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 \1M 111 PASSPORT, I SKI) i;V THE AUTHOR IN HIS TRAVELS IX SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 (Reduced facsimile)
 
 SIBERIA 
 AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN W. BOOKWALTER 
 
 ILLUSTRATED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN 
 RY THE AUTHOR 
 
 ^ 
 
 WiTK.*.- 
 
 Springfield, Ohio 
 1899
 
 Copyright, i8gg. by 
 JOHN \V. BOOKWALTER 
 
 >H^ 
 
 :^^ 
 
 ti'^ 
 
 S*'*
 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This book is the result of a trip through Si- 
 "beria and Central Asia, made by the author dur- 
 ing the summer and autumn of last year. It con- 
 sists mostly of letters written by him while on the 
 journey, which were published by several Western 
 newspapers. 
 
 Owing to the great and increasing importance 
 of the Eastern Question, the author has thought 
 that it micrht be of interest to his friends to have 
 these letters put into a more permanent form, 
 illustrated by many views taken by him at that 
 time. These views in themselves may, perhaps, 
 be his best excuse for the book, as they give a 
 better and clearer idea of these oreat regions than 
 any words of his can convey. 
 
 As the Eastern Question hinges largely upon the 
 position of Russia, the author undertook this trip 
 for the purpose of studying that country at short 
 
 675844
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 range; and, owing to exceptional privileges granted 
 to him, he has been led to think that the results 
 of his observations there may serve as a contribu- 
 tion to the better understanding of that question. 
 He has, therefore, issued this book for private cir- 
 culation, and asks the indulgence of his readers 
 for a work thrown off during the excitement and 
 fatigue of a long journey in new and most inter- 
 esting lands. 
 
 J. W. B. 
 
 Springfield, Ohio, April, 1899.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 ^ CHAPTER 1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Trans-Siberian railway — Its commercial and political impor- 
 tance — The effect it has already produced — Russia's mili- 
 tary strength — Napoleon's estimate of Russian soldiers — 
 Probable international complications to arise from Russia's 
 industrial advance eastward — Our own relation thereto — 
 General features of the Trans-Siberian railway — The trains 
 and their equipment — Travel on the post-routes of Russia 
 — Humane law respecting horses I 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 The Russian steppes — Their similarity to the prairies and plains 
 of the United States — The lands of Russia — Geological 
 division of the same — The great Tschernoziom lands of 
 Russia — Their capacity and products — System of farming 
 in Russia— The yearly production of cereals — Exports of 
 same — Russian live stock and export statistics — Manufac- 
 turing and mining industries — Culture of Indian corn — 
 Population of Russia — Distribution of same — The rural and 
 urban population of Russia — Dwellings and other build- 
 ings in the villages iS 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Emancipation of the serfs — Peasants now great land-owners — 
 Emancipation rescript of Alexander II., in 1861 — Condition 
 of the serfs prior to this act — General provisions of emanci-
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 pation rescript — Obligatory redemption of lands — Measures 
 to facilitate same — Distribution and allotment of lands to 
 the serfs — Division of serfs into three categories — Effects of 
 emancipation act — Its tendency to lessen conflict between 
 capital and labor — Devotion of the peasant to his lot acquired 
 by this act — An impediment to emigration to Siberia and 
 other distant lands — Russia's position in the probable clash 
 of nations — Number of serfs liberated under the emancipa- 
 tion act — Date of the proclamation — The peaceful accom- 
 plishment of this great act — Peace rescript of the present 
 Czar — Is Russia rightly understood by other nations ? . 32 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Stations and restaurants on Siberian Railway — Equipment and 
 safety of road — Syzran on the Volga River — The Tartar 
 
 1 — Bridge on Siberian railway over the Volga River — The 
 Volga, its size and importance as a highway — First view 
 of the Ural Mountains — Their height, etc, — The city of 
 Zlatoust — Government works and mines in the Ural Moun- 
 tains — Summit of the Urals — Entrance into Siberia — 
 Some facts concerning the Russian Empire — Eastern slope 
 of the Ural Mountains — Crop conditions in the Volga Valley 
 — A look ahead 43 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Asiatic continent — A glance at Siberia, its geography, 
 physical characteristics, etc. — The great rivers of Siberia- 
 Erroneous impression of Siberia — Vast area of level land — 
 No difficulty in construction of railway — Similarity of 
 Western Siberia to a great portion of the United States — 
 The error of Americans respecting trans-Missouri River 
 country — The route of the Siberian Railway — Its construc- 
 tion and equipment — Stations on railway in Siberia — 
 
 ^ Track, bridges, etc. — Accumulated grain on the route from
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Kurgan to Tomsk — The necessity for increased facilities 
 on Siberian Railway — Flora and fauna of Siberia — Agri- 
 cultural resources of Siberia — Possibilities of the country . ']2, 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Ultimate Siberian railway system — Proposed line from Central 
 Siberia to the Persian Gulf — New relations between Russia 
 and China, arising from the Siberian Railway — Change from 
 route as originally projected — New route to Vladivostok — 
 Rapid settlement of country on Siberian Railway — Quick 
 growth of towns on the line — Development of lands to fol- 
 low railway extension — Grazing lands on Siberian Railway 
 — Small lakes through Siberia — Timber in Western Siberia. 103 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Kurgan on the Tobol River — The Kirghiz Tartars — Their tents, 
 villages, mode of life, etc. — The future of Kurgan — Winters 
 in Siberia — No blizzards in Western Siberia — Rainfall — Pet- 
 ropavlovsk on the Ishim River — Rapid change in country 
 on railway line — Emigrant trains eastward — Growth of 
 grains on the line of railway- — Surplus awaiting shipment — 
 
 ^__^^Omsk on the Irtish and Om rivers — Interesting character — 
 Tomsk on the Tom River — The prison in Tomsk — Flour- 
 ishing college — Electric lights, telephone system, and other 
 conveniences — Condition of railroad east of Tomsk^Va- 
 rious excursions from Tomsk into the country 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Travelling on post and common roads in Russia and Siberia — 
 Unique outfit — Splendor of private equipages — A Siberian 
 tarantass — Manner of hitching the horses — Speed discom- 
 forts and excitement of travel on tarantass — Seeing Tartar 
 life in its simplicity — A queer-looking vehicle — Homely but 
 effective — Experience versus philosophy — Furious driving —
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The village sheik — A compatriot of the great Circassian, 
 Schemyl — A Mohammedan — His family life — Beauty and 
 filial devotion of his children — His wives — Influence of the 
 wife among the Kalmucks — Kirghiz village — Hospitality of 
 our host — Our Yamstchik — His style and skill as a driver — 
 Great speed of horses without use of whip — Return to 
 Tomsk — Various modes of travel ..... 152 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Return westward — Route across the Kirghiz steppes to the Cas- 
 pian Sea — Down the Volga River to Astrakhan — Rise and 
 commercial importance of that city — Modern trade diversion 
 and its effects — Russia a land of fairs — Nijni Novgorod and 
 its great fair — Kharkov, Ilinsk, and other leading fairs — 
 Preferred route across the Caspian Sea to Central Asia — 
 Importance of the Volga River as a means of transportation 
 — Numerous fleets of coal-oil barges — Statistics of freight 
 traffic on the Volga and Onega system — Partiality of Rus- 
 sians for American products and methods .... 192 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Development of Siberian agricultural resources — Its effect upon 
 similar interests in other countries — Prime conditions gov- 
 erning the future reclamation of lands in Siberia — Water- 
 ways of Russia — Careful development of same — River sys- 
 tem in Siberia — Severity of winters restrict their use — Sea- 
 son of navigation — Omsk as a centre of a vast cereal region 
 — Its possible connections by water and rail with foreign 
 countries — Necessity for greater transportation facilities in 
 Western Siberia — New route being created from Omsk 
 to the Baltic — New route between Russia and Western 
 Siberia — From Omsk to Havre or London — Comparative 
 distances .......... 212
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Transportation route in Southwestern Siberia — Route between 
 Caspian and Elactc seas — -To connect the Volga and Don 
 rivers — All-waterway between Caspian Sea and Europe — 
 Neglect of American waterways — Careful preservation of 
 same in Europe — Methods of utilizing rivers in Europe for 
 transportation purposes — Use of the Seine in France — 
 Through the heart of France in a boat — Neglect and decay 
 of American rivers as lines of transport — Railways versus 
 water transportation — What would result from thorough 
 development of American river system — Russia's real 
 progress — Great foresight — Not doomed to the fate of China 
 — Russia in the field of diplomacy — The official class — Re- 
 dundant population — Its danger to all nations — Unwisdom 
 of developing urban at the expense of the rural population 
 — Results in the necessity for land-grabbing — Wise policy 
 underlying settlement of Siberia — Plan of settlement — - 
 Conserving old vested interests — Deterrent influences in 
 settlement of Siberia — Rapid growth of population — Its cur- 
 rent necessities — Probable effect of Siberia upon markets in 
 other countries ......... 224 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Russian life in Siberia — Visiting various villages — Siberian 
 towns and villages — Mostly frame or log houses — Efforts at 
 ornamentation — Number and appointment of rooms — Cloth- 
 ing of the natives — The Icon — The Russian peasant most 
 religious — In the peasant's home — A mark of respect never 
 to be omitted — Custom of recognizing the Icon in Russia 
 universal — Fare of the peasant— A singular bathroom — 
 The drink of the peasant — Two kinds of quass — Vodka, its 
 use and effects — Salutary regulations by the government — 
 Worthy of imitation by other nations — Siberia the land of 
 the exile — Erroneous impression of the traveller — Courtesy 
 of Russian officials — Abolition of serfdom — Its effects con- 
 trasted with abolition of slaverv in America — Administra-
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 tion of justice — Respect for law and authority — Difficulties 
 encountered by Russia in its development — Obstacles to its 
 progress — Remarkable national development — Banishment 
 of bank officials to Siberia — Their status during and after 
 term of sentence — Punished for fraud at gaming — Not a 
 good country for irregular practices — Passport system — 
 Citizens of Russia required to have passport — Registration 
 of same, fee, etc. — Effects of the passport system— Special 
 passport required to leave Russia — Beneficial results of 
 same ........... 240 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Passenger boats on the Caspian Sea — New lines of steamers — 
 Petrovsk, on the Caspian — Excursion into the mountains 
 — New railway to Baku — Great through line to Central \y' 
 Asia — Important influence of the Trans-Caspian Railway 
 upon the world's affairs — Extension of same into China — 
 Distance and time by this route to China — Direct and short 
 route to Northern India — Projected line of railway from 
 Orenburg to Tashkent — Ambitions of Russia in a new field 
 — Great canal between the Black Sea and the Baltic — Great 
 commercial and strategic importance of same — Steady and 
 persistent progress of Russia — Her advance not rapid, but 
 secure — Does not vaunt her enterprises — Effects upon politi- 
 cal world of Trans-Caspian Railway to be greater than the 
 Trans-Siberian Railway — New route from Merv to Herat — 
 Its probable influence on Afghanistan — Projected lines into 
 Persia — Line being built from Armenia to Northern Persia 
 —Important results to arise therefrom in thatcountrj- — New 
 line projected from Samarkand southward to Karshi — That 
 city the key to Northeastern Afghanistan — Possibility of 
 formidable attack of Russia upon Northern India via Cen- 
 tral Asia — No combination of powers could stay it — Unim- 
 portant part naval forces would play in such a contest — Rus- 
 sia's contiguous territory and interior operations a manifest 
 advantage — Such a conflict might require the whole power 
 of Great Britain to repel— Russia's peace proposal — Her sin-
 
 CONTENTS xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 cerity in same — Prefers peaceful methods to those of war — 
 Her superior strategical position — May not Russia's evident 
 advantage over India operate to preserve peace ? — The 
 fortunate position of America in the event of a great Asiatic 
 war ........... 261 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The great city of Baku — Its rapid growth — Cause of same — Still 
 growing rapidly — The petroleum deposits in the Caucasus 
 — Number of wells in operation — Limited exploration in 
 Caucasian oil fields — New field north of the Caucasian range 
 of mountains — Output of the oil wells in 1897 — Stories cur- 
 rent in Baku — A lucky Tartar — Wonderful wells — Refin- 
 eries in "Black Town," near Baku — Crude oil extensively 
 used as fuel in Southern Russia — Desire to visit Central 
 Asia — Importance of that country politically — The key to 
 India, Western China, and perhaps Constantinople — Intri- 
 cacies of European politics — India the real storm-centre — 
 India indispensable to England's power and greatness — Her 
 anxiety and efforts to preserve same — Her fear of Russia's 
 designs upon India — Has relied upon her great navy- — -Her 
 naval strength would avail but little to check Russia's ad- 
 vance through Central Asia — Russia's railway building in 
 Asia regarded as a menace to India — The "gospel of the 
 machine" — Russian railway advance in Asia — Desire for 
 alliances — The open door — Cautious measures of Russia in 
 her Central Asian possessions ..,,,. 281 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Admission into Trans-Caspian country — Military railway — Spe- 
 cial permit necessary in Trans-Caspian region — Across 
 Northern Persia — On the Araxes River — First view of Mt. 
 Ararat — Crossing the Araxes — Mt. Ararat — Grandeur of 
 same — Ascent of Ararat — Armenian Cemetery — Across the
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Araxes Valley — Erivan, the capital of Armenia — Mosques, 
 palaces, etc. — Change under Russian rule — New railway 
 line south of Erivan — Markets in Erivan — The great-tailed 
 sheep — On the road to the Caucasus— Last view of Mt. Ara- 
 rat — Curious religious sects — Picturesque Lake ofGoktcha 
 — Height above the sea — The ancient monastery of Sevanga 
 — Over the Delijan Pass — Descent of northern slope of Ar- 
 menian mountains — Arrival at Akstafa on the Kura River. 294 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 The Caucasus — Its locality and extent — The Kura River — The 
 Rion River — Area of the Caucasus — Population of the same 
 — Mountain ranges — The Greater and Lesser Caucasian 
 Mountains joined by the Suram range — Climate of Caucasia 
 — Products of the soil — Statistics of live stock — Valleys in 
 Eastern Caucasus — Western Caucasia — Roads — Military 
 road from Tiflis to Vladikavkaz — Roads in Southern Cau- 
 casia and Armenia — Caucasia the gateway between Europe 
 and Asia — Different races — Tiflis, the capital of Georgia — 
 Its buildings, streets, etc. — The Georgian chieftain, Schemyl 
 — The population of Tiflis — Many military and civil offi- 
 cials — A trip to Borjom, Abbas-Tuman, and Kutais , . 32^ 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Tiflis to Mtskheta — Great antiquity of that city — Founded by 
 near descendant of Noah- — Interesting old bridge — Pom- 
 pey's conquest of this country — Route over the famous 
 Dariel Pass — Journey up the valley of the Kura River — Soil 
 and climate of the Caucasus — Agricultural operations — 
 Various cereals and other products — Indian corn — Primi- 
 tive implements — Cattle and buffaloes used to draw the 
 plough — Cooperative operations — Remarkable results in the 
 production of grain in the Caucasus — The cart or arba — 
 The new line of the Trans-Caucasian railway — Petroleum
 
 CONTENTS XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 pipe line over Suram Mountains — On the road to Borjom 
 — From Borjom to Abbas-Tuman — Over the Lesser Cau- 
 casian Mountains — Soldiers for escorts — Brigands — Mag- 
 nificent view from summit — Kutais — Its history and impor- 
 tance — Rich valley of the Rion — Return to Tiflis . . 349 
 
 ^CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 Return to Tiflis — Special permit to visit Central Asia — Great 
 courtesy of the American Ambassador, Hon. E. A.' Hitch- 
 cock — Return to Baku — Passage across the Caspian Sea — 
 Arrival at Krasnovodsk — A look about that city — Rapid 
 growth of same — Its harbor and other natural advantages — 
 Will become an important city — Railway station — Splendid 
 structure^ — Curious mixture of natural products — Blending 
 of Oriental and Occidental races — Possible result — Russia's 
 fondness for American products — Use of same in Russia 
 — Her probable future demand for Western products — 
 America's opportunity — Trains on the Trans-Caspian Rail- 
 way — Courtesy of the railway officials — Emigrants to the 
 far East — Departure from Krasnovodsk — New petroleum 
 field — Minerals and metals here — Uzum-Ada, the old ter- 
 minus of railway — The plains of Turcomania — Persian 
 Mountains — Central Asia — A vast depressed basin — Cas- 
 pian Sea below ocean level — Similar depression in Sahara 
 Desert — Russia's Central Asian possessions — Sterility of 
 Turcomania due to lack of rainfall — Oasis of Merv — Strabo's 
 reference to it — Three great level plateaus — Amu-Dariaand 
 Svr-Daria Rivers ........ 379 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 The old bed of the Amu-Daria River — Across a desert — Oasis of 
 Kizyl-Arvat — Among the Turcomanians — A splendid race — 
 His dwelling — Women in Turcomania — Custom of poly- 
 gamy — Purchase of wives — Weaving of rugs and carpets —
 
 xvi CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Their crude device for same — Work done mainly by girls — 
 Inferiority of the new to the old product — Wealth of the 
 Turcoman — Their food, clothing, etc. — The camel — Roads 
 in Turcomania — Caravans of camels — Along the Persian 
 border — Askabad — New and beautiful city — Vegetable 
 products of this region — Culture of cotton — Old Teke towns 399 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 Location of towns on Russian railways — Her occupation of 
 new countries — Dushak, the southern point of the road — 
 Irrigation of oasis of Merv — New city of Merv — Railway 
 from Merv to Herat — Confidence of Russia in Central 
 Asia — Growth of cotton — The ancient city of Merv — Extra- 
 ordinary mounds — Homeof Kuldja Khan — Curious custom 
 of naming women — Fertility of the oasis of Merv — Pasture 
 land and jungles — Wild animals — In the old city of Merv 
 — Its extent and history — Complete desolation — Home of 
 wild beasts — Former population — Founded by Alexander 
 the Great — Its destruction ....... 422 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 At Bairom-Ali — Imperial palace — From fertile fields to burning 
 sands— March of Alexander through the desert — From 
 sterile sands to fruitful fields — The Amu-Daria River — Its 
 length, etc. — Quantity of water in the Amu-Daria— Great 
 railway bridge being erected over the Amu-Daria — Pos- 
 sible diversion of the course of this great river — The slow 
 and vast operations of nature — Immense deposits of this 
 great river — Karakul — Rearing of the sheep here known as 
 Persian lamb ......... 448 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 Bokhara — Courtesy of Russian officials — The Ameer of Bok- 
 hara — Area and population of Bokhara — Its destruction by 
 the Tartars — The ruling- race — The Usbeg-s inferior to the
 
 CONTENTS xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Turcomans — Mosques and colleges — The mosque of Ta- 
 merlane in the Reghistan — Inferior to the ruins of Samar- 
 kand — Palace of the Ameer of Bokhara — Citadel of Alp- 
 Arslan —Bazaars in Bokhara — Buildings, etc. — Customs, 
 police regulations, etc. — Vices and virtues of the Bokhari- 
 ans — Temperance among the inhabitants — An agreeable 
 contrast — Introduction of opium into Central Asia — An in- 
 structive incident ......... 466 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 Bokhara to Samarkand — Residence of Governor of Turkestan 
 — His great civility — Beauty of Samarkand — Avenues of 
 acacias and poplars — The old city of Samarkand — In ruins, 
 but picturesque — Once a great capital — Splendor under the 
 Arabs and under Tamerlane — A seat of learning — Archi- 
 tecture in old city of Samarkand — Colleges in Samarkand 
 — Mosques, tombs, and palaces — The Shah-Zindah — -The 
 Tilla-Kari and Khanym— Exquisite effect of tessellated tiles 
 — The great mosque erected by sister of Tamerlane — Simi- 
 larity of architecture between Central Asia and that of the 
 Moguls in India — A huge pulpit and voluminous Koran . 493 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 Medressehs or colleges in Samarkand — The tomb of Tamer- 
 lane — Tiie sarcophagus of tlie great Tartar — Interior orna- 
 mentation — The Russian citadel-^Kok-Tash, or throne of 
 Tamerlane — The Shadman-Melik — Its peculiar construction 
 — Excursion in the mountains — The beauty of Samarkand — 
 Reminiscences of Alexander the Great — Social customs, 
 etc. — Polygamy— Peculiar equipage ..... 514 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 Natives, or Sarts — Seeing native life and customs — Dinner at 
 the residence of the Amban or native mayor of Samar-
 
 xviii CONTENTS 
 
 kand — Our host and his guests — Oriental features of the 
 occasion — Brilliant surroundings — The Russians— The 
 dances — No women as dancers — Boy dancers dressed in 
 the habits of women — The music of the Sart — At first un- 
 pleasant — Wherein lies the charm of Oriental music — Due 
 to rhythm — Influence hypnotic — Similar emotional state 
 of howling and dancing dervishes — The dinner — Various 
 native dishes, Kiabab, Cavourna, Pilaf, etc. — Oriental 
 dancing — Producing similar effects by rhythm of motion — 
 Concluding reflections ........ 531
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Viseed Passport, used by the Author in his Travels in Siberia 
 
 and Central Asia ....... Fro7itispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Trans-Siberian Railway Train — Observation Compartment in 
 
 Rear Car .......... 7 
 
 Railway Officials on Trans-Siberian Railway Train . .11 
 
 Russian Isvoshtchik, or Droshky Drivers . . . .14 
 
 A Russian Patyorka, or Five-horse Team . . . .15 
 
 Group of Peasants in Russian Village . . . . .27 
 
 Russian Peasant's Log Cabin in Commune or Village . . 29 
 A Village on the Russian Steppes ...... 30 
 
 45 
 47 
 49 
 
 Syzran on the Volga River 
 
 Samara on the Volga River 
 
 Batraki on the Volga River 
 
 Great Bridge across the Volga River at Batraki on the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway . . . . . . .51 
 
 Russian Village on the Ufa River ...... i^}, 
 
 First View of the Ural iMountains after passing Wajsao- 
 
 waja, Trans-Siberian Railway ...... 54 
 
 The Western Slope of the Ural Mountains on the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway, between Ufa and Zlatoust . . -55 
 
 Station at Zlatoust on Trans-Siberian Railway near the Sum- 
 mit of the Ural IMountains ...... 56 
 
 Monument on Summit of Ural Mountains indicating Divid- 
 ing Line between Europe and Asia . . . -57 
 
 Eastern Slope of the Ural Mountains on the Trans-Siberian 
 
 Railway, Midway between Zlatoust and Tscheljabinsk . 58 
 
 Eastern Slope of L'^ral Mountains on Trans-Siberian Railway, 
 
 Eighty Miles from the Summit of the Ural Mountains . 59
 
 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 On Trans-Siberian Railway just before arriving at Tscliel- 
 
 jabinslv .......... 60 
 
 Railway Station at Tscheljabinsk, the End of the First Section 
 
 of Trans-Siberian Railway, at the Eastern Foot of Ural 
 
 Mountains .......... 62 
 
 Entering the Plains or Steppes of Siberia on the Trans-Siberian 
 
 Railway, One Hundred Miles East of the Ural Mountains 63 
 Crossing the Siberian Steppes, Two Hundred Miles East of the 
 
 Ural Mountains, on the Siberian Railway . . .64 
 
 Kirghiz Tartar Aul or Village on Siberian Steppes . . 65 
 
 View across .Siberian Steppes, Three Hundred Miles East of 
 
 the Ural Mountains ........ 68 
 
 Group of Kirghiz Tartars at Station on Siberian Railway . 69 
 
 On Siberian Steppes, Three Hundred and Fifty Miles East of 
 
 Ural Mountains 72 
 
 On Siberian Steppes, Eight Hundred Miles East of Ural 
 
 Mountains .......... 72 
 
 View across the Irtish River, Siberia . . ... 74 
 
 Station on Siberian Railway, Four Hundred Miles East of 
 
 Ural Mountains ........ 75 
 
 View across the Ishim River, .Siberia . . . . -11 
 
 On the Tom River, Siberia ....... 78 
 
 New Settlement on Open Steppes of Siberia, Six Hundred 
 
 Miles East of Ural Mountains ...... 79 
 
 On Siberian .Steppes or Prairies, Four Hundred and Fifty Miles 
 
 East of the Ural Mountains ....... 81 
 
 On Siberian Steppes, between Kurgan and Petropavlovsk . 82 
 
 Two Views across Siberian Steppes ...... 83 
 
 View across Siberian Steppes, Five Hundred Miles East of the 
 
 Ural Mountains ......... 86 
 
 Kirghiz Tartars and Camel Train on Siberian Steppes . . 88 
 Railway Bridge over the Obi River on Siberian Railway . . 89 
 Railway Station on Siberian Railway, Eight Hundred Miles 
 
 East of Ural Mountains, or over Two Thousand Miles 
 
 East of Moscow ......... 91 
 
 Station on Siberian Railway ....... 92
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sacked Grain awaiting Shipment at the Station on Siberian 
 Railway between Omsk and Tomsk, over One Thousand 
 Miles East of the Ural Mountains ..... 93 
 
 Passenger Train for Ordinary Service on Trans-Siberian Rail- 
 way, making Daily Trips to Tomsk, nearly Three Thou- 
 sand Miles East of Moscow ....... 94 
 
 View on the Siberian Steppes, between the Tobol and Ishim 
 Rivers. Emigrant Train crossing the Steppes to occupy 
 New Lands .......... 95 
 
 On the Open Steppes of Siberia, about One Thousand Miles 
 East of the Ural Mountains, or nearly Two Thousand Four 
 Hundred Miles East of Moscow ...... 96 
 
 View across Siberian Prairies ....... 97 
 
 Distant Herd of Cattle on Siberian Plains or Steppes . . 98 
 
 Emigrants at Railway Station between Kainsk and Tomsk on 
 
 the Trans-Siberian Railway ....... 99 
 
 New Settlement on Siberian Railway, One Thousand Mdes 
 
 East of the Ural Mountains ....... 102 
 
 View across the Siberian Steppes, Nine Hundred Miles East of 
 the Ural Mountains, or about Two Thousand Two Hun- 
 dred Miles East of ^Ioscow ...... 104 
 
 Recent Settlement on Siberian Railway, One Thousand One 
 
 Hundred Miles East of Ural Mountains .... 105 
 
 Recent .Settlement on Siberian Railway, Nine Hundred and 
 
 Fifty Miles East of Ural Mountains ..... 107 
 
 New Settlement on Siberian Railway, Two Thousand Five 
 Hundred Miles East of Moscow, between Obb and 
 Tomsk ........... 109 
 
 New Settlement on Trans-Siberian Railway, One Thousand 
 One Hundred Miles East of the Urals, and between Kri- 
 wostchekowo and Kainsk . . . . . . .110 
 
 Church in New Town of Obb . . . . . . .Ill 
 
 New Settlement on Siberian Railway, One Thousand Two 
 Hundred and Fifty Miles East of the Urals, or about Two 
 Thousand Five Hundred Miles East of Moscow . . . 113
 
 xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Station on the Open Steppes of Siberia on tlie Trans-Siberian 
 Railway, over One Thousand Miles East of the Ural 
 Mountains, and about Two Thousand Two Hundred Miles 
 East of Moscow 114 
 
 On the Siberian Steppes or Prairies, over One Thousand Miles 
 East of the Ural Mountains, and about Two Thousand 
 Two Hundred. Miles East of Moscow ..... 115 
 
 On the Siberian Steppes, between the Ishim and Irtish Rivers, 
 
 on the Line of the Siberian Railway . . . . .116 
 
 Recent Settlement on Siberian Railway, between the Obi and 
 Tom Rivers, about Two Thousand Four Hundred Miles 
 East of Moscow 117 
 
 Lake on the Siberian Steppes ...... 
 
 Emigrants on Siberian Steppes, East of the Obi River 
 
 Chapel in recently settled Town on Siberian Railway 
 
 Station at Kurgan, Siberian Railway ..... 
 
 Kirghiz Tartar, Camels, and Camel Cart .... 
 
 Kirghiz Yurt, or Tent, and Group of Tartars on the Siberian 
 Steppes, between Kurgan and Petropavlovsk 
 
 Tartar Camel Train on Siberian Steppes .... 
 
 Church in New Siberian Village ..... 
 
 A Tartar Dug-out on Road South of Omsk 
 
 On the Post-route from Petropavlovsk to Omsk . 
 
 Station at Petropavlovsk, Siberian Railway. Group of Kirghiz 
 Tartars ......... 
 
 Street Scene in Omsk ........ 
 
 Emigrants at Station, between Petropavlovsk and Omsk, on 
 Siberian Railway ........ 
 
 Street Scene in Tomsk ....... 
 
 On the Steppes of Siberia, East of Kurgan . 
 
 Street Scene in Tomsk ....... 
 
 Distant View of Tomsk ....... 
 
 Market Scene in Tomsk 
 
 Village in Siberia, in the Tom River Valley, on the Post-route 
 from Tomsk to Tobolsk ...... 
 
 118 
 119 
 121 
 124 
 125 
 
 127 
 129 
 131 
 
 135 
 
 137 
 139 
 
 141 
 
 143 
 144 
 
 145 
 145 
 
 147 
 
 148
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Emigrant Train between Petropavlovsk and Omslc, Two Tliou 
 
 sand ]\Iile5 East of Moscow .... 
 
 View on Post-route, between Tomslc and Irkutsk 
 Patyorka, a Five-horse Team on Siberian Steppes 
 Another Mode of Travelling in Siberia 
 Street Scene in Tomsk ..... 
 
 Siberian Tarantass ...... 
 
 Native waiting for Ferry on Tom River 
 
 Crossing Tom River, Siberia, on a Rude Ferry-boat 
 
 At the Post-house 
 
 Taking Tea " Al Fresco" with a Russian Family at Post 
 
 house .......... 
 
 Russian Village on Post-route, South of Tomsk, Siberia . 
 Ready to Start. At the Post-house on Post-route, South o 
 
 Tomsk, in Direction toward Semipalatinsk . 
 Cathedral in Tomsk ........ 
 
 Street Scene in Tomsk ....... 
 
 Kirghiz Tartar Family on Siberian Steppes. The Tartar Yurt 
 
 or Tent ...... 
 
 Great Forty-ton Bell at Cathedral in Tomsk 
 On the Turf at Tomsk .... 
 
 On the Home Stretch .... 
 
 Street Scene in Tomsk .... 
 
 Washerwomen at Tomsk .... 
 
 Railway Station on Siberian Railway, between the Obi and Tom 
 
 Rivers, about One Thousand One Hundred Miles East of 
 
 the Ural Mountains 
 Station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, between Tomsk and 
 
 Tiaga ...... 
 
 Street Scene in Astrakhan . 
 
 On the Volga River .... 
 
 Fire Worshippers' Temple in Astrakhan 
 
 The Kremlin in Astrakhan 
 
 Scene on the Landing at Astrakhan 
 
 View of the Upper Town of Nijni Novgorod, on North Bank of 
 
 the Volgfa .......... 
 
 149 
 151 
 53 
 '55 
 0-6 
 ■SI 
 [60 
 [61 
 "63 
 
 165 
 .67 
 
 [68 
 [69 
 
 [71 
 
 173 
 77 
 179 
 [81 
 t83 
 185 
 
 .87 
 
 .89 
 '93 
 '95 
 [96 
 
 '97 
 '99
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Town on the \'olga River, between Kazan and Nijni Novgorod 
 
 View of Nijni Novgorod, where the Great Fair is held, on South 
 Side of the Volga ..... 
 
 Picturesque Formation on the Volga River, Two Hundred Miles 
 above Astrakhan ....... 
 
 The Cathedral in Nijni Novgorod .... 
 
 Watermelon Market at Landing on the Volga River, be 
 Simbirsk and Saratov ...... 
 
 Fishing Village on the Obi River, Siberia . 
 
 Town on the Lower Volga River .... 
 
 View across Tom River, Siberia .... 
 
 Ferry-boat on Tom River, Siberia .... 
 
 Houses for Storage of Grain and Wheat in Sacks awaiting Ship- 
 ment at New Railway Station, Eight Hundred Miles East 
 of the Ural Mountains, on Trans-Siberian Railway 
 
 Scene, on the Irtish River, Siberia ..... 
 
 View across the Irtish River, Siberia ..... 
 
 View across the Tom River, .Siberia ..... 
 
 W^harf-boat and Landing on Volga River, below Tzaritzin 
 
 Town on the Volga River ....... 
 
 Village in Siberia, between Tomsk and the Yenisei River. 
 
 Houses in Small Siberian Town, on the Post-road to Tobolsk 
 
 Dwelling-house in Siberian Village, on Post-route from Tiag 
 to Tomsk ....... 
 
 Siberian Village in Obi Valley .... 
 
 New Village in the Valley of the Tom River, Siberia 
 
 Cask of Water at Station on Siberian Railway, supplied with 
 Boiled Water for Use of Passengers 
 
 The Great Petroleum City of Baku, on the Caspian Sea, in the 
 Eastern Caucasus. View from the Bay 
 
 General View of the Citv of Baku 
 
 Cathedral in Baku ...... 
 
 Railway Station in Baku ..... 
 
 General View of the City and Harbor of Baku . 
 
 Oil Field South of Baku, near the Shore of the Caspian Sea, 
 operated by English and French Capitalists 
 
 I'AGE 
 208 
 
 211 
 
 215 
 216 
 218 
 
 219 
 220 
 221 
 222 
 22 ^ 
 238 
 241 
 243 
 
 245 
 246 
 
 247 
 
 262 
 263 
 266 
 269 
 280 
 
 282
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Oil Field Northwest of Baku, Several Hundred Feet above the 
 
 Sea Level, operated by Swedish and French Capitalists . 284 
 
 A Celebrated Spouter 287 
 
 Interior of the Ancient Palace of the Viceroys of Persia in 
 
 Erivan .......... -95 
 
 Caravan crossing the Araxes River, on the Borders of Russia 
 
 and Persia, en route for Erivan, Armenia .... 297 
 On the Banks of the Araxes River, forming the Boundary 
 
 between Russia and Persia ...... 298 
 
 Group of Natives at Kamerlu 299 
 
 In the Valley of the Araxes River. Little and Great Ararat 
 
 Mountains in the Distance ....... 301 
 
 Distant View of Mt. Ararat 302 
 
 Rude Ferry across the Araxes River . . _ . . . 303 
 
 On the Road to Mt. Ararat 3'^7 
 
 Cossack Cavalrymen on the Road to Mt. Ararat . . . 309 
 
 Returning from Mt. Ararat 3'° 
 
 Persian Cart or Arba . . 311 
 
 Market Scene in Erivan. Great Fat-tailed Sheep . . . 312 
 An Armenian Cemetery ........ 313 
 
 View of Mt. Ararat, looking Southward from Erivan, the Capital 
 
 of Armenia ........•• 3^5 
 
 New Mosque of Huessin Ali Khan in Erivan .... 316 
 
 Street Scene in Erivan 317 
 
 Ancient Mohammedan Mosque in Erivan .... 319 
 
 A Dukobortsi Village — a Religious Sect in Northern Armenia 
 
 — on the Road from Erivan to Tiflis ..... 320 
 Regiment of Cossacks on their Way to Northern Border of 
 
 Persia, on the Araxes River . . . . . -321 
 
 Threshing Grain in Armenia ....... 324 
 
 Little Island in Lake Goktcha, on which the Ancient Monastery 
 
 of Sevanga is located ........ 
 
 Skoptsy Village— a Peculiar Religious Sect with Remarkable 
 
 Customs — in Northern Armenia 
 
 On the Road to Lake Sevanga, in Northern Armenia, and on 
 
 the Route from EInofka to Akstafa ..... 
 
 324 
 325 
 326
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 On the Northern Slope of tlie Lesser Caucasian Mountains, 
 
 after leaving the Delijan Pass ..... 
 
 General View of the City of Tifiis ..... 
 
 Street Scene in Tiflis ........ 
 
 View of Tiflis from the Fortress above the City 
 
 Street Scene in Tiflis ........ 
 
 Valley of the Kura River, about One Hundred Miles East o 
 
 Tiflis, and in the Vicinitv of Akstafa .... 
 
 Floating Water-mills on the Kura River in the City of Tiflis 
 Caucasians and Their Costumes ..... 
 
 Funeral Cortege in Tiflis ....... 
 
 The Theatre in Tiflis ........ 
 
 Mounted Cossacks in Public Square in the City of Tiflis 
 
 A Bazaar in the Persian Quarter in the City of Tiflis 
 
 Street Scene in the Persian Quarter in Tiflis 
 
 Street Scene in the Persian Quarter of Tiflis 
 
 General View of Tiflis, from Elevation in Western Part of the 
 
 City, looking Eastward .... 
 
 On the Kura River, in the Western Suburbs of Tiflis, on the 
 
 Road to Borjom ...... 
 
 In the Kura Valley, between Tiflis and Mtskheta 
 
 On the Kura River, Caucasia, near Mtskheta 
 
 In the Valley of the Aragya, on the Military Road over the 
 
 Caucasian Mountains, from Tiflis to Vladikavkaz 
 Over the Dariel Pass, on Military Road from Tiflis to Vladi 
 
 kavkaz. Mount Kasbek in the Distance 
 Ploughing in the Kura Valley .... 
 
 Scene in a Farm Village on the Aragya 
 
 Scene between Mikhailov and Borjom 
 
 Cart, or Arba, used for Farm and Road Purposes 
 
 View near Gori, on the Kura River 
 
 In the Kura Valley ...... 
 
 Persian Minister's Residence in Borjom 
 
 The Summer Palace of His Imperial Highness the Grand 
 
 Duke Michael, on the Banks of the Kura River, near 
 
 Borjom ........ 
 
 y-1 
 
 2)'h- 
 1>ZI 
 336 
 
 '^yi 
 340 
 341 
 343 
 344 
 345 
 346 
 347 
 
 350 
 
 351 
 352 
 353 
 
 356 
 357 
 360 
 361 
 
 365 
 367 
 36S 
 
 569
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 His Imperial Highness Grand Duke Michael on his Daily Drive 
 
 in Borjom .......... 370 
 
 Market Scene in Kutais ........ 371 
 
 Soldier on the Mountain Side, after leaving Abbas-Tuman, on 
 
 the Road to Kutais, over the Lesser Caucasian Mountains . 372 
 
 Street Scene in Kutais 374 
 
 On the Summit of the Lesser Caucasian Mountains. Russian 
 
 and Cossack Guards ........ 375 
 
 Market Scene in Kutais ........ 377 
 
 Krasnovodsk and Harbor, the Western Terminus of the Trans- 
 Caspian Railway, on the Eastern Shore of the Caspian Sea 382 
 New Railway Station at Krasnovodsk, the Western Terminus of 
 
 the Trans-Caspian Railway ...... 
 
 Trans-Caspian Railway Train ...... 
 
 New Oil Wells recently opened on the Shores of the Caspian 
 
 Sea, on the Line of Railway below Krasnovodsk 
 Russian Military Encampment on Open Plains . 
 Station on Trans-Caspian Railway ..... 
 View across the Plains of Turcomania, between Askabad and 
 
 Dushak, on the Trans-Caspian Railway 
 Turcomanian Tartars at Kizyl-Arvat, Station on the Trans 
 
 Caspian Railway ........ 
 
 Turcomanians and their Yurts or Tents .... 
 
 Turcoman Village on the Plains of Turcomania, between Kizyl 
 
 Arvat and Askabad ....... 
 
 Turcoman Tents ......... 
 
 Turcoman Tartars at Geok-Tepe, Station on the Trans-Caspian 
 
 Railway ......... 
 
 Turcoman Girls weaving Carpets under a Temporary Canopy 
 
 adjoining their Tent ....... 
 
 Turcoman Tent on the Plains of Tartary .... 
 
 Camel Caravan crossing the Plains of Turcomania 
 
 View across the Desert of Turcomania, looking toward the Per 
 
 sian Mountains ........ 
 
 Turcoman Village on the Open Plains, between Geok-Tepe and 
 
 Askabad ......... 
 
 384 
 387 
 
 390 
 391 
 394 
 
 396 
 
 400 
 401 
 
 403 
 405 
 
 406 
 
 408 
 409 
 411 
 
 414 
 415
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Station at Askahad, on Trans-Caspian Railway 
 
 Station of Dju-dju-ivly, on the Trans-Caspian Railway 
 
 Scene near Askabad 
 
 Irrigating- Canals in Oasis of Merv 
 
 Extraordinary Mounds near Merv 
 
 Home of Kuldja Khan . 
 
 Distant View of Old City of Merv 
 
 Gateway into Old City of Merv . 
 
 In the Old City of Merv 
 
 In the Old City of Merv 
 
 Walls and Gateway of the Old City of Merv 
 
 Distant View of Merv .... 
 
 Ruined Mosque of the Sultan Sanjare 
 
 Ruined Mosque in Old City of Merv . 
 
 Old Walls around Ancient City of Merv 
 
 Old Wall and Gateway in City of Merv 
 
 Across the Desert ..... 
 
 Station at Bairom-Ali on Trans-Caspian Railway, on the Road 
 
 to Bokhara .... 
 Bundles of Fagots used as a Sand Barrier to protect the Rai 
 
 way against the Drifting Sand 
 Market Scene in the Town of Amu-Daria, on the Banks of the 
 
 Amu-Daria River ...... 
 
 On the Amu-Daria, above the City of that Name 
 Temporary Railway Bridge over the Amu-Daria River 
 Street in Amu-Daria ....... 
 
 Railway Station at the New, or Russian, Town of Bokhara, the 
 
 Old City being Twelve Miles from the Railway . 
 New Palace being built by Russia for the Ameer of Bokhara, 
 
 near the Station in the New, or Russian, Town of that 
 
 Name ........... 
 
 Old Mosque said to have been built by Tamerlane 
 
 Summer Palace of the Ameer of Bokhara, between the New 
 
 and Old Cities of that Name ...... 
 
 The Ameer of Bokhara ........ 
 
 PAGE 
 416 
 
 418 
 419 
 
 4-3 
 426 
 427 
 429 
 433 
 435 
 437 
 
 439 
 440 
 
 441 
 
 444 
 
 445 
 
 449 
 
 451 
 
 452 
 
 453 
 455 
 457 
 459 
 
 460 
 
 462 
 463 
 
 464 
 467
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxix 
 
 Tower formerly used to execute Criminals by throwing them 
 
 from the Top ......... 469 
 
 471 
 472 
 
 473 
 475 
 477 
 
 Reghistan, or Market-place, in Bokhara, near the Old Citadel 
 Old Mosque, covered with Variegated Tiles . . . ■ 
 Bazaar in Bokhara ........ 
 
 A Graveyard in the City of Bokhara ..... 
 
 Native Bokharians, Father and Sons ..... 
 
 The Citadel in Bokhara, said to have been built by Alp-Arslan 
 
 the Persian King ........ 
 
 Muezzin calling the Faithful to Prayer from the Minaret of a 
 
 Mosque in Bokhara ....... 
 
 View over the Roofs of the Houses in Bokhara . 
 
 Bazaar in Bokhara ........ 
 
 Street and Old Mosque in the Neighborhood of the Reghistan 
 
 or Market-place ........ 
 
 Ruined Minaret, encased with Beautiful Variegated Tiles 
 Ruins of Ancient Mosque near the Reghistan, in Bokhara. 
 Irrigating Canals on the Plains of Bokhara, on the Road to 
 
 Samarkand. Water drawn from the Zerafshan River 
 Palace of the Ameer of Bokhara ..... 
 
 College, or Medresseh, in Bokhara ..... 
 Park in the City of Samarkand, in Front of the Tomb of Tamer 
 
 lane .......... 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand ...... 
 
 Mosque near the Reghistan, built by Tamerlane, in Samarkand 497 
 Mosque near Centre of City, built by Tamerlane, called the 
 
 Tilla-Kari .......... 498 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand ........ 499 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand, showing the Mosque of Khanym, 
 
 erected by Tamerlane to his Favorite Wife, a Chinese 
 
 479 
 
 480 
 481 
 
 483 
 
 484 
 485 
 487 
 
 488 
 489 
 492 
 
 494 
 495 
 
 Princess .... 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand . 
 Mohammedans at Prayer 
 Entrance to the Mosque Shah-Zindah 
 
 Variegated Coloringr 
 Medresseh, or Native College, in Old 
 
 501 
 
 . 502 
 
 503 
 
 Tessellated Tiles, with 
 
 505 
 
 Samarkand . . . 507
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand. Street leading from Railway Sta 
 
 tion to the Citadel in the City ..... 
 Ruius of the Mosque built by Sister of Tamerlane 
 Great Marble Pulpit in Front of Mosque built by Tamerlane'; 
 
 Sister .......... 
 
 Interior of Tamerlane's Tomb. His Sarcophagus and those of 
 
 his Son and Prime Minister ...... 
 
 Street Scene in the New, or Russian, City of Samarkand . 
 Tomb of Tamerlane, located on the Edge of a Great Park in the 
 
 New, or Russian, City of Samarkand .... 
 Kok-Tash, or Throne of Tamerlane ..... 
 Entrance to the Tomb of Tamerlane ..... 
 Exterior of Tomb of Tamerlane, in New, or Russian, City of 
 
 Samarkand . . . . ... 
 
