vision of Agricultun MTY OF CALIF ORN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service CIRCULAR S07 CONTENTS Introduction: the nature of M. gallisepticum infection 3 Description and diagnosis of disease 3 How birds look: sinusitis 4 How birds look: air sacculitis 4 Diagnosis 5 Differential diagnosis 5 Transmission of disease 6 Contact infection 6 Air-borne infection 8 Egg transmission of disease 8 Detecting egg transmission 8 Control of the disease 10 Preventing egg transmission 10 Preventing contact and air-borne infection 12 A program for control 12 Retaining special blood lines 14 Treatment of infected birds 14 Argyrol and silver nitrate treatment of sinusitis 15 Antibiotic treatment of sinusitis 16 Antibiotic treatment of air sacculitis 16 Special suggestions for meat-bird flocks 16 Mycoplasma other than gallisepticum 17 Conclusion 17 The authors wish to thank D. A. McMartin and the journal of Comparative Pathology oj Medicine for the photo on page 6 and The New York Academy of Science for use of the photo on page 4 which was taken from the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 79, 1958. Thanks are also due to U. K. Abbott for information used in the graph on page c i | \< k Pangborn and M Schifrine supplied the cover photomicrographs. the authors: A. S. Rosenwald is Extension Poultry Pathologist, University of California, Davis; H. E. Adler is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Associate Veterinarian in the Experiment Station, Davis. JANUARY, 1962 the cover: Electron photomicrographs of a part of a colony of M. gallisepticum showing numerous organisms at different stages of growth. (Enlarged approx. 10,000 times.) Controlling Infections Sinusitis of Turkeys A. S. Rosenwald and H. E. Adler Control or eradication of infectious sinusitis or CRD of turkeys (called Myco- plasma gallisepticum infection in this circular) is vital to the turkey industry. This publication describes the specific cause of the disease, explains how the infection is transmitted and spread, and gives the "why" and "how" of preven- tion, control, and eradication. Details of treatment of affected birds are given, and methods for detecting and controlling the disease through a coordinated program of blood-testing and proper management are explained. ¥ Mycoplasma gallisepticum (PPLO) causes infectious sinustis Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection, known variously as infectious sinusitis, air sacculitis, PPLO infection, and CRD of turkeys (as well as "swell head" and "infectious cold"), is one of the oldest recorded diseases of turkeys. Prior to 1948 there was considerable confusion as to its cause but between 1948 and 1952 a pleuropneumonia- like organism (PPLO), known later as "PPLO-S6 type," was found to be re- sponsible for the disease. More re- cently the specific organism has been identified and well characterized, and has been named Mycoplasma gallisep- ticum (M. gallisepticum). All myco- plasma are smaller than ordinary bac- teria, require more nutrients for growth, and because they are without a cell wall are easily destroyed out- side the birds by drying and by dis- infectants. Other species of myco- plasma — some harmless, and some capable of causing disease — are also found in turkeys but all of them can be distinguished from M. gallisep- ticum by differences in growth pat- terns, and by agglutination and other tests. All strains or isolates of M gal- lisepticum can cause disease in turkeys and chickens, but not all of them can cause trouble to the same degree. M. gallisepticum also causes chronic res- piratory disease (CRD) in chickens. Economic significance. M. galli- septicum infection in a major problem for turkey growers. Death losses in mature birds are usually less than in more acute diseases but financial loss to the producer may be considerably greater. For the breeder, the need to eliminate flocks as egg producers is the first consideration, followed in order by reduced hatchability and in- crease in poor quality poults. For the grower of meat birds, poor feed con- version, increased mortality among young birds, increased condemnation at market time, and increase in num- ber of culls, represent principal losses. 4f0 Respiratory problems ^ require careful diagnosis M. gallisepticum infection is character- ized by swollen sinuses (sinusitis form), [3] Acute "foamy at arrow due to trapped air in exudate. air sacculitis in growing turkey poult due to M. gallisepticum . Notice bubbles or by coughing (air-sac, or air-saccu- litis, form); there rarely are nervous symptoms. M. gallisepticum is the cause of the two forms. Symptoms of the sinusitis form may resemble vita- min A deficiency; mechanical injury due to a foreign object in the sinus may also cause similar signs, but these usually appear in one sinus only. The air-sac form may resemble Newcastle disease, aspergillosis, colibacillosis, fowl cholera, ornithosis, or salmonella infections. In view of the variety of troubles which may be confused with M. gallisepticum infection, all diag- noses of infectious sinusitis should be made by a veterinary pathologist. How birds look: sinusitis. Early warning of the sinusitis form is often given when the birds start shaking their heads and cleaning their nostrils on their feathers; discharged matter may be found on the feathers over the wing where the bird has attempted to clean its nostrils. Foamy or watery secretions from the eyes, or clear nasal discharges, are usually the next symp- toms to appear, although they may not be observed by the grower. The chief sign is swelling of the sinuses. If