THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS GIFT OF ROBERT I. TEMEY The D. Van No&rand Company intend this book to be sold to the Public at the advertised price, and supply it to the Trade on terms which will not allow of reduction. MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS . MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS BY C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A. (OxoN.), F.I.C. NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. TWENTY-FIVE PARK PLACE 63.6 MBRAKT OHIVERSITY OF CAUFQRinX DAVIS TO WALTER WILLIAM FISHER, M.A. (OXON.), 1M.C., ALDRICHJAN DEMONSTRATOR IN THK UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. PROM HIS PUPIL. PREFACE IN this book I have endeavoured to give an outline of the early methods of making artificial mineral waters, and to trace the gradual evolution of the primitive forms of apparatus first invented into the carbonating plant of the present day. During the eighteenth century so much attention was given to the subject in the scientific journals of that time that it is possible to trace the beginnings of the mineral-water industry with much more detail than can be done in the case of many other industries. Descriptions of aerating processes and diagrams of apparatus are to be found in many unexpected places, and I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. William Kirkby's " Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters " for several sources of information that would otherwise have escaped my notice. My best thanks are also due to Mr. Kirkby for his permission to make use of the description and diagram of Withering' s apparatus, and to Mr. A. Chaston Chapman, who has kindly supplied me with photographs of the wild yeasts illustrated in Chapter X. I would also thank the different manufacturers of modern plant who have placed photographs and descriptions of their machines at my disposal and have given me every assistance in their power. Among them I may mention Messrs. W. J. Fraser & Co., of Dagenham, Messrs. Hall & Co., The Biley Manufacturing Company, Messrs. Wickham & Co., of Ware, and, in particular, Messrs. Hayward-Tyler & Co., who have been at great trouble to obtain for me descriptions and illustrations of the machines made by their firm in the early part of last century. viii PREFACE Messrs. Ingram and Royle have kindly allowed me to quote analyses from their compilation on natural mineral waters, and the Apollinaris Company have supplied me with infor- mation about their spring and with photographs of their works. To both these firms I tender my thanks for their assistance. C. A. M. WHITE COTTAGE, AMERSHAM COMMON, BUCKS. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE Origin and Properties of Natural Mineral Waters Gases in Natural Waters Holy Wells The Zem-Zem Well at Mecca 1 CHAPTER II. Spas and their Springs ........ 9 CHAPTER III. Natural Mineral Table Waters . . . . . .27 CHAPTER IV. Thermal Springs and Radio-activity Temperatures Helium and Niton in Mineral Waters Measurement of Radio- activity Artificial Radio-active Mineral Waters . . 35 CHAPTER V. Carbon Dioxide Its Preparation, Properties and Uses in the Mineral Water Factory ....... 44 CHAPTER VI. Artificial Mineral Waters ....... 64 CHAPTER VII. Early Forms of Carbonating Apparatus . . .84 CHAPTER VIII. The Machinery of To-day The Pump Generators Gas Tubes Soda Water Machines Combined Cooling, etc. Condensers Soda Water Bottling Machinery Arrangement of a Soda Water Factory .... 128 CHAPTER IX. Bottles and Bottling Machinery . 148 x CONTENTS CHAPTER X. PAGE The Making of Ginger Beer ... . 179 CHAPTER XI. Examination of Mineral Waters : General Characteristics The Pressure Metallic Contamination Bacterioscopic Examina- tion Injurious Fermentations Ropiness Preservatives and Colouring Matters . . . . . . . .193 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . i>!7 INDEX 221 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. Tin Bottle of Holy Water from Mecca 2. Plan of Tunbridge Wells in 1720 . 10 3. Plan of Pyrmont in 1712 . .18 4. General View of the Works at the Apollinaris Spring . . 28 5. Labelling Hall at the Apollinaris Spring .... 30 6. Henrich's Apparatus for Measuring Radio-activity . . 40 7. Faraday's Tube for Liquefying Carbon Dioxide . . 50 8. Thilorier's Apparatus for Liquefying Carbon Dioxide . . 52 9. Eraser's Apparatus for Collecting Carbon Dioxide from Fermenting Tuns ....... 54 10. Fraser's Apparatus for Collecting Carbon Dioxide from Closed Fermenting Vessel ...... 55 11. Hall's Plant for Collecting Carbon Dioxide from Fermenta- tions : The Compressor .... .56 12. Hall's Plant for Collecting Carbon Dioxide from Fermenta- tions : The Condenser, Purifier and Bottling Apparatus . 57 13. Diagrammatic Section of Hall's Refrigerating Machine . 58 14. Hall's Vertical Combined Land Type C0 2 Refrigerating Machine ....... .59 15. Diagram illustrating the Construction of Hall's Land Type Machine .60 16. Hall's Refrigerating Machine installed in Mineral Water Factory ......... 61 17. Diagram illustrating the Construction of Pressure Gauge . 62 18. The " German Spa " at Brighton . . 79 19. Preparation of Artificial Mineral Waters in Struve's Dresden Establishment, 1853 . .80 20. Cavendish's Apparatus for Estimating Carbon Dioxide in Water 84 21. Bergman's Impregnating Apparatus, 1770 ... 85 22. Priestley's Original Apparatus, 1772 86 23. Priestley's Modified Apparatus, 1772 . 87 24. Lavoisier's Devices for Regulating an Acid Supply . . 88 25. Nooth's Apparatus, 1775 . . . .89 26. Valve in Nooth's Apparatus ..... . 89 27. Withering's Apparatus . . . . . . .91 28. Duchanoy's Carbonating Apparatus, 1780 ... 92 29. Henry's Aerating Apparatus, 1781 92 xii LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS FIG. PAGE 30. Haygarth's Impregnating Machine, 1781 . . . .94 31. Carbonating Plant used in London in 1825 ... 95 32. Watt's Hydraulic Bellows 97 33. Lavoisier's Gasometer, 1789 ...... 99 34. Lavoisier's Pump, 1774 ...... . 100 35. Planche's Compressor, 1811 .... . 101 36. Planche's Apparatus with Wooden Agitator . . .102 37. Old English Wooden Carbonating Cylinder . . . 104 38. Old German Carbonating Plant ..... 106 39. Struve's Carbonating Plant, 1823 ... . 107 40. Double Cylinder Carbonating Machine .... 109 41. Bakewell's Apparatus, 1832 . .111 42. Savaresse's Carbonating Machine, 1838 . . . .113 43. Section of a Mondollot Apparatus . . . . .115 44. Hamilton's Continuous Process Machine, 1814 . . .117 45. Bramah's Original Machine . . . . . .119 46. Hay ward -Tyler's Earliest Continuous Machine . . . 121 47. Hay ward -Tyler's Beam- Action Machine . . . . " 122 48. Early French Continuous Plant . . . . .123 49. Early French Gasometer . . . . . .124 50. Matthews' Vertical Generator . . . . . .126 51. Twin Carbonating Cylinders . . . . . .129 52. Upright Generator ... .130 53. Horizontal Generator . . . . . . .131 54. Automatic Device for regulating the Supply of Acid . .132 55. The Kiley " Safety " Generator 133 56. Hayward-Tyler's New Pattern AA1 Machine . . . 136 57. Plunger Pump 137 58. Bucket Pump .137 59. Hayward-Tyler's New Pattern Pump . . . 138 60. Gunmetal Horizontal Cylinder . . . . . .139 61. The " Kiley " Patent Soda Water Pump and Cylinder . 140 62. The " Riley " Patent Double Soda Water Pump and Cylinder 141 63. Hayward-Tyler's " Aerate-Cool " Machine . . .143 64. Horizontal Machine for Use with Tubes of Liquefied Gas . 144 65. Vertical Machine for Use with Tubes of Liquefied Gas . 145 66. General Arrangement of Mineral Water Factory . .146 67. Briggs' Bottling Machine, 1830 ... . 149 68. Hayward-Tyler's Early Bottling Machine .... 150 69. Savaresse's Bottling Machine, 1838 . . . .151 70. Macdonell's Automatic Corking Machine . . . .152 71. Howard's Patent Wiring Machine . . . . .153 72. Codd's Patent Bottle Stopper . . 153 73. Swing-Filling Machine for Codd's Bottles . . . .154 74. Power-Filling Machine for Codd's Bottles . .155 75. Lament's Patent Bottle and Stopper . . . .156 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS xiii FIG. PAGE 76. The " Riley ' Patent Screw Stopper . 157 77. Riley Screw-Stopper Machines at Work .... 158 78. " Crown Cork " 159 79. " Crown Cork " in Position on the Bottle .... 159 80. Automatic Machine for " Crown Corks " . . . .160 81. Clasp Stopper 161 82. The " Riley " Automatic Rotary Filling Machine . . 162 83. Scott's Patent " Thistle " Filler 165 84. Savaresse's Syphon Tube, 1838 167 85. Savaresse's Syphon ....... 167 86. Mechanism of Syphon with Long Lever .... 168 87. Mechanism of Syphon with Short Lever .... 168 88. Early Syphon -Filling Machine 169 89. Hayward-Tyler's Syphon-Filling Machine .... 170 90. Ferguson's Double Syphon Filler . . . . .171 91. Counter Pressure Chamber . . . . . .172 92. Portable Cylinder or ; ' Fountain " . . . . .173 93. Wickham's Washing Machine . . . . . .174 94. Wickham's Patent Revolving Rinser . . .174 95. Wickham's Patent Rinser with Bottle in Position . .175 96. Old-Fashioned Type of Rinser 175 97. Hayward-Tyler's " Automatic " Upright Washing Machine. 176 98. Riley's " Wheel " Washing Machine .... 177 99. Riley's Turbine Brusher 178 100. Riley's Ginger Beer Brewing Plant . . 180 101. Saccharomyces anomalus . . . . . . .183 102. 8. apiculatus (Schweitz) 183 103. 8. apiculatus (Schweitz) . . .184 104. Steam Coil in Ginger Beer Infusion Tank . . 186 105. Vertical Refrigerator . . . . . . .187 106. Horizontal Refrigerator 188 107. Apparatus for Filling Casks with Ginger Beer . . .189 108. Riley's Filling Machine ... ... 190 109. Hayward-Tyler's Filling Machine 191 110. Filling the Bottles . . 191 111. Testing Gauge for Syphons ...... 194 112. Testing Gauge for Codd's Bottles 194 113. Apparatus for Arsenic Tests .... ,201 114. Acetic Bacteria (Hansen) 207 M.W. MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS CHAPTER I ORIGIN AND PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MINERAL WATERS- GASES IN NATURAL WATERS HOLY WELLS THE ZEM- ZEM WELL AT MECCA IN its original signification the term " mineral waters " was restricted to those natural spring waters to which medi- cinal properties were attributed, either by reason of the salts that they contained in solution, or of the gases with which they were saturated. These products thus formed a natural group in a series ranging from rain water at one end of the scale to sea water, brine springs, and petrifying wells at the other. When freshly discharged from a cloud rain water is the purest form of natural water, but on its way through the atmosphere it becomes contaminated with various gases, and as soon as it reaches the soil begins to take up different salts, the nature and proportion of which will depend upon the kind of saline deposits with which it comes in contact. According to the amount of salts thus dissolved, natural waters are classified as soft or hard. In some waters, such as that of Loch Katrine, the water is very nearly as free from solid matter as rain water, and these leave only traces of organic matter on evaporation. In others so large a proportion of salts may pass into solution that the product is a saturated saline solution. As an example of a natural water of this kind we have the water of the Dead Sea, which the writer has found to have a specific gravity of M.W. B 2 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS 1-2031 and to contain no less than 402 parts of solid matter per 1,000. Between extremes of this kind come river waters, ordinary well waters, and drinkable saline waters, which obviously differ more in the quantity than in the nature of their dissolved constituents. Alterations in Natural Waters. Another point in connec- tion with natural waters is that, although in some cases their composition may remain fairly constant, as, for instance, soft lake waters, they may also show great variations from time to time, according to the nature of the season, and to alterations in the level of the pocket of water. An interesting example of this alteration is afforded by the Government well in Trafalgar Square. In 1848 this water contained 99' 15 parts per 100,000, whereas in 1900 an analysis by Mr. W. W. Fisher showed that it only contained 85' 7 parts per 100,000. Between the years 1848 and 1857 the water lost 14 per cent, of its total saline constituents, but since the latter date has remained fairly constant. The loss consisted, in the main, of potassium carbonate. In another case within the writer's experience the total solid matter in the water from a deep artesian well was 52 parts per 100,000 in 1895, while twelve years later the level of the water had sunk some 30 to 40 feet, and the water then contained only 43 parts of total solids per 100,000. In moving waters alterations in the proportions of the various salts are often brought about by reactions that take place between the salts dissolved at one period and those with which the water subsequently comes into contact with the result that some of the substances first dissolved are subsequently re-precipitated. Effect of Gases in Natural Waters. Another factor which affects the amount of saline matter in a water is the presence of carbon dioxide and other gases. For example, the car- bonates of calcium and magnesium, which occur in many mineral waters and are the cause of the temporary hardness in drinking waters, are precipitated when the water is boiled PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MINERAL WATERS 3 so as to expel the dissolved carbon dioxide which kept them in solution. Many of the petrifying wells owe their power of incrustating objects with a deposit of calcium carbonate to this cause. The water is so saturated with the salt, which is solely kept in solution by the dissolved carbonic acid, that when a proportion of the gas escapes from the splashing water part of the carbonate is precipitated. Another striking example of the part thus played by carbon dioxide in natural waters is afforded by the formation of stalactites in caverns. Each drop of water falling from the roof parts with a little of its dissolved carbon dioxide, and thus causes the deposition of some of the calcium carbonate with which it is also charged, until, finally, the succeeding drops traverse an envelope of the separated salt, and the stalactite gradually lengthens. At the point where the drop falls a stalagmite may be produced, and eventually may grow to a sufficient height to meet the descending stalactite and form a solid column. To the same cause may sometimes be attributed the depo- sition of iron salts which takes place in certain chalybeate waters on standing. The iron carbonate in the water is kept in solution so long as the liquid remains saturated with carbon dioxide, but with the escape of the gas the iron salt is precipitated. A good example of this is afforded by the chalybeate waters of Tunbridge Wells, which contain in solution about 0*025 part of iron per 1,000, corresponding to rather more than twice that quantity of iron carbonate, which is kept in solution by the free carbon dioxide. In one analysis the dissolved gas amounted to 69-35 c.c. per litre (or 19-19 cubic inches per gallon). Carbon Dioxide in Water. The degree of solubility of carbon dioxide in water under varying degrees of pressure and tem- perature is a factor of considerable importance in the manu- facture of aerated beverages. This point is discussed in the section dealing with the production and properties of carbon dioxide. 4 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS In the case of natural mineral waters it is sufficient to state here that at the ordinary atmospheric pressure and normal temperature (60 F.), the gas is soluble in about an equal volume of water. The proportion of carbon dioxide in natural mineral waters varies within wide limits. In some, the water is completely saturated with the gas as it leaves the spring, at a relatively low temperature, and on standing in the air it gradually attains the normal temperature, and bubbles of gas continually escape. In others only traces of carbon dioxide are present in the dissolved gases. Hydrogen Sulphide. Another group of natural waters, which may be typified by the sulphur springs of Harrogate, contain large amounts of hydrogen sulphide. For example, from the water of the Old Sulphur Well, Muspratt separated 36-09 cubic inches of gases per gallon, consisting of 61'06 per cent, of carbon dioxide, 16-17 per cent, of methane, 8-08 per cent, of nitrogen, and 14-69 per cent, of hydrogen sulphide. Nitrogen and Inert Gases. In some mineral waters the gases in solution consist principally of nitrogen (including argon, neon, etc.). Thus in the case of the Buxton waters, Muspratt found 504 cubic inches of nitrogen and 3-5 cubic inches of carbon dioxide per litre. The therapeutic action of Buxton water has been attributed to this large amount of nitrogen, but is much more likely to be due to the presence of niton (radium emanation) (see Chapter IV.). Holy Wells. The medicinal properties of some of the more saline waters could hardly have escaped recognition at a very early period of man's history, and the good effects produced in some cases by a liberal use of certain springs frequently led to their acquiring a supernatural reputation and being regarded as the direct cause of many a miraculous cure. For instance, long before the Reformation votive offerings were made to St. Anne at Buxton for the cures effected by the HOLY WELLS 5 use of the waters of her well, and the practice was finally forbidden by Henry VIII. In many instances this holy reputation has been handed down to the present day ; in others all record of the well itself has disappeared, and only its name has survived. To this cause we can attribute the origin of the name " Holy Well," which is of such frequent occurrence in towns and villages all over Europe. Some of the " holy " wells justify their medicinal fame by the fact that their waters contain Epsom salt, Glauber's salt, or sulphur compounds possessing a therapeutic action when applied externally. In other cases the good effects claimed to have been brought about by the waters may have been mainly due to a simultaneous exercise of faith. Take, for example, the water of St. Winifred's Well at Holy- well in North Wales, which even yet retains some vestiges of its mediaeval character of a health-giving spring, notwith- standing the fact that half a century ago it was shown that the salts it contained were remarkable neither in kind nor in quantity. According to the analysis of J. Barrat, 1 it contained 30-4 grains per gallon of salts, consisting principally of calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and calcium chloride, with smaller quantities of magnesium carbonate, sodium chloride, and silica. There remains, however, the possibility that this water may be strongly radio-active, and that it acquired its reputation from this cause and not from the nature of its saline constituents. It is interesting to compare with this the composition of the water of the holy well, on the north shore of Morecambe Bay, which at one time was the property of the Priors of Cartmel. It was highly esteemed as a cure for gout and diseases of the skin, and is mentioned in the pages of Camden as a medicinal spring. The water, which issues from a fissure in a rock close to the 1 J. Chem. Soc., 1860, XII., p. 52. 6 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS sea, was examined by Mr. (now Sir Edward) Thorpe in 1868, 1 and was found to contain 7-19 parts per 1,000 of salts, consisting chiefly of sodium chloride and calcium sulphate, with smaller quantities of calcium carbonate, magnesium chloride and sodium sulphate, and minute quantities of barium, strontium and lithium salts (0-002 part), silica and iron carbonate (0-003 part). The Sacred Well of Mecca. Probably the most celebrated holy well in the world is the sacred well at Mecca, which tradition claims to be the actual well of Hagar. To all Mohammedans, therefore, it is an object of especial veneration, though among Europeans it has the reputation of having been the means of distributing more than one outbreak of cholera. Each pilgrim to Mecca is required to drink of this water and to bathe in it, and since the supply would be far too limited to meet the demand of the thousands of annual pilgrims, a conservative process has been evolved. An Arab stands upon the parapet of the well and draws up the water in a bucket. A pilgrim then advances and receives the contents of the bucket on his head. He drinks what he can, and the remainder flows down over him, and falls back through a grating into the well, whence it is again drawn, to be poured over succeeding pilgrims. When we reflect that this practice has been going on year after year with generations of pilgrims (70,000 to 80,000 a year), it is not surprising that the water of the Zem-Zem well shows extreme pollution, or that the well has been the medium for spreading infection far and wide. The water is not only drunk in Mecca itself, but is exported to all parts of the world for the use of the faithful, and a great trade is done in the sale of the bottles to the pilgrims. The curious tin bottle, shown in the accompanying photo- graph, is one of several brought back in 1853 by Sir Richard Burton from Mecca, and was given to the present writer by Lady Burton shortly before her death. 1 J. Chem. Soc., 1868, XXI., p. 19. THE SACRED WELL OF MECCA 7 Readers of Burton's " Pilgrimage to Mecca " will remember how, disguising himself as a pilgrim dervish, he succeeded at the risk of his life in making his way to Mecca, and took part in all the ceremonies at the tomb of the prophet. One of the objects of his pilgrimage was to see the Zem-Zem well and to obtain some of the water, and his account of the FIG. 1. Tin Bottle, containing Holy Water, brought from Mecca by Sir Kichard Burton. properties of the most renowned mineral water of the Old World is well worth quoting : " The produce of Zem-Zem is held in great esteem. It is used for drinking and religious ablution, but for no baser purpose, and the Meccans advise pilgrims always to break their fast with it. It is apt to cause boils, and I never saw a stranger 8 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS drink it without a wry face. Sale is decidedly correct in his assertion : the flavour is a salt-bitter, much resembling an infusion of a teaspoonful of Epsom salts in a large tumbler of tepid water. Moreover, it is exceedingly ' heavy ' to the digestion. For this reason Turks and other strangers prefer rain water, collected in a cistern, and sold for five farthings a gugglet. It was a favourite amusement with me to watch them whilst they drank the holy water, and to taunt their scant and irreverent potations." The analysis of the water made by the writer fully confirmed this description of its unpleasant character. It consisted, in the main, of a strong solution of magnesium sulphate and common salt, and showed an extreme degree of pollution, as is seen by a glance at the following figures : 1 Aluminium Calcium Silica . . Mag Sodium . . lie si urn Grains per gallon. 0-8 0-5 3-0 6-6 38-3 Grains per gallon. Potassium. . . . 24*3 Ammonium . . 5*3 Chlorine . . . . 69*3 Sulphates . . . . 30 ? Nitrates 19 '9 The proportion of salts left on evaporation was 219*5 grains per gallon. On bacteriological examination it was found to be sterile, but this was not surprising, considering that it had been sealed up for upwards of half a century in an air-tight vessel. 1 Proc. Chem. Soc., 1893, IX., p. 245. CHAPTER II SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS AN interesting book might be written upon the spas of Europe, their rapid rise into fame, their struggles for existence, and, in many cases, their final disappearance. In the eighteenth century the success or failure of a spa was frequently a matter of luck, and many a watering place has owed its fortune not so much to the nature of its springs as to its having attracted the notice of some celebrated person, who has believed himself better for taking the waters, and has proved an advertisement of the place to Society. Thus Cheltenham first became really famous as a spa through being visited by George III. in 1788, and this visit started a period of prosperity for the town, which lasted until the fashion turned in the direction of the German spas, at the end of the war, in 1815. A gradual decline in the popularity of the Cheltenham Spa then followed, and by the middle of the last century it had few visitors. Thus, according to Muspratt, writing in 1860, it " furnished a striking proof that the furor for saline and other springs is daily abating ; thousands used to rush yearly to partake of its waters, whereas it is now almost entirely deserted." Since then Cheltenham has again revived as a watering place, and is now in a nourishing condition, although it is no longer the exclusive resort of Society that it once was. Other spas have never revived after their first desertion. Epsom Spa, for example, which during the eighteenth century rivalled Bath and Tunbridge Wells in attracting London society, has sunk into an oblivion from which it will never arise. Of the vast crowds who yearly attend the races at Epsom it is safe to assert that not one in a hundred could say where the wells are situated. This partly came about from the nature 10 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS of the water itself, and the fact that the same results could be obtained by the use of Epsom salts at home. Among other spas that once enjoyed some measure of popu- a H larity, and the memory of which is not always preserved even in local names, mention may be made of Islington, Dulwich, Streatham, and Hampstead. SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 11 The wells at Islington, the water of which was alkaline and non-effervescent, were still in use as late as the year 1860, and their name is recalled in the Sadlers Wells Theatre now a music-hall. The Streatham Spa has not even left so lasting a trace as this, although the present writer, a few years ago, was able to discover one of the springs, which then issued in a farmyard pool from which cattle were allowed to drink. The Hampstead Spa, again, which was discovered in the early part of the seventeenth century, rapidly became famous, and was each year visited by crowds as great as those frequenting either Epsom or Tunbridge Wells. Its waters, which were chalybeate in character, are described by Elliott and other early writers upon the mineral waters of this country. After a period of prosperity of more than half a century, Hampstead shared the fate of Epsom, and ceased to exist as a watering place, and finally the supplies of water to the wells themselves were affected by the excavations for the drainage system and the cuttings for the railways. The shaded eighteenth-century raised pathway, still known as the " Pump Walk," is left as a reminder that there once was a spa at Hampstead. During the early years of the Victorian period numerous books were published dealing in a more or less desultory fashion with the various springs of Germany, and some of these ran through many editions in this country. Their writers, who, by the way, frequently display an amusing animosity to one another, were medical men who established consulting practices in some of the German watering places that they recommended ; and their books proved good advertisements for the little towns and for themselves. The general effect, however, of this " booming " of the foreign watering places was that the well-known English spas were still further affected financially, while at the same time there was created a speculative movement for the establishment of new spas in various parts of England. It was urged by the promoters of these schemes that since so much benefit was being derived from visits to the German 12 MINEKAL AND AERATED WATERS springs it ought to be possible to obtain the like benefits from similar springs at home. Hence, wherever a spring with any pretensions to being a mineral water was discovered it was exploited even when there was not the remotest chance of its proving a success. Companies were floated, each with an attractive prospectus, the money was subscribed and pump- rooms were put up in the approved style of a Grecian temple. The waters were there waiting to be " taken," but no one came to drink them, for in most instances these ill-fated spas, which were usually in out-of-the-way places, seldom survived their birth by more than a year or two, while some of them were still-born. A striking monument of this folly may still be seen at Hockley, a small village in Essex. In the year 1842 a saline spring was found there, and its discovery was followed in the usual way by the building of a pump-room, with baths and a spa hotel. As was to be expected, the venture proved an absolute failure from the very first, and its abandoned Ionic pump-room still stands by the side of a country lane, while the " Spa Hotel " is now occupied by a coal dealer. The water itself appears to be quite unknown to any of the people in the village. An amusing description of the struggle made by another of these mushroom spas to overcome the indifference of those whom it was so anxious to cure will be found in " The Chil terns and the Vale." l This spring was " discovered " at Dor ton, a village at the foot of Brill Hill in Buckinghamshire, though, according to Lipscomb, the natives of the place had known of it long before, and had used its iron waters " in cutaneous diseases and for washing mangey dogs." A pump-room of the usual type was put up with its accompanying hotel, to which the attractive name of " Morris's Dorton Spa Rural Hotel " was given, and the advertisements described the place, which is about fifty miles from London, as " within a morning's drive of the metropolis." But in spite of such specious advertising, and the giving of " promenades musicales " and fetes, Dorton failed to capture 1 " The Chilterns and the Vale," by G. Eland. SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 13 its share of the fashionable patients, who still preferred to go further afield to Bath and Tunbridge Wells. In the absence of distinguished visitors the risk was too great for builders to put up houses, and this want of accommodation appears to have been another of the causes that accelerated the failure of the spa. After the year 1840 no further attempts seem to have been made to check the decline, and the pump- room was allowed to fall into ruins. The well is still there, but only traces of the foundations of its ambitious pump-room can now be discovered. Classification of Spa Waters. Mineral springs are usually roughly classified into groups, in accordance with the chemical composition of the salts they contain or the physiological effects they produce. The varieties of waters typified by those of Bath and Buxton, which contain very little solid matter, were until recently often grouped together as " indifferent waters," but the discovery of their radio-activity shows that this was a wrong description (see Chapter IV.). For convenience of a general survey the principal waters may be considered under the heads of : I. Alkaline Waters ; II. Lithium Waters ; III. Iron or Chalybeate Waters ; IV. Aperient Waters ; V. Sulphurous Waters ; VI. Arsenical Waters; and VII. Barium Waters. Naturally, as in all classifications of natural objects, some of these groups overlap each other. Those waters that are more commonly used for drinking at table rather than medicinally are dealt with in the following Chapter. I. Alkaline Waters. These waters are characterised by containing a considerable proportion of sodium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, or other alkaline salt as a main constituent, and are the most extensively used of all the mineral waters, especially in the treatment of digestive troubles and rheumatic complaints. AIX-LES-BAINS (Eaux des deux Reines). This is a slightly alkaline water, containing 1-99 grains of mineral solids per 14 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS pint, consisting almost entirely of calcium bicarbonate, with a very small quantity of magnesium bicarbonate and silica. The gases consist of carbon dioxide and oxygen. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Kaiserbrunnen). This water, which is also used as a digestive table water, contains 36 grains of total solids per pint, the chief constituent being sodium chloride (22-9 grains), sodium carbonate (5-8 grains), calcium carbonate (1*38 grains), sodium sulphate (2-48 grains), and potassium sulphate (1-34 grains), with smaller quantities of sodium sulphide, magnesium carbonate, silica and organic matter, and traces of many other salts. BUXTON (The Thermal Spring or St. Anne's Well). The waters of this spring have been used for centuries past for the treatment of gout, rheumatism, and similar troubles, but the undoubtedly good results that have been obtained are probably due, not to the alkaline salts, but to the radio-active properties of the water. According to an analysis quoted by Ingram and Royle the thermal water has the following composition : Calcium bicarbonate, 1-762 ; magnesium bicarbonate, 0*752 ; sodium sulphate, 0*105 ; sodium chloride, 0*387 ; magnesium chloride, 0*118 ; silica, 0*118 ; carbon dioxide, 0-025 ; nitrogen, 0-025 grains ; and total solids, 3-416 grains per pint. EMS. The alkaline waters from the springs at Ems, in the valley of the Lahn, contain a large proportion of sodium bicarbonate, with a smaller amount of sodium chloride, cal- cium bicarbonate, and magnesium bicarbonate. According to an analysis of Fresenius, a sample of the Kesselbrunnen water contained 33-78 grains of total solids per pint, including 18-99 grains of sodium bicarbonate, 9-7 grains of sodium chloride, 2-27 grains of calcium bicarbonate, 1-79 grains of magnesium bicarbonate, 0-49 grain of potassium sulphate, together with traces of iron, phosphoric acid, and barium. EVIAN. The alkalinity of this water is mainly due to carbon- ates of calcium and magnesium, and is so small that the water is often used for drinking at table in France. An analysis of water from the Cachat Spring gave the following results : Calcium carbonate, 1-72 ; magnesium carbonate, 0-71 ; sodium carbonate, 0-049 ; phosphates of iron and calcium, 0*007 ; SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 15 sodium sulphate, 0-069 ; potassium sulphate, 0-045 ; sodium chloride, 0'026 ; sodium nitrate, 0-025 ; and silica, 0"124 grains per pint, together with traces of lithium and iodine. Total solids, 2-78 grains. KISSINGER. There are several saline springs at Kissingen, in Bavaria ; the best known of which is the " Rakoczy," which was the name of its discoverer. Common salt is the main constituent in the waters, which contain much man- ganese chloride and calcium carbonate. The following figures, quoted by Ingram and Royle, give the results of the analysis of three of the Kissingen springs : Rakoczy Pandur Max Brunnen Spring (by Liebig). (1866> (1809). Grains. Grains. Grains. Sodium chloride 50-943 48-306 20-267 Potassium chloride 2-510 2-112 3-290 Magnesium chloride 2-658 1-851 0-945 Lithium chloride 0-175 0-147 0-006 Manganese chloride 5-148 5-230 1-752 Calcium chloride 3-407 2-629 1-665 Magnesium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate 0-149 9-283 0-392 8-879 0-599 4-945 Ferrous carbonate 0-276 0-242 0-021 Calcium phosphate Silica 0-049 0-113 0-046 0-035 0-044 0-029 Sodium nitrate 0-814 0-031 0-676 Sodium bromide 0-073 0'062 Total solids, including other substances 74-867 79-96 34-24 Free carbon dioxide 11-42 13-17 11-0 VICHY. The springs of Vichy, at the base of the Auvergne Mountains, are now under the control of the French Govern- ment, and the baths and bottling of the waters are supervised by State officials. Salts obtained by evaporation of the water are also sold for use in baths at home and are compressed into digestive lozenges. The composition of the State springs as shown by the official analysis is as follows : 16 MINEEAL AND AEBATED WATEES Grande Grille. Hdpital. Celestins. Sodium bicarbonate 2-442 2-515 2-552 Potassium bicarbonate 0-176 0-220 0-157 Magnesium bicarbonate 0-151 o-ioo 0-164 Strontium bicarbonate 0-001 0-002 0-002 Calcium bicarbonate 0-217 0-285 0-231 Iron bicarbonate . 0-002 0-002 0-002 Sodium sulphate 0-146 0-145 0-145 Sodium phosphate . 0-065 0-023 0-045 Sodium arsenate . o-ooi 0-001 o-ooi Sodium chloride , 0-267 0-259 0-267 Silica . 0-035 0-025 0-030 Free carbon dioxide 0-454 0-533 0-525 Total grains per pint . . 3-957 4-110 4-121 WYCHIA WATER. The water of the Wychia Spring at Droit- wich differs from those given above, in that it is strongly saline (148 grains per pint), and contains relatively little carbonate, the principal salts being sodium chloride (87-0 grains) and sodium sulphate (58-3 grains). It is thus more akin to the aperient waters in Class III. Among the numerous other waters which might also be mentioned here are St. Galmier, Perrier, Bath (Sulis), Malvern, and Taunus waters, which will be described under Table Mineral Waters. II. Lithium Waters. Certain waters contain appreciable amounts of lithium salts, and have, therefore, been used in complaints for which lithium is prescribed. For example, the water of Bilin contains 0-062 grain of lithium carbonate per pint, while three of the Carlsbad springs contain from 0-106 to 0-12 grain. In some of the Roy at waters the proportion of lithium is still greater, amounting to 0-306 grain of lithium chloride per pint. Traces of lithium are present in the water of the Old Sulphur Well in Harrogate and in many other English mineral waters but not in sufficient quantity to have attracted special attention. SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 17 III. Iron or Chalybeate Waters. Many of the waters in this group are only distinguished from the alkaline and saline waters by the fact that they contain a notable proportion of iron, which is frequently kept in solution by the carbon dioxide. Among the oldest and most celebrated iron waters are those of Tunb ridge Wells (which are non-effervescent), Buxton, Pyrmont, and Spa. As a rule the proportion of iron in chaly- beate waters ranges from 0-003 to 0-012 per cent. BUXTON CHALYBEATE WATER. This water, which is also bottled for table use, contains only 3-389 grains of mineral matter per pint, of which 0-42 grain is in the form of ferrous carbonate, 1-138 grains as calcium sulphate, and 0-612 grain as magnesium sulphate. It is commonly used as a tonic in anaemia. PYRMONT. The springs of Pyrmont in Waldeck are histori- cally interesting from the fact that it was from experiments upon their water that the nature of the principal gas in mineral waters was discovered (see Chapter V.). Pyrmont water was so much esteemed in the eighteenth century that it was bottled in large quantities and exported to Paris and London. Here, prior to the invention of soda water, it became a fashionable drink, and was extensively advertised by an agent who had his shop in Pall Mall. The history of the spring and an account of experiments upon the nature of the water were published by Seip in 1712, who gives the curious plan (Fig. 3) of the place, and by his son in 1750. The water was also examined and described by many of the chemists of the latter part of that century. The waters from the old Trinkbrunnen and the more recent Neu Brunnen are of very similar composition, both containing a little over 30 grains of mineral matter per pint, with from 0'6 to 0-7 grain of ferrous carbonate. Analyses by Wiggers of the chief constituents of these waters, expressed in grains per pint, were as follows : M.W. C 18 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 19 Trinkbrunnen. Neu Brunnen. Ferrous bicarbonate 0-72 0-57 Calcium bicarbonate 13-10 15-47 Manganese bicarbonate 0-06 1-27 Magnesium bicarbonate 0-22 0-27 Calcium sulphate 11-32 0-59 Potassium sulphate 0-29 0-62 Sodium sulphate. . 2-77 Magnesium sulphate 4-86 3-69 Sodium chloride . . 0-64 11-13 Lithium chloride 0-03 0-02 Magnesium chloride 0-87 Silica 0-03 0-36 Total solids . . 32-16 36-93 Free carbon dioxide 19-26 17-08 SPA WATER. Another water of historic interest, to which frequent reference is made in these pages, is that of Spa, or " Spaw ;? as it is termed by the early writers. In the later part of the eighteenth century this water shared, with the celebrated Pyrmont water, the place now occupied by soda w r ater, and was imported into London in large quantities. With the development of the artificial mineral-water industry the sale of both these waters came to an end, and it is only recently that they have again been imported in bottles. The Spa mineral water is obtained from four springs, which differ somewhat in composition ; that containing the largest proportion of iron is derived from the " Prince de Conde " Spring, which, according to a French analysis quoted by Ingram and Royle, has the following composition : Total solids, 4-57 grains ; consisting of carbonates of sodium and potassium, 0-87 ; calcium carbonate, 0-96 ; magnesium carbonate, 0-87 ; sodium chloride, 0-22 ; sulphates of sodium and potassium, 0-17 ; iron oxide, 1-04 ; and silica, 0-44 grains per pint. Free carbon dioxide, 0-875 grains. The water of this spring and the other springs at Spa is cold, as it leaves the rock. HOMBURG WATERS. Among the best known of the Conti- nental spas and most frequented by those in search of a "cure" 20 MINEKAL AND AEEATED WATEES must be ranked the springs of Homburg. The predominating mineral constituents in the waters of the four springs are common salt, calcium and magnesium carbonates, magnesium chloride and iron carbonate. The composition of the water from the Elisabethbrunnen was found by Liebig to be as follows : Sodium chloride, 98-94 ; magnesium chloride, 9-74 ; ferrous carbonate, 0-57 ; calcium carbonate, 13-74 ; sodium sulphate, 0-47 ; magnesium carbonate, 2-51 ; and silica, 0-4 grains per pint. Total solids, 126-37 grains ; and free carbon dioxide, 26-85 grains per pint. MARIENBAD. The waters of the Marienbad springs contain about 100 grains per pint of mineral matter, about half of which is sodium sulphate. The other principal salts are bicarbonates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and iron, and sodium chloride. The amount of iron varies from about half to three-quarters of a grain per pint. Other well-known waters containing iron include those of Fachingen, Schwalbach, Nauheim, and St. Moritz. Iron mineral waters are frequently subdivided into " sulphated " or " aluminated " and carbonated. The former are often very strong and need dilution. Examples of such springs occur in Wales, Scotland, and the United States. The English chalybeate waters usually contain much less carbon dioxide than the Continental iron springs. IY. Aperient Springs. The waters classified under this heading contain a large proportion of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate, with smaller quantities of sodium chloride and other salts. In the seventeenth century the waters of Epsom became celebrated all over Europe owing to their being strongly charged with magnesium sulphate (hence known as Epsom salts). The description of their discovery, as given by Nehemiah Grew in 1697, 1 merits quotation : " The mineral waters arising near Epsom in Surrey, the chief of all the bitter purging waters, were found out by a country - 1 " A Treatise of the Nature and Use of Bitter Purging Salts Contained in Epsom and other such Waters." Nehemiah Grew, M.D. London, 1697. SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 21 man in or about the year 1620. The country people first used them for external complaints. . . . Afterwards Lord North, having drank the Spaw waters in Germany, resolved to try the virtues of these Epsom waters (nattering himself, I suppose, that he had found chalybeate waters at his own door). A few years after the discovery was published others of the same sort grew into tolerable repute and use. The names of the principal are : Barnet, North Hall, Acton, Cobham, Dullidge, and Stretham." Epsom soon attracted royalty. Charles II. often stayed there with his Court, and subsequently Queen Anne, before her accession, made it a favourite resort. The fame of Epsom led to the discovery of similar springs abroad, and early in the eighteenth century Hoffmann published an account of the occurrence of the bitter Epsom salt in the waters of Seidlitz. OLD SPRINGS. The waters of Seidlitz and of Saidschutz are still bottled for exportation, whereas those of Epsom have long since ceased to be generally used. The Saidschutz Water, which comes from a spring not far from Seidlitz, has a similar composition to the latter, containing about 178 grains per pint of mineral salts, of which 84 grains are magnesium sulphate and 47 grains sodium sulphate. Pullna Water comes from a cold spring at Pullna, near Carlsbad, and was used by the villagers long before it was bottled for exportation. It contains about 310 grains of solid matter per pint, of which 155 grains are sodium sulphate and 116 grains magnesium sulphate. Friedrichshal. Originally this spring was used for the extraction of the salt it contained, and it was not until the middle of the last century that it began to be used medicinally. Since then the water has been bottled and exported in increasingly large quantities. According to the analysis of the Municipal Chemists of Breslau, it contains 212-64 grains of salts, consisting of 54-39 grains of magnesium sulphate, 45-61 grains of sodium sulphate, 69-64 grains of sodium chloride, and 43-0 grains of magnesium chloride. 22 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS ENGLISH SPAS. The chief English aperient waters, several of which are now bottled, are those of the Chadnor Well at Cheltenham, and Leamington. Cheltenham. The water of Chadnor Well, which is also de- scribed as the " magnesia sulphate saline," contains 38 grains of mineral salts, including 14' 7 grains of magnesium sulphate, 7-6 grains of sodium sulphate, and 3-0 grains of sodium chloride per pint. Leamington. In the Leamington spa water there are 155-3 grains of salts, consisting largely of sodium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates. The following analysis is quoted by Ingram and Royle : Sodium, 52-53 ; magnesium, 3-31 ; calcium, 10-90 ; chlorine, 65-75 ; sulphuric acid, 22-81 ; iron oxide, 0-005, with traces of silica and carbonic acid. MODERN SPRINGS. Of the modern aperient springs, the water of which is bottled in enormous quantities and exported for sale all over Europe, the most widely known are " Aesculap," " Apenta," and " Hunyadi Janos." Aesculap. This spring at Budapest was found in 1868 by a peasant, and was bought in 1881 by the present company. According to the analysis of Mohr, it has the following com- position : Sodium sulphate, 121-68 ; magnesium sulphate, 151-20 ; calcium sulphate, 18-19 ; sodium chloride, 25-42 ; sodium carbonate, 8-74 ; manganese carbonate, 0-375 ; and alumina, 0-303 grains per pint, with traces of potassium, ammonium sulphate, and silica. Total mineral matter, 326-216 grains per pint. Apenta Water. Another Hungarian spring, the waters of which are strongly saline, is described by the name of " Apenta." Its chief saline constituents are magnesium sulphate and sodium sulphate in approximately equal quantities. An analysis of the water by Tichborne gave the following results : Magnesium sulphate, 184-65 ; magnesium carbonate, 1-59 ; magnesium bromide, 0-1 ; sodium sulphate, 163-82 ; calcium sulphate, 23-09 ; potassium sulphate, 0-73 ; lithium sulphate, 0-66 ; sodium carbonate, 4-19 ; calcium carbonate, 1-03 ; ferrous carbonate, 0-67 ; alumina, 0-26 ; and silica, 0-28 grains. Total solids, 389-58 grains per pint. SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 23 Hunyadi Jdnos. This aperient spring, which is also in Hungary, has been known for over half a century, and its waters are now bottled and exported to all parts of the world. According to Bunsen's analysis, it has the following compo- sition : Sodium sulphate, 197-32 ; magnesium sulphate, 195-56 ; potassium sulphate, 1-06 ; sodium bicarbonate, 5 1 91 ; strontium bicarbonate, 0*24 ; calcium bicarbonate, 6-99 ; sodium chloride, 14-92 ; ferrous bicarbonate, 0-005 ; and silica, 0-09 grains per pint. Total solids, 422-10 grains, and carbonic acid (free and as bicarbonate), 4-57 grains per pint. Y. Sulphurous Waters. Numerous springs owe their therapeutic effect to the presence of small quantities of sodium sulphide, sulphuretted hydrogen, and other sulphur compounds. The most celebrated of these are the springs of Aix-la-Chapelle, which have been used medicinally from the time of the Romans. The Kaiserbrunnen water at Aix contains 31-5 grains of salts (mainly sodium chloride and sodium carbonate), with 0-073 grain of sodium sulphide per pint, while the gases in solution contain 0-31 per cent, of sulphuretted hydrogen. Of the sulphur springs in this country, the Old Sulphur Well at Harrogate is the oldest. On standing this water becomes turbid from the separation of sulphur. According to an analysis by Sir Edward Thorpe, it contained 1,047 grains of salts per gallon, largely in the form of chlorides and carbonates of sodium, calcium, and magnesium. The sulphur amounted to 6-53 grains per gallon, and the free hydro- gen sulphide to 10-16 grains. Other well-known sulphur springs are at Aix-les-Bains, Bareges, and Strathpeffer, the water of which contains 0-026 part of sodium sulphide per 1,000. The sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle, Aix-les-Bains, and Luchon, in the Pyrenees, are typical of hot sulphurous waters. YI. Arsenical Waters. Owing to the fact that they contain medicinal doses of arsenic, the waters of certain special springs are frequently prescribed both for external and internal use. 24 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS The most celebrated of these springs are those of La Bourboule, in the South of France, which contain about 0-06 grain of arsenic per pint. Other well-known arsenical springs are those of Levico, in South Tyrol, the Guber spring in Bosnia, and the springs of Royat and Roncegno. The following table gives the main constituents of some of these springs in grains per pint : Levico. Gnber. La Bourboule. Arsenious acid 0-0762 0-061 0-095 Sodium chloride . . 0-001 0-017 24-91 Ferrous sulphate . . 22-51 3-734 Ferric sulphate 11-42 Aluminium sulphate 5-56 2-27 Calcium sulphate . . 3-26 0-21 Calcium bicarbonate 1-67 Magnesium sulphate Potassium sulphate 3-36 0-03 0-22 0-166 0-28 1-42 Sodium sulphate . . 0-27 0-037 1-83 Sodium bicarbonate 25-36 Silica 0-27 0-65 1-05 Free sulphuric acid 0-09 Zinc 0-08 Total solids . . 46-89 7-63 56-99 YII. Barium Waters. BARIUM SALTS. In many natural spring waters relatively large quantities of barium are present in solution, and in some cases may account for the therapeutic action of the waters. Thus Muspratt, in 1867, discovered 0-05 part of barium as barium oxide in the water of the Old Sulphur Well at Harro- gate, and it was still present in 1875, when Thorpe found 0-068 part per 1,000. From 38-5 to 40-7 parts per 100,000 of barium chloride were found by White in deep -well water from Ilkeston, in Derbyshire and 41-00 parts of barium chloride per 100,000 by Richards in the waters of Boston Spa. Boston Spa was a popular inland watering place at the close of the eighteenth century, but it was gradually deserted as Harro- SPAS AND THEIR SPRINGS 25 gate became better known. At the time of the prosperity of the spa the water was drunk as a chalybeate water, although it only contains 1-5 parts per 100,000 of ferrous carbonate. These mineral waters containing a high proportion of barium chloride have many points in common, their saline constituents including much calcium chloride and magnesium chloride, and a large percentage of sodium chloride (e.g., 1,084 parts out of 1,271 parts per 100,000 in the Boston spa water). The Barium Spring of Llangammarch. About the year 1830 a remarkable spring was discovered by a peasant in the bed of the River Irvon, which was then almost dry. Exami- nation of the nauseous water showed that it contained a large proportion of barium and calcium chlorides. After being used for many years by the natives for the treatment of chronic rheumatism, its fame gradually spread, and Llangammarch wells are now celebrated all over Europe. Soon after its dis- covery the well was protected by a wall from the river, but it was not until many years later, when the fame of the water had begun to attract visitors from outside, that a pump-room was built and the usual accompaniments of a spa were provided. The water, which is largely prescribed for heart troubles and rheumatism, remains remarkably constant in composition, as is shown by the following analyses made byDupre in 1883 and by the Lancet in 1896 : 1883. Grains per gallon. 1896. No. 1. Grains per gallon. 1896. No. 2. Grains per gallon. Sodium chloride Calcium chloride Magnesium chloride Calcium carbonate. . Silica and alumina. . Bromine as bromide Lithium chloride Ammonium chloride Barium chloride 189-56 84-56 24-31 2-80 1-40 trace 6-26 186-20 85-16 20-10 3-34 trace 0-85 0-26 6-75 185-90 85-74 20-31 3-10 trace 0-91 0-26 6-49 Total Solids 308-89 302-66 302-71 26 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS In connection with the presence of barium in natural waters it is interesting to note that under certain conditions both barium and sulphates may be simultaneously present. This is the case with the waters of Neris-les-Bains, in the neighbour- hood of which place several quarries of fluorides and one of the mineral barytes are being worked. Experiments made by Carles l have shown the way in which this curious phenomenon may occur. If a mineral water contain sulphates and bicarbonates, and an excess of free carbon dioxide, it is capable of decomposing barium sulphate with the formation of a soluble barium bicarbonate, and it is probable that the lead which is also present in Neris-les-Bains waters may owe its origin to an analogous cause. 1 Ann. Chim. Anal, 1902, VII , p. 9. CHAPTER III NATURAL MINERAL TABLE WATERS IT has long been a general custom in France and Germany to drink some of the less saline mineral waters at the table, either alone or mixed with wine, and in recent years the practice has gradually become fairly common in this country. It is only a certain kind of mineral water that is suitable for this purpose, since obviously the proportion of salts in solution must not amount to a medicinal dose. Hence, of the older spa waters, only those which, like the waters of Buxton, Bath and Malvern, are relatively poor in mineral constituents have been bottled for use in this way. In the case of some of these waters, aeration with carbon dioxide under pressure is employed so as to render them more palatable and sparkling and to keep the salts in solution. This class of waters, therefore, forms a connecting-link between the strongly saline medicinal mineral waters and the purely artificial products of the manufacturer. The natural mineral table waters are characterised by containing from about 4 grains to 22 grains of solid constituents per pint, usually consisting chiefly of carbonates of sodium, magnesium and calcium, sodium chloride, and sulphates of sodium and calcium. The owners of most of the principal mineral springs of Europe and the United States now bottle their waters, and in many instances special carbonating plant has been erected so as to re -impregnate the water with its own gas. It is, therefore, not possible to draw any sharp distinction between the old-fashioned spas where a " cure " is followed by drinking the waters and taking baths upon the spot, and the more modern mineral springs, which partake more of the nature of a factory than a spa. 28 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS Speaking generally, however, it may be said that as a rule the mineral waters that are used as table waters come from these natural mineral-water factories rather than from the spas in the old sense of the word. The method of collecting and bottling these waters will be understood from the following details concerning the Apol- linaris spring, for most of which the writer is indebted to the courtesy of the Apollinaris Company : The Apollinaris Spring. The spring in the Valley of the Ahr, in Prussia, was discovered in the year 1852, and since the establishment of the company, twenty-one years later, has steadily risen in popularity. During the first year's work two million bottles of the water were exported, while last year the output had risen to thirty-seven millions. FIG. 4. General View of the Works at the Apollinaris Spring. The water issues from the rock 50 feet below the surface, at a temperature of 22 C., and is highly charged with carbon dioxide. The method of bottling employed is to collect in a funnel- shaped receptacle as much as possible of the gas emitted simultaneously with the water, and to conduct it into copper reservoirs. Thence it is drawn off, and is forced, under increased pressure, into bottles previously charged with the spring water. The process is thus analogous to that employed in the manufacture of soda water, the chief difference being that the NATURAL MINERAL TABLE WATERS 29 gas is derived from a natural source and has already been in association with the water itself. We may assume that the water as contained within pockets in the rock is charged with the gas under a considerable pressure, and that most of this gas escapes upon exposure of the water to the ordinary atmospheric pressure. The final product in the bottles thus consists of a slightly alkaline water re-charged under pressure with carbon dioxide derived from the same source, so that it shall contain, as far as possible, the same proportion of gas as is present in the water when it issues from the rock. The composition of the mineral water corresponds with that of a solution containing the following proportions of salts : Analysis by Kyll (1907). Parts per 1,000. Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate Sodium bicarbonate (NaHC0 3 ) Calcium bicarbonate Magnesium bicarbonate . . Iron bicarbonate [Fe (HC0 3 ) 2 ] Silicic acid (meta) (H 2 Si0 3 ) Free carbon dioxide (1,124 c.c. at 21-2 C. and 760 mm. barometer. 0-438, 0-247, 2-015 0-400 0-858 0-084- 0-030 3-996 2-042 6-038 During the bottling process part of the iron is precipitated, while, as stated above, carbon dioxide that has separated from the water is re-introduced under pressure. The water of the Apollinaris spring is moderately radio- active, and according to Kyll's determinations shows about 3-78 Mache units per litre per hour. Gerolstein Water. A slightly alkaline table water is derived from a well sunk in the neighbourhood of the Casselburg Castle in the Eifel Mountains. According to analyses given by Ingram and Royle, this has the following composition in grains per pint : 30 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS Sodium carbonate . . Calcium carbonate . . Magnesium carbonate Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate . . Silica . . 7-18 5-00 3-99 2-19 0-89 0-73 FIG. 5. The Labelling Hall, Apollinaris Spring. Together with minute quantities of lithium, iron, bromide and phosphate, and a trace of barium (0-00078 grain), the total solid matter is 20-03 grains, and the carbonic acid gas expressed as bicarbonates is equivalent to 7-28 grains per pint. NATURAL MINERAL TABLE WATERS 31 Johannis Table Water. This is obtained from a spring which issues at a temperature of 50 F. from a rock near Aarthal, in Hesse-Nassau. Its chief constituents were found by Plaskuda to be as follows : Sodium bicarbonate Potassium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate Magnesium bicarbonate Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate . . 3-19 0-11 6-48 2-66 8-95 0-26 Together with traces of manganese, iron, lithium and silica, the total solid constituents were 21-79 grains and the free carbon dioxide 21-33 grains per pint. Sulis Water. This is the name given to the natural mineral water of Bath after artificial saturation with carbon dioxide to keep the iron salts in solution. The following analyses, quoted by Ingram and Royle, show that, as regards its solid mineral constituents, the water as put up for table use is practically identical with that derived from the spring : Natural Bath Water. Aerated Sulis Water. Grains per pint. Grains per pint. Calcium bicarbonate 0-98 0-95 Calcium sulphate 11-76 11-88 Calcium nitrate 0-07 0-07 Magnesium bicarbonate 1-90 1-87 Magnesium chloride 1-90 1-87 Sodium chloride 1-89 1-92 Sodium sulphate 2-89 2-85 Potassium sulphate 0-83 0-86 Ammonium nitrate 0-13 0-11 Ferrous bicarbonate 0-15 0-14 Silica 0-33 0-32 Total solid constituents 21-00 21-02 Tansan Table Water. This is an effervescent water derived from springs in volcanic rock near Kobe, in Japan. Its compo- sition, as given by Ingram and Royle, is as follows : Sodium chloride, 1-42 ; potassium chloride, 1-49 ; calcium sulphate, 32 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS 0-09 ; calcium carbonate, 0-59 ; magnesium carbonate. 0-06 ; iron carbonate, 0-02 ; and silica, 0-28 grains. Total solid constituents, 3-95 grains per pint. Perrier Water. This table water, which is extensively used in France, is slightly alkaline and is naturally highly charged with carbon dioxide. According to an analysis made by Hake, it contains 3-36 grains of solids per pint, consisting of 2-37 grains of calcium carbonate, 0-38 grain of calcium sulphate, 0-22 grain of sodium chloride, and 0-21 grain of silica, with minute quantities of iron, magnesium, and nitrate. St. Galmier. Still more popular French mineral waters are those from the different springs of St. Galmier, which are now under the control of one company. The total sales of these waters are stated to exceed a hundred million litres per year. The following analyses of the water from three of the St. Galmier wells are quoted by Ingram and Royle : "Romaines" Spring. "Badoit" Spring. "Noel" Spring. Sodium bicarbonate 5-91 4-90 2-62 Magnesium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate 7'18 10-08 f 12-60 j 3-19 5-86 Potassium bicarbonate 7-90 0-18 Sodium sulphate . . 0-13 ( i. 75 1 1-05 Calcium sulphate 0-30 ( 17 ) 0-62 Magnesium sulphate 0-15 Sodium chloride . . 0-74 0-58 Magnesium chloride Calcium chloride . . 0-24 0-34 4-20 Aluminium silicate 1-17 Total solids 24-80 13-92 Free carbon dioxide 27-14 42-90 Eosbach Water. This table water, which is obtained from a spring near Homburg, is alkaline and salt, and is naturally saturated with carbon dioxide. An analysis made by Sir Charles Cameron showed that the water contained 15-11 NATURAL MINERAL TABLE WATERS 3:3 grains of mineral solids per pint, composed of 10' 29 grains of sodium chloride ; 3-12 grains of calcium carbonate ; 1-63 grains of magnesium carbonate ; 0-07 grain of magnesium chloride, with traces of calcium sulphate, iron, silica, etc. Taunus Water, which comes from a spring near Frankfort, is very popular in Germany as a table water. It contains a somewhat high proportion of mineral solids, mainly chlorides of sodium and potassium, and bicarbonate of calcium, and is saturated with carbon dioxide. An analysis by Taylor gave the following results : Total solids, 39-06 ; containing sodium chloride, 22-49 ; potassium chloride, 2-36 ; calcium bicarbonate, 11-99 ; magnesium bicarbonate, 1-54 ; sodium bicarbonate, 0-17 ; and calcium sulphate, 0-51 grains per pint ; together with traces of silica, aluminium, and calcium phosphate. Sellers Water. The history of the Ober-Selters Spring, in Nassau, is curious. During the eighteenth century it was in great repute, and was the water of which the modern French water (Eau de Seltz) was originally an imitation. After the year 1794 its popularity had declined to such an extent that the spring was abandoned, and it was not until the year 1870 that the increasing demand for sparkling mineral waters caused the spring to be re-opened and works put up for bottling the water. The water issues from the rock at a temperature of 53 F., and is so highly charged with carbon dioxide that it is bottled as it leaves the spring, any artificial process of carbonating being quite unnecessary. According to Mohr's analysis, it has the following compo- sition : Total mineral matter, 32-54 grains ; consisting of potassium sulphate, 20-38 ; sodium bicarbonate, 7-31 ; calcium bicarbonate, 2-15 ; magnesium bicarbonate, 1-77 ; and silica, 0-46 grains per pint ; together with small quantities of iron, manganese, aluminium, arsenious acid, boric acid, phosphoric acid, and bromine. The gases consisted of 91-2 per cent, of carbon dioxide, 7-9 per cent, of nitrogen, and 0-9 per cent, of oxygen. Sellers Water (Nieder), from a spring near the village of Nieder- M.W. n 84 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS Sellers, is also an alkaline table water containing about 39 grains of total solids per pint, consisting mainly of sodium chloride, 20-47 ; sodium bicarbonate, 1084 ; calcium car- bonate, 3-9 ; and manganese carbonate, 2-7 grains ; with minute quantities of many other salts. In addition to these typical table waters mention may also be made of Malvern table water, which contains 6-5 grains of mineral solids per pint (mainly carbonates of sodium, calcium and magnesium, sodium chloride, and a trace of sodium iodide) ; and of the Buxton water, which in addition to its medicinal uses is also bottled for table purposes. CHAPTER IV THERMAL SPRINGS AND RADIO-ACTIVITY TEMPERATURES- HELIUM AND NITON IN MINERAL WATERS MEASUREMENT OF RADIO-ACTIVITY ARTIFICIAL RADIO-ACTIVE MINERAL WATERS Thermal Springs and Radio-activity. Although most of the mineral waters that issue from the earth at a high temperature have been mentioned under various other headings, they are so often grouped apart as " thermal waters " that they may be conveniently regarded as a separate class from this point of view. They are prescribed both for baths and for drinking, and, as is mentioned below, the results have been ascribed to a particular form of heat. The following list shows the temperature of the water of some of the best-known thermal springs : Deg. F. Deg. F. Buxton .. .. 8082 Aix-la-Chapelle .. 113140 Teplitz .. .. 101120 Carlsbad .. .. 119138 Bath .. .. 108122 Bourbonne .. 114149 Lucca . . . . 108122 Caldas (Barcelona) 153158 Temperature of Mineral Springs. The high temperature of such springs as these has been made the subject of various ingenious speculations. In some cases volcanic action affords a probable explanation of the heat of the water, as, for example, the hot springs of the Auvergne district and the geysers of Iceland. Gairdner, in his book upon natural mineral water, 1 gives a series of tables, in which it is shown that out of ninety -nine hot springs in Europe and America, no less than twenty-five issue from rocks of volcanic origin and thirty-five from rocks of primitive formation. 