 The Shadman-Malik, or Bridge of Tamerlane . 
 
 Street Scene in Samarkand ....... 
 
 Burial Place of Mohammedan Saints, near the Great ]\Iosque 
 
 of the Tilla-Kari, in Samarkand ..... 
 A Queer Equipage. A INIohammedan and his Wives out for a 
 
 Drive .......... 
 
 Market Scene in Samarkand ...... 
 
 A Mohammedan and his Wives. Scene in the Park in the New 
 
 or Russian, City of Samarkand ..... 
 Natives, or Sarts. Father and Son ..... 
 Aledresseh, or Native College, located in the Old City of Samar 
 
 kand .......... 
 
 Street Scene in the Old City of Samarkand, leading from the 
 
 Public Square to the Great Mosque of Tamerlane 
 In the Old City of Samarkand, Street leading to the Great 
 
 Mosque of the Shah-Zindah. Native Sarts in the Fore- 
 ground 536 
 
 Street Scene in the Russian, or New, City of Samarkand . . 537 
 
 Ruins of the Mosque of the Shah-Zindah, in the Old City of 
 
 Samarkand .......... 538 
 
 Entrance through the Enclosing Wall that surrounds the Tomb 
 
 of Tamerlane, in the City of Samarkand .... 539 
 
 509 
 510 
 
 511 
 
 515 
 517 
 
 518 
 
 519 
 521 
 
 522 
 523 
 525 
 
 526 
 
 527 
 
 533 
 534 
 535
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 View in tlie Parlv in the Old City of Samarkand . . . 540 
 
 Dancers and Musicians at Banquet in Samarkand . . . 541 
 Native Musicians in the Old City of Samarkand . . . 543 
 
 Dancers at Banquet in the Old City of Samarkand . . . 544 
 Shadman-Malik, or Bridge of Tamerlane, over the Zerafshan 
 
 River, Twenty Miles from City of Samarkand , . . 545 
 
 Market Scene in the Old City of Samarkand .... 546 
 Street Scene in the New Town of Samarkand .... 547
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 I 
 
 Trans-Siberian railway — Its commercial and political importance — 
 The effect it has already produced — Russia's military strength 
 — Napoleon's estimate of Russian soldiers — Probable interna- 
 tional complications to arise from Russia's industrial advance 
 eastward — Our own relation thereto — General features of the 
 Trans-Siberian railway — The trains and their equipment — 
 Travel on the post-routes of Russia — Humane law respecting 
 horses. 
 
 Moscow, July, 1898. 
 
 I AM startinof, in a few hours, on a lono^ and 
 somewhat trying journey right into the depths 
 of Siberia. As most of my trip will be done on the 
 new Trans-Siberian railway, you may be perhaps 
 interested in the facts and details I have thus far 
 been enabled to collect concerning this extraordi- 
 nary enterprise, destined, as I believe, to have more 
 far-reaching political, commercial, and even ethno- 
 logical influences than any industrial and economic 
 scheme that has ever been conceived or executed. 
 
 It constitutes the first link in the great chain 
 that will bind in close union, harmonv, and svm-
 
 2 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 pathy, two of the mightiest l)ranches of tlic human 
 family, having racial and traditional affinities, and 
 embracing almost one-half of the human race. 
 
 Even in its partially completed condition, it has 
 already perceptibly tilted the political and com- 
 mercial world on its axis. It has thrown Eno^land 
 into a state of orreat alarm for the safetv of India, 
 and has caused that descent of other European 
 nations upon the China littoral, where, in a limited 
 area, there is to be much future strife, wrangling, 
 and, perhaps, profitless warfare. 
 
 It almost takes one's breath away to contemplate 
 the tremendous consequences that must ensue 
 when, through material or other agencies, peoples 
 whose wondrous past and present achievements 
 suggest vast latent possibilities, are united by a 
 common interest and policy. One can almost see 
 the certain absorption of Persia and the Ottoman 
 Empire on the one hand, and India on the other. 
 In such an event, the world may see four-fifths of 
 its population acting in accord, the permanence of 
 which is guaranteed by ethnical affinities. 
 
 In this view it must not be forgotten that, on 
 account of the impenetrability of this vast region, 
 no combination of forces could prevent or even 
 arrest the execution of policies and schemes that 
 diplomacy or interest might suggest. The history 
 of Russia alone points a valuable lesson in this
 
 MILITARY STRENGTH OF RUSSIA 3 
 
 connection. Of her population nearly nine-tenths 
 are engaged in agriculture. It is not in this respect 
 alone that she retains the characteristics of her 
 ancient pastoral progenitors. The retreat of the 
 Scythians before the hosts of Darius, described 
 by Herodotus with such lively interest, until the 
 invincible armies of Persia were worn out by the 
 pursuit of a foe that would not fight and could not 
 be captured ; the destruction of the legions under 
 Crassus, which gave rise to the Roman proverb, 
 " The retreat of the Parthians was more to be 
 dreaded than the advance of any other army ; " 
 down to the burning of ^loscow by Rostopchin, 
 which resulted in the annihilation of the greatest 
 army and the greatest captain the world ever saw ; 
 shows that, like her ancestors, she possesses and is 
 ready to use the most fatal of resources. 
 
 But the military strength of Russia lies not 
 alone in this negative resource — which will ulti- 
 mately prove true of all Asiatic races — as she 
 surpasses all other nations in the extent of her 
 armament. Her standing army is computed at 
 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 of men, and she could 
 quickh" put herself on a war footing of four or 
 five millions of men well appointed and equipped. 
 In St. Petersburg alone there are no less than 
 100,000, in Moscow 150,000, in the Crimea 150,000, 
 in Poland 160,000, and it is said that there are
 
 4 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 also a quarter of a million in the Caucasus alone, 
 and it is more than hinted that a large army is 
 even now quartered in Tibriz, the second city in 
 Persia. 
 
 As by act of 1873 all able-bodied subjects of the 
 empire have to give a certain number of years of 
 active service in the army, one can form some idea 
 of what a vast military element exists among 
 130,000,000 of people, and which could, under an 
 emergency, be quickly materialized into an avail- 
 able army. 
 
 They are, moreover, of the best fighting material 
 in the world, being obedient, patient, subservient 
 to rule and discipline, and rugged and hardy, un- 
 equalled, perhaps, by any other race. 
 
 When looking at the splendid armies one sees 
 everywhere, one does not wonder at Napoleon's 
 saying after his reverse at Moscow, " that if he had 
 an army of Russians, it would not be long before 
 the universe had but one god and the world only 
 one emperor." The discomfiture of the English at 
 Pekin at the hands of Pavloff, and the still more 
 recent and equally humiliating one at the court of 
 Persia by the Russian minister there, shows that 
 Russia is as skilful and powerful in diplomacy as 
 in the field. Her recent appropriation of 90 mil- 
 lions of dollars — making over 300 millions within 
 a few years — for the building of iron-clads, caused
 
 WESTERN HEMISPHERE FOR AMERICANS 5 
 
 England to hastily revise her budget, attended with 
 ugly rumors of the necessity of some sort of con- 
 scription. 
 
 The spectre of approaching Russian Asiatic 
 domination, with its sure bearing upon India, no 
 doubt has led to the recent frantic desire of Ene- 
 land for alliances, even when of the most inconeru- 
 ous nature. Our own country has a destiny apart 
 from all other nations, and I hope it will keep clear 
 of all those complications that would hamper it in 
 its right growth and development. No nation has 
 ever equalled the Americans in those admirable 
 qualities so necessary for the settlement and de- 
 velopment of new countries. 
 
 This is our special province and our appointed 
 destiny, and in the Western Hemisphere alone 
 there will be for all time an ample field wherein to 
 exercise our choicest energies and abilities. If we 
 prove true to ourselves and our manifest duties, 
 and allow no dissipation of our energies and forces 
 by becoming involved in the intricate affairs of re- 
 mote countries, but confine our expansive forces 
 to the Western Hemisphere, we will quickly build 
 up an empire second to none. I should regret to 
 see our country lose its " free hand " by any alliance 
 which in these days of growing international com- 
 plications must prove entangling. It would be es- 
 pecially undesirable with a nation under whose gen-
 
 6 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tie allurements of philanthropy and " unrestricted 
 trade," and much display of "unctuous rectitude," 
 there too often lies the covert desire to use other 
 people in the accomplishment of her selfish aims. 
 
 Excuse this digression. I set out to simply 
 write you of my Siberian trip. The line of the 
 Trans-Siberian railway runs in a general way 
 through middle European Russia, the centre of the 
 southern part of Western Siberia, and along the 
 southern border of Eastern Siberia. Its western 
 terminus is Moscow, and in the east, Madivostok 
 on the Pacific Ocean. It is ditticult to determine 
 its exact length, as the recent Russian-Chinese rela- 
 tions that have sprung up have caused Russia to 
 chanee the orio-inal route down the Amur River in 
 East Siberia. A commission has recently left here 
 to make a new survey from a point about 1,200 
 miles west of \"ladivostok, with the intention of 
 radiating from that point several lines through 
 Manchuria eastward, as China has recently given 
 Russia extensive concessions in that province. 
 One of these lines will run direct to Vladivostok 
 through Manchuria, and, joining with the main 
 line from Moscow, will thus make a much shorter 
 route than the one originally designed to run down 
 the Amur River, of which nearly 1,000 miles is now 
 completed. Even under the new survey the line 
 will not be less than 6,100 miles long.
 
 SIBERIAN RAILWAY TRAIN 
 
 7 
 
 There is now completed about 4,000 miles of 
 road from Moscow east, on which trains are run- 
 
 TRANS-SIBERIAX RAILWAY TRAIN. — OBSERVATION COMPARTMENT IN 
 REAR CAR 
 
 ning-. On the last 1,000 miles, however, only con- 
 struction trains are running, with an occasional 
 mixed passenger train at intervals of about a fort-
 
 8 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 night. In the last six weeks they have put on a 
 throuofh train that runs from Moscow to Tomsk, 
 on the Tom River. This train leaves once in ten 
 days and furnishes fairly comfortable facilities. 
 Ordinary trains that break the journey at many 
 points run also, at irregular intervals, as far as 
 Omsk. The distance from Moscow to Tomsk is 
 about 3,000 miles. It is the through train that I 
 am taking. Whatever expeditions I make east of 
 Tomsk will have to be done on construction trains, 
 or over the old Siberian post-route by troikas or 
 droshkies — curious vehicles drawn by three or five 
 horses. 
 
 It is most difficult to get anything like accurate 
 information concerning either this great line or the 
 country along the road east of the Volga River, as 
 few travellers as yet have gone into that region. 
 Judging, however, from what I see here at the 
 western terminus of the road, everything is being 
 done in the most thorough manner, and indicates 
 that the Russian is fully alive to the great value 
 this road will be to the Empire, and the marvellous 
 changes to be wrought by it. 
 
 The station here, at which the line begins, is a 
 marvel of architecture. Next to that of the Grand 
 India Peninsular Railroad in Bombay, it is the 
 most splendid railway station I have ever seen. In 
 its features, it furnishes additional evidence of what
 
 MAGNIFICENCE OF TRAINS 9 
 
 you discover on all hands as you go eastward, of 
 the fusion of things Occidental and Oriental. In 
 this structure the bizarre effect produced by the 
 blending of the plain, practical materiality of the 
 West with the florid idealism of the East is at 
 once surprising and charming. It is more like a 
 palace than a railway station. 
 
 The Government (for almost all railways here 
 are run by the Government) is most active in its 
 preparations for the future operation of the road. 
 I was shown a train in course of preparation that 
 is to be one of the many that are to run over the 
 entire length of the line when completed. The 
 scale of magnificence upon which they are to be 
 operated is a surprise even to one familiar with 
 the splendor of our own metropolitan trains. 
 
 The trains will be composed wholly of sleep- 
 ing, parlor, and dining cars, an elegant salon occu- 
 pying fully one-half of each car at the middle, 
 having piano, writing-tables, maps, library, etc. 
 Besides the usual toilet-room there is an elegant 
 bath-room, where at a small cost we can have a 
 warm or cold bath. There is also to be a room 
 fitted up especially for gymnastic exercise, with 
 dumb-bells, frictional apparatus for muscular de- 
 velopment, and all the newest belongings of such 
 an establishment. The trains will be of the ves- 
 tibule type, with electric lights and signals, air
 
 lo SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 brakes, and other first-class accessories. In addi- 
 tion to the general director of the train, each car 
 has for its service a porter and a special guard, so 
 that a train of seven or eight passenger coaches 
 will have from twenty to thirty officials and em- 
 ployees connected with it. In fine, when once in 
 full operation, the\- will, in luxury and comfort, 
 more resemble a trans-Atlantic steamship than a 
 trans-Asiatic railway train. 
 
 The compartments, on account of extreme 
 height and size, will have an airy comfort quite 
 in aofreeable contrast with the low ceilincrs and 
 stuffy character of many of our first-class cars. 
 Not least of the inspiring things of this great 
 enterprise is the low fare that will be charged, 
 being less than one cent and a half per mile, 
 including expense of sleeping-car. As the 
 through trains can be run at thirty to thirt)'- 
 four miles per hour, the trip from Moscow to 
 Vladivostok will ultimately be made in eight to 
 nine days. It is not among the improbable 
 thinofs that within ten vears one can make a con- 
 tinuous trip from Paris to Pekin, a distance of 
 something over 8,000 miles. 
 
 If this route does not become the most interest- 
 ins^ and aofreeable in the world, it will not be the 
 fault of the Russian government. One can form 
 some feeble notion of the vast future possibilities
 
 TRAVEL ON POST-ROUTES 13 
 
 when we reflect that it is the connectinof Hnk 
 between 500 milHons of people in the east and 
 300 millions in the west. It is my intention to 
 go to Irkutsk, and also to Tobolsk, if the journey 
 by the old post-route does not prove too fatigu- 
 ing. Post travel is anything but a luxury in 
 Russia. Although the roads on the main routes 
 are excellent, almost equal to those in France, 
 the troikas are much wanting in comfort, and the 
 Isvoshtchik is a furious driver and the horses 
 are spirited. 
 
 They usually have from three to five horses, 
 according to condition of road, and hitched 
 abreast. The posts are about eighteen versts — 
 twelve miles — apart, where relays are secured. 
 When ready to start, the driver takes the lines 
 in his hands, and scarcely touches his seat when 
 the horses suddenly spring into a full gallop, 
 which pace they keep right up until the next post 
 is reached. A distance of 200 miles can thus 
 readily be covered in a day ; that is, in a day and 
 night. The driver, however, is a lazy fellow, and 
 a vast amount of time is needlessly wasted in the 
 change of horses. Were it not for this delay, 250 
 miles or more might easily be made. I am told 
 that in some cases militar)- and other officials 
 make over 300 miles in a day on sledges in the 
 winter.
 
 14 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Speaking of horses, there is a notable law in 
 effect in most of the large Russian towns concern- 
 ing them, that deserves especial mention. Among 
 the curious things that arrest the attention on ar- 
 riving in Moscow, is the entire absence of whips 
 
 RUSSIAN ISVOSHTCHIK, OR DROSHKY DRIVERS 
 
 amonof the drivers of carria^'es, cabs, and all sorts 
 of vehicles. On inquiry, I was informed that there 
 was a law prohibiting their use or in any wa)' pun- 
 ishing; a horse. I don't believe there is a sinQ;le 
 whip in use in Moscow. Even to strike a horse 
 with a catch of the lines is forbidden, and punished
 
 THE HORSES OF RUSSIA 17 
 
 if discovered. The excellent condition of the 
 horses fully attests the benefits of this humane law. 
 Nothing can exceed the beauty of the sleek and 
 well-o-roomed horses used in the carriaees of 
 Moscow. 
 
 I have succeeded in securing the services of an 
 excellent valet. He is a Caucasian, a native of 
 Tiflis. His native language is Russian, but he 
 speaks English quite well, as also French, German, 
 Italian, Swedish, Tartar, and almost every thing- 
 else. Although he has never been to Siberia, still 
 his knowledge of the country and its customs will 
 render him most useful to me. I will write you 
 again when I get beyond the Volga River and 
 Ural Mountains, where the novel attractions of 
 Asiatic Russia really begin. 
 
 3
 
 II 
 
 The Russian steppes — Their similarity to the prairies and plains of 
 the United States — The lands of Russia — Geological division 
 of the same — The great Tschernoziom lands of Russia — Their 
 capacity and products — System of farming in Russia — The 
 yearly production of cereals^Exports of same — Russian live 
 stock and emport statistics — Manufacturing and mining indus- 
 tries — Culture of Indian corn — Population of Russia — Distribu- 
 tion of same — The rural and url^an population of Russia — 
 Dwellings and other buildings in the villages. 
 
 TSCHELJABINSK, SIBERIA, AugllSt^ 18S9. 
 
 I am writing- you from Tscheljabinsk( pronounced 
 (/ Chee-lay-ah-binsk), a small but interesting and pic- 
 turesque town 100 miles east of the Ural Moun- 
 tains, and about 1,400 miles east of Moscow. The 
 route I have come, therefore, is much the same as 
 going from Indianapolis to Denver. 
 
 Not only in distance does the comparison hold, 
 but in a striking manner in a geographic and physi- 
 cal sense also. To all Americans who have travelled 
 to the Rocky Mountains through the States of 
 Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, 
 the countrv I have come through is easv to de- 
 scribe. To simply say it is exactly like it would
 
 TSCHERNOZIOM LANDS 19 
 
 constitute a more or less perfect description. In- 
 deed, I have never seen any two things more abso- 
 hitely similar than are the prairie and plain regions 
 of our country and that \ast region h'ing in south- 
 east Russia, extending from Tula east to the Ural 
 Mountains, a distance of over 1,000 miles, and from 
 Nijni Novgorod south to the Caspian Sea, a dis- 
 tance of 1,200 miles. It is called by the Russians 
 Tschernoziom, or black earth. It is also known as 
 the steppe, which is Russian for prairie. The soil 
 is black, and seems identical with that of Illinois 
 and Iowa, although, I think, somewhat stronger 
 than in those States. 
 
 To generalize crudely, the lands of Russia 
 would be divided into two classes : the woodland, 
 covering the northern part and composed of the 
 rouofher elements or detritus of the ancient orlacier 
 that once spread over the greater part of Russia, 
 and by whose action its varied soils were pro- 
 duced ; and the Tschernoziom, covering in a gen- 
 eral way the southern half of the country. 
 
 The first is covered mainly with forests, marshes, 
 and sand wastes, although interspersed with many 
 deposits of vegetable mould, giving more or less im- 
 portant areas for culture. The Tschernoziom region 
 is almost coincident with that of the steppe. It 
 extends in a northeastern direction over thirt)- 
 or forty of the largest provinces of Russia, from
 
 20 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Podolia and Bessarabia in the southwest, to Ufa 
 and the Urals in the east, and from the Blaclv 
 Sea to Moscow. 
 
 This formation is of surpassing fertihty, and 
 within its Hmits the greater portion of the nation's 
 agricultural surplus is produced. It covers an area 
 of something like 300 millions of acres, and in its 
 productive capacity must exceed that of the other 
 lands in European Russia. 
 
 Spring wheat, rye, oats— indeed, all the cereals 
 ofrow here in the most wonderful manner in a fair 
 season, and every acre is under a good state of 
 cultivation. 
 
 The system of farming practised throughout the 
 Tschernoziom region and much in vogue in the 
 steppe formations generally, such as the Kuban and 
 Don Cossack reofions in southern \ olora districts 
 and the northern Caucasus, is what is known as 
 the resting system. It is simply the alternation 
 of cereal crops at stated intervals with pasturage. 
 By giving up the lands to pasture that have been 
 cropped for several years with various grains, the 
 soil recuperates naturally without much aid of arti- 
 ficial fertilizers. It is practically the same method 
 followed by many of our own farmers, and known 
 as converting cultivated fields into fallow lands. 
 
 There will therefore be found, throughout great 
 areas, many open fields devoted to grazing, and
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 21 
 
 supporting- great herds of cattle, sheep, horses, and 
 other domestic animals, interspersed among fields 
 devoted to the culture of rye, wheat, oats, spelt, 
 and other cereals. 
 
 A few statistics as to what Russia is producing 
 in the way of grains, while they may not prove in- 
 teresting, may at least be instructive. In 1893-94, 
 in the fifty governments of European Russia — not 
 including Finland and Poland — there was a little 
 over 24,000,000 of desetines, or about 65,000,000 
 acres, given to rye, which in this country ranks 
 as of first importance, and constitutes the main 
 article of food consumed by the masses, especially 
 the peasantry. This will serve to explain why so 
 large a proportion of a relatively small wheat 
 crop is exported to foreign markets. 
 
 Just here it may be well to take some note of 
 Russia's grain shipments to foreign countries. 
 During the six years from 1888 to 1893 inclusive, 
 which also embraces the famine year of 1890-91, 
 her exports of all grains amounted to an annual 
 average of 380,000,000 pouds, or nearly 220,000,- 
 000 bushels. Of this total, 320,000,000 pouds, or 
 a little over 200,000,000 bushels, was made up of 
 the four great cereal staples — wheat, rye, barley, 
 and oats ; wheat alone accounts for an annual 
 average during those years of 150,000,000 pouds, 
 or 90,000,000 bushels ; oats, 58,000,000 bushels ;
 
 22 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 barley, 40,000,000 bushels, and rye, 41,000,000 
 bushels. Thus it will be seen that, estimatine 
 by weight, wheat constituted during those years 
 almost half of the gross grain exports. The total 
 value of Russia's entire annual exports and imports 
 is about $700,000,000, and the value of her exports 
 exceeds that of her imports by about $150,000,000 
 per annum. 
 
 The outturn of rye for 1893-94 was nearly 700,- 
 000,000 bushels. Of the lands given to this crop, 
 I might add that nearly 19,000,000 desetines, or 
 about three-fourths, belong to the peasants, and 
 the remaining 5,000,000 to the large landed pro- 
 prietors. Both spring and Avinter wheats are cul- 
 tivated, the latter mainly in the southern and 
 southeastern governments, and the former in the 
 western portion and the higher latitudes. They 
 are, moreover, produced in the proportion of about 
 six acres of the former to three of the latter. 
 
 In 1893-94 there were 240,000,000 bushels of 
 wheat produced, of which the peasants are accred- 
 ited with the usual proportion of six-tenths. Oats 
 were cultivated to the extent of 36,000,000 acres, 
 with a yield of nearly 600,000,000 bushels. The 
 yield of barley was 136,000,000 bushels, and of 
 buckwheat 60,000,000 bushels. Besides, some 
 40,000,000 acres were devoted to other cereals, 
 such as millet, pease, spelt, potatoes, etc.
 
 BEET CULTURE AND LIVE STOCK 23 
 
 It might also be mentioned as an important 
 feature in the agriculture of this country that the 
 beet-sugar industry is a large and rapidly growing 
 one. In 1893 there were 800,000 acres under 
 beets, yielding 35,000,000 pouds, or about 600,000 
 tons of sugar. To manufacture this there were, at 
 that time, 230 factories in Russia, employing some 
 90,000 persons. 
 
 There were in Russia in 1893, 26,000,000 horses, 
 over 34,000,000 cattle, 65,000,000 sheep, and over 
 12,000,000 swine. The dairy interest is large, 
 widely diffused, and rapidly growing. Beside, sup- 
 plying almost incalculable quantities for home 
 consumption, butter, cheese, and other products 
 of this industry are extensively exported. From 
 1886 to 1893 the annual average exportation was, 
 of cheese nearly 3,000,000 pounds, and of butter 
 16,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Live stock is an important article of export, 
 and of wool there is an annual exportation of 
 70,000,000 pounds. It may not be an unin- 
 teresting fact to mention that of the rather insig- 
 nificant item of hogs' bristles over 6,000,000 
 pounds are sent to foreign countries yearly. 
 
 Having given somewhat in detail the agricul- 
 tural capabilities and products of Russia, it may 
 be well to here present briefly, in so far as avail- 
 able statistics may disclose, what she is doing in
 
 24 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the way of manufacturing. In 1892, there were 
 in Russia 34,680 manufactories, employing- nearly 
 1,500,000 operatives and workmen, producing 
 about $800,000,000 worth of products, or an 
 annual output of $550 for each workman. 
 
 Of this number there were 2,350 manufactories 
 engaged in producing cotton, linen, woollen, and 
 kindred fabrics, and employing 425,200 operatives. 
 Nearly 3,000 factories were engaged in making 
 leather goods. Of flour, starch, malt, wool, saw- 
 mills, and others of like nature, there were 8,150, 
 employing 80,000 operatives. Of cast-iron there 
 were produced in 1890 about 1,200,000 tons, 
 employing 233,000 workmen. There were 1,881 
 manufactories and mills engaged in producing 
 iron, steel, machinery, and other metal products, 
 employing 118,000 workmen, with an annual 
 turnover of about $100,000,000. In nearly 2,000 
 mines (gold, copper, platinum, silver, lead, tin, 
 and other metals), there were employed 106,000 
 workmen. 
 
 The flax and hemp products of Russia merit 
 especial mention, since it easily ranks the rest of 
 the world in this important industry. In 1890- 
 91 the entire world's crop of flax fibre was 1,102,- 
 600,000 pounds. Of this total Russia produced 
 630,000,000 of pounds, or nearly sixty per cent. 
 In that year Russia produced 306,400,000 pounds
 
 PRODUCTION OF FLAX AND HEMP 25 
 
 of hemp fibre, or near forty per cent, of the entire 
 European crop. 
 
 It will thus be seen that of these two valuable 
 staples Russia is to be credited with nearly one- 
 half of the world's product. Of this amount she 
 gathers yearly, about one-third is consumed in her 
 own mills, and in this branch of manufacturinor 
 she stands second only to Great Britain, having 
 in operation 420,000 spindles and 13,000 looms, 
 or more than one-third of those in operation in 
 the United Kinofdom, and somewhat in excess of 
 either France, Germany, Italy, or other European 
 states. Her exports of flax and hemp fibre are 
 over 500,000,000 pounds annually. 
 
 Without a moment's intermission, you see on all 
 hands the landscape stretching away in intermi- 
 nable prairies and rolling plains. As in our own 
 countrv, it is traversed bv a few larpfe rivers and 
 many small streams, and by those peculiar western 
 gullies or draws, fringed with shrubbery. 
 
 On looking out of the car window, were it not 
 for the quaint appearance of the people, with their 
 queer, particolored costumes, the Saracenic aspect 
 imparted by the mosque-like churches, with their 
 rich coloring and gilded domes, that dot the land- 
 scape everywhere, one would think he was in 
 Illinois or Nebraska. The land, like our western 
 plains, supports a rich herbage, and is covered with
 
 26 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 great herds of cattle, sheep, horses, etc. While 
 the cattle are neither so laro^e nor well bred as in 
 America, still they furnish an excellent beef ; in 
 fact, I never ate a finer beefsteak than you will 
 get along the route at the hotels and railway 
 restaurants. 
 
 To an American, the one great difference be- 
 tween this and the great West is the conspicuous 
 absence of Indian corn. As this is about latitude 
 fifty-six degrees, being nearly i,ooo miles north of 
 the Ohio River, it will not mature here, but in 
 South Russia and the Caucasus it f^rows and 
 matures quite as well as in America. 
 
 The area of Indian corn in Russia proper is 
 given at only a little over 1,000,000 acres, with 
 a production of^^ 18,000,000 bushels. This is, 
 however, confined to a small extent of country 
 closely bordering on the Black Sea. In the 
 northern Caucasus, however, and the western part 
 of the trans-Caucasian region, immense quantities 
 are grown, and yield a large surplus for foreign 
 markets. 
 
 The distribution of population in Russia is some- 
 what peculiar. As I have before said, nearly nine- 
 tenths of the people are engaged in agriculture, 
 and only from ten per cent, to fourteen per cent, 
 live in the cities. 
 
 In 1893, out of a total population in European
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 
 
 29 
 
 Russia of 91,800,000, including the governments 
 of Finland and Poland, about 80,000,000 were resi- 
 dents of the country and only 12,000,000 lived in 
 the cities. In Asiatic Russia (Siberia, the Cau- 
 
 RUSSIAN PEASANT S LOG CABIN IN COMMUNE OR VILLAGE 
 
 casus, and Central Asia), even a more marked dis- 
 proportion exists, as out of a total population of 
 18,000,000 in those countries, less than 2,000,000 
 were dwellers in the cities.
 
 30 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 There are a few grand cities like St. Petersburg, 
 Moscow, Warsaw^, and Odessa, with from 250,000 
 to over 1,000,000 inhabitants ; then there are quite 
 a number of cities of 40,000 to 150,000 inhab- 
 
 A \'II.I,At:E ON THE RUSSIAN STEPPES 
 
 itants ; after that, there are none that possess the 
 features of a great cit)-, or that can be classed as 
 such. The rest of the population is wholly con- 
 tained in farm villages or communes of from 50 
 to 300 or 400 families (as the Russian farmer
 
 PEASANT DWELLINGS 31 
 
 rarely lives on his farm), scattered in immense 
 numbers throughout the country. It is not an 
 uncommon thino- that a dozen of these villaQ^es 
 are in sight at one time. 
 
 The buildings of these villages are mostly of 
 wood and thatched. Many of them are made of 
 of logs and much resemble the primitive log cabin 
 the West. Being, however, more ornate in ex- 
 terior finish, and in contour resembling very much 
 the Swiss chalet, they often have a pleasing effect. 
 There invariably rises out of the midst of these 
 villages an imposing church edifice, always of the 
 Greek Church, most beautiful in its exquisite pro- 
 portions and rich coloring.
 
 Ill 
 
 Emancipation of the serfs — Peasants now great land-owners — 
 Emancipation rescript of Alexander II., in 1861 — Condition 
 of the serfs prior to this act — General provisions of emanci- 
 pation rescript — Obligatory redemption of lands — Measures to 
 facilitate same — Distribution and allotment of lands to the serfs 
 — Division of serfs into three categories — Effects of emancipa- 
 tion act — Its tendency to lessen conflict between capital and 
 labor — Devotion of the peasant to his lot acquired by this act — 
 An impediment to emigration to Siberia and other distant lands 
 — Russia's position in the probable clash of nations — Number 
 of serfs liberated under the emancipation act — Date of the proc- 
 lamation — -The peaceful accomplishment of this great act — 
 Peace rescript of the present Czar — Is Russia rightly understood 
 by other nations ? 
 
 In no country, perhaps, not even excepting 
 France, where the desire to possess land assumes 
 almost the form of a mania, is there to be found a 
 class so supremely a land-owning class as the peas- 
 antry of Russia. Excluding a few provinces in 
 Finland, Poland, and the Baltic, it is rare to find 
 among the peasants of this country one who 
 does not possess a lot or tract of land of some size, 
 somewhere in the circle of the empire. Indeed, it 
 is said that even the artisans and laborers in the 
 towns and villages are almost invariably the owners
 
 EMANCIPATION ACT OF ALEXANDER II 33 
 
 of a plot of land, sometimes even in remote quar- 
 ters of Russia, m^.l- Q^oW 
 
 This fact constitutes one of the impediments to 
 a more rapid and general development of the man- 
 ufacturing and industrial interests of Russia. The 
 agricultural element so vastly predominating over 
 the urban, necessitates a reliance upon the rural 
 population to supply the needed labor in the facto- 
 ries. The devotion of the peasant to his humble 
 holding of land, to which he invariably returns at 
 stated seasons to cultivate, thus abandoning his 
 position as an artisan, prevents that permanent 
 organization of labor so needful to secure success 
 in manufacturing and commercial enterprises. 
 
 This exceptional feature of peasant life finds, in 
 some measure, a solution in the condition of this 
 class prior to the emancipation act of Alexander 
 II. in 1861. 
 
 Previous to that great epoch the peasants were 
 entirely the serfs of either the state, the crown, or 
 the nobility, to whom they stood in a relation of 
 the closest personal dependence. Of the whole 
 peasant or serf class, there was, at that time, some- 
 thing like 11,000,000 families, of which about 
 forty-six per cent, belonged respectively each to 
 the state and the nobility — or private persons — 
 and about eight per cent, to the crown. Those 
 who lived on the lands of the nobility were usually 
 3
 
 34 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 permitted to cultivate a tract of land at their own 
 expense, out of which they derived their subsist- 
 ence, and it became known as the peasant lot. 
 Beyond this necessary labor, he was bound to work 
 under the direction, control, and for the sole benefit 
 of the landlord, who possessed the legal right, 
 under vague limitations, to dispose of the person 
 and property of the peasant. Thus, by the sanc- 
 tion of custom and long usage, there dawned that 
 first peasant proprietary right or usufruct, which 
 under the benign rescript of 1861 suddenly bright- 
 ened into the full da}' of individual freedom and 
 property right. By this act of emancipation, not 
 only was the obligatory relation of dependence of 
 peasant to owner absolved, but it also provided for 
 a compulsory redemption of the lands of the no- 
 bility or private owners occupied under the former 
 shadowy rights of the peasants. Not at once, 
 however, were these lands redeemed, as by an 
 agreement between the interested parties the 
 peasants were allowed to occupy their former 
 holdings of the lands of their old masters by the 
 payment of an annual rental, which land the gov- 
 ernment apportioned to them, becoming inalien- 
 able. 
 
 The same arrangement was made respecting the 
 peasants that belonged to the state and the crown, 
 except that such peasants were not obliged, under
 
 REDEMPTION OF LANDS 35 
 
 the proclamation, to begin the redemption of their 
 lands until 1885, while for those peasants who were 
 the property of private parties the date was fixed 
 at 1 88 1. To carry into practical effect this obliga- 
 tory redemption of lands, the government issued 
 its bonds to the old land-owners to an amount es- 
 timated on the rental value of the lands. This 
 debt was to be liquidated by the peasants in the 
 course of forty-nine years, by annual instalments 
 of principal and interest. 
 
 To facilitate this redemption measure, state 
 peasant banks were founded, which loaned money 
 to the peasants on easy terms, taking a mortgage 
 on the lands as a security. It might be further 
 stated that the lands were allotted to the males 
 only, and without regard to age, and largely to 
 the communes, which were at the same time griven 
 the amplest powers of local self-government. 
 
 To aid in forming some just idea of the scope of 
 this memorable act, and the stupendous changes 
 wrought by it, I will briefly collate a few facts and 
 figures that of^cial statistics supply. For conveni- 
 ence, I will divide the lands that passed under this 
 proclamation into three classes or groups, viz. : 
 those that comprise holdings from two to seven 
 acres, those from seven to seventeen acres, and 
 those from eighteen to over forty acres. 
 
 We find that an allotment of lands from two to
 
 36 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 seven acres was made to 6,280,000 males, aggre- 
 gating in the total 37,800,000 acres. Of this num- 
 ber of peasants, 4,833,300 were formerly those 
 belonging to private parties, and the remainder, 
 1,447,000, those belonging to the crown and the 
 state. Out of the total allotment of 37,800,000 
 acres, 27,800,000 acres went to the peasants for- 
 merly belonging to private parties, averaging about 
 five and a half acres per male, while 10,000,000 
 acres went to the former peasants of the crown 
 and state, averaging nearly seven acres per male. 
 For the second class — that is, allotments of seven 
 to seventeen acres — there was granted 154,171,800 
 acres, distributed among 12,400,000 males, or an 
 average of 12.4 acres per capita. Of the total 
 number of serfs who fell within this group under 
 this class, 5,572,200 were those that belonged to 
 private parties, and 6,830,000 that were owned 
 by the crown and the state. To the former were 
 allotted 64,320,200 acres, or nearly twelve acres 
 per capita, and to the latter nearly 90,000,000 
 acres, or a per capita holding of about thirteen 
 acres. In the third class — from eighteen to over 
 forty acres — we find there were 3,714,390 males, 
 and an aggregate of 124,979,000 acres, or 33.4 per 
 male. Of the total serf or private class in this 
 group, 3,369,600 were owned by the state and the 
 crown, to whom was alloted 115,979,000 acres.
 
 LAND ALLOTTED TO SERFS 37 
 
 or an average of thirty-four acres to each male. 
 The peasants that had been held by private 
 parties in this class were 344,796, to whom were 
 granted 8,666,000 acres, or nearly twenty-five 
 acres as an average to each male. 
 
 To summarize, we find that there was a male 
 population of something over 22,000.000, to whom 
 under the rescript of 1861 there were allotted 
 316,200,000 acres, or an average of nearly fifteen 
 acres for each. Of the grand total of serfs 
 manumitted by that act, 10,800,000, or nearly 
 one-half, were those of private owners. The other 
 half, excepting the small number owned by the 
 church and monasteries, was the property of the 
 state and the crown. 
 
 The lands, therefore, for the obligatory redemp- 
 tion of which the government provided by the 
 issuance of its bonds, amounted to a trifle over 
 100.000,000 acres, or somewhat less than one- 
 third of all the lands transferred by this act, being 
 an average of a little less than ten acres per 
 capita. There were, therefore, left of the state 
 and crown lands about 215,000,000 acres, to be 
 apportioned among something over 11,000,000 
 holdings, or about twenty acres per capita. 
 
 Very naturally, some notable results followed 
 a change in condition so fundamental and at the 
 same time so rapid, and it speaks well for the
 
 38 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 sterling qualities and character of this great 
 class that a transformation so swift and radical 
 carried with it so little confusion and disorder. 
 The usual desire to accumulate speedily grew 
 up among a people who hitherto were without 
 property, when they found themselves suddenly 
 endowed with such a substantial evidence of 
 wealth as land. As a result, the peasantry of 
 Russia, since the act of 1861, have added by 
 purchase to their holdings acquired under that 
 act, over 50,000,000 acres, so that they now hold 
 some 370,000,000 acres, or, as before stated, 
 over one-third of the arable acreage of European 
 Russia. 
 
 One of the direct results of this newly created 
 and extensive ownership of lands is that the con- 
 flict between capital and labor exists to a less 
 degree in this country, perhaps, than in any other. 
 As the land acquired by the peasant is as a rule 
 not sufficient in itself to consume his whole labor 
 or yield a full support to himself and family, he 
 is therefore compelled to repair this deficiency 
 by seeking service under the owner of a larger 
 estate, in some factory or other occupation. 
 
 Having become a land-owner himself, however, 
 and therefore receiving in some degree a reward 
 for his labor through his own capital, he thus 
 stands in quite a different relation to one whose
 
 MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS OF PEASANTS 39 
 
 employment he seeks, than the laborer who 
 derives his reward for services wholly from the 
 capital of another. This necessity on the part 
 of the peasant to supplement the labor on his 
 own insufficient tract of land by employment 
 elsewhere, causes a movement amono- the rural 
 classes which, if not riy-htly understood, mieht 
 lead to a very erroneous impression. 
 
 The almost incredible number of peasants that 
 one meets on all lines of travel in this country 
 at certain seasons of the year would seem to 
 indicate that they were a very uneasy, shifting, 
 and discontented class. But this is not true, since 
 almost the entire migratory movements of this 
 class arise out of a quest for emplo)'ment else- 
 where than on their own inadequate lot or tract 
 of land, to which they invariably return with 
 punctual regularity at certain times and seasons, 
 as they are devoted to their little lot of land, 
 and they allow nothing to separate them for long 
 from it. Even when some poor peasant — as it 
 often occurs — acquires wealth in some distant 
 place as a merchant, or in other pursuits, and 
 becomes the owner of buildings and other prop- 
 erty in a city, he invariably retains his member- 
 ship in the commune from whence he came, and 
 he clings to his little holding of land there ; for, as 
 he says, his lot of land cannot be taken from
 
 40 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 him, and it would afford him and his children a 
 living should he chance to lose his accumulated 
 wealth. 
 
 It is only when a peasant emigrates to some 
 distant province that he permanently severs the 
 bond that binds him to the little lot acquired 
 under the emancipation act of t86i. Indeed, I 
 was informed by those connected with the move- 
 ment for the settlement of the new lands in 
 Siberia and elsewhere, that the tenacity with 
 which the peasant adheres to his tract of land 
 was one of the obstacles in the way of emigration 
 to the new and distant lands, and that it was no 
 uncommon thing for a peasant to voluntarily 
 abandon laro^er and better holdino-s in new coun- 
 tries and return again to his little lot in the old 
 commune. 
 
 This firm attachment of so large a class to the 
 lands of the country, and the fact that five-sixths 
 of her population are engaged in the simple, invig- 
 orating, and healthful pursuit of agriculture, con- 
 ducing to a sound national vitality and energy, 
 is a circumstance not to be lost sight of in 
 considering what Russia's future is to be, in the 
 possible clash of nations that may be precipitated 
 some day by the pressure and necessities of a 
 population existing under the highly artificial, 
 intricate, and transitory conditions of an urban life.
 
 EMANCIPATION CARRIED INTO EFFECT 41 
 
 It was on February 19, 1861, over two months 
 prior to the outbreak of civil war in America, and 
 nearly two years before our own great Lincoln 
 issued his emancipation proclamation, that the 
 memorable rescript of the Czar Alexander II. 
 flashed through the long night of Russian serf- 
 dom and upon the world, bringing immediate free- 
 dom to an enslaved class almost one-half greater 
 in number than the entire population of the whole 
 United States at that time, both slave and free. 
 By a wise and humane foresight, there were, also, 
 provisions embodied in this very act to enable a 
 hitherto dependent class to speedily become, in 
 a measure, self-sustaining, and in other ways to 
 assume the burdens, duties, and obligations created 
 by their newly acquired rights and condition. 
 Thus it was that we see a complete reversal of the 
 old order of things, the serfs becoming the owners 
 of the lands they occupied and for the use of 
 which they served their masters, which lands, in 
 turn, under this decree, the masters were com- 
 pelled to apportion among their former serfs, 
 creating thereby what is, perhaps, the largest 
 single body of land-owners on the globe. 
 
 When we consider that the serf system was the 
 growth of centuries, and had become intimately in- 
 terwoven in every fibre of the political, social, and 
 economic institutions and traditions of Russia ; and,
 
 42 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 further, that the purposes contemplated by the act 
 have been reaUzed in the fullest measure, with- 
 out drawing a sword or firing a gun, it deservedly 
 stands as the most remarkable achievement in the 
 interests of humanity ever accomplished by a ruler 
 or a nation. 
 
 Thirty-seven years later we find the head of this 
 great nation, the grandson of the serf-freeing Czar, 
 again startling the world by the issuance of another 
 rescript, making for the peace and weal of the 
 world in a no less remarkable manner. Let us 
 hope that the success attending the benign efforts 
 of his great predecessor will crown the efforts of 
 the present ruler. With these examples before us, 
 despite a prejudice that may exist against this 
 people — the cause of which can only be suspected 
 —one finds himself irresistibly impelled to seriously 
 inquire what manner of nation, after all, this really 
 is, that it should so far anticipate all others by 
 voluntarily taking the initiative in measures calcu- 
 lated to so profoundly effect and promote the free- 
 dom, peace, and welfare of the human race.
 
 ^^ 
 
 IV 
 
 Stations and restaurants on Siberian railway — Equipment and safety 
 of road — Syzran on the Volga River — The Tartar — Bridge on 
 Siberian railway over the Volga River — The Volga, its size and 
 importance as a highway — First view of the Ural Mountains — 
 Their height, etc. — The city of Zlatoust — Government works 
 and mines in the Ural Mountains — Summit of the Urals — En- 
 trance into Siberia — Some facts concerning the Russian Empire 
 — Eastern slope of the Ural Mountains — Crop conditions in the 
 Volga valley — A look ahead. 
 
 The Siberian railway, like all railways in Russia, 
 is well constructed, the road-bed firm, track well 
 ballasted, generally with stone, at least as far as 
 Tscheljabinsk, and easy gradients. The road has a 
 //- five-foot gauge, uniform with all the roads in Euro- 
 pean Russia. This gives an ample breadth to the 
 cars, which, with their unusual height, imparts an 
 air of comfort not possessed by roads of narrower 
 gauge and less height of ceiling in the car. The 
 stations, without exception, are clean and hand- 
 some, constructed often of wood, but frequently of 
 brick or stone. It is a perfect delight to take a 
 meal in the restaurants. They have a most agree- 
 able custom of furnishincr meals. On enterinof the 
 dining-room, you will find at one end an immense
 
 44 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 sideboard literally groaning under a load of newly 
 prepared Russian dishes, always piping hot, and of 
 such a bewildering variety as to range through the 
 whole gamut of human fancy and tastes. 
 
 You are given a plate, with a knife and fork. 
 Making your own selection, you retire to any of the 
 neatly-spread tables to enjoy your meal at your 
 leisure, and, I might add, with infinite zest, for 
 travel in this country, besides pleasing the eye, 
 quickens the palate. The price, too, is a surprise 
 to one accustomed to metropolitan charges. You 
 can get soup, as fine a beefsteak as you ever ate, 
 a splendid roast chicken, whole, done in Russian 
 style, most toothsome and juicy; potatoes and other 
 vegetables, a bottle of beer, splendid and brewed 
 in this country, for one ruble — about fifty cents. 
 