sinusitis is evident it is pos- sible to squeeze a sticky colorless or grey exudate from the nostrils. In ad- vanced cases the swellings may partly or completely close the eyes and may also cause mouth bleeding. The bird's appetite remains good as long as it can see to eat, but nevertheless it finally becomes thin. Mucus in the trachea may cause labored breathing. Birds handled roughly at this time may die due to lack of air. How birds look: air sacculitis. In the air-sac form, the air sacs are affected, or bronchial pneumonia occurs, or both. The birds cough and sneeze, they mav pant, and their breathing becomes noisier. The head may be- come cyanotic (blue). Poults and young growing turkeys [4] usually show the sinusitis form, while adult birds more often show the air- sac form; both forms may occur in the same flock of birds. Diagnosis. The presence of air sac- culitis or swollen sinuses alone or in combination is no sure indication of M. gallisepticum infection, as other agents can cause air-sac lesions. Coli- forms (E. coli), fowl cholera germs, Newcastle disease virus, and the orni- thosis agent are among the known and named agents; presently unnamed my- coplasmas (also egg-borne) are known to cause air-sac lesions without sinus- itis. Thus, other mycoplasma can sometimes be a cause of infection which is erroneously ascribed to M. gallisepticum. Swollen sinuses containing exudate, and pneumonia with thickened air-sac Air-sac membranes from diseased bird. The finding of air-sac lesions in em- bryos and cull poults suggests but does not prove possible present or future M. gallisepticum infection or disease. Diagnosis must be verified by agglutination tests with standard turkey antigen, and necropsy of a few reactors. membranes, are manifestations of the infection. Sinus exudates in the first stage are watery or semi-gelatinous, and occasionally whitish-yellow and cheesy in later stages. In air-sac infec- tion alone, the sinuses may not be af- fected; if turkeys have shown respira- tory symptoms large areas in the lungs will show inflammation, with air sacs cloudy or filled with a semigelatinous exudate. Birds with sinusitis, unlike those suffering from vitamin A de- ficiency, do not have swollen, cheesy glands in the esophagus or a cheesy plug in the bursa of Fabricius. Birds with swollen sinuses or "cough- ers" may indicate acute infection in the flock and should be taken to a veterinarian for diagnosis. Specific tests for diagnosing infectious sinusitis caused by M. gallisepticum are (1) inoculation of birds or eggs with exu- date or air-sac material, (2) growing and identifying the organism in cul- ture, and (3) blood tests. Blood tests are rapid and efficient; other proce- dures may take two weeks or more. Differential diagnosis. In diagnosis of M. gallisepticum infection, espe- cially in poults, it is essential that care be taken not to confuse it with other diseases or to confuse M. gallisepticum with other mycoplasma. Several other species of mycoplasma which have been isolated differ from M. gallisep- ticum in growth characteristics, ability to cause disease, and — most character- The membrane on the extreme left is nearly normal. The other membranes are, from left to right, increasingly more affected with air-sac lesions. istically — in antigenic character. These antigenic and serological differences make it possible to specifically identify the M. gallisepticum organism. Isola- tion of mycoplasma without identifica- tion by proper serologic tests (cross- agglutination, blood tests, or other laboratory procedures) has led to wrong diagnoses of M. gallisepticum infection, and hence to erroneous as- sumptions of egg transmission of in- fectious sinusitis; precise laboratory tests and professional advice are neces- sary for accurate diagnoses. * M. gallisepticum infection is transmitted in various ways M. gallisepticum and only M. galli- septicum must infect the bird to cause the disease generally known as infec- tious sinusitis. Other mycoplasma may cause similar symptoms, but not the specific disease discussed here. Such infections as Newcastie disease, chol- era, or erysipelas do not cause infec- tious sinusitis nor do nutritional defi- ciencies. Turkeys do not usually show symptoms until 3 to 8 weeks after they have been exposed to M . gallisepticum infection; the incubation period is often longer for poults than for older birds. Infection is transmitted to healthy birds in three ways : 1. Contact between infected and healthy birds of any age, or with re- cently contaminated utensils or cloth- ing. 2. Transmission through the air on dust or mucus. 3. Transmission through infected eggs to poults hatching from them. Contact infection. Most M. galli- septicum infection comes from contact with chickens, other turkeys already infected, or from contact with recently contaminated material. Infection trans- [6] mitted through the egg also spreads by contact; a brood or pen of several hundred or more healthy poults may become diseased from contact with two or three poults which have been infected through the egg. Such poults can act as foci of infection from which M. gallisepticum can be carried by contact in ever-widening circles of in- fection, disease and economic loss. Chickens are especially dangerous sources of the disease for turkeys. Most chickens have had the infection even though they may have had no external symptoms (runny nose), and they may remain carriers. Because turkeys are more susceptible than chickens to M. gallisepticum they can be seriously affected by an infection which would scarcely be noticeable in