1 Essay on Thermal and Mineral Springs, by Meredith Gairdner, M.D., 1832. D2 36 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS Granville was the first to put forward the theory that the heat in these thermal springs was of different origin to ordinary solar heat, and that the peculiar therapeutic effects of such waters must be attributed to the nature of their inherent heat. " If you were to boil a Wildbad bath," he remarks, " after a day's exposure to the air, does anybody suppose that the effect would be the same on the human body as when the water employed is oozing from the rock ? Most certainly not." The experiment, he points out, had already been tried on a large scale in the case of the hot springs of Carlsbad, Baden- Baden and Bath, and had utterly failed ; and although at one time the waters from these springs had been bottled and sent all over the world, this was no longer attempted at the time when he was writing (1843). To the impossibility of substituting artificial heat for what he termed telluric heat in hot spring waters, Granville also attributed the inferiority of Struve's artificial Ems and Carlsbad waters, made in Brighton, as compared with the natural waters at the fountain-head. On the other hand, Muspratt, writing in the year 1860, remarked : " About forty years ago, when the fabrication of mineral and spa waters commenced, a very violent opposition arose with regard to them, especially from the members of the faculty. They were said to be devoid of all the good qualities of the natural ones to be minus a certain conditio sine qua non in the shape of a spiritus rectus or vital force, which imparted the medicinal properties. The Editor has lived to see such statements reversed. Chemistry, the great revealer of hidden treasures, has demonstrated to a certainty what the constituents of the natural waters are, and thus one is now enabled to produce artificial waters quite equal, if not superior, to the natural ones." As has happened in so many other cases, the negative " certainty " of one generation has been shaken by the dis- coveries of the next. In the light of the striking demonstration by Sir William Ramsay of the radio-activity of the waters of Bath, it seems probable that this mysterious " vital force " has been discovered. ''1VS fffSTTTf/ 1 TEMPERATURE OF MINERAL SPRINGS .^87 33/T In fact, Muspratt himself was not always so positive as in the passage quoted above, for in another place he speaks of " a certain mystery connected with the origin and mode of operation of some mineral waters," and continues : " Many of these waters, and especially the thermal ones Buxton et cetera produce effects in general estimation far beyond what can be accounted for by their chemical composition and the power of their known ingredients, or by their temperature as shown by the thermometer in comparison with those of ordinary water baths." The recent discovery that radio-active properties are associated with the gases argon, helium, and niton in mineral waters has opened up a fresh field of speculation as to the origin of the heat of hot springs. While in some cases volcanic action may still supply the explanation, in others the dis- integration of radium is regarded as a more probable cause. Thus, Dr. Julius Weszelsky has asserted that he has grounds for concluding that the celebrated hot springs of Ofen owe their temperature to the presence of huge deposits of radium below the town of Budapest. This assertion, however, stands in need of corroboration, although it is significant that the gases emitted by certain hot springs in different parts of the world contain appreciable quantities of helium and niton, the formation of which from radium involves the liberation of heat. The property of radio-activity appears to be widely distri- buted in spring waters all over the world, and where its amount is considerable frequently occurs in association with uranium deposits in the vicinity of the well, as, for example, in the mining districts in Saxony. This is not an invariable rule, however, for strongly radio-active springs are known, in which the source of the radium cannot be so easily traced. Helium and Niton. The first discovery of helium in a mineral water was made in 1895 by Lord Rayleigh, a few years after the discovery of the element itself. Tt was shown to be present in the gases escaping from the King's Well at Bath in the proportion of 1-2 parts per 1,000, but the significance of the fact was not made clear, until in ' MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS 38 1903 there came the striking discovery by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Soddy. that helium was a product of the disintegration of radium, and that its presence in the water was thus an indication of radio-activity. The presence of radium itself was detected by the Hon. R. J. Strutt both in the waters of Bath and in the deposits from the hot springs, and this has been followed by the recent estimation by Ramsay of the amount of niton in different waters of Bath, and the natural gases given off by them. 1 The gas from the King's Well was estimated to amount to 4,927 litres in twenty-four hours, and consisted of 360 parts of carbon dioxide and 9,640 parts of nitrogen, etc., per 10,000. There was no oxygen, hydrogen, or marsh gas. The nitrogen contained 73-63 per cent, of argon, 23-34 per cent, of neon, and 2-97 percent, of helium. The pump-room water contained in solution 18-5 parts of gas per 1,000, consist- ing of 6-9 parts of carbon dioxide and 11-6 parts of nitrogen, etc. The inert gases argon, neon, and helium have also been found in numerous other spring waters in England and on the Continent, and they appear always to occur in association with niton (radium emanation). Thus in the case of three of the well-known thermal springs at Wiesbaden, the gases contained in the waters were found by Henrich 2 to have the following percentage composition : Kochbrunnen. Adlerquelle. Schutzen- hofquelle. Carbon dioxide (absorbed by KOH) 84-8 77-6 32-4 Oxygen 02 1-2 0-2 Nitrogen 12-7 18'4 62-05 Methane 0-6 0-8 0-45 Argon, neon, helium, etc., and radium emanation 1-7 2-0 4-9 100-0 100-0 100-0 Temperature of the Spring 68-7 C. 64-6 C. 49-2 C. 1 Chem. News, 1912, CV., p. 134. 2 Ber. d. d. Chem. Ges., 1908, XLL, p. 4,196. HELIUM AND NITON IN SPRINCiS 89 The composition of the gases varied in an irregular fashion at different seasons of the year. It is probable that the gases have their origin in rocks in the neighbourhood of the springs, judging by the fact that fragments of the rocks, when heated, emitted oxygen, nitrogen, helium, and argon. The oxygen would be absorbed by the ferrous carbonate in the water. Some of the French mineral springs give off natural gases particularly rich in helium. For example, the following results have recently been obtained by Moureu and Lepape l in the examination of certain well-known waters : Per cent, of Yield in litres i per annum. Natural Gas. Natural Gas. Helium. Sautenay (to d'Or) Source Lithium ., Carnot . . ,, Fontaine-Salee 10-16 9-97 8-40 51,000 179,000 5,182 17,845 Maizieres (Cote d'Or) Source Romaine . . 5-92 18,250 1,080 Grisy (Satme-et-Loire) Source d' Ys. 2-18 Bourbon-Lancy Source du Lymbe 1-84 545,500 10,074 Neris (Allier) Source Cesar 0-97 3,504,000 33,990 La Bourboule (Puy-de-D6me) Source Clioussy 0-1 30,484,800 3,048 Assuming the helium to have been originally derived from the disintegration of radio-active substances, these French chemists consider that it probably consists of dissolved helium 1 Compf.es Rendus, 1912, CLV., p. 197. 40 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS taken up by the water at some former period from surrounding minerals, since the quantities are too large to be attributed to recent nascent helium emitted immediately after its production. It is pointed out as a curious fact that these and similar springs, rich in helium, are approximately upon a line drawn through the towns of Vesoul, Dijon, and Moulins. Measurement of Radio-activity in Mineral Waters. The general methods of measuring the radio-activity of radium and other radio-active bodies are based upon two principles viz., (1) the measurement of the y-rays emitted by a given weight of the substance, by means of a sensitive electro- scope ; (2) the measurement of the emanation emitted within a given time from a definite weight of the substance. In applying these methods to the valuation of the radio- activity of natural mineral waters, the amount of emana- tion contained in a litre of the water is first determined. It is then distributed throughout a definite volume of air, which may be made to circulate through the liquid until fully charged with emanation, after which the effect of this air upon a sensitive electroscope FIG. 6. Henrich's Apparatus for measuring Radio-activity. is ascertained, and the fall in potential during sixty minutes is measured and calculated into the corresponding electrostatic units. This value multiplied by the factor 1,000 gives what are termed the " Mache units." A form of special apparatus devised by Henrich 1 for this purpose is shown in the accompanying diagram, where A repre- sents an Elster-Geitel electroscope ; B, a pressure bulb ; C, a Woulff's bottle, holding about 1-5 litres ; D, a calcium chloride tube to dry the air ; and E, a tube filled with fine wire. A blank test is first made with distilled water to ascertain the 1 Ze.it. angew. Chem., 1910, XXIII., p. 340. MEASUREMENT OF RADIO-ACTIVITY 41 degree of leakage of air from the apparatus, and this is followed by an experiment upon the mineral water itself. The " induced activity " is found by a third measurement, in which the influence of the air of the room upon the electroscope is ascertained. For details as to the calculations the reader may be referred to the original paper. In most cases the radio-activity of natural waters is not very high. According to the measurements recently made by Landin, 1 the most radio-active water known is that yielded by an old Roman well in the Island of Ischia, which shows an activity of 30,800 units. The values obtained with the waters from other mineral springs were as follows : Units. Joachim sthal Spring . . . . . . 14,000 Grabenb&cker Spring 1-2,00014,000 Biittel Spring, Baden 9,00010,000 Porla Spring, Sweden . . . . . . 800 Hog Spring, Sweden 500 600 The objection to this method of measuring radio-activity in mineral waters is that it is based upon an arbitrary standard, and demands the use of a particular apparatus and mode of working. By Sir William Ramsay's method the actual amounts of radium and its emanation (niton) are estimated, the niton being calculated into the corresponding quantity of its parent radium which would have produced it. In the disintegration of radium one atom of helium is thrown off in the form of a-rays, and a gaseous residue, originally termed " radium emanation," but now recognised as a distinct element, niton, is left. In this change, two other kinds of rays, known respectively as 8- and y-rays, are emitted. Unlike the a-rays (or helium), these rays possess great penetrative proper- ties, and are capable of traversing layers of metal of consider- able thickness. The y-rays, in particular, will readily pass through a thick screen of lead, and advantage is taken of this property in separating them from the other rays. 1 Chem. Zeit., 1910, XXXIV. (Rep.), p. 102. 42 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS It is to the emission of these ft- and y-rays that the therapeutic action of radium and of niton is to be attributed. Niton itself also undergoes disintegration in the course of a few days, with the successive formation of a series of products termed radium A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, the last of which is regarded as being probably identical with lead. This method of expressing the radio-activity of waters and natural gas in terms of the amount of radium equivalent to the quantity of niton found is best made clear by quoting Sir William Ramsay's words l : " Suppose 1 gramme of radium to be dissolved in water, say as chloride or bromide. It is con- tinually giving off niton ; but at the same time, the niton is as continuously disappearing, owing to the formation of radium A, B, C, and D. There will arrive a time when the production of niton from the radium will have ceased to increase, because as it is produced it decays, and the rate of production is then equal to the rate of decay. The amount of niton will therefore increase up to a certain point ; that point is when 6-6 of a cubic millimetre of niton has been produced. The weight of 1 cubic millimetre of niton is almost exactly x^o^h f a milligramme ; hence 0-6 cubic millimetre weighs y^^ths of a milligramme. This is the weight of the niton, which is in equilibrium with 1 gramme of metallic radium." Estimated by this method, the following results were obtained in the examination of the waters of Bath : Radium in the water of the King's Well . Niton (radium emanation) in King's Well Niton ,, Cross Bath Niton Hetling Bath , Niton ,, in gas from King's Well Milligrammes per million litres. 0-1387 1-73 2 1-19 2 1-70 2 33-65 The Buxton water is also radio-active, as is shown by the recent determinations of Makower, 3 who found niton in the pro- 1 Chem. News, 1912, CV., p. 135. 2 These figures are the weights of radium capable of forming the amounts of niton found. 3 Chem. News, 1912, CV., p. 135. MEASUREMENT OF RADIO-ACTIVITY 43 portion of 0-83 milligramme per million litres in water from the Hospital Natural Baths and the Crescent Pump-room, Buxton, while the water from the " Gentlemen's Natural Baths " yielded 1-1 milligramme. The gas emitted naturally by the Buxton Springs contained from 7-7 to 8-5 milligrammes of niton per million litres. All these figures represent the quantities of radium capable of forming the volume of niton found (Cf. p. 37). Artificial Radio-active Mineral Waters. It is possible to obtain mineral waters of any desired degree of radio-activity by immersing therein an insoluble compound of radium, until the water is sufficiently charged. According to Landin, 1 a suitable radio-active strength for mineral waters for drinking purposes is 10,000 units, and for baths 200,000 units. The radio-activity of these prepared waters is estimated by the method outlined on a preceding page (p. 40). Quite recently bottles of special construction, containing artificial radio-active mineral waters, have been put upon the market in Sweden. It has frequently been asserted that artificial mineral waters prepared from mixtures of salts strictly corresponding to the analysis of natural spring waters do not produce the same medicinal effects as the natural products. In the light of recent investigation it seems probable that the more pronounced therapeutic action of the latter may be due partially, at all events, to their containing radio-active bodies. For further particulars of the methods of preparing these artificially radio- active products see p. 83. i C/iem. Zc.lt., 1910, XXXIV. (Rep.), p. 102. CHAPTER V CARBON DIOXIDE ITS PREPARATION, PROPERTIES, AND USES IN THE MINERAL WATER FACTORY *^ Nature of Carbon Dioxide. A supply of pure carbon dioxide under pressure is one of the main essentials of the mineral water industry, and the artificial preparation of the gas, which until a relatively recent date was almost entirely restricted to soda-water manufacturers, is now being carried out on a large scale to an increasing extent in some cases as a means of utilising the by-products of other industries. Carbon dioxide, or, as it is more popularly termed, carbonic acid, is a compound of one atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen. Historically ii^ is of interest as being the first gas to be recognised as distinct from ordinary air. To the elder van Helmont is due the credit of the discovery of the preparation of the gas from burning wood and from mineral carbonates treated with acid, while its property of combining with caustic (or fixed) alkalies, which was discovered by Black, suggested the name of " fixed air," by which, for many years, it was known. It was also termed " mephitic air," when its identity with the poisonous exhalation in caverns became known and its property of extinguishing both life and flame was recognised. For a long period it was considered to be an individual substance, and it was not until 1781 that its real nature as a compound of carbon and oxygen was proved by Lavoisier. Occurrence. Carbon dioxide in the free state occurs in the atmosphere to the extent of about 4 parts in 10,000, and is emitted abundantly from volcanic fissures all over the world. It is also present in solution in natural water, and in some mineral waters, such as those of Selters, Vichy, and the CARBON DIOXIDE 45 Apolliiiaris Spring, is present under pressure, so that the water effervesces when the pressure is released by the escape of the water from the rock. A description of the character and methods of bottling these naturally super-carbonated mineral waters will be found on a subsequent page. In the case of other springs the gas pours forth in a copious torrent from the water, as, for example, at Franzensbrunn, near Eger, in Polterbrunnen. The most celebrated instance of the exhalation of carbon dioxide through fissures in the rock in volcanic areas is in the Grotto del Cane, at Naples, where a constant layer of the gas is present to the depth of 2 or 3 feet. Another famous spot where carbon dioxide collects in this way is the " Valley of Death," in Java. This is a deep valley that was once the crater of an active volcano. Here the gas is poured forth from time to time from fissures in the ground, and at such periods it means death for any animal that is tempted to enter the valley. In its combined state as carbonate, carbon dioxide forms one of the principal constituents of the structural materials of the globe. The volcanic rocks are continually absorbing the gas from the air and forming soluble carbonates, which are dis- solved by rivers and pass into the sea, where they are taken up by animal and vegetable organisms, and again deposited in the form of precipitated carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Some conception of the vast extent of the deposits of limestone and the like thus produced may be formed from the calculation of Hogbom, that these rocks upon the surface of the earth contain over 25,000 times the quantity of carbon dioxide found in the air. Another means by which the gas is removed from the atmo- sphere is by the action of plants, which breathe in carbon dioxide and decompose it through the agency of sunlight, retaining the carbon and giving off the oxygen. Properties. At the ordinary temperature and pressure, carbon dioxide is a colourless gas with a sourish taste and odour. Its weight, as compared with an equal volume of MINEEAL AND AERATED WATERS hydrogen, is about 22, and as it is thus heavier than air it may be collected by pouring it downwards into a jar, from which it will at once displace the air. Solubility of Carbon Dioxide. - It is soluble in about its own volume of water at a temperature of 15*5 C. (60 F.), the solubility decreasing rapidly with the rise in temperature. Its " absorption coefficient," or, in other words, that volume of the gas (reduced to standard temperature (0 C.) and pressure (760 mm.)) which is absorbed by 1 c.c. of a liquid at standard pressure at a given temperature, is shown in the following table, which gives the corresponding values for carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen at various temperatures ; ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS. oc. 10 C. 20 C. 30 C. r>( f C. C.c. C.c. C.c. C.c. C.c. Carbon dioxide 1-7134 1-194 0-878 0-665 0-436 Oxygen 0-0489 0-0297 0-031 0-026 Nitrogen . . . . 0-0239 0-0196 0-0164 0-0138 0-0106 The solubility is now more commonly expressed in terms of Ostwald's " coefficient of solubility," which represents that volume of a gas which is dissolved by one volume of the liquid at a definite temperature. At zero the two modes of expressing the solubility will give the same result, while for other temperatures the relationship between the " coefficient of solubility." x, and the " absorption coefficient," y, may be calculated by means of the formula x (273 I t) - = 27^* 3 where t represents the temperature of the liquid y in degrees Centigrade. Under pressures below about four atmospheres, the law of Henry holds good for the solubility of carbon dioxide in water i.e., the amount of the gas absorbed by water at a definite temperature varies in proportion to the pressure of the gas. At higher pressures, however, the solubility of carbon dioxide in water is lower than that required by the law. CARBON nioxrni: 47 Thus, for example, Wroblewski found that water at 12-5 C. dissolved the following proportions of carbon dioxide under increasing pressures : Pressure in Atmospheres . . 1. 5. 10. 20. 30. Solubility 1-086 5'15 9-65 17'11 23'2o The practical bearing of these factors, of pressure and temperature upon the solubility of carbon dioxide, will be seen later in considering the question of the pressures for bottling aerated liquids. Carbon Dioxide from Carbonates. Until within the last few years, the carbon dioxide used in mineral water factories was almost invariably obtained by the interaction of an acid and a carbonate. In America, coarse white marble dust was the favourite raw material, while in England the preference was given to whiting or sodium bicarbonate, the latter of which yields a very pure carbon dioxide, and has the advantage of leaving a soluble carbonate in the generator. The objection to the use of marble is that it frequently con- tains iron and bituminous impurities, which in the decomposi- tion with the acid yield hydrogen and volatile vapours of unpleasant odour. This is more liable to occur with black than with white marble. Another and less pure form of calcium carbonate sometimes used as the raw material for the gas is whiting (purified chalk). It requires to be mixed with a larger proportion of water than does marble, and thus entails the use of larger apparatus. The evolution of the gas is more violent, and the gas itself is liable to contain more impurities. Both marble and whiting have the drawback of leaving in the generator an insoluble mass of gypsum, of which it is not always an easy matter to dispose. Other carbonates which were used in certain places, and are probably still employed where they can be obtained plentifully in a relatively pure condition, are magnesite, a carbonate of magnesium (containing 52 per cent, of carbon dioxide) and purified limestone. 48 MINEEAL AND AERATED WATERS Sodium bicarbonate (containing 52-4 per cent, of combined carbon dioxide) is extensively used in this country, but in America is regarded as too expensive except for the highest grade of mineral waters. The acids used for the decomposition of the selected carbon- ate are sulphuric acid, sold under the name of oil of vitriol, and hydrochloric acid, sold as muriatic acid. Both acids, if not carefully purified, are liable to contain traces of volatile bodies that will impart an unpleasant flavour to the gas, and this is particularly the case with hydrochloric acid. The impurities in the latter acid are much more difficult to remove from the gas by washing, and for this reason sulphuric acid has always been preferred. Whatever the acid used, an addition of water is made to the carbonate in the generator before the sulphuric or hydro- chloric acid is introduced, and the proportion is so calculated as to leave a small excess of alkali in the residue. Carbon Dioxide from Coke. Several processes have been devised for preparing carbon dioxide from coke or charcoal, which when burned yield gases containing about one-fifth of their volume of carbon dioxide. Most of these are based upon the well-known property of solutions of potassium carbonate to combine with more carbon dioxide and form potassium bicarbonate, which readily parts with the gas again on heating. In Stead's patent process the furnace gases produced in the combustion are cleansed, cooled, and made to circulate through a solution of potassium carbonate. This absorbs the gas with the formation of potassium bicarbonate, and on now boiling the liquid the carbon dioxide is expelled again, leaving a solution of the original carbonate ready for a further absorption. The processes of " bicarbonating " and "decarbonating" are carried out in a cycle in different parts of the apparatus. The furnace gases are first forced under pressure through the " bicarbonators," and leave behind practically the whole of their carbon dioxide, while the other gases and steam escape from a suitable outlet. CARBON DIOXIDE 49 The bicarbonated lye is then boiled by means of steam-heat or otherwise, and the carbon dioxide expelled in the process is conducted through a cooling apparatus into a gas-holder, whence it can be drawn off for direct use in aeration or for compression into liquid carbon dioxide. The two operations involved are thus independent, and are controlled by valves which are worked by means of a hand wheel. The quality of the gas leaves nothing to be desired, and in the writer's experience is superior to that produced from whiting, and fully equal to that obtained from bicarbonate. The apparatus is made in various sizes, intended to produce from 1 cwt. to 5 tons of carbon dioxide per day, and is claimed to effect a net saving of 5 to 8 per ton of gas over that produced in the old way from acid and whiting. A further advantage of the process is that it obviates the necessity of pumping the alkaline lye from one vessel into another. In Candia and Merlini's French patent (No. 387,874 of 1908), the furnace gases ate washed with water, then cleaned in scrubbers containing coke and chalk, where they encounter a current of cold water. They are next cooled and passed through a vessel containing a sodium hydroxide or potassium carbonate solution. In the first case solid sodium bicarbonate is formed, and the absorbed carbon dioxide may be expelled by calcining the salt, while in the second case the solution of potassium bicarbonate is transferred to another vessel, and heated to expel the absorbed carbon dioxide. Liquid Carbon Dioxide. The gas was first obtained in a liquid form by Faraday, who used for the purpose a strong glass tube, about 8 inches in length and J inch in diameter, which was bent at an obtuse angle a short distance from one end. This was fused, and dilute sulphuric acid was introduced by means of a long funnel, in such a way as not to come in contact with other parts of the tube, after which fragments of ammonium carbonate were placed in the longer limb, and that too was hermetically sealed. When the tube was turned M.W, E 50 M1NEKAL AND AERATED WATERS so that the acid ran down on to the salt, carbon dioxide was produced, and being confined within the closed tube became liquefied by its own pressure and formed a colourless liquid at the other end. Properties of Liquid Carbon Dioxide. In its liquid form carbon dioxide is a transparent, very mobile fluid, which boils at 79 C. Its vapour pressure at C. is equivalent to 35 atmospheres, increasing to 58 atmospheres at 20 C., and falling to 14 atmospheres at 14 C. It dissolves readily in alcohol and ether, but does not mix with water. When liquid carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a small aperture into a canvas bag, part of the fluid becomes solidified through loss of heat absorbed in the spontaneous evaporation of the remainder. FIG. 7. Faraday's Tube for Liquefying Carbon Dioxide. The solid product is a snow-white deposit with a specific gravity of 1-5, and under the ordinary atmospheric pressure vapourises without having previously melted. When mixed with ether or alcohol, solid carbon dioxide is used as the starting-point for obtaining the low temperatures required for the liquefaction of other gases that do not so readily assume the fluid condition. By means of this mixture an initial temperature of about 80 C. is produced. Solid carbon dioxide is now obtainable as a commercial article at a moderate price. Liquid carbon dioxide is now largely employed in the mineral water industry, in which to a great extent it has dis- placed the production of the gas from carbonates and mineral acid. CAEBON DIOXIDK 51 The gas is obtained, either from the combustion of coke or from the gaseous products of fermentation, by means of processes described in outline below, and is forced by pressure pumps into steel tubes, which have been tested to withstand pressures far in excess of that exerted by the liquefied carbon dioxide. The risk of explosion is still further reduced by leaving a small amount of gas in the cylinder, and elaborate tables have been drawn up. showing the amount of liquid which may safely be put into the tube. 1 The effect of leaving 1 per cent, of air in a cylinder is to increase the pressure inside by about 4 per cent. The general adoption of gas purchased in tubes, in place of preparing it from acid and whiting, has been the chief develop- ment in the manufacture of mineral waters during the last ten years. This substitution has many advantages to recommend it, both from the points of view of convenience and of economy. Thus it has eliminated the use of sulphuric acid from the factory, the handling of which was always attended with some degree of danger, and owing to the greater simplicity of working with the tubes, has reduced the labour bill to a considerable extent. It has also effected a great saving in the cost of materials. Thus, if we take the cost of a ton of carbon dioxide produced from acid and whiting at about 13 10s. Od., and that of the gas as purchased ready-made in tubes at about 12 per ton, there will be a saving of 1 10s. 0'7. in this direction alone. In addition to this there is the further advantage of obtaining a purer gas, for the oil of vitriol used in the generator frequently contained arsenic, and there was some risk of this impurity being introduced into the mineral waters. In the earlier types of apparatus for preparing liquid carbon dioxide upon a large scale, the gas was generated by the action of an acid upon a carbonate in a generator, whence it was forced over by the pressure of the gas into the receiver. 1 Stewart : Tram, Amer, 8oc. Mech. Engineers, 1909, XXX., p. 1,111. E2 52 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS The first successful apparatus appears to have been that of Thilorier, which is represented in diagrammatic form in Fig. 8. This consisted of a cylindrical leaden chamber, A, enclosed in copper, and strengthened with rings of wrought iron, and of a second chamber, B, of similar construction. The generator, A, which was about 2 feet long by about 4 inches internal diameter, was charged with 6J Ibs. of tepid water, 2f Ibs. of powdered sodium bicarbonate, and 1-47 Ibs. of strong commercial sulphuric acid, these proportions being chosen so as to leave an excess of alkali salt. It was then turned several times upon its axis, pp, after which it was FIG. 8. Thilorier's Apparatus for Liquefying Carbon Dioxide. allowed to stand vertically, with its screw-plug, s, closed. The liquefied carbon dioxide rose to the surface, and when the generator was connected with the receiver by means of the copper tube, x, t, x, and the valves were opened, the liquid was forced over into the other vessel, which was meanwhile chilled in ice water. By opening the stopcock, c, in the receiver, the liquid could escape through the tube, a, a portion of it being immediately solidified. CARBON DIOXIDE 53 Natural Gas Sources.- In Germany liquid carbon dioxide is prepared from the natural gas as it issues from fissures in the earth. This gas is first purified by washing and treatment with suitable solutions to remove other gases, and is then dried, and liquefied in cylinders by means of powerful pumps. Marble. Another source whence a pure liquefied gas is obtained upon an industrial scale is broken marble, which, when strongly heated in a kiln of special construction, is decomposed, with the liberation of carbon dioxide. The gas is conducted through cooling apparatus, and condensed to the liquid form, while the residue of lime left in the kiln is used for mortar in building. Carbon dioxide derived from white marble by this process is particularly pure, for the small quantities of impurities which it may contain are not removed by the kilning, as they may be when the marble is decomposed with a mineral acid. Carbon Dioxide from Breweries. The vicinity of a large brewery first suggested to Priestley in 1772 the possibility of utilising the carbon dioxide liberated in the process of fermentation. In a postscript to his pamphlet 1 he writes: "In large vessels containing liquors in a state of fermentation, as at a public brewery or distillery, fixed air may be found in great plenty ready made ; and if water be poured from one vessel into another held as near as possible to the surface of the fermenting liquor (by means of long handles) for about four or five minutes, it will acquire the acidulous taste of Pyrmont water." Cylinders of liquid carbon dioxide obtained, in the first instance, from the brewers' fermenting tuns, have now been for some years upon the market, and are sold to the mineral water manufacturers to be used as the source of gas for the aeration of their products. The mode of collecting it is shown in Fig. 9, which represents 1 Priestley : Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air, London, 1772, p. 21. 