 Safety seems to be the one idea uppermost in the 
 minds of the railway ministry. Beside the electri- 
 cal and other appliances used in the best railway 
 practice, they have an immense army of guards 
 both for the train and the track. The road is 
 divided into sections of one verst each — about two- 
 thirds of a mile. For each section there is built a 
 neat little cottage in which the guard and his family 
 live. It is the duty of this guard or one of his 
 family to patrol a section night and day. As soon 
 as a train passes, the guard steps into the middle of 
 the track, holds a flag — at night a lantern — aloft and
 
 SAFETY OF RUSSIAN RAILWAYS 
 
 45 
 
 watches the retreating train until it passes into the 
 next verst or section. Where there is a heavy 
 curve that prevents the view of the road for the 
 distance of a verst, several guards are employed 
 
 SYZRAN ON THE VOLGA RIVER 
 
 on a section. A train is, therefore, never out of 
 siorht of a ofuard. 
 
 I might add that women often perform this ser- 
 vice, which is quite apart from that of the section 
 gang, whose duty is to repair the road. On the
 
 46 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Siberian railway, as far as Tomsk, there are to be 
 nearly 4,000 of these cottages for the use of the 
 guards ; a very costly precaution, but one that 
 gives a pleasing sense of security to the traveller. 
 With the exception of the great post routes to 
 Siberia, the Caucasus, and main highways in Eu- 
 ropean Russia, which are first class and compare 
 well with other countries, the common roads of 
 Russia are indifferent, scarcely equal to those of 
 our own country. 
 
 On leaving Moscow, there are no towns worthy 
 of being called cities excepting at long intervals, 
 but farm villages are passed with rapid frequency, 
 since of the immense farming class, as I have stated, 
 none dwell on the farms they cultivate, but live 
 wholly in villages or communes. The first town 
 that is possessed of especial interest is Syzran, in 
 the valley of the Volga. It is the centre of an im- 
 mense grain trade, since it is surrounded by one of 
 the best and richest cereal-sfrowinor reg^ions in East 
 Russia. There are celebrated tanneries there. 
 
 Here, also, one discovers in feature and quaint 
 costume the first traces of the true Tartar, which, 
 at Samara, 100 miles on, develops into a distinct 
 class and pronounced type. On looking at these 
 tawny and grizzled representatives of a once power- 
 ful race, the mind reverts to the mighty warriors 
 that, from Attila down, swept like a blighting
 
 RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE VOLGA 49 
 
 scourge over Asia and Europe, leaving a Tartar 
 trail even on the steppes of Russia. 
 
 At Batraki, another important grain port, and 
 
 BATRAKI ON THE VOLGA 
 
 celebrated for the fine quality of caviare, the rail- 
 road crosses the Voloa. The bridge here, owine 
 to its immense size and the difficulties encountered 
 in its construction, deserves well to be classed 
 amonor the world's sffeat structures of this kind.
 
 50 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 It is only a little short of a mile in length, being 
 built of fourteen sections, 360 feet span each. The 
 bridge is 135 feet above the river at low water. 
 There were consumed nearly 7,000 tons of iron in 
 its building, and it was designed and executed by 
 a Russian enorineer. 
 
 The Volga also well merits being ranked among 
 the great rivers of the world. It is navigable for 
 over 2,000 miles, and to within a few hundred miles 
 of St. Petersburg, as it takes a semicircular sweep 
 from the northwest towards Nijni Novgorod, and 
 thence in a general southeastern direction to the 
 Caspian Sea, which it enters at Astrakhan. A 
 canal has been constructed from Ladosfa Sea to 
 Rybinsk, the head of the navigation of the Volga, 
 so that vessels can go from the Baltic down the 
 Volga to the Caspian Sea, thus cutting right 
 through middle European Russia, bisecting it by 
 a waterway of over 2,500 miles. 
 
 The Volga, where we crossed it, very much re- 
 sembles the Mississippi River, as well in size as in 
 other points. To form some notion of the size and 
 volume of water in this mighty river, I would say, at 
 the point where the railroad crosses the river it is 
 just a mile wide at low water. At times of high 
 water it is from four to eiofht miles wide. The 
 channel near the bridge at low water has a depth 
 of twenty feet, and at high water of 100 feet.
 
 GREAT BRIDGE ACROSS THE VOLGA RIVER AT BATRAKI ON THE TRANS- 
 SIBERIAN RAILWAY
 
 THE VOLGA RIVER 
 
 53 
 
 The velocity of the current when the river is at 
 its flood is said to be thirty feet per second, and in 
 its low stage, fifteen or twenty feet per second. 
 
 From Batraki to Wajsaowaja, a distance of 500 
 
 RUSSIAN VILLAGE OX THE UFA RIVER 
 
 miles, there are the same fertile treeless plains and 
 prairies as from Moscow to the former place, 
 a distance of 600 miles. At Wajsaowaja we 
 encounter the foot-hills and get our first view of 
 the Ural Mountains. We here also meet the Ufa
 
 54 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 River, whose sinuous course the road follows until 
 the summit of the mountains is reached. 
 
 Those who from its great length — being over 
 1,700 miles from north to south — have been led 
 
 FIRST VIEW OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS AFTER PASSING WAJSAO- 
 WAJA, TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 to expect an imposing range of mountains, will 
 be doomed to disappointment. The height is 
 only moderate, being a little over 6,000 feet at 
 the highest, in this respect scarcely equal to the
 
 SUMxVlIT OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS 55 
 
 Apennines. The summit is reached a little be- 
 yond Zlatoust, at an elevation of 3,000 feet. It 
 is an easy grade and requires no special effort to 
 surmount. 
 
 On reachincT the summit, if one did not know it 
 
 THE WESTERN SLOPE OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN 
 RAILWAY, BETWEEN UFA AND ZLATOUST 
 
 was the Ural Mountains, he might well believe he 
 was on the railwa)- summit of the Alleghanies near 
 Altoona, so similar to it are the surroundings. 
 Zlatoust, a large town, is most important in several 
 particulars. It was until recently the " Botany 
 Bay" of Russia. Here one occasionally sees
 
 56 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 prisoners chained in gangs destined to work in 
 the mines or perhaps, doomed to the sohtude of 
 farther Siberia. 
 
 Zlatoust is in the centre of the iron regions of 
 Russia. A very fine quaHty is produced here in 
 
 STATION AT ZLATOUST ON TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY NEAR THE SUMMIT 
 OF THE URAL ^MOUNTAINS 
 
 great quantities, and being free from both sulphur 
 and phosphorus, it is consumed principally in mak- 
 ing sheets and bars for those purposes where the 
 highest quality is required. 
 
 The region to the northward, extending to Perm 
 and Ekaterinburg, abounds in gold, copper, mala-
 
 MANUFACTURE OF FIREARMS 
 
 57 
 
 chite, lapis-lazuli, and other precious metals and 
 minerals, all of which are being extensively mined 
 and worked. At the former place, which is located 
 on the Kama River, there are immense government 
 works, employing over 2,000 men. It has one of 
 
 MONUMENT ON SUMMIT OF URAL MOUNTAINS INDICATING DIVIDING 
 LINE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA 
 
 the largest steam hammers in the world, and the 
 foundry turns out steel cannon of unusual size and 
 quality. They also manufacture firearms here, 
 said to equal anything manufactured in Europe or 
 America, and sidearms of unsurpassed excellence. 
 It is from these localities in the Ural Mountains
 
 58 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 that what is known in America as " Russian iron " 
 comes. 
 
 In Zlatoust, also, there are o-reat orovernment 
 
 EASTERN SLOPE OF THE URAL MOUXTALNS OX THE TRAXS-SIBERL\X 
 RAILWAY, MIDWAY BETWEEN ZLATOUST AND TSCHELJABINSK 
 
 Avorks for the manufacture of steel cannon and 
 other arms. Cutlery of various kinds is made 
 in large quantities, and it is said the swords are of 
 exceptional quality. There are also produced mar-
 
 ARTISTIC CASTINGS 
 
 59 
 
 vellous castings from pig-iron. The statuettes cast 
 out of this metal are marvels of artistic beauty and 
 technical skill. Their quality, it is said, is due 
 largely to the superior moulding sand produced in 
 this region, but I am of the impression that it is 
 
 EASTERN SLOPE OF URAL MOUNTAINS ON TRANS-SIBERLVN RAILWAY, 
 EIGHTY MILES FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 more properly attributable to the rare qualities of 
 the iron, which seems to flow with unusual fluidity, 
 producing castings so delicate in detail as to be 
 scarcely distinguishable from bronze. These art 
 products are rapidly finding their way into Euro- 
 pean markets.
 
 6o SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The town is located on a pretty little lake nestled 
 most picturesquely among the hills, almost on the 
 summit of the range. 
 
 Shortly after leaving Zlatoust we pass a large 
 
 ON TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY JUST BEFORE ARKUIM, Al 1 mTILLJ ABINSK 
 
 Stone monument erected at some distance from the 
 railway. On one side is, in Russian, the word 
 " Europe," and on the opposite side "Asia." It 
 marks the boundary between Europe and Asia. 
 One, however, does not need a monumental token
 
 IN SIBERIA 6i 
 
 to learn that he is passing from one great geo- 
 graphical division to another, for the sparse pop- 
 ulation, uncultivated lands, and general wild aspect 
 only too clearly indicate that he has suddenly en- 
 tered Siberia. 
 
 Here a few facts may aid the imagination. The 
 Russian Empire contains a little over one-seventh 
 of the land surface of the entire o-lobe, and about 
 one-twenty-fifth of its whole surface. European 
 Russia, with Poland and Finland included, has two 
 million square miles, with over one hundred mil- 
 lions of people. The Central Asian provinces, 
 with the Caucasus, Merv, and Kars, has 1,500,000 
 square miles, and 14,000,000 people. Siberia con- 
 tains nearly 5,000,000 square miles and a popula- 
 tion of only 4,000,000. When we reflect that its 
 area is nearly three times that of Europe, which 
 has over 200,000,000 people, it is a matter of no 
 great surprise that one quickly detects his advent 
 into this empty country. 
 
 The eastern slope of the Ural Mountains is, for 
 a space, more abrupt than the western, but it soon 
 enters upon a gentle slope that continues until it 
 touches the western edge of that great level plain 
 which seems to stretch indefinitely to the east. On 
 leaving the summit we join the Isset, a small river, 
 whose course we closely follow until it deflects to 
 the northeast, becoming a tributary to the Irtish,
 
 62 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 itself one of the main branches of the great Obi 
 River. Fifty miles farther on in the plains we come 
 to Tscheljabinsk, where ends the first section of 
 this great railway. 
 
 It may not be amiss to give the results of my 
 
 RAILWAY STATION AT TSCHELJABINSK, THE END OF THE FIRST SECTION 
 OF TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY, AT THE EASTERN FOOT OF URAL 
 MOUNTAINS 
 
 observations respecting this year's crop conditions 
 in the country through which I have passed, con- 
 stituting as it does the finest cereal region in all 
 European Russia. From a deficiency in rainfall, 
 extending continuously over a period of almost four
 
 CROPS OF RUSSIA 63 
 
 months, an alarming- shortage of all crops, even 
 grass, is certain to exist throughout an immense 
 area, reaching through several hundred miles east 
 and west, and perhaps five hundred miles north and 
 
 ENTERING THE PLAINS OR STEITES OF SIBERIA ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN 
 RAILWAY, ONE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 south — an area about equally bisected by the Volga 
 River and the railway line throughout this vast 
 tract. This includes five of the largest and agri- 
 culturally the most important governments of Rus- 
 sia, containing from ten to twelve million people, 
 and it is almost certain that enouofh cannot be raised
 
 64 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 this year to meet the wants of more than one-fourth 
 of Its population. 
 
 The eovernment of Samara (said to be twice as 
 laro-e as Belgium) lies in the centre of the stricken 
 
 CROSSING THE SIBERIAN STEPPES, TWO HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE 
 URAL MOUNTAINS, ON THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 region, and here already much distress has devel- 
 oped. I learn, on passing- through, that the Czar 
 has just given 500,000 rubles for the relief of the 
 sufferers. The reo-ion over which the drouofht ex- 
 tends is the finest wheat region in Eastern Russia,
 
 SELF-SUSTAINING POWER OF RUSSIA 67 
 
 and in ordinary seasons supplies a large surplus for 
 export to foreign countries. I was informed by 
 a Russian official connected with the ministry of 
 railways, that they would probably have to bring 
 into this region where the shortage has occurred, 
 from other sections of Russia, from fifty to eighty 
 million bushels of grain, to supply the necessary 
 food to the inhabitants and seed to the farmers. The 
 self-sustaining power of this great empire is fully 
 made manifest by the fact that while so serious a 
 shortage has occurred in one great section, in many 
 others, such as the Crimea, the Caucasus, and the 
 newly settled lands in Siberia, abundant and even 
 excessive crops are reported, so that not only can 
 the deficit be fully supplied from her own home re- 
 sources, but there will be left over a fair surplus 
 for export. 
 
 The foregoing, however, only tends to bring into 
 stronger relief the fact that year by year the once 
 wide margin between supply and demand in the 
 food products of the world is gradually being nar- 
 rowed, and suggests some uncomfortable reflections 
 as to what might result if, instead of many years of 
 yield much above the average, as it has been during 
 the past ten years, the world should be called upon 
 to meet years of average production — quite as prob- 
 able a contingency — to say nothing of the pos- 
 sibility of years of continuous deficiency.
 
 68 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 As my objective point lies somewhat over 2,000 
 miles cast of this, and less than 200 miles from the 
 northern China border, and as it has to be per- 
 formed by taking slow and uncertain railway trains. 
 
 VIEW ACROSS SIBERIAN STEPPES, THREE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE 
 URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 not to say exhausting troikas, you can form some 
 notion of the wearisome journey I have in pros- 
 pect. I have long since learned, however, that 
 nothino- well worth can be achieved without cor-
 
 THE KIRGHIZ TARTARS 
 
 69 
 
 responding outlay of energy. As the Macedonian 
 pikeman said in answer to an inquiry why he was 
 content to follow the Grecian commander on his 
 fatiguing conquests, " If you take no pains, you 
 get no gains." 
 
 I shall probably write you from Tomsk, about 
 
 GROUP OF KIRGHIZ TARTARS AT STATION ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 twelve hundred miles east of this. It may be 
 several days, however, as I shall probabh' tarry 
 some on the way. The railway line runs over 
 1,200 miles right through the domain of the Kir- 
 ghiz, the most interesting of all the Tartars, and 
 a most important character to stud}-. I am in-
 
 70 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 formed that they arc yet the same untamed 
 nomads that, under Mondzuk and his succes- 
 sors, as a mong-rel Tartar and Mongol horde, 
 swept with such destructive fury nearly 1,600 
 years ago through the length and breadth of Eu- 
 rope, holding even Rome in terror for several 
 centuries.
 
 ON SIBERIAN STEPPES, THREE HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES EAST OF 
 URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 ON SIBERIAN STEPPES, EIGHT HUNDRED MILES EAST OF URAL 
 
 MOUNTAINS
 
 V 
 
 The Asiatic continent — A glance at Siberia, its geography, physical 
 characteristics, etc.— The great rivers of Siberia — Erroneous im- 
 pression of Siberia — Vast area of level land — No difficulty in 
 construction of railway — Similarity of Western Siberia to a great 
 portion of the United States — The error of Americans respecting 
 trans-Missouri River country — The route of the Siberian rail- 
 way — Its construction and equipment — Stations on railway in 
 Siberia — Track, bridges, etc. — Accumulated grain on the route 
 from Kurgan to Tomsk — The necessity for increased facilities 
 on Siberian railway — Flora and fauna of Siberia — Agricultural 
 resources of Siberia — Possibilities of the country. 
 
 Tomsk, August, 1898. 
 
 Magnitude.s and distances are pitched to such 
 a huge scale on this mammoth Asiatic continent 
 that one must needs fortify himself by constant 
 reference to maps and charts in order to maintain 
 his bearings, and even to know his whereabouts. 
 If you will refer to your map, you will see that 
 this is north of Burmah and quite on the longi- 
 tude of Calcutta, and is nearly 1,800 miles east of 
 the Caspian Sea and well at the middle of the 
 northern border of the great Chinese Empire, from 
 which it is distant only about 400 miles. 
 
 To aid in forminor an intelliorible understanding
 
 74 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 of the country through which I have passed, and 
 of the railway that traverses it, a brief glance at 
 the main geographic and physical characteristics 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE IRTISH RIVLR, clLLRlA 
 
 of Siberia may, I believe, properly be made. Our 
 maps show us that vSiberia is a vast country of 
 nearly 5,000,000 square miles area, extending, 
 from the northern confines of China and Turkestan 
 to the Arctic Sea, through over thirty degrees of
 
 RIVERS OF SIBERIA 
 
 11 
 
 latitude, and, from the Ural Mountains in the west 
 to the Pacific Ocean in the east, through about 130 
 degrees of longitude. Truly, this is a country of 
 "magnificent distances." 
 
 In substantially parallel courses there are many 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE ISHIM RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 mighty rivers Bowing through the entire breadth 
 of Siberia into the Northern Sea. The chief ones 
 are the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The 
 main stems of these rivers usually extend south- 
 ward 1,000 or 1,200 miles, when by numerous 
 radiating tributaries they spread fan-like through 
 an immense area of country, finally finding their
 
 7« 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 source in the great, high plateaus of Central Asia. 
 The railway line, therefore, in its western half 
 
 ON THE TOM RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 passes through the upper reaches of the Obi and 
 the Yenisei rivers. 
 
 Somehow I had formed the idea that Siberia 
 was, in the main, a mountainous, broken, barren, 
 and even sterile country, covered with forests — - 
 which opinion, I am inclined to think, is some-
 
 MISTAKES ABOUT SIBERIA 
 
 8i 
 
 what generally entertained in the west. Nothinp- 
 could be farther from the fact. Of all the sur- 
 
 ON sibp:rian steppes or prairies, four hundred and fifty miles 
 
 EAST OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 prises met with in my somewhat extensive travels, 
 Siberia is the greatest. 
 
 As a whole, it contains perhaps the largest 
 continuous area of level lands on the globe. Ex- 
 cepting spurs of the great Altai range of moun-
 
 82 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tains frino'inir its southern border, and which cut 
 occasional!)' to some distance northward into 
 Siberia, the entire western half of the country is 
 exceptionally level, almost to flatness. Near Lake 
 Baikal, in the foot-hills of the Altais, the moun- 
 
 0\ SIBERIAN STEPPES, BETWEEN KURGAN AND PETROPAVLOVSK 
 
 tains rise to a height of not over 6,000 feet ; and it 
 is only when going 100 miles farther, to the very 
 China border, that anything like a great altitude 
 is reached. 
 
 The railway, therefore, having no great moun- 
 tain ranges to cross, and throughout almost its
 
 TWO VIEWS ACROSS SIBERIAN STEPPES
 
 ENGINEERING ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY 85 
 
 entire length being built through a practically 
 level country, presents no example of more than 
 ordinary engineering achievement ; in fact, it will 
 be no more difficult to construct it clear through 
 to the Pacific Ocean than it was to build the 
 Union Pacific from Omaha to Salt Lake City. 
 
 If a great section of country of the United States 
 and British America be taken, extending from the 
 Gulf of Mexico through thirty degrees of latitude 
 northward, and 2,000 miles eastward from the 
 Rocky Mountains, it would fairly represent an 
 area of country similar in physical characteristics 
 to that portion of Siberia which we are considering. 
 Indeed, the resemblance is not in extent only, for 
 in their geological formation they are quite identi- 
 cal — the one being formed by the wash in primeval 
 times from the eastern escarpment of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and the other from the northern face 
 of the great Central Asian mountains in the south 
 and that of the Urals in the west. The alluvial 
 character of the soil in both places goes far to bear 
 out this identity of origin. 
 
 This general similarity, I am sure, will hold for 
 the western half of Siberia and that region in the 
 United States lying between the Rocky and Alle- 
 ghany mountains. It would not be far from the 
 fact to say that for 2,000 miles east of the Ural 
 Mountains, and extending to the Arctic Sea,
 
 86 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Siberia is almost as level as the ocean. In over 
 i,ooo miles I do not believe the grade of the 
 railroad varied 300 feet, and in many places it was 
 as straight as an arrow, without the slightest 
 
 VIEW ACROSS SIBERIAN STEPPES, FIVE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE 
 URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 curve for forty or fifty miles. Indeed, there was 
 one stretch of perfectly straight road for 116 
 versts, or nearly eighty miles. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to obtain specific infor-
 
 AMERICAN AND RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHERS 87 
 
 mation of the geography and geology of this re- 
 gion or even of the real nature of the soil. The 
 Russians, even of the intelligent and often of the 
 official class, possess generally only a superficial 
 knowledge of the orreat countrv thev have so 
 suddenly brought to the eyes of the world. 
 
 In this respect they much resemble the eastern 
 residents of our own country, whose geographers 
 and scientists fifty years ago regarded the trans- 
 Mississippi River region as a terra incognita, and 
 insisted on recording in the maps of those days 
 as the "Great American Desert" the whole region 
 west of the Missouri River, now the most fertile 
 and fruitful country in the whole United States. 
 
 For the real nature of the soil, its capacity, etc., 
 I rely much on careful observation and such in- 
 formation as I can extract from the Kirghiz, who 
 come to the railway from hundreds of miles both 
 north and south. The Russian government is 
 making rapid and extensive surveys, and I doubt 
 not at no distant day will supply the world with 
 much specific knowledge of this hitherto almost 
 unknown land. 
 
 The railway on leaving Tscheljabinsk takes an 
 almost due easterly course, which it varies by a 
 few points only until beyond the Yenisei River, 
 a distance of about 2,000 miles, when it deflects to 
 the southeast for nearly 800 miles, until it reaches 
 
 ly
 
 88 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Lake Baikal, only a short distance from the China 
 border. It follows somewhat closeh' the old 
 post route from Moscow to Irkutsk, running- via 
 Zlatoust, where at Tomsk it joins the more 
 northern post route down the Tobol and Irtish 
 
 KIRGHIZ TARTARS AND CAMEL TRAIN ON SIBERIAN STEPPES 
 
 rivers to Tinmen, and thence over the Ural Moun- 
 tains to Perm and Nijni Novgorod to Moscow. 
 Curiously enough, the railway follows much the 
 same course as that by which in ancient times 
 the Huns, Tartars, and Moguls made through 
 Southern Russia their numerous and dreaded 
 incursions into Europe.
 
 EQUIPMENT EQUAL TO UNION PACIFIC 91 
 
 A sufficiently accurate general description of 
 the Siberian railroad and Its various appointments 
 would, I think, be covered by the statement that 
 
 RAILWAY STATION ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, EIGHT HUNDRED MILES EAST OF 
 URAL MOUNTAINS, OR OVER TWO THOUSAND MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 it Is fully equal to either the Union or Northern 
 Pacific Railway, although the oldest portion east 
 of Tscheljablnsk has been in operation scarcely two 
 years, and the newer portions a few months only.
 
 92 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The track is well laid, the (grading- firm and 
 thorough, and the bridges almost wholly of Iron, 
 save a few of the original and temporary ones, 
 which are rapidly being replaced by those of 
 
 STATION OX SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 stone and iron. Those over the Irtish, Ishim, 
 Obi, l^obol, Omsk, and Tom rivers I found to 
 be well constructed, of the best material and most ( 
 approved modern pattern. 
 
 The stations, always artistic and picturesque,
 
 STATIONS ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 93 
 
 and never of the same style, are neat, comfortable, 
 of good size, and substantial, fully equal to the 
 average depot on the New York Central or Penn- 
 
 SACKED GRAIN AWAITIXG SHIPMENT AT THE STATION ON SIBERIAN 
 RAILWAY BETWEEN OMSK AND TOMSK, OVER ONE THOUSAND MILES 
 EAST OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 sylvania. I noticed that recent surveys have been 
 made along the line, and on inquiry was informed 
 that they are preparing to build one or more 
 additional tracks. This is a very timely provis-
 
 94 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 ion, as the road is already taxed far beyond its 
 capacity. 
 
 All along- the line I saw piles of grain and other 
 
 PASSENGER TRAIN FOR ORDINARY SERVICE ON TRANS-SIBERIAN RAIL- 
 WAY, MAKING DAILY TRIPS TO TOMSK, NEARLY THREE THOUSAND 
 MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 kinds of freight awaiting shipment. One of the 
 officials of the road informed me that there were 
 over 8,000,000 bushels of wheat lying at the 
 depots between Kurgan and Tomsk, which could
 
 EiMIGRANT TRAINS 95 
 
 not be carried. The road is crowded with emi- 
 grant trains eastward, and this, with the develop- 
 ment of the country on the Hne and the carrying 
 of the material for thousands of miles of road yet 
 
 VIEW ON THE SIBERIAN STEPPES, BETWEEN THE TOBOL AND ISHIM RIVERS. 
 EMIGRANT TRAIN CROSSING THE STEPPES TO OCCUPY NEW LANDS 
 
 to be built beyond, has naturally enough brought 
 about a serious block in traffic. 
 
 To those familiar with the rapid growth and de- 
 velopment of the trans-Missouri River region and
 
 96 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the traffic necessities it created, it is apparent that 
 in a few years this great highway will have to 
 increase its present facilities several times over. 
 
 ON THE OPEN STEPPES OF SIBERIA, ABOUT ONE THOUSAND MILES EAST 
 OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS, OR NEARLY TWO THOUSAND FOUR HUN- 
 DRED MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 In addition to the trade and travel that must result 
 from binding commercially and socially together 
 500,000,000 people in the Far East and 300,000,- 
 000 in the West, there will be that due to the devel-
 
 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SIBERIA 97 
 
 opment of an intermediate country, in combined 
 fertility and extent far surpassing anything yet 
 undeveloped on the globe. 
 
 To describe in full and satisfactory detail the 
 flora, fauna, fertility of soil, and the various re- 
 
 VIEW ACROSS SIBERIAN PRAIRIES 
 
 sources of this wonderful country would transcend 
 the limits of time and space of a letter. It would 
 require volumes to do this. I will, therefore, have 
 to confine myself to generalities merely. I have 
 already said that there lies in Western Siberia, 
 from the Ural Mountains eastward, an unbroken 
 tract of practically level land, about 800 miles wide
 
 98 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and nearly 2,000 miles long ; that Is to say, an 
 area equal to two-thirds of the United States, 
 excepting Alaska. 
 
 When I add that for the most part it is like or 
 
 DISTANT HERD OF CATTLE ON SIBERIAN PLAINS OR STEPPES 
 
 even superior to the fertile, treeless, level prairies 
 of our own ereat West ; that it extends over 
 thirtv decrees of latitude, from the orenial climate 
 of Central Asia to the frigid north ; that through-
 
 THE FUTURE OF SIBERIA 
 
 99 
 
 out this vast region is to be found the finest pas- 
 turage in the world ; that in many parts wheat and 
 other cereals can be grown equal to the Dakotas 
 or ^linnesota, and even Indian corn over a large 
 
 EMIGRANTS AT RAILWAY STATION BETWEEN KAINSK AND TOMSK ON THE 
 TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 region in the south — some feeble conception can be 
 formed of the tremendous latent agricultural re- 
 sources of this country. 
 
 This fact is emphasized by the further state- 
 ment that it is inhabited by only a comparatively 
 small population of Tartars and other nomadic
 
 loo SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tribes. The cities being few and small, the fixed 
 population is relatively insignificant. 
 
 For the whole of Siberia there is less than one 
 person to the square mile. If it be further added, 
 that this country lies practically between the same 
 degrees of latitude as European Russia; that it has 
 an area much greater and an average fertility of 
 soil even superior in many places ; and that the lat- 
 ter country already supports over 100,000,000 of 
 people, with a liberal surplus, some notion may be 
 formed of the teeming millions that are yet to 
 people this waste land, when it is made avail- 
 able by an adequate railway system and other 
 means of intercommunication and transportation, 
 which, under the newly awakened spirit of Russian 
 enterprise, seems destined to be accomplished in 
 due time. Indeed, a most comprehensive system 
 has already crystallized into something of a con- 
 crete form.
 
 VI 
 
 Ultimate Siberian railway system — Proposed line from Central Si- 
 beria to Persian Gulf — New relations between Russia and China, 
 arising from the Siberian railway — Change from the route as 
 originally projected — New route to Vladivostok — Rapid settle- 
 ment of country on Siberian railway — Quick growth of towns 
 on the line — Development of lands to follow railway extension — 
 Grazing lands on Siberian railway — Small lakes through 
 Siberia — Timber in Western Siberia. 
 
 I WAS fortunate enough to form the acquaintance 
 of one of the engineers of the Siberian railway, a 
 most courteous gentleman, who gave me not only 
 many details concerning the great line, but also 
 a brief outline of the proposed ultimate Siberian 
 system. In addition to the contemplated line run- 
 ninpf northward to Tobolsk and several toward the 
 China border, they design running one in a south- 
 western direction toward Samarkand, crossing the 
 trans-Caspian road, now completed to the western 
 border of China, and thence southward through 
 Persia, with its ultimate destination on the Per- 
 sian Gulf. 
 
 The recent entente with China has caused a 
 radical change in the plan of the eastern section
 
 104 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 of the Siberian railway, as originally projected. 
 Instead of making the long detour via the Amoor 
 River to Vladivostok, necessitated by passing 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE STBERIAX STEPPES, NINE HUNDRED MIPES EAST OE 
 THE URAL MOUNTAINS, OR ABOUT TWO THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED 
 MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 around Manchuria, they are now permitted, under 
 the new treaty with China, to construct a line 
 running through that province direct to Vladi- 
 vostok.
 
 RAILWAY IN MANCHURIA 
 
 105 
 
 They have, therefore, stopped work for the 
 present on the eastern section of the Hne, and 
 are bending all their energies to build, in the 
 
 RECENT SETTLEMENT ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, ONE THOUSAND ONE'' HUN- 
 DRED MILES EAST OF URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 shortest possible time, a line through Manchuria 
 to their newly acquired open port on the China 
 Sea, at Port Arthur. This line will leave the 
 main one at Chiti, about 800 miles east of Lake
 
 io6 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Baikal, following almost a due east course to 
 Vladivostok. 
 
 A line will branch off at Kirin and run clue 
 south to Port Arthur. This will create a system 
 that will make Russian influence practically para- 
 mount in Manchuria. 
 
 A prominent Russian gentleman, residing at 
 Vladivostok, who was on the train on his way 
 over the proposed route, spoke very freely of the 
 intentions of his government in that quarter, 
 substantially confirming the plans given me by 
 the engineer of the line. Under this newly re- 
 vised scheme, the route to Vladivostok will be 
 shortened many hundreds of miles from that 
 originally projected. 
 
 All along the route of the Siberian railway 
 are to be found those examples of quick settle- 
 ment of country and sudden growth of towns 
 so familiar in Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska in the 
 early days of the extension of railways through 
 those States. Every few miles a station is located 
 on the open plains or prairies, around which there 
 quickly clusters a thriving village. Fields of 
 newly cultivated lands, many covered with a 
 golden harvest, can be seen for miles at all these 
 stations. There are some instances of rapid 
 growth not surpassed in our own great West. 
 
 After crossing the Obi River, we stopped at a
 
 ^r o
 
 NEW TOWNS ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY 109 
 
 town called Obb, of over 14,000 inhabitants, con- 
 taining many handsome buildings and several 
 beautiful church edifices. It was a flourishing 
 
 NEW SETTLEMENT ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED 
 MILES EAST OF MOSCOW, BETWEEN OBB AND TOMSK 
 
 community and the seat of an active trade. I was 
 told that less than three years ago there was not a 
 house existing where the town now stands, and, 
 indeed, that the whole country around was one of 
 wild solitude and desolation.
 
 no 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Willi these accomplished results before us, it is 
 eas)- to see what a magical transformation must 
 take place in this great country under the influence 
 of an extended railway system. It is all the more 
 
 NEW SETTLEMENT ON TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY, ONE THOUSAND ONK 
 HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE URALS, AND BETWEEN KRIWOSTCHE- 
 KOWO AND KAINSK. 
 
 easily imagined by one who has already seen in his 
 own country an object lesson of a similar character. 
 I doubt if the Russians fully realize to what an ex- 
 tent their great enterprise is going to modify their 
 economic and, perhaps, social conditions.
 
 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRY 113 
 
 For reasons I will hereafter give, this great re- 
 gion is not likely to be settled and developed with 
 that rapidity which marked our lightning-like 
 
 NEW SETTLEMENT ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, ONE THOUSAND TWO HIINORKD 
 AND FIFTY MILES EAST OF THE URALS, OR ABOUT TWO THOUSAND 
 FIVE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 advance in the West ; still it will be fast enough 
 to make a decided change in the commercial and 
 economic interests of old or European Russia, 
 unsettlinof for a time to some extent — as it did in
 
 114 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 our country — the almost fixed equilibrium so long 
 existing there. 
 
 If a section, of say, fifty miles, in the richest por- 
 tion of the Platte valley in Nebraska be carved 
 
 STATION O.N THE OPEN STEPPES OF SIBERIA, ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAIL- 
 WAY, OVER ONE THOUSAND MILES EAST OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS AND 
 ABOUT TWO THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 out as a sample, there would be a strict resemblance 
 between this and the country on the line of the 
 Siberian railway, through the whole distance from 
 the Ural Mountains to the Yenisei River, nearly 
 1, 800 miles. Throucrhout this great distance, ex-
 
 TIMBER ON RAILWAY LINE 
 
 115 
 
 cepting a portion between the Obi and Yenisei, 
 there is no timber save a species of small birch 
 closely resembling- the cottonwoocl of the Missouri 
 
 . '-"^ w.. 
 
 
 ON THE SIBERIAN STEPPES OR PRAIRIES, OVER ONE THOUSAND MILES EAST 
 OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS, AND ABOUT TWO THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED 
 MILES EAST OF MOSCOW 
 
 valley. Being scattered at wide intervals in small 
 clumps throughout this vast country, it greatly 
 heightens the similarity.
 
 ii6 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 I have already said the Hne is almost level and 
 straight as an arrow from the Obi to the Ural 
 Mountains. I do not believe, for that space, the 
 
 
 ON THE SIBERIAN STEPPED, hKl WhEN THE ISHIM AND IRTISH RIVERS, ON 
 THE LINE OF THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 line varied 300 feet from a true level. Along the 
 whole line there is the most luxuriant erowth of 
 grass I have seen in any country. There are 
 many varieties — some like the native blue stem 
 of the West, and one variety that in appearance
 
 WONDERFUL GRAZING LANDS 
 
 seemed closely allied to the Kentucky blue grass. 
 Judging- from the superb condition of the animals 
 that graze upon them, they must all be of the most 
 
 RFXENT SETTLEMENT ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, l!ETWi;EN THE Olil AN1> TOM 
 RIVERS, ABOUT TWO THOUSAND FOUR HUNDRED MILES EAST OF 
 MOSCOW 
 
 nutritious nature; it is, therefore, not only one of 
 the finest, but by far the larcrest orrazine regions in 
 the world. If fully utilized, I believe Siberia could 
 furnish the beef supply for the world. The soil
 
 ii8 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 seems similar to that of Eastern Nebraska and 
 Kansas ; in fact it is, in great part, identical with 
 the Tschernozium formation in European Russia, 
 an eastward extension of which it seems to be. 
 
 LAKE ON THE SIBERIAN STEPPES 
 
 The country for 600 miles was literally dotted 
 with beautiful lakes of clear, pure water of one-half 
 to two miles in diameter, the habitat, in the season, 
 of myriads of ducks, geese, and other wild fowl. 
 These lakes, as also the rivers, abound in fish of 
 good quality and many varieties. The country is,
 
 GAME ON SIBERIAN STEPPES 
 
 121 
 
 therefore, well watered and well drained. I saw 
 scarcely any traces of alkali in the soil. There 
 are many grouse and partridge in the steppes, but 
 no deer of any kind; accountable, no doubt, to the 
 
 CHAPEL IN RECENTLY SETTLED TOWN ON SIBERL\N RAILWAY 
 
 long occupancy of the country b)' the Tartars, who 
 convert it into a sort of semi-domestic domain. 
 
 As the railway manao-ement have for the moment 
 made a liberal allotment of time in which the occa- 
 sional passenger trains are to make the trip, fre- 
 quent stops are made. At some of the larger 
 towns the delay may be from two to five hours, I
 
 122 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 have availed myself of the opportunity thus given 
 to acquire a knowledge of the country at some dis- 
 tance from the line, by jumping into a drosky and 
 driving straight away from the road. At the 
 breakneck speed they habitually drive, I have been 
 enabled frequently to cover a distance from ten to 
 twenty miles from the station. 
 
 After passing the Obi River the land, as far as 
 the Yenisei, becomes more rolling and has a thicker 
 growth of trees, the fir being present to some ex- 
 tent, with the birch. This region is almost exactly 
 like Eastern Nebraska and the State of Iowa — the 
 same rolling lands and deep, black soil. If pos- 
 sible, this is even better wheat land than the more 
 level lands west of the Obi. From the Yenisei 
 for about 600 miles, I am told that much the same 
 country exists, until the mountain range near Lake 
 Baikal is reached, running as a spur from the Altais 
 in Northern China.
 
 VII 
 
 Kurgan on the Tobol River — The Kirghiz Tartars — Their tents, vil- 
 lages, mode of life, etc. — The future of Kurgan — Winters in 
 Siberia — No blizzards in Western Siberia — Rainfall — Petropav- 
 lovsk on the Ishim River — Rapid change in country on railway 
 line — Emigrant trains eastward — Growth of grains on the line 
 of railway — Surplus awaiting shipment — Omsk on the Irtish and 
 Om rivers — Interesting character — Tomsk on the Tom River — 
 The prison in Tomsk — Flourishing college — Electric lights, 
 telephone system, and other conveniences — Condition of railroad 
 east of Tomsk — Various excursions from Tomsk into the 
 country. 
 
 The first town of importance after leaving 
 Tscheljabinsk is Kurgan, once tlie seat of the Tar- 
 tar government before its conquest by the Musco- 
 vite. It is situated on the Tobol River, which, 
 after flowing 500 miles north, joins the Irtish at 
 Tobolsk. Kuroran lies in the midst of what, in 
 virtue of its extent, richness of soil, and exuberant 
 pasturage, is perhaps the largest and best tract 
 of grazing land on the globe. The town owes its 
 importance to the large cattle trade that centres 
 here from the Kirghiz steppes in all directions. 
 It was a town of no inconsiderable importance 
 before the railroad was constructed.
 
 124 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Here one sees the Kirghiz in his natural state, 
 but Httle modihed by modern civilization. They 
 are a splendid race, having strong features and 
 a dignified bearinef, and are accredited with many 
 virtues. It is said they are unusually cleanly 
 
 STATION AT KURGAN, SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 and of notable fidelity and hospitality, especially 
 where strangers are concerned. Being a purely 
 pastoral people, they disdain the tillage of the soil, 
 living almost wholly on the production of their 
 herds. The life of the Tartar is a simple and 
 monotonous one, and withal frugal. Their diet 
 consists almost wholly of meats and cheese.

 
 TARTAR YURTS OR TENTS 
 
 127 
 
 They have a pecuhar drink called ayran, made 
 of boiled milk diluted with water, and then 
 allowed to stand until it slightly ferments and 
 turns sour. It forms an excellent and most 
 refreshing summer drink. Their various products 
 
 KIRGHIZ YIRT OR TENT AND GROUP OF TARTARS ON THE SIBERIAN STEI'l'ES, 
 BETWEEN KURGAN ANU PETROPAVLOVSK 
 
 of the dairy are kept in goat-skins. Their cloth- 
 ing and bedding they make themselves, and 
 mostly from the felt and wool of the sheep and 
 goat. The curious tents in which these people 
 live, called yurts, and that are scattered in villages 
 — called in Tartar, aul — throuofhout the wide
 
 128 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 steppes, are well known. They are made of a 
 coarse felt, fully an inch thick, composed of the 
 coarser varieties of sheep and goat's wool. The 
 tents are round, with a dome-shaped cover, in the 
 apex of which is a small aperture through which 
 the smoke escapes from the fire built on the 
 ground in the centre of the tent. 
 
 It is impossible, from the want of reliable statis- 
 tics, to determine with any degree of accuracy the 
 number of these people, who once swarmed in 
 such multitudes, necessitating those periodic over- 
 flows the mere menace of which terrified even re- 
 mote nations. But as they are scattered through- 
 out an area of beautiful and fertile country 
 two-thirds as large as the United States, they 
 must yet number many hundreds of thousands. 
 Their herds are mainly composed of cattle and 
 sheep, although they have many fine horses and 
 an occasional flock of goats. The quality of meat 
 grown on these steppes is unsurpassed, I might 
 almost say unequalled, as nothing can exceed the 
 quality of the beef, mutton, and veal that are 
 served at the railway stations on the line running 
 through this region. 
 
 Kurgan is certainly cast for a large city, when 
 once the great country tributary to it is utilized to 
 anything like its full capabilities. Although you 
 see everywhere immense herds of animals, and
 
 WINTERS IN SIBERIA 
 
 31 
 
 although the country is checkered with newly 
 ploughed fields, still it is apparent that its ulti- 
 mate grazing and cereal resources have as yet 
 been scarcely more than tested. 
 
 CHURCH IN NEW STRF.RIAN A'lLLAGE 
 
 Although the winters are ver\' cold, they are 
 not especially long or trying. While the extreme 
 temperature during winter may reach a point ten 
 to fifteen degrees lower than in Ohio, or generalh'
 
 132 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 in latitude forty in the United States, still, as the 
 air is very dry and there are no high winds, I 
 have no doubt the winter season can be passed 
 without especial discomfort. When winter sets in, 
 which it does suddenly, and usually about the first 
 of November, it continues steadily through about 
 five months, when there is as sudden a breakup, 
 ushering in permanently pleasant warm weather. 
 
 There are no mid-winter thaws, as in the United 
 States, with their extremes of summer heat and 
 polar chills, but the weather remains continuously 
 cold, and the snow lies unbroken on the gfround 
 until the spring thaw. Nor is the snowfall exces- 
 sive. By those who have the experience, I am 
 informed that the winters are far more agreeable 
 than in other countries, where the temperature is 
 higher and more violent changes occur. 
 
 There is one climatic feature here that gives this 
 country a marked advantage over our own great 
 West, where a higher temperature prevails, and that 
 is the entire absence of those blizzards which are 
 the terror of our Western stockmen. I cannot re- 
 member having seen on the entire line of the 
 Siberian railway more than one or two places where 
 barriers were provided to protect the track from 
 drifting snow. I am, indeed, told that the Tartars 
 give their herds neither food nor protection in the 
 winter, leaving them to take care of themselves,
 
 RAINFALL AND ITS CAUSES 
 
 35 
 
 which it is said they readily do by scratching away 
 the snow that covers the tall, thick erowth of erass 
 beneath. The rainfall in summer is seasonable 
 
 0\ THE POST-ROUTE FROM PETROPAVLOVSK TO OMSK 
 
 and abundant, I have been unable to make out 
 to my own satisfaction where the rain comes from. 
 As in America, it invariably rains here when the 
 rain-bearing clouds come from the south and west, 
 and clears away with a north or northwest wind.
 
 136 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 It is easy to understand wh)', in America, a south 
 wind brinofs rain. As the current of air saturated 
 with moisture from tlie Gulf and warm equatorial 
 waters in the south comes in contact with the 
 colder air of higher latitudes, it naturally deposits 
 it in the form of rain. But as a south wind here 
 comes from the high, cold plateau region of Central 
 Asia, where the air is dry and evaporation meagre, 
 it is not easy to see why a southern current of air 
 under these conditions should deposit rain. 
 
 Petropavlovsk is the next town of importance 
 reached. It is on the Ishim River, a tributary of 
 the Obi, and it contains about 20,000 inhabitants. 
 It was once the frontier fortress used by Russia 
 against the Kirghiz. It owes its existence to an 
 important trade with Samarkand and Central Asia, 
 great trains of camels coming from those places. 
 Like all the old towns on this route, new buildinofs 
 and other evidences of rapid development attest 
 the vivifying influence of the railroad. 
 
