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ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY, 
 
 POSITIVE RESULTS; 
 
 NOTES FOE INQUIEY 
 
 ON THE SCIENCES OF 
 
 GEOLOGY AND ASTRONOMY 
 
 TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 CHAELES CHALMEES, 
 
 LATE OF MERCHISTON ACADEMY. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 
 
 MDCCCLVIII. 
 
LONDON ; PRINTED BV WOODFAIiL AND RINDKR, 
 ANQKIi COURT, SKINNER STREET. 
 
113 
 CI42- 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 These Tracts, with the exception of the Tract 
 of Miscellanies, I lately circulated with a view^ to 
 inquiry. Since then I have, in the course of my 
 experiments, obtained positive results, which go to 
 establish my views on Electro-Chemistry. With 
 some additions to these Tracts, I now submit them 
 to the public — presenting them, as formerly, mainly 
 as notes for further inquiry. ^ 
 
 Merchiston Castle Bank, 
 January Q8, 1858. 
 
TEACT No. 1. 
 
 ON 
 
 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY, 
 
 WITH 
 
 POSITIVE EESULTS; 
 
 AND 
 
 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTETCITIES.* 
 
 1. Are the two electricities material elements? 
 
 The late Dr. Turner, in his Elements of Chemis- 
 try, states that the "effects of electricity are so 
 similar to those of a mechanical agent — it appears 
 so distinctly to emanate from substances which 
 contain it in excess, and rends asunder all obstacles in 
 its course so exactly like a body in rapid motion, that 
 the impression of its existence as a distinct material 
 substance, sui generis^ forces itself irresistibly on the 
 mind. All nations, accordingly, have spontaneously 
 concurred in regarding electricity as a material prin- 
 ciple ; and scientific men give a preference to the 
 same view." 
 
 * The substance of this tract is embodied in a pamphlet which 
 I published at the close of 1849, entitled, ** Thoughts on Elec- 
 tricity." 
 
2 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 2. If electricity is regarded by scientific men as a 
 material principle, how comes it that they have 
 made it an exception to the other material elements, 
 by assuming, without proof, that it does not combine 
 with those elements, as those elements combine with 
 each other ? It cannot be because of its imponder- 
 ability, as heat, an imponderable element, is known 
 to enter into chemical combination with the ponder- 
 able elements of nature. 
 
 3. Is it so, that the two electricities are material 
 elements, and that they are not an exception to the 
 common law; that they combine with the other 
 material elements as those elements combine with 
 each other; and that compound bodies are decom- 
 posed by the tw^o electricities precisely as the ponder- 
 able elements decompose those bodies — namely, by 
 respectively combining with the constituents of the 
 body which is under decomposition ; and thus in all 
 electro decompositions, those bodies which are given 
 off at the positive wire, are given off in combination 
 with the positive electricity of that wire, and those 
 given off at the negative wire are given off in com- 
 bination with the negative electricity of that wire ? 
 And, therefore, when a compound body is decom- 
 posed by electricity, we do not obtain the consti- 
 tuents of that body, but new compounds — the two 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 3 
 
 electricities having respectively combined with the 
 constituents of the body v^hich has been decomposed. 
 Accordingly, in the decomposition of a neutral salt 
 by electricity, w^ do not obtain the constituents of 
 that body, but new compounds. One of the consti- 
 tuents of the salt having combined with positive 
 electricity, a compound is formed, possessing proper- 
 ties different from either of the constituents, an acid 
 being the product : the other constituent of the salt 
 having combined with negative electricity, a com- 
 pound is formed, possessing properties different from 
 either of the constituents — an alkali being the pro- 
 duct ; and in order to obtain the constituents of the 
 decomposed salt, we would require to disunite posi- 
 tive electricity from the acid, and negative electricity 
 from the alkali. 
 
 4. My first experiment in corroboration of these 
 views was made eight years ago, an account of 
 which was published at the close of 1849. Aware 
 that heat impairs the affinity which subsists between 
 the constituents of a compound body ; " that in the 
 highest conceivable degrees of heat, chemical combi- 
 nation does not take place ;" and that, in some in- 
 stances, compound bodies, such as ammonia, the 
 peroxide of manganese, the oxide of chlorine, and the 
 oxides of mercury, silver and gold, are decomposed 
 
 B 2 
 
4 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 by beat, — I therefore inferred, that were two bodies, 
 the one united with positive and the other with 
 negative electricity, subjected to an intense heat, 
 the two electricities, viewed as material el'ements, 
 would have their affinities for the bodies with which 
 they were in combination so loosened or impaired, 
 that they would unite when connected with each 
 other by means of a platinum wire, or any other 
 conductor of electricity. With this view I employed 
 a cast iron tray, twelve inches in length, ten in 
 width, and three in depth. I covered the bottom of 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 the tray with a mixture of plaster of Paris and 
 finely-sifted coal-ash, and upon the surface of this 
 mixture I placed two thick glass tubes, hermetically 
 sealed, the one containing a portion of the chlorate 
 of potassa, and another an equivalent quantity of 
 potassium. These tubes were connected internally 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 5 
 