54 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS a vertical section of a modern brewery. The fermenting tuns upon the first floor are closed in at the top, and the carbon FIG. 9. Eraser's Apparatus for Collecting, Compressing, and Deodorising Carbonic Acid Gas from Brewers' Fermenting Vessels. dioxide is drawn off from above the yeast and passes through a main, which conducts it to the purifying and liquefying plant upon the ground floor. CARBON DIOXIDE 55 In this case the carbon dioxide is utilised in a refrigerating machine, which keeps the storage cellars at a constant low temperature. If the carbon dioxide is only to be used for this pur- pose and for carbonating the beer in the brewery itself, no special purification is necessary, since the other volatile products of fer- mentation will already be present in the beer. In such cases, too, it is not necessary to liquefy the gas, but it is sufficient to store it in suitable receivers at a pressure of about 200 Ibs. to the square inch. If, however, the gas is to be sold for aerating mineral waters it must be washed, purified, and condensed to a liquid in strong steel cylinders. Sufficient attention is not always paid to this question of purification before liquefy- ing the gas, and it is within the present writer's experi- ence that some of the carbon dioxide thus derived from breweries will impart a slight but distinct and unpleasant odour and flavour to the mineral water. Passing the gas through a s olution of potassium perman- l H o o 56 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS ganate on its way to the bottling machine will eliminate more or less completely the volatile substances. A type of apparatus, made by Messrs. Eraser & Co., suit- able for the collection, purification, and bottling of the gas derived from fermenting liquors in a closed vessel of enamelled steel is shown in Fig. 10. The gas governor is designed to prevent air being drawn over into the compressor. FIG. 11. Hall's Plant for Collecting Carbon Dioxide from Fermentations. The Three -Stage Compressor. The external appearance of other machinery used for this purpose is shown in Figs. 11 and 12, which represent the collect- ing apparatus of Messrs. Hall & Co. Fig. 1 1 represents the three-stage compressing pump, which is driven by a belt passing over the large wheel, and connected with a steam engine or electric motor. CARBON DIOXIDE 57 The gas entering this pump is forced through a connecting pipe (not shown) into the cylinders of the condenser (Fig. 12). Carbon Dioxide Refrigerating Machinery . The use of liquid carbon dioxide for refrigerat- ing purposes is being increas- ingly extended in mineral water factories where a supply of cold water from an artesian well is not obtainable. In order to obtain proper saturation of the liquids with the gas in the bottling process it is essential that the tem- perature should not be too high, the reason for which will be seen by a reference to the table on p. 46, which shows the solubility of carbon dioxide at various tempera- tures. Sufficient cooling of ginger beer is also essential to the production of a good -keeping product, in order to lessen the time of cooling, and reduce the risk of infection with foreign micro-organisms prior to the introduction of the chosen yeast. This is especially necessary in hot climates, where the water available for cooling purposes may often be as high as 90 F., so that without the use of a suitable refrigerating machine it would be only by good luck that a well-aerated mineral water or stable ginger beer could be manufactured. Carbon dioxide refrigerating machinery is rapidly displacing FIG. 12, The Condenser Purifier and Bottling Machine. 58 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS the more costly ammonia and sulphur dioxide plants, over which it has also many advantages in addition to economy in working. Thus the gas may be blown off through the safety-valve without risk of injury to persons in the room, which is not the case with ammonia ; and, unlike the latter, it does not attack copper or its alloys. There is also the great advantage that, being the gas subse- quently used in carbonating mineral waters, it cannot, when Intel Outlet 316 2 A FIG. 13. Diagrammatic Section of Hall's Refrigerating Machine. pure, impart any flavour to liquids with which it comes into contact. Assuming the price of the carbon dioxide to be about l^d. per lb., the price of the material required for working a carbon dioxide plant would only be about one-twentieth of that needed for an ammonia plant. The principles upon which the refrigerating plant of Messrs. J. & E. Hall (the originators of the system in this country) depend may be gathered from the diagrammatic section of one of their machines shown in Fig. 13. It consists of four main parts viz., (1) The Compressor, in which the gas drawn from the evaporator is subjected to CARBON DIOXIDE 59 sufficient pressure to liquefy it ;' (2) The Condenser, composed of coils of pipes in which (he gas is cooled by means of water, and thus becomes liquefied ; (3) The Evaporator, in the coils of which the liquid carbon dioxide evaporates, and in so doing abstracts heat from the surrounding liquid ; and (4) The Regulating Valve, by means of which the degree of compression F JG . H.Hall's Vertical Combined Land Type C0 2 Refrigerating Machine and evaporation is controlled in accordance with the readings of the two pressure gauges. The external appearance of one of these machines is shown in Fig. 14, while its internal construction may be seen from the vertical section shown in Fig. 15. 60 MINEEAL AND AEBATED WATERS These machines are made of iron, steel, bronze or copper, according to the purpose for which they are required, and are tested to a pressure three times as great as that to which they will be exposed under working conditions (often about 950 Ibs. per square inch). Evaporator Guage Condenser Gua*ge Evaporator coil Condenser coil Condenser casing Insulated division berween Condenser & Evaporator Driving pulley __ Crank Shaft Brine circulating pump FIG. 15. Diagram illustrating construction of Hall's Land Type Machine. In another modification of the apparatus, the coils of the condenser, which are constructed of wrought-iron pipes, are arranged so that water trickles over them, instead of being immersed in a tank of water. The machines are also adapted for cooling the air of a room, but except in tropical climates, this is hardly necessary in mineral water factories, though there would be some advantage in doing this in the brewing of ginger beer, so as to obviate the risk of infection of the yeast. MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS Where it is desired to cool a room in this way the air may be made to pass across a system of chilled brine pipes, or the chilled brine may be made to circulate through pipes arranged round the chamber, special precautions being taken to prevent heat entering the room by way of the walls. A refrigerating machine installed in a large mineral water factory is shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 16). Pressure Gauges. The pressure at which the carbon dioxide is forced into the saturating vessel, and consequently the pressure it will exert within the bottle, is indicated upon a gauge. This contains a spring, which, when acted upon by the gas, sets in motion a lever which controls an indicator upon the face of the dial. Thus in a common type of pressure gauge, the carbon dioxide enters the space, B, which has a closely fitting spring cover, C. The pressure the gas exerts upon this spring lifts the steel rod, E, and this in turn raises the triangle, F. The indented edge of this fits into a cog-wheel, which moves a second FIG 17.-Diagram illustrating the whee] connected with the indica . construction 01 a .Pressure brauge. tor, GG, while a spiral spring, H, prevents a too-rapid motion of the indicator (Fig. 17). The values recorded upon the dial vary in different countries. In England and the United States the ordinary atmospheric pressure (14-7 Ibs. to the square inch) is represented by zero, while the higher readings are given in Ibs. to the square inch. In Germany zero also represents the normal pressure, but the pressures in excess thereof are represented as so many atmospheres, and are not expressed in Ibs. or their metric CARBON DIOXIDE 63 equivalent : while in France the figure 1 represents the normal pressure, and the figures 2 and so on the super pressures. Thus, for example, a pressure of three atmospheres would be represented by the figure 2 on the German scale, 3 on the French scale, and by 29 Ibs. on the British and American scales. CHAPTER VI ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS THE miraculous cures which were directly attributed to the waters of some of the mediseval springs could not fail to give birth to the speculations of the natural philosopher as to their cause. In the doctrines of alchemy, which .gradually developed into the science of chemistry, water was termed the phlegm, and was a passive principle like earth. There were also three active principles viz., (1) the Spirit (or mercury), a subtile, piercing light substance " causing all Bodies to grow in more or less time, according as it abounds in them more or less " ; (2) the Oil. " a subtile unctuous substance that rises after the Spirit, and causes the Diversity of Colours and Smells " ; and (3) Salt, " which remains disguised in the Earth after the other principles are extracted. It preserves bodies from Corruption and causes the Diversity of Tastes, according as it is diversely mixed." Salts again were further divided into three different groups, known as Firt, Volatile and Essential. It is not surprising that the sparkling character of many natural spring waters, due to the escape of dissolved carbon dioxide, should have lent support to the commonly accepted belief that there was present in such mineral waters some volatile vital essence, or Spiritus sylveslris, to which they owed their beneficial effects. This idea received confirmation from what were believed to be the facts that the waters of certain wells did not produce the same results when bottled and sent away as when they were used upon the spot, the cause of this being due, so it was alleged, to the loss of some of this volatile first principle, the " Soul of the Waters." " This noble Spirit it is," wrote Hoffmann in 173 1, 1 " which by its penetrating Nature and admirable Faculty renders itself 1 " Experiments on Mineral Waters," English trans., 1731. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 65 perceptible to the Smell and Sense, not only affording a grateful Odour by its Exhalation, but also filling the whole Head therewith." Further, he remarks that this principle is the " most curious and effectual part " of mineral waters, and concludes that " the delicate Nature of this Spirit is the true and principle Cause of the great Difficulty, even by the utmost Address of Art, of pre- paring Waters that shall perfectly resemble and have the noble Virtues of the natural hot or cold medicinal Springs." Early in the seventeenth century Van Helmont (1577 1644) discovered carbon dioxide, and showed that it was distinct from ordinary air, for prior to his discovery, all known gases had been regarded as merely so many different varieties of air. He invented the name " gas," and described his newly- found substance as the gas sylvestre, probably from the fact that he first prepared it by burning wood. The later name of " fixed air " was given to carbon dioxide in 1757 by Black, from the fact that it was absorbed by caustic alkalies. This gas sylvestre gradually came to be regarded as the chief active first principle or spirit in all mineral waters. In 1712 J. Seip published an account of the water of the Pyrmont Spring, 1 and his investigations were continued by his son, F. G. P. Seip, who, in 1750, described the results of his observations on the " Spirit " and salt of these mineral waters, 2 in which he quotes from an English work by Dr. Turner upon the same subject. In Seip's opinion this spirit of the waters was identical, or had much in common with the gas that was emitted from fissures in the floors of caves, such as the Grotto del Cane, and with the gas that was set free in the process of fermentation. He considered this " genuine mineral spirit " to be a volatile vitriolic acid. In the year 1741 William Brownrigg read a paper before the Royal Society on " The Use of a Knowledge of Mineral Exhalations when Applied to Discovering the Principle and Properties of Mineral Waters." 1 " Beschreibung der Pyrmontischen Gesund Brunen," 1712. " Beschreibung der Pyrmontischen Mineral Wasser und Stahlbrunncn," 1750, M.W, F 66 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS In this paper, which was not published until 1765, he gave reasons for his conclusion that the " subtile and fugitive principle, the spirit of mineral fountains," was closely related to the choke damp found in coal mines and in various other parts of the earth. He also described experiments which indicated that the class of waters known as acidulce were really impregnated " with a mephitic exhalation resembling the choak damp," as was also made manifest by the effects produced upon ducks swimming upon the surface of certain springs, such as those of Pyrmont. And with regard to the therapeutic action of these waters, he remarked that " the elastic spirit of the acidulae seems to have a great share in the admirable effects which those waters exert upon the body." His later paper was published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, 1 under the title of " An Experimental Enquiry into the Mineral Elastic Spirit or Air contained in Spa Water as well as into the Mephitic Qualities of this Spirit," and his former communication was given as an appendix. Here he elaborated his experiments and the deductions drawn from them, and still laid stress upon the point that this mephitic air entered into the composition of all sharp and pungent waters like those of Pyrmont and Spa, and that it was the volatile spirit upon which their prime virtues depended. In the interval between the two papers of Brownrigg, Dr. Springfield wrote, in the year 1748, a treatise in Latin on the waters of Spa (" Iter Medicum ad Aquas Spadanas "), in which he expressed the opinion that ordinary air was the cause of the clear solution of the contents of " subtile mineral waters." And this view was supported by Venel in his memoir upon Seltzer water (1755), in which he gave reasons for his belief that the " mineral spirit " was air itself. He also attempted to prepare Seltzer water artificially, by adding sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid to ordinary water, so that the gas produced saturated the liquid. Although Venel was mistaken as to the nature of the " air " that he produced, his method of impregnation marks a great 1 Phil Trans., 1765, LV., p. 218. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 67 advance in the direction of the successful imitation of naturally carbonated mineral waters, since the proportions of acid and sodium carbonate were chosen so as to yield approximately the right amount of sodium chloride in the finished water. Both Springfield and Venel were evidently unacquainted with the results of the experiments of Brownrigg and others upon the nature of the " air " in this type of mineral waters, and their conclusions were once more shown to be erroneous by Bergmann and subsequently by Priestley. Bergmann (1735 1784), who was Professor of Chemistry at Upsala, in Sweden, proved that the principle of the " fluid called fixed air " was common to the Seltzer, Spa, and Pyrmont waters, and he appears to have been the first to attempt an artificial imitation of these waters, so as to include both the volatile " fixed air " and the dissolved saline constituents (see p. 74). He also showed that solutions of carbon dioxide had an acid reaction, and for this reason described the gas as the " aerial acid," which could be expelled with effervescence from sub- stances with which it was united, by means of a stronger acid. The essays of Macbride. 1 which were published in 1767, contained many ingenious speculations upon the physiological properties of fixed air. From the facts that more of that gas was liberated in the putrefaction of vegetable than of animal matter, and that the use of vegetable food was admitted to be a remedy against sea-scurvy and other " putrid diseases," he drew the inference that these good effects of a vegetable diet were due to the greater proportion of fixed air set free in the decomposition of the food by the digestive organs. This gas, he argued, would then be absorbed into the system, and would tend to check any putrefactive changes that had set in. Thus on p. 87 he remarks : " Seeing then that dead bodies become putrid from the loss of their fixed air, may not the immediate cause of putrefaction in living bodies be the detachment of too large a proportion of their fixed air ? " 1 " Experimental Essays on Medical and Philosophical Subjects," by D. Mac- bride, M.D., London. 1767. Second edition. F2 68 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS And so by replacing this loss the course of the disease would be arrested. To give practical effect to his theory he suggested the employment of a mixture of fresh lime-juice with a carbonate as a remedy against sea-scurvy and yellow fever, his pre- scription being " to give the patients repeated doses of alkaline salts in fresh lime-juice and the like, and let it always be swallowed during the effervescence." Priestley adopted the view of the carbon dioxide being the principal medicinal constituent of naturally carbonated waters, and in his pamphlet on " Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in order to Communicate to it the peculiar Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water," he remarks : " If any person chuse to make this medicated water more closely resemble genuine Pyrmont water, Sir John Pringle informs me that from 8 to 10 drops of Tinctura Martis cum Spiritu Salis must be mixed with every pint of it. It is agreed, however, on all hands that the peculiar virtues of Pyrmont water or any other mineral water which has the same brisk or acidulous taste depend not upon its being a chalybeate, but upon the fixed air which it contains." And later, he emphasises the point that ordinary water saturated with carbon dioxide will be of most service in " diseases of a putrid nature, of which kind is sea-scurvy." " It can hardly be doubted," he continues, " that this water must have all the medicinal virtues of Pyrmont water and some other medicinal waters similar to it, whatever they be ; especially if a few iron filings be put into it to render it chalybeate like genuine Pyrmont water." Priestley's belief in the efficacy of carbon dioxide as a therapeutic agent was based upon the then widely accepted view that carbon dioxide, or fixed air, acted as an antiseptic agent when introduced in a free state into the circulatory system the theory that had been put forward so plausibly by Macbride (see p. 67). His pamphlet was published in 1772, and was dedicated to the Earl of Sandwich, First Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty, in recognition of the favourable manner in which ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 69 the inventor's proposal for improving water at sea had been received. An illustration of the apparatus, which may be regarded as one of the earliest predecessors of the carbonating machines of to-day, is given on a subsequent page. Sulphurous Waters. With the general advance in know- ledge of the carbonated waters the sulphur-bearing springs, of which Aix-la-Chapelle was then the most celebrated, were also made the subject of investigation. The existence of sulphur in such waters was the subject of much controversy, and its presence was denied by various chemists, including Hoffmann and Lister, who asserted that the unpleasant odour was due, not to sulphur, but to the effects of stagnation. In 1759, however, Dr. John Rutty read a paper before the Royal Society upon " Thoughts on the Different Impregnations of Mineral Waters," 1 in which he described a series of system- atic tests applied to various so-called hepatic waters, and showed that the reactions were caused by sulphur, and were not merely the accompaniments of a stagnant water. He summarised his conclusions in the following words : " Thus it appears that sulphur is not confined to the hot baths of Aix-la-Chapelle and a few more abroad, but is found also in the cold waters of both England and Ireland." Priestley, at the end of his pamphlet on the impregnation of water with fixed air, also described the manner in which his apparatus might be used in the preparation of mineral waters impregnated with sulphur compounds. Instead of limestone, chalk or marble, he charged the small receptacle with liver of sulphur, which he then decomposed in the same way with dilute sulphuric acid. " The hepatic air will arise," he observes, " the water will be impregnated, will smell strongly sulphurous, and will resemble the celebrated waters of Aix-la-Chapelle, etc." Salts in Mineral Waters. But as it was not only in the direction of the search for the " soul " of mineral waters, 1 Phil Trans., 1759, LI., p. 275. 70 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS which culminated in artificial carbonation of the water, that frequent attempts had been made to imitate natural mineral waters. The concentration of sea water by evaporation to obtain the dissolved salts in a crystalline form obviously suggested a similar process for the separation of the second active principle, the salt, from mineral waters. In the year 1697 a " Treatise of the Nature of the Waters of Epsom " was published by Dr. Nehemiah Grew, in which the properties of the water are described and directions are given for preparing the active salt (magnesium sulphate) by evaporation of the water and crystallisation of the salt. In the patent granted to him in the following year (Eng. Pat. No. 354 of 1698) his process is described as " The Way of Making the Salt of the Purgeing Waters perfectly Fine and in Large Quantities very Cheape, so as to be comonly Prescribed and Taken as a Generall Medicine." Analogous processes were introduced about the same time abroad, for we find in Lemery's " Course of Chymistry " J that " Many acid bituminous Salts which are drawn by the Evapo- ration of certain Mineral Waters, such as those of Baler ac in Languedoc, and Digne in Provence, do perform the same Effects [as sea salt] when they are mixed with Oil of Tartar." Lemery also describes a method of preparing a medicinal salt Sal Polychrestum (voXvxpris "good for many uses"), which was an impure potassium sulphate, obtained by heating nitre and sulphur in a crucible. He recognised that this was not the same substance as the salt made and sold under that name by Seignette of Rochelle. " Monsieur Seignette, an Apothecary of Rochelle," he remarks. " hath put in Use a certain Sal Polychrestum ; the composition is known to none but himself, who having given it a Reputation in the Chiefest Towns of France hath left some Quantity of it with me to distribute and make Use of here in Paris." This salt, which is still known as Rochelle or Seignette salt, was the double tartrate of potassium and sodium. Yet another passage from Lemery deserves quotation as 1 Translated from the French. Fourth English edition, 1720, p. 254. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 71 foreshadowing the preparation of artificial medicinal mineral waters. ; " One may make an Aperitive Mineral Water," he writes, " by dissolving eight or nine grains of Gilla Vitrioli [zinc sulphate] in two pints of Common Water." Early in the eighteenth century it was discovered by F. Hoffmann 1 that the purgative character of the water of the springs at Sedlitz, in Bohemia, was due to the presence of Epsom salt (magnesium sulphate) in considerably greater proportion than even in the water of Epsom itself. He showed that the salt might be obtained in a solid form by evaporating and crystallising the residue as in the case of Epsom water, and to his discoveries the town of Sedlitz (or Seidlitz) owed its fame. The crystals of magnesium sulphate prepared from the water were put upon the English market early in the nine- teenth century under the name of Seidlitz salts. Hoffmann also published a treatise upon mineral waters in general, in which, as has already been mentioned, he found the three main constituents : A volatile principle ; a solid salt or earthy substance ; and " moisture " or " elementary water." This book was translated into French, and an English edition was published in the year 1731. The methods of analysis then used in the examination of mineral waters were mainly due to the earlier investigations of Boyle and of Du Clos. In the year 1663 Robert Boyle made use of several substances to precipitate various ingredients in water, and showed that syrup of violets was reddened by acids, that water tinged with logwood became yellow with acids, and so on. Then, in 1684, he published a treatise in which he described several reagents for examining mineral waters. 2 Thus he employed an infusion of galls, oak leaves or myro- balaus for the detection of iron in water, and showed how sulphurous waters might be recognised by the changes of colour given by them with solutions of various metals. He also described tests for detecting the presence of arsenic in 1 " Bericht von der Wurckung des Brunnens zu Sedlitz," 1725. 2 " Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental History of Mineral Waters." London, 1684. 72 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS water, and dealt in some detail with the salts contained in English mineral waters. In estimating the residue left on evaporation of waters the caput mortuum as he termed it, Boyle used a rough balance with which to weigh the residual salts, a/nd gave the comparative results obtained with different mineral waters such as those of " Dulledge," Acton, Epsom, and Islington (" From the Musick House "). In discussing the question of ferruginous waters, he observed that " most of them, even such as will bear removing, have something of Freshness and Quickness at the Spring head, perhaps from some Spirituous and Fugitive Exhalations that there arise with them, but presently vanish, that they have not anywhere else." " And if it be with some such Spirituous and Volatile Exhalations that a Mineral Water as that of Tunbridge or of Islington is impregnated, 'tis not hard to conceive that they may easily lose their chief Vertue, by the avolation of most or many of their fugitive Parts, upon their being removed to a distance from the Spring head." At the beginning of the eighteenth century other substances were employed in testing mineral waters. Thus Du Clos, who began a systematic examination of all the mineral waters of France, which he continued for many years, made use of many other reagents, including juice of iris flowers, martial vitriol (iron sulphate), and turnesole (turmeric). Hoffmann was the first to detect sodium carbonate (which he termed " nitre ") in several mineral springs, while Allen, in 17 II, 1 discovered a salt containing vitriolic acid and lime " (calcium sulphate), which he termed selenite, in certain of these waters. In the year 1755 Dr. Peter Shaw published his '' Chymical Lectures," in which there is a section dealing with " The More Commodious Method of Examining Mineral Waters." He describes the behaviour of Pyrmont water towards several reagents, and classifies mineral waters in general into three classes chalybeate, purgative, and alterative. 1 " Natural History of Mineral Waters of Great Britain," 1711. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 73 He then proceeds to show how "the mineral waters are imitable by Art," and gives the following prescription for the artificial preparation of Pyrmont water : " We took a quart of the lightest and purest Water we could procure, and added to it about thirty drops of a strong Solution of Iron, made with Spirit of Salt, a dram or more of Oleum Tartari per deliquum, and twenty, thirty, or forty drops of Spirit of Vitriol, but so as that the Alkali of the Oil of Tartar might prevail. We now shook all briskly together and poured out into a glass for tasting ; upon which it was found very remarkably to resemble Pyrmont Water." From his analyses, Shaw concluded that the ingredients of Pyrmont water were " a subtile aqueous fluid, a volatile iron, and a predominating alkali, all joined into one brisk, pungent, spirituous water." Referring to the imitation of mineral waters in general, Shaw remarks that the imitation of the common purgative mineral waters, such as those of Epsom, is " facile," but that the imitation of the " alterative waters such as those of Bath, Buckston, and Holt has hitherto scarce been attempted, nor can be rationally for want of their respective just analyses, upon which such imitations should always be founded." The exact nature of the substances that Peter Shaw dissolved in water, in his attempts to imitate Pyrmont water, is not quite clear, but apparently there was iron sulphate, hydrochloric acid, and a solution of potassium carbonate, obtained by igniting cream of tartar, and extracting the mass with water. Carbon dioxide would be liberated by the interaction of the carbonate and mineral acid and would impregnate the liquid. The importance attached to the presence of " fixed air " in a mineral water caused less attention to be paid to the saline constituents, and as has already been mentioned (p. 68), ordinary carbonated water came to be regarded as possessing all the medicinal virtues of the effervescing mineral waters. Bergman, however, clearly recognised that to imitate a natural mineral water it was not sufficient merely to saturate ordinary water with carbon dioxide, but that the different character of these waters was due to their containing different 74 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS salts in different proportions. : ' Hence," he remarks, 1 " water by bare impregnation with fixed air cannot be called either Seltzer, Spa or Pyrmont, nor can he be said to understand the artificial preparation of these waters who merely knows . the method of saturating water with fixed air." Bergman's account of . how he came to prepare artificial medicinal waters in Sweden is sufficiently interesting to deserve quotation : " In the year 1770," he writes, " being attacked by a severe colic, I was obliged to take above eighty bottles of foreign medicated waters. By these the symptoms were somewhat mitigated ; in the meantime I examined the nature and principles of these waters with the greatest attention, as I most earnestly desired to imitate them ; for besides their extreme dearness in this country at the beginning of the spring, when not only diseases, the foundations of which have been laid in winter, but my complaints are also particularly troublesome, these waters cannot be had fresh and good at any price. I soon reaped the wished-for fruit of my labours, for the year following I substituted the artificial to the natural waters, and not only used them myself but gave them to many of my friends with like success." And in another passage Bergman remarks : " In the year 1771, at Upsal, several persons made use of waters artificially prepared, which exactly resembled the natural waters of Seltzer, Spa and Pyrmont, not only as to the volatile part, but as to the entire contents ; and the use of these waters afterwards obtained through most of the provinces of Sweden." The apparatus used by Bergman in impregnating these waters with carbon dioxide is described elsewhere (see p. 85). About the year 1768 Thomas Bewley had introduced a form of soda water, obtained by mixing an acid and a carbonate. This he described by the singularly ill-sounding name of " mephitic julep," the term " mephitic " being that which he had previously given to carbon dioxide. 1 " Essays of Torbern Bergman," translated by E. Cullen, M.D. London, 1788, p. 107. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 75 This preparation was in great demand as a remedy for various diseases, and according to Henry, writing in 1781, " the materia medica perhaps does not afford a more efficacious or more grateful medicine in putrid fevers, scurvy, dysentery, bilious vomitings, hectic, etc." Henry in his pamphlet already quoted gives the following directions for the preparation both of artificial mineral waters and of Mr. Bewley's mephitic julep by means of his impregnat- ing apparatus (see p. 92) ; PROCESS FOR MAKING ARTIFICIAL PYRMONT WATER. To every gallon of spring water add one scruple of magnesia, 30 grains of Epsom salt, 10 grains of common salt, and a few pieces of iron wire or filings. The operation is then to proceed as in the process for impregnating water with fixed air ; and the water if intended for keeping must be put into bottles closely corked and sealed. THE PROCESS TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL SELTZER WATER. Add one scruple of magnesia alba, six scruples of fossil alkali, 1 and four scruples of common salt to each gallon of water, and saturate the water, as above, with fixed air. To PREPARE MR. BEWLEY'S JULEP. Dissolve three drams of fossil alkali in each quart of water, and throw in streams of fixed air, till the alkaline taste be destroyed. This Julep should not be prepared in too large quantities ; and should be kept in bottles very closely corked and sealed. From four ounces of it may be taken at a time, drinking a draught of lemonade, or water acidulated with vinegar, by which means the fixed air will be extricated in the stomach. In the year 1798 Cavallo published his " Essays on Factitious Airs," 2 in which he gives the following directions for the preparation of " acidulous soda water " : One ounce of soda is dissolved in four or five pints of rain or of boiled soft water, and the solution is then impregnated as much as possible with carbonic acid gas. Incidentally he remarks, that al hough only a moderate, though efficacious, quantity of gas can be introduced by the use of Nooth's glass apparatus, the soda water then " prepared 1 An old term for soda. " An Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs," by T. Cavallo, F.R.S. London, 1798. 