Surely, when 
 well-trained men differ so widely among themselves, how 
 can others, who have only given the study of color the 
 most superficial examination, be expected to do better ? 
 Nature itself varies exceedingly, and tints which are 
 named after the prevailing tones of green of certain 
 trees or plants are bound to form a subject of endless 
 and profitless controversies as to what is the proper tint. 
 Take instances, outside of the vegetable kingdom, out 
 of that of animals : Peacock blue where is the standard 
 for that? Let anyone undertake to furnish one, and out 
 of a dozen men, at least ten would demur to it! If the 
 whole dozen undertook to furnish the standard, there 
 would be precisely twelve supplied. 
 
 So, when directions are given for the making of such 
 far-fetched named tints that fashion has given birth to, 
 such as baby elephant's breath, cataract's mist, etc., 
 would many be found sufficiently aesthetic to forthwith 
 fall into the idea of it, or, if they did, would they coincide 
 as to the proper tints to represent them? 
 
 These precautionary words are necessary to warn the 
 reader that he must not expect too much (or the impossi- 
 ble) from the general directions given for the compound- 
 ing of tints by name. The quantity, by weight, of pig- 
 . ment to be used in producing them has been left blank 
 for the very purpose of enabling the mixer to suit himself 
 if possible as to the depth, and in more than two pig- 
 ment compounds to some extent as to the tone. This 
 will give the mixer a chance to use some judgment of 
 his own, and if he has noted the direction given, not to 
 drown the miller. He will have the tint light enough so 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 245 
 
 that he can add more of the coloring pigments named 
 to produce the tint of such depth and tone as he requires 
 it to be. 
 
 There is still another very important reason why 
 weights are not given. It must have been made very 
 plain to the readers of this treatise, who have followed 
 the descriptions given with each pigment, that there is 
 a vast difference in the strength of coloring matter con- 
 tained in a given weight of various samples of most of 
 them. If one man took a recipe made up in pounds and 
 ounces he would obtain a tint that would bear no resem- 
 blance to that obtained by the very same recipe in some 
 other locality, where the coloring pigments were made up 
 by another manufacturer. Thus, if a recipe should say: 
 
 Take White lead . . . . . . . . 20 pounds 
 
 Venetian red 3 
 
 Medium chrome yellow . . 1 " 
 
 If operator No. 1, should use a pure chrome yellow and 
 a good-toned Venetian red; operator No. 2, of the same 
 town, using a chrome yellow, containing but 20 per cent 
 of color, and an indifferent Venetian red, would have an 
 entirely different tint, and it would be due to the recipe 
 giving precise weights. Had the same been left blank, 
 the chances are that the difference would not have been 
 so great at any rate, the mixer would have had some- 
 thing nearer to his liking. 
 
 LIST OF PRINCIPAL TINTS 
 
 For the purpose of easy reference in the finding of any 
 particular tint, they have been listed alphabetically. 
 
 The base pigment, or the principal one of the com- 
 pound, is invariably named first. The other coloring 
 pigments are named in the order of their importance 
 
246 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 in the make up of the tints. Therefore, of the last, 
 frequently but a very small portion need be added. 
 As far as possible, where a simple tinge or reflection of a 
 color is needed this will be indicated : 
 
 Acacia. Lamp black for base ; color it up with Indian red and 
 tinge with Prussian blue. 
 
 v Acorn Brown. Similar to chocolate which see but lightened 
 with white lead. 
 
 Alderney Brown. Lamp black; orange chrome yellow; Fr. 
 ocher; white lead. 
 
 Amber Brown. Burnt sienna for base; add orange chrome 
 yellow, burnt umber, a trifle of lamp black, lighten shade to 
 suit by adding white lead. 
 
 Amaranth. Tuscan red and vermilion in about equal parts 
 for base; add enough ultramarine blue to suit shade of it wanted. 
 
 Anemone. Vermilion red for base; Prussian blue and a little 
 black and white lead. 
 
 Alabaster. White lead for base. Give it a very faint tinge 
 of medium chrome yellow. 
 
 Apple Green. White lead for base; add light chrome green 
 and orange chrome yellow. 
 
 Antique Bronze. Orange chrome yellow for base; add ivory 
 black ; lamp black can be substituted, but the shade will not be 
 so rich. 
 
 v; Apricot. Medium chrome yellow for base; Venetian red, car- 
 mine lake, if light shade is wanted lighten it up with white lead. 
 
 Armenian Red. Bright Venetian red for base ; lighten up with 
 French ocher. 
 
 Ash Gray. White lead for base; tinge with lamp black, add 
 a bit of French ocher. 
 
 Asiatic Bronze. Raw umber for base ; medium chrome yellow 
 to which add sufficient white lead to suit shade wanted. 
 
 Ashes of Roses. Light Tuscan red for base, to which add a 
 trifle of lamp black. 
 
 Autumn Leaf. White lead for base, to which add French 
 ocher, orange chrome yellow, a trifle of Venetian red, sufficient 
 to slightly redden tone with more of it, if a deeper-toned red 
 is desired. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 247 
 
 Azure Blue. White lead for base ; add Prussian blue to shade 
 desired of it. 
 
 Bay. Lamp black for base; add Venetian red and orange 
 chrome yellow. 
 
 Begonia. Lamp black ; vermilion red of a good scarlet shade, 
 tinge with Prussian blue. 
 
 Bismark Brown. Burnt sienna for base; add burnt umber, 
 orange chrome yellow. Lighten slightly with white lead to 
 suit. 
 
 Black Slate. Lamp black for base; Prussian blue, slightly 
 lightened up with white lead. % 
 
 Bordeaux Blue. Lamp black for base; orange chrome yellow, 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 Bottle Green. Prussian blue and lamp black for base, and 
 lemon chrome yellow. To obtain this tint at its best, it should 
 be glazed over afterwards with a yellow lake. 
 
 Brass. White lead for base; add medium chrome yellow; 
 French ocher to tint wanted. 
 
 Bronze Red. Vermilion red for base; orange chrome yellow; 
 lamp black. 
 