 From Petropavlovsk to Omsk, a distance of 
 . about 400 miles, there is the same monotonous 
 repetition of level, fertile plains, flower}- fields, 
 budding villages, and newly cultivated lands. It 
 is evident that the Russian policy of settling this 
 country, which I will give you later on, is produc- 
 ing marked changes, especially in those parts ren- 
 dered accessible by the railroad. For miles on
 
 IMMIGRANTS INTO SIBERIA 
 
 139 
 
 each side of the line, as far as the Yenisei River, 
 the lands are being taken, and in many places 
 heavy crops are being raised. Long trains crowded 
 with emigrants on their way eastward are frequently 
 
 STREET SCENE IN OMSK 
 
 passed. Of wheat and oats they have already pro- 
 duced a large surplus. All along the route, as far 
 as Tomsk, one will see at the stations great piles 
 of sacks containing wheat of last year's crop, which,
 
 140 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 on account of the congested traffic of the road, is 
 awaiting shipment. This surphis is happily most 
 opportune, as it will be shipped to the drought- 
 stricken region 1,500 miles to the west, where, on 
 account of excessive dry weather, in the fairest por- 
 tion of Russia in the Volga valley, 300 miles wide 
 and nearly 500 miles long, the crops have been al- 
 most an absolute failure and much distress exists. 
 
 Omsk, on the Irtish River, the second city of 
 Siberia, with a population of 40,000, owes much 
 of its importance to the fact that it is the capital of 
 Western Siberia, which was moved from Tobolsk 
 in 1824. Like all Siberian towns of this class, it 
 has some eleeant and even massive orovernment 
 buildings, alone with manv fine brick and stone 
 business structures, all embedded in a mass of curi- 
 ously built wooden houses. The streets, except 
 the long one on which the business houses are 
 located, and forming the artery of the town, are 
 unpaved ; much of the year they are almost impas- 
 sable. Like all Russian towns, there are many fine 
 churches in Omsk, some of them of great size, and, 
 being always of the Oriental type of architect- 
 ure, sometimes present an indescribably charming 
 appearance. 
 
 At Omsk a most interesting character came 
 aboard the train, on his way to Tomsk, returning 
 thence to Moscow to attend the dedication there
 
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 AN INTERESTING CHARACTER 
 
 = 43 
 
 of the monument to the Czar Alexander II., which 
 is soon to take place and promises to be an impos- 
 ing affair. He was a fine specimen of this hardy 
 race, about sixty-five years of age, most intelligent 
 and well educated. He is the mayor of cpiite an 
 
 STREKT SCF.XE I\ TOMSK 
 
 important city called Vernoe, in Southern Siberia 
 in the Altai ■Mountains, over i,ooo miles soutlu^ast 
 of Omsk. He had just driven from that cilN- in a 
 troika, a distance of 1,200 miles, in eight days. 
 Having spent most of his life in that region, he
 
 144 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 had never Ijefore seen a railway. It was interest- 
 ing- to note his thized and half-frightened appear- 
 ance as the train moved off. Through my guide, 
 I obtained from him much valuable information as 
 
 ON THE STEPPKS OF SUSERIA, EAST OF KURGAN 
 
 to the nature of the great region lying south of 
 the railway line. 
 
 He informed me that for 600 miles the same 
 level, rich, black prairie lands extended. After 
 that, by a gradual ascent through 500 or 600 miles 
 further, the lands meanwhile growing more rolling 
 and rougher, the summit of the Altais is reached 
 at an elevation of 12,000 feet. All the cereals
 
 
 r?^>!^~-I'"''-*v 
 
 DISTANT VIEW OF TOMSK 
 
 STREET SCENE IN TOMSK
 
 GROWTH OF CEREALS IN SIBERIA 147 
 
 oTOw there in ofreat luxuriance and abundance. 
 Even Indian corn throughout a great extent of 
 that country grows and matures in the most per- 
 fect manner. The usual crop of wheat, he stated, 
 was about thirty bushels per acre, and that of oats 
 
 MARKET SCENE IN TOMSK 
 
 about sixty bushels. The country, as a whole, is 
 practically unsettled, being occupied mainly by a 
 few roving tribes of Kalmuck or Kirghiz Tartars. 
 Tomsk is, perhaps, the most important and 
 largest town in Siberia, and has had a rapid growth 
 since the railway has been completed there. It is 
 not on the main line, but eiofhtv miles awav on a
 
 148 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 branch runninL^" northward down the Tom Valley, 
 and which in due time will be extended. It much 
 resembles Omsk, havinof some fine Q-overnment and 
 business buildings. The prison is a huge, ugly, 
 brick building, with low, vaulted corridors in the 
 
 
 MlbgiSMfiSyMBl^^^^ke^^?^^^!^ i;Q:^=^-s=r.^K 
 
 
 VILLAGE IN SIBERIA, IN THE TOM RIVER VALLEY, ON THE POST-ROUTE 
 FROM TOMSK TO TOBOLSK 
 
 interior, the whole of such gloomy aspect as to 
 fully satisfy the most dismal imaginings of those 
 who are disposed to believe in the horrors of 
 Siberian prison life. There is a flourishing uni- 
 versity in Tomsk, with 300 students and thirty 
 professors. I might add that Tomsk is lighted 
 by electric light and has a telephone system.
 
 EXCURSIONS INTO THE COUNTRY 151 
 
 As the departure of trains eastward from Tomsk 
 is most irrecrular and uncertain, beingr usually at 
 intervals of from three to five days, this delay gave 
 me an opportunity to make several interesting and 
 
 VIEW ON POST-ROUTE BETWEEN TOMSK AND IRKUTSK 
 
 instructive excursions far into the country, on the 
 old post-routes running to Tobolsk and Irkutsk. 
 In these I saw the native Russian life in its most 
 provincial form. While there are a few good 
 roads leading from Tomsk, there are many very 
 bad ones.
 
 VIII 
 
 Travelling on post and common roads in Russia and Siberia — 
 Unique outfit — Splendor of private equipages — A Siberian 
 tarantass — Manner of hitching the horses — Speed discomforts 
 and excitement of travel on tarantass — Seeing Tartar life in 
 its simplicity — A queer-looking vehicle — Homely but effective 
 — Experience versus philosophy — Furious driving — The village 
 sheik — A compatriot of the great Circassian Schemyl — A 
 Mohammedan — His family life — Beauty and filial devotion of 
 his children — His wives — Influence of the wife among the 
 Kalmucks — Kirghiz village — Hospitality of our host — Our Yam- 
 stchik — His style and skill as a driver — Great speed of horses 
 without use of whip — Return to Tomsk — Various modes of 
 travel. 
 
 I HAD occasion before to refer to the manner 
 in which travel is effected on the common roads 
 of Russia. It is the same here, only they use 
 vehicles more unique, and in some cases decidedly 
 indigenous. As in European Russia, they invari- 
 ably drive their horses abreast. In the droshkies 
 about the cities, they generally use for common 
 purposes one or two horses only ; but in occasional 
 turnouts, where display is the fad of the owner, a 
 troika with three horses is used. Travelling- throuo-h 
 the country is done with three to seven horses,
 
 TRAVEL ON COMMON ROADS 
 
 155 
 
 accordine to the condition of the road and the 
 number of passengers to be carried ; for it must 
 be understood that the driver makes the same time 
 and speed over rough and muddy roads as over 
 smooth ones, having not the shghtest regard for 
 
 ANOTHER MODE Ol IKAMJ.LING IN SIBERIA 
 
 either the safety or comfort of the hickless occu- 
 pant. Nothing can surpass the chic of a first-class 
 and well-appointed Russian or Siberian team when 
 in full motion. The horses are all well kept and 
 high spirited. The centre horse is hitched be- 
 tween shafts to guide the vehicle, and is usually 
 the steadiest and most vigorous of the lot. For
 
 156 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the outer horses, they generally select very hand- 
 some and alert ones, with long, flowing manes and 
 tails carefulh' dressed. B)' some peculiar method 
 of reining these horses, their heads are drawn low 
 
 STREET SCENE IN TOMSK 
 
 down and outward, causing them to pull at an 
 angle from those In the middle. The cunning 
 way in which they toss their pretty little heads and 
 their other coquettish capers as they plunge along
 
 SEEING TARTAR LIFE 159 
 
 at a full gallop, being in such marked contrast with 
 the more sturdy and uniform gait of the central 
 horses, impart an indescribable style and dash to 
 the outfit. 
 
 Being desirous of seeing Tartar life in its sim- 
 plest and primitive form, untouched by the ways 
 of the city, I concluded to drive to a somewhat 
 noted village to the southwest of Tomsk, where 
 the camel trains from Samarkand to Irkutsk via 
 Semipalatinsk cross those from the China border 
 going northwest to Petropavlovsk. Being limited 
 in time, as I desired to take the first train east- 
 ward, that was announced to leave in a few days, 
 I instructed my guide to procure me a comfort- 
 able and suitable outfit for the expedition, and to 
 arrange for our departure at an early hour. 
 Having had a recent rain, and the roads therefore 
 being somewhat heavy, he advised the use of a 
 tarantass, with five horses, for a portion of the 
 way, until the lighter roads on the higher lands 
 were reached, when the journey could be completed 
 with three horses. 
 
 On driving up in the morning, I took a swift 
 glance at the strange-looking vehicle, and my 
 guide looked at me with a suspicious smile. I 
 had previously seen and travelled in the strange 
 enough looking droshkies and troikas, but the 
 sudden apparition of this nondescript took me
 
 i6o 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 completely aback. I said to my guide : " I know 
 you speak English well enough, but I doubt your 
 Russian, as this driver has evidently misunder- 
 stood your order, for instead of a tarantass, he has 
 
 NATIVE WAITING FOR FERRY ON TOM RIVER 
 
 brought me a specimen from some museum of 
 natural history, as it looks more like a fossil skel- 
 eton of the paleozoic age, mounted on wheels, than 
 a vehicle to make a long and tedious journey in." 
 It looked as if the owner had built it in his back
 
 A SIBERIAN TARANTASS 
 
 i6i 
 
 yard, with an inch auger and a hatchet. With 
 many hvely gestures, and, I suppose, choice and 
 vigorous Tartar, he informed mv o^uide that it was 
 a real tarantass, a true Siberian tarantass, in fact, 
 the best and most comfortable in the whole city. 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^tft^ Miii^> 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 tadw ^m t''?yf 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^K ^^^^^1 
 
 CROSSING TOM RIVER, SIBERIA, ON A RUDE FERRY-BOAT 
 
 and that it was perfectly safe. I despair of 
 worthily describing this strange assemblage of 
 parts, the intricate network of poles, braces, and 
 ribs, all lashed and loound together with leather 
 thongs, and not a nail or bolt in it. Excepting the 
 linch-pin and the tires on the wheels, I don't
 
 i62 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 believe there was an ounce of iron in its whole 
 composition. It seemed to me it was in immi- 
 nent clanger of rattling to pieces like a child's 
 toy house. 
 
 It was wholly without springs, and to break the 
 shock due to inequalities of the road, reliance was 
 placed entirely on the pliability of the structure 
 and the elasticity of the almost rigid poles upon 
 which the body was mounted. To a rather con- 
 temptuous look, born of a remembrance of our own 
 mighty achievements in iron and steel in the West, 
 he replied that the vehicle was well constructed, 
 and that it was all right, and, indeed, to perform 
 the services required of it. it could be made in no 
 other way. Alas, for the previsions of human wis- 
 dom ! The event proved tnat he was correct, and 
 furnished additional evidence that the crude re- 
 sults of a blind and awkward experience often 
 upset the refined deductions of a speculative phi- 
 losophy. After being thumped and bumped about 
 for twenty-four hours, I came to have more respect 
 for the skill that put the parts together so as to 
 safely yield to the irregularities of the road, which 
 must certainly prove fatal to one rigidly con- 
 structed. 
 
 In fact, this was illustrated a few days later in 
 an uncomfortable manner when, taking another 
 tarantass of a new pattern, equipped with steel
 
 OLD AND NEW TARANTASS 
 
 163 
 
 axles, we had not driven a mile before one of the 
 axles snapped short off near the wheel, bringing us 
 down in one common ruin, and we were obliged to 
 complete our journey in the old reliable one. The 
 
 AT THE POST-HOUSE 
 
 body of our vehicle was a sort of shallow basket 
 and without seats. It was filled with ha}-, on which 
 you sit in the bottom in a half-reclining position. 
 I had no sooner nestled myself down in the hay
 
 i64 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 than the driver leaped into his seat and the horses 
 suddenly dashed into such a furious pace as to 
 well-nigh jerk me out of the vehicle and wrench 
 my spine from my body. 
 
 The rain of the previous night had caused the 
 road to be cut into many deep ruts and into what 
 we call in the West " chuck holes." I soon dis- 
 covered that the injunction to my guide to make 
 good time was being only too literally followed by 
 the driver. Off he flew at a full gallop, the horses 
 going literally ventre a terre, just as if he were 
 driving over the finest roads of France. All pro- 
 tests were unavailing, for I afterwards learned that 
 before starting he had stoutly recruited himself 
 from his bottle of vodka, which stuck conspicuously 
 out of his pocket. I also felt somewhat reassured 
 when my guide told me that it was quite the cus- 
 tom in this country to drive in this manner on a 
 long trip, when good time was required. On reach- 
 ing the first village where relays were to be pro- 
 vided, I found that we had covered a distance of 
 nearly twenty versts — almost fourteen miles — in a 
 trifle over an hour. 
 
 After refreshing ourselves with a cup of tea 
 from the ubiquitous samovar, which you find 
 everywhere, we resumed our journey. On the 
 roads becominsj smoother, we reduced our team to 
 three horses, and without any abatement of our
 
 A ROUGH JOURNEY 
 
 167 
 
 pace we finall\- reached our destination, where I 
 alighted to take an inventory of ni\- damaged 
 anatomy. There was no means of knowing the 
 
 RUSSIAN VIT.LAGE ON POST-ROUTE, SOUTH OF TOMSK, SllJEKlA 
 
 distance, of course, but, judging trom ni)' teehngs, 
 I should think it was a thousand miles, more or 
 less. 
 
 On arrival, as is the custom of these }:)eoi)l(', the 
 sheik of tJK; villai^'e took charge of us. Beinu"
 
 i68 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the important person^ig'e here, his house was of 
 pretentious proportions and constructed of hewed 
 logs much after the Russian custom, forming- a 
 large square which enclosed a rectangular space. 
 He was evidently a man not only of much influ- 
 
 READY TO START. AT THE rOST-HOUSE, ON POST-ROUTE SOUTH OF TOMSK, 
 IN DIRECTION TOWARD SEMIP ALATINSK 
 
 ence, but also of great wealth, for he pointed with 
 pride to his great herds of horses, cattle, and 
 sheep on the adjacent plains. He informed us 
 that he was a compatriot of Schemyl, and fought 
 with that celebrated chieftain ao;ainst the Musco-
 
 CATHEDRA I, IN TOMSK
 
 WITH A MOHAMMEDAN TARTAR 
 
 171 
 
 vite. He also exhibited with much pride a medal 
 g-iven him by the present Czar when as Crown 
 Prince he visited this reijion, and whose etiide he 
 was. He at once extended those little courtesies 
 
 STREET SCENE IX TOMSK 
 
 and substantial comforts that ha\e made these 
 people so famous for their hospitality. 
 
 I had no sooner entered his apartments than I 
 discovered, by the familiar appointments of his
 
 172 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 hoLiseholcI, that he was a INIuhaninicdaii. He at 
 once, as is the manner of these people, brought 
 in and introduced liis children, of whom he was 
 intensely fond, an affection fully reciprocated by 
 them, a characteristic which I long since observed 
 is true of all Asiatics. He had two most lovely 
 little boys of ten to twelve years of age, and a 
 daughter of surpassing beauty. 
 
 As he himself and his favorite wife — for he had 
 several — were of Caucasian descent, she reflected 
 in the highest degree the exquisite beauty for 
 which her race is noted. The inimitable purity of 
 her complexion ; the soft, dreamy eyes of the Cir- 
 cassian ; her delightful naivete of manner, com- 
 bined with an exquisite Oriental costume, made 
 her a veritable Lalla Rookh. In a short time the 
 mother appeared, a stately, matronly lady ; ■ for, 
 although having three or four wives, like so 
 many Mohammedans, he has one who is the wife 
 who shares with him the duties and honors of 
 the household. 
 
 After drinking the tea and eating the sweet- 
 meats they invariably offer, I requested my guide 
 to say to him that, being from the far-off land of 
 America, I would be pleased to be permitted to 
 take a photograph of his family, as I had a camera 
 with me. Knowino- that it is asfainst the tenets 
 of the Koran to in any way reproduce in picture
 
 A KIRGHIZ VILLAGE 175 
 
 the human form, I was doubtful of his consenting 
 to so extraordinary a proceeding. After a long- 
 hesitation, he requested that he might consult his 
 wife. 
 
 It is surprising what an influence the wife pos- 
 sesses in this polygamous country. I am told that 
 among the Kalmuck Tartars the husband will not 
 sell even a sheep without first consulting her. He 
 finally replied that the Koran did indeed forbid 
 the making of pictures of themselves, but it did 
 not say that an American could not photograph 
 them. Gladly accepting the soundness of this 
 subtle distinction, I had m)- guide quickly photo- 
 graph the group. 
 
 The village, like all true Kirghiz villages, is com- 
 posed of a cluster of the round felt tents or yurts 
 I have already referred to. A beautiful little 
 mosque, built of something like adobe, rises con- 
 spicuously from the assemblage of tents. They 
 tend their flocks on the distant steppes, and are 
 superb horsemen. Before the building of the 
 railwa)-, which has given them a nearer market, 
 their traffic was conducted at Samarkand in the 
 south and Kurgan in the northwest. 
 
 After taking man)' views of caravans, costumes, 
 tents, etc., we prepared for our return. As is the 
 custom, there was preliminar)' to this an exchange 
 of small presents with the host and his family
 
 176 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 He wanted particularly to know my address in 
 Moscow, as he desired to send me there, in the 
 form of some substantial present, a token of his 
 regards. We left carrvino' with us a most aofree- 
 able impression of the rude but sincere hospitality 
 of these people. 
 
 Our driver was a full Kalmuck. As his race, 
 unlike the Kirghiz, devote their attention almost 
 wholly to the rearing of horses, they are therefore 
 experts in all that appertains to that noble animal. 
 It was truly wonderful the way he handled his un- 
 wieldly team. The trappings of his harness were 
 like the rigging of a ship. I marveled how he man- 
 aged when driving at such a great speed that the)- 
 did not become a hopeless tangle. As he never 
 used a whip, making with his mouth simply an 
 occasional buzzino- sound, I am still wondering- 
 how he so silently and quietly urged his horses 
 into such a furious gait, which they seldom broke. 
 His posture when driving at full speed, the ease 
 and grace with which he controlled the reins in 
 his well-filled hands, gave a st\-le that might well 
 be the despair of any fashionable whip of London 
 or New York. I have traveled in California 
 stages, Japanese jinrikshas, Arabian caravans, and 
 Hindoo ox-garries, but I must sav that a Siberian 
 tarantass, engineered by a Kalmuck Yamstchik with 
 a little vodka for fuel, easilv beats the record.
 
 ON THE RACE-COURSE 
 
 179 
 
 At the distance of two or three miles from 
 Tomsk there is a splendid race-course, at which 
 excellent meetings are often held. Being the sea- 
 son when the great annual event was to occur, I 
 visited the course, that I might study the sporting- 
 
 ox THE TURF AT TOMSK 
 
 side of life in this remote reofion. Alon^r the 
 whole route I was surprised to see the road liter- 
 ally crowded with superb equipages, filled with 
 ladies and gentlemen evidently of the very best 
 class. Many of the ladies were exquisitely cos- 
 tumed, obviously in what was the very latest
 
 i8o SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 product of Parisian art. The roadside was well 
 lined with pedestrians wending their way to the 
 races. In fact, were it not for strong local pecu- 
 liarities and colorincr, that reminded one that he 
 was in a far-off inter-Asiatic city, one might easily 
 imaofine that he was on the road to the Saratooa 
 races, or to Epsom Downs. Here, as in almost 
 every place in Russian possessions, we were con- 
 stantly surprised to find how closely the people of 
 this great empire follow the customs and progress, 
 and adopt the conveniences and improvements, of 
 other countries. The vehicles used on the course 
 I found, to my astonishment, were of the very 
 latest and best patterns to be found in the most 
 progressive and up-to-date countries. I found in 
 Omsk, Tomsk, and other Siberian towns that rub- 
 ber tires were in such oreneral use as to attract no 
 attention. In fact, I believe that in Moscow and 
 St. Petersburg this useful and almost novel device 
 is in more general use than in either Paris, Lon- 
 don, or New York. The races here were mainh' 
 / running and trotting. I was especially interested 
 \ in a runninor race where little Tartar bovs were 
 ) the riders. They rode bare-backed, and coming 
 I of a race who almost live on horseback, the skill 
 ' and agility they very naturally displayed was at 
 once surprising and amusing. The crowd at the 
 \ races, being of the usual mixed character, was.
 
 DEPORTMENT OF THE PEOPLE 
 
 1B3 
 
 however, excellent in its deportment. In truth, 
 I have never seen a more quiet, peaceful, and 
 orderly assemblage of people on any public oc- 
 
 STREET SCENE IN TOMSK 
 
 casion. What surprised me g'reath' was the al- 
 most entire absence of either betting or intoxi- 
 cation, as I was somehow led into the belief that 
 the Russians were o-reat o-amblers as well as drink-
 
 I 
 
 J 84 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 ers, and expected to find here striking exhibi- 
 tions of both. 
 
 Krasno)-arsk is on the Yenisei River and is 
 practically now the end of the Siberian railwa)-, 
 at least so far as passenger traffic is concerned. 
 Tomsk is the terminus of the present through 
 passenger service, from which place, however, an 
 ordinary train is run about once a week to the 
 Yenisei River. Although the track is laid for 
 nearly 600 miles further eastward to Lake Baikal 
 and near Irkutsk, only an occasional mixed freight 
 and passenger train is put on this section ; but 
 no one can tell when it is to depart — a fact only 
 made known by the officials three or four days in 
 advance.' Travel, therefore, from here eastward 
 becomes most uncertain as well as very uncom- 
 fortable. 
 
 There is no bridge over the Yenisei, the cross- 
 ing at present being done on a rather rude and 
 imperfect ferry. They are busily engaged in the 
 construction of a handsome iron bridge nearly a 
 mile in length. It will be completed in a few 
 months, when it will be possible to make a con- 
 tinuous journey on a fairly comfortable through 
 train to Irkutsk and Lake Baikal, a distance of 
 nearly 4,000 miles east of Moscow. 
 
 The gold mines here and in the hills beyond 
 furnish some measure of varied interest to the
 
 MINES EAST OF THE YENISEI 
 
 187 
 
 weary and expectant traveller. They are mainly 
 placer mines, but in the foot-hills of the Altai 
 Mountains, which the road approaches near Irkutsk, 
 quartz mining is being developed. The mining 
 
 RAILWAY STATION ON SIBERIAN RAILWAY, BETWEEN THE Olil AND TOM 
 RIVERS, ABOUT ONE THOUSAND ONE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF THE 
 URAL MOUNTAINS 
 
 interests generally are said to be rapidly growing, 
 with much promise for the future. Being largely 
 the propert}' of the government, but few details 
 concerning them can be obtained as to their future 
 possibilities, as they are shrouded with the usual 
 official secrecy of this countr\'.
 
 i88 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 As I have now travelled about 3,000 miles in Si- 
 beria by raihva)', troika, tarantass, and otherwise, I 
 am debating- in my mind whether I shall proceed 
 farther eastward, or begin my return from this 
 ret^ion. It is possible to go some hundreds of 
 miles farther on by rail, but it is doubtful if what 
 one sees will be an adequate reward for the delays 
 and hardships encountered. I am told that, for the 
 most part, the country and scenery are quite the 
 same as I have been looking at for weeks — the 
 same succession of fertile plains, with their won- 
 drous orrowth of crrass, bedecked at times bv a sea 
 of flowers, and stretching far away to the horizon 
 like a billowy ocean ; the same crowds of emigrants 
 in streams and train-loads to the country beyond, 
 and the same embryo towns springing up every- 
 where like mushrooms from the earth ; all of 
 which, however surprising and interesting it may 
 be in the outstart, becomes at last a wearisome 
 monotony. 
 
 Another consideration influences my return with- 
 out ofoine farther eastward. I desire to consume 
 several days in an examination of the larger towns 
 on the route, which I had not the opportunity of 
 doing on my way hither. It is, moreover, my in- 
 tention to leave the railway at Kurgan, and cut 
 across the country to the Caspian Sea by the route 
 followed by the camel trains between those points.
 
 RETURN WESTWARD 191 
 
 It follows the Tobol River a hundred miles or so, 
 and then crosses the Kirghiz steppes, finally reach- 
 ing the Caspian Sea, where the ships leave for 
 Baku. The distance is about 800 miles, and as 
 the roads are said to be fairly good, the jour- 
 ney can be comfortably made in a little over a 
 week. Crossing the Caspian Sea, I will go through 
 the Caucasus, said to be the loveliest mountain 
 scenery in the world ; then via Tiflis to Batoum ; 
 from thence to Rostoff on the Don, and to Moscow 
 and St. Petersburg. I will then have completed, 
 in so far as is practicable, a tour of a large part of 
 what is destined to become the mightiest empire 
 on the globe.
 
 IX 
 
 Return westward — Route across the Kirghiz steppes to the Caspian 
 Sea — Down the Volga River to Astrakhan — Rise and commer- 
 cial importance of that city — ^Modern trade diversion and its 
 effects — Russia a land of fairs — Nijni Novgorod and its great 
 fair — Kharkov, Ilinsk, and other leading fairs — Preferred route 
 across the Caspian Sea to Central Asia — Importance of the 
 Volga River as a means of transportation — Numerous fleets of 
 coal-oil barges — Statistics of freight traffic on the Volga and 
 Onega system — Partiality of Russians for American products 
 and methods. 
 
 Astrakhan, September, 1898. 
 
 Returning westward, I found on inquiry at Kur- 
 o-an that the route I had intended taking from that 
 town to the Caucusus via the Caspian Sea, while 
 easily accomplished in eight days, was likely to 
 prove devoid of interest, unless one is supposed 
 never to tire of what is wholl)- rural and pastoral. 
 
 There are no cities of importance on the entire 
 route, only a few Russian villag"es settled by 
 recent immigrants into that region from the older 
 and congested districts of European Russia, numer- 
 ous Tartar auls, and an occasional caravansary for 
 the accommodation of the many camel trains that 
 travel over this route, of which I have seen here
 
 DOWN THE VOLGA RIVER 
 
 195 
 
 and in other quarters of the globe more than 
 enough, 
 
 I, therefore, came westward to the point where 
 the Siberian railway tirst touches the \^olo-a Ri\-er at 
 
 ON THE VOLGA RIVER 
 
 Samara. From that town I came on one of the 
 multitude of splendid passenger steamers that ply 
 this might)- river — the Mississippi of Russia — to 
 Astrakhan at the head of the Caspian Sea. a dis- 
 tance of over 1,000 miles.
 
 196 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 This is a fine old city that justly ranks as a very 
 ancient one, dating in its origin close back to the 
 Christian era. It has a population of about 150,- 
 000, of such complex nature as might be expected 
 at a point where the commercial advantages belong- 
 
 FIRE WORSHIPPERS TEMPLE IN ASTRAKHAN 
 
 ing to it have caused the mixed people of Asia to 
 converge through centuries for the purposes of 
 trade. 
 
 It has many well-paved streets, and handsome 
 public and business buildings. One of the churches 
 most noted in all Russia for its imposing and ex-
 
 CITY OF ASTRAKHAN 
 
 199 
 
 pensive interior decorations is here. The cit)' is 
 well supplied with street railways, water-works, 
 etc., and the g'lare of the electric light indicates 
 
 SCENE OX THE I.ANDINC A I' ASIKAKHAN 
 
 that it is well provided with many of the up-to-date 
 luxuries and accessories of other more progressive 
 and pretentious cities. It owes its origin and im- 
 portance to the fact that for centuries it was the 
 main point of commt^rcial contact between the 
 merchants of Central Asia and those of the western
 
 200 SIBERIA AND CP:NTRAL ASIA 
 
 world, being', in fact, the entrepot where Oriental 
 products were concentrated for Western distribu- 
 tion. The Caspian Sea, on the one hand, fiirnishc-d 
 for Central Asia a means for transporting' its prod- 
 ucts to the mouth of the Volga, whence on that 
 river and its tributaries they found their way north- 
 ward and westward to the European markets. 
 
 As before the days of steamships and railways 
 Astrakhan had practicalh' a moncjpoly of Central 
 Asian traffic, she continued to grow and prosper 
 until the development of railways in Russia and a 
 more perfect system of river and canal transporta- 
 tion made Nijni Novgorod her great competitor 
 as a grand distributing point of eastern and west- 
 ern products, which, through her wonderful annual 
 markets, she held for many years. 
 
 Such, however, is the rapidity with which trade 
 and its methods change in these modern days, that 
 Nijni in turn has lost much of its importance, and 
 at no distant day will cease largely to occupy its 
 present position as an intermediate depot between 
 Asia and Europe, an advantage that gave first to 
 Astrakhan, and afterwards to Nijni, such commer- 
 cial prominence and wondrous growth. Such are 
 the ample and ever-increasing facilities for trade 
 now supplied by railways, steamships, telegraphs, 
 etc., that the merchants of the extreme East and 
 West can now rapidly and directly communicate,
 
 RUSSIAN FAIRS 203 
 
 or easily meet, in the marts of their respective 
 countries, so that an intermediate trading point or 
 centre is fast becoming- wholly unnecessary. 
 
 Russia is essentially a land of fairs, there being 
 held in the various villages, towns, and cities 
 throughout the empire nearly 3,000 every year, at 
 which over 300,000,000 dollars' worth of goods 
 and merchandize is sold. Of these, Nijni Nov- 
 gorod, two hundred miles east of Moscow, at the 
 junction of the Okra and Volga rivers, stands tirst 
 in rank ; and, indeed, with very few exceptions, 
 the world has never seen anything more exten- 
 sive and important than the annual fairs held in 
 this city since 1S17. At Irbit, in the government 
 of Perm, in the Ural Mountains, there Is also held 
 an annual fair of much importance, at which the 
 sales amount to over 30,000,000 dollars annually. 
 
 With the fairs at Kharkov, Ilinsk, Romny, 
 and a few others, a list would be completed of 
 those of the leading- class or first magnitude. Of 
 the second class there are fifty; there are sixt)' of 
 the third, and over 300 of the fourth class. The 
 balance, of near!)- 2,500, are those held in the 
 towns, villages, and communes. The Nijni Nov- 
 gorod fair is officially in operation scarcely five 
 weeks, in the months of July and August. The 
 important position it holds in the internal trade of 
 Russia will be realized from the fact that in this
 
 204 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 short time nearly 100,000,000 dollars' worth of 
 wares and merchandise is sold. 
 
 It is my present intention to go from here via 
 
 TOWN OX THE "\'OLr,A RH'KR liETWEF.N KAZAN AND NIJNT NOA'GOKDD 
 
 the Caspian Sea to Baku, a distance of 600 miles. 
 From there, crossing- the Caspian Sea to Uzum 
 Ada, I am in hopes of getting a permit to go on 
 the military railway that runs through the trans- 
 Caspian region to Merv, Bokhara, Samarkand,
 
 TRAFFIC ON THE VOLGA 
 
 207 
 
 and Tashkent, right into the very heart of Asia — 
 a trip that is rarely made, and until recent years 
 a region almost inaccessible to people of the West, 
 Samarkand, especially on account of its antiquities 
 and its having been the capital of Tamerlane, I 
 desire very much to visit. 
 
 Returnino- to Baku, I will take one of the steam- 
 ers that run hence daily to Lenkoran, in Northern 
 Persia, through which I will return via Erivan, at 
 the base of Mt. Ararat, which city is the present 
 capital of Armenia. From there I will go to 
 Tiflis, through Kars and Erzerum ; then passing 
 over the Caucasian Mountains to Vladikavkaz, I 
 will take the railway there for Moscow, hoping to 
 arrive in that city about the middle or end of 
 November. 
 
 As, for the present at least, it is my intention to 
 write only of my observations and experiences in 
 Siberia, I must, therefore, forego the temptation 
 to give in detail, and refer only briefly to, the ob- 
 jects of interests one sees on a voyage down the 
 Volga. I may, however, say in passing that the 
 trade and travel on this great highway are little 
 short of wonderful. The large, comfortable pas- 
 senger boats, of best pattern and most approved 
 machinery, can be numbered almost by hundreds, 
 and the steam, freight, and tugboats that swarm 
 on this great river, almost b\' thousands.
 
 201 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 These, with the numerous fleets of barges with 
 coal oil from Baku, and other merchandise, o-ive 
 more the appearance of the Hudson between New 
 
 K 
 
 !IS8IB8S?r= s.-a.-.-,. 
 
 
 ^\ '^•■' VV-J.;. 
 
 
 
 PICTURESQUE FORMATION OX THE A^OLGA RIVER, TWO HUNDRED MILES 
 ABOVE ASTRAKHAN 
 
 York and Yonkers, than of a river traversing the 
 open steppes of Russia. 
 
 Statistics show that the waterways forming the 
 Volga-Onega system carry yearly over 15,000,000 
 tons of freicrht. Of orrain alone, this river and
 
 BOATS ON THE VOLGA 
 
 21 I 
 
 its tributaries carry over 100,000,000 bushels an- 
 nually. Along with many evidences one meets 
 everywhere in Russia of her partiality for and 
 
 WATERMELON MARKET AT LANDING ON THE VOLGA RIVEK, KEIWEEN 
 SIMBIRSK AND SARATOV 
 
 admiration of things American, I would say that 
 the boats used on the Volga are almost exclusively 
 those of the American pattern.
 
 X 
 
 Development of Siberian agricultural resources — Its effect upon sim- 
 ilar interests in other countries — Prime conditions governing 
 the future reclamation of lands in Siberia — Waterways of Rus- 
 sia — Careful development of same — River system in Siberia — 
 Severity of winters restrict their use — Season of navigation 
 — Omsk as a centre of a vast cereal region — Its possible connec- 
 tions by water and rail with foreign countries — Necessity for 
 greater transportation facilities in Western Siberia — New route 
 being created from Omsk to the Baltic — New route between 
 Russia and Western Siberia — From Omsk to Havre or London 
 — Comparative distances. 
 
 The general facts and data I have given respect- 
 ing the possible agricultural resources of Siberia 
 very naturally will suggest the pertinent inquiry 
 as to what influence their ultimate development 
 will have upon similar interests in other countries. 
 To a nation like our own, where agriculture is the 
 dominant industry, and upon the healthfulness of 
 which depends almost all other industrial interests, 
 and whose exportable surplus forms our most val- 
 uable national resource, this inquiry possesses 
 exceptional interest and importance. 
 
 As the prime factor in this question is the rapid- 
 ity with which these lands can be developed —
 
 SETTLEMENT OF LANDS IN SIBERIA 215 
 
 this o-overning the possible exportable surplus — an 
 inquiry into this subject will fall naturall)' under 
 several heads, the chief being transportation facil- 
 ities for internal and external purposes, the 
 
 TOWN OX THE TOWER VOT.r, \ RIVER 
 
 policy of the government as to the settlement 
 of the lands, and the relation of growth of pop- 
 ulation to any possible rate of agricultural devel- 
 opment. 
 
 I have heretofore stated that the Russian (jov-
 
 2l6 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 eninient has under contemplation a somewliat 
 extended system of railways for the whole of 
 Siberia, both for strateL;'ical and commercial pur- 
 poses. They, however, by no means rely wholl)' 
 on railways for transportation. 
 
 
 VIEW ACROSS TOM RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 Like all European countries, the utmost care is 
 here taken for the preservation, development, and 
 improvement of her natural and artificial water- 
 ways. She is, in addition to the most careful use 
 of all her rivers, contemplatin^r vast schemes of 
 canal construction to supplement and interweave 
 her river courses. As a result, not onlv the main
 
 RIVERS OF SIBERIA 217 
 
 steins, but even the smallest tributaries of her 
 large rivers are made serviceable for the uses of 
 transportation in the highest degree, so that in- 
 ternal distribution of tonnage is effected through- 
 out the country by a very intricate network of 
 navigable rivers and improved streamlets, often 
 linked together b\' suitable canals. 
 
 So pronounced is the policy favoring water 
 transportation here, that one never sees what has 
 so often happened in our own country, and which 
 is much to be deplored — the subordination of nat- 
 ural and artificial waterways to other methods of 
 transportation, and even, in some cases, their total 
 destruction. 
 
 As I have before pointed out, the whole of Si- 
 beria is traversed from south to north by large 
 rivers, at intervals of a few hundred miles. These 
 rivers invariably spread out fan-like into numerous 
 branches, all of which are naviofable, or can be 
 rendered so, through much of their length and 
 during a large portion of the year. To almost the 
 southern boundary of Siberia, therefore, water 
 transportation can ultimately be effected. 
 
 \^ast as is this natural system of waterways, its 
 efficienc)" will, of course, be somewhat curtailed by 
 the severitv of the winters in Northern Siberia. 
 But under the wise fostering policy of the govern- 
 ment, there will no doubt in time be rendered as
 
 2l8 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 efficient a s\stein ot rivers and canals as now exists 
 in European Russia, and wliich plays so important 
 a part in her internal commerce. 
 
 These rivers, it is said, are open for navigation 
 
 FERRY-BOAT ON TO>t RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 usually from about the middle of April or ist of 
 May to the ist of October. This grives quite six 
 months of continuous navigation, which is not 
 greatly exceeded by our great chain of northern 
 lakes, and canals such as the Erie, which, while
 
 OMSK AS A GRAIN CENTRE 
 
 219 
 
 open, have such an important bearing- on rates and 
 the freight traffic of the whole country. 
 
 As the Obi and Yenisei rivers with their tribu- 
 
 HOUSES FOR STORAGE OF GRAIN AND WHEAT IN SACKS AWAITING SHIP- 
 MENT AT NEW RAILWAY STATION, EIGHT HUNDRED MILES EAST 
 OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS, ON TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 
 
 taries permeate the entire western half of Siberia, 
 and the distance of Omsk, the centre of the great 
 grain and pasture lands of that country, from Euro- 
 pean markets is about 5,000 miles via the Arctic
 
 220 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Sea, therefore for nearl)- six months an area of 
 agricultural lands nearl)' equal in extent to the 
 arable lands of the United States will be in almost 
 
 iv^J^^I 
 
 SCENE ON THE IRTISH RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 as direct and continuous communication with 
 Western Europe as is Chicago via the Great 
 Lakes and vSt. Lawrence River. 
 
 The necessity of providing more adequate means 
 for transporting the surplus agricultural products
 
 NEW TRANSPORTATION LINES 221 
 
 already created by the Siberian railway has fully 
 impressed itself on the Russian mind. The present 
 congested condition of that line, which is likely 
 to grow worse, has caused the projection of several 
 competing routes, to give this much-needed relief. 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE IRTISH RIVER, SIBERIA 
 
 A railway is already under construction running 
 directly eastward from St. Petersburg to Perm, to 
 connect with the railwa)' now running from that 
 city over the Ural Mountains to Tinmen, on the 
 headwaters of the Tobol River. 
 
 This line will, therefore, provide direct communi- 
 cation between Omsk and the Baltic Sea, in com-
 
 222 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 petition with the Siberian hne, wliich it will parallel 
 300 or 400 miles to the north. Inck^ed, for the 
 season of river navigation this route is now prac- 
 tically available. 
 
 On my wa}' eastward, I fell in with a prominent 
 
 ■^S THE TOM l;i 
 
 Russian grain merchant, who was on his way to 
 Omsk to establish a line of transportation to the 
 Baltic, in order to drain some of the large surplus 
 of grain already accumulated on the line of the 
 Trans-Siberian railway, which for want of suffi- 
 cient facilities it finds itself incapable of carrying. 
 He described to me in detail the proposed new
 
 NEW TRANSPORTATION LINES 223 
 
 route, which was down the Irtish River from Omsk 
 and up the Tobol to Tiumen, a distance of about 
 800 miles. From Tiumen, connection is to be 
 made by rail to Perm on the Kama River, a distance 
 of 500 miles. 
 
 At the latter point, boats run down the Kama 
 River and up the Volga to the head of navigation 
 of that river, where, by a canal to the Ladoga Sea 
 and through the Neva, a continuous waterway is 
 provided between Perm and the Baltic Sea. Thus, 
 by this route, excepting the intermediate link of 500 
 miles of railroad, Omsk can be placed, via the 
 Baltic, in direct communication by water with West- 
 ern Europe for at least six months of the year, the 
 whole distance beinor somewhat less than from 
 Chicago to Liverpool or Havre.
 
 XI 
 
 Transportation route in Soutliwestern Siberia — Route between 
 Caspian and Black seas— To connect the Volga and Don 
 rivers — All-waterway between Caspian Sea and Europe — Neg- 
 lect of American waterways — Careful preservation of same in 
 Europe — Methods of utilizing rivers in Europe for transporta- 
 tion purposes — Use of the Seine in France — Through the heart 
 of France in a boat — Neglect and decay of American rivers as 
 lines of transport — Railways versus water transportation — What 
 would result from thorough development of American river 
 system — Russia's real progress — Great foresight — Not doomed 
 to the fate of China — Russia in the field of diplomacy — The offi- 
 cial class — Redundant population — Its danger to all nations — 
 Unwisdom of developing urban at the expense of the rural popu- 
 lation — Results in the necessity for land grabbing — Wise policy 
 underlying settlement of Siberia — Plan of settlement — Conserv- 
 ing old vested interests — Deterrent influences in settlement of 
 Siberia — Rapid growth of population — Its current necessities 
 — Probable effect of Siberia upon markets in other countries. 
 
 There are yet two other routes in prospect, 
 which, when completed, will be both short and di- 
 rect. By a system of railways in Southwestern 
 Siberia, of 500 to 1,500 miles in length, reinforced 
 by canal and river courses, a thorough drainage 
 of tonnage to the east coast of the Caspian Sea 
 can be effected from that vast region, being in 
 extent equal to the Middle and Western States of
 
 VARIOUS LINES OF TRANSPORTATION 227 
 
 our country, and with a productive capacity equal 
 to one-half that of the whole United States. 
 From the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea ships 
 can be run at all seasons to Baku in the Cau- 
 casus. 
 
 By the Trans-Caucasian railway, a distance of a 
 little less than 500 miles, the Caspian Sea is con- 
 nected with the Black Sea. This will, therefore, 
 make an open-water route the whole season from 
 the Caspian to Western Europe, a distance of 
 about 5,500 miles. Save the connecting link of 
 railway from Baku to Batoum, a distance of about 
 500 miles, there will, therefore, be a continuous 
 water route from Southwestern Siberia to Europe, 
 from the east shore of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The other scheme, while of the highest order, 
 both from an engineering- point of view and com- 
 mercial as well, and while fully surveyed and esti- 
 mated, is yet " under the red cloth," as the Rus- 
 sians say, meaning that it is still enveloped in the 
 shrouded councils of " The Ministry of Transpor- 
 tation and Communication." 
 
 At Tzaritzin, about 300 miles above Astra- 
 khan, the Volga River approaches within fifty 
 miles of the Don River, running northward 
 from the Black Sea. It is proposed to cut a 
 canal across this intervening space to connect 
 the two rivers, both of which will be navigable
 
 228 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 to this point three-fourths of the year. I^y this 
 route, therefore, a continuous waterwa)- can be 
 estabhshecl for nine months in the year be- 
 tween the Caspian Sea and the markets of West- 
 ern Europe, via the Volga and Don rivers and 
 the Black Sea. 
 
 When the water and railway systems of W^est- 
 ern Siberia are perfected, as they will be in due 
 time, that great country, with its vast and yet un- 
 touched agricultural resources, will be placed quite 
 as near the surplus-consuming centres of Europe 
 as the centre of the great surplus-producing region 
 of the United States. 
 
 I desire at this point to make especial reference 
 to what I have so frequently spoken of hereto- 
 fore, viz.: the lamentable neglect of our splendid 
 system of waterways, which stands in such start- 
 ling contrast with the careful and thorough devel- 
 opment and preservation of the natural and arti- 
 ficial water-courses in almost all other countries. 
 To the observing American tourist, whose mind is 
 at all bent upon a study of the material interests 
 and resources of the countries through which he 
 travels, nothing strikes him with such force — 
 with the sole exception, perhaps, of the splendid 
 common roads — as the careful and thorough man- 
 ner in which every river or stream of any size is 
 utilized for transportation purposes.
 
 IMPROVEiMENT OF RIVERS 229 
 
 Everywhere one sees the river beds deepened 
 by dredging, the channel widened, the banks care- 
 fully walled, and the shores suitably jettied, and 
 every means employed to render them suitable for 
 navigation. So thcjroughly is this done, especially 
 in France, Germany, Italy, Austria, and to a great 
 extent in this countr)', that little bits of streams 
 only a few rods wide are b)- suitable Bash dams 
 and other means converted into excellent channels 
 for boats. 
 