 with each other by means of platina wires, one of 
 which was introduced into the chlorate of potassa in 
 the one tube, and the other into the potassium in the 
 other. The position of the tubes in the tray are 
 represented Fig, 1. I now filled the tray with 
 plaster of Paris and coal-ash, and upon this mixture 
 I placed an iron plate, on which were laid two 
 weights, forty pounds each. The tray with the 
 weights was placed on a common fire, the fireplace 
 of which was so constructed, that an intense heat 
 might at any time be produced. As oxygen would 
 come off from the chlorate of potassa, when the tem- 
 perature of that salt was raised, I inferred that the 
 intense heat to which the oxygen and potassium 
 would be subjected, would disunite positive electricity 
 from the oxygen, and negative electricity from the 
 potassium ; and that the two electricities thus set 
 free would escape by the platina wires, and unite 
 with each other, heat being the product. After the 
 tray which had been brought to a red heat had cooled 
 down sufficiently, I proceeded to examine its con- 
 tents. Both tubes were entire. I opened at one 
 extremity the tube which contained the potassium, a 
 portion of which fell out, and presented very much 
 the external characters of carbon. Its metallic lustre 
 was gone ; and when thrown upon water, there was 
 
b ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 neither combustion nor action of any kind. I intro- 
 duced a sharp-pointed wire into the tube, with a 
 view of extracting what remained of the potassium ; 
 but the instant that I touched the potassium with the 
 wire, the whole exploded in my hand. How is it 
 that the properties and external characters of this 
 substance were so very different from the properties 
 and external characters of potassium ? Is it that 
 potassium, deprived of its negative electricity, pos- 
 sesses properties and external characters, such as I 
 have described? I now examined the contents of 
 the other tube. It was evident that oxygen had 
 been disengaged from the chlorate of potassa, and 
 that the residual constituents were those of the 
 chloride of potassium. The only other change which 
 had taken place was, that the surface of the tube 
 appeared to be bedewed with moisture. 
 
 5. This first experiment was an earnest of what 
 I might realise when provided with a suitable 
 apparatus, and with those tubes which resist an 
 intense heat, without fusion and without fracture. 
 In the prosecution of my experiments, I found that 
 flint glass tubes were not suitable, as they contained 
 lead in their composition, which renders them easily 
 fusible, and the materials which I introduced into 
 them were generally blown out, or a rupture of the 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 7 
 
 tubes took place. From some difficulty, which I 
 could not explain, I failed to obtain, though every 
 effort was made on my part, those tubes which 
 contain no lead in their composition, and which 
 resist fusibility while exposed to an intense heat. 
 Having, however, partially succeeded in my first 
 experiment, I persisted in operating with such tubes 
 as I could procure, unsuitable though they were, re- 
 solved either to verify my views on electro-chemistry, 
 or prove them fallacious ; and it was not until after 
 years of toil and failure, I at last obtained a positive 
 result, which proves that there is a latent electricity 
 existing in bodies as well as a latent heat. 
 
 6. At the close of 1856, I procured one of those 
 German glass tubes that contain no lead in their com- 
 position, and into which I poured a small portion of 
 nitric acid ; but as another tube was required, I substi- 
 tuted a tube of iron, into which I introduced a few 
 grains of caustic potash. Both tubes were hermeti- 
 cally sealed, and contained platina wires which were 
 not joined together externally as is represented in 
 Fig, 1., but were kept apart from each other, and 
 made to project beyond the tray, through two small 
 perforations in one of its sides, as is represented in 
 Fig, 2. 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 The iron tube deposited in the tray was insulated 
 by inclosing it in a tube of glass, while the platina 
 wires which passed through the small perforations in 
 the side of the tray were encased in capillary tubes. 
 The extremities of the wires which projected beyond 
 the tray dipped into a small bent tube that contained 
 a solution of the iodide of potassium. In every 
 other respect the experiment was conducted precisely 
 as that which I had performed in 1849. In the 
 course of the experiment, I found that the solution 
 of the iodide of potassium was decomposed ; the 
 appearance of the iodide was first made manifest in 
 the limb of the tube into which the wire from the 
 tube containing the nitric acid was introduced. 
 From what source was the electricity derived by 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 9 
 
 which the iodide of potassium was decomposed ? 
 There can be no escape, I should think, from the con- 
 clusion that the positive electricity was derived from 
 the acid, and the negative electricity from the 
 alkali. 
 
 7. The materials with which I operate are neces- 
 sarily so very small in quantity, particularly when I 
 introduce liquids into glass tubes, that the results, 
 though positive, may be thought trivial. Thus when I 
 introduce nitric acid into a glass tube, I first fill it with 
 acid, which is afterwards decanted, and the tube is 
 kept inverted until all the acid has dropped fi'om it, 
 leaving only as much acid as adheres to the platinum 
 wire and the internal surface of the tube. The 
 quantity of acid which remains is not more than two 
 grains, or one grain and a half; if more than this, 
 the rupture of the tube, when exposed to an intense 
 heat, generally take place. It indeed requires a nice 
 adjustment in respect to the quantity of the materials 
 wdth which I operate, as well as the requisite hard- 
 ness and thickness of the tubes which T employ, in 
 order to resist, without fusion and without fracture, 
 the degree of heat to which, in the course of my 
 experiments, they are subjected. 
 