 Brown Stone. Tuscan red for base; add orange chrome yel- 
 low; lamp black; lighten up to suit with white lead. 
 
 Brick Color. Yellow ocher for base; add Venetian red to 
 suit, for very light shades add white lead in very small quantity. 
 
 Bronze Green. Extra dark chrome green for base; add lamp 
 black. This makes a fair bronze green. If extra dark chrome 
 green is not obtainable, use the dark or even medium chrome 
 green with more of the lamp black to darken the tint. 
 
 Another recipe is given for a richer tone of it ; medium.chrome 
 green for base; add ivory black and a trifle of raw umber to 
 shade wanted. 
 
 Bronze Yellow. Medium chrome yellow for base; raw umber; 
 lighten up with white lead. 
 
 Browns, all shades and Brown Drabs. Venetian red for base; 
 add French ocher and lamp black in various proportions accord- 
 ing to the shade of brown wanted. For the brown drabs add 
 white lead to the above brown tints, to the desired shade. 
 
 Buttercup. White lead for base ; add lemon chrome yellow 
 to suit. 
 
248 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Cambridge Red. Vermilion for base ; add Prussian blue to suit. 
 
 Cafe au lait. Burnt umber for base; add white lead; French 
 ocher; Venetian red. 
 
 Carnation. English vermilion for base; add some good 
 madder lake or carmine. If desired very light, add some zinc 
 white. 
 
 Cerulean Blue. Zinc white for base; add ultramarine blue, 
 but better use cobalt if procurable and genuine. 
 
 Cherry Red. Vermilion for base; add burnt sienna; 
 crimson lake; ultramarine blue. 
 
 Chamois. White lead for base ; add French ocher ; medium 
 chrome yellow to suit. 
 
 Chatnoline. White lead for base; add raw sienna; lemon 
 chrome yellow to suit. 
 
 Chartreuse. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
 yellow; medium chrome green. 
 
 Chestnut. Venetian red for base; add medium chrome 
 yellow; French ocher and lamp black. 
 
 t/ Chocolate. Burnt amber for base; add some rich crimson 
 vermilion or madder lake. 
 
 Another way is French ocher for base; add lamp black and 
 a little Venetian red to suit. 
 
 Canary. Use the chrome yellow sold under that name. 
 Another way is to take lemon chrome yellow to which add 
 zinc white to reduce to tint wanted. 
 
 Claybank. French ocher for base; add orange chrome 
 yellow; lighten up to shade wanted with white lead. 
 
 Claret. Madder lake and ultramarine blue for base, to which 
 add some English vermilion and ivory black. 
 
 Clay Drab. White lead for base; medium chrome yellow; 
 raw and burnt sienna. 
 
 Cinnamon. White lead for base; add burnt sienna; French 
 ocher; medium chrome yellow. 
 
 \J Cobalt Blue. This is a solid blue. Use blue sold under that 
 name. If not obtainable, take good ultramarine blue for base, 
 to which add sufficient zinc white to lighten it to shade required. 
 
 Coral Pink. Vermilion for base ; white lead ; medium chrome 
 yellow. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 249 
 
 Colonial Yellow. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
 yellow; orange chrome yellow to tinge it 
 
 Cocoanut Brown. Burnt umber for base; lighten up with 
 white lead. 
 
 Cotrine. White lead for base; add orange chrome yellow and 
 lamp black. 
 
 Cream Color, and all the buffs. White lead for base; add some 
 good French or Oxford ocher to tint wanted ; this will make all 
 the cream and buff tints from very light to very dark by adding 
 more or less of the ocher. 
 
 Copper. Medium chrome yellow for base; add Venetian red 
 and a little of lamp black. 
 
 Citron. Venetian red for base; add medium chrome yellow 
 with some Prussian blue just to tinge. If too dark, lighten up 
 with white lead. 
 
 Crimson. Dark English vermilion or any of the dark shades 
 of vermilion reds. If desired very rich toned, add some good 
 madder lake or carmine. 
 
 Dove Color. White lead for base; add ultramarine blue; 
 Indian red and lamp black. 
 
 Dregs of Wine. Dark Tuscan red for base; lamp black and 
 a trifle of zinc white. 
 
 Electric Blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add white lead 
 and raw sienna. 
 
 Ecru. White lead for base ; add French ocher ; burnt sienna ; 
 lamp black. This tint varies greatly. Its meaning is raw 
 and is intended to represent the color of raw flax, before it is 
 bleached. 
 
 Emerald. Paris green as it is or an imitation of it made from 
 a very pale chrome green of a bluish cast or slightly tinged with 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 Egyptian Green. White lead for base; add raw umber; lemon 
 chrome yellow; Prussian blue to suit. 
 
 Fawn. White lead for base; add medium chrome yellow; 
 Venetian red; burnt umber. 
 
 Flesh Color. White lead for base; add medium chrome yel- 
 low; French ocher; and Venetian red. 
 
250 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 French Gray. White lead for base; add ivory black with a 
 faint tinge of ultramarine blue and madder lake or carmine. 
 
 French Red. Indian red for base; add English vermilion to 
 brighten it, then glaze with madder lake or carmine. 
 
 Gazelle. French ocher for base ; add dark Tuscan red ; Vene- 
 tian red; lamp black; lighten up with white lead. 
 
 Geranium. Vermilion red for base; add Indian red and 
 lamp black. 
 
 Gobelin Blue. Ivory black for base ; a.dd white lead ; Prussian 
 blue; medium chrome green. 
 
 Gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome yellow ; some 
 good French ocher; and a very little vermilion red or English. 
 
 Golden Brown. French ocher for base; add orange chrome 
 yellow; lamp black; lighten up with white lead to suit. 
 
 Gray Green. White lead for base; add ultramarine blue; 
 lemon chrome yellow; lamp black. 
 
 Grass Green. Extra light chrome green just as it comes from 
 the can. For an extra fine job glaze with Paris green. 
 
 Green Stone. White lead for base ; add medium chrome green ; 
 raw umber, and French ocher. 
 
 Gray Stone. White lead for base; add lamp black; Prussian 
 blue; Venetian red. 
 