a chicken flock. Older turkeys which have appar- ently recovered from M. gallisepticum infection but which still remain car- riers, are another important source of infection. Pheasants, partridges, pi- WARNING! Mycoplasma Gallisepticum Infection (infectious sinusitis) is HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS Turkeys can be infected at any age by CONTACT with chickens, gamebirds, or other turkeys The disease can be EGG TRANSMITTED from infected hens to poults Infection can be transmitted by AIR as far as 500 yards or by MECHANICAL CARRIERS such as visitors, ranch workers, and equipment [7] geons, and game birds are also infec- tion sources, though of lesser impor- tance. Moving turkeys from one pen to an- other — for example, when making up breeder pens or adding new toms — can spread infection; men and equip- ment moving from pen to pen without proper precautions can cause major damage. Visitors can also carry infec- tion. Fortunately, M. gallisepticum dies very rapidly outside the infected birds. Premises which have been occupied by infected birds are safe for healthy turkeys 1 week or more after all birds in the diseased flock have been re- moved. Air-borne infection. There is little experimental evidence as to the dis- tance the infection can be carried by air. Field observations indicate that a distance of one-fourth of a mile be- tween clean and infected flocks pre- vents air-borne spread of germs, pro- vided that caretakers in the pens wash thoroughly and change clothes before moving between flocks. Egg transmission of disease is a special problem The transmission of M. gallisepticum infection from breeder hen through egg to poult has been conclusively demonstrated. Uninfected turkeys can- not transmit the disease either by con- tact or through the egg, but infected birds (especially those with air-sac and lower respiratory involvement) may transmit it even though they display no active signs of disease. The per- centage of infected eggs laid by an in- fected hen varies; hens most likely to transmit the disease through their eggs are those just coming down with active infection or those going through the acute stages of air-sac form. Probably the most dangerous birds are those which are starting to get sick but which are not yet showing symptoms and whose eggs are therefore most likely to be saved and set. Turkey flocks which have had M. gallisepticum infection very early and which now seem completely recovered (without swollen sinuses or "coughers") may produce a high percentage of eggs free of infection. However, birds in such flocks occasionally transmit M. gallisepticum through the egg and thus are potentially dangerous. Growers should market these flocks — they should not be kept for commercial turkey hatching egg and poult produc- tion. Detecting egg transmission. At pres- ent there is no way to predict patterns of egg transmission or to estimate how frequently an infected bird will pro- duce infected eggs. But studies of the rate and severity of egg transmission in naturally and artificially infected flocks indicate that: 1. Acutely infected birds with de- veloping air-sac lesions due to M. gal- lisepticum are more likely to transmit the infection than are birds with a less active form; they are, therefore, espe- cially dangerous. 2. Birds with only the sinusitis form of M. gallisepticum infection do not egg-transmit the infection as readily as do those with the air-sac form — in fact, they may not egg-transmit at all; however, they are very dangerous as sources of contact infection, as are birds with the air-sac form. 3. Early and late embryo mortality in eggs from a flock transmitting M. gallisepticum is increased. Late em- bryo death, in particular, increases more or less in direct proportion to the rate of egg transmission. 4. "Storms" (high rates of egg trans- mission) may occur accompanied by decreased hatchability without any drop in fertility. 5. Increased numbers and higher titer (concentration of antibodies in [8] t i i i i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — r 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2) ^■iNormal Mortality in Uninfected Embryos ■■■■■Age at Death (in Days) Due to M. Gallisepticum Infection Abnormal mortality in embryos due to M. gallisepticum as compared to normal mortality rates. serum) of reactors to the blood tests among breeder birds, increased inci- dence of pips (dead pips, particu- larly), decreased egg production and decreased hatchability, poor quality poults, and an increase in the number of cull poults with air-sac lesions — all these may indicate increased egg trans- mission of the infection. 6. To help determine the rate of egg transmission, dead-in-shell embryos, pips, and cull poults should be ex- amined for the presence of air-sac lesions caused by M. gallisepticum. Other mycoplasma can egg-transmit and cause similar lesions, so careful diagnosis by veterinarians is essential. 