 It is thus that in France the Seine is made 
 navigable from the sea to Tonnerre, where it be- 
 comes an insignificant streamlet. From this point, 
 over the Burgund)- hills, a canal of about sixt)' 
 miles forms a connecting link with the headwaters 
 of the Rhone flowing southward. A boat, there- 
 fore, of considerable tonnage can pass right through 
 the centre of France to the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 By the same means, as I have before stated, a 
 continuous waterway is provided through the 
 middle of European Russia from the Baltic to 
 the Caspian Sea. 
 
 It is with sorrow mingled with disgust that one; 
 recalls the shameless neglect of our might) ri\cr 
 systems, the grandest on the globe — the Missis- 
 sippi, the Ohio, the Missouri, and scores of other 
 rivers with th(Mr tributaries — and e\"en the; com- 
 plete abandonment of the \\\abash, the Illinois,
 
 230 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and many others that in early days were so valu- 
 able and serviceable, and could still by a little 
 attention be so maintained. 
 
 What can be said of the policy of a country 
 that will allow such an important trade artery as 
 the old Wabash and Erie Canal to become extinct ? 
 You and I well know that it was this valuable 
 waterway, running from Terre Haute to Toledo, 
 that developed and enriched the great Wabash 
 valley, which remained one of the most prosperous 
 and flourishing regions of the whole West until 
 the withering touch of the overstocked and much 
 manipulated Wabash Railway sapped and absorbed 
 its accumulated resources. 
 
 With the noblest river on the globe permeating 
 with its many tributaries almost the entire region 
 from whence our exportable agricultural surplus 
 has been derived, and will in future continue 
 wholly to be derived, and which could be carried 
 entirely by water to the consumptive centres of 
 Europe, we to-day discover the astounding situa- 
 tion that our country is almost exclusively de- 
 pendent upon the railways to carry this great 
 surplus to the seaboard. 
 
 Were our main rivers only, to say nothing of 
 the smaller streams that other countries would 
 readily render serviceable, improved and utilized 
 to anything like the degree of the Seine, Rhone,
 
 THE POLICY OF RUSSIA 231 
 
 Garonne, and Marne of France ; the Elbe, Rhine, 
 and other streams of Germany ; the Danube, the 
 Don, the Volga ; and for that matter even the 
 Obi of Siberia, no nation on the globe would 
 possess such facilities for cheap transportation to 
 foreign countries ; so that no matter what natural 
 advantages of agriculture they might possess in 
 Siberia, Argentina, India, or elsewhere, we would 
 be placed beyond competition in foreign markets. 
 
 When will those patriotic spirits who have the 
 public ear, and who are ever on the alert to safe- 
 guard the public right and welfare, cry out against 
 those influences and abnormal causes that have 
 resulted in creating a situation so exceptional as 
 to be well-nigh criminal ? 
 
 Whatever may be the disparaging comparisons 
 of the slower methods and material progress of 
 Russia with the more florid achievements of other 
 nations in recent years, it is certain that her prog- 
 ress is on such lasting, conservative, and secure 
 lines that in the end. when viewed in its entirety, 
 it may prove a more real advance than others 
 more rapid and consequently less stable. What- 
 ever may be her final and declared policy, she 
 adheres to it with a steadfastness and pertinacity 
 unchangeable and unconquerable. 
 
 Like China, she is preeminently an agricultural 
 nation, that interest absorbing nearlv four-fifths of
 
 232 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 her energies and nearl\- nine-tenths of li(;r popula- 
 tion. This great interest she fosters with the 
 wisest foresight and the most jealous care. 
 
 Unhke her great neighbor, however, who had 
 come to rely upon the virtues and power of peace, 
 Russia has long foreseen that military strength 
 alone could preserve a national autonomy against 
 the forces of foreiirn aofcrression and orreed, 
 marshalled under the specious banner of philan- 
 thropy and progress. This fortunate foresight, 
 no doubt, saves her from the fate of wholesale 
 spoliation that now threatens China. 
 
 While Russia has the most numerous army 
 in the world, and has created the largest national 
 military element to draw from in case of emer- 
 gency, still her policy is not to use her mili- 
 tary power for conquest, but mainly for defence. 
 Her great acquisitions of territory, amounting to 
 one-seventh of the whole globe, have been ac- 
 quired much more by diplomac}' in the cabinet 
 than by power in the field. Yet, as the stern 
 and memorable records of Borodino and the 
 bloody fields of the Crimea show, when called 
 upon to defend her country, her skill and valor 
 in the field are not inferior to her ability in the 
 realm of diplomacy. 
 
 Never, perhaps, in the history of the human 
 race has any nation acquired such vast posses-
 
 OFFICIAL CLASS OF RUSSIA 233 
 
 sions, or developed so large a population, equal to 
 the Roman Empire in its palmiest days, with such 
 little bloodshed and such few destructive wars. 
 
 The one crreat national characteristic of Russia 
 seems to be foresight. She deals not so much with 
 the present as the future, not with the proximate 
 and immediate so much as with the remote and 
 ultimate ; and it seems to be a fixed policy never to 
 conuuit herself to any scheme or plan unless the 
 ultimate results are so well forecast as to render 
 any retrogression or retracing of her steps unnec- 
 essary. 
 
 Moreover, there is perhaps no nation whose offi- 
 cial classes are so well informed, or who so minutcK' 
 understand the commercial, industrial, and even 
 the political policies of other nations, and the real 
 workine and ultimate trend of their institutions. 
 It was, no doubt, this penetrating foresight that 
 caused her, long ago, to devise her policy of terri- 
 torial acquisition, under which she laid aside for 
 future use such vast, accessible, and contiguous 
 areas of countr)' which to the rest of the world 
 seemed then useless. 
 
 The pressure of a redundant population always 
 has been, and perhaps will remain, the chief peril 
 threatening the stabilit\' of every nation. Fhis 
 danger becomes intensified when a nation 1)\' con- 
 quests, or ill-ordered hscal j)olicies, develops its
 
 234 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 commercial, manufacturing-, and urban population 
 at the expense of rural life. 
 
 In the cry, " Give us bread and amusement," that 
 was current in Rome during- the Caesars, is to be 
 found the germ of a force far more potent and fatal 
 to that empire than the rapacity of the Hun or 
 the military prowess of the Goth. 
 
 Even now, the same cause is impelling some 
 of the foremost nations to resort to the doubtful 
 expedient of forcing themselves upon peaceful, 
 remote, and older nations, in the hope thereby 
 of finding relief from pressing internal forces. 
 
 The acquisition of Siberia and Central Asia, a 
 practically uninhabited and contiguous country, 
 having over 7,000,000 square miles with less than 
 12,000,000 inhabitants, was, no doubt, the result 
 of Russian foresight to secure near at home, and 
 adjacent, a suitable reservoir into which to pour 
 her future and increasing surplus population, pro- 
 viding thereby for centuries a safety valve for her 
 empire. This lies at the very bottom of her 
 settlement and development of Siberia and the 
 Central Asian provinces, reserving them as she 
 does for the steadily increasing future necessi- 
 ties of the older portions of her empire, rather 
 than following the example of other nations, who, 
 by a rapid development of new territory, quick- 
 ened into an undue, intense, and transient life
 
 SETTLEMENT OF SIBERIAN LANDS 235 
 
 other subsidiary and dependent interests and 
 industries. 
 
 From what I can learn, it will probably be the 
 policy of Russia to make the settlement and de- 
 velopment of Siberia commensurate with the neces- 
 sities arising out of the rapid growth of population 
 in the parent country, which, however, at its present 
 rate, promises to be of no mean order. 
 
 In the first place, it is only citizens of Russia that 
 can acquire lands in Siberia. A systematic plan is 
 pursued by the government in the distribution and 
 disposition of the lands. Wherever there is found 
 an overpopulated district in European Russia, 
 influences are at once used to cause an emigration 
 of a portion of such congested district. Govern- 
 ment agents are sent to Siberia to look about and 
 secure for such emigrants the most suitable locali- 
 ties, due regard being had for racial peculiarities 
 and proclivities, and even for the geographical 
 locality of the intending emigrant. As an induce- 
 ment, nearly eighty acres of land is alloted to each 
 settler, and as a further stimulus the orovernment 
 in many cases loans 100 rubles for a term of years, 
 without interest, to bona fide settlers upon the 
 lands. 
 
 As I have before stated. Western Siberia lies 
 practically between the same parallels of latitude 
 as European Russia; the southern part touching a
 
 236 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 lower latitude, possesses, therefore, a more g^enial 
 climate. The soil and ph\sical characteristics are 
 even more desirable, the onK" drawback beini^ its 
 greater distance from the market. Under these 
 circumstances it is easy to see that a great flow of 
 immigrants has already set into that countr)-, as is 
 evidenced on all hands by crowded trains, newly 
 ploughed fields, and numerous embr)-o towns and 
 villages. 
 
 Already the government is considering the im- 
 portant question as to what is to be the probable 
 influence of the relativeh' cheaper products of 
 these new lands, so readih' acquired and so cheaply 
 cultivated, upon the agricultural interests of the 
 older portions of the empire, where lands have 
 been lonofer cultivated and fixed investments are 
 greater. 
 
 Being desirous of conserving the vested interests 
 and rights of the agricultural classes in European 
 Russia which have been the laborious creation of 
 centuries, she does not lose sight of the injurious 
 effect that may arise to them by the inflow of the 
 products of these lands, the gift of the nation, the 
 government thus becoming itself an indirect party 
 to the sudden creation of an unjust and perhaps 
 injurious competition. 
 
 As a measure designed to aid in overcoming such 
 an effect, and to preserve a just equalit\", I was
 
 OCCUPATION OF LANDS BY TARTARS 237 
 
 informed that the government contemplates giving 
 rebates upon grain and otlier agricultural rates for 
 all foreign shipments, and maintaining higher rates 
 on those of a domestic character. This disposition 
 on the part of the government to shield the in- 
 terests of the agriculturists in the older and longer 
 cultivated regions of European Russia, against a 
 too violent competition created by the free use of 
 property common to all, can be reckoned with as 
 one of the influences that will limit and control 
 the rapidity with which the lands of Siberia will 
 be occupied and reclaimed. 
 
 Another restraint upon the rapid occupation of 
 these lands lies in the tenure of a rather sparse but 
 evenly distributed Tartar element. Unlike our 
 American Indians, who possessed the waste lands 
 of the West and lived exclusively by the chase, 
 the Tartars who spread over the greater portion 
 of Western Siberia are of a pastoral character, 
 havino" immense herds of domestic animals in 
 great variety ; they will, therefore, hold the lands 
 occupied by their ancestors from time immemorial 
 with greater tenacity, a juster right, and firmer 
 tenure. To dispossess them, therefore, will not 
 be the easy problem that it was in the case of our 
 own Aborigines. 
 
 In view of these deterrent causes, it is not likely 
 that the lands of Siberia will be occupied and
 
 238 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 developed in the (|uick and wholesale manner 
 witnessed in our own and other new countries, 
 even though the Russian government were desir- 
 
 TOWN ON THE VOLGA RIA'ER 
 
 ous of following our example, a not probable con- 
 tingency. 
 
 As the Russian is probably the most prolific 
 race on the globe, an abundant supply of land 
 must be kept available to meet this current want,
 
 INCREASE OF POPULATION 239 
 
 since the cultivable lands of European Russia are 
 already closely worked up. The present increase 
 of population is reckoned at 2,000,000 per annum, 
 which at the same ratio will be swelled to 3,000,- 
 000 within another generation. As the unit 
 requirement must be estimated at about four or 
 five acres per capita, there is, therefore, in sight 
 an annual requirement of from 8,000,000 to 12,- 
 000,000 acres to supply this want, the annual 
 reclamation of which will be in itself an achieve- 
 ment of no ordinary character. 
 
 Having due regard, therefore, for the variety of 
 restraining influences and home necessities, and 
 while in certain localities there may be at times 
 excessive production, it does not seem probable 
 that the surplus from this region, taken during a 
 period of average production, will so far outrun 
 the increased demand due to increased popula- 
 tion as to leave such a residuum for export as 
 will have any sensible effect upon western prices.
 
 XII 
 
 Russian life in Siberia — Visiting various villages — Siberian towns 
 and villages — Mostly frame or log houses — Efforts at ornamenta- 
 tion — Number and appointment of rooms — Clothing of the 
 natives — The icon — The Russian peasant most religious — In the 
 peasant's home — A mark of respect never to be omitted — Cus- 
 tom of recognizing the icon in Russia universal — Fare of the 
 peasant — A singular bathroom — The drink of the peasant — 
 Two kinds of quass — Vodka, its use and effects — Salutary regu- 
 lations by the government — Worthy of imitation by other na- 
 tions — Siberia the land of the exile — Erroneous impression of 
 the traveller — Courtesy of Russian officials — Abolition of serf- 
 dom — Its effects contrasted with abolition of slavery in America 
 — Administration of justice — Respect for law and authority — ■ 
 Difficulties encountered by Russia in its development — Obstacles 
 to its progress — Remarkable national development — Banish- 
 ment of bank officials to Siberia — Their status during and after 
 term of sentence — Punished for fraud at gaming — Not a good 
 country for irregular practices — Passport system — Citizens of 
 Russia required to have passport — Registration of same, fee, 
 etc. — Effects of the passport system — Special passport required 
 to leave Russia — Beneficial results of same. 
 
 Having a desire to become familiar with the 
 life of the lower class of Russians in Siberia, re- 
 mote from the influences that centre about lines 
 of railwa^^ while in Tomsk I made a journey into 
 the interior on the route to Tobolsk, which in a 
 creneral wav follows the vallev of the Obi. This
 
 SIBERIAN TOWNS 
 
 241 
 
 led me through many villages of a more or less 
 primitive and interesting character. 
 
 These Siberian towns are, exclusively, mere 
 assemblages of farm-houses with the usual build- 
 
 VILLAGE IX SIBERIA, IJETWEEX TOMSK AND THE YENISEI RIVER 
 
 ings for stock, etc., and are in all respects similar 
 to their prototypes in European Russia. With few 
 exceptions, the dwellings and outhouses are built of 
 logs, obtained from the strip of forest that fringes 
 
 most of the rivers. Excepting in the large towns 
 
 16
 
 242 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 aiul rail\va\' sLatioiis, I do noL hclic\c I saw a 
 singli- l)iiildin^" of stone or brick. Being con- 
 structed generalh' with high, stt^ep roofs, liea\\' 
 cornices, and deep projections, with other crude 
 efforts at ornamentation, they very often combine 
 a pleasing external effect with much internal con- 
 venience and comfort, being as a rule warm in 
 winter and cool in summer. 
 
 The houses are usually of three rooms : the 
 kitchen, dining-room, and bed-room, the latter used 
 also as a reception-room. They have plain wooden 
 floors, and the furniture is of the simplest kind 
 and very limited. 
 
 One thing I noticed especially : that, while the 
 clothing was coarse, the people were always warmly 
 clad, the men invariably wearing high-top boots, 
 made generally of leather, but often of a thick felt, 
 always coming well up to the knee. 
 
 In every house, without exception, one discovers 
 in the corner of each room the ever-present little 
 ofllt icon, for be it remembered that the strouQ-est 
 trait of the Russian's character is his intense reli- 
 gious sentiment. Unlike many other countries, 
 where it too often becomes a mere formula and 
 even a convenience, with the Russian peasant es- 
 pecially it is a part of his life, the very essence, 
 in fact, of his inner being. What is not the least 
 surprising fact is, that the men are even more
 
 DWELLING HOUSES IN VILLAGES 245 
 
 punctilious in their observance of the formalities 
 of the church than the women. 
 
 Although fairl)- comfortable lodging can be 
 had at any of the post-houses on the main roads, 
 
 DWELLING-HOUSE IN SIIiEKL\N VILLAGE, ON POST-ROUTE FROM TIAGA 
 TO TOMSK 
 
 I, however, preferred to stop in the humble dwell- 
 ings of the peasants, whose doors are alwa)-s open 
 to the stranger, with a rude though sincere hos- 
 pitality. 
 
 On entering a dwelling it is a mark of respect,
 
 246 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 never to be oniiUcd, Lo coiirtcousl)' recognize; the 
 sacred icon that always han^^-s conspicuous])' on the 
 wall. This is so universal a custom that, throug-h- 
 
 SIBF.RIAX VILLAGE IN OBI VALLEY 
 
 out Russia everywhere, in all public buildings, 
 stores, banks, counting-houses, etc., the men in- 
 variably uncover their heads before the icon, and 
 so remain even while transacting- business. Re- 
 ligion, therefore, in this countrv is carried contin-
 
 LIFE OF THE PEASANT 
 
 247 
 
 uously right into the active, busy current ot human 
 affairs and hfe. 
 
 I noticed that, on entering- a dwelling, the house- 
 wife at once went to a lartre chest and took out a 
 carpet, which she spread carefully on the usually 
 
 t^^l 
 
 NEW VILLAGK IX THE VALLEY. OF THE TOM RIVER, SIHERLV 
 
 bare floor, and which seems to be reserved for 
 important occasions. The samo\ar is at once 
 set before you, as all Russians are inveterate tea 
 drinkers. The tea is of a good quality, coming 
 from China, and usualh' compressed in th(» form 
 of small bricks. 
 
 The fare of the peasant is simple but whole-
 
 248 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 some, usually of rye bread, th()U!j;"li often of the most 
 excellent wheaten variety, with splendid soups and 
 meats. On account of the abundance of pastur- 
 age in Siberia, meats of all kinds come readily 
 within reach of the common people. The best 
 quality of beef can be had anywhere on the Sibe- 
 rian railway for a little over two cents per pound. 
 Laree, fine bullocks ready for the market can be 
 purchased for twenty to thirty rubles, or twelve 
 to eighteen dollars. A first-class milk cow brings 
 only eight to fifteen rubles. A pair of young 
 chickens, five to ten cents. A brace of excellent 
 ducks, much like our blue-winged teal, can be had 
 for ten cents, and at the railway restaurants nicely 
 roasted for eighteen cents apiece. 
 
 In almost every peasant dwelling a large baking 
 oven is to be found at one end of the kitchen, 
 made of thick walls of brick or some sort of 
 cement composite. As it usually seemed of need- 
 less size, and the door out of proportion also, and 
 instead of the usual dome form was flat on top, 
 my attention was so attracted that I was led to 
 inquire the purpose of these peculiarities. I was 
 informed that it was not only used for baking pur- 
 poses, but quite often served as a hot bath as well, 
 straw being spread on the oven floor — previously 
 heated by fagots burned within — for the protection 
 of the bather, who crawls into the open door. By
 
 FARE OF THE PEASANT 249 
 
 pouring- water on the heated floor, it could thus be 
 quickly changed from a hot-air to a vapor bath. 
 During the winter, bedding is spread on the flat top 
 of the oven, and, h\ maintainincr a slow fire within, 
 a comfortable warmth is imparted even in nights of 
 extreme cold. 
 
 Besides tea, the peasants drink large quantities 
 of a beverage called quass. Of this there are two 
 varieties, one extracted from a small berry much 
 like the cranberry, that grows in a wild state in the 
 greatest abundance. The juice of this berry is 
 allowed to slightly ferment, producing a most de- 
 licious and wholesome drink. Being so abundantly 
 produced, it sells for only a few copecks a bottle, 
 and is therefore universally used. 
 
 Another variety of quass is made by passing hot 
 water throue:h toasted bread and allowinq; it to 
 slightly ferment. This is in great request by the 
 peasantry, being a most wholesome and not un- 
 pleasant drink. 
 
 Vodka, here as in every part of Russia, is much 
 used by all classes and both sexes, old and young. 
 It is distilled from crrain. Beino- of strono- alco- 
 holic properties, it is highly intoxicating, and it is 
 somewhat remarkable that drunkenness is not far 
 more prevalent, considering the immense quantity 
 consumed in Russia. Except in the larger cities, 
 such as St. Petersburfj and Moscow, cases of in- 
 
 \
 
 250 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 toxicLition arc not more frcquentl)' met with than 
 in Anglo-Saxon communities. 
 
 While hastih' referring" to the local and personal 
 proclivities and habits of these people, it may 
 be well to briefly glance at some more general 
 practices and customs, the result of salutary reg- 
 ulations by the government. 
 
 At every station on the Siberian railway — which, 
 I believe, is true to some extent on all Russian 
 railways — there is placed in front of the station, 
 at a point convenient of access by the passen- 
 gers, a large cask of cool water, that has been 
 thoroughly boiled, and it is the duty of the sta- 
 tion-master to see that a liberal supply is kept up. 
 This is free to all passengers, even to the poorest 
 emigrant, whose comfort and welfare are provided 
 for in luany ways with thoughtful care. 
 
 In addition, an immense samovar is also placed 
 in front of the station, which is kept full of 
 boiling water for the use of the passengers on 
 the trains. As they almost always carry a supply 
 of tea with them, they are, therefore, enabled at 
 any time to secure hot water, which they take into 
 the train, and thus can make the desired quantum 
 of tea at their leisure. 
 
 I am also informed that in large cities like St. 
 Petersburg, where the water is not of the purest, 
 it is the duty of every householder, during the sum-
 
 A WISE REGULATION 
 
 251 
 
 mer, to place a suitable vessel in tront of his 
 house, containing boiled water, for the free use of 
 the passerby. The contents of the vessel must be 
 changed daily. If, upon inspection by the proper 
 
 CASK OF WATER AT STATION OX SIBERIAN RAILWAY, .SUPPLIED WITH 
 BOILED WATER FOR USE OF PASSENGERS 
 
 authorities, a supph' is found wanting, or, upon 
 analysis, it pro\es inipure, the delinquent is 
 severely punished. 
 
 Were such wise regulations in the general inter-
 
 252 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 est and welfare adopted by some other nations 
 who lay claim to advantages of a superior civi- 
 lization, we might hear less of " Maidstone 
 epidemics." 
 
 So much has been written about Siberia, " the 
 land of the exile," and so many gruesome pictures 
 cirawn of the horrors of Russian official tyranny, 
 that to the uninitiated Siberia seems a dark, for- 
 bidding, and forbidden land ; so that the newly 
 arrived traveller almost instinctively grasps his 
 passport at the very sight of a Russian official. 
 
 Fairness and candor compel me to say, however, 
 that in no country in which I have travelled have 
 I seen in the same time so little interference by the 
 authorities with the current life and daily affairs of 
 the people. In fact, I do not believe there exists 
 in any nation a body of officials more considerate 
 and courteous, or who are more attentive to the 
 wishes and interests of the people, from the highest 
 to the lowest station in life. 
 
 The time was, doubtless, when an undue espion- 
 age and the exercise of what was perhaps a 
 despotic authority were deemed essential for the 
 preservation of the government and general order, 
 under which wrongs and even cruel practices 
 may have arisen. But it must be remembered 
 that scarcely more than one generation has passed 
 since one-half of her population was suddenly
 
 EMANCIPATION OF THE SERF 253 
 
 chano-cd from a servile class into free and inde- 
 pendent citizens, with newly-acquired power and 
 interests, and along- with them new duties and 
 obliofations. 
 
 It is easy to see that a confusion resulting from 
 a sudden transition that inverted an ancient polit- 
 ical and social structure, mieht eive rise to such 
 conditions as to render even a stern exercise of 
 authority a necessity. The wonder is, that any 
 nation could survive a shock so violent and ex- 
 treme, whatever might be its efforts to repress 
 and control and hold in check the forces of disso- 
 lution and disintegfration. 
 
 To realize fully the difficulties arising from 
 changes so rapid and fundamental, we have but 
 to recall the newly-created problems and difficul- 
 ties in our own country — which are unfortunately 
 still far from a final solution — growing out of the 
 enfranchisement of a relatively few slaves. We 
 may also be inclined to judge less severely other 
 nations for their short-cominirs if we brine to 
 remembrance the wrongs perpetrated by the 
 Northern carpet-bag governments in the South 
 during the days of reconstruction. 
 
 Within certain limits this is, perhaps, the most 
 secure and the freest country in the world; for 
 while the laws are rigorousl)- executed and pun- 
 ishment is meted out with appalling certaint)', the
 
 254 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 welfare and security of the people and govern- 
 ment seem to be the prime motive in the minds 
 of those who administer the law. 
 
 All trials are conducted with careful delibera- 
 tion, and with an eye to secure and subserve 
 strict justice. However needless and harsh the 
 administration of justice in some cases may seem 
 to be, it is certain that the swift, wholesale, and 
 impartial execution of their salutary laws has 
 established a condition of internal peace and 
 security, creating respect for authority, and a 
 recognition of just reciprocal rights that is truly 
 wonderful, when all things are considered. 
 
 To realize this fully, we must take into account 
 the vast extent of the country, the heterogeneous 
 races that go to make up this great ethnical com- 
 posite, with their respective rights, customs, tra- 
 ditions, castes, and vested interests — -the outgrowth 
 of thousands of years of racial development — all 
 going to make up a vast mosaic of powerful and 
 conflicting races, with almost irreconcilable antag- 
 onisms and interests. 
 
 Perhaps no nation has ever had to encounter, to 
 the same extent, those impediments to progress 
 and stable growth arising out of the necessity of 
 tearing down the old in order to build up the new — 
 a dilemma so well defined by the sa}'ing that "the 
 o'ood stands in the wav of the better." In no
 
 PUNISHMENT OF BANK OFFICIALS 255 
 
 nation, perhaps, has the problem of uniting a just 
 government and hberal institutions with the im- 
 pulse of modern change and progress been so dif- 
 ficult of solution as in this great empire. That 
 under these adverse conditions she has been en- 
 abled to make that remarkable advance witnessed 
 in the last two generations, stands as a marvel in 
 the history of national development. 
 
 This is brought to our minds with increased 
 force when we recall the fact that even so small 
 and compact a country as the United Kingdom, 
 where a great and steady advance has long been 
 made in industrial, commercial, and political life, 
 ancient rights and interests and traditions have 
 not as yet been reconciled with the newer order 
 of things, nor have its integral parts been welded 
 into a harmonious whole, as the present state 
 of Ireland shows. 
 
 On m)' way to Tomsk there were, among the 
 passengers on the train, a man and wife, both of 
 them respectable in appearance and accomplished. 
 Although having the liberty of the train, their 
 movements seemed under restraint, and an offi- 
 cial was always hovering conveniently near. In 
 a few days I learned that the man was on his 
 way to Tomsk to serve out a ten years' banish- 
 ment. He was formcrh' teller in a large bank in 
 St. Petersbure, wliich failed disastroush' some
 
 256 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 years ago, and he had improperly used some of its 
 funds. Having been found guilty, after a search- 
 ing trial lasting over two years, he was banished 
 to Siberia for a term of ten years. 
 
 While he will be allowed his liberty in that city, 
 he will not be permitted, during that time, to go 
 beyond its precincts. The governor of the province 
 can, at his discretion, transport him at any time to 
 the most remote and obscure corner of his orovern- 
 ment. He will be allowed no social privileges what- 
 ever, and the orace of the authorities will be assured 
 only by his excellent behavior. During the term 
 of his sentence he will be practically deprived of all 
 the rights and privileges of citizenship, and not 
 allowed to engage in any business whatever. His 
 business and social status after the expiration of 
 his sentence will depend entirely upon his conduct 
 in the meanwhile. 
 
 After the completion of the term of his banish- 
 ment he will never be permitted to visit St. Peters- 
 burg, Moscow, or any other large city, seaport, or 
 frontier town of the empire, and his subsequent 
 engagement in business will depend wholly upon 
 the decision of the authorities. 
 
 The other officials of this unfortunate bank, 
 some fifteen in number, comprising among them 
 many men of great wealth and highest social posi- 
 tion, were, in virtue of their more important offi-
 
 BANISHED TO SIBERIA 257 
 
 cial relation to the bank, adjudged more highly 
 culpable. They were, therefore, punished with 
 corresponding rigor and severity. They were 
 banished to various points in Siberia for a term 
 of eighteen years. As many of them were of an 
 advanced age, this was, in most cases, tantamount 
 to a life sentence. The banishment of several 
 was supplemented by two or three years at hard 
 labor, which in Russia has a dismal significance. 
 One was sent to Omsk, another to Tobolsk, and 
 the rest scattered through Siberia in more or less 
 wretched places, according to the degree of their 
 crime. One, presumably the chief offender, was 
 sent to Yakutsk, right in the heart of polar 
 Siberia, said to be the coldest and dreariest 
 place on the globe. As in the case that came 
 under my notice, these condemned officials, even 
 after the expiration of their sentence, will not be 
 permitted to enter or visit any large city or fron- 
 tier town, and cannot afrain enoraore in business, 
 excepting by the grace of the authorities — a scant 
 privilege that will even depend upon their deport- 
 ment while servinof their sentence. 
 
 Stopping on my return westward at a town on 
 the Volga, in European Russia, I went to a hotel 
 to await the arrival of the steamer that was to 
 take me down that ri\er. As this house was a 
 large one and well appointed, and as there seemed 
 17
 
 258 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 much disorder in its management, I in(juired the 
 cause; and was informed that the proprietor, a 
 man of much wealth, influence, and social posi- 
 tion, had just been sentenced to ten years' ban- 
 ishment to Siberia, one year of which was at 
 hard labor. Having departed on his melancholy 
 journey only a few days before, the disordered 
 state I discovered was accounted for. 
 
 On inquiry as to the nature of the crime he had 
 committed, and for which he was convicted and 
 so severely punished, I was astounded to learn that 
 it was for cheatino- at cards at the ofamino-table. 
 
 From these instances, I gathered the impression 
 that Russia would not be a healthy place for the 
 Hooleys of England and the professional wreckers 
 of our own country to ply their profitable vocation 
 of extracting money from the pockets of a confid- 
 ing and trusting public, nor for the respectable 
 gentlemen who so deftly lift their neighbors' money 
 at baccarat. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no country in the world where 
 the passport system is so deeply grounded, or 
 where it is so thoroughly carried into effect as in 
 Russia. Not only is it essential, in order to gain 
 admission into this country, that every foreigner 
 be fortified by a passport issued by his govern- 
 ment, but even every citizen of Russia is required 
 to possess one and keep it conveniently at hand.
 
 RUSSIAN PASSPORT SYSTEM 259 
 
 They are issued to Russian citizens for one year, 
 and must be promptly renewed annually. 
 
 The cost is from five to twenty-five rubles, ac- 
 cording to the class. No one, not even a citizen 
 of Russia, can go from one city or localit)- to an- 
 other with the intention of remaining twent}'-four 
 hours without showing his passport. 
 
 No sooner does one arrive at a hotel, be he na- 
 tive or stranger, than his passport is called for. It 
 is taken to the public headquarters and the neces- 
 sary registry made, for which a registration fee of 
 ten cents is required. Should any one find himself 
 in any city other than his own place of residence 
 even for twenty-four hours without a passport, he 
 is at once detained by the police until a satisfactory 
 explanation is forthcoming. If satisfaction can be 
 given and proof of good citizenship be presented, a 
 new passport is supplied ; otherwise the police take 
 permanent charge of the delinquent and his case is 
 disposed of by a more or less severe punishment. 
 
 It is thus that the government can keep a com- 
 plete record of all its citizens, and a close watch on 
 their movements. It is, moreover, an instrument 
 that greatly aids in more thoroughly utilizing all 
 its sources of energy, and in knitting more effec- 
 tively together the potencies of national life into 
 a compact, mobile whole, leaving no loose ends 
 floatino" about.
 
 26o SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 As a passport is required to gain admission into 
 Russia, so is one essential to gain permission to 
 leave the country. Every one, foreigner or citizen, 
 is obliged to show this passport on arrival at the 
 frontier before he is permitted to depart from Rus- 
 sia. Under these conditions, it is well nigh im- 
 possible for any one in this country to pull a bank 
 or wreck a railroad, and then conveniently skip 
 over the border to enjoy his ill-gotten gains in 
 other lands.
 
 XIII 
 
 Passenger boats on the Caspian Sea — New lines of steamers — Pe- 
 trovsk, on the Caspian — Excursion into the mountains — New 
 railway line to Baku — Great through line to Central Asia — Im- 
 portant influence of the Trans-Caspian railway upon this world's 
 affairs — Extension of same into China — Distance and time by 
 this route to China — Direct and short route to Northern India 
 — Projected line of railway from Orenburg to Tashkent — Ambi- 
 tions of Russia in a new field — Great canal between the Black 
 Sea and the Baltic — Great commercial and strategic importance 
 of same — Steady and persistent progress of Russia — Her ad- 
 vance not rapid, but secure — Does not vaunt her enterprises 
 — Effects upon political world of Trans-Caspian railway to be 
 greater than the Trans-Siberian railway — New route from 
 Merv to Herat — Its probable influence on Afghanistan — Pro- 
 jected lines into Persia — Line being built from Armenia to 
 Northern Persia— Important results to arise therefrom in that 
 country— New line projected from Samarkand southward to 
 Karshi — That city the key to Northeastern Afghanistan — Possi- 
 bility of formidable attack of Russia upon Northern India via 
 Central Asia — No combination of powers could stay it — Unim- 
 portant part naval forces would play in such a contest — Rus- 
 sia's contiguous territory and interior operations a manifest 
 advantage — Such a conflict might require the whole power of 
 Great Britain to repel — Russia's peace proposal — Her sincerity 
 in same — Prefers peaceful methods to those of war — Her 
 superior strategical position — May not Russia's evident advan- 
 tage over India operate to preserve peace ? — The fortunate 
 position of America in the event of a great Asiatic war. 
 
 Samarkand, Central Asia, October, 1898. 
 Besides numerous steam and sail vessels that 
 carry on a large freight traffic on the Caspian Sea,
 
 262 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 there are several excellent lines of passenger 
 boats, the chief one being the Kavkaz and Mer- 
 cury line. This company is constantly adding 
 new and well-equipped steamers to accommodate 
 
 THE GREAT PETROLEUM CITY OF BAKU, ON THE CASPIAN SEA, IN THE 
 EASTERN CAUCASUS. VIEW FROM THE BAY 
 
 its rapidly increasing travel and traffic. The 
 steamers of this line call at the larger Russian 
 towns on the Caspian Sea, and also at those of 
 Persia, on its southern border.
 
 LINES OF STEAMERS ON CASPIAN SEA 265 
 
 The past year they have added to their fleet 
 two screw vessels of about two thousand tons, 
 fitted up with every modern convenience, and which 
 readily make sixteen knots per hour. On one of 
 these I embarked at Astrakhan for Baku, the chief 
 port in the middle Caucasus. 
 
 The first stop is at Petrovsk, the district town of 
 the Daghestan. Before reaching this city, the ma- 
 jestic range of the Caucasian Mountains, among the 
 hiofhest on the irlobe, rises into view, bearing" awav 
 to the northwest, with the fine snow-capped peak 
 of the great Kazbek just peeping above the hori- 
 zon. The boat stopping here several hours, gives 
 an opportunity to make a pleasant excursion into 
 the foot-hills of the Daghestan Mountains, a trip 
 well rewarded by what one sees among the wild, 
 rude tribes that people this rugged region. 
 
 Petrovsk, like many other towns under the in- 
 fluence of Russian enterprise, is growing rapidly ; 
 and in virtue of its excellent port, as well as the 
 position it occupies as an important intermediate 
 point on the soon-to-be through Trans-Caspian 
 and Central Asian route, it is destined to become 
 a city of much importance. 
 
 There is now a railroad running from Petrovsk 
 to Moscow, via X'ladikavkaz and Rostoff on the 
 Don, and the journey can be most comfortably 
 made without change in three da)"s on a splendid
 
 266 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 through train, a distance of nearly two thousand 
 miles. 
 
 A road is ahnost completed, running along the 
 shore of the Caspian Sea to Baku, a distance of 
 
 CATHEDRAL IX BAKU 
 
 300 miles. This is designed to connect with the 
 line of steamers running across the Caspian Sea 
 from the western terminus of the Trans-Caspian 
 railway to Baku, making thus a direct line running
 
 TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 267 
 
 from Central Asia to Moscow, and thence to 
 Western Europe. 
 
 I have heretofore pointed out that results of 
 the utmost commercial, industrial, and even ethi- 
 cal, importance to Northern and Eastern China, as 
 well as to the world generally, must speedily 
 follow the completion of the great Trans-Siberian 
 railway, with its contemplated tributaries project- 
 ine southward into China. 
 
 In anticipation of the facts, which I will here- 
 after give more in detail, of the development of 
 Russian Central Asia, I would say that by a like 
 policy of railway extension in that country results 
 even more far-reaching in their importance to 
 Southern and Western, and especially to Middle 
 China, Northern India, Afghanistan, and Persia, 
 will follow the completion of the main line of the 
 Trans-Caspian railway, with its tributaries radiat- 
 ing into those countries. At the present rapid 
 rate of advance, this will be realized at no distant 
 da)'. 
 
 The Trans-Caspian railway is now practically 
 completed from Krasnovodsk, on the eastern 
 shore of the Caspian Sea, to Tashkent, the capital 
 of Turkestan, near the China border, a distance of 
 about 1,200 miles. With the exception, therefore, 
 of the transit across the Caspian Sea, a continuous 
 trip will soon be possible from Paris, or any part
 
 268 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 of Western Europe, to the northern confines of 
 India and right up to the western border of China, 
 
 The time now required on the Trans-Caspian 
 railway is three days. It can, however, easily be 
 shortened to two. The Caspian Sea may be 
 crossed in fifteen hours. The distance between 
 Baku and Moscow can in future be covered in less 
 than three days ; so that within a year it will be 
 possible to make the journey from Western China 
 to Moscow within six days. 
 
 Following this idea further, it will be among 
 the possibilities within the next decade to go from 
 Paris to Kokand, or Kashgar, or the central north- 
 ern border of India, or even to Central China, 
 within from ten days to two weeks. As the time 
 now required to go from London or Paris to 
 Northern India via Marseilles, the Mediterranean 
 Sea, Suez, and the Indian Ocean is over three 
 weeks, and the cost more than double, some con- 
 ception can be formed of the great changes that 
 in future are to be wrought in the trade and travel 
 between Northern India, Central Asia, China, and 
 European countries, when the possibilities of this 
 great highway are fully realized. 
 
 By a projection of this route from Tashkent 
 into Central China, that vast region could be so 
 linked with Central Europe that ten or twelve 
 days might sufifice for the journey. As by no
 
 NEW RAILWAY LINE TO TURKESTAN 271 
 
 other possible route could that vast region be 
 joined to Europe in less than double the time and 
 twice the expense, it becomes apparent how much 
 in future Russia will control the destiny and ma- 
 terial well-beinor of all Asia. 
 
 The Russian government has under contempla- 
 tion the construction of yet another line, which, 
 when completed, will form an additional and most 
 important route between far Asiatic and Euro- 
 pean countries. At Samara, on the Volga, a 
 branch line separates from the main stem of the 
 Trans-Siberian railwav, runninof to Orenbursf in 
 Southeastern Russia. It is the purpose of the 
 government to extend this line southeastward 
 some 1,200 miles (around the Aral Sea), following 
 up the Syr-Daria — the ancient Jaxartes — to the 
 very centre of Turkestan. By this line, a direct 
 and continuous all-rail communication will be es- 
 tablished between Northern Central Asia, Central 
 China, and Europe, 
 
 Having practically realized the most stupendous 
 railway enterprise ever undertaken, Russia now 
 seems ambitious to achieve an equally important 
 and brilliant success in another field. It is noth- 
 ing less than the formidable project to connect 
 the Black Sea and the Baltic b)- a gigantic water- 
 way. 
 
 This is to be accomplished through uniting, by
 
 272 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 great canals, the various rivers flowing through the 
 wide and intervening country, a distance of 600 or 
 800 miles. They are to be constructed of such un- 
 usual size and capacity that, in addition to the 
 vast commercial purposes they will serve, they will 
 also be used for the transit of her naval armament 
 from one sea to the other, securing thus, through 
 her own territory, free communication, independent 
 of any international route. 
 
 In other words, she will by this means secure 
 for herself in European Russia those exclusive 
 strategical advantages which the Trans-Siberian 
 and Trans-Caspian railways have already given 
 her in Asiatic countries. This great project has 
 not as yet assumed a tangible shape, but that it 
 will ultimately be carried out there can be little 
 doubt, since this great nation has a way of realiz- 
 ing quietly and without ostentation, yet stubbornly 
 and persistently, the vast schemes she conceives, 
 despite all jealous cavil and opposition. 
 
 The boldness of conception, followed by a per- 
 sistent and steady realization, of schemes of im- 
 provement and development so vast and daring, 
 ill accords, I am sure, with the somewhat prevalent 
 idea that Russia is a non-progressive, inert, or at 
 least semi-passive nation. 
 
 Imbued to some extent with this notion, it is 
 needless to sav that in all mv travels I have met
 
 GROWTH OF COMMERCE AND TRADE 273 
 
 with few greater surprises than that of the steady 
 and in many cases rapid advance in all directions 
 of Russian industrial and commercial life. 
 
 It is true that she has not, as it has too often 
 occurred in other nations in their strife and mad 
 craze for excessive growth and progress, devel- 
 oped new, needless, and in many cases even injuri- 
 ous wants, nor has she anticipated for generations 
 real necessities, all of which has had the effect of 
 imparting in a large measure to such nations an 
 air of fiction and inflation to their national life. 
 
 Fairness compels one to say that wherever, in 
 due course and by natural growth, real wants and 
 necessities arise, she meets them with commend- 
 able celerity and thoroughness. Her policy seems 
 to be that of fully supph-ing those needs that 
 naturally arise and develop, rather than following 
 the example of other nations, the volume of whose 
 trade and industries largely consists in supplying 
 unnatural and superfluous wants, artificially cre- 
 ated. 
 
 Nor is it her custom to herald abroad her pro- 
 posed enterprises, or magnify the results when 
 completed. Indeed, on the contrary, in some 
 cases, such as her present developments in Central 
 Asia, she discourages, and even represses, attempts 
 to record them; and it is only the favored few 
 who gain access to this almost unknown re^rion 
 
 iS
 
 274 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 who acquire any knowledge of the really wondrous 
 changes that are now taking place in it. 
 
 Great as will be the effect upon the world of 
 the opening of the Trans-Siberian railway system 
 —a fact that is gradually being recognized — the 
 Trans-Caspian railway system, when completed, 
 will be productive of results even far more im- 
 portant in their political and commercial conse- 
 quences. 
 
 There is a branch of the Trans-Caspian railway 
 now completed, some 250 miles in length and 
 running southward from Merv to Kushk, on the 
 very borders of Afghanistan. It is being quietly 
 extended to Herat, and it will, when completed, 
 give Russia practical control of Northwestern 
 Afghanistan, as Herat is the key to that country. 
 This line is also projected to run further south- 
 ward, through the heart of Persia down to the 
 Persian Gulf, — very extensive concessions, as I 
 learn, having recently been given to Russia by 
 the Persian Government to build railways in that 
 country. The railway that has just been con- 
 structed from Tiflis, in the Caucasus, to Alexan- 
 dropol and Erivan in Armenia, is to be pushed 
 down the Araxes River to Tibriz, Teheran, and 
 Ispahan, thus crossing in the centre of Persia, 
 almost at rieht ano-les, the branch line of the 
 Trans-Caspian railway running southward from
 
 RUSSIAN CONTROL OF AFGHANISTAN 275 
 
 Merv via Herat. These lines, when in operation, 
 will thus obviously give Russia a controlling in- 
 fluence in Persia and Northwestern Afghanistan. 
 A branch, also, of the main stem of the Trans- 
 Caspian line is being built from Samarkand 
 through Ferghan, in the direction of Kokand and 
 Kashgar, in the Pamirs, almost in sight of the 
 northern border of India, This line in time will, 
 no doubt, be extended into Chinese Turkestan, 
 and perhaps into the very centre of China itself, 
 bringing thus this great and populous country 
 into communication with Europe, even more di- 
 rectly than by the way of the Trans-Siberian rail- 
 way line. Still another most important route is 
 projected to run southward from Samarkand 
 some 250 miles, through Southern Bokhara, to 
 Karshi, on the northwestern confines of Afghan- 
 istan, and said to occupy one of the most im- 
 portant strategical positions in all Asia. Karshi 
 lies but a short distance northeast of Balk, which 
 place was the base of Alexander's operations 
 against India, and from which he made his de- 
 scent upon that country. An extension of this 
 line further on, toward Candahar — a quite prob- 
 able thing, as the Ameer of Afghanistan is said 
 to be most favorably inclined to Russia — would 
 give Russia practical control of the Cabul basin 
 and of the northern half of Afo^hanistan. As the
 
 276 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Trans-Caspian railway and its tributaries, running 
 to the very borders of India and through hundreds 
 of miles distance, could be used if desired by 
 Russia wholly for military operations against that 
 country, it is apparent that she could inaugurate 
 a movement in case of necessity against England's 
 cherished possessions, of the most formidable and 
 dangerous character. By her ample railway facili- 
 ties, she could in a brief time throw along hundreds 
 of miles of assailable frontier, myriads of soldiers, 
 the best in the world, where they could readily be 
 maintained as a perpetual menace to India. Nor 
 does it seem possible for any combination of 
 forces to prevent or arrest such a movement on 
 the part of Russia, as no array of naval power 
 could avail against the use of this system of rail- 
 ways as a military instrument, lying as it does 
 in the very heart of the great Slavic empire, 
 and far remote from the sea. As Russia is 
 pushing her projected improvements in these 
 regions steadily and with vigor, it is not improb- 
 able that she already feels that she controls the 
 destinies of Southwestern Asia, and, even more, 
 that at her leisure she can dictate to England 
 what her future relations to that country shall be. 
 If, unfortunately, hostilities should again arise 
 between these two great powers, be the point of 
 contact Port Arthur or Sebastopol, it may not be
 
 STRATEGICAL ADVANTAGE OF RUSSIA 277 
 
 the privilege of England, in the event of a serious 
 conflict, to choose her vantage ground, as this ad- 
 vantage would lie rather with Russia. The indif- 
 ference with which the latter might well look upon 
 an approach by sea, would leave her free to throw 
 an overwhelming force upon an interior point, and 
 thus shift the scene of real conflict to a region 
 where the great naval forces of her adversary 
 would be relativeh' of little use. By reason of the 
 self-contained and self-sustaining power of Russia; 
 her vast, impenetrable, and wholly contiguous ter- 
 ritory, now practically conterminous with hundreds 
 of miles of India's northern border; a widely rami- 
 fying railway system beyond the reach of an 
 enemy to interrupt, and providing ample means 
 direct for transportation of troops and supplies, 
 it seems probable that such an assault could be 
 made by her upon India (that might be prolonged 
 indefinitely) as would require the entire resources 
 of England to meet and at the same time to 
 preserve the peace of her none too loyal subjects 
 there, whose discontent would find a stimulus in 
 the near presence of a powerful ally. ^lay we not 
 find in a situation so exceptional, a position so 
 obviously commanding and assured, the true sig- 
 nificance of Russia's recent peace proposals? 
 