 Gray Drabs. All shades of them. White lead for base ; add 
 lamp black or ivory black with a little burnt umber in various 
 proportion according as a light or deep shade of drab is desired. 
 
 Greys. Light ' to dark shades. White lead for base ; lamp 
 black in various proportions to suit shade wanted. 
 
 Hay Color. White lead for base; add orange chrome yellow; 
 light chrome green; Indian red. 
 
 Heliotrope. Zinc white for base; add bright Venetian red; 
 ultramarine blue. 
 
 Indian Pink. White lead for base ; add Indian red. 
 
 Indian Brown. Indian red for base; add lamp black; French 
 ocher. 
 
 Iron Gray. Lamp black for base; add white lead and a trifle 
 of orange chrome yellow. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 251 
 
 Ivy Green. French ocher for base; add lamp black; Prussian 
 blue. 
 
 Jasper. Lamp black for base ; add white lead ; medium chrome 
 yellow; light Indian red. 
 
 Jonquil. White lead for base; add medium chrome yellow 
 to which should be added a tinge of red with English pale ver- 
 milion to enrich it. 
 
 Lavender. White lead for base ; add ivory black ; ultramarine 
 blue; tinge with carmine or madder lake. 
 
 Lead Color. White lead for base ; add lamp black and a trifle 
 of Prussian blue. The latter can be omitted, if the lamp black 
 is good. 
 
 Leather. French ocher for a base; add burnt umber. If a 
 warm tone of it is desired, add some Venetian red. 
 
 Lemon. Use lemon chrome yellow just as it is. 
 
 Leaf Buds. White lead for base; add orange chrome yellow; 
 light chrome green. 
 
 Lilac. White lead for base; add dark Indian red to suit. 
 
 London Smoke. Yellow ocher for base ; add ultramarine blue ; 
 lamp black; lighten up to suit with white lead. 
 
 Magenta. Vermilion for a base; add carmine or madder lake 
 with a tinge of ultramarine blue. 
 
 Mauve. Yellow ocher for base; add Venetian red; lamp 
 black; lighten up to suit with white lead. 
 
 Mastic. White lead base; add French ocher; Venetian red, 
 a trifle of lamp black. 
 
 Maroon. Carmine or madder lake for base; add ivory black 
 and a small part of ' orange chrome yellow another way ; 
 Tuscan red for base; add orange chrome yellow with a trifle of 
 ivory black. 
 
 Manila or Deck Paint. White lead for base; French ocher; 
 medium chrome yellow. 
 
 Marigold. Medium chrome yellow for base; add white lead; 
 orange chrome yellow. 
 
 Mexican Red. Bright Venetian red for base; red lead. 
 
 Mignonette. Medium chrome green for base; add Prussian 
 blue; medium chrome yellow; lamp black. 
 
252 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Moorish Red. Vermilion red for base; add rose pink or, 
 what is much better, madder lake. 
 
 Mouse Color. White lead for base; add lamp black, a tinge 
 of Venetian red and burnt umber. 
 
 Moss Rose. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add medium 
 chrome green; lighten with white lead to suit. 
 
 Mulberry. Ivory black for base; add vermilion red; trifle 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 Myrtle Green. Dark chrome green for base; add ultramarine 
 blue; lighten up with white lead to suit. 
 
 Nile Blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue; with a 
 trifle of medium chrome green. 
 
 Normandy Blue. Medium chrome green; ultramarine blue; a 
 trifle of white lead. 
 
 Nut Brown. Lamp black for base ; add Venetian red ; medium 
 chrome yellow; French ocher. 
 
 Oak Color. Light and dark shades of it. White lead for 
 base ; add French ocher ; also a small quantity of Venetian red. 
 Vary the quantities to suit for light or dark shades. 
 
 Old Gold. White lead for base; add medium chrome yellow; 
 French ocher and a small portion of burnt umber. 
 
 Olive. Lemon chrome yellow for base ; add about equal parts 
 of Prussian blue and lamp black. Some shades of olive can be 
 made by substituting French ocher for the lemon yellow; in 
 such a case the tone will not be so bright. A trifle of the lemon 
 chrome yellow added to the ocher will improve it and make 
 still another variety of olive tones. 
 
 Orange. Orange chrome yellow, just as it comes from the 
 can. If not to be had, take medium chrome yellow and color 
 it up with a bright scarlet red any scarlet-toned vermilion 
 will do. 
 
 Olive Brown. Raw umber for base ; add lemon chrome yellow. 
 Vary the quantity to suit the intensity of shade wanted. 
 
 Orange Brown. Orange chrome yellow for base; add raw 
 sienna; a trifle of burnt umber. 
 
 Oriental Green. Raw umber for base; add lemon chrome 
 yellow to suit. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 253 
 
 Opal Gray. White lead for base; add burnt sienna; ultra- 
 marine blue. 
 
 Peach Blossom. White lead for base; add pale Indian red to 
 suit. A tinge of madder lake will enrich it, but is not a 
 necessity. 
 
 Pearl. White lead for base; add ivory black and a trifle of 
 ultramarine blue and carmine red. It is a very light shade, 
 just off the white; do not overdo it. 
 
 Pea Green. White lead for base; add medium chrome green 
 
 to suit. 
 
 Peacock Blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add extra light 
 chrome green and zinc white to suit. 
 
 Persian Orange. Orange chrome yellow for base; add French 
 ocher; white lead. 
 
 Pink. Zinc white for base; add madder lake or carmine or 
 the crimson shades of English vermilion. 
 
 Pompeian Red. Vermilion red base; add orange chrome 
 yellow; ivory black. 
 
 Pompeian Blue. White lead base; add ultramarine blue; 
 vermilion red; French ocher. 
 
 Plum Color. White lead for base; add Indian red; ultra- 
 marine blue. 
 
 Portland Stone. French ocher for base; add raw umber; 
 lighten up with white lead. 
 
 Pistache. Ivory black for base; add French ocher; medium 
 chrome green. 
 
 Purple. White lead for base; add dark Indian red; a trifle of 
 light Indian red to suit. 
 