 8. In October, 1857, I obtained what I had 
 hitherto failed to procure— those German glass tubes 
 
1 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 of the thickness and hardness that I required ; and 
 I now proceed to detail those experiments in which 
 the iodide of potassium, contained in the small bent 
 tube, was decomposed by electricity, of which the 
 positive electricity was derived either from an acid, 
 or from oxygen or iodine, and the negative electricity 
 from a metal or an alkali ; thus proving that positive 
 electricity is in combination with the first class 
 of bodies, or what are called the supporters of com- 
 bustion, and negative electricity with the second 
 class, or what are called combustible bodies. 
 
 Ex'periments with Tubes of German Glass. 
 
 Exp. 1.— October 22, 1857. 
 
 9. Iodide of potassium, decomposed by electricity ; 
 the positive electricity derived from nitric acid, and 
 the negative electricity from sodium. 
 
 Two tubes hermetically sealed were put into the 
 tray {Fig, 2.), both of which were embedded in a 
 mixture of plaster of Paris and finely-sifted coal- 
 ash. One of the tubes contained about two grains 
 of nitric acid, and the other an equivalent quantity 
 of sodium. From the interior of these tubes, platina 
 wires projected beyond the tray, and to prevent the 
 wires from coming in contact with the iron of the 
 tray, they were encased in capillary tubes. These 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 1 
 
 wires were introduced into a small bent tube, ex- 
 ternal of the tray, containing a solution of the iodide 
 of potassium {Fig. 2). After the tray had been 
 brought to a red heat, the solution itself being kept 
 at a low temperature, the iodide was decomposed ; 
 the iodine appearing in the limb of the bent tube, 
 into which" was introduced the extremity of the 
 wire which projected from the tube in the tray that 
 contained the acid. It is evident that electricity was 
 the agent by which the iodide was decomposed, and 
 as the iodine appeared in the limb of the tube into 
 which the wire from the acid was introduced, the 
 positive electricity was derived from the acid, and 
 consequently the negative electricity from the metal. 
 In like manner, a solution of the iodide of potassium 
 contained in a similar bent tube, was decomposed by 
 a water battery, the iodine appearing in the limb of 
 the tube into which the positive wire of the battery 
 was introduced. 
 
 10. Exp. 2.— December 18, 1857. 
 
 The iodide of potassium, decomposed by electri- 
 city, of which the positive electricity was derived 
 from nitric acid, and the negative electricity from 
 potassium. 
 
 Two grains of nitric acid were introduced into 
 one of the tubes, and an equivalent quantity of 
 
IS ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 potassium into another. In every respect the ex- 
 periment was conducted as before, and with precisely 
 the same result. 
 
 11. Exp. 3.— January 2, 1858. 
 
 The iodide of potassium decomposed by elec- 
 tricity, of which the positive electricity was derived 
 from oxygen, and the negative electricity from potas- 
 sium. 
 
 Two grains of the chlorate of potassa were intro- 
 duced into one of the tubes, from which oxygen by 
 heat was evolved, and an equivalent quantity of 
 potassium into the other. In the decomposition of 
 the solution in the bent tube, the iodine was first 
 made apparent in the limb of the tube into which the 
 wire from the oxygen was introduced, which indicates 
 that the positive electricity was derived from the 
 oxygen, and consequently the negative electricity 
 from the metal. 
 
 12. Exp. 4. — January 16, 1858. 
 
 A solution of the iodide of potassium was decom- 
 posed by electricity, of which the positive electricity 
 was derived from iodine, and the negative electricity 
 from potassium. 
 
 Six grains of iodine were introduced into one of 
 the tubes deposited in the tray, and two grains of 
 potassium in the other. When the tray was brought 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 3 
 
 to a red heat, the sohition of the iodide in the bent 
 tube was decomposed, and the iodine of the solution 
 was first made apparent in the Hmb of the bent tube 
 into which the wire was introduced that projected 
 from the iodine contained in the tube deposited in the 
 tray. 
 
 13. In all these experiments in which the iodide 
 of potassium was decomposed, the iodine of the 
 solution first became apparent in the limb of the tube 
 into which the wire from the tray was introduced 
 in connection with the tube that contained nitric 
 acid, or oxygen, or iodine ; which proves that those 
 bodies, when subjected to an intense heat, have their 
 positive electricity, with which they are united, dis- 
 engaged ; and that sodium and potassium, and the 
 alkali, caustic potash, have in like manner their nega- 
 tive electricity, with which they are united, dis- 
 engaged. 
 
 It is obvious that changes had taken place in those 
 bodies when deprived of their respective electricities. 
 Thus sodium and potassium lost their metallic lustre, 
 and were reduced to a black powder, which was 
 inert when thrown upon water, as neither combus- 
 tion nor action of any kind took place. The nitric 
 acid was deprived of its liquidity, and appeared in 
 small crystals adhering to the platinum wire. The 
 
1 4 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 oxygen which was evolved from the chlorate of po- 
 tassa ceased to be gaseous, as the tube which con- 
 tained it, when opened under water, failed to give off 
 bubbles of gas, and a change had also taken place in 
 the iodine, as its presence in the tube which con- 
 tained it, when heat was applied, could no longer be 
 distinguished by the peculiar characteristic colour of 
 its vapour. 
 