 May it not in reality suggest a generous desire 
 on her part to aid in securing those measures
 
 278 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 whereby the world's great powers shall volun- 
 tarily delimit their ambitions, and thus assure the 
 future inteo;ritv of trade and commerce ? For, with 
 the most powerful army on the globe, and holding 
 a position of such rare strategical advantage, of 
 which she is doubtless fully conscious, is it likely 
 that she entertains any fear of the issue of a con- 
 test with any possible combination, under condi- 
 tions now so distinctly in her favor ? 
 
 It is an interesting question, well worthy of con- 
 sideration, how far this manifest tactical advantage 
 enjoyed by Russia will in future operate to main- 
 tain peace, or will even conduce to an ultimate 
 friendly relation of the two great powers, between 
 whom it is difficult to discern other than a common 
 interest, or at least any substantial cause to per- 
 petuate hostile relations. 
 
 If unfortunately a collision should arise on the 
 lines here pointed out, with its destructive effects, 
 its widespread disaster to the trade, commerce, and 
 industry of all European and Asiatic peoples, our 
 own country will have cause for congratulation 
 that, by the fortunate position it occupies, she 
 will escape the deplorable consequences that are 
 certain to erow out of the entanorlingr relations and 
 alliances that harass and plague less fortunate 
 nations.
 
 ^^^.^^.■|!i?> Ilk-,,: 

 
 XIV 
 
 The great city of Baku — Its rapid growtii — Cause of same — Yet 
 growing rapidly — Tiie petroleum deposits in the Caucasus — 
 Number of wells in operation — Limited exploration of Caucasian 
 oil fields — New field north of the Caucasian range of mountains 
 — Output of the oil wells in 1897 — Stories current in Baku — A 
 lucky Tartar — Wonderful wells — Refineries in "Black Town," 
 near Baku — Crude oil extensively used as fuel in Southern Russia 
 ■ — Desire to visit Central Asia — Importance of that country politi- 
 cally — The key to India, Western China, and perhaps Constan- 
 tinople — Intricacies of European politics — India the real storm 
 centre — India indispensable to England's power and greatness — 
 Her anxiety and efforts to preserve same — Her fear of Russia's 
 designs upon India — Has relied upon her great navy — Her 
 naval strength would avail but little to check Russia's advance 
 through Central Asia — Russia's railway building in Asia 
 regarded as a menace to India — The "gospel of the machine " — 
 Russian railway advance in Asia — Desire for alliances — The 
 open door — Cautious measures of Russia in her Central Asian 
 possessions. 
 
 Among the many almost miraculous creations 
 of modern trade and industry, Baku deserves to 
 take a conspicuous place in the list of phenomenal 
 cities. In its ante-petroleum days it was merely 
 one of many small and (;ven insignificant towns 
 that dotted the Caucasian sliore of the Caspian 
 Sea, at which an occasional sail vessel called for the
 
 282 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 purposes of local trade. It is to-day a great city of 
 150,000 inhabitants, with large and beautiful busi- 
 ness blocks, many well-paved streets, tramways, 
 electric lights, telephone system, etc.; and its capa- 
 
 OIL FIELD SOU7H OF BAKU, NEAR THE SHORE OF THE CASPIAN SEA, 
 OPERATED BY ENGLISH AND FRENCH CAPITALISTS 
 
 cious harbor is literally jammed with sail and steam 
 vessels, its commerce extending to the remotest 
 limits of the empire, and even far into Europe. 
 It is the familiar story of a newly discovered
 
 THE RAPID GROWTH OF BAKU 283 
 
 resource, so great as to cause the convergence of 
 the world's energy and capital upon it. The pri- 
 mary cause of its rapid growth is, of course, the 
 great petroleum interests of which it is the centre. 
 But a great accession of trade and energy grows 
 out of the fact that Baku is in reality the western 
 terminus of the Trans-Caspian railway, the com- 
 mercial forces and influences of which impinge 
 full upon this fortunate city. 
 
 Rapid as has been the growth of this queer city 
 in recent years, there seems to be no abatement in 
 the rate of its expansion, for everywhere great 
 stone and brick edifices are being now erected, 
 new streets laid out, and the old Persian, Tartar, 
 and Armenian quarters, if not literally razed to 
 build a new city upon, at least newly traversed by 
 broad and elegant avenues. 
 
 Nor does there seem to be a probability of an 
 early limit to its rapid growth, since the petroleum 
 interests of this region are as yet hardly more 
 than explored. It seems to be the opinion of 
 many scientists that the petroleum deposits of the 
 Eastern Caucasus are the most important on the 
 globe. 
 
 As yet only two fields have been developed, 
 one lying about two miles south of the city, near 
 the sea level, and containing about 500 wells; 
 the other some six miles north of the citv, and at
 
 284 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 an elevation of several hundred feet above the 
 level of the sea, containinor about 1,200 wells. In 
 all, therefore, there are at present some 1,800 wells 
 tributary to Baku, 
 
 OIL FIELD NORTHWEST OF BAKU, SEVERAL HUNDRED FEET ABOVE THE 
 SEA LEVEL, OPERATED BY SWEDISH AND FRENCH CAPITALISTS 
 
 The first mentioned field is being largely 
 worked by English capital, and the latter by Noe- 
 bel, the Swedish discoverer of dynamite, and the
 
 EXTENT OF PETROLEUM FIELDS 285 
 
 Rothschilds. New wells are beintr sunk in orreat 
 numbers, and the road from Baku to the northern 
 field, a distance of six miles, is almost literal!)' im- 
 passable, so crowded is it with teams hauling great 
 boilers and other machinery destined for the use 
 of new wells or those in course of preparation. 
 
 But comparatively little testing has been done 
 to determine the true extent of the oil fields of 
 the Caucasus, but enough to establish the fact that 
 they cover the greater portion of the Eastern 
 Caucasus and extend even into Northern Persia. 
 Quite a promising field has been opened the past 
 three or four years on the northern slope of the 
 Caucasian Mountains, midway between Petrovsk 
 and Vladikavkaz, 
 
 From Baron von der Hoven, the head of the 
 statistical department for Eastern Caucasus, I 
 learned that this industry was rapidly on the in- 
 crease. The output of crude oil last year was 
 nearly 2,000,000,000 gallons. In 1891 there were 
 fifteen refineries, producing 80,000,000 gallons 
 of refined oil. 
 
 The same marvellous stories are current here of 
 the sudden transition from extreme poverty to 
 great wealth, that embellished the history of 
 Western Pennsylvania in the "Coal Oil Johnny" 
 days. You are told of the wretchedly poor Ar- 
 menian or lucky Tartar, the possessor of a tract
 
 286 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 of land so miserably sterile that a whole acre 
 would not yield subsistence for a handful of grass- 
 hoppers, who found himself suddenly possessed of 
 wealth beyond the dreams of avarice. 
 
 A Tartar was pointed out to me who a few years 
 ago was pounding stone on the street for a living, 
 and is now said to be worth 25,000,000 rubles. 
 
 The interested traveller is also expected to be 
 astonished by the usual stories about the wonder- 
 ful performance of some spouter or gusher that 
 has broken the record. I was shown a well be- 
 longing to the Rothschilds, which while now only 
 an ordinary producer, is said to have once spouted 
 for months at a time at the astounding rate of 
 nearly 2,000,000 gallons a day. 
 
 Along the bay, in the northeast part of the city, 
 are located the larore refineries of Noebel and the 
 Rothschilds, which alone have created quite a city, 
 called " Black Town." 
 
 This immense deposit of oil is destined to be a 
 source of great wealth to Russia. Besides sup- 
 plying a large quantity for export, it is used in a 
 crude form for fuel throuorhout much of the em- 
 pire. The steamboats on the Don, Volga, and 
 other rivers, on the Caspian Sea, and to some 
 extent also in the Black Sea, as also almost all the 
 railways in Southeastern Russia, use the crude oil 
 exclusivelv for fuel.
 
 DESIRE TO VISIT CENTRAL ASIA 289 
 
 I confess that for years I have cherished an 
 ardent desire to visit Central Asia and the ancient 
 cities of Merv, Bokhara, and Samarkand, about 
 which to my youthful imagination such a halo of 
 romance was thrown by Alexander the Great, and 
 which, in more modern times, was the seat of that 
 mighty Tartar power under Zinghiz Khan and 
 Tamerlane ; a region, too, that once was so famous 
 in the annals of literature and of art. 
 
 The vague expectation of being able to obtain 
 a permit to see this interesting country was one 
 of the incentives to my visiting the Caspian region 
 at this time. Perhaps no country, excepting some 
 portions of China, has been so long excluded from 
 the world, and into which admission was so diffi- 
 cult, as Central Asia. Indeed, the Bokharian por- 
 tion of it records but one authenticated visit by a 
 European previous to this century, and it is only 
 in comparatively recent years that other than a few 
 Russian officials have gone into this sealed land. 
 
 Great as was the part that Central Asia played 
 in the past in the world's affairs, she seems destined 
 to play indirectly the same role in scarcely a less 
 degree, since it is fast becoming the key to West- 
 ern China and Southern Asia, Afghanistan and 
 Persia, and may even yet point the way to Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 To those at all familiar with the intricacies of 
 19
 
 290 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 European politics, and who study its delicate ad- 
 justments, it is apparent that no matter what dis- 
 turbance of the political atmosphere there may be 
 in the Balkans, on the Nile, in Turkey, or Pales- 
 tine, or even the Baltic, for the most part the real 
 storm centre can be sought for and found in India. 
 
 England, it seems, has come to regard the reten- 
 tion of that country as synonymous with her na- 
 tional prosperity and supremacy, and, in truth, were 
 she to lose it, she would at once descend to a sec- 
 ond-rate power. In view of this, for a century she 
 has artfully contrived to create and maintain a 
 system of national checkmates in Europe, to safe- 
 guard her Indian possessions and subserve her 
 cherished purposes elsewhere. Whatever might 
 be the aims, desires, and abilities of other nations, 
 she has chosen to regard Russia as her natural 
 enemy, and the one nation filled with a covetous 
 desire for this her choicest possession. 
 
 The extreme sensitiveness displayed by this 
 great nation — which upon all other questions pre- 
 serves such an admirable equipoise — whenever 
 Russia makes the least movement eastward, pre- 
 sents a strange spectacle. No matter what that 
 nation may do, she seems to regard every incident 
 and event, however remote, to which Russia is re- 
 lated, as a direct menace to India. 
 
 Every now and again, some apocryphal story
 
 ENGLAND'S ANXIETY FOR INDIA 291 
 
 flashes athwart the British press about Russia's 
 sinister designs in Central Asia. If it be reported 
 that she is building a railway toward Herat or the 
 Pamirs, a common road in the direction of Persia, 
 or if some Russian officer should chance to turn 
 his binoculars toward the Afghan mountains, 
 fear seems to seize this stalwart nation, and a note 
 of alarm is sounded that India is threatened. 
 
 Havino; longr chosen to re(jard Russia as hold- 
 ing traditional designs on India, and having 
 adopted the rather singular view that the Medi- 
 terranean was to be the road to that coveted land, 
 it was this that caused her to create her immense 
 naval armament to patrol that sea, as a means of 
 insuring the safety of her Indian possessions. 
 Now that Russia, by a system of railways in her 
 own possessions, is approaching the very border 
 of India, by which, if she chooses to do so, she 
 can throw the weight of her empire against upper 
 India, we can find in this new situation a reason- 
 able excuse for England's present anxiety, seeing 
 that her mighty ironclads, created at so much 
 pains and at so great an expense, are likely to 
 prove about as effective in preventing the ap- 
 proach of Russia in this more vulnerable direc- 
 tion, as so much old junk. 
 
 Into what strange and erratic courses such fear 
 can lead a nation, in so many ways the greatest and
 
 292 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 most admirable, is signally illustrated by a recent 
 occurrence. When the Czar made his late pro- 
 posal of disarmament — a scheme so beneficent that 
 it might well call down upon the head of the 
 young ruler the praises and blessings of all lovers 
 of peace and humanity — some of the leading 
 papers of England, that direct and mould public 
 sentiment, made the counter proposal, that before 
 giving it consideration, Russia should be asked, 
 as a pledge of her sincerity, to cease building 
 railways in China and Central Asia. 
 
 This proposition, to say the least, is an astound- 
 ing one, coming as it did from a nation that justi- 
 fies its occupation of India, and the conquest of 
 unoffending African races, mainly on the ground 
 that these people will thereby receive the bene- 
 fits of railways and other blessings of a new 
 civilization. 
 
 Strangely enough, this " gospel of the machine " 
 seems to be spreading apace, and may yet supplant 
 that of the "meek and lowly." However sound it 
 may seem to be in the abstract, or whatever may 
 be the present results of its practical application, I 
 doubt if the world is yet prepared to accept the 
 full consequences of a doctrine so grossly material, 
 as that the immunity of any nation from wanton 
 and unprovoked assault by other nations is to be 
 measured by its readiness to accept and its capac-
 
 DESIRE FOR ALLIANCES 293 
 
 ity to consume the modern products of the mine 
 and the loom. 
 
 The many evidences during the past year of the 
 rapidity with which Central Asia was being Rus- 
 sianized, and the equally rapid advance of her 
 great railway towards an open seaport on the 
 Pacific at Port Arthur, with its contemplated col- 
 lateral branches into China, have in the past few 
 months quickened England into increased efforts 
 to check or obstruct the movements of her great 
 adversary, which, however local or domestic they 
 may in reality be, she regards as having an object 
 personal to herself. 
 
 It is not the least singular fact in this connec- 
 tion that she seems to lack confidence in her own 
 unaided abilities, as her search for alliances would 
 appear to indicate. In her desire to compass this, 
 with a rare inconsistency, the tempting bait of 
 " open door trade " is proffered to nations who 
 long have been, and are likely long to remain, 
 irrevocably committed to a "closed door policy" 
 far more riorid in character than that of Russia. 
 Naturally enough, as a foil to these obstructive 
 efforts, Russia retorts with protective measures of 
 extreme caution and vigilance, even to placing a 
 partial though temporary interdict upon her Cen- 
 tral Asian possessions.
 
 XV 
 
 Admission into Trans-Caspian country — Military railway — Special 
 permit necessary in Trans-Caspian region — Across Northern 
 Persia — On the Araxes River — First view of Mt. Ararat — Cross- 
 ing the Araxes— Mt. Ararat — Grandeur of same — Ascent of 
 Ararat — Armenian cemetery — Across the Araxes Valley — Eri- 
 van, the capital of Armenia — Mosques, palaces, etc. — Change 
 under Russian rule — New railway line south of Erivan — Mar- 
 kets in Erivan — The great-tailed sheep — On the road to the 
 Caucasus — Last view of Mtt Ararat — Curious religious sects — 
 Picturesque Lake of Goktcha — Height above the sea — The an- 
 cient monastery ofSevanga — Over the Delijan Pass — Descent of 
 northern slope of Armenian mountains — Arrival at Akstafa on 
 the Kura River. 
 
 Many curious stories are afloat at Baku respect- 
 ing the various attempts of would-be English tour- 
 ists to gain admission into the Trans-Caspian 
 country. Relying upon the sufficiency of their 
 passports, they cross the Caspian Sea only to find 
 themselves summarily and promptly sent back 
 again. Having this in mind, I called upon the 
 governor of Baku for permission to go over the 
 Trans-Caspian railway to Samarkand and Tash- 
 kent. 
 
 I might add here that this railway is purely a 
 military one, undertaken and built by Russia for
 
 TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 295 
 
 the purpose of securing her interests in Central 
 Asia, and is operated by the Ministry of \\ ar. I 
 was, however, informed at Merv that as soon as 
 the branches that are being built into Turkestan, 
 Feracrhan, and to the Afghan border are com- 
 
 INTKRIOR OF THE ANXIENT PALACE OF THE VICEROYS OF PERSIA IN 
 
 ERIVAN 
 
 pleted, the road will be handed over to the civil 
 authorities to be operated by the Ministry of Rail- 
 ways, becoming thus, like all other railroads in this 
 country, freely open to all, and to general trade 
 purposes. This is expected to be done within the 
 next vear.
 
 296 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The official to whom I appHed, while admitting 
 the present extreme precautions of his govern- 
 ment, replied that whatever limitations might be 
 placed upon the movements of others, the Ameri- 
 can was always privileged and welcome to freely 
 travel in any portion of the empire, merely upon 
 the passport of his government. He, however, 
 significantly added that to insure perfect freedom 
 and unrestrained facilities for travel, it would be 
 well to secure a special permit from the Minister 
 of the Interior, he himself having no authority to 
 issue one. This could be readily done, he assured 
 me, by letter or personal application to the Minis- 
 ter at St, Petersburg. Finding that this would 
 consume nearly a month, and not caring to under- 
 take a trip so full of hardships, with no certainty 
 of having the necessary freedom to see the desired 
 objects of interest there, I reluctantly abandoned 
 the journey. 
 
 Takinor the boat for Lenkoran, 100 miles south 
 of Baku, I crossed through Northern Persia to the 
 Araxes River, which forms the boundary between 
 that country and Russia. Following up this river, 
 I reached the small town of Nakhchivan, which 
 means in Persian "the first descent," and is sup- 
 posed to be the first resting place of Noah, 
 after leaving the ark. While there I was shown 
 a veritable piece of the true ark, which I ad-
 
 CROSSING THE ARAXES RIVER 
 
 297 
 
 mired with much interest and becoming rev- 
 erence. 
 
 Following the river mentioned, we passed the 
 
 r*r:5a 
 
 CARAVAN CROSSING THE ARAXES RIVER, ON THE BORDERS OF RUSSIA 
 AND PERSIA, EN ROUTE FOR ERIVAN, ARMENIA 
 
 little Ararat, a beautifulh- pointed mountain of 
 12,000 feet in height. The road follows some- 
 what closely the course of the Araxes, which, 
 throughout much of its length, constitutes the
 
 298 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 boundary between Persia and Russia. This road 
 is the great higliway that joins Northern Persia to 
 the Caucasus and Europe. At Kamerki there is a 
 branch road that leads westward to Aralykli, at 
 
 ON THE BANKS OF THE ARAXES RIVER, FORMING THE BOUNDARY 
 BETWEEN RUSSIA AND PERSIA 
 
 the base of the Great Ararat. This is a miHtary 
 post, where a great number of Cossacks are per- 
 manently quartered, and it is from this point that 
 the ascent of Mt. Ararat is made. x\bout midway
 
 GREAT AND LITTLE ARARAT 
 
 301 
 
 between Kamerlu and Aralykh, a distance of about 
 ten miles, the Araxes River is crossed on a primi- 
 tive ferry. 
 
 After that, we came upon the real Ararat of 
 
 1\ THE VAI.I.F.V OF THE ARAXES RIVER. LITTLE AMI CKEAT ARARAT 
 MOUNTAINS IN THE DISTANCE 
 
 Scripture and history, one of the most beautiful 
 and stately of mountains, and about 17,000 feet 
 in height. I have seen most of the celebrated 
 mountains of the irlobe, but of them all none
 
 302 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 presents a more imposing appearance than Ararat, 
 viewed from the A raxes that washes its very 
 base. Most lofty mountains are so situated that 
 
 DISTANT VIEW OF MT. ARARAT 
 
 (fo.H^;f 
 
 the summit can be seen only at a great distance, 
 or else after much of its height has been reached. 
 The summit of Ararat, however, can be seen from 
 its very base, at a point only a few hundred feet
 
 MOUNT ARARAT 305 
 
 above the level of the sea and at a distance as the 
 bird flies of less than twenty miles. 
 
 The mountain, therefore, rises directly before 
 you to a height of over three miles in a wonder- 
 fully impressive manner. By reason of its near- 
 ness, its perfect symmetry, the everlasting mantle 
 of snow that envelops the summit, all viewed 
 through the transparent atmosphere of this re- 
 gion, it becomes, perhaps, the most satisfactory 
 mountain view on the globe. 
 
 The northern face has a very striking resem- 
 blance to that of Mount Etna, having a deep de- 
 pression much like the val del hovo of that moun- 
 tain. I did not go to the summit, as it is a most 
 fatiguing trip, requiring several days. As this 
 region is infested with numerous and dancrerous 
 bands of briorands and robbers, those who visit the 
 summit are provided by the government, for their 
 protection, with ten or a dozen Cossacks from the 
 barracks located at the foot of the mountain, where 
 there are always quartered several regiments of 
 these celebrated soldiers. 
 
 Soon after leaving the small town of Agham- 
 zaly, I noticed at a short distance from the 
 roadside quite a number of natives, dressed in 
 varied costumes bright in their richness of colors. 
 They were in an open space, literally covered with 
 great round boulders scattered irregularly about.
 
 3o6 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 On coming" closer I discovered that it was a 
 cemetery, and some important memorial service 
 was being- held. The stones, simply of a natural 
 form and obtained from the hills nearby, served 
 to mark the locality of the many graves. There 
 was no enclosing wall or other protection for the 
 cemetery. I was much impressed by the striking 
 contrast of the rich, even gaudy, coloring of their 
 costumes with the solemn occasion and sombre 
 surroundings. 
 
 Cutting across the valley of the Araxes, we 
 reached the ancient city of Erivan, the capital of 
 Armenia. It is located on the Zanga River, an 
 affluent of the Araxes, which it enters some 
 twenty miles below, in the direction of Mt. Ararat. 
 Erivan is full of half-ruined and what must have 
 been exquisitely beautiful mosques, decayed pal- 
 aces, ancient fortresses, and other reminders of 
 its former Mohammedan masters. Many changes 
 have occurred under Russian rule, greatly modern- 
 izing the city. Wide streets, spacious parks, 
 handsome public buildings. Christian churches, 
 etc., attest the presence of a new master. 
 
 On my way northward, I noticed the govern- 
 ment was busily engaged in surveying a railway 
 line down the valley of the Araxes. Persia is, no 
 doubt, the southern objective point of this road, 
 and it seemed to be headino- for Tibriz. As Rus-
 
 RUSSIAN RAILWAYS IN PERSIA 
 
 309 
 
 sia has recently received from Persia extensive 
 concessions, this, no doubt, is the initial line from 
 the north into that country. This road is to join, 
 at Alexandropol, the one now almost completed 
 
 COSSACK CAVALRYMEN ON THE ROAD TO MT. ARARAT 
 
 from Titiis to that cit)-. As the Trans-Caucasian 
 railway runs from Tiflis to Batoum on the eastern 
 shore of the Black Sea, this new line will ultimately 
 form a continuous route from Central Persia to
 
 310 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Europe through Armenia, the Caucasus, and the 
 Dardanelles. A future network of railways by 
 Russia into Persia and Afg-hanistan will no doubt 
 be a natural sequence to her network of railways 
 in Central Asia. 
 
 While in Erivan I visited the markets there, of 
 
 RKTUKM.NU IKOM MX. ARARAT 
 
 which there are several most important and highly 
 interesting-. The soil along the Zanga and Araxes 
 rivers, being simply the \vashings or detritus of 
 the enclosinof volcanic mountains, is therefore of 
 an extremely fertile nature. It much resembles 
 the volcanic soils around Naples and in the vicinity 
 of Mt. Vesuvius, being somewhat similarly formed.
 
 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF ARMENIA 311 
 
 The many streams descending- from the moun- 
 tains give an abundant supply of water for irriga- 
 tion, which is carried by a great network of canals 
 and ditches throuq-hout these rich and beautiful 
 
 PERSIAN CART OR AREA 
 
 valleys. Vegetables, therefore, not only grow 
 there in the greatest profusion, but also in great 
 variety. Almost every kind that is natural to a 
 temperate climate can be found in the markets, and 
 also many that are distinctl}- of a tropical nature.
 
 312 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 I found there what was the finest specimen I 
 have ever seen of that sino-ular animal known as 
 the "fat-tailed sheep," so often met with in Afri- 
 can and Asiatic countries. Whether by gradual 
 
 MARKET SCENE IN ERIVAX. GREAT FAT-TAILED SHEEP 
 
 chanofes throuo-h domestication or bv natural pro- 
 cesses this extraordinary appendage has been de- 
 veloped, it is difficult to determine. It consists 
 of two great lobes of fatty matter springing from 
 the body of the animal on each side of the tail,
 
 VIEW OF ARARAT FROM ERIVAN 315 
 
 which is so completely embedded in it that it no 
 longer possesses either the appearance or function 
 of that useful member. So enormously is this pe- 
 culiar q-rowth developed in some cases that it al- 
 
 VIEW OF MT. ARARAT, I.OOKI\(, SOUTHWARD FROM ERIVAX, THE 
 CAPITAL OF ARMENIA 
 
 most trails upon the ground. It is generally from 
 25 to 30 pounds in weight, but 40 to 50, and even 
 60, pounds are not uncommon. It is of an excccd- 
 incjly delicate nature, more resembling marrow-fat
 
 3i6 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 than any other substance, and it is much prized 
 for culinary purposes. It is largely used for soups 
 throughout the country where the animal is bred, 
 producing a most savory and agreeable article of 
 
 NEW MOSQUE OF HUESSIN ALT KHAN IN ERIVAN 
 
 diet. This variety of sheep, besides being large 
 and yielding an excellent kind of mutton, pro- 
 duces a heavy fleece of wool of fine quality. 
 
 Possessing so many desirable qualities, I have 
 often wondered whv some effort has not been made
 
 GREAT-TAILED SHEEP 
 
 319 
 
 to introduce it into our own country. It would, 
 no doubt, be possible to do so, as it seems to adapt 
 itself to almost all climatic and physical conditions, 
 for I have met with it from the hot, arid plains of 
 
 ANCIENT MOHAMMEDAN MOSQUE IX ERIVAN 
 
 Nubia, Abyssinia, Egypt, and Central Asia, to the 
 cold, humid atmosphere of the Himalayan and 
 Altai mountains. 
 
 Takinof the main road that leads in the direction
 
 320 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 of Alexandropol, I reached, via the Delijan Pass 
 and Lake Goktcha or Sevanga, the interesting and 
 beautiful city of Titlis, the capital of Georgia, pict- 
 
 A l)rK(_)i;OKTSI Vn.IAi,!'. — A RELIGIOUS SKc T IN NORTHERN ARMENIA — ON 
 THE ROAD FROM ERIVAN TO TIFLIS 
 
 uresquely located on the Kura River, directly in 
 the midst of the Caucasian Mountains. The road 
 after leaving Erivan passes through a highly vol- 
 canic region, being for the most part over ancient
 
 LAST VIEW OF ARARAT 
 
 323 
 
 lava beds. At the distance of some thirty miles, 
 we reach the summit of the mountain range that 
 divides the valleys of the Zanga and Araxes rivers 
 
 THRESHING GRAIN IN ARMENIA. GRAIN IS TRODDEN OUT RY HORSES 
 BEING DRIVEN OVER IT 
 
 from the more elevated plateau in the region of 
 Elnofka. 
 
 From this summit we obtain our last view of 
 Mt. Ararat, some sixty or seventy miles south- 
 ward. The grand peaks of the Alagoz and Ak- 
 Dagh, rising on either hand to the height of 14,- 
 000 and 12,000 feet respectively, lend some charm
 
 324 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 to the dreary aspect of this wild, desolate region. 
 All along this route we passed with rapid fre- 
 quency through the rude villages of the many sin- 
 gular religious sects scattered through this part 
 
 LITTLE ISLAND IN LAKE GOKTCHA, ON WHICH THE ANCIENT MONASTERY 
 OF SEVANGA IS LOCATED 
 
 of Armenia : the Dukobortsi, Skoptsy, Molokani, 
 etc. 
 
 At Elnofka we first meet the remarkably pict- 
 uresque little lake of Goktcha, along whose rugged 
 shores the road winds at a great elevation for 
 some ten or twelve miles, until the Delijan Pass is
 
 LAKE GOKTCHA 
 
 325 
 
 reached. This lake is situated 7,000 feet above 
 the sea. It is some forty miles in length and 
 twent)' in breadth. The trout caught here are 
 
 W ' ^ ''f^ 'W^*^'^^ 
 
 SKUl'TSY VILLACE — A PECULIAR RELIGIOUS SECT WITH REMARKABLE 
 CUSTOMS — IN NORTHERN ARMENIA 
 
 celebrated throughout Russia for their superior 
 quality, and great quantities are shipped even as 
 far as St. Petersburg.
 
 326 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 In the lake, at a distance of a few hundred feet 
 from the shore, and on an island of perhaps fifty 
 acres in extent, is located the ancient Armenian 
 
 ^■|^-^c-^%Y 
 
 '' '^%^- 
 
 ON THE ROAD TO LAKE SEVANGA, IN NORTHERN ARMENIA, AND ON THE 
 ROUTE FROM ELNOFKA TO AKSTAFA 
 
 monastery of Sevanga, reputed to have been 
 founded in the very beginning of the fourth 
 century. At Delijan the highest point on the 
 route is reached, at an elevation of over 7.000
 
 DESCENT INTO THE KURA VALLEY 327 
 
 feet. From here a most excellent road sharply 
 descends to the northward, through mountain 
 scenery nowhere surpassed, until the little town 
 of Akstafa is reached in the rich valley of the 
 Kura River. 
 
 ON THE NORTHERN SLOPE OF THE LESSER CAUCASIAN MOUNTAINS, AFTER 
 LEAVING THE DELIJAN PASS
 
 XVI 
 
 The Caucasus — Its locality and extent — The Kura River — The Rion 
 River — Area of the Caucasus — Population of the same — Moun- 
 tain ranges — The Greater and Lesser Caucasian Mountains 
 joined by the Suram range — Climate of Caucasia — Products of 
 the soil — Statistics of live stock — Valleys in Eastern Caucasus — 
 Western Caucasia — Roads — Military road from Tiflis to Vladi- 
 kavkaz — Roads in Southern Caucasia and Armenia — Caucasia 
 the gateway between Europe and Asia — Different races — Tiflis, 
 the capital of Georgia — Its buildings, streets, etc. — The Georgian 
 chieftain, Schemyl — The population of Tiflis — Many military 
 and civil officials — A trip to Borjom, Abbas-Tuman, and Kutais. 
 
 What is known as the Caucasus is the great 
 isthmus, some 500 miles wide, extending east 
 and west between the Caspian and Black seas, 
 and joining the continents of Asia and Europe, 
 comprising some ten or a dozen governments 
 and provinces of Russia. Running through its 
 centre eastward, is the Kura River, having its 
 source in the Lesser Caucasian range of moun- 
 tains on the extreme southwest part of the coun- 
 try. Flowing through the narrow defiles of the 
 rugged mountains for the space of several hun- 
 dred miles, its valley gradually widens beyond 
 Tiflis until it becomes a vast level plain, forming
 
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 ^tmH 
 
 ^H 
 
 
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 hb 
 
 J 
 
 ^,^,j, J^iK^B 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 BBaSMiLMi >. tu ^■'i^^^^l 
 
 ^Bl^^^l 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 BnilBlt M 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
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 ■."'''' ; tiKJl^nU 
 
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 ^^^^^^91 ^ ^^^^1
 
 AREA AND POPULATION 331 
 
 a border of a hundred miles or more upon the 
 western shore of the Caspian Sea, 
 
 The Rion Riv-er runs westward, in a similar way, 
 from the middle of the Caucasus into the Black 
 Sea. These valleys, therefore, divide this great 
 isthmus in an east and west direction into two 
 sections, the northern valley formed by the Great 
 Caucasian chain of mountains, with an average 
 altitude of nearly 12,000 feet, and the southern 
 one formed by the mountains of Armenia, of 
 much less height. 
 
 The whole contains about 180,000 square miles, 
 and has a population of quite 7,000,000. It lies, 
 in almost equal parts, in Europe and Asia. That 
 portion lying south of the Great Caucasian range 
 is called the Trans-Caucasus, or Asiatic Caucasia, 
 and it contains about five-sevenths of the whole 
 population. The Suram range of mountains, run- 
 ning north and south about midway in the great 
 isthmus, thus connects the two chains of moun- 
 tains on the northern and southern borders. It 
 is from this divide that the waterflow is eastward 
 by the Kura River into the Caspian Sea, and to 
 the west by the Rion River into the Black Sea. 
 
 The climate of the Caucasus is a genial one, in 
 fact almost subtropical ; snow rarely falls in the 
 valleys or in the lower levels, although the sum- 
 mit of the whole niajestic range of Caucasian
 
 332 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Mountains, owing to their great height, is per- 
 petually covered by great masses of ice and snow. 
 This ercat height of the main chain of moun- 
 tains, as well as its many branches, gives to this 
 
 STREET SCENE IN TIFLIS 
 
 country a remarkable diversity of soil, climate, and 
 vegetable production. The mountains supply ex- 
 cellent pasturage for cattle and sheep, of which 
 there are to be seen great herds everywhere. I
 
 PRODUCTION OF GRAIN 335 
 
 believe there are in the Caucasus over 1,000, 00c 
 horses, 6,000,000 cattle, and 15,000,000 sheep and 
 ofoats. 
 
 The valleys are exceptionally fertile, and pro- 
 
 STREET SCENE IN TIFLIS 
 
 duce immense crops of wheat and other cereals. 
 The broad valleys in the eastern part, however, 
 have a deficient rainfall, and therefore but little of 
 that great tract of land is cultivated. But as the
 
 336 
 
 sibp:ria and central asia 
 
 Kura River bisects it throutjh its entire leno"th, 
 and would )ield an ample supply of water to irri- 
 gate the entire valley, a large, and one of the most 
 
 VALLEY OF THE KURA RIVER, ABOUT ONE HUNDRED MILES EAST OF 
 TIFLIS, AND IN THE VICINITY OF AKSTAFA 
 
 productive, regions on the globe could readily be 
 reclaimed, which would be well suited for the cul- 
 ture of wheat, Indian corn, and, in fact, all the 
 cereals, as well as grapes of unusual quality.
 
 ROADS IN THE CAUCASUS 339 
 
 The western slope of the Caucasus, watered by 
 the Rion, having' ample rainfall, constitutes what is 
 perhaps the richest tract of land in all Russia. The 
 vegetable products of this section are unequalled 
 in excellence and variety. Indian corn grows here 
 and matures as perfectly as in America, and a great 
 surplus is annually raised for export. 
 
 From the ruo'eed and almost insurmountable 
 nature of the Great Caucasian chain of mountains, 
 this country has but few roads, the main one be- 
 ing the Georgian military road leading over the 
 Dariel Pass, at a height of nearly 8,000 feet, from 
 Vladikavkaz to Titlis. There is another croocl road 
 from Kutais to Vladikavkaz, and from the former 
 city over the Lesser Caucasian range to Abbas- 
 Tuman and Borjom. There are also the military 
 roads running southward from Titlis toward the 
 northern border of Persia, via the Delijan Pass 
 to Erivan and Djulfa, and also via Alexandropol 
 to Kars. 
 
 With a few bridle paths, such as the famous one 
 from Derbent on the Caspian Sea to Tiflis, one 
 might say a fairly complete record would be given 
 of the facilities for travel through the mountains 
 of this rugged though picturesque country. 
 
 Having long been the gateway between Asia 
 and Europe through which the ebb and flow of 
 many races continued for centuries, this has nat-
 
 340 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 iirally become a region of the most diverse eth- 
 nical characteristics. Perhaps in no other country 
 in the world, covering so small a space, can there 
 be found so many different races and tribes. 
 
 CAUCASIANS AND THEIR COSTUMES 
 
 While some are of the very lowest order, there 
 are others that rank as the noblest and grandest 
 of the human family. This is particularly true of 
 Mingrelia and Imeritia, where perhaps the finest
 
 STREETS AND BUILDINGS IN TIFLIS 343 
 
 specimens of the human race can be found. In 
 these two provinces the women fully justif)- their 
 traditional reputation for beauty, while many ex- 
 
 THE THEATRE IN TIFLIS 
 
 amples can be fountl amonor the men that are not 
 equalled anywhere on the globe, 
 
 Tiflis has many wide, beautiful avenues and 
 streets, well paved, and often 1)ordered by rows of 
 ornamental trees. There are man}- lines of tram- 
 Avavs, and the streets are filled with excellent
 
 344 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and comfortable cabs and other vehicles. It has 
 many grand public buildings and business blocks. 
 The palace of the governor of this province is a 
 stately and ornate structure. A large and well- 
 
 MOUNTED COSSACKS IN PUBLIC SQUARE IN THE CITY OF 
 
 appointed theatre is located on one of the main 
 avenues. 
 
 On one of the many rugged mountain heights 
 that gird the city, the ruined battlements where 
 the famous Georgian chieftain, Schemyl, made his 
 last stand in defence of his country, still engage 
 the attention of the traveller.
 
 CAPITAL OF THE CAUCASUS 345 
 
 The Kura River, dividing- the city into two nearly 
 equal parts, and winding in a deep and sinuous 
 eoree throuo'h it, not onl\- ijrovides means for excel- 
 
 A BAZAAR IN THE PERSIAN QUARTER IX THE CITY OF TIFLIS 
 
 lent drainage, but gives in man)' places a charming 
 aspect to the streets and city. Being the seat of 
 government for the Caucasus, there is a large resi- 
 dent military class here, as well as numerous civil
 
 346 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 officials and also man)' representatives of the 
 nobility. 
 
 Resting a day or two, and visiting the many ob- 
 
 STREET SCENE IN THE PERSIAN QUARTER IN TIFLIS 
 
 jects of interest in and about the cit)\ I made an 
 excursion to Borjom and Abbas-Tuman, in the 
 Southern Caucasus. This is a region of vast 
 parks and hunting preserves, as it is the sum-
 
 TO BORJOM AND KUTAIS 
 
 347 
 
 mer home of the Grand Duke Michael, the Grand 
 Duke George — the Crown Prince — and the Grand 
 Duchess Xenia, together with innumerable other 
 court satellites and dignitaries. 
 
 STREET IN TilE PERSIAN QUARTER OF TIFI.IS 
 
 Going over one of the wildest and most solitary- 
 passes in the world, where for safet)' an escort of 
 soldiers is provided much of the way, we reached 
 Kutais, located in one of the most fertile of val-
 
 348 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 leys, where Indian corn, all the cereals, and fruits 
 of every variety grow in the greatest luxuriance 
 and abundance. It was the ancient Cyta, the capi- 
 tal of the Colchis of the Greeks, whence Jason and 
 his freebooting band went in quest of the " Golden 
 Fleece."
 
 XVII 
 
 Tiflis to Mtskheta — Great antiquity of that city — Founded by near 
 descendant of Noah — Interesting old bridge — Pompey's con- 
 quest of this country — Route over the famous Dariel Pass — 
 Journey up the valley of the Kura River — Soil and climate of 
 the Caucasus — Agricultural operations — Various cereals and 
 other products — Indian corn — Primitive implements — Cattle 
 and buffaloes used to draw the plough — Cooperative operations — 
 Remarkable results in the production of grain in the Caucasus 
 — The cart or arba — The new line of the Trans-Caucasian rail- 
 way — Petroleum pipe line over Suram Mountains — On the road 
 to Borjom — From Borjom to Abbas-Tuman — Over the Lesser 
 Caucasian Mountains — Soldiers for escorts — Brigands — Magnifi- 
 cent view from summit — Kutais — Its history and importance — 
 Rich valley of the Rion — Return to Tiflis. 
 
 The railway, after leaving- Tiflis, follows some- 
 what closely the course of the Kura River until it 
 reaches the small town of Mtskheta. This old city 
 is reputed to be the most ancient in all Caucasia; 
 indeed, the local chronicler in his pride assigns it 
 the very first place in anticpiit)-, claiming that it is 
 the oldest cit\- in the world, having been founded, 
 as is alleged, b)' a descendant of Noah onl)- live 
 generations removed. Its quaint appearance and 
 its old churches and palaces do, indeed, stamp it 
 as of very ancient origin, and the ruined fortresses
 
 350 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 that cover the adjacent mountains fully attest its 
 once great strategical importance. 
 
 Near the town there is a bridgre over the Kura, 
 
 ■'■*^'«iBlBWlBF1^» 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF TIFLIS, FROM ELEVATION IN WESTERN TART OF THE 
 CITY, LOOKING EASTWARD 
 
 in which can be found old buttresses that evidently 
 belonged to a structure of very remote times. 
 It is said to be a part of the bridge thrown 
 across that river by Pompey the Great, when in
 
 CONQUEST BY POMPEY THE GREAT 351 
 
 pursuit of Mithriclatcs. This powerful monarch 
 ruled well and happily over a vast region in the 
 East, including what is now the Caucasus, until 
 Rome became seized with the generous desire to 
 
 UN THE KURA RIVER, IN THE WESTERN SUBURBS OF TIKLIS, ON THE ROAD 
 
 TO BORJOM 
 
 include his splendid possessions within the sphere 
 of her beneficent influence, and which finally 
 shared the fate of that great empire when her 
 policy of grab ultimately brought inevitable ruin.
 
 352 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Here the Aragya, a small river, enters the Kura 
 from the north, after flowing through a deep, nar- 
 row, and rugged canyon. It is up the valle)' of 
 this river that the military road from TiBis to Vlad- 
 
 I.\ THE KURA \ALLEV, BETWEEN TIFMS AND MTSKHETA 
 
 ikavkaz runs, until it crosses the summit of the 
 Caucasian ^fountains, near ^Vlleti, over the famous 
 Dariel Pass, at an altitude of nearly S,ooo feet. 
 There are many most charming bits of mountain
 
 VALLEY OF THE KURA RIVER 355 
 
 and landscape scenery in the neighborhood of 
 Mtskheta. From this place the railway continues 
 its western course — the valley of the Kura in the 
 
 IN THE VALLEY <.il 1111. AU.U.VA, i jN uil .Mll.llAI.V K' )AI) OVER THE 
 CAUCASL\N MOUNTAINS, FROM TIFLIS TO VLADIKAVKAZ 
 
 meanwhile widening into a broad, fertile plain, 
 until it meets the Suram range that links the 
 two great northern and southern chains of Cau- 
 casian ^lountains together.
 
 356 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Pursuing my journey leisurely through this rich 
 vallc)', I had the opportunity of observing some- 
 what the methods of agriculture practised by 
 the natives. The soil being well adapted to the 
 
 OVER THE DARIEL PASS, ON MILITARY ROAD FROM TIFLIS TO VLADI- 
 KAVKAZ. MOUNT KASBEK IN THE DISTANCE 
 
 culture of all cereals, and receiving an abundant 
 rainfall, the valley lands, as also those of the first 
 mountain slopes, are under cultivation, while in 
 the higher regions they are used for pasture. As 
 in the case in the Tschernozium region of Russia, 
 to recuperate the temporary depletion of the soil
 
 AGRICULTURE IN THE CAUCASUS 359 
 
 they let the lands lie fallow for the necessary 
 period of time. 
 
 Wheat, barley, oats, and rye are the main 
 crops, and a more or less regular rotation of them 
 is observed. Indian corn grows well here, maturing 
 in the most perfect manner, and constitutes the 
 main cereal food of the inhabitants of the West- 
 ern Caucasus. In cases where there is a scarcity 
 of land, Indian corn is planted immediately after 
 the wheat or barley crop has been gathered. The 
 insufficient time thus allotted, however, does not 
 permit it always to mature, in which event it is 
 secured and used as a green fodder for cattle. 
 