 Primrose. White lead for base ; add lemon or medium chrome 
 yellow, according to the shade wanted of it. 
 
 Purple Brown. Dark Indian red for base; add ultramarine 
 blue ; a trifle of lamp black and white lead to lighten it up. 
 
 Quaker Green. White lead for base; add French ocher; lamp 
 black and burnt sienna. 
 
 Roan. Lamp black for base; add Venetian red; Prussian 
 blue ; lighten it up to suit with white lead. 
 
254 MODERN PIGMENTS 
 
 Robin's Egg Blue. White lead for base; add ultramarine 
 blue until the shade is a pretty deep blue, then add some pale 
 or medium chrome green to suit tone desired of it. 
 
 Russet. White lead for base; add orange chrome yellow; a 
 trifle of lamp black. 
 
 Russian Gray. White lead for base; add ultramarine blue; 
 pale Indian red and lamp black. 
 
 Sage Green. White lead for base; add medium chrome green 
 until the tint is nearly but not quite a pea green, then add lamp 
 black to bring it to the sage color. 
 
 Salmon. White lead for base ; add French ocher ; burnt sienna ; 
 with a trifle of English vermilion or a good vermilion red. 
 
 Sapphire Blue. Zinc white for base; add ultramarine blue. 
 
 Sap Green. White lead base; add medium chrome yellow; 
 lamp black. 
 
 Sea Green. White lead base; add Prussian blue; raw sienna. 
 
 Seal Brown. Burnt umber for base; add good French ocher 
 and a trifle of white lead. 
 
 Scarlet. Pale English vermilion or any of the scarlet-toned 
 vermilion reds. 
 
 Shrimp Pink. White lead for base ; add Venetian red ; burnt 
 sienna and a trifle of vermilion. 
 
 Sky Blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue to shade 
 wanted. 
 
 Slate. White lead for base ; add raw umber ; ultramarine blue ; 
 lamp black. 
 
 Spruce Yellow. French ocher for base; add Venetian red; 
 lighten up with white lead to suit. 
 
 Snuff Color. French ocher for base; add burnt umber and a 
 bit of Venetian red. 
 
 Straw Color. Medium chrome yellow for base; add French 
 ocher; a bit of Venetian red; lighten up with white lead. 
 
 Stone Color and Yellow Drabs. White lead for base; add 
 French ocher; tinge up with medium chrome yellow and burnt 
 umber. By varying quantities all shades of yellow drabs can 
 be made. 
 
 Tan. White lead for base; add burnt sienna and a trifle of 
 lamp black. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL TINTS 255 
 
 Tally-Ho. White lead for base ; add French ocher ; Venetian 
 red ; dark chrome green with a bit of ivory black. 
 
 Terra Cotta. French ocher for base; add Venetian red and 
 white lead. Some shades of it require the addition of Indian 
 red. Some rich shades are sometimes desired under that name ; 
 use orange chrome yellow in place of French ocher, add Vene- 
 tian red and a trifle of burnt umber to suit. 
 
 Turquoise Blue. White lead for base, or better, zinc white; 
 add cobalt blue ; Paris green or pale chrome green. 
 
 Vienna Brown. Burnt umber for base; add Venetian red; 
 French ocher; and lighten with white lead to suit. 
 
 Violet. White lead for base; add pale Indian red, and a 
 trifle of dark Indian red. 
 
 Willow Green. White lead for base; add sufficient medium 
 chrome yellow to make a pretty deep shade; then add a small 
 quantity of raw umber and ivory black. 
 
 Wine Color. English vermilion or scarlet-toned vermilion 
 red for base; add madder lake or carmine; ultramarine blue; 
 ivory black. 
 
 Another way; dark Tuscan red of good quality to which add 
 a trifle of ivory black. 
 
 Water Green. White lead for base; add raw sienna; dark 
 chrome green. 
 
 Yellow Bronze. Lemon or medium chrome yellow for base; 
 add French ocher and just a trifle of burnt umber. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A. 
 
 Acacia, 246. 
 Acorn brown, 246. 
 Adulterants of white lead, 25. 
 Adulteration of chrome yellow, 
 Alabaster, 246. 
 Alderney brown, 246. 
 Alizarin, 120. 
 Aluminous ocher, 58. 
 Amaranth, 246. 
 Amber brown, 246. 
 American ochers, 70, 183. 
 American sienna, 187. 
 American umber, 187. 
 American vermilion, 104, 184. 
 American zinc, 25. 
 Analysis of Oxford ocher, 65. 
 Analysis of terre verte, 140. 
 Analysis of umber, 162. 
 Anemone, 246. 
 Antique bronze, 246. 
 Antwerp blue, 187. 
 Apple green, 246. 
 Apricot, 246. 
 Armenian red, 246. 
 Artificial ocher, 183. 
 Ash gray, 246. 
 Ashes of roses, 246. 
 Asiatic bronze, 246. 
 Aureolin, 87, 183. 
 
 properties of, 87. 
 Aurora yellow, 184. 
 Autumn leaves, 246. 
 
 Azure blue, 247. 
 Azurite, 187. 
 
 B. 
 
 Barium chromate, 183. 
 Baryta lemon yellow, 78, 183. 
 
 properties of, 78. 
 Baryta white, 51, 183. 
 
 composition of, 51. 
 
 properties of, 52. 
 
 source of supply of, 51. 
 
 uses as an adulterant, 53. 
 Baryta white artificially made, 
 54. 
 
 as a distemper color, 55. 
 Baryta yellow, 183. 
 Barytes, 183. 
 
 Base (the) in mixing tints, 237. 
 Basic copper acetate, 145, 186. 
 Bay, 247. 
 Beeswax, 217. 
 Begonia, 247. 
 Benzine, 208. 
 
 properties of, 208. 
 
 uses of, 209. 
 Berg blau, 187. ' 
 Berg grim, 186. 
 Berlin blue, 187. 
 Best vehicle for white lead, 22. 
 Bice, 187. 
 
 Bismark brown, 247. 
 Black lead (see graphite), 188. 
 Black pigments, 170. 
 Black pigments, 188. 
 