7. Egg transmission of infection may result in the disease within 2 or 3 weeks or, because of low initial trans- mission rate and relatively slow spread of infection through the brood, may not be noticed as a flock or brood problem until the birds are 9 to 10 weeks old. Examination of poults, and proper laboratory tests (including serologic procedures) helps detect infections in time to prevent their spreading to other well-segregated groups of birds. If infection is detected early in one pen of poults all the birds in nearby Air sacculitus due to M. gallisepticum infec- tion in newly-hatched cull poult. Other my- coplasma may cause similar lesions with thickened air-sac membranes and yellow flecks or scars on them. Poults free of infec- tion show very few such scars. pens must be considered potentially infected and dangerous. However, flocks segregated a quarter of a mile or more away with separate caretakers and equipment can be kept free of the disease. Not all outbreaks of sinusitis in poults under 6 weeks of age are egg- borne. Occasionally, contact infection alone of especially "hot" strains of M. gallisepticum will cause severe disease in young poults. M. gallisepticum infection can be controlled Basically, the control of M. gallisep- ticum infection in turkeys requires the elimination of egg transmission, the application of above average sanitary measures in avoiding contact infection, and the minimizing of mechanical and air- or dust-borne infection through proper management and isolation practices. If all external sources of in- fection are removed, control will then become a matter of preventing egg transmission of the disease. In the long run, correct application of known facts can control or eradicate this in- fection. Preventing egg transmission. Only birds which are free from the disease, and which have never had it, should be used for hatching egg production. Blood tests — the serum plate aggluti- nation, the serum tube agglutination, and the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests — help to determine whether the flock is, or has been, infected; these tests take only a short time but require careful interpretation. The M. gallisepticum blood tests must be used as screening tests to detect infected flocks or isolated groups. All the birds in infected flocks should be disposed of as replacement breeders; apparently uninfected birds in the infected flock should not be used for egg production even though infected birds in their flock have been removed. This system of testing and disposal on a flock basis eradicated pullorum disease in California turkeys. Removal of infected birds and use of remaining birds is dangerous and will not eradicate the disease or insure production of poults free of M. galli- septicum infection. In certain instances special plans worked out in consultation with a veterinarian may make it possible to salvage valuable blood lines needed in a breeder's program. Blood tests. These tests can be used for routine diagnosis as well as for determining past or present infection in breeder turkeys. Blood tests com- bined with other procedures — such as special sanitation, use of drugs, egg dipping, and poult and egg sampling — form an integral part of a program used to eradicate M. gallisepticum infection. For routine diagnosis of possible M. gallisepticum infection and detection of infected flocks the two most com- mon blood tests are the slide and the tube agglutination tests. In the slide agglutination test, serum is mixed with a dense suspension of organisms (antigen) on a glass plate. If the turkeys have the disease, or have ever had it, the antigen clumps to- gether — a positive reaction. If the birds do not have the disease and have never had it, no clumping is ob- served — a negative reaction. Plate or slide serum agglutination test. Left, negative test. Right, positive test. [10] Blood Tests Will... Identify infected turkeys whether or not obviously diseased. Identify flocks as infected or uninfected at time of testing. Help select breeders (by flock) to produce M. gallisepticum-lree poults and eggs- Help predict marketing possibilities of meat birds. Help salvage valuable breeders. Provide an excellent tool to help control and eradicate M. gallisepticum infec- tion if used as part of an over-all program. Blood Tests Will N ot . . . Detect every infected turkey. Guarantee M. gallisepticum-hee poults. Prevent contact infection. Prove effective unless used as a flock rather than an individual bird test. Replace an integrated over-all program of infectious sinusitis control. In the tube test, serum is added to antigen in a test tube. The positive samples cause the mycoplasma antigen to settle to the bottom of the tube. Negative sera, however, will not clump the antigen, and hence the negative samples remain cloudy. The HI blood test previously men- tioned is used especially to confirm results of other tests. In this test, anti- body in serum prevents red blood cell agglutination (hemagglutination) by M. gallisepticum. All the above tests will detect M. gallisepticum antibodies, and while they may not detect all infected in- dividual birds they will detect infected flocks — which should then be elimi- nated as breeders on a flock basis. It is important to remember that, while blood tests show the status of the flock at the time blood samples are taken, changes due to infection can occur — and thus tests should be taken at inter- vals during the breeding season to make sure the flock has not become in- fected by contact or airborne route. There is little advantage in using one test rather than another although in every case antigens suitable for turkeys must be used. All tests detect past or present infection and their results are interpreted on a flock basis. Turkeys free of M. gallisepticum in- fection but having other respiratory diseases show no reaction — this proves the specificity of the tests; the test detects M. gallisepticum infection but will not detect other diseases. Birds with other diseases but free of M. gal- lisepticum do not give a positive re- action to these tests. Treatments for the infection should not be given during, or for a month before, the blood testing periods as they may reduce titers, and this will result in