 14. I have thus demonstrated by these experi- 
 ments, all of which I pledge myself to perform, that 
 iodine, oxygen, potassium and sodium, are not simple 
 but compound bodies ; that in those bodies there are 
 hnponderable elements in combination with ponder- 
 able elements, and that when deprived of their im- 
 ponderable elements a change takes place in their 
 properties. 
 
 I had now exhausted my supply of those tubes of 
 German glass which for liardness and thickness are 
 available for those experiments, and I must now 
 wait for another supply before I can resume my in- 
 quiry into the positive changes which take place in 
 bodies when deprived of their respective electricities. 
 
 15. It is obvious that the decomposition of the 
 iodide of potassium does not indicate that the bodies 
 which have decomposed it are wholly deprived of 
 the electricity in combination with them. With a 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 5 
 
 view to withdraw positive electricity absolutely from 
 the acid, and negative electricity from the potassium, 
 I coupled the tube containing the acid which had 
 been used in the decomposition of the iodide, with a 
 tube containing a fresh supply of potassium, and 
 connected their platina wires with each other as is 
 represented in Fig. 1, and inferred that the negative 
 electricity, in combination with the potassium, would 
 withdraw, when the tray was brought to a red heat, 
 what remained, if any, of the positive electricity of 
 the acid; and in like manner I coupled the tube 
 containing the potassium, which had also been used 
 in the decomposition of the iodide, with a tube con- 
 taining a fresh supply of acid, and inferred that what 
 remained of the negative electricity, in combination 
 with the potassium, would be withdrawn by the 
 positive electricity of the acid. 
 
 16. The views that I have advanced at the com- 
 mencement of this Tract on Electro-Chemistry, and 
 the experimental results which I have obtained in 
 corroboration of those views, render the following 
 experiments by Sir H. Davy on the " Transfer of 
 Elements," intelligible. 
 
 17. When three cups, N, I, P, are arranged as 
 represented in the woodcut, and the negative wire 
 from a powerful battery is introduced into cup N, 
 
16 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 N 
 
 and the positive wire into P, the three cups being 
 connected by means of amianthus — how is it, that 
 when a solution of a neutral salt is put into I, and 
 distilled water into the cups N and P, the neutral 
 salt is decomposed, and in every instance the acid 
 base of the salt is decanted into P, and the alkaline 
 base into N ? * 
 
 The ponderable constituent of the acid in the solu- 
 tion of the neutral salt is attracted to the positive 
 wire in the cup P, and there combining with positive 
 electricity, resumes the properties of the acid ; and 
 the ponderable constituent of the alkali is attracted 
 to the negative wire in the cup N, and there com- 
 bining with negative electricity, resumes its alkaline 
 properties. 
 
 18. When N is filled with a solution of the sul- 
 phate of potash, and the cups I and P with distilled 
 
 * According to the view taken in these notes, of the composi- 
 tion of acids and alkalies, the term base of the acid or base of 
 the alkali is applied to the ponderable elements of those bodies. 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 7 
 
 water, the water in I being tinged with a solution of 
 litmus, how is it that, in the decomposition of the 
 sulphate of potash, the acid base of the salt is trans- 
 ferred to cup P, but in passing through the interme- 
 diate cup I the blue tincture of litmus does not 
 assume a red colour ? 
 
 The constituents of a neutral salt possess neither 
 the properties of an acid nor those of an alkali ; 
 when, therefore, the sulphate of potash in the cup N 
 is decomposed, the acid base of the salt has not yet 
 acquired the properties of an acid — it has not yet 
 combined with positive electricity ; it therefore passes 
 through the solution of litmus in the intermediate 
 cup I, without changing its blue colour into red ; and 
 is decanted into cup P, where it combines with posi- 
 tive electricity, and has its acid properties restored. 
 If the contents of the cup P be now poured into the 
 intermediate cup I, the blue tincture of the litmus 
 will assume a red colour. 
 
 19. When the cup P is filled with a solution of 
 the sulphate of potash, and the cups N and I with 
 distilled water, the water in 1 being tinged with 
 turmeric, how is it that in the decomposition of the 
 sulphate of potash, the alkaline base of the salt, in 
 passing through the intermediate cup I on its route 
 to N, does not change the colour of the turmeric ? 
 
 c 
 
1 8 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 In the decomposition of the salt, the alkaline base 
 does not possess alkaline properties ; it has not yet 
 combined with negative electricity ; it therefore does 
 not change the colour of the turmeric in its passage 
 through I. When, however, it reaches the cup N, 
 it there combines with negative electricity, and has 
 its alkaline properties restored. If the contents of 
 the cup N be now decanted into I, the colour of the 
 turmeric will undergo the characteristic change. 
 