 257 
 
258 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Black slate, 247. 
 Blanc d 'argent, 182. 
 Blanc de plomb, 182. 
 Blanc de zinc, 182. 
 Blanc fixe, 183. 
 Bleu d'azur, 186 
 Bleu de Berlin, 187. 
 Bleu de cobalt, 187. 
 Bleu de smalte, 187. 
 Bleu de Thenard, 187. 
 Bleu d'outremer, 186. 
 Blow pipe test for white lead, 
 29. 
 
 how to make, 30. 
 Blue black (see charcoal black), 
 
 188. 
 
 Blue pigments, 186. 
 Blue smalt, 155. 
 
 properties, 155. 
 Blue verditer, 154, 187. 
 
 production of, 154. 
 
 properties of, 154. 
 Boiled linseed oil, 203, 231. 
 
 adulterations of, 231. 
 
 properties of, 231. 
 
 uses of, 231. 
 Bordeaux blue, 247. 
 Bottle green, 247. 
 Brass, 247. 
 Brick color, 247. 
 Bronze green, 247. 
 Bronze red, 247. 
 Bronze yellow, 247. 
 Brown ocher, 183. 
 Brown pigments, 187. 
 Brown pink, 184. 
 Brown stone, 247. 
 Browns, 247. 
 Brun de Vandyke, 188. 
 Burnt ocher, 184. 
 Burnt, sieriha, 187. 
 Burnt umber, 159, 187. 
 
 properties of, 159. 
 
 uses of, 159. 
 Buttercup, 247. 
 
 Cadmium, 92. 
 
 chemistry of, 92. 
 
 properties of, 92. 
 Cadmium gelb, 184. 
 Cadmium yellow, 184. 
 Cafe au lait, 248. 
 Cambridge red, 248. 
 Canary, 248. 
 
 Caput motuum vitrioli, 184. 
 Carbonate of lime (see whiting), 
 
 41, 182. 
 
 Carbon black (see gas black), 188. 
 Carmin, 184. 
 Carmin de garance, 185. 
 Carmin lack, 185. 
 Carmine, 127, 185. 
 
 history of, 127. 
 
 properties of, 127. 
 
 uses of, 127. 
 Carnation, 248. 
 Cassel earth, 188. 
 Cendres blues, 187. 
 Cerulean blue, 187, 248. 
 Ceruleum, 153, 187. 
 
 properties of, 153. 
 
 uses of, 153. 
 Ceruse, 153. 
 
 Chalking of white lead, 21. 
 Chamois, 248. 
 Chamoline, 248. 
 Charcoal black, 187, 188. 
 
 preparation of, 178. 
 
 properties of, 178. 
 
 uses of, 178. 
 Chartreuse, 248. 
 Cherry red, 248. 
 Chessylite, 154, 187. 
 Chestnut, 248. 
 
 China clay (see kaolin), 183. 
 Chinese blue, 150, 186. 
 
 properties of, 150. 
 
 uses of, 150. 
 Chinese vermilion, 184. 
 Chinese white, 182. 
 
INDEX 
 
 259 
 
 Chocolate, 248. 
 
 Chromate of lead, 183, 184. 
 
 Chrome, 183. 
 
 Chrome green, 129, 185. 
 
 chemistry of, 129. 
 
 manufacture of, 130. 
 
 properties of, 132. 
 
 proprietary names for, 131. 
 
 uses of, 133. 
 Chrome jaune, 183. 
 Chrome yellows, 73, 183. 
 
 chemistry of, 74. 
 
 general remarks on, 73. 
 
 manufacture of, 74. 
 
 medium, 74. 
 
 properties of, 74. 
 
 canary and lemon, 75, 183. 
 manufacture of, 75. 
 
 orange, 75, 183. 
 defects of, 77. 
 manufacture of, 75, 183. 
 properties of, 76. 
 uses of, 77. 
 Chrom gelb, 183. 
 Chromium sesquioxide, 186. 
 Cinnabar, 184. 
 Cinnamon, 248. 
 Citrine lake, 184. 
 Citron, 249. 
 Claret, 248. 
 Clay bank, 248. 
 Clay drab, 248. 
 Cobalt blue, 248. 
 Cobalt blue, 152, 187. 
 
 manufacture of, 152. 
 
 properties of, 152. 
 
 uses of, 152. 
 Cobalt green, 135, 185. 
 
 properties of, 135. 
 
 uses of, 135. 
 
 Cobalt yellow, (see aureolin), 183. 
 Cocoanut brown, 249. 
 Coelin, 187. 
 Coelin blue, 187. 
 Colcothar, 184. 
 
 Collen earth, 188. 
 
 Cologne earth, 188. 
 
 Colonial yellow, 249. 
 
 Coloring pigments for tints, 235. 
 
 Compounding of pigments, 187. 
 
 Copper, 249. 
 
 Coral pink, 248. 
 
 Cotrine, 249. 
 
 Cream color, 249. 
 
 Cremser weiss, 182. 
 
 Crimson, 249. 
 
 Crocus, 184. 
 
 Cupric arsenite, 186. 
 
 Cyprus umber, 187. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dahl process white lead, 27. 
 
 manufacture of, 28. 
 
 properties of, 28. 
 Dark chrome green, 185. 
 Dextrin, 226. 
 
 properties of, 226. 
 Dove color, 249. 
 Dregs of wine, 249. 
 Drop black (see ivory black), 
 
 175, 188. 
 Dryers, 229. 
 
 general remarks on, 229. 
 
 lead oxides as driers, 232. 
 
 oxides of manganese, 232. 
 
 paste form, 233. 
 Dumont's blue, 187. 
 Dunkel gelb lack, 184. 
 Dutch pink, 90, 184. 
 
 character of, 90. 
 
 properties of, 91. 
 Dutch process white lead, 9. 
 
 chemistry of, 11. 
 
 corroding of, 10. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earth whites, 40. 
 general remarks, 40. 
 
260 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ecru, 249. 
 
 Egyptian green, 249. 
 
 Electric blue, 249. 
 
 Elfenbein schwartz, 188. 
 
 Emerald, 249. 
 