 The implements are of the crudest and most prim- 
 itive character. The plough employed to break 
 up the land is a large, unwieldy affair, and evi- 
 dently constructed by the farmer himself. It has a 
 wooden mould-board, and is in fact almost wholly 
 made of wood. It, however, turns a wide and, 
 what is more to the purpose, a very deep furrow, 
 as from three to eight pairs of oxen or buffaloes 
 are used to draw it. Only the Russians use horses 
 for ploughing in the Caucasus. 
 
 They have a curious sort of codperative associa- 
 tion of farmers here, its object being to facilitate 
 and cheapen farming operations. One member 
 who does not possess a team will furnish the 
 plough ; another who has no plough will supply
 
 360 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the team ; the third and fourth will either act as 
 ploughmen or supply some requisite not possessed 
 by the others. By this joint arrangement the lands 
 of the association are ploughed, when the company 
 
 sci.m; in a farm village on the aragya 
 
 is dissolved, after a continuance of a fortnight or 
 three weeks. 
 
 Equally crude appliances are employed to har- 
 row the land, and otherwise put it in condition to 
 receive the seed, and which generally is in won- 
 derful tilth when the primitive means used are 
 considered. Indeed, the great yield of grains by
 
 RESULTS OF FARMING 
 
 363 
 
 such simple means and at such small cost inclines 
 one to inquire whether, after all, an adequate in- 
 crease would follow the use of more perfect imple- 
 ments and a more up-to-date system of farming. 
 
 CART, OR AREA, USED FOR FARM AND ROAD PURPOSES 
 
 Certainly, the results in the Caucasus are not to 
 be despised, for there is produced each year in 
 that country, above home requirements, more than 
 one hundred millions of bushels of erain available
 
 364 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 for export to foreign countries, or about fifteen 
 bushels per capita — a result not equalled by any 
 other country, 
 
 A curious vehicle is used for farm purposes, 
 called the arba. It is a cart the wheels of which 
 are of extraordinary size, and usually fixed rigidly 
 to the axle, thus rotating with it instead of each 
 having an independent movement. At Mikhai- 
 lov a road branches to the southwest, follow- 
 ing up the valley of the Kura as far as Borjom. 
 This road is to be extended over the Lesser Cau- 
 casian range of mountains, toward Kars and Erze- 
 roum. 
 
 The main line of this, the Trans-Caucasian, rail- 
 road continues westward, crossing the Suram 
 Mountains at an elevation of nearly 6,000 feet. 
 The engineering difficulties encountered in this 
 portion of the route were very great, and the 
 road reflects credit upon both the energy and skill 
 of those who executed it. At the summit, the 
 road passes through a tunnel of some two and one- 
 half miles in length. As this line is extensively 
 used to transport petroleum from Baku to Batoum, 
 on the Black Sea, important arrangements are 
 being made to pump the oil over this high range 
 of mountains, and thus avoid the expense and diffi- 
 culty which now attend its carriage by rail. Al- 
 ready great tanks and pumping stations are being
 
 PETROLEUM PIPE LINES 
 
 367 
 
 constructed at Mikhailov for this purpose, and 
 large pipes have been laid to the summit, a dis- 
 tance of some thirty miles. As the summit is be- 
 tween 6,000 and 7,000 feet above the Black Sea, 
 
 IN THE KURA VALLEY 
 
 the petroleum will be conducted thence in pipes 
 to Batoum, and, flowing freely by its own gravit)-, 
 it will save the cost of nearly 1 50 miles of trans- 
 portation by rail. 
 
 Borjom is a charming summer resort, nestled
 
 368 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 among" picturesque mountains and along the banks 
 of the Kura River, whose rapid current pours in 
 swift torrents from the mountain gorges above. 
 Very celebrated mineral springs are located here, 
 
 PERSIAN MINISTER S RESIDENCE IN BORJOiM 
 
 the waters of which are shipped to all parts of the 
 empire. Many splendid villas and residences are 
 scattered throughout this romantic region. The 
 palace of his Imperial Highness the Grand Duke
 
 FROM BORJOM TO ABBAS-TUMAN 369 
 
 Michael is beautifully located on the banks of the 
 river, some distance above the city. I was espe- 
 cially interested in a most artistic and ornate 
 dwelling occupied by the Persian minister, who 
 resides here. 
 
 A most excellent road runs from Borjom to 
 Abbas-Tuman, a distance of about sixty miles. As 
 
 THE SUMMER PALACE OF HIS IMPERIAL HIGHNESS THE GRAND DUKE 
 MICHAEL, ON THE BANKS OF THE KIRA RIVER, NEAR BORJOM 
 
 relays are provided at intervals of twelve miles, a 
 dash through this lovely country is most charming. 
 At Abbas-Tuman, the Crown Prince George — 
 second son of the late Czar — has a rustic palace 
 embowered in the groves of a beautiful park. From 
 Abbas-Tuman to Kutais is a distance of nearly 
 eighty miles, which is usualh- dri\'en in a day. The 
 road to the summit leads up the steep slope of the
 
 370 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 mountain, through a wild and dreary region. These 
 mountain passes are still infested with many brig- 
 ands, and many thrilling stories are told of their 
 terrible doings, even in spite of all the precautions 
 of the government. 
 
 HIS IMPERIAL HIGHNESS GRAND DUKE MICHAEL ON HIS DAILY DRIVE IN 
 
 BORJOM 
 
 For the safety of the inhabitants and travellers, 
 the whole country is protected by Cossacks, and 
 all along the road there are soldiers stationed at 
 intervals of a few versts. When a carriage passes, 
 several soldiers follow until they are released by 
 the next squad. They increase in number as the
 
 ESCORT OF SOLDIERS 373 
 
 summit is approached, where, when reached, there 
 are usually ten or a dozen soldiers as escorts. It 
 is beyond words to describe the grandeur of the 
 panorama that suddenly bursts upon the view 
 
 SOLDIER ON THE MOUNTAIN SIDE, AFTER LEAVING ABBAS-TUMAN, ON 
 THE ROAD TO KUTAIS, OVER THE LESSER CAUCASIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 as the summit is attained, which is done most 
 abruptly. 
 
 The stately chain of Caucasian Mountains 
 stretches before you, extending several hundred
 
 374 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 miles to the northwest. As they are nearly loo 
 miles distant, and viewed across the broad valley 
 of the Rion, an immense section of this ereat 
 range can be seen, which is snow-capped through- 
 out almost its whole length. Projecting above the 
 
 STRKET SCENE IN KUTAIS 
 
 common summit-level are the ice-tipped peaks of 
 the Elbruz, away off in the distance, to the left, 
 and rising to a height of 18,500 feet; of Ikhara, 
 Koshtan Tau, and Dych Tau, over i 7,000 feet in 
 height ; and finally, far to the right, the symmet- 
 rical Kazbek, rising 16,500 feet above the sea.
 
 BEAUTIFUL MOUNTAIN VIEW 
 
 377 
 
 Thus a stretch of fully 300 miles of this grand 
 range of mountains lies before yon.], clothed, for 
 much of its height, in a mantle of snow. 
 
 A rapid drive of seven hours brings us to the 
 
 MARKET SCENE IN KUTAIS 
 
 important city of Kutais, the capital of the prov- 
 ince of that name. It is on the Rion, or, as the 
 Greeks called it, the Phasis River. It was from 
 this name that the word " pheasant " was derived.
 
 378 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 as this fowl was once in great abundance in the 
 mountains at the head-waters of the Phasis River. 
 Kutais Hes in the midst of one of the richest coun- 
 tries in the Avorld, where all vegetation grows pro.- 
 fusely. It is said that almost all kinds of fruits, 
 even apples, pears, apricots, etc., grow abundantly 
 in a wild state in the neighboring forests. In view 
 of the richness of this country, it is no wonder 
 that the covetous Greek was tempted to leave his 
 barren shores to seek the golden fleece in this 
 highly favored land. 
 
 Kutais has many interesting and attractive mar- 
 kets and bazaars, at which curious and beautiful 
 fabrics in silk and wool are sold. There is a 
 school here of much importance, designed espe- 
 cially for instruction in horticulture. Kutais has 
 one of the finest examples of Georgian architec- 
 ture, in a church erected in the eleventh century. 
 Tempted by its wealth, the city has been plun- 
 dered and destroved asfain and aeain bv the Per- 
 sians, Mongolians, Turks, and other invading 
 races.
 
 XYIII 
 
 Return to Tiflis — Special permit to visit Central Asia — Great cour- 
 tesy of the American Ambassador, Hon. E. A. Hitchcock — 
 Return to Baku — Passage across the Caspian Sea — Arrival at 
 Krasnovodsk — A look about that city — Rapid growth of same 
 — Its harbor and other natural advantages — Will become an 
 important city — Railway station — Splendid structure — Curious 
 mixture of natural products — Blending of Oriental and Occi- 
 dental races — Possible result — Russia's fondness for American 
 products — -Use of same in Russia— Her probable future demand 
 for Western products — America's opportunity — Trains on the 
 Trans-Caspian railway — Courtesy of the railway officials — Emi- 
 grants to the far East — Departure from Krasnovodsk — New 
 petroleum field — Minerals and metals here — Uzum-Ada, the old 
 terminus of railway — The plains of Turcomania — Persian 
 Mountains — Central Asia — A vast depressed basin — Caspian 
 Sea below ocean level — Similar depression in Sahara Desert — 
 Russia's Central Asian possessions — Sterility of Turcomania 
 due to lack of rainfall — Oasis of Merv — Strabo's reference to it 
 — Three great level plateaus — Amu-Daria and Syr-Daria 
 Rivers. 
 
 On returning to Tiflis, the ever-present desire 
 of visiting Central Asia again possessing me, my 
 guide suggested that I call upon Prince Gallatzin, 
 the Governor-General of the Caucasus, who might 
 possibly issue the necessary permit. As was the 
 case at Baku, this functionary informed me that 
 he had no authority to issue one, and that it could
 
 380 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 be obtained only by direct application to the Min- 
 istry at St. Petersburg. In order to save time, he, 
 however, advised me to communicate by telegraph 
 with the United States Ambassador at that city, 
 feeling assured that by his intervention a permit 
 would be readily secured. This I accordingly 
 did. 
 
 Through the great courtesy and prompt appli- 
 cation of our most efficient /\mbassador there, the 
 Hon. E. A. Hitchcock, in a wonderfully short 
 space of time I received a long telegram direct 
 from the Russian Minister of the Interior, eivine 
 the desired permit, with the information, also, that 
 he had telegraphed instructions to the Governor 
 of East Caucasus at Baku, to the Governor of Tur- 
 comania at Merv, the military agent at Bokhara, 
 and the Governor of Turkestan at Samarkand and 
 Tashkent. Armed with this magic " open ses- 
 ame," I at once set out on my journey. Before 
 going, however, I took the precaution to employ 
 an additional guide, who was familiar with the 
 various languages of that country of mixed 
 tongues. 
 
 On arriving at Baku, I found that the governor 
 had already called upon the proprietor of the 
 hotel, and had left instructions to be informed of 
 our arrival. He received us with every mark of ci- 
 vility and courtesy, and arranged for our departure
 
 ACROSS THE CASPIAN SEA 381 
 
 on the boat that evening. He also detailed the 
 police agent of the city to wait upon us, which 
 enabled me to see many things in this curious 
 city that I was unable to see on my former visit. 
 
 Our passage across the Caspian Sea naturally 
 was a boisterous one, since it is numbered among 
 the most tempestous waters. Being fringed on 
 most of its western and southern borders by two 
 mountain ranges, among the highest on the globe, 
 and its eastern shore forming the western verge 
 of the hot, arid plains of Turcomania, such con- 
 ditions of extreme heat and cold here exist as 
 are likely to result in the sudden development of 
 violent grales. 
 
 Arriving at Krasnovodsk in the morning, we 
 found that the train for the east did not leave un- 
 til the evening. This gave us an opportunity ot 
 looking about this new city, the recently estab- 
 lished terminus of this great railway. 
 
 Uzum-Ada, about sixty miles to the southeast, 
 on the bay of that name, was formerly the terminus 
 of the railway. On account of the excellent har- 
 bor, the fact that it shortens the sea route b)' 
 nearly seventy miles, and other advantages, the 
 present location was selected about three years 
 ago. Up to that time, it was an obscure Tartar 
 fishing village. It is now a busy, thriving town of 
 nearly 10,000 inhabitants, with wide streets, excel-
 
 382 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 lent public and private buildings, electric lights, 
 etc. 
 
 A low, rocky, and sterile range of mountains. 
 
 KRASNOVODSK AND HARBOR, THE WESTERN TERMINUS OF THE TRANS- 
 CASPIAN RAILWAY, ON THE EASTERN SHORE OF THE CASPIAN SEA 
 
 sweeping from the shore in a semicircular course, 
 encloses a space like a large amphitheatre, whereon 
 the city is built. The railway station here is a 
 rare gem of architecture. It is entirely of hewn
 
 RAILWAY STATION AT KRASNOVODSK 383 
 
 stone, and merges in its composition the choicest 
 elements of Eastern art. It is a splendid com- 
 posite of Persian, Saracenic, and Central Asian, 
 with even a tinge of Chinese and Hindu. The 
 station, like most of those at the main towns of 
 this line, has a very large and high central room 
 used as a combined waiting and dining room, 
 while at either end of the building are located the 
 various apartments used for the purposes of the 
 company. 
 
 In this zone, where the East and the West over- 
 lap in such a bewildering manner, some strange 
 affiliations occur. In the main room, with its ex- 
 quisite Mohammedan doors and windows, can be 
 seen depending from a splendid ceiling of the purest 
 arabesque and decorated in the most enchanting 
 colors, a huo-e Venetian chandelier, holdino- incan- 
 descent electric lights, made in Austria, and sup- 
 plied with a current from an engine and dynamo 
 built in Germany. In the middle of the room is a 
 laree and eleofantlv carved table from France and 
 chairs from Italy, while in one corner of the room, 
 for the purpose of weighing luggage, is a splendid 
 American platform scale made in Vermont. 
 
 Such a medley of arts and confusion of races 
 lead to some strange reflections. The rapidly 
 erowinof conflict between and the ever-increasinof 
 tendency toward a blending of things Occidental
 
 384 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and Oriental, suggest a possible ultimate fusion, 
 out of which there may arise a neutral state of 
 races wherein the softening idealism of the East 
 
 NEW RAILWAY STATION Al kK \s\()\ Ol )sK, THE WESTERN TERMINI'S OP' 
 THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 will give a soul to the inflexible materiality of the 
 West, which in return will impart a substance to 
 Oriental dreams and abstractions.
 
 AMERICAN PRODUCTS IN RUSSIA 385 
 
 In my travels throughout this great empire, it 
 was impossible for me not to observe everywhere 
 the many evidences of Russian fondness, and even 
 partiality for, American products, especially ma- 
 chinery. Even the locomotive that drew the train 
 over the first section of the Trans-Siberian railway, 
 and also that used on the Trans-Caspian railway 
 to Askabad, were American, built in Philadelphia. 
 
 On the Siberian route it is no uncommon thing 
 to see, at the stations, American agricultural ma- 
 chinery destined to be used in those regions. At 
 one station I saw a freight train in which there was 
 a car loaded with mining machinery and ma- 
 chinists' tools, the product of American workshops. 
 
 Considering the immense population of this 
 countr)', its long and steadfast friendship for 
 America, and the still further fact that in order to 
 develop her own incalculable resources and those 
 of the other Asiatic nations into which she is car- 
 rying her influence, there must be created wants 
 far in excess of her own ability to supph', thus 
 necessitating (extensive purchases from other na- 
 tions, it seems evident that, by a proper effort on 
 our part, this, of all countries in the world, could 
 become the most important and profitable field for 
 American enterprise. If, unfortunately, we should 
 nep^lect to avail ourselves of the full advantaijes of 
 a situation so promising, I trust at least that we 
 25
 
 386 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 will not suffer ourselves to be decoyed into an atti- 
 tude of hostility to Russia, with no better result 
 than to play into the hands of some ambitious and 
 selfish nation. 
 
 There are trains leaving daily for the East on 
 the Trans-Caspian railway, but as they are mixed 
 freight and passenger trains, designed to carry sol- 
 diers, emigrants, merchandize, and material for 
 new railways under construction farther on, they 
 offer no facilities or comforts for the traveller. 
 There is, however, a train that leaves here three 
 times a week, consisting wholly of second, third, 
 and fourth class passenger cars, for the purpose of 
 accommodating the better class of travel, which is 
 rapidly on the increase. This train, usually com- 
 posed of twelve or fifteen cars, presents a neat 
 and pleasing appearance, all the cars being painted 
 snow white, even to the locomotive. They are 
 plain in the interior, with uncovered seats, and 
 but little comfort. Those who design travelling 
 at night are obliged to provide themselves, before 
 startino- with beddinor, linen, towels, etc. As I 
 have before stated, this line being a military road, 
 all the officials of the train, the engineer, the fire- 
 man, and even the workmen on the track, are 
 drawn from the army. 
 
 On presenting my passport and telegram to the 
 proper official, he at once, with the utmost polite-
 
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 jfe±:— ^Bk 
 
 
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 L 
 
 
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 mil ' 1 
 
 HHL 
 
 ^^^^1^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 If-g 
 
 IJjj^
 
 EMIGRAN7S TO FAR ASIA 389 
 
 ness, conducted me to the train and assigned me 
 a whole compartment. While the train was being- 
 made up, I noticed that a large number of emi- 
 grants were embarking on it. 
 
 On in(|uiry I was informed that it was a group 
 of over 100 families, which the government was 
 assisting to emigrate from the overcrowded and at 
 present unfortunate district of Saratov, on the 
 Volga, As indicating the paternal polic)- of the 
 government, as well as the growing efflux of peo- 
 ple from the older into the newer provinces of 
 the empire, I would say that they were bound for 
 the extreme eastern part of Turkestan, 150 miles 
 beyond Tashkent, and that the government was 
 granting fifty to eight)- acres of land to each adult, 
 besides 100 rubles to each family. 
 
 On leaving Krasnovodsk, the train for a short 
 space runs directly eastward, when it bears 
 south, running for a distance of twenty or thirty 
 miles along the shore of the Caspian Sea, and at 
 the foot of the low, rugged range of mountains 
 that dip sharply into its waters. At a distance of 
 about five miles, the road crosses at a low level a 
 somewhat extensive peninsula, upon which I no- 
 ticed a number of what seemed to be new oil 
 wells. I was told that recent explorations disclose 
 important petroleum deposits in these regions, 
 and that there are now in operation some twenty
 
 390 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 wells, with many new ones being sunk. It is said 
 that already there is enough produced here to 
 meet the present wants of this side of the Caspian, 
 
 NEW OIL WELLS RECENTLY OPENED ON THE SHORES OF THE CASPIAN 
 SEA, ON THE LINE OF RAILWAY BELOW KRASNOVODSK 
 
 with every prospect of an ample surplus for export 
 at an early day. 
 
 It might be added that the hills and mountains 
 in this vicinity abound in iron, copper, salt, sul- 
 phur, graphite, and other minerals that must ulti-
 
 GREAT CENTRAL BASIN 393 
 
 inately be a resource of g'reat value to the vast 
 and purely agricultural regions eastward. 
 
 On leaving Uzum-Ada, the original terminus of 
 the line, the railway takes a due southern course 
 and enters at once upon the arid plains of Turco- 
 niania that, like a great sheet of water, stretch 
 north and south through a distance of nearly 700 
 miles, at a heifrht of nearlv 200 feet above the 
 sea. As the low range of mountains cutting from 
 the Caspian eastward into the desert slowl)- re- 
 cedes from the sight, there comes as gradually into 
 view the lofty mountains that rise like a mighty ram- 
 part from the plains of Turcomania, and running 
 for 400 miles along the northern border of Persia. 
 
 Central Asia presents some remarkable geologi- 
 cal and ijh)sical characteristics. In a somewhat 
 irregular form, and covering an area of nearly 
 1,500,000 square miles, it constitutes a great de- 
 pressed basin, even descending — as in the case of 
 the Caspian Sea, with an area of nearly 200,000 
 square miles — to some depth below the level of the 
 ocean. Into this great basin, the \'olga, Ural, and 
 Emba rivers from the north ; the Atok, Murofab, 
 Amu-Daria, Syr-Daria, and many other streams 
 from the south and east, pour their mighty floods 
 — chiefl\- into the Caspian and Aral seas, which, 
 for the want of a channel to the ocean, find their 
 only outlet b\' evaporation.
 
 394 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 A similar depression exists in Africa, with the 
 difference that it is smaller in extent, and that there 
 are no large rivers discharging into it. While at 
 Chott-Melgig, in the northern Sahara, some years 
 at^o, I was informed that the shallow salt lake 
 
 STATION ON TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 there lay some hundreds of feet below the level of 
 the Mediterranean, and that if the waters of that 
 sea were conducted into it by a canal — regarded 
 by engineers as practicable — a large interior sea 
 would be formed. 
 
 What is known as Russia's Central Asian pos-
 
 PLAINS OF TURCOMANIA 395 
 
 sessions, containing' nearly 1,500,000 square miles, 
 are made up of the provinces of Turcomania, Bok- 
 hara, and Khiva — still semi-independent khanates 
 — Turkestan, and the important though somewhat 
 indefinite territory recently acquired in Ferghan 
 and the Pamirs, near the northwest border of India. 
 
 Turcomania is, throughout, an almost level plain, 
 extending from the northern border of Afghanis- 
 tan in a northwestern direction about 800 miles, 
 and with a width of 300 or 400 miles. A great 
 portion of it is almost destitute of vegetation, 
 excepting a sort of dry tufted grass, the natural 
 product of an arid soil, and in which the camel 
 finds a fairly nutritious food. The sterility of 
 this country is almost wholly due to the lack of 
 rainfall, as its soil possesses great natural fertilit)-, 
 being no doubt, throughout much of its extent, the 
 deposit in primeval times of those great rivers 
 now running into the Aral Sea, and which once, 
 as is very probable, found their way into the Cas- 
 pian Sea. 
 
 All along its western border, skirted by the Per- 
 sian mountains, which send down many streams 
 that are used for irrigation, there is a broad zone 
 of wonderfully productive land reaching far into 
 the plain, a test of what a great part of this 
 country might become with an adequate supply of 
 water. Remote as this may seem, it is not among
 
 396 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the impossibilities, as the g;reat Amu-Daria, run- 
 ning along and near the eastern border of Tiirco- 
 nuinia, is of a sufficient elevation to permit its 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE PLAINS OF TURCOMANIA, BETWEEN ASKABAD AND 
 DUSHAK, ON THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 waters beine carried and distributed throu^jh the 
 greater part of the plain below. 
 
 The oasis of INIerv — the southeastern portion of 
 this province, and watered by the Murgab River, 
 havine its source in the Afghan mountains — is
 
 POSSIBLE IRRIGATION 397 
 
 little inferior in size, and in its marvellous fertility 
 and wonderful productiveness is quite equal, to 
 the Nile valley. Strabo, in referring to this re- 
 gion, says that the vines sometimes grew so large 
 that two men with outstretched arms could scarce- 
 ly circle them, and that bunches of grapes were 
 produced two cubits in length. 
 
 By a rather easy ascent, the level plateau of 
 Bokhara is reached, a countr\" of al)()ut 150,000 
 square miles area, unsurpassed for the richness of 
 its soil and the xariet}' and exuberance of its prod- 
 ucts. Through another incline is reached the 
 last plateau of Turkestan, which stretches away 
 to the foot-hills of the Altai Mountains and to 
 the southern border of Sil)eria. 
 
 Russia's Central Asian possessions may there- 
 fore be roughly described as consisting of three 
 great level plateaus, rising in successive steps one 
 above the other, and extending from the Caspian 
 Sea in the west to the western l^order of China in 
 the east. The .Syr-Daria traverses the lower bor- 
 der of Turkestan, the waters of which it is possible 
 to turn into the khanates of Bokhara and Khiva. 
 As in like manner the Amu-Daria runs along the 
 lower border of Khiva and P)()khara, its waters 
 might similarh' be turned into Furcomania, which 
 would make these countries among tht; richest and 
 most producti\'(^ on the globe.
 
 398 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 A somewhat similar distribution of these waters 
 must have existed in former times, converting 
 into fertile plains great areas of what are now 
 waste, uncultivated lands. This alone can account 
 for the presence of those immense multitudes that 
 once peopled these regions, the evidence of which 
 one discovers on all hands.
 
 XIX 
 
 The old bed of tlie Amu-Daria River — Across a desert — Oasis of 
 Kizj'l-Arvat — Among tine Turcomanians — A splendid race — His 
 dwelling — Women in Turcomania — Custom of polygamy — Pur- 
 chase of wives — Weaving of rugs and carpets — Their crude 
 device for same — Work done mainly by girls — Inferiority of the 
 new to the old product — Wealth of the Turcoman — Their food, 
 clothing, etc.— The camel — Roads in Turcomania — Caravans 
 of camels — Along the Persian border — Askabad — New and 
 beautiful city — Vegetable products of this region — Culture of 
 cotton — Old Teke towns. 
 
 The railway, after leaving the Caspian Sea, for 
 a space of fifty or sixty miles follows a well-de- 
 fined ancient river-bed, considered by scientists 
 to be that of the mighty Amu-Daria, of which some 
 engineers claim to have discovered a fairly trace- 
 able channel from Kerki, running clue west and 
 entering the Caspian Sea at a point near where 
 the railway leaves the shore. For nearly 150 miles 
 the railway crosses a true desert, destitute alike 
 of vegetation and water, the latter having to be 
 hauled for the purposes of the road and for do- 
 mestic uses along the entire section from Kizyl- 
 Arvat, a point where the line touches the Kuran- 
 Dagh, a spur of the Kopet-Dagh or Persian 
 Mountains, and where fresh water is first ob-
 
 400 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 taincd. A perennial stream of water here, de- 
 scending from the mountains and used for irriga- 
 tion, has created an oasis of considerable size, the 
 
 TURCOMANIAN TARTARS AT KIZYI.-ARVAT STATION 0.\ THE TKANS- 
 CASi'IAN RAILWAY 
 
 vegetal wealth and beauty of which was in most 
 agreeable contrast with the sterile country 
 through which we passed.
 
 AMONG THE TURCOMANS 
 
 403 
 
 Here we find ourselves in the midst of the 
 Turcoman Tartars, whose dreary and solitary do- 
 main extends indefinite!)- to the west and north. 
 This is ph)sically b\- far the most splendid race I 
 
 TURCOMAN \II I.Ai;i; (i\ THE PLAIN'S OF TURCOMANIA, l;i;i\VI I N KIZYL- 
 AKVAT AND ASKABAD 
 
 have ever seen. They are, without exception, 
 unusually tall, much above the medium, and it is 
 rare to meet with one of ordinary stature. Even 
 men of advanced age walk with a step so elastic
 
 404 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and in a manner so erect as to excite wonder. 
 They possess an open and often a pleasing coun- 
 tenance, regular features, and almost always a 
 piercing- and beautiful eye. Like the Kirghiz, 
 they live in tents. Unlike that race, however, 
 who ordinarily cluster their tents into villages, the 
 Turcoman scatters his at wider intervals through- 
 out the country he occupies. The admirable 
 physical and other traits of this people are no 
 doubt the outgrowth of the open, independent 
 life they have so long lived. 
 
 The tent of the Turcoman is round, usually 
 from fifteen to thirty feet in diameter, and in its 
 exterior aspect is anything but attractive, being 
 often weather-worn and dingy. In passing into 
 it, no change can be more startling. It is like the 
 rapid shifting of a scene in a theatre, so sudden 
 is the transformation. It is difficult to conceive 
 anything more exquisite than the interior one 
 often sees in the tent of a well-to-do Turcoman. 
 The floor is covered with carpets and rugs of 
 charming designs and exquisite coloring. The 
 walls are encircled with lovely hangings and 
 tapestries, and the door shielded by portieres of 
 richest design, all of which is the handiwork of 
 this singular race. 
 
 The women do not, as is so often the case with 
 the men, carry into their advancing years the rem-
 
 TURCOMAN TENTS 
 
 405 
 
 nants of the grace and beauty that marked the 
 vigorous period of their life. They are, more- 
 over, only of medium stature. The girls, as a 
 rule, have only ordinary attractions, ^but some- 
 
 TUKCOMAN TENTS 
 
 times are distinctly beautiful. They literally be- 
 spangle themselves with gold and silver orna- 
 ments, coins, etc., and they display rings of 
 turquoise, and such other jewels as they can
 
 4o6 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 command. 'I'hcir costume is of graceful design, 
 richl)- enibroidercd, and of enchanting coloring, 
 the invariable product of their own fair hands. 
 
 TURCDMAN lAKTAKS AT CKOK-TEPE, STATION ON 1111. 1 K AXS-CASPIAN 
 RAILWAY 
 
 Polygamy is still prevalent among them, as is 
 also the custom of purchasing their wives. A fa- 
 ther is esteemed fortunate who has a large family 
 of daughters, as they are sure to bring him a rich
 
 WEAVING ORIENTAL RUGS 407 
 
 reward, the more comely selling" for irom 500 to 
 800 and even 1,000 rubles. The father who has 
 an equal number of daughters and sons applies 
 the money obtained by the disposal of his daugh- 
 ters to the purchase of wives for his sons. He is 
 distinctly the lord and master of his household, 
 and their habits and customs often discover the 
 ancient patriarchal traces of the Eastern races. 
 
 Beino" anxious to see how the beautiful car- 
 pets and rugs were produced, which connoisseurs 
 here now esteem as the richest product of East- 
 ern textile art, I visited quite a number of their 
 homes for that purpose. The smaller ones are 
 woven in the tents occupied by the famil)-, but for 
 the larger ones a temporar\' canopy is erected near 
 by. The ground is covered by some old carpet or 
 other protection for the future fabric. Two poles, 
 of a length suited to the width of the carpet to be 
 made, are placed at a distance apart to correspond 
 with its length. From one pole to the other the 
 warp is extended and spaced to suit the fineness 
 of the carpet. The warp is made taut b\- twisting 
 one of the poles, which are securely staked to the 
 ground to prevent them being drawn together, and 
 to preserve the necessary tightness. As the only 
 remaining bit of mechanism is a heavy metallic 
 comb used from time to time to drive the pile 
 firmlv together, it will be seen that the rude sim-
 
 4o8 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 plicity of their appliances is only equalled by the 
 marvellous results produced by it. 
 
 The work is done almost wholly by women, and 
 most generally by young girls. They are seated 
 
 TURCOMAN GIRLS WEAVING CARPETS UNDER A TEMPORARY CANOPY 
 ADJOINING THEIR TENT 
 
 on the orround in a row, each Qrirl havino- before 
 her a number of woollen balls of the various colors 
 required by the proposed designs of the carpet. 
 A short leneth or tuft of the woollen thread is
 
 ORIENTAL CARPETS AND RUGS 409 
 
 dexterously entwined between several threads of 
 the warp, and secured by a loop which is cut off 
 at a length about double that which the pile is 
 
 TURCOMAN TENT ON THE PLAINS OF TARTARY 
 
 Intended to be when finished. After several 
 courses are completed, the pile is driven together 
 by the metallic comb, and is then clipped off with
 
 410 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 great care and skill to the proper length. The 
 most astounding thing in the whole process is 
 that no pattern whatever is used, the women rely- 
 ing wholly upon their memory and the eye for the 
 arrangement of the colors and development of 
 the pattern and designs. As, in the case of very 
 fine examples, scarcely more than twenty to thirty 
 square inches can be completed by a single opera- 
 tive in a day, some of the larger carpets require 
 an incredibly long time for completion. I was 
 shown one of moderate size, on which three girls 
 had been working for over four months, which 
 was not yet three-fourths done. It is said that 
 several girls join together and purchase the 
 necessary material, sharing in the end jointly the 
 proceeds of their united labor. 
 
 It is at once apparent to any one at all versed 
 in this art that the modern product is vastly in- 
 ferior to that of the olden time. They themselves 
 are fully aware of this, for when displaying a sam- 
 ple, if you ask them if it is an antique, they at once 
 ruefully shake their heads, as if regretting to confess 
 that they no longer create those miracles of texture 
 and color of their ancestors. It is well nigh im- 
 possible to obtain superior examples of the old work 
 even here, so thoroughly have the Persian, Arme- 
 nian, and other merchants searched the country, and, 
 when found, exorbitant prices are asked and paid.
 
 WEALTH OF THE TURCOMAN 413 
 
 Almost the entire wealth and resources of the 
 Turcomans are comprised in their herds and 
 flocks, as they disdain to cultivate the soil. They 
 raise few cattle, but have immense herds of sheep 
 and goats. It is upon their sheep that they rely 
 mainly for their food and the material for their 
 clothing. They usually wear a coat or cloak, 
 called a khalat, made from the skin of that animal, 
 and a huge cap made of the pelt of the same animal. 
 
 They have, besides, great numbers of camels. 
 This is the true home of that patient and useful 
 creature, and I cannot remember ever havinor 
 seen so many in any country. It is his constant 
 companion, using it to carry his burdens, even 
 hitchino- it to his rude cart, or to his still ruder 
 plough, should he so far forget the traditions of 
 his ancestors as to use so plebeian an implement. 
 
 The Turcoman possesses, also, a famous breed 
 of horses, which, although not desirable in appear- 
 ance, are noted for their powers of endurance, 
 being capable of performing long and trying 
 journeys. It is reported that they can go from 
 fifty to sixty miles for days in succession, and that 
 also with but little food. They are long of back, 
 neck, and limb, and have a scant coat of fine 
 hair, but their highly useful qualities compensate 
 for their lack of beauty. 
 
 There are few, if an\-, common roads for vehicles
 
 414 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 In Turcomania ; but cutting in various directions 
 through the treeless and ahiiost trackless waste 
 are camel trails, on which, under a cloudless sky 
 
 VIEW ACROSS THE DESERT OF TURCOMANIA, LOOKING TOWARD THE 
 PERSIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 and over burning sands, can be seen long caravans 
 of camels plodding their drowsy, solemn way to dis- 
 tant lands beyond, with which they hold a rude, 
 though not unimportant, commerce.
 
 ALONG THE BORDER OF PERSIA 415 
 
 From Kizyl-Arvat, for more than 300 miles, the 
 railway line closely hugs the base of the mountain 
 range that forms the boundary line between Tur- 
 
 TURCOMAX VIl.I.Awi: <_)N illL ul'l.N ri.Al.N.^, );i.r\VLi:.\ CEuK-li.Ii. AM; 
 
 ASKABAD 
 
 comania and Persia, and the train is therefore sel- 
 dom more than a few miles from the border of the 
 latter country. This may, perhaps, have a signifi- 
 cance in the future relations of these two nations.
 
 4i6 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Askabad, located about midway between Kras- 
 novodsk and j\Ierv, is a beautiful town of consid- 
 erable size, having- something like 25,000 or 30,000 
 inhabitants. It has been entirely built up since 
 Russia first occupied this country, scarcely twelve 
 
 STATION AT ASKABAD, ON TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 years ago ; its population is composed almost 
 wholly of Russians, mostly army officials, soldiers, 
 and the large class of industrious people who fol- 
 low in the wake of the army, and who perma- 
 nently identify themselves with the interests and
 
 CITY OF ASKABAD 
 
 417 
 
 fortunes of the new countries acquired. Like all 
 new Russian towns in these regions, it has wide, 
 well-paved streets, and beautiful avenues of trees, 
 with a stream of runninof water on either side of 
 
 STATION' OF Djr-Djr-KLY, ON THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY 
 
 the streets. Having an abundance of water, sup- 
 plied by a stream descending from the adjacent 
 mountains, most of which is used for irrigation, 
 Askabad has become the centre of a larcre and 
 
 O 
 
 highly productive agricultural region. 
 27
 
 4i8 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Fruits of all kinds crrow here in the (greatest 
 profusion, grapes especially being- of the most 
 extraordinary size and quality. Besides all the 
 cereals that grow and develop here, cotton is be- 
 
 SCEXE NEAR ASKABAD 
 
 ing grown in considerable quantities. The quality 
 is fairly good, and the yield very heavy ; both, no 
 doubt, being capable of much improvement in the 
 future, as at present it is being grown by the un-
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON 421 
 
 skilled labor of the Turcoman and the immigrant 
 Russian, who have as yet but little knowledge of 
 this peculiar plant. 
 
 The city is located some miles away from the 
 old Teke town, which was once of great impor- 
 tance, being formerly one of many defences estab- 
 lished by the Tartars against Russian encroach- 
 ment.
 
 XX 
 
 Location of towns on Russian railways — Her occupation of new 
 countries — Dushak, the soutliern point of the road — Irrigation 
 of oasis of Merv — New city of Merv — Railway from Alerv to 
 Herat — Confidence of Russia in Central Asia — Growth of cot- 
 ton — The ancient city of Merv — Extraordinary mounds — Home 
 of Kuldja Khan — Curious custom of naming women — Fertility 
 of the oasis of Merv — Pasture land and jungles — Wild animals 
 — In the old city of Merv — Its extent and history — Complete 
 desolation — Home of wild beasts — -Former population — 
 Founded by Alexander the Great — Its destruction. 
 
 It is in order here to refer to a practice of the 
 government in locating the stations of its railways, 
 so general as to indicate a fixed policy. In ex- 
 tending its railway lines through the countries it 
 occupies, the stations of the road are invariably 
 located at some distance, and often many miles, 
 away from the native towns in the region through 
 which they pass. Thus the new, or railway, town 
 of Merv is twenty-five miles from the old city of 
 that name ; the new, or Russian, Bokhara is twelve 
 miles from the old city ; and the station of new 
 Samarkand from four to five miles away from the 
 ancient city. In occupying old countries, it seems 
 to be the purpose of the government to soften the
 
 THE OASIS OF MERV 425 
 
 collision of the new with the older order of things, 
 relying on the truly Oriental process of slow 
 absorption, rather than the more modern one of 
 pressure and compulsion. 
 
 It seems to be her policy to allow the older com- 
 munities and cities the fullest possible freedom to 
 enjoy and exercise their ancient rights, customs, 
 and habits ; and to this end she seeks to avoid 
 those violent shocks, changes, and disturbances 
 that must inevitably result from bringing into an 
 unduly near position the influences of a new and 
 too often incongruous civilization. By this pre- 
 caution the two will ultimately, insensibly, and 
 peacefully merge, the one by gradual decline, and 
 the other through a steady advance. 
 
 At Dushak, the road reaches its extreme south- 
 ern point, whence it takes a northeastern course to 
 Merv. The intermediate country is well culti- 
 vated, a condition rendered possible by the waters 
 of the Tedjen River, flowing northward, and the 
 irrigating Alikhanof Canal, that taps the Murgab 
 River at some distance above Merv. 
 
 This town has grown with great rapidity the 
 past few years, having now from 15,000 to 20,000 
 inhabitants. Being most favorably located for 
 strategic and commercial purposes, it is destined 
 to some day become a city of much importance. 
 
 From here a railway is being built southward
 
 426 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and up the Miirgab River, and is already com- 
 pleted almost to the very Afghan border. To in- 
 sure its early completion, the government, for some 
 reason, has recently been pushing it with much 
 vigor, working upon it both night and day. It is 
 
 HOME OF KULDJA KHAN 
 
 also hinted that Russia is quietly, though rapidly, 
 extending the line to Herat, the key to Northern 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 I was received with great courtesy by the mili- 
 tary agent here, through whose kindness I was 
 enabled to see the various objects in and about
 
 
 *Lv>.J;»> 
 
 ^j||^L/ir"v^j«» 
 
 
 ^,.F.i^.:^L.^:?r«^ 
 
 
 
 
 •4f?^ 

 
 RUSSIAN CONFIDENCE IN CENTRAL ASIA 431 
 
 the city. Like all the new Russian towns, the city 
 is laid out with great regularity, the streets run- 
 ning at rieht angles and frinofed on both sides with 
 rows of beautiful trees. The private residences 
 are elegant, with all the modern improvements, 
 and almost always located in the middle of a great 
 square, forming a splendid park. A handsome 
 boulevard of several miles in length, and orna- 
 mented by a double row of trees on either side, 
 extends through the city. Owing to the richness 
 of the soil, bright sunshine, and abundance of 
 water for irrigation, the creation of a beautiful 
 park or delightful boulevard in this genial climate 
 is the work of only a few years. 
 
 From the extent and solidity of the improve- 
 ments seen everywhere, the Russian has evidently 
 entered this country with great confidence, and to 
 stay. 
 
 Unlike some nations, she does not send to her 
 newly acquired possessions a favored class only, 
 to enjoy the emoluments of office or the dignity 
 of administering their civil and political affairs ; 
 but, regarding each new possession as the prop- 
 erty of the whole nation, she hastens to people it 
 with her industrial classes, who engage in every 
 branch of trade and aQfriculture. 
 
 In Merv, as in all new towns in this country, 
 the Russian element vastly predominates. There
 
 432 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 are large and excellently appointed barracks here, 
 and there are many soldiers, it being an important 
 military centre. 
 
 Cotton is extensively grown in this oasis, as also 
 in Bokhara, and in the district of Ferghan further 
 eastward. In all of these provinces, such reports 
 are in circulation regarding the marvellous yield 
 secured as to at least indicate that this is to be- 
 come an industry of the highest importance in 
 Central Asia. 
 
 As I have stated, the ancient city of Merv — 
 or, rather, what was once the ancient city, as it is 
 now merely a mass of crumbling ruins — is located 
 some twenty-five miles from the new town built on 
 the railway line. Although there is a station at 
 Bairom-Ali, not far from the ruins, I preferred to 
 drive thither over a tolerable road, since it afforded 
 me an opportunity to observe the habits of the 
 natives, and to study at short range the more im- 
 portant features of the country. 
 
 About midway there looms up a series of won- 
 derful mounds, the extraordinary size of which, 
 suggesting an incredible amount of labor to create, 
 entitles them to be classed amono- the greatest of 
 curiosities. At a distance they look like a low 
 range of mountains, or, rather, very high hills. 
 They are right in the centre of a great level plain. 
 My inquiries as to their origin and purpose
 
 THE ANCIENT CITY OF MERV 
 
 435 
 
 elicited no other information than that they were 
 probably in some way related to Alexander's con- 
 quest and occupation of this country. Their 
 
 IN THE OLD CITY OF MERV 
 
 obvious military character and evident antiquity 
 lend some support to this theor)-. 
 
 A few miles further on, delightfully nestled in a 
 beautiful Qrrove, is a handsome white structure of
 
 436 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the purest Oriental type. It is said to be the pal- 
 ace of the princess by whose treaty the Russians 
 came into possession of this country, some ten or 
 twelve years ago. She is the widow of the last 
 reigning Khan of Turcomania, and is called by 
 the Tartars Kuldja Khan, which literally means 
 the " flower of the khan." 
 
 These people have a singular though truly 
 chivalrous custom of naming their women, the 
 name being usually that of a flower, its color, or 
 some feature of it. 
 
 Alonof the whole route I found the land to be of 
 surpassing fertility, and the country literally grid- 
 ironed by canals and ditches for the purpose of 
 irrigation. Being the property of the Tartars, 
 who do not cultivate the soil, depending mainly 
 on pasturage, it is covered with a heavy growth of 
 grass, which at times, uniting with a dense mass 
 of shrubbery, forms throughout great areas an im- 
 penetrable jungle. 
 
 Wild animals, therefore, of almost every variety, 
 even to the tiger, find here a secure home. Our 
 driver informed us that only a day or two before, 
 some soldiers killed a fine specimen of this animal 
 that was found prowling uncomfortably near their 
 quarters. 
 
 We enter the old town through an immense arch- 
 way in the middle of a long, massive, though half-
 
 AMONG THE RUINS 
 
 439 
 
 decayed wall, that formed one of the many ram- 
 parts of this once mighty city. It baffles the im- 
 agination to conceive, or the tongue to describe, 
 the wide prospect of ruin and desolation that 
 spreads before the view. Extending in all direc- 
 tions as far as the eye can reach, there is nothing 
 
 DISTANT VIEW OF MERV 
 
 but great heaps of rubbish, crumbling walls and 
 buildings, broken arches, with here and there the 
 half-preserved ruins of some majestic edifice tow- 
 ering over all, and standing like a solemn, solitary 
 sentinel to guard the sad remains of former splen- 
 dor and oreatness.
 
 440 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 RUINED MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN SANJARE 
 
 Not a single human creature now dwells in this 
 silent city ; the ghoulish hyena and noisy jackal 
 find their lair in what was once the glory and home
 
 EXTENT OF OLD CITY 443 
 
 of nearly 2,000,000 people. The guide, observ- 
 ing our astonishment, requested us to turn our 
 glass toward an object faintly visible in the dis- 
 tant horizon. " That," said he, " is the mosque 
 of the Sultan Sanjare ; it is nearly six miles away, 
 and directly in the centre of the ruined city." 
 