fewer positive reactions and give the grower a false sense of secu- rity about his birds even though in- fection is present. Tests may also be negative if conducted at the outset of the disease in a flock before antibodies have had time to develop. Use of drugs in preventing egg transmission. Up to the present time no drug applied to birds or eggs has cm been effective in eradicating egg-borne M. gallisepticum infection. Some drugs, however, do reduce the number of mycoplasmas in infected birds and can be used to supplement other procedures designed to produce "clean" progeny. Among such drugs are streptomycin (injected intramus- cularly), erythromycin (injection), au- reomycin, terramycin, tylosin, and (ex- perimentally) erythromycin in feed or by injection. Control of egg transmission through dipping warmed eggs in a cold anti- biotic solution (erythromycin) has re- cently been tried; experimental evi- dence indicates that if properly used on eggs with clean shells it will reduce the number of mycoplasmas in the egg although it will not eliminate all of them. Thus egg dipping alone can only help reduce egg transmission; it does not prevent it completely. Preventing contact and air-borne infection. Proper isolation of birds is essential in preventing infection from mechanical or natural carriers. No un- infected, sinusitis-free birds should be placed closer than one-fourth of a mile to birds which are infected or which have been exposed to infection, even though the latter are clinically free of the disease or are being treated. Breeder hens or toms should not be moved into pens or on ranches with "clean" turkeys until it is certain by inspection and blood test that they are uninfected and come from flocks completely free of infection. Contact with chickens, turkeys of other ages, and game birds, must be avoided. The one-fourth mile isolation of flocks will not be effective if me- chanical carriers (feed trucks, spray tanks, or people) are allowed to carry infection from flock to flock, and great care must be taken lest attendants themselves unwittingly spread infec- tion. // infection does occur all brooders, buildings, and facilities must be thor- oughly cleaned as soon as is practical after the flock is sold and before using again. After removal of litter and dust, etc., all equipment, cleanable floors, and walls should be washed with a disinfectant or with a household deter- gent, and everything possible should be sun-dried. Healthy birds can be moved into the clean environment within a week. If new turkeys are to be introduced into a healthy flock, it is important to blood test the flock from which the new birds are chosen in order to get birds from clean flocks. As an added precaution separate new birds from the old by at least one-fourth mile and retest them for infection in 30 days. If all tests are negative, the grower may introduce the new birds to the flock with the knowledge that he has taken proper precautions to prevent M. gal- lisepticum infection. A program for control. The eradica- tion of M. gallisepticum infection will require the use of professional veteri- nary counsel and diagnostic tests — as well as careful observation of birds and attention to details of proper man- agement. A testing procedure useful in preventing egg transmission and controlling infection is outlined below: 1. Breeder flocks to be tested shall be selected from flocks showing no current or previous clinical or serologi- cal evidence (in field or laboratory) of M. gallisepticum infection. Evidence of infection should be based on con- firmed laboratory tests. 2. For convenient identification, blood samples may be designated by flocks and pens, as is done in the official pullorum-typhoid program. Minimum flock segregation for the pullorum-typhoid program will not prevent spread of M. gallisepticum infection; the birds in each group or pen to be tested should be segregated for a month at a distance of at least [12] AN OUTLINE FOR CONTROL OF M. Gallisepticum INFECTION: 1. Prevent air-borne infection: • Segregate flocks by at least % of a mile, 2. Prevent contact exposure: • Keep chickens, game birds, and other fowl away from turkeys. • Dispose of any flocks which have any infected birds. • Don't introduce turkeys into clean flocks until positive they are not carry- ing infection. As an added precaution, quarantine the new birds for 30 days and then take blood tests. • If it is essential that caretakers and equipment must move between different pens and flocks, see that workers change clothes and that equipment is disinfected between groups. • Allow no visitors. 3. Prevent egg transmission: • Use only flocks with no sign of M. gallisepticum infection. Examine birds and take random blood tests of apparently uninfected birds. Discard any flock as breeders if infection is found. • If birds develop signs of infection, get laboratory diagnosis and handle birds on a flock basis. • When using stock from different sources, hatch and brood different ages separately. • Take sample blood tests periodically during hatching egg season. 4. Observe general health rules, including needed vaccinations (e.g. wing-web Newcastle disease vaccine). 