 Emerald green (see Paris green), 
 
 143. 
 Emerald oxide of chromium, 
 
 186. 
 
 English ochers, 69. 
 English umber, 187. 
 English vermilion (see vermilion), 
 
 184. 
 Extra light chrome green, 185. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fawn, 249. 
 Fixed oils, 189. 
 Flake white, 22, 182. 
 Flaxseed oil (see linseed oil), 189. 
 Flesh color, 249. 
 Floated barytes, 183. 
 Frankfort black, 188. 
 Frankfurter schwartz, 188. 
 French blue, 186. 
 French gray, 250. 
 French ocher, 183. 
 French red, 250. 
 French zinc, 34. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gamboge, 86, 183. 
 
 properties of, 86. 
 Gas black, 173, 188. 
 
 properties of, 173. 
 
 uses of, 174. 
 Gazelle, 250. 
 Gelben ocher, 183. 
 Geranium, 250. 
 Giallo di napoli, 186. 
 Glues, 220. 
 
 general remarks on, 220. 
 
 properties of, 221. 
 
 uses of, 222. 
 
 Glycerine, 228. 
 
 properties of, 228. 
 
 uses of, 228. 
 Gmelin's blue, 1S6. 
 Gobelin blue, 250. 
 Gold, 250. 
 Golden brown, 250. 
 Gommegutte, 183. 
 Graphite, 179, 188. 
 
 production of, 179. 
 
 properties of, 180. 
 Grass green, 250. 
 Gray drabs, 250. 
 Gray green, 250. 
 Gray stone, 250. 
 Green bice, 186. 
 
 Green carbonate of copper, 186 
 Green earth, 186. 
 
 Green oxide of chromium, 134, 
 186. 
 
 properties of, 134. 
 
 uses of, 134. 
 
 Green pigments, 129, 185. 
 Green stone, 250. 
 Green verditer, 142, 186. 
 
 properties of, 142. 
 Greys, 250. 
 
 Grinding colors, a trade, 68. 
 Griin erde, 186. 
 Grimes chromoxyd, 186. 
 Griins pan, 186. 
 Guimet's blue, 186. 
 Gum arabic, 224. 
 
 properties of, 224. 
 
 uses of, 225. 
 Gypsum, 46, 183. 
 
 chemistry of, 47. 
 
 history of, 46. 
 
 properties of, 47. 
 
 source of supply, 46. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hay color, 250. 
 Heavy spar, 183. 
 
INDEX 
 
 261 
 
 Heliotrope, 250. 
 History of white lead, 9. 
 Honey, 227. 
 
 properties of, 227. 
 
 I. 
 
 Imitation vermilion, 100, 184. 
 Impurities in linseed oil, 201. 
 
 properties of, 126. 
 
 tests for, 201. 
 
 uses of, 126. 
 Indian brown, 250. 
 Indian lake, 126, 185. 
 Indian pink, 250. 
 Indian reds, 110. 
 
 characteristics of, 110. 
 
 production of, 110. 
 
 properties of, 112. 
 
 uses of, 112. 
 Indian yellow, 87, 183. 
 
 chemistry of, 88. 
 
 properties of, 88. 
 Indisch gelb, 183. 
 Iron gray, 250. 
 Italian pink, 1$4. 
 Italian sienna, 187. 
 Ivory black, 175, 188. 
 
 manufacture of, 175. 
 
 properties of, 176. 
 
 uses of, 176. 
 Ivy green, 251. 
 
 .1. 
 Japans, 214. 
 
 properties of, 214. 
 
 uses of, 214. 
 Jasper, 251. 
 Jaune brilliant, 184. 
 Jaurie d'antimoine, 184. 
 Jaune de cadmium, 184. 
 Jaune de cobalt, 183. 
 Jaune de Mars, 183. 
 Jaune de Naples, 184. 
 Jaune Indien, 183. 
 Jaune royal, 184. 
 Jonquil, 251. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaolin, 44, 183. 
 
 properties of, 45. 
 King's yellow, 93, 184. 
 
 characteristics of, 93. 
 
 chemistry of, 94. 
 Kobalt blau, 187. 
 Kobalt gelb, 183. 
 Kobalt griin, 185. 
 Konig's gelb, 184. 
 Krapp lack, 185. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lac lake, 185. 
 Lack lack, 185. 
 Lakes, 118. 
 
 general remarks on, 118. 
 
 manufacture of, 121. 
 
 red lakes, 119. 
 Lamp black, 170. 
 
 chemistry of, 170. 
 
 manufacture of, 170. 
 
 properties of, 171. 
 
 uses of, 172. 
 Lapis lazuli blau, 186. 
 Laque brown, 183. 
 Laque cramoisi, 185. 
 Laque de garance, 185. 
 Laque d'Inde, 185. 
 Lavender, 251. 
 Lazurestein blau, 186. 
 Lead color, 251. 
 Lead (sulphate), see sulphate of 
 
 lead, 26. 
 Lead (sublimed), see sublimed 
 
 lead, 27. 
 
 Lead (white), see white lead, 9. 
 Lead (white oxide), see white oxide 
 
 of lead, 28. 
 Leaf buds, 251. 
 Leather, 251. 
 Lemon, 251. 
 Levant umber, 187. 
 Lilac, 251. 
 
262 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Linseed oil, 191. 
 
 boiled, 203. 
 
 chemistry of, 195. 
 
 drying of, 196. 
 
 manufacture of, 191. 
 
 properties of, 198. 
 
 tests for impurities, 201. 
 
 uses of, 199. 
 Liquid dryers, 231. 
 
 general remarks on, 231. 
 List of principal tints, 243. 
 London smoke, 251. 
 
 M. 
 
 Madder brown, 185. 
 Madder lakes, 123, 185. 
 
 properties of, 124. 
 
 uses of, 124. 
 Madder purple, 185. 
 Madder red, 185. 
 Magenta, 251. 
 Malachite, 142. 
 Manilla or deck paint, 251. 
 Marigold, 251. 
 Maroon, 251. 
 Mars gelb, 183. 
 Mars orange, 183. 
 Mars yellow, 183. 
 Mastic, 251. 
 Mauve, 251. 
 