 The ruins of many mosques, palaces, and other 
 buildings, some yet rising to the height of several 
 hundred feet, are sufficiently well preserved to en- 
 able one to form some idea of what must have 
 been the beauty and grandeur of these stately 
 structures. Many streets are sufficiently intact 
 to indicate the former bustle, throng, and traffic 
 of its great thoroughfares. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to fix with any degree 
 of precision the limits of the ancient city. It is, 
 however, evident that it must at some time have 
 covered a space of from thirty to forty miles in 
 circumference, or an area quite as great as that of 
 New York or Paris. 
 
 Its greatest former population is variously esti- 
 mated at 1,500,000 to 2,000,000. The extraor- 
 dinary territory covered may be somewhat ac- 
 counted for by the fact that in past time it was 
 the custom — one that has, in a large measure, sur- 
 vived in Oriental countries — for the better classes 
 to surround their houses with large gardens and 
 parks, enclosed within the walls of the city.
 
 444 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 In its palmy days it was called " El-Sherif, the 
 Noble," and even yet the natives cherish its mem- 
 ory, fondly calling it " Merv, the king of the 
 world." 
 
 It might be added that the buildings, being 
 
 OLD WALLS AROUND ANCIENT CITY OF MERV 
 
 mainly constructed of brick, not of a very firm 
 consistency, were not well calculated to resist 
 either the destructive efforts of man or the cor- 
 roding effects of time. 
 
 Alexander the Great is accredited with having 
 founded the ancient city of Merv, which, after
 
 FINAL DESTRUCTION OF MERV 447 
 
 many vicissitudes through good and ill fortune, was 
 at last almost destroyed in more modern times by 
 Zinehiz Khan, on which occasion it is said over 
 700,000 of its inhabitants were slaughtered. 
 Tamerlane infused into it some spirit of revival, 
 when it again fell into decline and finally received 
 its "coup de grace" at the hands of an Usbeg 
 conqueror, who cut the canals of the upper Murgab 
 that irrigated the oasis and watered the city, with 
 a result as immediate and disastrous as would fol- 
 low the severing^ of the main arterv of the human 
 body.
 
 XXI 
 
 At Bairom-Ali — Imperial palace — From fertile fields to burning- 
 sands— March of Alexander through the desert — From sterile 
 sands to fruitful fields — The Amu-Daria River — Its length, etc. 
 — Quantity of water in the Amu-Daria — Great railway bridge 
 being erected over the Amu-Daria — Possible diversion of the 
 course of this great river — The slow and vast operations of 
 nature — Immense deposits of this great river — Karakul — Rear- 
 ing of the sheep here known as Persian lamb. 
 
 At Bairom-Ali — named after the last defender 
 of Merv — we were received with rare grace and 
 hospitality, and were sumptuously entertained by 
 Colonel de Kaschtalinsky, the imperial agent there, 
 who is directing the important work in progress 
 at that place. Although a small station only, for 
 some reason it has been selected as the site of 
 a superb palace for the future use of the Czar, 
 which is rapidly approaching completion. Exten- 
 sive gardens and parks are being elaborately laid 
 out around the palace, that will be of surpassing 
 beauty when completed. 
 
 After leaving Bairom-Ali, the train for several 
 hours passes though fertile and highly cultivated 
 fields, when it suddenly plunges into a desert that
 
 ACROSS THE BURNING DESERT 
 
 451 
 
 extends nearly 150 miles. The scene is one of 
 the wildest and most oppressive desolation. It is 
 nothing but an immense sea of the purest sand, 
 
 STATION AT BAIROM-ALI ON TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY, ON THE ROAD TO 
 
 BOKHARA 
 
 that by the action of the wind is heaped into great 
 ridges and dunes fully 20 to 50 feet high. Wave 
 upon wave and billow upon billow seemed to roll 
 in this vast ocean of sand, in towering heights, one
 
 45^ 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 above the other, from the summits of which great 
 clouds were driven like the spray from the crest of 
 a wave in a stormy sea. Every now and again 
 
 BUNDLES OF FAGOTS USED AS A SAND BARRIER TO PROTECT THE 
 RAILWAY AGAINST THE DRIFTING SAND 
 
 fierce whirls and gusts of sand swept in blinding 
 drifts over the train, which, with the stifling heat, 
 had a most suffocatino- effect. 
 
 Scarcely a vestige of vegetation exists through
 
 SUDDEN TRANSFORMATION 
 
 453 
 
 .this long and dreary waste ; the flight of a sohtary 
 bird or the sight of a lone shrub in the distance 
 only emphasized the horrible desolation. The rail- 
 
 MARKET SCENE IN THE TOWN OF AMT-DARIA, ON THE BANKS OF THE 
 AMU-DARIA RIVER 
 
 way has in many places barriers and guards against 
 the drifting sand, such as are used in winter in 
 other countries against drifting snow. 
 
 It was right through these burning sands that
 
 454 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 the intrepid Macedonian led his Grecian hosts on 
 his march from Merv to Samarkand and the Trans- 
 Oxian country. It is small wonder that his faithful 
 and obedient soldiers, after following him for years 
 in his career of conquest over Arabian and Persian 
 deserts, Bactrian sands and Himalayan snows, 
 should at last, in the fertile valleys of Northern 
 India, spontaneously throw down their arms and 
 stubbornly refuse to follow their insatiable leader 
 further. Perhaps this it was that caused the mon- 
 arch to weep, and not, as the sentimental historian 
 puts it, for " more worlds to conquer," as he had 
 just entered upon the verge of the greatest world 
 of all. 
 
 The magician's art can scarcely produce an effect 
 more startling than that which followed our sudden 
 transition from the desert, with its torrid heat and 
 blinding sands, to the cool shady groves, the lovely 
 gardens and smiling landscapes in the charming 
 valley of the Amu-Daria. So abrupt was the 
 change that it seemed the work of enchantment. 
 
 Amu-Daria, the town located on the banks of the 
 great river of that name, is purely the product of 
 the railway, and, like all Russian towns in this land 
 of exuberant vegetation, the territory it covers is 
 quite disproportionate to its population. Although 
 containing over 20,000 inhabitants and being the 
 centre of an extensive trade, it is more an assem-
 
 THE OXUS OR AMU-DARIA RIVER 455 
 
 blage of lovely gardens, groves, and parks than a 
 city. The mighty river here, known to the Greeks 
 as the Oxus and so celebrated in their annals, de- 
 serves, on account of its great size and many pe- 
 culiarities, especial mention. 
 
 ON THE aml'-haria, ai;o\'f, tkp: < tty ov thai' na>!K 
 
 It has its source in the lofty mountains of 
 Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush, flowing north- 
 ward through a distance of 1,200 to 1,500 miles 
 into the Aral Sea, and therefore has no outlet to 
 the ocean. Although its length is but little 
 greater than that of the Danube, it is said that
 
 456 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 its volume of water is three times as ereat. Its 
 width at the point where the railway crosses it is 
 quite equal to the average of the Mississippi River 
 between Memphis and \"icksburg. The extraor- 
 dinar\' quantity of water that flows in a river of a 
 length so moderate is accounted for by the fact 
 that it has its oricrin in the hiorhest mountain ran^e 
 in the world, on whose summit the heavily saturated 
 air from the Indian Ocean pours its might}^ floods, 
 which descend in the Amu-Daria to the north, and 
 in the Indus and Ganofes southward. 
 
 The railwav bridofe is over four versts, or nearlv 
 three miles, in length. It is a modern structure 
 built on piles driven into the loose and shifting bed 
 of the river. The government is active!)' pre- 
 paring to build an immense iron structure, which 
 is estimated to cost about 18,000,000 rubles, or 
 over $9,000,000. 
 
 As the bed of the river is only about twenty-five 
 feet below the level of the surrounding country, 
 and as its channel lies scarcely ten miles from the 
 edge where the descent into Turcomania sharply 
 begins, the diversion of this river into that country 
 is regarded by engineers as a feasible enterprise. 
 The cutting of a canal twenty-five to thirty feet 
 deep, and fifteen to twenty miles long, would be 
 sufficient to form an initial channel through which, 
 in the loose alluvial soil and sands, the river might
 
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 THE AMU-DARIA 
 
 459 
 
 ultimately cut its way and return again to its an- 
 cient course to the Caspian Sea. 
 
 In this connection, as illustrating the slow pro- 
 cesses of nature when on a colossal scale, I 
 
 STREET IN AMU-DARIA 
 
 would say that it is estimated that it would require 
 over twenty-five years for the waters of this river 
 to reach the Caspian Sea if its full volume were 
 suddenly turned in that direction, so great would
 
 460 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 be the requirements to supply the loss by evapora- 
 tion, the needs of the thirst}" soil, and to fill the 
 man)- depressions in the vast intermediate country. 
 
 RAILWAY STATION AT THE NEW, OR RUSSIAN, TOWN OF BOKHARA, 
 THE OLD CITY BEING TWELVE MILES FROM THE RAILWAY 
 
 The river at the point where the railway crosses 
 it is divided into two channels at low water, each 
 a little over a mile in wicith. At its full stage, 
 the river extends for three miles from shore
 
 VAST CHANGES 461 
 
 to shore. The average vohime of water is esti- 
 mated at about 4,000 cubic meters per second, and 
 it is said to contain nearly two per cent, of earthy 
 matter, mainly suspended clay. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that this mighty river, 
 since the time Alexander floated his army across 
 it on inflated goat skins, has carried northward 
 nearly 2,000 cubic miles of solid matter, enough 
 to cover the whole State of Ohio to a depth of 
 over 200 feet, and a quantity quite equal to the 
 cubic contents of the Alleghanies in the State of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The operation of causes so vast is not without 
 its adequate effects, for the Aral Sea is already 
 200 feet above the level of the Caspian, and in 
 future may be so lifted that its waters will over- 
 flow and find their way again to that sea. The 
 eye of imagination may even discern that in future 
 eons the Caspian itself, and even the great basin 
 of which it is the centre, may yet be filled by the 
 washings of the mountains a thousand miles away. 
 The contemplation of cosmic changes so vast, 
 wrought by the erosions of time, suggesting the 
 ultimate removal of the earth's inequalities, 
 teaches anew the lesson that all things seem to be" 
 travelling toward a final, and perhaps an eternal, 
 equilibrium. 
 
 After leaving Amu-Daria, the first station
 
 462 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 reached is Karakul, which, although a small town, 
 deserves especial mention, as from here and the 
 surrounding region comes most of what is known 
 and so properly prized by the American ladies 
 
 
 
 ^.^ff^ ipilfi 7^ 
 
 ■ ^^•"r'''^ " 
 
 
 -l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 
 
 NEW PALACE BEING BUILT BY RUSSIA FOR THE AMEER OF BOKHARA, NEAR 
 THE STATION IN THE NEW, OR RUSSIAN, TOWN OF THAT NAME 
 
 as i\strakhan, or Persian lamb. The term Astra- 
 khan is a pure misnomer, since none of these 
 animals are reared in that locality. The name 
 Astrakhan as applied to this commodity no doubt
 
 AT THE CITY OF KARAKUL 
 
 463 
 
 grew out of the fact that, owing to the favorable 
 commercial position of that city at the head of the 
 Caspian Sea, it was through Astrakhan that this 
 
 OLD MOSOUE SAID TO HAVE BEEN BUILT BY TAMERLANE 
 
 highly prized article of dress was first introduced 
 into the West. 
 
 It is obtained from a peculiar variety of sheep. 
 It is an under-sized and scraggy animal, in striking- 
 contrast with the large, plump, and well-rounded
 
 464 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 kind that yields the excellent mutton of Bokhara. 
 They are almost without exception black, and it is 
 about as rare to find a white or light one in the 
 flock as is the traditional black sheep in the com- 
 
 ;»»*»»■»», ,j,,j,,. 
 
 iiniiiiiHiiiHiiiitiiiii , 1^ 
 
 SUMMER PALACE OF THE AMEER OF BOKHARA, BETWEEN THE NEW AND 
 OLD CITIES OF THAT NAME 
 
 men variety. Its wool, instead of being long and 
 straight of fibre, grows in short, crisp curls close to 
 the body, and is of exceptionally fine texture. 
 The quality depends almost entirely upon the age
 
 THE KARAKUL 465 
 
 at which the animal is killed — the young-er it is, 
 the hiofher the Lfrade. 
 
 The very highest quality is produced by a most 
 singular practice. As soon as the lamb is able to 
 stand on its legs, its little body is tightly sewn up 
 in a cloth envelope, in which it is permitted to run 
 about for four or five days, when it is killed. The 
 purpose of this seems to be threefold — to preserve 
 the exquisite lustre and texture of its baby wool, 
 to protect it against being soiled, and to add to 
 the length of the fibre b)' a few da)'s' growth, as 
 well as more firmly fixing the curl. 
 
 It is called here, in the East, Karakul, taking its 
 name from the town and region wh^_ e it is so exten- 
 sively produced. It is not valued in the West 
 only, but throughout Central Asia is held in quite 
 as high esteem, every one whose means will bring 
 it within their reach using it in some form. As 
 a sort of guide to its value, I would say that the 
 skins of the best quality sell where it is grown at 
 
 $4 to $8 apiece. 
 
 30
 
 XXII 
 
 Bokhara— Courtesy of Russian officials— The Ameer of Bokhara — 
 Area and population of Bokhara — Its destruction by the Tar- 
 tars — The ruling race— The Usbegs inferior to the Turcomans 
 — Mosques and colleges — The mosque of Tamerlane in the 
 Reo-histan — Inferior to the ruins of Samarkand — Palace of the 
 Ameer of Bokhara — Citadel of Alp-Arslan— Bazaars in Bokhara 
 — Buildings, etc. — Customs, police regulations, etc. — Vices and 
 virtues of the Bokharians — Temperance among the inhabitants 
 — An agreeable contrast — Introduction of opium into Central 
 Asia — An instructive incident. « 
 
 On my arrival at the new city of Bokhara I was 
 met by the military agent there, who at once as- 
 signed us a gighiti, or escort, to the old city, twelve 
 miles away. Bokhara, while nominally an inde- 
 pendent khanate, is in reality under Russian con- 
 trol, the Ameer being scarcely more than a vassal 
 of the Czar. The government has but few sol- 
 diers in this province, and seems to studiously 
 avoid any display of authority or sovereignty, 
 abstaining from all acts that might be interpreted 
 as pressing or coercive. 
 
 It moreover in nowise interferes with the habits 
 and customs of the people. Steady and silent 
 absorption is relied upon to do the work of assimi-
 
 THE AMEER OF BOKHARA
 
 TOWER FORMERLY USED TO EXECUTE CRIMINALS BY THROWING THEM 
 FROM THE TOP
 
 THE AMEER OF BOKHARA 
 
 471 
 
 lation. No doubt to ingratiate themselves into 
 the graces of the present ruler, the Russians are 
 building a splendid palace for his use at New Bok- 
 hara, near the railway station. The Ameer seems 
 
 REGHISTAN, OR MARKET-PLACE, IN BOKHARA, NEAR THE OLD CITADEL 
 
 to submit with an amiable docility to the new 
 powers-that-be, and it is said that he is never so 
 well pleased as when he is rigged out in the full 
 dress and trappings of a Russian general.
 
 472 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The province of Bokhara contains over 100,000 
 square miles, and about 5,000,000 people. It is 
 one of the most fertile on the globe, and is irri- 
 gated almost throughout. The Zerafshan River, 
 a tributary of the Amu-Daria, is diverted near 
 
 OLD MOSQUE, COVERED WITH VARIEGATED TILES 
 
 Samarkand, and its waters carried in large canals 
 to the city of Bokhara, nearly 200 miles, irrigating 
 in the meanwhile the adjacent lands through 
 Avhich they pass. Excepting the Nile valley, in 
 no country, perhaps, are the supreme conditions 
 of agriculture so completely under the control of
 
 VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS 
 
 475 
 
 man, or are nature's choicest gifts through the soil 
 so easily obtainable. 
 
 Veeetables and fruits ofrow here in the most 
 surprising profusion and abundance. Grapes of a 
 
 A GRAVEYARD IN THE CITY OF BOKHARA 
 
 size and quality nowhere surpassed, or scarcely 
 equalled, sell here at less than a cent per po'und. 
 Rich pasturage sustains countless herds of sheep 
 that yield meats of the highest quality.
 
 476 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 The old cit)' of Bokhara is one of the most 
 peculiar, and even unique, in the world. It con- 
 tains about 150,000 inhabitants, and is surrounded 
 by a massive wall, in which there are twelve g'ates 
 that enter the city. It is a very ancient city, and, 
 like Merv, suffered at the hands of the Tartar 
 invader, and was burned in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury by Zinghiz Khan. The rulin(T race are the 
 Usbeg Tartars. They are tillers of the soil, and 
 live largel)' in cities. Reflecting- in many ways 
 the enervating- influence of a luxurious life, they 
 are physically far inferior to their nomadic neigh- 
 bor, the Turcoman. 
 
 Excepting Mecca, Bokhara is, perhaps, t^ie cen- 
 tre of the purest Moslem faith in the Mohamme- 
 dan world. There are about 300 mosques in the 
 city, and in addition about thirty Medressehs, or 
 colleges, to educate the faithful. Some of the 
 mosques are models of beauty, especially that 
 built by Tamerlane, in the Reghistan, or market- 
 place, in front of the palace. Generally, however, 
 they are inferior, both in design and ornamenta- 
 tion, to the splendid ruins of Samarkand. 
 
 The palace of the Ameer is located on an emi- 
 nence near the western limit of the city. Neither 
 in its exterior or interior is it sufficiently striking to 
 command especial attention. It, however, derives 
 interest from the fact that it was built over 1,000
 
 THE BAZAARS OF BOKHARA 
 
 479 
 
 years ago by Alp-Arslan, the great Persian king 
 who so long and gallantly contested with the East- 
 ern Empire of Rome the mastery of the East. 
 
 THE CITADEL IN BOKHARA, SAID TO HAVE BEEN BUILT BV ALP-ARSLAN, 
 THE PERSIAN KING. IT IS WITHIN THIS CITADEL THAT THE PALACE 
 OF THE AMEER IS LOCATED 
 
 Bokhara has large and important bazaars, but 
 as machine-made goods are rapidly supplanting 
 the more splendid products of the hand, they are
 
 48o 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 fast losing- their interest. The buildings are low, 
 seldom of more than two stories, and built with 
 the flat roof sc» common in Oriental countries. The 
 streets are narrow, and, as they are covered in the 
 
 MUEZZIN CALLING THE FAITHFUL TO PRAYER FROM THE MINARET OF 
 A MOSQUE IN BOKHARA 
 
 centre or business portion of the town, it is pos- 
 sible to easily walk on the roofs of the houses over 
 a large part of the city. 
 
 There are many strange customs and regula-
 
 POLICE REGULATIONS 483 
 
 tions here. Every gate leading into the town is 
 closed at evening prayers, and no one is permitted 
 thereafter to enter or depart until after morning 
 prayers, some little time before sunrise. More- 
 
 BAZAAR IX r.OKIIARA 
 
 over, at the same hour even the streets are 
 cleared, and no one is allowed to appear upon 
 them during the night. To enforce this regula- 
 tion, a policeman is stationed every few hundred 
 feet, and, besides, a special detail of watchmen
 
 484 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 walk over the roofs of the houses throughout the 
 entire nio-ht, beatino- a Hvely tattoo on their drums. 
 The effect of this is to confine every citizen to his 
 home, and the streets are thus absohitely deserted. 
 
 STREET AND OLD MOSQUE IN THE NEIOHIIORMOOD OP^ THE REGHISTAN, 
 OR MARKET-PLACE 
 
 One thing- is certain, that Hfe and property are 
 thereby made secure in this queer city. 
 
 While there are no doubt many vices here, the 
 city is justly entitled to have many virtues recorded
 
 A TEMPERATE PEOPLE 
 
 487 
 
 to its credit. I was told by the keeper of the 
 caravansary at which we stopped, that theft is 
 ahiiost unknown. He said he had been in the citv 
 for ten years, during which time not a single case 
 
 RUINS OF ANCIENT MOSQUE NEAR THE REGHISTAN, IN BOKHARA 
 
 had come to his notice. As the Mohammedan is 
 not only theoretically, but de facto, an absolute 
 teetotaller, the use and sale of alcoholic li(piors 
 of all kinds, e\en beer and wine, are rigidh' pro-
 
 488 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 hibitecl. After having witnessed the wretched and 
 debasing effects of the unrestrained use of intoxi- 
 cating drinks among nations laying claim to a high 
 civilization, this splendid example of sobriety by a 
 
 IRRIGATING CANALS U\ illK i'l.AlNs ol' HuKHARA, ON THE RoAU K 
 SAMARKAND. WATER DRAWN FROM THE ZERAFSHAN RIVER 
 
 so-called heathen nation was, to say the least, re- 
 fresh in cr. 
 
 At this point I cannot forbear relating an inci- 
 dent that occurred at Merv, bearing directly upon
 
 PROPOSED INTRODUCTION OF OPIUM 491 
 
 the great question as to the future condition of 
 the Oriental races when brought under the influ- 
 ence and power of the Western nations, as doubt- 
 less they ultimately will be. 
 
 While in that city, I was invited to a dinner 
 given by a Russian high in authority, at which 
 there were several other officials, both civil and 
 military, as well as a number of resident business 
 men. During the evening, the conversation 
 turned upon the material resources and probable 
 industrial development of Russia's Central Asian 
 possessions, which led our host to refer to an 
 interesting circumstance. 
 
 A year or so before, an Englishman with im- 
 portant business connections, who was making a 
 tour in that region, was a guest at a dinner given 
 by this same official. The usual discussion nat- 
 urally arising as to the future trade possibilities of 
 Central Asia, his guest, he said, took occasion to 
 suggest that it might be a profitable business ven- 
 ture for Russia to introduce the opium traffic into 
 that great country. 
 
 Having in mind, evidently, the demoralizing re- 
 sults produced by England's forcible introduction 
 of opium into China, the condemnation of this 
 proposal, expressed by the Russian official, was 
 severe in the extreme. 
 
 I shall never forget his look of scorn and con-
 
 492 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tempt as he referred to what lie caUed so extraor- 
 dinary a proposition, that, for the sake of mere 
 sordid gain, they shoukl follow the example set in 
 
 COLLEGE, OR MEDRESSEH, L\ BOKHARA 
 
 China, and introduce this baneful drug, with its 
 pernicious consequences, among the gentle, indus- 
 trious, and temperate races under their care and 
 control in Central Asia.
 
 XXIII 
 
 Bokhara to Samarkand — Residence of Governor of Turkestan — His 
 great civility — Beauty of Samarkand — Avenues of acacias and 
 poplars — The old city of Samarkand — In ruins, but picturesque 
 — Once a great capital — Splendor under the Arabs and under 
 Tamerlane — A seat of learning — Architecture in old city of 
 Samarkand — Colleges in Samarkand — Mosques, tombs, and 
 palaces — The Shah-Zindah — The Tilla-Kari and Khanym — 
 Exquisite effect of tessellated tiles — The great mosque erected by 
 sister of Tamerlane — Similarity of architecture between Central 
 Asia and that of the Moguls in India — A huge pulpit and 
 voluminous Koran. 
 
 Leaving Bokhara in the evenino-, we arrived at 
 Samarkand in the forenoon of the next day. We 
 went direct to the palace of the Governor of Tur- 
 kestan, and were received with that polite attention 
 so characteristic of all, and especially of the higher, 
 Russian officials. The residence of the governor 
 is a handsome structure, nestled in the midst of a 
 most beautiful garden and park, and is furnished 
 throughout with the choicest products of Eastern 
 art. 
 
 On making known our wishes we were promptly 
 assigned an escort, whose dut)- it was to constantly 
 attend us in and about the citv durinof our sta\'.
 
 494 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 We were also informed that the miHtary agent 
 would be ready to respond to our wishes. Al- 
 though Tashkent, in virtue of its being nearer the 
 centre of Turkestan, is to become the future cap- 
 
 PARK IN THE CITY OF SAMARKAND, IN FRONT OF THE TOMB OF 
 
 TAMERLANE 
 
 ital of this great province, for the present its affairs 
 are conducted from Samarkand. 
 
 There are, perhaps, few cities in the world that 
 will at all compare with the rare and peculiar beauty
 
 RUSSIAN CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 497 
 
 of the new, or Russian, Samarkand. It presents the 
 appearance of having been literally carved out of 
 a dense forest of poplars and acacias, many square 
 
 MOSQUE NEAR THE REGHISTAX, AND BUILT BY TAMERLANE, IN 
 SAMARKAND 
 
 miles in extent. The tall trees, whose branches 
 almost interlace overhead, form streets of excep- 
 tional width, and, crossing at right angles, they 
 form hollow squares, in the centre of which the 
 32
 
 498 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 residences and even business houses are located. 
 In fact, a more perfect sylvan city would be hard 
 to imaofine. Alone both sides of the streets are 
 
 MOSQUE NEAR CENTRE OF CITY, BUILT BY TAMERLANE, CALLED THE 
 TILLA-KARI 
 
 running streams of pure, clear water, drawn from 
 the mountains some miles away. 
 
 Like many other unfortunate cities whose wealth 
 and splendor caused them to become the prey of
 
 OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 501 
 
 the despoiler, and which, through centuries of mis- 
 fortune and ever-changing masters, descended at 
 last to a fixed state of hopeless despair, the old 
 city of Samarkand, located at some distance from 
 
 STREET SCENE IN SAMARKAND, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF KHANVM, 
 ERECTED ]!Y TAMERLANE TO HIS FAVORITE WIFE, A CHINESE PRINCESS 
 
 the new, is now scarcely more than a sues^estion 
 of its former Q-reatness. Its streets are narrow 
 and unclean ; its houses small and untidy ; and the 
 great structures that were once its pride lie scat-
 
 502 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tered about, many in mouldering ruins, and most 
 of them in the last stages of decay ; all of them, 
 
 STREET SCENE IN SAMARKAND 
 
 however, present an interesting and picturesque 
 appearance. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no city in the world that con- 
 tains so many, or such a variety of, splendid ruins 
 as this. It was known to the ancients as Mara-
 
 THE GREAT TAxMERLANE 505 
 
 canda, and was used by Alexander as a base for his 
 military operations in Sogdiana. It rose to great 
 eminence in the tenth century, and then fell under 
 
 ENTRANCE TO THE >rOSQLE SHAH-ZINDAH. TESSELLATED TILES, WITH 
 VARIEGATED COLORING 
 
 the hand of that merciless destroyer of nations, 
 Zinghiz Khan. After the mighty Tamerlane as- 
 cended the throne of Zagatai, he made Samarkand 
 his capital, and by his efforts it became a brilliant
 
 5o6 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 centre of art, refinement, and learning, that, under 
 this ruler and his successors, long shone as the 
 brightest star in the Asiatic firmament. 
 
 The genius of Tamerlane can be seen every- 
 where reflected in the architecture and art of this 
 city and the surrounding country. Many of the 
 finest mosques and colleges are his creation, not- 
 ably the Tilla-Kari and the Khanym, the latter 
 erected in honor of his favorite wife, who was a 
 Chinese princess. Some of the chief buildings, 
 wliich are fairl)^ well-preserved, and the mosques 
 whose domes, facades, and minarets are yet cov- 
 ered with tessellated tiles, of those enchanting^ 
 blues and other colors so in favor with the Per- 
 sian and Saracen — arranged in exquisite and varie- 
 gated patterns and designs — combine to produce 
 an indescribably charming effect. 
 
 What was perhaps the largest, and generally es- 
 teemed one of the most beautiful, mosques in the 
 Mohammedan world, is the Shah-Zindah, just out- 
 side of the present, and which once must have been 
 in the midst of the old, city. ,The memorial mosque, 
 however, built by Tamerlane's sister, when in its 
 best estate, must have been without a peer in the 
 world's rare creations of architecture. It is still 
 sufficiently well-preserved to enable the imagina- 
 tion to restore it in its wondrous pristine symmetry 
 and peerless beauty.
 
 CENTRAL ASIAN ART 
 
 509 
 
 Indeed, to my mind there is but one building- 
 in the world that can justly rank as a rival, and 
 that is the memorial mosque erected in India by 
 the Mogul ruler Shah-Jehan to his favorite wife, 
 the Taj-Mahal. To all who are familiar wnth the art 
 
 STREET SCENE IX SAMARKAND. STREET LEADING FROM RAILWAY STATION 
 TO THE CITADEL IN THE CITY 
 
 that developed under the Tartar dynasty of North- 
 western India, a similarity is apparent so striking 
 as to suggest that it received its inspiration from 
 Central Asia. It is said, in fact, that the architect 
 who designed the Taj-AIahal came from the latter 
 countr\-. As it is a matter of historv that the
 
 510 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 Tartar ancestors of those who founded the Mogul 
 Empire in India came originally from Central Asia, 
 it is a reasonable supposition that its art also may 
 have been transplanted to the former country. 
 
 RUINS OF THE MOSQUE F.UILT T,X SISTER OF TAMERLANE. ONLY A SMALL 
 PORTION OF IT REMAINS IN GOOD STATE OF TRESERVATION 
 
 Within a grove in front of this mosque is an 
 immense marble block, supported by six columns. 
 In the upper part of the block a large V-shaped 
 groove is cut, in which was formerly placed a huge
 
 HUGE VOLUME OF THE KORAN 513 
 
 volume of the Koran, from which the officiating 
 priest read lessons to the surrounding- multitude. 
 This great book, which is still preserved in the 
 archives of the mosque of Shah-Zindah, has leaves 
 which seem to be from three to four feet wide and 
 four to five feet long. 
 
 33
 
 XXIV 
 
 Medressehs or colleges in Samarkand — The tomb of Tamerlane — 
 The sarcophagus of the great Tartar — Interior ornamentation — 
 The Russian citadel — Kok-Tash, or throne of Tamerlane — The 
 Shadman-Melik — Its peculiar construction — Excursion in the 
 mountains — The beauty of Samarkand — Reminiscences of Alex- 
 ander the Great — Social customs, etc. — Polygamy — Peculiar 
 equipage. 
 
 There are ten or a dozen Medressehs, or native 
 colleges, here, some of them accommodating- many 
 hundreds of students. The buildings are two 
 or three stories high, enclosing a quadrangular 
 space, in which also the students live, and thus 
 they much resemble the colleges of English uni- 
 versities. At one side there is Invariably located 
 a mosque for the use of the college. 
 
 The Gur-Amir, or tomb of Tamerlane here, is 
 worthy of that mighty conqueror. It is of the usual 
 mosque form, and surmounted by a high and ornate 
 dome. In the centre of an octagonal-shaped room, 
 immediately beneath the dome, is placed the 
 sarcophagus containing the remains of this great 
 warrior. It is a huge block of solid jasper, highly
 
 THE TOMB OF TAMERLANE 
 
 517 
 
 polished and covered with Cufic inscriptions. On 
 each side is a large porphyry sarcophagus, contain- 
 ing respectively the remains of his son and prime 
 
 STREET SCENE IN THE NEW, OR RUSSIAN, CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 minister. The whole room, as well as the ceiling 
 of the dome, is richly colored and covered with or- 
 namental arabesque fret-work. Through beauti- 
 fully stained glass windows the light is admitted
 
 5i8 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 and diffused throufrh the room in soft, delicate 
 
 tints. 
 
 The old palace is located in what is now a Rus- 
 
 
 TOMB OF TAMERLANE, LOCATED OX THE EDGE OF A GREAT PARK IN 
 THE NEW, OR RUSSIAN, CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 sian citadel. It contained the celebrated Kok- 
 Tash, or throne of Tamerlane, which was situated 
 in what once was the audience hall of that king. 
 It is a square block of polished jasper of some ten
 
 r^-aaj 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 risrs^R?^^ 
 
 m 
 
 n^^i 
 
 
 fel*^■i<^' ,'; 
 
 ' 
 
 . .' T^^^^^^^^l 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 '^^ 
 
 
 
 ; ^ 
 
 ^5 
 
 f. 
 
 ^^
 
 THE SHADMAN-MALIK 
 
 521 
 
 feet in length, and, like the sarcophagus, is covered 
 with inscriptions in Cufic letters. 
 
 About twelve miles distant from the cit}' are the 
 remains of an ancient bridge, the construction of 
 
 ENTRANXE TO THE TOMIi OF TAMERLANE 
 
 which is accredited to Tamerlane, called the Shad- 
 man-Malik. It was thrown across the Zerafshan 
 River, which here spreads over the valle}' in many 
 channels or branches. The bridge must, therefore,
 
 522 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 have been an immense structure, and built in a 
 series of great arches. Onl)- one remains intact, 
 although the partial remains of many are yet 
 easily traceable. They were constructed of brick, 
 and I should judge were nearly loo feet span, and 
 
 EXTERIOR OF TOMB OF TAMERLANE, IN NEW, OR RUSSIAN, CITY OF 
 SAMARKAND 
 
 of a height of sixty to eighty feet. For some un- 
 accountable reason the arches did not extend in a 
 straight line, but were all placed at an angle to 
 each other, giving to the long structure a zigzag 
 course.
 
 SCENERY NEAR SAMARKAND 525 
 
 We made a pleasant excursion into the hills and 
 low range of mountains to the northeast of the 
 city. While affording many charming views and 
 much picturesque scenery, this region derives es- 
 pecial interest from the fact that it was here Alex- 
 
 STREET SCENE IN SAMARKAND 
 
 ander received a dangerous wound, and sustained 
 his first, and perhaps only, reverse, at the hands of 
 the fierce hill tribes of this locality. If history be 
 not at fault, this was not the only wound received 
 here by this dauntless warrior, for he also fell a 
 victim to the charms of the fair Roxana, the
 
 526 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 daughter of a mountain chieftain, whom he after- 
 wards made his queen. 
 
 BURIAL PLACE OF MOHAMMEDAN SAINTS, NEAR THE GREAT MOSQUE 
 OF THE TILLA-KARI, IX SAMARKAND 
 
 There are many social customs and peculiarities 
 here that lend a varied interest to the city. Polyg- 
 amy still prevails and wives abound, the number
 
 A MOHAMMEDAN FAMILY 
 
 529 
 
 that a man takes unto himself being limited, as 
 in other Mohammedan countries, by his means 
 to support them. It is no uncommon sight to see 
 a native cart, with its huge wheels and one horse, 
 passing slowly down the shady streets, the rider — 
 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 
 #^ 
 
 1 M 
 
 B : 
 
 
 
 ^■^1 
 
 \ •! 
 
 vr— 
 
 , vJ:%a 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ^^^^^^B 
 
 -Ml 
 
 MARKET SfKNE IX SAMARKAND 
 
 it has no driver — richly dressed, wearing an im- 
 mense turban, and perched on the very shoulders 
 of the horse to guide the vehicle, on the floor of 
 which, closely veiled, can be seen a number of 
 women, often a half dozen. Having so frequently 
 observed this peculiar outfit, I was moved to in- 
 34
 
 530 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 quire the real nature of so strange an equipage, 
 and was informed that it was the custom of 
 wealthy men thus to take their wives out for an 
 airing.
 
 XXV 
 
 Natives, or Sarts — Seeing native life and customs — Dinner at the 
 residence of the Amban or native mayor of Samarkand — Our 
 host and his guests — Oriental features of the occasion — Brilliant 
 surroundings — The Russians — The dances — No women as 
 dancers — Boy dancers dressed in the habits of women — Tiie 
 music of the Sart — At first unpleasant — Wherein lies the charm 
 of Oriental music — Due to rhythm — Influence hypnotic — Similar 
 emotional state of howling and dancing dervishes — The din- 
 ner^ — Various native dishes — Kiabab — Cavourna — Pilaf, etc. — 
 Oriental dancing — Producing similar effects by rhythm of mo- 
 tion — Concluding reflections. 
 
 This region is peopled by a peculiar race called 
 Sarts who, in many of their traits, seem to be mid- 
 way between the Chinese and the Tartar, being, 
 as it is said, next to the Chinaman, the most skil- 
 ful agriculturists in the world. Having expressed 
 a desire to see their domestic life in its primitive 
 and characteristic forms, the governor most oblig- 
 ingly instructed the Amban, or mayor, of the old 
 city to provide for us a dinner and entertainment 
 that would reflect the chief habits and customs of 
 the people. It was arranged to take place at the 
 residence of that official, who was himself a native 
 of orreat wealth and influence. 
 
 On our arrival at the appointed hour, wc found
 
 532 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 already assembled a large number of guests, all 
 natives and friends of our host, and, from their ap- 
 pearance, wealthy and influential citizens. The 
 
 A MOHAMMEDAN AND HIS WIVES. sCKNE IN THE J'AKiv IN 1 HE NEW, 
 OR RUSSIAN, CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 residence was purely Oriental in design, construc- 
 tion, and ornamentation, the Persian element 
 entering largely into it — a preference I had often 
 before observed shown by these people. It was
 
 NATIVE BANQUET 
 
 533 
 
 two stories in height, enclosing an open court of 
 perhaps eighty feet square, entirely covered for 
 the occasion by large rugs, rich in brilliant color- 
 ings and tasteful patterns. The owner, with his 
 
 NATIVES, OR SARTS, FATHER AND SON 
 
 family, occupied the front and two sides of the 
 buildin^■, the rear one beino- reserved for the do- 
 mestics. 
 
 The dininsj- table was located on a sort of wide
 
 534 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 veranda or dais running around the interior of the 
 buildinof at some height from the grround, from 
 which we looked directly upon the court below; at 
 
 MEDRESSEH, OR NATIVE COLLEGE, LOCATED IN THE OLD CITY OF 
 SAMARKAND. THERE ARE SAID TO BE SOME TWENTY COLLEGES IN 
 SAMARKAND 
 
 the opposite side of the court the musicians, some 
 ten or twelve in number, as is the custom of the 
 country, sat squatting on the carpets. The table
 
 GUESTS AT BANQUET 
 
 535 
 
 accommodated about thirty guests, and, excepting 
 two Russian soldiers in full military dress, detailed 
 by the government for this function, there were no 
 
 STREET SCENE IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND, LEADING FROM THE 
 PUBLIC SQUARE TO THE GREAT MOSQUE OF TAMERLANE 
 
 foreiofners other than ourselves. There were no 
 women present, as they are, in fact, rarely seen on 
 any public occasion. 
 
 In addition to the musicians, there was provided
 
 536 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 for our entertainment a full corps of professional 
 dancers, composed of youths from fifteen to eigh- 
 teen years of age, and dressed as girls — no women, 
 
 IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND. STREET LEADING TO THE GREAT 
 MOSQUE OF THE SHAH-ZINDAH. NATIVE SARTS IN THE FOREGROUND 
 
 as is the custom throughout the East, being per- 
 mitted to publicly appear in any kind of theatrical 
 representation. The instruments were the usual flat 
 drum, a sort of clarionet, and cymbals. Immediately 
 after the beeinnine of the dinner, the music com-
 
 ORIENTAL AIUSIC 
 
 537 
 
 menced, and continued, with only short intervals, 
 during the entire repast. The highly-pitched 
 voices of the singers, mingled with what at first 
 seemed the discordant din of the instruments, 
 
 STREET SCENE IN THE RUSSIAN, OR NEW, CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 produced anything but a pleasant effect. Such 
 is the inscrutable law of adjustment, however, 
 that after being under its intluence for several 
 hours, not only did it cease to be unpleasant, but
 
 538 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 I even began to discover elements of beauty and 
 pleasure in it. 
 
 I wish I were sufficiently versed in music to 
 make an effort to determine wherein lies the 
 charm of the music of the East, since it certainly 
 
 RUINS OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SHAH-ZINDAH, IN THE OLD CITY OF 
 SAMARKAND. SAID TO HAVE BEEN ONE OF THE GRANDEST IN THE 
 MOSLEM WORLD 
 
 has a decided charm for the Oriental ear, as they 
 always listen to it in a dreamy silence. I am 
 inclined to think that it is due to its rhythm, pro- 
 ducing a sort of hypnotic spell upon the hearer. 
 To the influence of rhythm is evidently due that
 
 ORIENTAL DANCING 
 
 539 
 
 strange entrancement displayed by the dancing- 
 and howling dervishes of the East, and the some- 
 what similar mental and emotional state shown 
 by the negro in America on certain occasions of 
 high religious excitement. 
 
 ENTRANCE TJIROUGH THE ENCLOSING WALL THAT SURROUNDS THE TUMI'. 
 OF TAMERLANE, EN THE CUIY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 The strange effect of adjustment was exempli- 
 fied by a circumstance that occurred while on a 
 visit to Japan some years ago. I fell in with a 
 highly intelligent Japanese gentleman, who had 
 returned a few months before from Eni^-land, where
 
 540 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 he had spent fifteen years, and had graduated at 
 one of its leading universities. He had been 
 sufficiently long in the West to become familiar 
 with its customs, and had, as he said, acquired 
 some fondness for its music. I asked him which 
 
 VIEW IN THE PARK IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 he preferred, when he freely admitted that he 
 liked best the simple music of his own country, 
 which to me was almost painful. 
 
 The viands served by our host were entirely 
 those of the natives. The first dish was called 
 Kiabab, made of minced meat, previously cooked
 
 ORIENTAL DINNER 
 
 543 
 
 and deliciously Havored, wrapped in successive 
 layers of a thin sheet of dough, forming small 
 rolls, and dropped into some sort of hot fat and 
 browned. The second dish was called Cavourna, 
 
 NATIVE MUSICIANS IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 and was a kind of meat stew, made of mutton and 
 various vegetables, such as tomatoes, etc. 
 
 The great dish, however, X[\^ piece de resistance, 
 was Pilaf, which, like the curry of India, is the 
 main article of diet in the Central East. It is 
 made by mixing choice bits of fried mutton with 
 boiled rice, to which is added something like curry.
 
 544 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 It constitutes a palatable and withal a most di- 
 ofestible and wholesome dish. The last course 
 was fruits, the variety and excellence of which I 
 will not attempt to describe. Although wines of 
 many choice varieties, produced by the resident 
 
 DANCERS AT KAXQUET IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 Russians, were liberally served, I noticed that not 
 one of the quests — all beino- Mohammedans — 
 touched it, not even to respond to a toast. 
 
 The dancing was of a variety so universally in
 
 CHARM PRODUCED BY RHYTHM 545 
 
 vogue throughout Oriental countries. It is in its 
 nature essentially allied to their music, a like 
 effect being produced in both instances by the 
 same primary cause — rhythm — acting in the one 
 case through the ear, in the other through the eye. 
 
 SHADMAN-MALIK, OR liRIDCE OF TAMERLANE, OVER THE ZERAI-'SHAN 
 RIVER, TWENTY MILES EROM CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 What is accomplished by the almost monotonous 
 repetition of rhythmic sounds, is done quite as 
 effectively by the continuous repetition of gentle 
 and graceful movements of the limbs and the 
 body. The combined effect, therefore, of their 
 music and dancing is to lull those who are accus- 
 35
 
 546 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 tomed to it into a drowsy, dreamy mood. Occa- 
 sionally a dancer would suddenly break away from 
 the rest and, in rapid gyrations and dizzy whirls, 
 spin around in a great circle, his long, loose hair 
 
 MARKET SCENE IN THE OLD CITY OF SAMARKAND 
 
 and flowing robe in the meanwhile circling in the 
 air with curious effect. 
 
 At different intervals a magician, juggler, or 
 acrobat was called in to lend additional interest to 
 the entertainment. So absorbed was I in all that 
 was occurring that I took no note of time, and on 
 suddenly discovering that more than three hours
 
 REFLECTIONS 
 
 547 
 
 had been consumed, I at once signified to my 
 host that I must depart. Amid many profound 
 salaams, and a profusion of good wishes for our 
 welfare and safety, we took our departure from 
 scenes and experiences that I shall alwa)s remem- 
 ber as the most weird and interesting of my life. 
 
 STREET SCENE IN THE NEW TOWN OF SAMARKAND 
 
 While returning, I pondered much on the in- 
 scrutable causes that operate to create nations, and 
 to control their destinies. How strange it seemed 
 that, by the influence of what appear to be the 
 same causes and similar natural laws in different 
 regions of the globe, there are created races so
 
 548 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 widely divergent in customs, habits, and modes 
 of thought, and even in physical characteristics. 
 More wonderful still is it, that a sudden and vio- 
 lent chanofe from the fixed conditions of one 
 nation to those of another is often followed by 
 national and even racial death. 
 
 Perhaps we may find a partial solution of these 
 mysteries In the fact that what we are accustomed 
 superficially to regard as Identical or similar con- 
 ditions may, upon a closer analysis, prove to be 
 widely different in essential particulars; and, there- 
 fore, whatever peculiar traits a nation may dis- 
 play will be found to be only the natural and 
 necessary outgrowth of the special conditions 
 under which it evolved. 
 
 These reflections would seem to harmonize with 
 what a great philosopher has declared to be the 
 general law of life — " the adjustment of Internal to 
 external relations." They also tend to carry us 
 closer toward the Inquiry, whether our thoughts, 
 customs, tastes, and even our physical being may 
 not be merely the continuous product of the en- 
 vironing conditions in which, and by which, we 
 exist. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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