5. To protect your investment, segregate supply flocks on different ranches; if infection occurs dispose of the affected flock only. one-fourth of a mile, and should not 6. In the event one or more flocks on be moved between groups. the same ranch are positive in the 10 3. Antigen in all tests should be percent test the segregated negative prepared from M. gallisepticum. flocks should be retested, on at least a 4. Flocks should be tested at a 10 10 percent basis, thirty days after re- percent level, taking no less than 100 moval of the positive flocks. This will samples per flock. This 10 percent test detect spread of the infection. may be made from the same blood Screening tests. It may sometimes samples at the time of the pullorum- be advisable to run a preliminary typhoid test. screening test to determine the status 5. Retests 3 to 4 weeks later from of birds in a potential breeding flock, flocks which have birds showing suspi- The following procedure can be used, cious serological reactions may be 1. Conduct screening test prior to desirable. Questionable cases or re- pullorum-typhoid testing and after the actions require evaluation and retests. birds are 10 weeks old. Testing should [13] be of not less than 100 birds per segre- gated flock; samples preferably should be taken from each pen. (Consult a veterinarian about testing.) 2. If one or more segregated flocks on the same ranch are positive, blood samples from negative flocks should be submitted for testing 30 days after removal of the positive flocks. 3. Only those flocks with a negative screening test and free of symptoms of M. gallisepticum infection should be presented for the 10 percent blood test. 4. Hatching egg producers should consider the advisability of having additional screening tests conducted during the hatching season in order to determine any unnoticed infection in the flock and to avoid use of breeders which have become infected through undetected exposure. ¥ Retaining special blood lines The first step in setting up an ade- quate program for retaining desirable blood lines is to consult a veterinarian. In order to salvage special blood lines, birds should be selected from flocks which have not had an outbreak within the last few months. Successive blood tests during the season, samples of cull poults, pips, and eggs during the season, and isolation of hatches from suspect flocks, are imperative. Two blood tests, taken at an interval of a month, should show little change in titer of antibodies or, if anything should show a decrease. Flocks should show no evidence of disease, hatcha- bility should compare favorably with other groups, and the number of cull poults should be low. To minimize contact transmission, eggs should be hatched in small groups and poults should be raised in small groups so that proper isolation practices can be ob- served. Poults should be carefully cul- led and groups showing either sinusitis or air-sac infection should be disposed of. ¥ Adequate early treatment of infected birds is important In a flock of breeder turkeys, M. gal- lisepticum infection results in the elimination of the whole flock as egg producers because the chances of egg transmission are great. This is true even if only a few birds in one pen of To Maintain Blood Lines, Save Groups of Birds Which . . . Have no clinical signs of M. gallisepticum infection. Have essentially the same reactor rate, or decreasing titer, in two agglutina- tion tests taken 1 month apart. Show no active air-sac lesions in a sample of breeders (post mortem examina- tion). Produce eggs having minimum embryo mortality, especially prior to 9th day. Maintain satisfactory egg production. Produce high-quality poults, with a minimum of culls. Do not show more than a 3% incidence of air-sac lesions in embryos or in cull poults. DISCUSS PROBLEMS AND PLAN PROGRAMS WITH YOUR VETERINARIAN! [14] an isolated flock become infected. With meat birds (or flocks discarded as breeders because of an outbreak of infection), early treatment can help prevent the financial losses which come from decreased weight gain and increased condemnation rate when the turkeys are processed. Effective levels of proper drugs administered as early as possible may reduce the infec- tion's rate of spread thus reducing damage and economic loss — but, treat- ment must be based on accurate con- firmed diagnosis. Promiscuous drug use should be avoided, however, as it needlessly increases costs and may re- sult in development of drug-resistant disease organisms. Although no drug will eliminate all M. gallisepticum infection, several — including some antibiotics — have proven highly effective in dealing with the sinusitis form of the disease. Treat- ment of air sacculitis by drugs in feed, water, or by injection is not too satis- factory and often results in very little or no improvement. The older treat- ments for sinusitis employed silver nitrate or Argyrol and involved with- drawing exudates from the sinuses. Because this is time-consuming, and also because silver nitrate is caustic, these treatments are not much used today even though they are very effec- tive when properly applied. Argyol and silver nitrate treatment of sinusitis. Treat birds early, before exudate from the sinuses becomes cheesy, and treat both sinuses even if only one is swollen. Prepare solutions to be used just before using. If using Argyol, prepare a 15 percent solution; if silver nitrate, prepare a 4 percent solution. Two 5 or 10 cc hypodermic syringes fitted with 16 gauge needles 1/2 inches long will be needed — one for drawing exudates from the sinus and the other for injecting solution. Insert needle of empty syringe into the bird's sinus and withdraw plunger A. Swollen sinus in adult turkey, showing syringe and needle inserted into sinus to with- draw exudate (for silver nitrate treatment) or to inject antibiotic. B. Normal-appearing sinus, with needle in- serted to treat with antibiotic or silver nitrate solution. If latter is used, the needle used to withdraw exudate is left in