 Medium chrome green, 185. 
 Medium chrome yellow, 183. 
 Metallic browns, 166. 
 
 manufacture of, 166. 
 
 properties of, 167. 
 
 uses of, 167. 
 Mexican red, 251. 
 Mignonette, 251. 
 Miltos, 185. 
 Mineral yellow, 183. 
 Mittes green, 186. 
 Mittler's green, 186. 
 Mixing compound tints, 239. 
 
 general remarks on, 243. 
 
 how to prepare, 240. 
 
 Mixing compound tints cont'd. 
 
 in distemper, 241 . 
 Mixing simple tints, 239. 
 Molasses (see honey), 227. 
 Moorish red, 252. 
 Mortar colors made from ochers, 
 
 75. 
 
 Moss color, 252. 
 Mouse color, 252. 
 Mountain blue, 187. 
 Mountain green, 186. 
 Mulberry, 252. 
 Myrtle green, 252. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naphtha (see benzine), 208. 
 Naples yellow, 89, 184. 
 
 chemistry of, 89. 
 
 history of, 89. 
 
 properties of, 89. 
 Neapel gelb, 89. 
 Neutral tints, 236. 
 New blue, 186. 
 Nile blue, 252. 
 Noirr de fumee, 188. 
 Noir d'ivoire, 188. 
 Noir de vigne, 188. 
 Normandy blue, 252. 
 Nut brown, 252. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak color, 252. 
 Ocher jaune, 183. 
 Ocher roth, 185. 
 Ocher rouge, 185. 
 Ochers, 57, 183. 
 
 aluminous, 59. 
 
 analysis of Oxford, 65. 
 
 chemical properties, 58. 
 
 general characteristics, 58. 
 
 grinding in oil, 67. 
 
 mining of, 61. 
 
 properties of, 61. 
 
 silicate, 58. 
 
 uses of, 63. 
 Oil of turpentine, 207. 
 
INDEX 
 
 263 
 
 Old gold, 252. 
 
 Olive, 252. 
 
 Olive brown, 252. 
 
 Opal gray, 253. 
 
 Opa,que oxide of chromium, 186. 
 
 Orange. 252. 
 
 Orange brown, 252. 
 
 Orange cadmium, 184. 
 
 Orange chrome yellow, 183, 
 
 Orient yellow, 184. 
 
 Oriental green, 252. 
 
 Orpiment (see king's yellow), 184. 
 
 Oxford ocher, 183. 
 
 Oxide of zinc (see zinc white), 182. 
 
 P. 
 
 Paraffin waxes, 219. 
 
 characteristics of, 219. 
 Pariser blau, 187. 
 Paris green, 143. 
 
 chemistry of, 143. 
 
 preparation of, 143. 
 
 uses of, 143. 
 Paris white, 182. 
 Peach blossom, 253. 
 Peacock blue, 253. 
 Pea green, 253. 
 Pearl, 253. 
 Peori, 183. 
 
 Permanent blue, 186. 
 Permanent weiss, 183. 
 Permanent white, 183. 
 Permanent yellow, 183. 
 Persian orange, 253. 
 Pigment, definition of, 2. 
 Pink, 253. 
 
 Pink madder lake, 185. 
 Pistache, 253. 
 Plumbago, 188. 
 Plum color, 253. 
 Pompeian red, 253. 
 Poppyseed oil, 204. 
 
 properties of, 204. 
 
 uses of, 204. 
 Portland stone, 253. 
 
 Powdered silica, 183, 
 Preface, iii. 
 
 Preliminary remarks, i. 
 Primary colors, 235. 
 Primrose, 253. 
 Prussian blue, 148, 187. 
 
 Listory of, 148. 
 
 manufacture of, 148. 
 
 properties of, 149. 
 
 uses of, 149. 
 Prussiate of iron, 187. 
 Puiri, 183. 
 
 Pulp ground white lead, 16. 
 Puree, 183. 
 Purple, 253. 
 Purple brown, 253. 
 Purple lake, 185. 
 Purpurin, 120. 
 
 Q- 
 
 Quaker green, 253. 
 Quercitron lake, 184. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raw sienna, 163, 187. 
 Raw umber, 156, 187. 
 Red chalk, 185. 
 Red hematite, 185. 
 Red iron ore, 185. 
 Red lead, 116. 
 
 chemistry of, 116. 
 
 history of, 116. 
 
 properties of, 117. 
 
 uses of, 117. 
 Red ocher, 185. 
 Red oxide of iron, 114. 
 
 properties of, 114. 
 
 uses of, 115. 
 Red pigments, 95. 
 Rinkman's green, 185. 
 Roan, 253. 
 
 Robin's egg blue, 254. 
 Roman ocher, 185. 
 Rose lake, 123. 
 
 properties of, 123. 
 
 uses of, 123. 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rose madder lake, 185. 
 Rose pink, 122. 
 
 properties of, 122. 
 
 uses of, 122. 
 Rouge, 184. 
 Rouge de Venise, 184. 
 Royal blue, 155, 187. 
 Ruben's madder, 185. 
 Rubrica, 185. 
 Ruddle, 185. 
 Russ, 188. 
 Russet, 254. 
 Russian gray, 254. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sage green, 254. 
 
 Salmon, 254. 
 
 Sap green, 254. 
 
 Sapphire blue, 254. 
 
 Saxon blue, 187. 
 
 Scale test for adulterations : 
 
 how to make it, 81. 
 
 in colors, 80. 
 Scarlet, 254. 
 Scarlet ocher, 185. 
 Scheele's green, 144, 186. 
 
 characteristics of, 144. 
 Scheele's griin, 186. 
 Sea green, 254. 
 Seal brown, 254. 
 Secondary colors, 235. 
 Shellac (alcoholic solution), 215. 
 
 properties of, 215. 
 
 uses of, 215. 
 Shrimp pink, 254. 
 Siccatives (see driers), 229. 
 Sienna erde, 187. 
 Siennas, 161, 187. 
 
 analysis of, 162. 
 
 burnt sienna, 163. 
 properties of, 164. 
 uses of, 164. 
 
 chemistry of, 162. 
 
 general characteristics, 161. 
 
 history of, 161. 
 