76 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS and sold in London by a Mr. Schweppe contains an incompar- ably larger proportion of carbonic acid gas, and accordingly is much more efficacious." As to the method by which this is done, however, Cavallo admits his ignorance. This passage is of historical interest, since it shows that " soda water " was made in England before the end of the eighteenth century, and prior to the establishment of Paul's factory. The manufacture of artificial mineral waters upon a large scale may be said to have begun in Geneva about 1789, when Nicholas Paul became associated with Gosse, an apothecary of that town, and started a factory where all kinds of natural medicinal waters were imitated. After a branch establishment had been set up in Paris, a report was issued in 1799 to the National Institute of France upon the nature and preparation of the mineral waters manu- factured by this firm, and subsequently, when, in 1802, a busi- ness, had also been opened in London, a translation of this report was issued as an advertisement. 1 From this circular we learn that the following varieties of waters were prepared : (1) Strong Seltzer water ; (2) mild Seltzer water ; (3) strong Spa water ; (4) weak Spa water ; gaseous alkaline water (commonly called mephitic) ; (6) Seidlitz water ; (7) oxygenated water ; (8) hydrocarbonated water ; and (9) sulphurated or hepatic water. The method of carbonating some of the waters is described on p. 102. It was claimed, further, that numerous combinations of these waters could be prepared, which " might be more effectual in particular cases than those Nature affords." So successful was the venture at Geneva that ten years later no less than 40,000 bottles of artificial Seltzer water were annually sold, and while scarcely any mineral waters were imported into Geneva, from 40,000 to 50,000 bottles were exported every year. 1 A Report made to the National Institute of France in December, 1799, by Citizens Portal, Pelletal, Fourcroy, Chaptal and Vauquelin, respecting the Arti- ficial Mineral Waters prepared at Paris by Nicholas Paul and Co. London, 1802. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 77 These figures were supplied by Paul himself, in a paper read before the National Institute of France in the year 1799. An appendix to Paul's circular of 1802 contains a communi- cation by Dr. W. Saunders to the Medical and Physical Journal of that year, which is noteworthy for the following passage : " The gaseous alkaline water commonly called soda water has long been used in this country to a considerable extent." This shows that the name " soda water," was in general use in this country long before the beginning of the last century. It was not long before there were many other factories preparing imitation mineral waters (as distinct from ordinary carbonated water), although during the first ten years of the last century they had to contend with violent opposition on the part of medical men. Thus, again, to quote the words of Muspratt, though in another connection : " They [artificial mineral waters] were said to be devoid of all the good qualities of the natural mineral and spa waters to be minus a certain conditio sine qua non in the shape of a spiritus rectus, or vital force, which imparted the medicinal qualities." This prejudice against artificial mineral waters gradually died away, because to use Muspratt's grandiloquent words " Chemistry, the great revealer of hidden treasures, has demonstrated to a certainty what the constituents of the natural waters are ; and thus one is now enabled to produce artificial waters quite equal, if not superior, to the natural ones. ' The rapid increase and spread of the manufacture of artificial waters is the best proof that physicians find the medical and therapeutic effects of them are identical with those of the natural ones, whilst their identity in a physical and chemical point of view can hardly be questioned." It may be remarked that the " proof " given in this passage is not convincing, nor is it in accord with other observations made by the same writer (see p. 37). Similar attempts were made about the same time in France, Germany, and Sweden to substitute artificial preparations for the natural waters. Thus imitation Carlsbad and Friedrich- 78 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS shalle waters were manufactured on a large scale, the ingredients of which were based upon an analysis by Liebig, and met with a ready sale. Struve's Artificial Mineral Waters. The rise of Struve's establishments for the preparation of artificial mineral waters forms an interesting chapter in the history of the industry. Struve, who was a doctor in Dresden, underwent a course of " taking the waters " at Marienbad, and received such unexpected benefit from them that he began to study the chemi- cal and medicinal properties of all the leading German mineral waters, and to attempt to imitate them exactly. He made minute analyses of the waters of the different springs, and by the year 1820 had prepared artificial waters, which he gave to his friends. Then, owing to an increasing demand in many directions, for his imitation waters, he opened a public pump-room in 1821 in Dresden for their manufacture and sale, and this was followed in the two next years by similar establishments in Leipzic and Berlin. In the year 1825 a pump-room was started at Brighton, and other branches were opened in the following years at various places in Russia and in other towns in Germany, until, finally, there were fourteen thriving establishments in all. From a contemporary account l we learn that hundreds of invalids came to these pump-rooms in preference to the natural springs, and that medical men in Germany recommended them as being quite equal to the natural waters. In a pamphlet published in 1823 2 , Struve mentioned that upwards of 4,000 patients had already used his artificial waters made by means of apparatus which he had invented. " Mineral waters thus prepared," he remarks, " are found to contain all the properties and qualities, in the most minute degree, of their corresponding natural mineral springs, as well in effect produced on the human body in its most refined distinctions, 1 " Observations on the Artificial Mineral Waters of Dr. Struve," by W. King, M.D. Brighton, 1820. 2 " Remarks on an Institution for the Preparation and Use of Artificial Mineral Waters in Great Britain," by F. A. Struve, M.D. London, 1823. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 79 as in their chemical analysis, taste, intensity of union, and manner of their decomposition when exposed to air." In these respects Struve claimed that his products differed materially from the artificial mineral waters previously manufactured, which were very different from the natural waters they professed to imitate. Attempts had only been made to introduce the chief saline ingredients, whereas the action of natural mineral waters was the result of the combined action of all the elements present. None of them were without their influence. FIG. 18. The " German Spa " at Brighton. The prospectus issued by Struve in 1826, concerning his " German Spa in Brighton for the Preparation of Factitious Mineral Waters," contains many further curious details. It describes the classes of hot and cold waters to be obtained at the pump-rooms, and gives a table of Struve's analyses of the principal natural mineral waters, together with rules as to diet while taking the artificial preparations. The charge for " taking the waters," hot and cold, at the Brighton Spa was 1 Is. Od. per week, and the cold waters, including imitations of those of Spa, Pyrmont, Eger, Marienbad, Seidschutz, Piillna, Seltzer and Geilnau, could be obtained in 80 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS quart bottles at Brighton or from London agents at the price of 1 4-5. per dozen. The prospectus also stated that Faraday had examined the artificial Carlsbad water, and allowed a reference to be made to him as to its chemical correctness. Although the venture at Brighton met with a large measure of commercial success, over three hundred .thousand pint bottles of the different artificial mineral waters being sent out every year from the " Spa " to all parts of the kingdom, these products were nevertheless made the subject of much adverse criticism. 11.11 FIG. 19. Preparation of Artificial Mineral Waters at Struve's Establishment in Dresden, 1853. For example, Granville, writing in 1843 1 of the so-called Ems and Carlsbad waters prepared at Brighton by Struve's process, described them as merely watery solutions of the same chemical ingredients contained in the natural springs, charged with artificial heat, and therefore incapable of producing the effects of the genuine waters when taken at the springs. Granville attributed the different results produced by the natural and artificial waters to the temperature of the former as being due to a peculiar form of heat, which he described 1 " The Spas of Germany Revisited," by A. B. Granville, M.D., F,R,S, London, 1843. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATKKS 81 as " telluric," and when that heat was dissipated it was impossible to supply its place by artificial means (see p. 36). Struve died in 1840, but his " spas " were then firmly established, and thirteen years later an account of their progress and of the method of preparation of the artificial waters in the parent establishment in Dresden was published. 1 Freshly distilled water formed the basis, and the carbon dioxide was made from crushed marble or magnesite (magnesium carbonate) and sulphuric acid in the leaden cylinder, shown on the right of the illustration. The gas passed through the series of washing bottles into the gasometer, whence it was drawn off by means of a pump, and forced under pressure into tin cylinders (on the left). These had previously been charged with the distilled water, and had received the requisite pro- portions of the different salts in the form of solutions, each of these being introduced in the proper order. The carbonated water was then bottled under pressure (say about four atmospheres) in strong glass bottles. The process was thus very similar to that used with the early German apparatus described on p. 106, with the exception that patent machinery (p. 107) was employed. Fashion alters, however, even in medicine, and according to Hirsch and Siedler 2 the manufacture of artificial mineral waters in Germany has now developed in another direction. During the first years after their introduction, the aim of their producers was to make exact imitations of natural waters, every ingredient being slavishly added without any attempt at criticism. But since many natural waters contain substances which modify the chief medicinal action of these waters, or which, like calcium sulphate and carbonate, are even injurious to digestion, it is now regarded as more rational to use the artificial waters as the media for special drugs. Substances are therefore introduced into them which do not occur in natural mineral waters, or are only present in a 1 " Die Struve' schen Mineral Wasser Anstalten." Leipzic, 1853. " Die Fabrication Kiinstlichen Mineralwasser," by B. Hirsch and P. Siecller Brunswick, 1897. M.W. G 82 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS small proportion, and the predominant medicinal qualities of a given natural water are thus accentuated. In these writers' opinion the manufacturer who advertises that any artificial mineral waters may be regarded as the com- plete equivalent of a " cure " at the springs themselves makes an unjustifiable claim and injures his reputation, since the use of either natural or artificial mineral waters at home cannot take the place of treatment with the natural waters upon the spot. In this country, too, the demand for the artificial mineral waters made in exact imitation of the natural products gradually waned, their place being taken by soda, potash, and lithia waters, the first two of which became recognised as official drugs in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836, and the third in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867. Another factor that led to the decline in the manufacture was the introduction and increasing use of natural spring waters, carbonated under pressure so that they would keep well (see p. 28). Occasionally artificial preparations may still be made to meet a special order, but with the exception of Seltzer water, which now seldom corresponds in composition with the natural Selterswasser, the manufacture of imitation mineral spring waters in this country is but rarely attempted. The formulae for such imitations, however, still continue to be published in handbooks, especially those of American origin. Thus to quote from one of these " All that is re- quired is that this compound be properly carbonated with pure gas, and suffering humanity have no occasion to visit the ' springs ' for the benefits derived from the use of any particular natural mineral waters, . . . but the preparation of the artificial waters must be left in the hands of responsible, practical manufacturers of carbonic acid gas waters, not such as follow old ' formulas ' or ' theories ' copied from cook books and family recipes of their grandfathers, and make a stuff which, instead of the mild, soft, and pungent taste of the genuine, produced by effectual carbonation, tastes just like any other salt water." ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS 83 Artificial Radio-active Mineral Waters. The discovery of the radio-activity of many natural spring waters (see p. 37), and the growing belief that the therapeutic action of the so- called " indifferent " waters of Bath and elsewhere is to be attributed to this property, has led to the manufacture of waters rendered radio-active (or of increased radio-activity) by artificial means. For this purpose a minute quantity of a salt of radium, such as the sulphate, is dissolved in a definite quantity of either a water already radio-active, such as that of Kreuznach, or in ordinary water (see also p. 43). In the case of naturally radio-active mineral waters the property of radio-activity rapidly disappears after the water has been drawn from the spring, and it remains to be seen to what extent a water rendered radio-active by artificial means is as effective physiologically as the natural water, and for how long a period it retains its properties. The methods of estimating the radio-activity of waters, whether natural or artificial, are described elsewhere (p. 40). CHAPTER VII EARLY FORMS OF CARBONATING APPARATUS THE notion of artificially impregnating water with carbon dioxide dates back to the latter half of the eighteenth century, and was evidently suggested by the discovery that the efferves- cence of the waters of Spa and Pyrmont was due to their being saturated with " fixed air " (see p. 65). In the year 1767 Cavendish described an experiment which showed how much of the gas a given volume of water could be made to absorb, but did not turn his results to any practical purpose. The apparatus used by Caven- dish in estimating the amount of carbon dioxide in Rathbone Place water was of the simplest description, as is seen in Fig. 20, reproduced from the rough sketch in his original paper. 1 A tin vessel, HKL, was in- verted in another vessel of the water, ACDE, and a bottle, M, also filled with the water, was FIG. 20 -Cavendish's Apparatus for ld th k f th Estimating Carbon Dioxide in F Water. inner vessel. On heating the outer vessel, the dissolved gases were collected in the bottle, M, and the amount of carbon dioxide was estimated by absorption with a solution of caustic alkali. The notion of impregnating water with carbon dioxide may be traced in the writings of several chemists at about that 1 " Experiments on Rathbone Place Water," by the Hon. H. Cavendish. Phil. Trans. Eoy. Soc., 1767, LVIL, p. 92. EARLY FORMS OF CARBONATING APPARATUS 85 time ; but there is some doubt as to whom should be given credit for its practical utilisation. On the whole, it appears probable that the process was independently devised by Bergman and by Priestley, and that the former was a little ahead of the English chemist. Bergman has related in his " Physical and Chemical Essays " (see p. 74) the circumstances that induced him in the year 1770 to attempt to imitate naturally effervescent waters, FIG. 21. Bergman's Impregnating Apparatus, 1770. and in another place 1 he describes and gives the annexed illus- tration (Fig. 21) of the apparatus he used for the impregnation. It consisted of a bottle, A, which was half filled with water and coarse lumps of chalk, and into which sulphuric acid was allowed to drop through the funnel, 0, the tube of which was loosely closed by a glass rod, in the manner suggested by Lavoisier. The gas was conducted through the tube into the inverted bottle, which was partially filled with water and suspended in 1 Loc. cit., p. 265. 86 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS the basin of water. Round the tube, passing up into its neck, was tied a wet bladder to confine the " aerial acid," and the escape of the gas was regulated by having a small pinhole in the bladder. Bergman also describes an apparatus for impregnating water with the fixed air derived from a fermenting liquid, but mentions that it is inconvenient owing to its requiring a very large vessel to contain the fermenting gas. FIG. 22. Priestley's Original Apparatus, 1772. In the year 1772 Priestley published his pamphlet (see p. 68), and in the following year Bergman became acquainted with Priestley's method, and from that time onwards used it in place of his own. In Priestley's first apparatus the method of collecting the carbon dioxide was the same as that used by Bergman, the gas being led from the bottle in which it had been generated from marble and sulphuric acid into a flask containing water, and inverted in a basin of water. The pipe between the flasks EARLY FOKMS OF CABBONATING APPABATUS H7 was made of leather, the end being kept open by pieces of quill (Fig. 22). Subsequently, Priestley improved his apparatus by placing between the " effervescing vessel " and the collecting flask a bladder, which would serve as a primitive form of gasometer, and by the compression of which the gas would be driven forward with some degree of force into the water to be impreg- nated. The mode of working this apparatus will be understood without further description from the accompanying figure (Fig. 23) , taken from Priestley's pamphlet (p. 68). A passage in another paper by Priestley 1 is of interest in this connection, since it fore- shadows the invention of the process of carbonating liquids under high pressure on a large scale with the aid of a force- pump : " I do not doubt," he remarks, " but that by the help of a condensing engine, water might be much more highly impregnated with the virtues of the Pyrmont Spring, and it would not be difficult to contrive a method of doing it." The method of regulating the supply of the acid to the chalk, described on p. 85. appears to have been adopted by Bergman from a device of Lavoisier, 2 who suggested the two forms of apparatus shown in Fig. 24. In the first of these a glass rod was ground with emery powder until it fitted closely into the neck of the funnel. The acid could then be made to enter the flask as slowly as desired by gently raising the glass rod. FIG. 23. Priestley's Modified Apparatus, 1772. 1 Phil Trans. Roy. Soc., 1772, LXIL, p. 155. 2 Lavoisier: " Traite Elcmontaire de Chimie," Paris, 1789. 88 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS In the other apparatus a long bent tube ending in a capillary opening at D, and having a funnel at the other end, was fitted into the cork of the flask. Any acid poured into the funnel would pass the bend and fall slowly into the bottle, and so long as there was a constant supply of the liquid its introduction into the flask would proceed regularly. In these two devices we have the beginnings of the automatic feeding arrangements, controlled by valves, which have been fitted to the acid tanks in various forms of mineral water plant, with the object of regulating the supply of acid to the generator (see p. 132). FIG. 24. Lavoisier's Devices for Regulating an Acid Supply. Nooth's Apparatus. Priestley's apparatus had the drawback of requiring some degree of skill to handle, so that it was not altogether suitable for general use by the public. Being con- structed in separate parts, it was not readily portable, and leakage of the gas was liable to occur at the points of connection. It was thus a great advance on anything previously devised, when Nooth designed his compact apparatus for impregnating water and other fluids with fixed air. In the paper that he read before the Royal Society 1 he gave full credit to Priestley for his suggestion of the idea, but claimed that he had obviated the drawbacks in his predecessor's apparatus. 1 Trans. Roy. Soc., 1775, LXV., p. 59. EARLY FORMS OF CARBONATING APPARATUS 89 A glance at the illustration (Fig. 25) of this apparatus shows that it may be regarded as the prototype, both of the modern gasogenes and of the well-known Kipp's gas apparatus used in every chemical laboratory to-day. It consists of three glass vessels, the fittings of which were ground so as to form perfectly air-tight joints. The chalk and acid were placed in the lower vessel, c, while the middle chamber, 6, was open, both above and below, and was charged with water. In the neck, h, of this vessel was fitted a glass valve, made from two pieces of tube, with a movable plano- convex lens between them (see Fig. 26). This valve opened upwards and allowed the gas to pass, while water was prevented from returning by the action of the lens, and also on account of the glass tube having only a capillary bore. The uppermost vessel, a, received the water forced upwards by the pressure of the gas, and the air was expelled from the apparatus through the opening, k, at the top, which could be closed by the stopper, /. In order to accelerate the impregnation of the liquid in the middle chamber, the two top vessels were disconnected from the bottom one and shaken. Nooth stated that by means of this apparatus he had been able to imitate very perfectly the common mineral waters. He claimed that there was no risk of any explosion in using his apparatus ; but, as a matter of fact, the defective working of the valve sometimes caused the lowest FIG. 25. Nooth's Apparatus, 1775. FIG. 26. Valve in Nooth's Apparatus. vessel to burst. The reason for this was that the gas was not forced through the capillary tube until considerable pressure had been produced in the generator, and occasionally 90 MINEEAL AND AERATED WATERS the glass was not strong enough to withstand this pressure. Modifications of Nooth's Apparatus. Hence, Skrimshire, writing in 1804 on the use of Nooth's apparatus, remarks 1 : 2 == L^H^Oa ~T~ -H-sO. 208 MINEEAL AND AEEATED WATERS That is to say the alcohol is eventually transformed into acetic acid, though aldehyde and other compounds are formed as intermediate products. Apparently the acetic bacteria act merely as conveyers of the oxygen from the air to the alcohol, and do not seem to be changed in the oxidation process, which will continue so long as air and alcohol are present. In the course of the oxidation heat is spontaneously produced, and under the most favourable conditions for acetification the temperature will rise to above 110 F., as was mentioned above. It is interesting to note that this is a striking example of gradual acclimatisation of a living organism to its surroundings ; for according to the text-books of Continental authorities, the bacteria die at a lower temperature than this. Since the germs of the bacteria are present in the air it is essential that the bungs should not be left out of casks of ginger beer during use, for under these conditions even the best products are liable to become sour. Preservatives in Mineral Waters. The question of the permissibility of using preservative agents is not so urgent as in the case of other non-alcoholic drinks, such as lime-juice cordial, since, with a few exceptions, they are not necessary. Soda-water, for instance, if prepared from pure materials and properly carbonated in clean bottles ought to keep inde- finitely, while the occurrence of fermentation in sweetened goods, such as lemonade and ginger ale, is quite exceptional, and is generally caused by the use of an impure or insufficiently sterilised sugar. In one class of goods, however, the so called winter syrups, the use of some preservative agent appears to be unavoidable, since they contain a very large amount of sugar and fruit juice and are only used gradually after the bottle is opened. They could, of course, be sterilised in the bottle by heat, but this would only be effective while the bottle was closed, and when once its contents had been exposed to the air they would be liable to rapid fermentation ; and the customer would refuse EXAMINATION OF MINERAL WATERS 209 to have any further supplies of the kind. Apart from this, there is the objection that fruit syrups thus sterilised lose much of their freshness of flavour, and are not equal to those in which the preservation is ensured by the addition of a chemical agent. A further difficulty that the manufacturer has to meet is that in the event of accidental fermentation of any of his products he is liable to prosecution by the Excise authorities tor selling spirits without a license, whereas if he add an antiseptic agent proceedings may be taken against him under the Food and' Drugs Act. The chaotic state of the law upon the subject is shown by the fact that every county and borough authority forms its own opinion upon the question. In some districts the use of salicylic acid in non-alcoholic drinks is tacitly permitted, while in others prosecutions frequently take place. Nor is there any agreement upon the point among public analysts, who have frequently discussed the subject but with out coming to any definite decision upon the point. The medical officers of health also hold different views on the preservative question, and not long ago there was witnessed the curious spectacle of the medical authority of a borough giving evidence in a prosecution that the use of salicylic acid as a preservative in non-alcoholic drinks was objectionable, while the medical officer of an adjoining county was called as a witness as to its being harmless. The case was dismissed, but as the law stands there is no finality in such matters, and the same manufacturers might have been summoned again for the same offence in the same court. A case strongly defended as this one was, is generally dis- missed, but it is absurd that a matter of so much importance both to the public and the manufacturer, should be left to the caprice of individual magistrates who have not the necessary knowledge to decide a question upon which there is a profound difference of opinion among leading medical men. The only fair method of settling this dispute between those who have to supply an article that will keep and those who say it must not be done in the only way in which practically it can be done, is to have a Board of reference upon which are repre- M.W. p 210 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS sentatives both of the public health authorities and of the manufacturers, and for this Board to decide whether preser- vatives shall be used, and if so, to what extent. Any regulations made by such a Board would need to be very rigidly enforced, and not administered in the present haphazard fashion. Otherwise a manufacturer who tried to comply with the law would be unable to compete with a more unscrupulous rival who risked an occasional prosecution, secure in the knowledge that he could pay any fine out of the profits of his goods that escaped detection. Readers interested in the general aspects of this subject may be referred to the Report of the Royal Commission of 1901 upon Preservatives and Colouring Matters in foods. The recommendations of that body, which are largely based upon the very conflicting views of the medical witnesses, are some- times qiioted in prosecutions, but, with few exceptions, they have never been given legal force and the condition of affairs is very little different from what it was before it began its lengthy enquiry. With regard to the preservatives actually used in mineral waters the only ones of common occurrence are salicylic acid and sulphites, the former being used in the sweetened goods, especially during periods of very hot weather. Sulphites or bisulphites are extensively employed in breweries in cleansing the plant, and are sometimes used for the same purpose in mineral- water factories. In this way small quantities of the preservative may find their way into mineral waters, apart from their being intentionally added, but as the sulphurous acid is soon oxidised to sulphate, the presence of such traces is of no practical importance. Artificial Colouring Matters in Mineral Waters. The presence of artificial colouring matters in the products of the mineral- water manufacturer is not of such importance as the presence of preservatives. In the majority of the articles made, the aim is to exclude colour as far as possible ; and even in the case of lemonade, objection is taken to a slight yellow tint, and a perfectly colourless liquid must be bottled. EXAMINATION OF MINERAL WATERS 211 Tn the darker goods, such as kola and ginger ale, an addition of a specially prepared caramel is often made while in other cases an aniline dyestuff is employed. Caramel has the advan- tage of being above reproach from the hygienic point of view, but is open to the objection that unless special means are taken in its preparation, it is liable to deposit in the bottles under the influence of the carbonic acid gas. Since it is not always easy to obtain a supply of caramel of a uniform character in this respect, an aniline dyestuff is much more frequently used for colouring ginger ale and the like. Suitable colouring matters sometimes of vegetable origin are also used for colouring concentrated fruit syrups, since the natural colour of the fruit itself is regarded by the public as too pale for the purpose. So much attention has been drawn to this subject, that really poisonous dyes such as Martius Yellow are now rarely used for the purpose of colouring food. In any case the proportion used in any aerated water is extremely small, and the following conclusion of the Departmental Committee on Preservatives and Colouring Matters in Foods applies also to mineral waters : " In regard to the colouring matters of modern origin, while we are of opinion that articles of food are very much preferable in their natural colours, we are unable to deduce from the evidence received that any injurious results have been traced to their consumption. Undoubtedly some of the substances used to colour confec- tionery and sweetmeats are highly poisonous in themselves ; but they are used in infinitesimal proportions, and before any individual had taken enough of colouring matter to injure him his digestion would probably have been seriously disturbed by the substance which they were employed to adorn." It is an easy matter to distinguish between caramel and aniline dyestuff s in the examination of mineral waters, advan- tage being taken of the dyeing properties of the latter in tests with silk or woollen fibre. Use of Mineral Acids. The acidity of the lemon being due '212 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS to citric acid it is preferable to use this acid in the preparation of the syrups for lemonade. In practice, however, tartaric acid made from wine lees, is also commonly used, and there is very little difference in flavour between the lemonades prepared with either acid, although, when compared side by side, tartaric acid is slightly rougher to the taste. In addition to these fruit acids, preparations of mineral acids, usually phosphoric acid, are sold as substitutes for obtaining the desired acidity. These phosphoric acid syrups are advertised under attractive titles and give a much greater degree of acidity than the citric acid bought for the same sum. The flavour of the lemonade prepared with them is somewhat similar to that containing citric or tartaric acid, but there is a harshness in the phosphoric acid preparations that is lacking in those made from fruit acids. Phosphoric acid is as liable as tartaric acid to contain traces of lead and arsenic, and some of the preparations have also been found to contain a notable proportion of free sulphuric acid. An advantage claimed for its use is that it acts as a preser- vative and checks fermentation. This is probably true, but the drawbacks cited more than outweigh this. Alkalinity of Soda-Water. A point of considerable impor- tance in the examination of soda-water is the estimation of the amount of sodium bicarbonate in solution. Prior to the publication of the current " British Pharma- copoeia " in 1898, soda-water was an official drug, and had to contain