 20. When the cup I is filled with a weak solution 
 of ammonia, the cup N with a solution of the sul- 
 phate of potash, and distilled water is put in the cup 
 P, the sulphate of potash is decomposed ; the acid 
 base of the salt being set free, is attracted by the posi- 
 tive wire to the cup P, but in its passage through I 
 it produces no chemical change upon the solution of 
 ammonia; a combination does not take place be- 
 tween the ammonia and the acid base which passes 
 through it. How is this ? 
 
 The sulphate of potash in the cup N is decom- 
 posed, and the acid base of the salt set free is 
 attracted towards the cup P ; but in passing through 
 the intermediate cup, it does not combine with the 
 ammonia and form a neutral salt, because the alkali 
 in I requires to give off its negative electricity before 
 its ponderable constituent can combine with the 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 9 
 
 ponderable constituent of the acid. The ponderable 
 constituent of the alkali has a greater affinity for its 
 imponderable element than it has for the acid base 
 that passes through it. There is therefore no che- 
 mical change upon the solution of ammonia in the 
 cup I. When, however, the acid base of the sul- 
 phate of potash reaches the cup P, it there combines 
 with positive electricity, and has its acid properties 
 restored. If the solution in P, which is now a solu- 
 tion of sulphuric acid, be decanted, into I, the positive 
 electricity of the acid will unite with the negative 
 electricity of the alkali, heat being the product ; and 
 the residual constituents of acid and alkali will now 
 combine and form a neutral salt, namely, the sulphate 
 of ammonia. 
 
 21. When a solution of the nitrate of potash is 
 placed in the cup P, distilled water in N, and sul- 
 phuric acid in I, the nitrate of potash is decomposed, 
 and the alkaline constituent of the salt is drawn 
 through the cup I without undergoing any change 
 itself, or causing any change in the acid. What is 
 the reason of this ? 
 
 The alkaline constituent of the salt when it enters 
 the cup I, containing sulphuric acid, does not com- 
 bine with that acid. The sulphuric acid requires to 
 be disunited from its positive electricity before it can 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 combine with the alkahne base of the salt. When, 
 however, the alkaline base passes to cup N, it there 
 unites with negative electricity, and has its alkaline 
 properties restored. If now the alkaline solution in 
 N be poured into cup T, the positive electricity of 
 the sulphuric acid will unite with the negative elec- 
 tricity of the alkali, and the base of the acid and 
 the base of the alkali will now unite and form a 
 neutral salt. 
 
 22. When a solution of the sulphate of potash is 
 put into the cup N, distilled water in P, and a solu- 
 tion of baryta in I, the sulphate of potash is decom- 
 posed, and the base of the acid, one of the consti- 
 tuents of the salt, is attracted by the wire in P, and 
 is liberated ; but the base of the acid does not pass 
 through the solution of baryta as it passed through 
 the solution of ammonia, but combines with the base 
 of baryta, and is precipitated. How is this ? 
 
 The base of baryta has the greatest affinity for 
 the base of sulphuric acid, insomuch that it separates 
 the base of that acid from all the alkalies and alka- 
 line earths with which it combines, namely, from 
 strontia, potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and ammonia. 
 To account, therefore, for the precipitate in I, the 
 base of baryta having a greater affinity for the base 
 of sulphuric acid than it has for the negative electri- 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 21 
 
 city with which it is united, the baryta is decom- 
 posed, the negative electricity is set free, and the 
 base of the acid is arrested in the intermediate cup 
 I by combining with the base of baryta, and because 
 of this a precipitate of the sulphate of baryta takes 
 place. 
 
 23. When an acid and an alkali are brought into 
 contact, how is it that great heat is evolved and a 
 compound formed, possessing neither the properties 
 of an acid nor an alkali ? 
 
 The acid, in combining with an alkali, gives off 
 its positive electricity, and is thus deprived of that 
 which imparted to it the properties of an acid ; and 
 the alkali, in combining with an acid, gives off its 
 negative electricity, and is thus deprived of that 
 which imparted to it alkaline properties ; and be- 
 cause of this a compound is formed by the combina- 
 tion of the ponderable constituents of the acid and 
 alkali — possessing neither alkaline properties nor 
 those of an acid, and the great heat evolved is con- 
 sequent upon the union of the two electricities which 
 are given off. 
 
 24. If a platinum capsule, which contains a solu- 
 tion of caustic potash, be connected with one wire 
 of an electrometer, and a slip of platinum connected 
 with the other wire is dipped into nitric acid, and 
 
22 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 introduced into the potash, why does the capsule in 
 contact with the alkali indicate the presence of ne- 
 gative, and the slip of platinum in contact with the 
 acid indicate the presence of positive, electricity ? 
 
 The acid, in combining with the alkali, gives off 
 its positive, and the alkali, in combining with the 
 acid, gives off its negative, electricity ; and there- 
 fore the slip of platinum in contact with the acid 
 indicates the presence of the former, and the platinum 
 capsule in contact with the alkali the presence of the 
 latter, electricity. 
 
 25. In double decompositions, as in the case of 
 the two neutral salts when they decompose one 
 another, in which the acid base of the one combines 
 with the alkaline base of the other respectively, how 
 is it that these combinations give rise to no heat, and 
 no current of electricity ? 
 