place and the solution injected with a second syringe. in- to remove exudate. Leave needle serted in sinus, but detach syringe. (Exudate should be emptied from syringe into a receptable of disinfect- ant.) Attach second syringe, contain- ing not over 1 cc of whichever solution is used, and inject into the sinus (doses [15] larger than 1 cc may damage tissues). Work the solution into the tissues by gentle massage after injection. When using silver nitrate wear rubber or leather gloves to avoid staining hands. The above treatment will cause swelling at first, but this will subside in 2 or 3 days and complete recovery should take place within 10 days. Birds not cured within 15 days should receive another treatment. Antibiotic treatment of sinusitis. For the past 10 years such injectable anti- biotics as streptomycin and erythromy- cin have been employed against sinusitis; their use eliminates the need to drain the sinuses of exudates. Streptomycin in 25 mg doses per sinus injected directly into the sinus is often effective. Aureomycin, erythromycin, or terramycin, in 10 mg doses per sinus often proves effective; if one fails, another should be tried. Fura- zolidone (NF 180) has been used and tylosin, experimentally, has given good results. Apply antibiotics directly to both sinuses, whether swollen or not (intra- muscular or subcutaneous injection has little value for treating sinusitis). If the first treatment does not help most of the birds, try another anti- biotic. Drugs in feed or water are in- effective against sinusitis. Antibiotic treatment of air sacculitis. All of the compounds mentioned (ex- cept furazolidone and streptomycin) have also been used in feed or water for treatment of M. gallisepticwn air sacculitis. Continuous oral medication for 1 week, using maximum permitted feed levels, has generally been slightly less effective than injections, although water administration to sick birds which will drink, but not eat, may be the best procedure to follow when birds are acutely affected. Antibiotics may reduce the amount of infection and disease; birds with modest (mild or early) cases may not get as sick with treatment as thev would without it. Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of antibiotics at levels suggested on container labels will help control the severity as well as the spread of air-sacculitis infection, but once air-sac lesions have devel- oped it takes time for the body de- fenses to clear up the exudates. At best, most antibiotic treatments can only help prevent diseases from pro- gressing to the advanced stage. While drugs have their limitations, they can, and do, lessen the severity of M. gallisepticiim infection and reduce the financial damage to the grower. In the final analysis all treatments for affected birds can be evaluated in terms of economics by a comparison between what such treatments cost and the amount of good they do. No two "cost-benefit" situations are ever exactly alike, and consequently each grower must rely upon his own judg- ment as well as upon professional advice in solving his particular prob- lems. Special suggestions for meat-bird flocks Early outbreaks of infection in meat or egg flocks may be treated with various antibiotics, as described above. In meat flocks, however, it may also be advisable to blood-test a percentage of the infected flock at monthly inter- vals, or at least 2 or 3 weeks before proposed marketing time. Blood tests can be used to determine the stage of Note: It is important that the grower use drugs and antibiotics in ac- cordance with FDA and State regulations. [16] the disease in the flock; there is evi- dence that a considerable percentage of reactors with high titers indicates a large percentage of acutely diseased birds. If an outbreak occurred when the poults were 2M to 3 months old, blood tests taken at 4 months which show a high percentage of low titer or of negative reactions would indicate quiescent infection and little disease. Large numbers of birds with high posi- tive titers indicate active disease, with air sacculitis and other lesions that could result in downgrading or actual condemnation of birds; in such cases it may be wise to temporarily defer marketing the flock. It may be more practical to "sample" slaughter part of the flock in order to determine the amount of infection and visceral lesions present and thus deter- mine when to market the flock most economically. ¥ Mycoplasma other than gallisepticum Other species of mycoplasma iso- lated from turkeys or chickens include Mycoplasma gallinarum and Myco- plasma iners; these kill chicken em- bryos when inoculated into fertile eggs but do not cause disease in either tur- keys or chickens, judging by experi- mental work done at the University of California and elsewhere. Mycoplasma inocuum, a strain recently isolated from chickens, seems unable to cause any pathology or disease in chickens or turkeys, and does not even kill chicken embryos. All of these strains differ bacterio- logically from one another and from Mycoplasma gallisepticum; most im- portantly for purposes of identifica- tion, they do not cause positive re- actions to the M. gallisepticum blood tests discussed earlier. Mycoplasma species as yet un- named have also been isolated from turkeys and chickens. Some of these species can cause either sinus swelling or air-sac lesions in turkeys, while others can cause synovitis (inflamma- tion of tendon sheath) and arthritis in turkeys and chickens. These unnamed mycoplasma differ from one another and from Mycoplasma gallisepticum in many characteristics; some are known to