exactly 30 grains of sodium bicarbonate per pint. As this proportion of the salt was often too large to suit the public taste, soda-water containing much less sodium carbonate than the prescribed quantity was widely sold, with the result of prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act for the sale of an article '* not of the substance and quality demanded." In the eyes of the general public, however, it was usually good aeration that was required, not a certain proportion of sodium bicarbonate, and thus even plain aerated water had come to be EXAMINATION OF MINERAL WATERS 213 known as " soda-water." It was not a question of economy on the part of the manufacturer, since the cost of the amount of sodium bicarbonate officially prescribed was infinitesimal, but of supplying an article for which there was a better sale. The position of affairs was thus very similar to the develop- ment in France, where Eau de Seltz, which had originally been introduced as a medicinal preparation in imitation of the natural Seller 'swasser, had gradually become a popular drink. The mineral salts were then gradually reduced, until finally the name Eau de Seltz has come to connote nothing more than ordinary carbonated water. The suggestion was frequently made in this country that a distinction should be made between plain " aerated-water " and " soda water," but changes in trade names of this kind are not easily made, except under compulsion applied to all the manufacturers. The omission of soda-water from the current " British Phar- macopoeia " has put the matter upon a different basis. Now that the preparation is no longer regarded as a drug, there is no official standard for the amount of sodium bicarbonate it shall contain, and the usual practice of the manufacturer at the present time is to introduce as much of the salt as he can with- out rendering the soda-water too unpalatable and stopping his trade. Since the name " soda-water " is still retained, a substantial proportion of sodium bicarbonate ought to be present, and in the majority of the varieties now upon the market this is the case. In some of these the amount of bicarbonate ranges from about 5 to 10 grains per pint, and it is only exceptionally that the bottle contains only ordinary water aerated. The composition of potash- and lithia-water stands upon a different footing from that of soda-water. They have never, as in the case of soda-water, become popular drinks, but have been taken only medicinally. Hence, anyone buying lithia- water, for example, does so in the anticipation of getting a definite dose of lithium carbonate in a form that is pleasant to take. 214 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS In the " British Pharmacopoeia " of 1885, both potash-water and lithia-water were recognised as official drugs, and it was prescribed that the former should contain 30 grains of potassium bicarbonate and the latter 10 grains of lithium carbonate per pint, and be bottled under a pressure of about 4 atmospheres. Although both potash- and lithia- waters have shared the fate of soda-water and are no longer recognised officially as drugs by the "Pharmacopoeia," the proportions of the carbonates formerly prescribed are still generally taken in preparing these mineral waters. Saccharin in Mineral Waters. The substitution of a large proportion of the sugar in sweetened mineral waters is a very general practice in the industry. It offers the advantages of cheapness and, when added in not too large an excess, of giving a drink that is sweet without being heavy. On the other hand, if saccharin is used by itself, or if too little sugar is employed, the product will have a cloying effect upon the palate. Another point claimed for saccharin by its manufacturers is that it possesses antiseptic properties, and thus acts as a preservative and tends to check fermentation. The corporation that controls the sale of saccharin in this country issued a pamphlet setting forth its advantages for the mineral water manufacturer and citing the opinions of well-known medical men as to its harmless nature. On the other hand, there have been communications to foreign scientific papers in support of the view that saccharin may be injurious. No exception, however, has ever been taken to its use in mineral waters in this country, and considering the fact that it is now so widely used, any isolated action, unsup- ported by the Local Government Board, would probably fail. Saponine. The popular demand for sweetened aerated drinks, that will froth when poured from the bottle and retain a certain degree of foaminess in the glass, has led to the intro- duction of a class of preparations known as " foam headings " and so on. A small quantity of one of these added to the syrup produces the desired result in the aerated liquid. EXAMINATION OF MINERAL WATKUS 215 The addition is not made to soda-water, while ginger beer, if allowed to mature for a short time, produces its own " heading " by the action of the yeast during the fermentation. It is in such products as lemonade, lime-ade, kola and ginger ale, that artificial frothing may be anticipated. The basis of most, if not all, of these " foam " preparations is quillaia bark, which contains an active principle, saponine, that has the property of frothing like soap with water, Researches made a few years ago by Bourcet and Chevalier 1 showed that ordinary commercial saponine usually consisted of a mixture of acid saponines with a poisonous neutral sapo- toxine. The latter is very toxic when injected into the system, but is less poisonous when taken internally. In the latter case it is liable to produce inflammation of the mucous membrane. It must be borne in mind, however, that the experiments were made with the pure substance, and not with the commercial mixture containing the toxine, and that no cases of poisoning by mineral waters containing saponine have been reported over a period of many years. At the same time the addition is not really a necessity, and, as was pointed out above, has grown as the result of a demand for a product possessing artificial properties. 1 Bull Set. Pharm., 1905, VII., p. 262. BIBLIOGRAPHY ALLEN. " Natural History of the Mineral Waters of Great Britain." By B. Allen., London, 1711. BEDDOES. " Considerations on the Use of Factitious Air and on the Production of Factitious Air." Part I., by Thomas Beddoes, M.D. ; Part II., by James Watt, Engineer. London, 1795. BERGMAN. " Physical and Chemical Essays of Torbern Bergman." Translated by E. Cullen. London, 1788. BEWLEY. " A Treatise on Air." By R. Bewley. London, 1791. BLACK, J. " Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry." Edinburgh, 1803. BOUILLON -LA GRANGE. " Essai sur les Eaux Naturelles et Artificielles." By E. J. Bouillon-La Grange, M.D. Paris, 1811. BOYLE. " Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental History of Mineral Waters." By Hon. Robert Boyle, London, 1684. BRIGGS. ' Treatise on the Machinery used in the Making and Preparation of Soda Water." By John Briggs. 2nd edition, 1871. BROWNRIGG. " An Experimental Enquiry into the Mineral Elastic Spirit or Air contained in Spa Water." By W. Brownrigg. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1765, LV., 218. BROWNRIGG. " On the Nature of the Elastic Spirit in the Pouhon Water." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1774, LXIV., 357. CAVALLO. " An Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs." By T. Cavallo, F.R.S. London, 1798. CAVENDISH. " Experiments on Factitious Air." By Hon. Henry Cavendish. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1766, LVL, 141. CAVENDISH. " Experiments on Rathbone-Place Water." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1767, LVIL, 92. 218 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS DTJCHANOY. " Essais sur 1'Art d'Imiter les Eaux Minerales " By M. Duchanoy. Paris, 1780. ELLIOT. " An Account of the Nature and Medicinal Virtues of the Principal Mineral Waters." By J. Elliot. London, 1789. FALCONER. " An Essay on the Bath Waters." By W. Falconer, M.D. 1770. FOURCROY. " Rapport sur les Eaux Minerales Artificielles du Cit. Paul," etc., par le Cit. Fourcroy. Ann. de Chim., An. VIII. Vol. XXXIII., 125. GAIRDNER. " Essay on the Natural History, Origin, Composition and Medicinal Effects of the Mineral and Thermal Springs." By Meredith Gairdner. Edinburgh, 1832. GRANVILLE. " The Spas of Germany Revisited." By A. B. Granville, M.D. London, 1843. GREW. " A Treatise of the Nature and Use of Bitter Purging Salts contained in Epsom and such other Waters." By Nehemiah Grew, M.D. London, 1697. HALES. " Statical Essays." By Stephen Hales. London, 1738. HAYGARTH. " Machine for Impregnating Water or other Fluids with Fixed Air." By J. Hay garth, M.B. Memoirs of Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, 1785, I., 41. HENRY. " Account of a Method of Preserving Water." By Thomas Henry. Warrington, 1781. HERMANN-LA CHAPELLE. " Les Boissons Gazeuses." Paris, 1874. HIRSCH. " Die Fabrikation der Kiinstlichen Mineral- wasser." By B. Hirsch and P. Siedler. Brunswick, 1897. HOFFMANN. " Bericht von der Wurckung des Brunnens zu Sedlitz." By F. Hoffmann. Halle, 1725. HOFFMANN. " Experiments and Observations upon Mineral Waters." English translation. London, 1731. INGRAM. " Natural Mineral Waters : their Properties and Uses." By Ingram and Roy le. 12th edition. London, 1911. KING. " Observations on the Artificial Mineral Waters of Dr. Struve, Prepared at Brighton." By W. King. Brighton, 1826. BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 KIRKBY. "The Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters." By W. Kirkby. Manchester, 1902. LANE. " A Letter on the Solubility of Iron in Water by the Intervention of Fixed Air." By T. Lane. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1769, LIX., 216. LAVOISIER. " Traite Elementaire de Chimie." Paris, 1789. LAVOISIER. " Opuscules Physiques et Chimiques." Paris, 1774. LEE. " Mineral Springs of England." By E. Lee. 1841. LEE. "The Baths of Germany." London, 1839. LEMERY. "Course of Chymistry." By N. Lemery. Fourth English Edition. London, 1720. MACBRIDE. " Experimental Essays on Medical and Philo- sophical Subjects." By David Macbride, M.D. London, 1767. MACKENZIE. " One Thousand Processes in Manufacture." By C. Mackenzie. London, 1825. MACQUER. " Dictionary of Chemistry." English trans- lation, 1771. MACQUER. " Dictionnaire de Chimie." Paris, 1778. MAGELLAN. " Description of a Glass Apparatus for Making Mineral Waters." By J. H. de Magellan. 1777. MICHOTTE. " Traite des Eaux Gazeuses." By F. Michotte and E. Guillaume. Paris. MITCHELL " Aerated and Mineral Waters." By C. A. Mitchell. Thorpe's " Dictionary of Applied Chemistry," 1911. MUSPRATT. " Chemistry." By S. Muspratt. London, 1860. NOOTH. " Apparatus for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1775, LXV., 59. PAUL. ' Translation of Report on Artificial Mineral Waters made to the National Institute of France." By N. Paul. London, 1802. PRIESTLEY. : ' Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in Order to Communicate to it the Peculiar Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water." By Joseph Priestley, F.R.S. London, 1772. PRIESTLEY. " Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air." 3 vols. Birmingham, 1790. 220 MINERAL AND AERATED WATERS PRINGLE. " A Discourse on the Different Kinds of Air, delivered at the Royal Society." By Sir John Pringle, Nov. 30, 1773. London, 1774. RUTTY. "A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters." By John Rutty, M.D. London, 1757. RUTTY. " Thoughts on the Different Impregnations of Mineral Waters." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1759, LI., 275. SCUDAMORE. " Chemical Report on Mineral Waters." By Sir Charles Scudamore. 1820. SEIP, J. P. " Neue Beschrieibung der Pyrmontischen Gesund Brufien." By J. P. Seip. Hannover, 1712. SEIP, F. G. P. " Beschreibung der Pyrmontischen Mineral- wasser und Stahlbrunnen." By F. G. P. Seip. Hannover and Pyrmont, 1750. SHAW. " Chemical Lectures." By Peter Shaw, M.D. 1755. SHORT. " A General Treatise on Various Cold Mineral Waters in England." By Thomas Short. London, 1765. STRUVE. " Die Struve'schen Mineralwasser Anstalten." 2nd edition. Leipzig, 1853. STRUVE. " Remarks on an Institution for the Preparation and Use of Artificial Mineral Waters in Great Britain." By Dr. Struve, of Dresden. London, 1823. SULZ. "A Treatise on Beverages." By C. H.-Sulz. New York, 1888. WALL. " Essay on Waters of Holy Well, Malvern." By J. Wall, M.D. Phil Trans. Roy. Soc., 1756, XLIX. : 459. WATSON. " Chemical Essays." By R. Watson, D.D. London, 1789. WATT. " The Production of Factitious Air." 1795. (See BEDDOES.) INDEX ACETIC bacteria, 207 Acid-regulating devices, 88, 122 Acidity of mineral waters, 211 Acidulae, 66 Acton spring water, 21, 72 " Aerate-cool " machine, 142 Aerated water, 213 Aeration, method of, 128 of natural waters, 28, 31 Aerial spirit, 64 Aesculap water, 22 Aix-la-Chapelle water, 14, 23, 69 temperature of, 35 Aix-les-Bains water, 23 Alcohol in ginger beer, 182 Alkaline waters, 13 Alkalinity of soda water, 212 American intermittent system, 125 Antimony in rubber rings, 196 in syphon heads, 197 Apenta water, 22 Aperient waters, 13, 20 Apollinaris spring, 28 water, 29 Argon in mineral waters, 4, 38 Arsenic in mineral waters, 23, 200 tests for, 201 Arsenical waters, 13 Artificial colouring matters, 210 Artificial mineral waters, 64 Bergman's, 74, 85 Paul's, 76 radio-active, 43, 85 recipes for, 73, 75, 82 Struve's, 36, 79 sulphurous, 69 " Auto-rotary " filling machine, 163 Automatic bottling machinery, 162 Auvergne hot springs, 35 BACTERIA in ginger beer, 181 soda water, 205 Bacterial impurities, 204 Bacterioscopic examination, 203 Bakewell's apparatus, 110 Bareges water, 23 Barium in mineral waters, 24 springs, 13, 25 Barnet spring water, 21 Barrett's screw stoppers, 156 Barruel's carbonating apparatus, 110 Bath water, gases in, 37 imitation, 73 niton in, 42 radio-activity of, 38 for the table, 31 temperature of, 35 Beddoes on factitious air, 97 Bellows used in carbonating, 93, 95 Bergman's aerial acid, 67 artificial mineral waters, 67, 73 carbonating apparatus, 85 Berjot's carbonating apparatus, 116 Berry's patent machinery, 149 Bewley's mephitic julep, 75 Bilin water, 16 Black's fixed air, 44 Boston Spa, 24 water, 25 Bottle washing machinery, 173 222 INDEX Bottles, Codd's, 154 corking of, 149 types of, 150, 155, 156 washing of, 173 with patent stoppers, 153 Bottling machinery, 148, 190 Bouillon-Lagrange, 101 Bourbonne water, 35 Boyle on mineral waters, 71 Bramah's machine, 119 Breweries, carbon dioxide from, 53 Briggs' bottling machine, 149 pamphlet, 104 Brighton, German Spa at, 79 Bromine in mineral waters, 15 Brownrigg on carbon dioxide, 65 Burton at Mecca, 7 Butt el spring, 41 Buxton water, 14, 17, 34 for the table, 34 gases in, 4 imitation, 73 niton in, 42 radio-activity of, 34 temperature of, 35, 37 CACHAT spring, 14 Caldas thermal spa, 35 Cameron's apparatus, 110 Carbon dioxide, 44 cooling with, 57 discovery of, 44, 64 from breweries, 53 carbonates, 47 coke, 48 marble, 53 natural sources, 53 in natural waters, 2, 28, 44 tubes, 51 liquefaction of, 49 liquid, 50 nature of, 44 preparation of, 47 properties of, 40 solid, 50 solubility of, 3, 46 Carbon, sources of, 44 refrigerating machines, 57, 142 Carbonated water, 95 Carbonating, continuous process of, 116 early methods of, 84 Geneva process of, 103 intermittent process of, 110, 116 machinery, 84, 128 Carbonic acid gas, 44 Carlsbad water, imitation, 77 lithium in, 16 Struve's, 80 temperature of, 35, 37 Cavallo on factitious airs, 75 Cavendish's experiments, 84 Chalybeate waters, 17 sulphated, 20 Cheltenham Spa, 9 water, 22 Clasp stoppers, 161 Codd's bottles, 154 machines for, 155, 162 Coke as source of carbon dioxide, 48 Colouring matters, 210 Continuous process machines, 116 119, 135 of carbonating, 116 Copper in mineral waters, 197 Corking machines, 149, 150 Corks, for bottles, 153 wiring of, 152 Crown cork system, 159 corking machines, 160 Cylinders for carbonating, 104, 128 portable, 126, 171 DEAD SEA water, 1 Deleuze and Dutilleul's syphon, 166 INDEX 223 Dortoii Spa, 12 Droitwich water, 16 Du Clos' examination of waters, 72 Due de Chaulne's agitator, 91, 102 Duchaiioy's apparatus, 91 Dulwich Spa, 10 water, 21, 72 EAU de Seltz, 33, 102, 122, 213 Ems water, 14 Struve's, 80 Epsom salt, 21, 70, 71 Spa, 11, 21 water, 21, 70, 72 imitation, 73 vian water, 14 FACHINGEN water, 20 Factitious air, 75, 97 Faraday's examination of Struve's waters, 80 liquefaction of carbon dioxide, 50 Ferguson's syphon filler, 170 Fevre's packets, 123 Filling machines, 148, 190 Fixed air, 44, 65 Foam heading, 214 Fountains, portable, 126, 171 Eraser's apparatus for collecting gas, 54 Fran$ois' machine, 114 French gasometer, 125 machinery, 122 Friedrichshall water, 21 imitation, 77 GAS sylvestre, 65 Gases in mineral waters, 2 Wiesbaden water, 37 solubility of, 46 Gasometer, French, 124 Lavoisier's, 98 modern, 134 Gauges for carbon dioxide, 62 for testing pressure, 194 Generators, 130 horizontal, 131 safety, 132 Geneva process of carbonating, 103 German carbonating plant, 106 Spa at Brighton, 79 Gerolstein water, 29 Geysers of Iceland, 35 Ginger beer, 179 alcohol in, 182 bottling of, 190 examination of, 193 fermentation of, 180 manufacture of, 178 plant, 181 yeast, 181 Grabenb acker spring, 41 Grew's preparation of salts, 20, 70 Grisy spring, 39 Guber spring, 24 HALL'S refrigerating machines, 57 Hamilton's machine, 116 Hampstead Spa, 11 H arrogate water, 4, 16, 23 Haygarth's machine, 93 Hay ward-Tyler's early machines, 120 beam action machine, 122 bottling machines, 150, 154 modern machines, 135 syphon machines, 169 washing machines, 176 Helium in bath water, 37 French springs, 37 Wiesbaden waters, 38 Helmont's discovery of carbon dioxide, 65 Henry's carbonating machine, 92 Hepatic air, 69 water, 76 Hockley Spa, 12 Hoffmann's Epsom salts, 71 views on mineral waters, 64 224 INDEX Hog spring, 41 Holy well at Mecca, 7 Morecambe, 5 wells, 4 Homburg water, 19 Hot springs, origin of, 35, 37 Howard's wiring machine, 152 Hunyadi-Janos water, 22 Hydraulic bellows, 96 Hydrogen sulphide in waters, 4, 23 ILKESTON water, 24 Indifferent waters, 13 Inert gases in waters, 4 Intermittent process of carbonat- ing, 110, 116 Iodine in mineral waters, 15 Iron in mineral waters, 3, 17 soda-water, 195 waters, 13, 17 Ischia water, radio-activity of, 41 Islington Spa, 11 water, 72 JOACHIMSTHAL spring, 41 Johannis water, 31 Julep, Bewley's mephitic, 75 KING'S pamphlet on Brighton Spa, 78 Kissingen water, 15 LA BOURBOULE water, 24 gases in, 39 Lament's patent bottle, 155 Laville - Delaplagne's apparatus, 110 Lavoisier's acid - regulating de- vices, 88 gasometer, 98 pump, 100 views on carbon di- oxide, 44 Lead in fruit acids, 198 mineral waters, 197 Leamington Spa water, 22 Lemery's aperitive water, 71 Lemonade, 147, 210, 212 Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 206 Levico water, 24 Liquefaction of carbon dioxide, 49 Liquefied gas, machines using, 143 Lithia water, 82, 213 Lithium in mineral waters, 13, 16 Llangammarch wells, 25 Lucca thermal spring, 35 Luchon water, 23 MACBRIDE on putrefaction, 67 Macdonell's corking machine, 150 Mache units of radio-activity, 40 Magellan's apparatus, 90 Maizieres water, 39 Malvern water, 27, 34 Maquer's washing device, 101 Marienbad water, 20 Matthews' generator, 125 Mecca holy water, 7 Mephitic air, 74 julep, 74 water, 74, 76 Metals in mineral waters, 195 Mineral acids in lemonade, 211 Mondollot system of carbonating, 114 Mucinous fermentation, 205 Muspratt on artificial mineral waters, 36, 77 NAUHEIM water, 20 Neon in bath water, 38 Wiesbaden springs, 38 waters, 4 Neris-les-Bains water, 26, 39 Niton, estimation of, 42 in mineral waters, 37 Nitrogen in mineral waters, 4 solubility of, 46 INDEX 225 Noow's carbonating apparatus, 88 OPEN hot springs, 37 Old sulphur well at H arrogate, 4, 16, 23 Oxygen, solubility of, 46 Oxygenated water, 76 Ozoufs apparatus, 114 PAUL'S artificial mineral waters, 76, 102 Perrier water, 32 Pharmacopoeial standards for mineral waters, 212 test for arsenic, 201 Phosphoric acid in lemonade, 212 Planche's carbonating apparatus, 102 compressor, 101 Porla spring water, 41 Portable " fountains," 171 Potash water, 82 Preservatives in mineral waters, 208 Pressure in bottles, 182 measurement of, 193 gauges, 62 for bottles, 193 Priestley's carbonating apparatus, 86 imitation Pyrmont water, 68 sulphurous water, 69 views on fixed air, 68 Pringle on mineral waters, 68 Pullna water, 21 Pump, Bramah's, 101 early, 120 Hayward-Tyler's, 138 Lavoisier's, 100 Planche's, 101 refrigerating, 58 M.VV. Pumps for soda-water machines, 136 Putrefaction, Macbride's theory of 67, 68 Pyrmont springs, 17 water, 17, 65 artificial, 66, 68, 73, 75 KADIO-ACTIVE waters, artificial, 43, 83 Eadio- activity of waters, 36 measurement of, 40 Kadium deposits, 37 in mineral waters, 41 therapeutic action of 42 Rain water, 1 Rakoczy spring, 15 Rathbone Place water, 84 Refrigerating machinery, 57 Refrigerators, 187 Riley's " Auto-rotary " machines, 163 generators, 133 machines for screw stop- pers, 157 pump and cylinder, 139 screw stoppers, 157 turbine brushers, 178 washing machines, 177 Rinsers of washing machines, 175 RocheUe salt, 70 Rosbach water, 32 Roucegno water, 24 Royat water, 16, 24 Rubber rings on stoppers, 156 antimony in, 196 Rutty on mineral waters, 69 SACCHARIN in mineral waters, 214 Sadlers wells, 1 1 Sal polychrestum, 70 Salts in mineral waters, 69 Saponine, 214 226 INDEX Saturation by chemical pressure, 110 Sautenay water, 39 Savaresse's bottling machine, 149 carbonating machine, 112 syphon, 167 Scott's " Thistle " filler, 164 Screw stoppers, 156 Schwalbach water, 20 Sea water, 1 Sediment in mineral waters, 195 Seidlitz salt, 70 water, 21 Seidschutz water, 21 Seignette salt, 70 Seip's account of Pyrmont, 65 Selterswasser, 33 Seltzer water, artificial, 66, 75, 76, 82 Shaw's artificial mineral waters, 73 Soda water, alkalinity of, 212 bacteria in 203 bottling, 148 examination of, 193 machinery, 84, 128 origin of name, 76, 77 pressure of bottled, 193 pumps, 120, 138, 139 Spa at Brighton, 79 Spa water, 19, 66 artificial, 67 Sparklet system, 172 Spas and their springs, 9 Spiritus sylvestris, 64 Springfield on Spa water, 66 St. Anne's Well, Buxton, 14 St. Galmier water, 32 St. Moritz water, 20 St. Winifred's Well, Holywell, 5 Strathpeffer water, 23 Streatham Spa, 11 Struve's apparatus, 107 artificial waters, 36, 78 " Spas," 78 Sulis water, 31 Sulphur in waters, 4, 69 Sulphurous waters, 23 artificial, 69 Supersaturator, 141 Syphon, 165 modern, 167 Savaresse's, 167 structure of, 168 Syphon-filling machine, 169 Syphon tubes, 167 TABLE waters, 27 Tansan water, 31 Taunus water, 33 " Telluric " heat, 36 Temperature of mineral springs, 35 Teplitz thermal spring, 35 Thermal spring at Buxton, 14 waters, 14 " Thistle " filler, 165 Tin in mineral waters, 202 Trafalgar Square water, 2 Tube gas, use of, 135, 143 Tunbridge Wells, 10 water, 3 Turbine brusher, 178 VENEL'S " mineral spirit," 66 Seltzer water, 66 Vernaut's carbonating apparatus, 116 Vichy water, 15 WASHING machinery, 173 tanks, 174 Water, holy, 4 mineral, 1 rain, 1 saline, 2 sea, 1 soda, 76, 212 INDEX 227 Waters, alkaline, 13 aperient, 20 arsenical, 23 barium, 24 iron, 17 sulphurous, 23 Watt's hydraulic bellows, 96 Wheel washers, 177 Wickham's carbonating cylinders, 129 washing machines, 174 Wiesbaden water, 38 Wild yeasts, 182 Withering' s carbonating appara- tus, 90 Wychia water, 16 YEAST, ginger beer, 181 wild, 182 ZEM-ZEM water, 7 Zinc in mineral waters, 195 BRADBURY, AONEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 PARK PLAGE New York SHORT=TITLE CATALOG OF OF SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING BOOKS This list includes the technical publications of the following English publishers: SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO. ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO. for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents. FEBRUARY, 1913 SHORT-TITLE CATALOG OF THE Publications and Importations OF D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 PARK PLAGE, N. Y. Prices marked with an asterisk (*) are NET. All bindings are in cloth unless otherwise noted. ABC Code. (See Clausen-Thue.) Ai Code. (See Clausen-Thue.) Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy. 8vo, *$s oo < A Treatise on Fuel. (Science Series No. 9.). . i6mo, o 50 Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.) i6mo, o 50 Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans, by T. E. Maw i2mo, *2 50 Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50 Adams, H. C. Sewage of Sea Coast Towns 8vo, *2 oo Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts 8vo, 2 50 Addyman, F. T. Practical X-Ray Work 8vo, *4 oo Adler, A. A. Theory of Engineering Drawing 8vo, *2 oo Principles of Parallel Projecting-line Drawing 8vo, *i oo Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring 8vo, 2 50 Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone 8vo, *8 oo d'Albe, E. E. F., Contemporary Chemistry i2mo, *i 25 Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering i2mo, 2 oo Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures 8vo, 3 50 " Alfrec." Wireless Telegraph Designs Allan, W. Strength of Beams Under Transverse Loads. (Science Series No. 19.) i6mo, o 50 Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. n.) i6mo, Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and Applications.. I2mo, *2 50 Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, *4 50 Anderson, F. A. Boiler Feed Water 8vo, *2 50 Anderson, Capt. G. L. Handbook for the Use of Electricians 8vo, 3 oo Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook I2mo, i 50 Ande"s, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils Pv^, *4 oo Animal Fats and Oils. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 oo Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid Driers 8vo, *5 oo Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling and Anti-corrosive Paints. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 3 Ande*s, L. Oil Colors, and Printers' Ink. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes. Trans, by C. Salter. i2mo, *2 50 Andrews, E. S. Reinforced Concrete Construction 12010, *i 25 Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry. Vol. I. (1904) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. II. (1005) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. III. (1906) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. IV. (1907) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. V. (1908) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. VI. (1909) 8vo, *2 oo Vol. VII. (1910). .. 8vo, *2 oo Vol. Vm. (1911) 8vo, *2 oo Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French by A. S. Hardy. (Science Series No. 52.) i6mo, o 50 Armstrong, R., and Idell, F. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers. (Science Series No. i.) i6mo, o 50 Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct-Current Dynamos. Trans, by F. B. DeGress 8vo, *2 oo Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoretically and Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock i2mo, *2 50 Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. Engineering Preliminaries and Direct Current Sub-Stations i2mo, *2 50 Electricity: Experimentally and Practically Applied I2mo, *2 oo Atkins, W. Common Battery Telephony Simplified i2mo, Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and Magnetic Calculations 8vo, *i 50 Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Ah* in Mines. (Science Series No. 14.) . . i6mo, o 50 Atkinson, J. J., and Williams, Jr., E. H. Gases Met with in Coal Mines. (Science Series No. 13.) i6mo, o 50 Atkinson, P. The Elements of Electric Lighting i2mo, i 50 The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism i2mo, 2 oo Power Transmitted by Electricity I2mo, 2 oo Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve Motions Simplified 8vo, *i 50 Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, *s oo Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indicator . . 12 mo, i oo Bailes, G. M. Modern Mining Practice. Five Volumes 8vo, each, 3 50 Bailey, R. D. The Brewers' Analyst 8vo, *5 oo Baker, A. L. Quaternions 8vo, *i 25 Thick-Lens Optics i2mo, *i 50 Baker, Benj. Pressure of Earthwork. (Science Series No. 56.)...i6mo) Baker, I. 0. Levelling. (Science Series No. 91.) i6mo, o 50 Baker, M. N. Potable Water. (Science Series No. 61.) i6mo, o 50 Sewerage and Sewage Purification. (Science Series No. i8.)..i6mo, 050 Baker, T. T. Telegraphic Transmission of Photographs 12010, *i 25 Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry Practice. Two Volumes. i2mo. Vol. I. Foundry Equipment, Materials Used *2 50 Vol. II. Machine Moulding and Moulding Machines *i 50 Bale, M. P. Pumps and Pumping I2mo, i 50 Ball, J. W. Concrete Structures in Railways. (In Press.) 8vo, 4 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Ball, R. S. Popular Guide to the Heavens. 8vo, *4 50 Natural Sources of Power. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers 8vo, *3 50 Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 108.) . i6mo, o 50 Barba, J. Use of Steel for Constructive Purposes i2mo, i oo Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric Lamp. . . .8vo, *2 oo Barker, A. Textiles and Their Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) . . 8vo, 2 oo Barker, A. H. Graphic Methods of Engine Design i2mo, *i 50 Barnard, F. A. P. Report on Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences at the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867 8vo, 5 oo Barnard, J. H. The Naval Militiaman's Guide i6mo, leather i 25 Barnard, Major J. G. Rotary Motion. (Science Series No. 90.) idmo, o 50 Barrus, G. H. Boiler Tests 8vo, *3 oo Engine Tests 8vo, *4 oo The above two purchased together *6 oo Barwise, S. The Purification of Sewage i2mo, 3 50 Baterden, J. R. Timber. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Bates, E. L., and Charlesworth, F. Practical Mathematics I2mo, Part I. Preliminary and Elementary Course *i 50 Part H. Advanced Course *i 50 Practical Mathematics i2mo, *i 50 Practical Geometry and Graphics i2mo, *2 oo Beadle, C. Chapters on Papermaking. Five Volumes i2mo, each, *2 oo Beaumont, R. Color in Woven Design 8vo, *6 oo Finishing of Textile Fabrics 8vo, *4 oo Beaumont, W. W. The Steam-Engine Indicator 8vo, 2 50 Bechhold. Colloids in Biology and Medicine. Trans, by J. G. Bullowa (In Press.) Beckwith, A. Pottery 8vo, paper, o 60 Bedell, F. f and Pierce, C. A. Direct and Alternating Current Manual.Svo, *2 oo Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics 8vo, *3 oo Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve 8vo, *2 oo Beggs, G. E. Stresses in Railway Girders and Bridges (In Press.) Bender, C. E. Continuous Bridges. (Science Series No. 26.) i6mo, 050 Proportions of Piers used in Bridges. (Science Series No. 4.) i6mo, o 50 Bennett, H. G. The Manufacture of Leather 8vo, *4 50 Leather Trades (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry). 8vo. .(In Press.) Bernthsen, A. A Text - book of Organic Chemistry, Trans, by G. M'Gowan I2mo, *2 50 Berry, W. J. Differential Equations of the First Species. i2mo. (In Preparation.) Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Trans, by A. C. Wright 8vo, *5 oo Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans, by L. S. Robertson 8vo, 5 oo Beveridge, J. Papermaker's Pocket Book i2mo, *4 oo Binns, C. F. Ceramic Technology 8vo, *5 oo Manual of Practical Potting 8vo, *7 50 The Potter's Craft. i2mo, *2 oo Birchmore, W. H. Interpretation of Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 25 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 5 Elaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its Applications 12 mo, *i 50 Blake, W. H. Brewers' Vade Mecum 8vo, *4 oo Blake, W. P. Report upon the Precious Metals 8vo, 2 oo Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design of Irrigation Works 8vo, *6 oo Bliicher, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry. Trans, by J. P. Millington 8vo, *7 50 Blyth, A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis 8vo, 7 50 Poisons: Their Effects and Detection 8vo, 7 50 Bockmann, .F. Celluloid i2mo, *2 50 Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors and Turbines i2mo, 5 oo Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables 8vo, 5 oo Bonney, G. E. The Electro-platers' Handbook i2mo, i 20 Booth, N. Guide to the Ring-spinning Frame i2mo, *i 25 Booth, W. H. Water Softening and Treatment 8vo, *2 50 Superheaters and Superheating and Their Control 8vo, *i 50 Bottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mechanical Equipment and Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen 4to, *io oo Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, *2 50 Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for Automobilists i2mo, *i oo Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber, (Science Series No. 82.) . iomo, o 50 Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. 113.).. i6mo, 050 Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. Trans, by A. B. Searle. 8vo, *5 oo Bow, R. H. A Treatise on Bracing 8vo, i 50. Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining 8vo, 5 oo Bowker, W. R. Dynamo, Motor and Switchboard Circuits 8vo, *2 50 Bowles, O. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series No. 125.). . i6mo, 050 Bowser, E. A, Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry 121110, i 75 Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus, i2mo, 2 25 Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo Elementary Treatise on Hydro-mechanics i2mo, 2 50 A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges I2mo, *2 25 Boycott, G W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving 8vo, *4 oo Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design I2mo, *2 oo Brainard, F. R The Sextant. (Science Series No 101.) . . . . i6mo, Brassey's Naval Annual for IQII , 8vo, *6 oo Brew, W. Three-Phase Transmission 8vo, *2 oo Brewer, R. W. A. Motor Car Construction 8vo, *2 oo Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating. (Science Series No. 67.) i6mo, o 50 Bright, C The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilson Bright 8vo, *4 50 Brislee, T. J. Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines of Indus- trial Chemistry) 8vo, *3 oo British Standard Sections 8x15 *i oo Complete list of this series (45 parts) sent on application. Broadfoot, S. K. Motors, Secondary Batteries. (Installation Manuals Series) i2mo, *o 75 Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists *9 oo Brown, G, Healthy Foundations. (Science Series No. 80.) i6mo, o 50 Brown, H. Irrigation 8vo, *5 oo Brown, Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal , . . i2mo, *i oo 6 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Brown, Wm. N. Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling 12010, * 50 House Decorating and Painting i2mo, * 50 History of Decorative Art I2mo, * 25 Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing Brass Ware. . . i2mo, * oj> Workshop Wrinkles 8vo, * co Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 81.) i6mo, o 50 Bruce, E. M. Pure Food Tests i2mo, *i 25 Bruhns, Dr. New Manual of Logarithms 8vo, half morocco, 2 oo Brunner, R. Manufacture of Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and Leather Dressings. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *3 oo Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.) i6mo, o 50 Bulman, H. F., and Redmayne, R. S. A. Colliery Working and Manage- ment 8vo, 6 oo Burgh, N. P. Modern Marine Engineering 4to, half morocco, 10 oo Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With Text 8vo, i 50 Diagram. Sold separately *i oo Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 2 50 Burton, F. G. Engineering Estimates and Cost Accounts i2mo, *i 50 Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying I2mo, *i 25 Butler, H. J. Motor Bodies and Chassis 8vo, *2 50 By ers, H. G., and Knight, H. G. Notes on Qualitative Analysis .... 8vo, *i 50 Cain, W. Brief Course in the Calculus i2mo, *i 75 Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) i6mo, c 50 Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, o 50 Practical Designing Retaining of Walls. (Science Series No. 3.) i6mo, o 50 Theory of Steel-concrete Arches and of Vaulted Structures. (Science Series No. 42.) i6mo, o 50 Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) i6mo, o 50 Symbolic Algebra. (Science Series No. 73.) i6mo, o 50 Campin, F. The Construction of Iron Roofs 8vo, 2 oo Carpenter, F. D. Geographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 37.) . i6mo, Carpenter, R. C., and Diederichs, H. Internal Combustion Engines. 8vo, *5 oo Carter, E. T. Motive Power and Gearing for Electrical Machinery . . 8vo, *5 oo Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China Grass I2mo, *2 oo Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning 8vo, *3 oo Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Part I. Fastenings 8vo, *3 oo Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. I. Elements of Graphic Statics 8vo, *3 oo Short Course in Graphics i2mo, i 50 Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematic Inorganic Chemistry. i2mo, *2 oo Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines 8vo, *3 oo Chambers' Mathematical Tables 8vo, i 75 Charnock, G. F. Workshop Practice. (Westminster Series.). . . .8vo (In Press.) Charpentier, P. Timber 8vo, *6 oo Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science Series.) No. 126.) i6mo, o 50 How to Use Water Power i2mo, *i oo Gyrostatic Balancing 8vo, *i oo Child, C. D. Electric Arc 8vo, *(/n Press.) D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 7 Child, C. T. The How and Why of Electricity I2mo, i oo Christie, W. W. Boiler- waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming 8vo, *3 oo Chimney Design and Theory 8vo, *3 oo Furnace Draft. (Science Series No. 123.) i6mo, o 50 - Water: Its Purification and Use in the Industries 8vo, *2 oo Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinch 8vo, *2 50 Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking 8vo, 2 50 Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering. Vol. I. Construction *3 oo Vol. II. Design (In Press.) Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines i2mo, *i 50 Clark, D. K. Rules, Tables and Data for Mechanical Engineers 8vo, 5 oo Fuel: Its Combustion and Economy i2mo, j 50 The Mechanical Engineer's Pocketbook i6mo, 2 oo - Tramways: Their Construction and Working 8vo, 5 oo Clark, J. M. New System of Laying Out Railway Turnouts i2mo, i oo Clausen-Thue, W. ABC Telegraphic Code. Fourth Edition i2mo, *5 oo Fifth Edition 8vo, *7 oo The A i Telegraphic Code 8vo, *7 50 Cleemann, T. M. The Railroad Engineer's Practice I2mo, *i 50 Clerk, D., and Idell, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. (Science Series No. 62.) i6mo, o 50 Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government Surveying. i6mo, morocco 2 50 Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata .8vo, *5 oo Cochran, J. Treatise on Cement Specifications 8vo, *i oo Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy i2mo, *3 50 Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. (Science Series No. 2.) i6mo, o 50 Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics i2mo, i 50 Coles- Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use 8vo, *5 oo Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, Jewelers. i6mo o 50 Constantino, E. Marine Engineers, Their Qualifications and Duties. 8vo, *2 oo Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. (Science Series No. 120.) i6mo, o 50 Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries 8vo, *4 oo " The Electrician " Primers. .. ' 8vo, *5 oo Part I *i 50 Part II *2 50 Part III *2 oo Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 410, *p oo Corey, H. T. Water Supply Engineering 8vo (In Press.) Corfield, W. H. Dwelling Houses. (Science Series No. 50.) i6mo, o 50 - Water and Water-Supply. (Science Scries No, 17.) i6mo, o 50 Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis 8vo, *2 50 Courtney, C. F. Masonry Dams 8vo, 3 50 Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water i2mo, *2 oo Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) i6mo, o 50 - Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) i6mo, o 50 Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, *a 50 8 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. The Generating Plant 3 oo Vol. IL Distributing Systems and Lamps 3 oo Crocker, F. B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors 8vo, *2 50 Crocker, F. B., and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma- chinery izmo, *i oo Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and Its Applica- tions. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Crosskey, L. R, Elementary Perspective .8vo, i oo Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective 8vo, i 50 Culley, J. L. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No, 87.) i6mo, o 50 Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics i2mo, (In Press.) Davenport, C. The Book, (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Da vies, D, C. Metalliferous Minerals and Mining 8vo, 5 oo Earthy Minerals and Mining 8vo, 5 oc Da vies, E. H. Machinery for Metalliferous Mines 8vo, 8 oo Da vies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction 8vo, *2 oo Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manual Series.) i6mo, (In Press.) Dawson, P. Electric Traction on Railways 8vo, *g oo Day, C. The Indicator and Its Diagrams i2mo, *2 oo Deerr, N. Sugar and the Sugar Cane 8vo, *8 oo Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King 4to, *5 oo De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. Morris. 8vo, *4 50 Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors 8vo, *2 oo Denny, G. A. Deep-level Mines of the Rand 4to, *io oo Diamond Drilling for Gold *5 oo De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.) i6mo, o 50 Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong i2mo, *i 50 Maintenance-of-Way Engineering (In Preparation.) Desaint, A. Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them 8vo, *io oo De Varona, A, Sewer Gases. (Science Series No. 55.) i6mo, o 50 Devey, R. G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals Series.) I2ttlO, *I OO Dibdin, W. J. Public Lighting by Gas and Electricity 8vo, *8 oo Purification of Sewage and Water 8vo, 6 50 Dichmann, Carl. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process i2mo, *3 50 Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins 8vo, *3 oo Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery izmo, *2 oo Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Calculator. i6mo, morocco, i 25 Doble, W. A. Power Plant Construction on the Pacific Coast (In Press.) Dodd, G. Dictionary of Manufactures, Mining, Machinery, and the Industrial Arts I2mo, i 50 Dorr, B. F, The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. i6tno, morocco, 2 oo Down, P. B. Handy Copper Wire Table i6mo *i oo Draper, C, H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and Sound. . . i2mo, i oo Heat and the Principles of Thermo-dynamics i2mo, i 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 9 Duckwall, E. W. Canning and Preserving of Food Products 8vo, *s oo Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and Extracts. 8vo, *4 50 Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of Collieries. 8vo, *4 oo Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. B. T. Textbook of Practical Chemistry. I2H10, *I 4O Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster Series.). .8vo, *2 oo Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas 8vo, (In Press.) Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, *5 oo Dyson, S. S., and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works 8vo, *7 50 Eccles, R. G., and Duckwall, E. W. Food Preservatives 8vo, paper o 50 Eddy, H. T. Researches in Graphical Statics 8vo, i 50 Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads 8vo, i 50 Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments 8vo, *2 50 Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold 8vo, 7 50 - The Hydrometallurgy of Copper 8vo, *4 50 The Metallurgy of Silver 8vo, 4 oo The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Lead 8vo, 5 oo Cyanide Process for the Extraction of Gold 8vo, 3 oo A Handbook on Modern Explosives 8vo, 5 oo Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams. folio, *3 oo Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis I2mo, *i 25 Elliot, Major G. H. European Light-house Systems 8vo, 5 oo Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils: 8vo, *4 oo Applied Thermodynamics 8vo *4 50 Flying Machines To-day I2mo, *i 50 Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, *i oo Erfurt, J. Dyeing of Paper Pulp. Trans, by J. Hubner 8vo, *7 50 Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing 8vo, *2 oo Erskine-Murray, J. A Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, *3 50 Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads (In Press.) Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron 8vo, *4 oo Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores I2mo, *i oo Notes on Pottery Clays i2mo, *i 50 Fairley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. (Science Series No. 58.) i6mo, o 50 Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws 8vo, *3 oo Fanning, J. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering 8vo, *5 oo Fauth, P. The Moon in Modern Astronomy. Trans, by J. McCabe. 8vo, *2 oo Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors 8vo, *4 oo Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine 8vo, *3 oo Chemical Aspects of Silk Manufacture 12010, *i oo Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans, by R. V. Stanford i2mo, *i 25 Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working Drawings Oblong 8vo, i oo Fisher, H. K. C., and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing 8vo, *3 50 10 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Fiske, Lieut. B. A. Electricity in Theory and Practice 8vo, 2 50 Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Trans, by C. M. Aikman. 8vo, 4 oo Fleming, J. A. The Alternate-current Transformer. Two Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. The Induction of Electric Currents *5 oo Vol. II. The Utilization of Induced Currents. *5 oo Propagation of Electric Currents 8vo, *3 oo Centenary of the Electrical Current 8vo, *o 50 Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting 8vo, *3 oo Electrical Laboratory Notes and Forms 4to, *5 oo A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room. Two Volumes 8vo, each, *5 oo Fleury, P. Preparation and Uses of White Zinc Paints 8vo, *2 50 Fluery, H. The Calculus Without Limits or Infinitesimals. Trans, by C. 0. Mailloux (In Press.) Flynn, P. J. Flow of Water. (Science Series No. 84.) i6mo, o 50 Hydraulic Tables. (Science Series No. 66.) i6mo, o 50 Foley, N. British and American Customary and Metric Measures, .folio, *3 oo Foster, H. A. Electrical Engineers' Pocket-book. (Sixth Edition.) i2mo, leather, 5 oo Engineering Valuation of Public Utilities and Factories 8vo, *3 oo Foster, Gen. J. G. Submarine Blasting in Boston (Mass.) Harbor.. . .410, 3 50 Fowle, F. F. Overhead Transmission Line Crossings i2mo, *i 50 The Solution of Alternating Current Problems 8vo (In Press.) Fox, W. G. Transition Curves. (Science Series No. no.) i6mo, o 50 Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical Draw- ing i2mo, i 25 Fye> ! C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 69.) i6mo, o 50 Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.) i6mo, o 50 Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments 4to, 15 oo Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (Installation Manuals Series-) 12010, *i oo Frith, J. Alternating Current Design 8vo, *2 oo Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by D. Grant. 8vo, *4 oo Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers' Pocket-book I2mo, leather, *5 oo Fuller, G. W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River. 4to. *io oo Furnell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes 8vo, *i oo Gairdner, J. W. I. Earthwork 8vo, (In Press.) Gant, L. W. Elements of Electric Traction 8vo, *2 50 Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms 8vo, *4 50 Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explosions and Fires I2mo, leather, i 50 Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, o 50 Gear, H. B., and Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Distribution Systems 8vo, *3 oo Geerligs, H. C. P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture 8vo, *s oo World's Cane Sugar Industry 8vo, *5 oo Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology 8vo, *4 oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 11 Gerber, N. Analysis of Milk, Condensed Milk, and Infants' Milk-Food. 8vo, i 25 Gerhard, W. P. Sanitation, Watersupply and Sewage Disposal of Country Houses i2mo, *2 oo Gas Lighting. (Science Series No. ux.) i6mo, o 50 Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) i6mo, o 50 House Drainage. (Science Series No. 63.) i6mo, o 50 Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.) i6mo, o 50 Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 8vo, *4 oo Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Alum and Sulphates. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *s oo Gibbs, W. E. Lighting by Acetylene i2mo, *i 50 Physics of Solids and Fluids. (Carnegie Technical School's Text- books.) *i 50 Gibson, A. H. Hydraulics and Its Application 8vo, *s oo - Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines i2mo, *2 oo Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study I2mo, *2 oo Primer of Scientific Management i2mo, *i oo Gillmore, Gen. Q. A. Limes, Hydraulic Cements ar d Mortars 8vo, 4 oo Roads, Streets, and Pavements I2mo, 2 oo Golding, H. A. The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, *i 25 Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor 8vo, *3 oo Goodchild, W. Precious Stones. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Goodeve, T. M. Textbook onthe Steam-engine I2mo, 2 oo Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals 8vo, *3 50 Gould, E. S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine I2mo, i oo Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, o 50 High Masonry Dams. (Science Series No. 22.) i6mo, o 50 Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic Formulas. (Science Series No. 117.) i6mo, o 50 Grant, J. Brewing and Distilling. (Westminster Series.) 8vo (In Press.) Gratacap, L. P. A Popular Guide to Minerals 8vo, *3 oo Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines i2mo, 2 oo Marine Boiler Design I2mo, *i 25 Greenhill, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight 8vo, *2 50 Greenwood, E. Classified Guide to Technical and Commercial Books. 8vo, *3 oo Gregorius, R. Mineral Waxes. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, *3 oo Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures I2mo, 3 oo Dental Metallurgy 8vo, *3 50 Gross, E. Hops 8vo, *4 50 Grossman, J. Ammonia and Its Compounds 12 mo, *i 25 Groth, L. A. Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electricity 8vo, *3 oo Grover, F. Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, *2 oo Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, *3 oo Gtildner, Hugo. Internal Combustion Engines. Trans, by H. Diederichs. 4to, *io oo Gunther, C. 0. Integration I2mo, *i 25 Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half morocco, *7 50 Guy, A. E. Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, *i 25 Haeder, H. Handbook on the Steam-engine. Trans, by H. H. P. Powles i2mo, 3 oo 12 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans, by C. Slater i2mo, *3 oo Haenig, A. Emery and Emery Industry 8vo, *2 50 Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry I2mo, *i oo Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles i2mo, *2 oo Hall, R. H. Governors and Governing Mechanism I2mo, *2 oo Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus 8vo, *2 25 Descriptive Geometry 8vo volume and a 4to atlas, *3 50 Haller, G. F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil i2mo, *i 25 Halsey, F. A. Slide Valve Gears i2mo, i 50 The Use of the Slide Rule. (Science Series No. 114.) i6mo, o 50 Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series No. 116.). , i6mo, o 50 Hamilton, W. G. Useful Information for Railway Men i6mo, Hammer, W. J. Radium and Other Radio-active Substances 8vo, Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics 8vo, Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics i2mo, oo oo 50 50 50 Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics' Tool-book i2mo, Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work 8vo, *3 oo Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping 8vo, *3 oo Principles of Hot Water Supply , . . . 8vo, *3 oo Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage 8vo, *3 oo Haskins, C. H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, i 50 Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist square i2mo, *i 50 Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans, by A. C. Wright i2mo, *2 oo Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans, by A. C. Wright 8vo, *5 oo Hausner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. Trans. by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *3 oo Hawke, W. H. Premier Cipher Telegraphic Code 4to, *5 oo 100,000 Words Supplement to the Premier Code 4to, *5 oo Hawkesworth, J. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Design. 4to, *2 50 Hay, A. Alternating Currents 8vo, *2 50 Electrical Distributing Networks and Distributing Lines 8vo, *3 50 Continuous Current Engineering 8vo, *2 50 Heap, Major D. P. Electrical Appliances 8vo, 2 oo Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering 8vo, *3 50 Heaviside, O. Electromagnetic Theory. Vols. I and II 8vo, each, *5 oo Vol. Ill 8vo, *7 50 Heck, R. C. H. The Steam Engine and Turbine 8vo, *5 oo Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volumes. Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics 8vo, *3 50 Vol. II. Form, Construction, and Working 8vo, *5 oo Notes on Elementary Kinematics 8vo, boards, *i oo Graphics of Machine Forces 8vo, boards, *i oo Hedges, K. Modern Lightning Conductors 8vo, 3 oo Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by A. C. Wright I2mo, *2 50 Hellot, Macquer and D'Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton. 8vo, *2 oo Henrici, O. Skeleton Structures 8vo, i 50 Bering, D. W. Essentials of Physics for College Students 8vo, *i 60 Hering-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two Vols. . . 8vo, *s oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 1& Hering-Shaw, A. Elementary Science 8vo, *2 oo Herrmann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans, by A. P. Smith i2mo, 2 oo Herzfeld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present 8vo, *3 50 Hildenbrand, B. W. Cable-Making. (Science Series No. 32.) i6mo, o 50 Hilditch, T. P. A Concise History of Chemistry i2mo, *i 25 Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New Edition. (In Press.) Interpretation of Water Analysis (In Press.) Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.) i6mo, o 50 - Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, *2 oo Hirshfeld, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science Series No. 45.) i6mo, o 50 Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering 8vo, *4 50 Design of Static Transformers i2mo, *2 oo Electricity. 8vo ; *2 oo Electric Trains 8vo, *2 50 Hobart, H. M. Electric Propulsion of Ships 8vo, *2 oo Hobart, J. F. Hard Soldering^ Soft Soldering and Brazing i2mo, *i oo Hobbs, W. R. P. The Arithmetic of Ehctrical Measurements i2mo, o 50 Hoff, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas i2ino, *i 50 Hoff, Com. W. B. The Avoidance of Collisions at Sea. . . i6mo, morocco, o 75 Hole, W. The Distribution of Gas 8vo, *7 50 Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 12 oo Holmes, A. B. The Electric Light Popularly Explained .... i2mo, paper, o 50 Hopkins, N. M. Experimental Electrochemistry 8vo, *3 oo Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, i 25 Hopkinson, J. Shoolbred, J. N., and Day, R. E. Dynamic Electricity. (Science Series No. 71.) i6mo, o 50 Homer, J. Engineers' Turning 8vo, *3 50 Metal Turning I2mo, i 50 Toothed Gearing i2mo, 2 25 Houghton, C. E. The Elements of Mechanics of Materials i2mo, *2 oo Houllevigue, L. The Evolution of the Sciences 8vo, *2 oo Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production i2mo, *2 oo Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man i2mo, *i 25 Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthenware. 8vo, paper, *o 50 Hubbard, E. The Utilization of Wood- waste 8vo, *2 50 Hubner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous Materials (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry) 8vo, *s oo Hudson, O. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, (In Press.) Humper, W. Calculation of Strains in Girders i2mo, 2 50 Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering Practice . 8vo, *i 25 Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo, (In Press.) Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color 8vo, *2 50 Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products 8vo, *3 oo Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases 8vo, *4 oo Soaps 8vo, *s oo 14 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Hurst, G. H. Textile Soaps and Oils 8vo, *2 50 Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics 8vo, *3 oo Also published in three parts. Part I. Dynamics and Heat *i 25 Part H. Sound and Light * x 25 Part III. Magnetism and Electricity *i 50 Hutchinson, R. W., Jr. Long Distance Electric Power Transmission. i2mo, *3 oo Hutchinson, R. W., Jr., and Ihlseng, M. C. Electricity in Mining. . i2mo, (In Press) Hutchinson, W. B. Patents and How to Make Money Out of Them. i2mo, i 25 Hutton, W. S. Steam-boiler Construction 8vo, 6 oo Practical Engineer's Handbook 8vo, 7 oo - The Works' Manager's Handbook 8vo, 6 oo Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.) i6mo, o 50 Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo, o 50 Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry 8vo, *3 oo Innes, C. H. Problems in Machine Design I2mo, *2 oo Air Compressors and Blowing Engines I2mo, *2 oo Centrifugal Pumps i2mo, *2 oo The Fan i2mo, *2 oo Isherwood, B. F. Engineering Precedents for Steam Machinery 8vo, 2 50 Ivatts, E. B. Railway Management at Stations 8vo, *2 50 Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction of Storage Reservoirs. (Science Series No. 6.) i6mo, o 50 Jamieson, A. Text Book on Steam and Steam Engines 8vo, 3 oo Elementary Manual on Steam and the Steam Engine i2mo, i 50 Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans, by G. W. Plympton I2mo, i 50 Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8vo, *4 oo Jennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (Westminster Series.) 8vo (In Press.) Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments 8vo, *3 oo Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction 8vo, *i 50 Mechanical Drawing 8vo (In Preparation.) Jockin, W. Arithmetic of the Gold and Silversmith i2mo, *i oo Johnson, G. L. Photographic Optics and Color Photography 8vo, *3 oo Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps and Accessory Apparatus. (Installation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *o 75 Johnson, T. M. Ship Wiring and Fitting. (Installation Manuals Series) i2mo, *o 75 Johnson, W. H. The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber. . .8vo, *3 oo Johnson, W. McA. The Metallurgy of Nickel (In Preparation.) Johnston, J. F. W., and Cameron, C. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology I2mo, 2 60 Joly, J. Raidoactivity and Geology i2mo, *3 oo Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity i2mo, *2 oo Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint 12 mo, *2 oo Jones, L., and Scard, F. I. Manufacture of Cane Sugar 8vo, *s oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 15 Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral i2mo, Leather, *i 50 Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gearing 8vo, 2 oo JUptner, H. F. V. Siderology: The Science of Iron 8vo, *s oo Kansas City Bridge 4to, 6 oo Kapp, G. Alternate Current Machinery. (Science Series No. 96.) . i6mo, o 50 Electric Transmission of Energy i2mo, 3 50 Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings 8vo, *2 oo Keller, S. S. Mathematics for Engineering Students. i2mo, half leather. Algebra and Trigonometry, with a Chapter on Vectors *i 75 Special Algebra Edition *i oo Plane and Solid Geometry *i 25 Analytical Geometry and Calculus *2 oo Kelsey, W. R. Continuous-current Dynamos and Motors 8vo, *2 50 Kemble, W. T., and Underbill, C. R. The Periodic Law and the Hydrogen Spectrum 8vo, paper, *o 50 Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks 8vo, *i 50 Kendall, E. Twelve Figure Cipher Code 4to, *I2 50 Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R! H. Kinematics of Machinery. (Science Series No. 54.) i6mo, o 50 Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C., and Idell, F. E. Compressed Air. (Science Series No. 106.) i6mo, o 50 Kennedy, R. Modern Engines and Power Generators. Six Volumes. 4to, 13 oo Single Volumes each, 3 oo Electrical Installations. Five Volumes 4to, 15 oo Single Volumes each, 3 50 Flying Machines; Practice and Design i2mo, *2 oo Principles of Aeroplane Construction 8vo, *i 50 Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery 8vo, i 50 Kent, W. Strength of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.) i6mo, o 50 Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis 8vo, *2 50 Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo The Electric Furnace in Iron and Steel Production i2mo, *i 50 Kinzbrunner, C. Alternate Current Windings 8vo, *i 50 Continuous Current Armatures 8vo, *i 50 Testing of Alternating Current Machines 8vo, *2 oo Kirkaldy, W. G. David Kirkaldy's System of Mechanical Testing 4to, 10 oo Kirkbride, J. Engraving for Illustration 8vo, *i 50 Kirkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters 4to, 7 50 Klein, J. F. Design of a High-speed Steam-engine 8vo, *5 oo Physical Significance of Entropy 8vo, *i 50 Kleinhans, F. B. Boiler Construction 8vo, 3 oo Knight, R.-Adm. A. M. Modern Seamanship 8vo, *7 50 Half morocco *o, oo Knox, J. Physico-Chemical Calculations i2mo, *i oo Knox, W. F. Logarithm Tables (In Preparation.) Knott, C. G., and Mackay, J. S. Practical Mathematics 8vo, 2 oo Koester, F. Steam-Electric Power Plants 4to, *5 oo Hydroelectric Developments and Engineering 4to, *5 oo Koller, T. The Utilization of Waste Products 8vo, *3 50 Cosmetics : 8vo, *2 50 16 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Kirschke, A. Gas and Oil Engines I2mo, *z 25 Kretcnmar, K. Yarn and Warp Sizing 8vo, *4 oo Lambert, T. Lead and its Compounds 8vo, *3 50 Bone Products and Manures 8vo, *3 oo Lamborn, L. L. Cottonseed Products 8vo, *3 oo Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin 8vo, *7 50 Lamprecht, R. Recovery Work After Pit Fires. Trans, by C. Salter . . 8vo, *4 oo Lanchester, F. W. Aerial Flight. Two Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 oo Aerial Flight. Vol. II. Aerodonetics *6 oo Lamer, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents I2mo, *i 25 Larrabee, C. S. Cipher and Secret Letter and Telegraphic Code i6mo, o 60 La Rue, B. F. Swing Bridges. (Science Series No. 107.) . i6mo, o 50 Lassar-Cohn, Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. M. Patti- son Muir i2mo, *2 oo Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent Electric Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, o 50 Latta, M. N. Handbook of American Ga's-Engineering Practice 8vo, *4 50 American Producer Gas Practice 4to, *6 oo Leask, A. R. Breakdowns at Sea i2mo, 2 oo Refrigerating Machinery i2mo, 2 oo Lecky, S. T. S. " Wrinkles " in Practical Navigation 8vo, *8 oo Le Doux, M. Ice-Making Machines. (Science Series No. 46.) .... i6mo, o 50 Leeds, C. C. Mechanical Drawing foi Trade Schools oblong 4to, High School Edition *i 25 Machinery Trades Edition *2 oo Lefe'vre, L. Architectural Pottery. Trans, by H. K. Bird and W. M. Binns 4to, *7 50 Lehner, S. Ink Manufacture. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson . . 8vo, *2 50 Lemstrom, S. Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture 8vo, *i 50 Le Van, W. B. Steam-Engine Indicator. (Science Series No. 78.) . i6mo, o 50 Lewes, V. B. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. (Westminster Series.). .. .8vo, *2 oo Lewis, L. P. Railway Signal Engineering 8vo, *3 50 Lieber, B. F. Lieber's Standard Telegraphic Code 8vo, *io oo Code. German Edition 8vo, *io oo Spanish Edition 8vo, *io oo French Edition 8vo, *io oo Terminal Index 8vo, *2 50 Lieber's Appendix folio, *i$ oo Handy Tables .- 4to, *2 50 Bankers and Stockbrokers' Code and Merchants and Shippers' Blank Tables 8vo, *i$ oo 100,000,000 Combination Code 8vo, *io oo Engineering Code 8vo, "12 50 Livermore, V. P., and Williams, J. How to Become a Competent Motor- man I2mo, *i oo Livingstone, R. Design and Construction of Commutators 8vo, *2 25 Lobben, P. Machinists' and Draftsmen's Handbook 8vo, 2 50 Locke, A. G. and C. G. Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid 8vo, 10 oo Lockwood, T. D. Electricity, Magnetism, and Electro-telegraph .... 8vo, 2 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT. TITLE CATALOG 17 Lockwood, T. D. Electrical Measurement and the Galvanometer . i2mo, o 75 Lodge, O. J. Elementary Mechanics I2mo, i 50 Signalling Across Space without Wires 8vo, *2 oo Loewenstein, L. C., and Crissey, C. P. Centrifugal Pumps *4 50 Lord, R. T. Decorative and Fancy Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 Loring, A. E. A Handbook of the Electromagnetic Telegraph i6mo, o 50 Handbook. (Science Series No. 39.) i6mo, o 50 Low, D. A. Applied Mechanics (Elementary) i6mo, o 80 Lubschez, B. J. Perspective i2mo, *i 50 Lucke, C. E. Gas Engine Design 8vo, *3 oo - Power Plants: Design, Efficiency, and Power Costs. 2 vols. (In Preparation.) Lunge, G. Coal-tar and Ammonia. Two Volumes 8vo, *i$ oo Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. Four Volumes 8vo, Vol. I. Sulphuric Acid. In two parts *i5 oo Vol. II. Salt Cake, Hydrochloric Acid and Leblanc Soda. In two parts *is oo Vol. III. Ammonia Soda *io oo Vol. IV. Electrolytic Methods (In Press.) - Technical Chemists' Handbook I2mo, leather, *3 50 - Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis. Trans, by C. A. Keane. in collaboration with the corps of specialists. Vol. I. In two parts 8vo, *is oo Vol. II. In two parts 8vo, *i8 oo Vol. IH (In Preparation.) Lupton, A., Parr, G. D. A., and Perkin, H. Electricity as Applied to Mining 8vo, *4 50 Luquer L. M. Minerals in Rock Sections 8vo, *i 50 Macewen, H. A. Food Inspection 8vo, *2 50 Mackenzie, N. F. Notes on Irrigation Works 8vo, *2 50 Mackie, J. How to Make a Woolen Mill Pay 8vo, *2 oo Mackrow, C. Naval Architect's and Shipbuilder's Pocket-book. i6mo, leather, 5 oo Maguire, Wm. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing 8vo, 4 oo Mallet, A. Compound Engines. Trans, by R. R. Buel. (Science Series No. 10.) i6mo, Mansfield, A. N. Electro-magnets. (Science Series No. 64.) i6mo, o 50 Marks, E. C. R. Construction of Cranes and Lifting Machinery. . . . i2mo, *i 50 Construction and Working of Pumps I2mo, *i 50 Manufacture of Iron and Steel Tubes I2mo, *2 oo Mechanical Engineering Materials I2mo, *i oo Marks, G. C. Hydraulic Power Engineering 8vo, 3 50 Inventions, Patents and Designs I2mo, *i oo Marlow, T. G. Drying Machinery and Practice 8vo, *5 oo Marsh, C. F. Concise Treatise on Reinforced Concrete 8vo, *2 50 Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram. Mounted on Cloth Boards *i 50 Marsh, C. F., and Dunn, W. Manual of Reinforced Concrete and Con- crete Block Construction i6mo, morocco, *2 50 18 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Marshall, W. J., and Sankey, H. R. Gas Engines. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Martin. G, Triumphs and Wonders of Modern Chemistry 8vo, *2 oo Martin, N. Properties and Design of Reinforced Concrete i2mo, *2 50 Massie, W. W., and Underbill, C. R. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. i2mo, *i oo Matheson, D. Australian Saw-Miller's Log and Timber Ready Reckoner. i2mo, leather, i 50 Mathot, R. E. Internal Combustion Engines 8vo, *6 oo Maurice, W. Electric Blasting Apparatus and Explosives 8vo, *3 50 Shot Firer's Guide 8vo, *i 50 Maxwell, J. C. Matter and Motion. (Science Series No. 36.) i6mo, o 50 Maxwell, W. H., and Brown, J. T. Encyclopedia of Municipal and Sani- tary Engineering 4to, *io oo Mayer, A. M. Lecture Notes on Physics 8vo, 2 oo McCullough, R. S. Mechanical Theory of Heat 8vo, 3 50 Mclntosh, J. G. Technology of Sugar 8vo, *4 50 Industrial Alcohol 8vo, *3 oo Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries. Three Volumes. 8vo. Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling *3 50 Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making *4 oo Vol. IH. Spirit Varnishes and Materials *4 50 McKnight, J. D., and Brown, A. W. Marine Multitubular Boilers *i 50 McMaster, J. B. Bridge and Tunnel Centres. (Science Series No. 20.) i6mo, o 50 McMechen, F. L. Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals i2mo, *i oo McNeill, B. McNeill's Code 8vo, *6 oo McPherson, J. A. Water- works Distribution 8vo, 2 50 Melick, C. W. Dairy Laboratory Guide I2mo, *i 25 Merck, E. Chemical Reagents; Their Purity and Tests 8vo, *i 50 Merritt, Wm. H. Field Testing for Gold and Silver i6mo, leather, i 50 Messer, W. A. Railway Permanent Way 8vo, (In Press.) Meyer, J. G. A., and Pecker, C. G. Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design 4to, 5 oo Michell, S. Mine Drainage 8vo, 10 oo Mierzinski, S. Waterproofing of Fabrics. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 Miller, E. H. Quantitative Analysis for Mining Engineers 8vo, *i 50 Miller, G. A. Determinants. (Science Series No. 103.) i6mo, Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace-making i2mo, *i oo Minifie, W. Mechanical Drawing 8vo, *4 oo Mitchell, C. F., and G. A. Building Construction and Drawing. . . i2mo, Elementary Course *i 50 Advanced Course *2 50 Mitchell, C. A., and Prideaux, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and Allied Industries 8vo, *3 oo Modern Meteorology i2mo, i 50 Monckton, C. C. F. Radiotelegraphy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Monteverde, R. D. Vest Pocket Glossary of English-Spanish, Spanish- English Technical Terms 64mo, leather, *i oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 19 Moore, E. C. S. New Tables for the Complete Solution of Ganguillet and Kutter's Formula 8?o, *5 oo Morecroft, J. H., and Hehre, F. W. Short Course in Electrical Testing. 8vo, *i 50 Moreing, C. A., and Neal, T. New General and Mining Telegraph Code, 8vo, *s oo Morgan, A. P. Wireless Telegraph Apparatus for Amateurs i2mo, *i 50 Moses, A. J. The Characters of Crystals 8vo, *2 oo Moses, A. J., and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy 8vo, *2 50 Moss, S. A. Elements of Gas Engine Design. (Science Series No.i2i.)i6mo, o 50 The Lay-out of Corliss Valve Gears. (Science Series No. 119.). i6mo, o 50 Mulford, A. C. Boundaries and Landmarks izmo, *i oo Mullin, J. P. Modern Moulding and Pattern-making 12 mo, 2 50 Munby, A. E. Chemistry and Physics of Building Materials. (Westmin- ster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Murphy, J. G. Practical Mining i6mo, i oo Murray, J. A. Soils and Manures. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Naquet, A. Legal Chemistry , . . i2mo, 2 oo Nasmith, J. The Student's Cotton Spinning 8vo, 3 oo Recent Cotton Mill Construction . , I2mo, 2 oo Neave, G. B., and Heilbron, I. M. Identification of Organic Compounds. i2mo, *i 25 Neilson, R. M. Aeroplane Patents 8vo, *2 oo Nerz, F. Searchlights. Trans, by C. Rodgers 8vo, *3 oo Nesbit, A. F. Electricity and Magnetism (In Preparation.) Neuberger, H., and Noalhat, H. Technology of Petroleum. Trans, by J. G. Mclntosh 8vo, *io oo Newall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears 8vo, I 50 Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations 8vo, *4 50 Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements 12 mo, i oo Nisbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, *3 oo Nolan, H. The Telescope. (Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 50 Noll, A. How to Wire Buildings I2mo, i 50 North, H. B. Laboratory Notes of Experiments in General Chemistry. (In Press.) Nugent, E. Treatise on Optics i2mo, i 50 O'Connor, H. The Gas Engineer's Pocketbook i2mo, leather, 3 50 Petrol Ah- Gas i2mo, *o 75 Ohm, G. S., and Lockwood, T. D. Galvanic Circuit. Translated by William Francis. (Science Series No. 102.) i6mo, o 50 Olsen, J. C. Text-book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, *4 oo Olsson, A. Motor Control, in Turret Turning and Gun Elevating. (U. S. Navy Electrical Series, No. i.) I2mo, paper, *o 50 Oudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems 8vo, *3 oo Pakes, W. C. C., and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene. -8vo, *i 75 Palaz, A. Industrial Photometry. Trans, by G. W. Patterson, Jr. . . 8vo, *4 oo Pamely, C. Colliery Manager's Handbook 8vo, *io oo Parr, G. D. A. Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments 8vo, *3 50 Parry, E. J. Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes .... 8vo, *5 oo 20 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Parry, E. J. Foods and Drugs. Two Volumes 8vo, Vol. I. Chemical and Microscopical Analysis of Foods and Drugs. *7 50 Vol. II. Sale of Food and Drugs Act *3 oo Parry, E. J., and Coste, J. H. Chemistry of Pigments 8vo, *4 50 Parry, L. A. Risk and Dangers of Various Occupations 8vo, *3 oo Parshall, H. F., and Hobart, H. M. Armature Windings 4to, *7 50 Electric Railway Engineering 4to, *io oo Parshall, H. F., and Parry, E. Electrical Equipment of Tramways.. . . (In Press.} Parsons, S. J. Malleable Cast Iron 8vo, *2 50 Partington, J. R. Higher Mathematics for Chemical Students. .i2mo, *2 oo Passmore, A. C. Technical Terms Used in Architecture 8vo, *a 50 Paterson, G. W. L. Wiring Calculations i2mo, *2 oo Patterson, D. The Color Printing of Carpet Yarns. 8vo, *3 50 Color Matching on Textiles 8vo, *3 oo The Science of Color Mixing 8vo, *3 oo Paulding, C. P, Condensation of Steam in Covered and Bare Pipes 8vo, *2 oo Transmission of Heat through Cold-storage Insulation i2mo, *i oo Payne, D. W. Iron Founders' Handbook (In Press.) Peddie, R. A. Engineering and Metallurgical Books i2mo, *i 50 Peirce, B. System of Analytic Mechanics 4to, 10 oo Pendred, V. The Railway Locomotive. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Perkin, F. M. Practical Methods of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *i oo Perrigo, 0. E. Change Gear Devices 8vo, i oo Perrine, F. A. C. Conductors for Electrical Distribution 8vo, *3 50 Perry, J. Applied Mechanics 8vo, *2 50 Petit, G. White Lead and Zinc White Paints 8vo, *i 50 Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. O'B. Hubbard, and J. H. Ledeboer 8vo, *i 50 Pettit, Lieut. J. S. Graphic Processes. (Science Series No. 76.) . . . i6mo, o 50 Philbrick, P. H. Beams and Girders. (Science Series No. C8.) . . . i6mo, Phillips, J. Engineering Chemistry 8vo, *4 50 Gold Assaying 8vo, *2 50 Dangerous Goods 8vo, 3 50 Phin, J. Seven Follies of Science i2mo, *i 25 Pickworth, C. N. The Indicator Handbook. Two Volumes. .i2mo, each, i 50 Logarithms for Beginners I2mo, boards, o 50 The Slide Rule i2mo, i oo Plattner's Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis. Eighth Edition, revised. Trans. by H. B. Cornwall 8vo, *4 oo Plympton, G. W. The Aneroid Barometer. (Science Series No. 35.) i6mo, o 50 How to become an Engineer. (Science Series No. 100.) i6mo, o 50 Van Nostrand's Table Book. (Science Series No. 104.) i6mo, 050 Pochet, M. L. Steam Injectors. Translated from the French. (Science Series No. 29.) i6mo, o 50 Pocket Logarithms to Four Places. (Science Series No. 65.) i6mo, o 50 leather, i oo Polleyn, F. Dressings and Finishings for Textile Fabrics 8vo, *3 oo Pope, F. L. Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph 8vo, i 50 Popplewell, W. C. Elemsntary Treatise on Heat and Heat Engines. . i2mo, *3 oo Prevention of Smoke 8vo, *3 50 Strength of Materials 8vo, *i 75 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 21 Porter, J. R. Helicopter Flying Machine i2mo, *i 25 Potter, T. Concrete 8vo, *3 oo Potts, H. E, Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. (Outlines of Indus- trial Chemistry) 8vo, *2 oo Practical Compounding of Oils, Tallow and Grease 8vo, *3 50 Practical Iron Founding i2mo, i 50 Pratt, K. Boiler Draught i2mo, *i 25 Pray, T., Jr. Twenty Years with the Indicator 8vo, 2 50 Steam Tables and Engine Constant 8vo, 2 oo Calorimeter Tables 8vo, i oo Presce, W. H. Electric Lamps (In Press.) Prelini, C. Earth and Rock Excavation 8vo, *3 oo Graphical Determination of Earth Slopes 8vo, *2 oo Tunneling. New Edition 8vo, *3 oo Dredging. A Practical Treatise 8vo, *3 oo Prescott, A. B. Organic Analysis 8vo, 5 oo Prescott, A. B., and Johnson, 0. C. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. . .8vo, *3 50 Prescott, A. B., and Sullivan, E. C. First Book in Qualitative Chemistry. i2mo, *i 50 Prideaux, E. B. R. Problems in Physical Chemistry 8vo, *2 oo Pritchard, 0. G. The Manufacture of Electric-light Carbons . . 8vo, paper, *o 60 Pullen, W. W. F. Application of Graphic Methods to the Design of Structures i2mo, *2 50 Injectors: Theory, Construction and Working '. i2mo, *i 50 Pulsifer, W. H. Notes for a History of Lead 8vo, 4 oo Purchase, W. R. Masonry i2mo, *3 oo Putsch, A. Gas and Coal-dust Firing 8vo, *3 oo Pynchon, T. R. Introduction to Chemical Physics 8vo, 3 oo Rafter G. W. Mechanics of Ventilation. (Science Series No. 33.) . i6mo, o 50 Potable Water, (Science Series No. 103.) i6mc 50 .Treatment of Septic Sewage. (Science Series No. 118.). . . . i6mo 50 Rafter, G. W., and Baker, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United States. 4to, *6 oo Raikes, H. P. Sewage Disposal Works 8vo, *4 oo Railway Shop Up-to-Date 4to, 2 oo Ramp, H. M. Foundry Practice (In Press.) Randall, P. M. Quartz Operator's Handbook I2mo, 2 oo Randau, P. Enamels and Enamelling 8vo, *4 oo Rankine, W. J. M. Applied Mechanics 8vo, 5 oo Civil Engineering 8vo, 6 50 - Machinery and Millwork . . , 8vo, 5 oo The Steam-engine and Other Prime Movers 8vo, 5 oo - Useful Rules and Tables 8vo, 4 oo Rankine, W. J. M., and Bamber, E. F. A Mechanical Text-book. . . . 8vo, 3 50 Raphael, F. C. Localization of Faults in Electric Light and Power Mains. 8vo, *3 oo Rasch, E. Electric Arc Phenomena. Trans, by K. Tornberg .(In Press.) Rathbone, R. L. B. Simple Jewellery 8vo, *2 oo Rateau, A. Flow of Steam through Nozzles and Orifices. Trans, by H. Bo Brydon 8vo, *i 50 22 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Rausenberger, F. The Theory of the Recoil of Guns 8vo, *4 50 Rautenstrauch, W. Notes on the Elements of Machine Design. 8 vo, boards, *i 50 Rautenstrauch, W., and Williams, J. T. Machine Drafting and Empirical Design. Part I. Machine Drafting 8vo, *i 25 Part II. Empirical Design (In Preparation.) Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering I2mo, *2 50 Rayner, H. Silk Throwing and Waste Silk Spinning 8vo, *2 50 Recipes for the Color, Paint, Varnish, Oil, Soap and Drysaltery Trades . 8vo, *3 50 Recipes for Flint Glass Making i2mo, *4 50 Redfern, J. B. Bells, Telephones (Installation Manuals Series) i6mo, (In Press.) Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) i6mo, o 50 Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, *s oo Key to the Nineteenth Edition of Reed's Engineers' Handbook . . 8vo, *3 oo Useful Hints to Sea-going Engineers I2mo, i 50 Marine Boilers 121110, 2 oo Guide to the Use of the Slide Valve i2mo, *i 60 Reinhardt, C. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers, and Students. oblong 410, boards, x oo The Technic of Mechanical Drafting oblong 4to, boards, *i oo Reiser, F. Hardening and Tempering of Steel. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson i2mo, *2 50 Reiser, N. Faults in the Manufacture of Woolen Goods. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 Spinning and Weaving Calculations 8vo, *5 oo Renwick, W. G. Marble and Marble Working 8vo, 5 oo Reynolds, 0., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines. (Science Series No. 99.) i6mo p o 50 Rhead, G. F. Simple Structural Woodwork 12 mo, *i oo Rice, J. M., and Johnson, W. W. A New Method of Obtaining the Differ- ential of Functions i2mo, o 50 Richards, W. A., and North, H. B. Manual of Cement Testing. . . . i2mo, *i 50 Richardson, J. The Modern Steam Engine 8vo, *3 50 Richardson, S. S. Magnetism and Electricity i2mo, *2 oo Rideal, S. Glue and Glue Testing 8vo, *4 oo Rimmer, E. J. Boiler Explosions, Collapses and Mishaps 8vo, *i 75 Rings, F. Concrete in Theory and Practice I2mo, *2 50 Ripper, W. Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing folio, *6 oo Roberts, F. C. Figure of the Earth. (Science Series No. 79.) i6mo, o 50 Roberts, J., Jr. Laboratory Work in Electrical Engineering 8vo, *2 oo Robertson, L. S. Water-tube Boilers 8vo, 2 oo Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition 8vo, *2 50 Robinson, S. W. Practical Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels. (Science Series No. 24.) i6mo, o 50 Railroad Economics. (Science Series No. 59.) i6mo, o 50 Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 60.) i6mo, o 50 Robson, J. H. Machine Drawing and Sketching 8vo, *i 50 Roebling, J A. Long and Short Span Railway Bridges folio, 25 oo Rogers, A. A Laboratory Guide of Industrial Chemistry I2mo, *i 50 Rogers, A., and Aubert, A. B. Industrial Chemistry 8vo, *$ oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 23 Rogers, F. Magnetism of Iron Vessels. (Science Series No. 30.) . . i6mo, o 50 Rohland, P. Colloidal and Cyrstalloidal State of Matter. Trans, by W. J. Britland and H. E. Potts I2mo, *i 25 Rollins, W. Notes on X-Light 8vo, *5 oo Rollinson, C. Alphabets Oblong, i2mo, *i oo Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant 8vo, 2 50 Key to Engines and Engine-running I2mo, 2 50 Rose, T. K. The Precious Metals. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Rosenhain, W. Glass Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Ross, W. A. Plowpipe in Chemistry and Metallurgy. i2mo, *2 oo Rossiter, J. T. Steam Engines. (Westminster Series.) 8vo (In Press.) Pumps and Pumping Machinery. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, (In Press.) Roth. Physical Chemistry 8vo, *2 oo Rouillion, L. The Economics of Manual Training 8vo, 2 oo Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modern Steam-boiler 8vo, *3 oo Rowan, F. J., and Idell, F. E. Boiler Incrustation and Corrosion. (Science Series No. 27.) i6mo, o 50 Roxburgh, W. Genera! Foundry Practice 8vo, *3 50 Ruhmer, E. Wireless Telephony. Trans, by J. Erskine-Murray .... 8vo, *3 50 Russell, A. Theory of Electric Cables and Networks 8vo, *3 oo Sabine, R. History and Progress of the Electric Telegraph i2mo, i 25 Saeltzer A. Treatise on Acoustics I2mo, i oo Salomons, D. Electric Light Installations. i2mo. Vol. I. The Management of Accumulators 250 Vol. II. Apparatus 2 25 Vol. III. Applications i 50 Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives 8vo, *4 oo Saunders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics i6mo, i oo leather, i 25 Saunnier, C. Watchmaker's Handbook I2mo, 3 oo Sayers, H. M. Brakes for Tram Cars 8vo, *i 25 Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays . 8vo, *2 oo Schellen, H. Magneto-electric and Dynamo-electric Machines 8vo, 5 oo Scherer, R. Casein. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *3 oo Schidrowitz, P. Rubber, Its Production and Industrial Uses 8vo, *5 oo Schindler, K. Iron and Steel Construction Works I2mo, *i 25 Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and Solid. i2mo, half leather, *i 75 Schmall, C. N., and Shack, S. M. Elements of Plane Geometry. . . . i2mo, *i 25 Schmeer, L. Flow of Water 8vo, *3 oo Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation i2mo, leather, i 50 Schwarz, E. H. L. Causal Geology 8vo, *2 50 Schweizer, V., Distillation of Resins 8vo, *3 50 Scott, W. W. Qualitative Analysis. A Laboratory Manual 8vo, *i 50 Scribner, J. M. Engineers' and Mechanics' Companion . . . i6mo, leather, i 50 Searle, A. B. Modern Brickmaking 8vo, *5 oo Searle, G. M. " Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. (Science Series No. 124.) i6mo, o 50 Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 24 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine Engineer- ing i6mo, leather, 3 oo Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India Rubber and Gutta Percha. Trans, by J. G. Mclntosh 8vo, *5 oo Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances 8vo, *3 oo Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4to (In Press.) Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry i2mo, *i 75 Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *i 75 Sever, G. F. Electric Engineering Experiments 8vo, boards, *i oo Sever, G. F., and Townsend, F. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical, Engineering 8vo, *2 50 Sewall, C. H. Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, *2 oo Lessons in Telegraphy i2mo, *i oo Sewell, T. Elements of Electrical Engineering 8vo, *3 oo The Construction of Dynamos 8mo, *3 oo Sexton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials i2mo, *2 50 Chemistry of the Materials of Engineering I2mo, *2 50 Alloys (Non-Ferrous) 8vo, *3 oo The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel 8vo, *6 50 Seymour, A. Practical Lithography 8vo, *2 50 Modern Printing Inks 8vo, *2 oo Shaw, Henry S. H. Mechanical Integrators. (Science Series No. 83.) i6mo, o 50 Shaw, P. E. Course of Practical Magnetism and Electricity 8vo, *i oo Shaw, S. History of the Staffordshire Potteries 8vo, *3 oo Chemistry of Compounds Used in Porcelain Manufacture 8vo, *5 oo Shaw, W. N. Forecasting Weather 8vo, *3 50 Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines i2mo, *2 50 Alternating Current Machines i2mo, *2 50 Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Electric Traction and Transmission Engineering i2mo, *2 50 Sherriff, F. F. Oil Merchants' Manual i2mo, *3 50 Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction i2mo, i 50 Shock, W. H. Steam Boilers 4to, half morocco, 15 oo Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 3 50 Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer I2mo, morocco, 2 50 Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap Manufacture. 8vo, *3 oo Simmons, W. H., and Mitchell, C. A. Edible Fats and Oils 8vo, * 3 oo Simms, F. W. The Principles and Practice of Leveling 8vo, 2 50 Practical Tunneling 8vo, 7 50 Simpson, G. The Naval Constructor i2mo, morocco, *5 oo Simpson, W. Foundations 8vo, (In Press.) Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine . . . 8vo, half leather, 5 oo Twentieth Century Locomotive 8vo, half leather, *5 oo Sindall, R. W., and Bacon, W. N. The Testing of Wood Pulp 8vo, . . *2 50 Sindall, R. W. Manufacture of Paper. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Sloane, T. O'C. Elementary Electrical Calculations I2mo, *2 oo Smith, C. A. M. Handbook of Testing, MATERIALS 8vo, *2 50 Smith, C. A. M., and Warren, A. G. New Steam Tables 8vo, Smith, C. F. Practical Alternating Currents and Testing 8vo, *2 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHOUT TITLE CATALOG 25 Smith, C. F. Practical Testing of Dynamos and Motors 8vo, *2 oo Smith, F. E. Handbook of General Instruction for Mechanics. . . .i2mo, i 50 Smith, J. C. Manufacture of Paint 8vo, *3 oo Smith, R. H. Principles of Machine Work i2mo, *3 oo Elements of Machine Work i2mo, *2 oo Smith, W. Chemistry of Hat Manufacturing I2mo, *3 oo Snell, A. T. Electric Motive Power 8vo, *4 oo Snow, W. G. Pocketbook of Steam Heating and Ventilation. (In Press.) Snow, W. G., and Nolan, T. Ventilation of Buildings. (Science Series No. 5.) i6mo, o 50 Soddy, F. Radioactivity -. 8vo, *3 oo Solomon, M. Electric Lamps. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Sothern, J. W. The Marine Steam Turbine 8vo, *5 oo Southcombe, J. E. Paints, Oils and Varnishes. (Outlines of Indus- trial Chemistry.) 8vo, (In Press.) Soxhlet, D. H. Dyeing and Staining Marble. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 Spang, H. W. A Practical Treatise on Lightning Protection i2mo, i oo Spangenburg, L. Fatigue of Metals. Translated by S. H. Shreve. (Science Series No. 23.) i6mo, o 50 Specht, G. J., Hardy, A. S., McMaster, J.B ., and Walling. Topographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 72.) i6mo, o 50 Speyers, C. L. Text-book of Physical Chemistry 8vo, *2 25 Stahl, A. W. Transmission of Power. (Science Series No. 28.) . . . i6mo, Stahl, A. W., and Woods, A. T. Elementary Mechanism. i2mo, *2 oo Staley, C., and Pierson, G. S. The Separate System of Sewerage 8vo, *3 oo Standage, H. C. Leatherworkers' Manual 8vo, *3 50 Sealing Waxes, Wafers, and Other Adhesives 8vo, *2 oo Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes I2mo } *3 50 Stansbie, J. H. Iron and Steel. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Steadman, F. M. Unit Photography and Actinometry (In Press.) Steinman, D. B. Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers. (Science Series No. 127) o 50 Stevens, H. P. Paper Mill Chemist i6mo, *2 50 Stevenson, J. L. Blast-Furnace Calculations. I2mo, leather, *2 oo Stewart, A. Modern Polyphase Machinery i2mo, *2 oo Stewart, G. Modern Steam Traps I2mo, *i 25 Stiles, A. Tables for Field Engineers. i2mo, i oo Stillman, P. Steam-engine Indicator I2mo, i oo Stodola, A. Steam Turbines. Trans, by L. C. Loewenstein 8vo, *$ oo Stone, H. The Timbers of Commerce 8vo, 3 50 Stone, Gen. R. New Roads and Road Laws I2mo, i oo Stopes, M. Ancient Plants 8vo, *2 oo The Study of Plant Life 8vo, *2 oo Stumpf, Prof. Una-Flow of Steam Engine 4to, *3 50 Sudborough, J. J., and James, T. C. Practical Organic Chemistry. . i2mo, *2 oo Suffling, E. R. Treatise on the Art of Glass Painting 8vo, *3 50 Suggate, A. Elements of Engineering Estimating I2mo, Swan, K. Patents, Designs and Trade Marks. (Westminster Series.). 8vo, *2 oo Sweet, S. H. Special Report on Coal 8vo, 3 oo 26 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Swinburne, J., Wordingham, C. H., and Martin, T. C. Eletcric Currents. (Science Series No. 109.) i6mo, o 50 Swoope, C. W. Practical Lessons in Electricity i2mo, *2 oo Tailfer, L. Bleaching Linen and Cotton Yarn and Fabrics. . , , 8vo, *5 oo Tate, J. S. Surcharged and Different Forms of Retaining-walls. (Science Series No. 7.) i6mo, o 50 Taylor, E. N. Small Water Supplies i2mo, *2 oo Templeton, W. Practical Mechanic's Workshop Companion. i2mo, morocco, 2 oo Terry, H. L. India Rubber and its Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Thayer, H. R. Structural Design. 8vo. Vol. I. Elements of Structural Design *2 oo Vol. H. Design of Simple Structures (In Preparation.) Vol. III. Design of Advanced Structures (In Preparation.) Thiess, J. B. and Joy, G. A. Toll Telephone Practice 8vo, *3 50 Thorn, C., and Jones, W. H. Telegraphic Connections oblong i2mo, i 50 Thomas, C. W. Paper-makers* Handbook (In Press.) Thompson, A. B. Oil Fields of Russia 410, *7 50 Petroleum Mining and Oil Field Development 8vo, *5 oo Thompson, E. P. How to Make Inventions 8vo, o 50 Thompson, S. P. Dynamo Electric Machines. (Science Series No. 75.) i6mo, o 50 Thompson, W. P. Handbook of Patent Law of All Countries i6mo, i 50 Thomson, G. S. Milk and Cream Testing i2mo, *i 75 Modern Sanitary Engineering, House Drainage, etc 8vo, *3 oo Thornley, T. Cotton Combing Machines 8vo, *3 oo Cotton Spinning. 8vo. First Year , *l 50 Second Year *a 50 Third Year *2 50 Thurso, J. W. Modern Turbine Practice 8vo, *4 oo Tidy, C. Meymott. Treatment of Sewage. (Science Series No. 94.). i6mo, o 50 Tinney, W. H. Gold-mining Machinery 8vo, *3 oo Titherley, A. W. Laboratory Course of Organic Chemistry 8vo, *2 oo Toch, M. Chemistry and Technology of Mixed Paints 8vo, *3 oo Materials for Permanent Painting I2mo, *2 oo Todd, J., and Whall, W. B. Practical Seamanship 8vo, *7 50 Tonge, J. Coal. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Townsend, F. Alternating Current Engineering 8vo, boards *o 75 Townsend, J. lonization of Gases by Collision 8vo, *i 25 Transactions of the Amerkan Institute of Chemical Engineers. 8vo. Vol. I. 1908 *6 oo Vol. II. 1909 *6 oo Vol. IH. 1910 *6 oo Vol. IV. 1911 *6 oo Traverse Tables. (Science Series No. 115.) i6mo, o 50 morocco, i oo Trinks, W., and Housum, C. Shaft Governors. (Science Series No. 122.) i6mo, o 50 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 27 Trowbridge, W. P. Turbine Wheels. (Science Series No. 44.) i6mo, o 50 Tucker, J. H. A Manual of Sugar Analysis 8vo, 3 50 Tumlirz, 0. Potential. Trans, by D. Robertson I2mo, i 25 Tunner, P. A. Treatise on Roll-turning. Trans, by J. B. Pearse. 8vo, text and folio atlas, 10 oo Turbayne, A. A. Alphabets and Numerals 4to, 2 oo Turnbull, Jr., J., and Robinson, S. W. A Treatise on the Compound Steam-engine, (Science Series No. 8.) i6mo, Turrill, S. M. Elementary Course in Perspective izmo, *i 25 Underbill, C. R. Solenoids, Electromagnets and Electromagnetic Wind- ings I2mo, *2 oo Universal Telegraph Cipher Code i2mo, i oo Urquhart, J. W. Electric Light Fitting 12010, 2 oo Electro-plating I2mo, 2 oo Electrotyping I2mo, 2 oo Electric Ship Lighting I2mo, 3 oo Usborne, P. O. G. Design of Simple Steel Bridges 8vo, *4 oo Vacher, F. Food Inspector's Handbook I2mo, *2 50 Van Nosrrand's Chemical Annual. Second issue 1909 I2mo, *2 50 Year Book of Mechanical Engineering Data. First issue 1912 ... (In Press.) Van Wagenen, T. F. Manual of Hydraulic Mining i6mo, i oo Vega, Baron Von. Logarithmic Tables 8vo, half morocco, 2 oo Villon, A. M. Practical Treatise on the Leather Industry. Trans, by F. T. Addyman 8vo, *io oo Vincent, C. Ammonia and its Compounds. Trans, by M. J. Salter . . 8vo, *2 oo Volk, C. Haulage and Winding Appliances 8vo, *4 oo Von Georgievics, G. Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 50 Chemistry of Dyestuffs. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 50 Vose, G. L. Graphic Method for Solving Certain Questions in Arithmetic and Algebra. (Science Series No. 16.) i6mo, o 50 Wabner, R. Ventilation in Mines. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 50 Wade, E. J. Secondary Batteries 8vo, *4 oo Wadmore, T. M. Elementary Chemical Theory 12010, *i 50 Wadsworth, C. Primary Battery Ignition i2mo, *o 50 Wagner, E. Preserving Fruits, Vegetables, and Meat i2mo, *2 50 Waldram, P. J. Principles of Structural Mechanics I2mo, *3 oo Walker, F. Aerial Navigation 8vo, 2 oo Dynamo Building. (Science Series No. 98.) i6mo, o 50 Electric Lighting for Marine Engineers 8vo, 2 oo Walker, S. F. Steam Boilers, Engines and Turbines 8vo, 3 oo Refrigeration, Heating and Ventilation on Shipboard 12 mo, *2 oo Electricity in Mining 8vo, *3 50 Walker, W. H. Screw Propulsion 8vo, o 75 Wallis-Tayler, A. J. Bearings and Lubrication 8vo, *i 50 Aerial or Wire Ropeways 8vo, *3 oo Modern Cycles 8vo, 4 oo Motor Cars 8vo, i 80 Motor Vehicles for Business Purposes 8vo, 3 50 28 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG Wallis-Tayler, A. J. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice Making. 12010, i 50 Refrigeration, Cold Storage and Ice-Making 8vo, *4 50 Sugar Machinery. i2mo, *2 oo Wanklyn, J. A, Water Analysis. 12010, 2 oo Wansbrough, W. D. The A B C of the Differential Calculus i2mo, *i 50 Slide Valves I2mo, *2 oo Ward, J. H. Steam for the Million 8vo, i oo Waring, Jr., G. E. Sanitary Conditions. (Science Series No. 31.). . i6mo, o 50 Sewerage and Land Drainage *6 oo Waring, Jr., G. E. Modern Methods of Sewage Disposal i2mo, 2 oo How to Drain a House i2mo, i 25 Warren, F. D. Handbook on Reinforced Concrete i2mo, *2 50 Watkins, A. Photography. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Watson, E. P. Small Engines and Boilers I2mo, i 25 Watt, A. Electro-plating and Electro-refining of Metals 8vo, *4 50 Electro-metallurgy i2mo, i oo The Art of Soap-making 8vo, 3 oo Leather Manufacture. 8vo, *4 oo Paper-Making , 8vo, 3 oo Weale, J. Dictionary of Terms Used in Architecture I2mo, 2 50 Weale's Scientific and Technical Series. (Complete list sent on applica- tion.) Weather and Weather Instruments I2mo, i oo paper, o 50 Webb, H. L. Guide to the Testing of Insulated Wires and Cables. .i2mo, i oo Webber, W. H. Y. Town Gas. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo Weisbach, J. A Manual of Theoretical Mechanics .8vo, *6 oo sheep, *7 50 Weisbach, J., and Herrmann, G. Mechanics of Air Machinery 8vo, *3 75 Welch, W. Correct Lettering . (In Press.) Weston, E. B. Loss of Head Due to Friction of Water in Pipes . . .i2mo, *i 50 Weymouth, F. M. Drum Armatures and Commutators 8vo, *3 oo Wheatley, O. Ornamental Cement Work (In Press.) Wheeler, J. B. Art of War I2mo, i 75 Field Fortifications I2mo, i 75 Whipple, S. An Elementary and Practical Treatise on Bridge Building. 8vo, 3 oo White, A. T. Toothed Gearing i2mo, *i 25 Whithard, P. Illuminating and Missal Painting I2mo, i 50 Wilcox, R. M. Cantilever Bridges. (Science Series No. 25.) i6mo, o 50 Wilda, H. Steam Turbines. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, i 25 Wilkinson, H. D. Submarine Cable Laying and Repairing 8vo, *6 oo Williams, A. D., Jr., and Hutchinson, R. W. The Steam Turbine (In Press.) Williamson, J., and Blackadder, H. Surveying 8vo, (In Press.) Williamson, R. S. On the Use of the Barometer 4to, 15 oo Practical Tables in Meteorology and Hypsometery -4to, 2 50 Willson, F. N. Theoretical and Practical Graphics 4to, *4 oo Wilson, F. J., and Heilbron, I. M. Chemical Theory and Calculations. i2mo, *i oo Wimperis, H. E. Internal Combustion Engine 8vo, *3 oo Primer of Internal Combustion Engine I2mo, *i oo D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 29 Winchell, N. H., and A. N. Elements of Optical Mineralogy 8vo, *3 50 Winkler, C., and Lunge, G. Handbook of Technical Gas- Analysis ... 8 vo, 4 oo Winslow, A. Stadia Surveying. (Science Series No. 77.) i6mo, o 50 Wisser, Lieut. J. P Explosive Materials. (Science Series No. 70.). 1 6 mo, o 50 Wisser, Lieut. J. P. Modern Gun Cotton. (Science Series No. 8o,.)i6mo, o 50 Wood, De V. Luminiferous Aether. (Science Series No. 85.) .... i6mo, o 50 Woodbury, D. V. Elements of Stability in the Well-proportioned Arch. 8vo, half morocco, 4 oo Worden, E. C. The Nitrocellulose Industry. Two Volumes 8vo, *io oo Cellulose Acetate 8vo, (In Press.) Wright, A. C. Analysis of Oils and Allied Substances 8vo, *3 50 Simple Method for Testing Painters' Materials , 8vo, *2 50 Wright, F. W. Design of a Condensing Plant I2mo, *i 50 Wright, H. E. Handy Book for Brewers 8vo, *5 oo Wright, J. Testing, Fault Finding, etc., for Wiremen. (Installation Manuals Series.) i6mo, *o 50 Wright, T. W. Elements of Mechanics 8vo, *2 50 Wright, T. W., and Hayford, J. F. Adjustment of Observations. 8vo, *3 oo Young, J, E. Electrical Testing for Telegraph Engineers. , 8vo, *4 oo Zahner, R. Transmission of Power. (Science Series No. 40.) .... i6mo, Zeidler, J., and Lustgarten, J Electric Arc Lamps 8vo, *2 oo Zeuner, A. Technical Thermodynamics. Trans, by J. F. Klein. Two Volumes 8vo, *8 oo Zimmer, G. F. Mechanical Handling of Material 4to, *io oo Zipser, J. Textile Raw Materials. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *5 oo ZUT Nedden, F. Engineering Workshop Machines and Processes, Trans. by J. A. Davenport 8vo *2 oo D.VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY are prepared to supply, either from their complete stock or at short notice, Any Technical or Scientific Book In addition to publishing a very large and varied number of SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING BOOKS, D. Van Nostrand Company have on hand the largest assortment in the United States of such books issued by American and foreign publishers. All inquiries are cheerfully and care- fully answered and complete catalogs sent free on request. 25 PARK PLACE NEW YORK THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE RECALL CElvtu Vffteo SHIP!! neves :s:-i JUN 2 4 1999 LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS Book Slip-50m-12,'64(F772s4)458 361270 Mitchell, C.A. Mineral and aerated waters . PHYSICAL SCIENCES LIBRARY 3 1175 00471 7156 TN923 LIBRARY v - ".-