 When an acid and an alkali enter into combina- 
 tion and form a neutral salt, they give off their re- 
 spective electricities, heat being the product ; and 
 therefore in double decompositions, when the two 
 neutral salts decompose one another, and enter into 
 new combinations, the constituents of these salts 
 have no electricity to give off, and because of this 
 they give rise to no heat and no current of elec- 
 tricity. 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 23 
 
 26. When an acid decomposes a neutral salt by 
 combining with the alkaline base of the salt, how is 
 it that the acid base which is set free has its acid 
 properties restored ? The acid which decomposes 
 the neutral salt, in combining with the alkaline base 
 of the salt, gives off its positive electricity to the 
 base of the acid which is liberated, and because of 
 this the acid base which has been set free has its 
 acid properties restored. In the same manner the 
 alkali which decomposes a neutral salt gives off to 
 the alkaline base which is liberated its negative 
 electricity, and because of this the alkaline base 
 which has been set free has its alkaline properties 
 restored. 
 
 27. Hydrogen obtained from water without oxygen, 
 and oxygen from water without hydrogen, 
 
 28. Is water a binary compound, and are oxygen 
 and hydrogen the constituents of that body ? Or is 
 it a binary compound, which, when under electro- 
 decomposition, one of its constituents combines with 
 positive electricity, and oxygen is the product ; and 
 the other constituent combines with negative elec- 
 tricity, and hydrogen is the product ? 
 
 29. Or is it an elementary body, which, when 
 under electro-action, positive electricity combines 
 
24 
 
 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 with the water, and oxygen is the product; and 
 negative electricity combines with the water, and 
 hydrogen is the product? With a view to the 
 solution of this last question, I made the following 
 experiment : — 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 30. F'ig. 4 represents a glass vessel with two 
 compartments, C and D ; these compartments are 
 separated from each other by a platinum plate, A B, 
 ten inches in diameter. The compartments are 
 water-tight, insomuch that water, when poured into 
 one of the compartments, has no communication with 
 the other. G and H, are two tubulures, into which 
 stoppers are tightly fitted, and through which the 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 25 
 
 wires from a galvanic battery are introduced into the 
 vessel — the negative wire into the compartment C, 
 and the positive wire into D. These wires, as they 
 pass through the stoppers, are encased in capillary 
 tubes, with only their extremities exposed. The 
 vessel has two tubulures, E and F, into which tubes 
 are inserted which have their upper extremities 
 sealed. These tubes are bent at their lower extremi- 
 ties to collect the gases which come off from the 
 respective wires of the battery. The cells of the 
 battery which I employ, are filled with spring 
 water, and the glass vessel with water that has been 
 distilled. It is evident that gas will come off from 
 the extremities of both wires of the battery, just as 
 if no platinum plate was interposed — platinum being 
 a conductor of electricity ; and it is obvious that 
 whatever quantity of electricity is concentrated at 
 the extremity of either wire, an equivalent quantity 
 of electricity will be induced upon the surface of the 
 plate opposite to the wire, and I experimentally 
 found that this induced electricity was diffused over 
 the surfaces of the plate. And as oxygen and 
 hydrogen are not given off from the wires of a bat- 
 tery when the electricity is low in intensity and 
 small in quantity, I therefore inferred that when the 
 power of the battery was so very low that the 
 
26 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 
 
 gases were sparingly given off from the respective 
 wires of the battery, the induced electricity of the 
 plate, consequent upon its distribution over so large 
 a surface, would be so attenuated, so low in inten- 
 sity and so small in quantity, at any one point of its 
 surface, that neither oxygen nor hydrogen would be 
 given off from the plate, and therefore when hydro- 
 gen was eliminated from the negative wire, oxygen 
 would not be given off from the surface of the plate 
 presented to that wire ; and also that oxygen when 
 eliminated from the positive wire, hydrogen would 
 not be given off from the surface of the plate pre- 
 sented to that wire ; and thus hydrogen might be 
 obtained from water without oxygen, and oxygen 
 from water without hydrogen. 
 
 31. Since May, 1856, nearly two years ago, a 
 constant stream of hydrogen has been given off from 
 the negative wire of the battery, and also a constant 
 stream of oxygen from the positive wire ; but not a 
 bubble of gas, during all that time, has appeared 
 upon either surface of the platinum plate, or upon 
 the sides of the vessel. I have tested again and 
 again the gases which are collected in the tubes con- 
 tained in the glass vessel, and I find that it is 
 hydrogen which comes off from the negative, and 
 oxygen from the positive, wire of the battery, and 
 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 27 
 
 not a mixture of the two gases, as some have sup- 
 posed. It may be said, that the positive electricity 
 which is induced upon the surface of the plate oppo- 
 site to the negative wire of the battery, gives off to 
 the water oxygen, which is aborbed by it, and 
 therefore is not apparent ; but I would infer that 
 after two years' action, or nearly so, of the battery, 
 the gas would have been visible somewhere; but 
 not the slightest trace can I find of oxygen in the 
 compartment of the vessel in which positive electri- 
 city is induced upon the plate, nor of hydrogen in the 
 other compartment, in which upon the plate negative 
 electricity is induced. It would appear that the 
 electricity is so low in intensity, and so small in 
 quantity at any one point upon the surface of the 
 plate, that the gases are not eliminated. 
 