 Siennas continued. 
 
 properties of, 163. 
 
 raw sienna, 163. 
 properties of, 163. 
 uses of, 163. 
 Silicate earth, 48. 
 
 chemistry of, 49. 
 
 properties of, 49. 
 Silver white, 182. 
 Silver white, 183. 
 Sky blue, 254. 
 Slate, 254. 
 Smalt, 187. 
 Smalte, 187. 
 Snuff color, 254. 
 Soluble blue (see Chinese blue), 
 
 150, 186. 
 Spanish brown, 168. 
 
 properties of, 168. 
 
 uses of, 168. 
 Spanish white, 182. 
 Spirits of turpentine, 207. 
 
 manufacture of, 207, 
 Starch, 226. 
 
 properties of, 226. 
 Stone color, 254. 
 Straw color, 254. 
 Strictly pure vs. compound leads,. 
 
 24. 
 Sublimed lead, 27. 
 
 properties of, 27. 
 Sugar (see honey), 227. 
 Sulphate of barium, 183. 
 Sulphate of lead, 20. 
 
 chemistry of, 26. 
 
 properties of, 26. 
 Sulphate of lime (see whiting), 
 
 182. 
 
 Sulphide of cadmium, 184. 
 System of packing white lead, 23. 
 
 T. 
 
 Table of synonyms, 181. 
 Tally-ho, 255. 
 Tan, 254. 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 Terra-cotta, 255. 
 Terra di sienna, 187. 
 Terra ombra, 187. 
 Terra rosa, 187. 
 Terra verde, 186. 
 Terre d 'ombre, 187. 
 Terre de sienne, 187. 
 Terre de verone, 186. 
 Terre verte, 139, 186. 
 
 analysis of, 139. 
 
 history of, 139. 
 
 production of, 139. 
 
 uses of, 139. 
 Tertiary colors, 236. 
 Turkey umber, 156, 187. 
 Turner's blue, 187. 
 Turquoise blue, 255. 
 Tuscan reds, 112. 
 
 manufacture of, 112. 
 
 properties of, 113. 
 
 uses of, 113. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ultramarine blue, 145, 186. 
 chemistry of, 145. 
 manufacture of, 145. 
 properties of, 146. 
 uses of, 146. 
 Umbers, 156, 187. 
 burnt umber, 159. 
 
 properties of, 159. 
 chemistry of, 157. 
 properties of, 158. 
 provenances of, 156. 
 raw umber, 156. 
 burnt umber, 159. 
 properties .of, 156. 
 uses of, 158. 
 Umbraun, 187. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vandyke brown, 165, 188. 
 properties of, 165. 
 provenance of, 165. 
 
 Vandyke brown continued. 
 
 uses of, 165. 
 Varnishes, 210. 
 
 general remarks, 210. 
 
 properties of, 211. 
 
 uses of, 212. 
 Vegetable waxes, 217. 
 
 characteristics of, 217. 
 Vehicles for mixing pigments, 189. 
 Venetian red, 106, 184. 
 
 history of, 106. 
 
 manufacture of, 107. 
 
 properties of, 109. 
 
 uses of, 109. 
 Verdigris, 141, 188. 
 
 chemistry of, 141. 
 
 properties of, 141. 
 
 uses of, 141. 
 Vermilion, 95, 184. 
 
 characteristics of, 98. 
 
 chemistry of, 96. 
 
 history of, 95. 
 
 source of supply, 95. 
 
 uses of, 99. 
 Vermilion reds, 100, 184. 
 
 manufacture of, 101. 
 
 properties of, 103. 
 
 uses of, 103. 
 Vert emeraude, 186. 
 Vert de chrome, 186. 
 Vert de cobalt, 185. 
 Vert de gris, 186. 
 Vert de Guimet, 186. 
 Vert de Montpelliers, 186. 
 Vert de Scheele, 186. 
 Vert de zinc, 185. 
 Vert Panetier, 186. 
 Vert Paul Verone, 186. 
 Vienna brown, 255. 
 Vine black, 188. 
 Violet, 255. 
 Viridian, 137, 186. 
 
 properties of 137. 
 
 uses of, 137. 
 Volatile oils, 206. 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 w. 
 
 Water green, 255. 
 Waxes, 217. 
 White lead, 9. 
 
 chalking of, 21. 
 
 chemistry of, 11. 
 
 cylinder system of corrosion, 18. 
 
 defects of, 21. 
 
 Dutch process of corroding, 10. 
 
 grinding dry in oil, 15. 
 
 history of, 9. 
 
 injurious gases, 22. 
 
 manufacture by, 12. 
 
 process of manufacture, 19. 
 
 properties of, 20. 
 
 pulp ground lead, 16. 
 
 ripening oil ground lead, 16. 
 
 stack system of corrosion, 11. 
 
 vehicles for, 22. 
 
 volatile oils for, 22. 
 
 working qualities, 20. 
 White oxide of lead, 28. 
 
 hardening in package when 
 
 ground in oil, 28. 
 White pigments, 8. 
 White silicate, 183. 
 Whiting, 41, 182. 
 
 chemistry of, 42. 
 
 levigation of, 42. 
 
 Whiting continued. 
 
 mining of, 42. 
 
 properties of, 43. 
 
 qualities of, 43. 
 
 source of, 42. 
 Willow green, 255. 
 Wine color, 255. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow bronze, 255. 
 Yellow lake, 184. 
 Yellow madder, 184. 
 Yellow ocher, 57, 183. 
 Yellow pigments, 57, 73, 183. 
 Yellow ultramarine, 183. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zaffre, 187. 
 Zinc green, 135, 185. 
 Zinc Weiss, 182. 
 Zinc white, 32, 182. 
 
 chemistry of, 33. 
 
 compounds of, 38. 
 
 defects of, 37. 
 
 history of, 32. 
 
 in distemper, 39. 
 
 manufacture of, 33. 
 
 properties of, 36. 
 
 tests for purity of, 35. 
 Zunzober, 184. 
 
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