be egg-transmitted, how- ever, and so may cause some confusion in diagnostic procedures, especially with young poults. Several species cause air-sac lesions in embryos which are similar to those caused by M. gallisepticum. The importance of these various strains of mycoplasma other than gal- lisepticum has not been thoroughly assessed at this writing (1961) but they undoubtedly cause trouble through egg-borne or contact infection. Unfor- tunately, research has not yet devel- oped blood tests for routine use to detect these trouble-causing myco- plasma. Use of flocks free of M. gallisepti- cum infection and showing no sinusitis or air-sac symptoms due to any causes provides the best way now known to prevent egg transmitted or contact spread of mycoplasmas. Examination of individual birds is suggested; if in- fected birds are found the whole flock should be discarded. qg * Control of M. gallisepticum ^r infection is up to the grower Although modern testing procedures are not fully perfected, they are suf- ficiently advanced to give the grower assurance of considerable protection against M. gallisepticum infection. Testing procedures alone are not enough for full protection, however; basic rules of sanitation, nutrition, and good housing must always be observed in order to keep healthy birds healthy. M. gallisepticum infection is one of [17] the most difficult of the many prob- lems facing the turkey grower, but it is reasonable to hope that better drugs, and perhaps immunization, may some- day provide easier additional control measures. In the meanwhile, it is cer- tain that proper use of present knowl- edge about M. gallisepticum can con- trol or eradicate the disease in a turkey flock. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is some- times necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. A breeding torn from a healthy California flock. The production of healthy birds such as this requires careful application of health and sanitation measures. ,...W.;J r ^ ; V ■ \ ^l'* H. '.y;' :, j yt . '■• * tM ifl& ££ , •W&B DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORIES Veterinary practictioners and veterinarians in university, state, and county diagnostic laboratories are prepared to help with your disease control program by offering expert counsel as well as by making accurate diagnoses. Laboratory addresses are: Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture 2789 South Orange Avenue Fresno, California Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture P. O. Box 1226 Lancaster, California Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture 1500 Petaluma Blvd. South Petaluma, California Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture Route 8, Box 4873 Sacramento, California San Diego County Livestock Department Laboratory Building 2, County Operations Center 4005 Rosecrans Street San Diego 10, California Livestock and Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture P. O. Box 255 San Gabriel, California Poultry Pathology Laboratory State Department of Agriculture P. O. Box 272 Turlock, California Department of Avian Medicine School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis, California Co-operative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Deportment of Agriculture co-operating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. George B. Alcorn, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 10m-l,'62(C5301s)V.L. [19] HOW THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA WORKS WITH AGRICULTURE As one of the nation's Land-Grant institutions, the University of California plays a multiple role in service to agriculture. This involves teaching, research, and conveying the facts developed by research to those who may put them to good use in the best interest of all the people. These activities are combined in the University's Division of Agricul- tural Sciences. This statewide framework includes : The College of Agriculture providing instruction in agriculture and re- lated sciences on campuses at Berkeley, Davis, Los Angeles, and Riverside. The Schools of Forestry and Veterinary Medicine function as separate professional schools within the Division but are closely related to the College of Agriculture. The Agricultural Experiment Station conducting research on the four campuses mentioned above as well as on numerous field stations, experi- mental areas, and farms throughout the state. Closely allied with the Ex- periment Station are the Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics and the Kearny Foundation of Soil Science. . The Agricultural Extension Service with 53 offices serving 56 counties carrying out the responsibility of "extending" research results to the people. The service cooperates with the Experiment Station in local re- search on thousands of farms. It also conducts youth educational ac- tivities through the 4-H Club program. WE ARE SORRY . . . in the haste to get this circular published several errors crept in: Page 2 — under acknowledgments please read Journal of Comparative Pathology and Thera- peutics; and Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 79, No. 10, I960. Also, M. Shifrine's name was misspelled. Page 4— in the second paragraph in column 2, please read "In advanced cases the swellings may partly or completely close the eyes and may also cause mouth breathing." Page 12— in the first paragraph in column 1, please read "Among such drugs are streptomycin (injected intramuscularly), erythromycin (injection), aureomycin, terramycin, erythromycin, and (experimentally) tylosin in feed or by injection. "