 32. In the compartment of the glass vessel in which 
 oxygen comes off from the positive wire of the battery, 
 there appears a growth or a green deposit in the lower 
 part of the vessel, and also in the lower part of the 
 other compartment the water has assumed somewhat 
 of a red colour. How this is to be explained, I do 
 not know. As the experiment, however, still goes 
 on and may continue for years, I have no doubt but 
 that these appearances will be accounted for. 
 
28 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 
 
 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 
 
 33. Is heat a binary compound? And are its 
 elements the two electricities ? 
 
 34. When the two electricities combine, what is 
 the product ? Is it not heat ? 
 
 35. If heat is a binary compound, of which 
 the elements are the two electricities, is it by the 
 decomposition of heat that ordinary electricity is 
 evolved ? 
 
 36. If ordinary electricity is evolved by the de- 
 composition of heat, what is the process by which 
 the common electrical machine is made to give off 
 electricity? Is the heat which is excited by the 
 friction of the rubber upon the glass cylinder decom- 
 posed, the heat being interposed between two bodies, 
 of which one has an affinity for positive and the 
 other for negative electricity ; the glass of the 
 cylinder being the one that attracts and carries off 
 the positive electricity, and the silk of the rubber 
 the other that attracts and gives off the negative 
 electricity ? 
 
 37. It is the opinion of some of our lecturers on 
 chemistry, that the electricity manifested by the 
 
NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 29 
 
 electrical machine is derived from the ground, and 
 not from the machine itself; also in some of our 
 standard works on chemistry, as well as those on 
 electricity, the same opinion obtains. Thus in Stur- 
 geon's lectures on electricity, the following state- 
 ments are made : — " When the cushion is in metallic 
 connection with the ground by means of the copper 
 wire, or when the hand is placed on it, it gets an 
 abundant supply from that source." Again, " I have 
 already stated in a former lecture, that the insulated 
 cushion or rubber of a machine yields but a small 
 portion to the revolving glass, because of a want of 
 supply from the ground." Also in one of our 
 standard works on chemistry, it is there stated " that 
 when one conductor is un-insulated, the electricity 
 derived from the other is proportionably augmented ; 
 in the positive conductor, because then the other 
 draws uninterrupted supplies from the earth." 
 
 38. The following experiment proves that this 
 opinion is erroneous. 
 
 To the ball of the prime conductor of an electric 
 machine I presented an insulated conductor B, one 
 of the extremities of which terminated in a metallic 
 ball, and was placed within less than an inch of the 
 ball of the prime conductor. The other extremity 
 terminated in numerous points or needles. A similar 
 
30 
 
 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 
 
 conductor A, similarly situated, was presented to the 
 ball on the negative side of the machine. The 
 whole apparatus was supported upon glass pillars 
 and had no electrical communication with the ground 
 by means of a chain or otherwise. Upon turning 
 the glass cylinder of the machine, a constant succes- 
 sion of sparks took place between the ball of the 
 prime conductor of the machine and the ball of the 
 insulated conductor B, as also a constant succession 
 of sparks took place between the ball at the negative 
 side of the machine and the ball of the insulated 
 conductor A, and by continuing to work the machine 
 a rapid succession of sparks for any length of time 
 was maintained. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
"notes on tpie two electricities. 31 
 
 39. But in this last experiment, it is said that the 
 metallic points which project from the conductors A 
 and B withdraw electricity from the atmosphere 
 which is imparted to the machine, and this is indi- 
 cated by a constant succession of sparks that takes 
 place between the balls of the conductors A and B, 
 and those of the machine itself. That this view is 
 also erroneous. I removed from their place the con- 
 ductors with the metallic points, and into the upper 
 part of each of the conductors of the machine I in- 
 serted the extremity of a brass wire, the other ex- 
 tremity of which terminated in a brass ball ; the 
 wires with the balls were made to bend towards 
 each other as is represented in Fig, 6. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
32 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 
 
 I found by this addition to the electrical machine, 
 that upon turning the glass cylinder a constant suc- 
 cession of sparks took place between the balls. As 
 the common electrical machine has all its projections 
 rounded off, it does not, when insulated, give off 
 with facility electricity to the atmosphere, or to the 
 surrounding bodies, or withdraw electricity from 
 them. This constant succession of sparks between 
 the balls, must therefore be derived from the machine 
 itself. In order to prove that the electricity thus 
 made manifest was not derived from the atmosphere, 
 I replaced the conductors with the metallic points in 
 their former position, connecting, however, the balls 
 at their extremities with the balls of the conductors 
 of the machine. Upon again turning the glass 
 cylinder, the electric sparks between the balls {Fig. 
 6) did not now take place. It was therefore 
 obvious that the metallic points of the insulated con- 
 ductors, instead of supplying additional electricity to 
 the machine by withdrawing it from the atmosphere, 
 withdrew electricity from the machine, and gave it 
 off to the atmosphere ; and in a dark room this was 
 indicated by the appearance of minute sparks of 
 electricity at the metallic points of the conductors. 
 
 40. If heat is a binary compound, of which the 
 elements are the two electricities, is it by the decom- 
 
NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 33 
 
 position of heat that electricity by induction is 
 evolved ? 
 
 When a body is charged with one of the twd 
 electricities, electrical induction takes place in the body 
 to v^hich it is presented — is the heat of the induced 
 body decomposed, one of the constituents of which 
 is attracted, and the other repelled, by the adja- 
 cent body charged with one of the two electrici- 
 ties? 
 
 I may state one or two examples of electrical in- 
 duction as, I conceive, they occur in nature. When 
 a cloud charged with one of the two electricities 
 passes over the spire of a church, the spire by elec- 
 trical induction is charged with the opposite electri- 
 city ; and when the attraction of the two electrici- 
 ties, that of the cloud and that of the spire, is such 
 as shall overcome the low conducting power of the 
 atmosphere, the electricity of the cloud descends and 
 unites with the electricity of the spire, and thus, in 
 common parlance, the spire is said to be struck with 
 lightning. 
 
 Again, when a cloud charged with one of the two 
 electricities passes over the surface of the ocean, it 
 induces the opposite electricity in the water beneath ; 
 and because of the attraction of the two electricities, 
 that of the cloud and that of the water beneath, the 
 
 D 
 
S4 
 
 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 
 
 water rises above its level towards the cloud, and 
 the cloud in a column descends ; and thus is exhibited 
 the remarkable phenomenon of what is called a 
 waterspout. (Fig, 7-) 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 
 '-.C^ 
 
TKACT No. 2. 
 
 ON 
 
 ASTKONOMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL 
 PHENOMENA. 
 
 41. Might it not be said that our Education has 
 become so much an Education of Words, that we 
 cannot get at the truth for verbiage ? and what with 
 verbiage, and involved processes of reasoning — not 
 only may something be said for anything, but a 
 great deal may be said for everything. 
 
 As the corrective to this, must man revert to the 
 ancient Socratic method of interrogatories, which 
 leaves to those to whom the questions are put, to 
 work out their own convictions as to what is truth ? 
 
 OF NEBULA. 
 
 49. Do self-luminous stars within determinate 
 
 D 2 
 
36 OF NEBULiE. 
 
 distances repel each other, but beyond those distances 
 have they a tendency to gravitate towards each 
 other ? And is it because of these antagonist forces, 
 that stars are found associated together in clusters, 
 and not concentrated into one self-luminous or incan- 
 descent mass ? 
 
 43. Does the form of those nebulae {Fig. 8) point 
 out the direction in space to which they trend ? 
 Does each visible star in its motion of translation in 
 space draw after it the nebula with which each is 
 associated ? 
 
 . Fi.G. 8. 
 
 NEBDLiE WITH ONE VISIBLE STAR. 
 
 44. Do those visible stars, which are so often 
 found associated with unresolved nebulse, determine 
 in any way the forms of those nebulse ? 
 
 45. Has the form of the reticulated nebula {Fig. 
 9) been determined by the position of the visible 
 stars with which it is associated ? 
 
OF NEBULA. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 reticulated nebula. 
 
 37 
 
 46. Is it so, that the unresolved nebulae {Fig, 8) 
 are made to converge towards the visible star v^ith 
 which each is associated, but to diverge in the 
 opposite direction, because no star is there situated 
 by which the nebulae might be made to converge in 
 that direction ? 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 nebul42 with binary stars. 
 
38 DARK OR BENIGHTED STARS. 
 
 47. Is it SO, that the nebulae {Fig. 10) because of 
 the attraction of the binary stars with which they 
 are associated, converge in opposite directions towards 
 those stars ? 
 
 48. If so, how is it that the unresolved nebula 
 {Fig. 11) which is only associated with one visible 
 star, situated at one of its extremities, does not 
 diverge in the opposite direction as the nebulae {Fig. 
 8), but is made to converge at both extremities 
 as the nebulae {Fig. 10) which are associated with 
 binary stars ? Is it from this cause the nebula {Fig, 
 1 1 ) is also associated with a binary system, of which 
 the star at one of the extremities is self-luminous, 
 but the star at the other extremity is dark or be- 
 nighted ? 
 
 Fig. H. 
 
 a nebula with one visible star, 
 
 49. In what circumstances might we infer that 
 dark stars do exist in the sidereal heavens ? 
 
 50. Were a visible star to disappear from one of 
 the extremities of one of the nebulae {Fig. 8), and 
 
DARK OR BENIGHTED STARS. 39 
 
 were the nebula from which the star had disappeared 
 to maintain the same convergence as before, towards 
 the point at which the star had ceased to be visible 
 — would the inference be legitimate, that the star 
 which had disappeared was not annihilated, but had 
 ceased to be self-luminous ? 
 
 51. If at the starless extremity of the nebulae 
 {Fig, 11) a star became visible, might we not infer 
 that this new star was not a new creation; but, 
 before its appearance, had existed at the extreme 
 point of this nebula, a non-luminous body ? 
 
 52. Were one of the stars, of a binary system, 
 that revolved about a common centre of gravity, to 
 disappear from our firmament, and were the star 
 which remained visible to preserve the same orbit 
 that it maintained while revolving with its partner 
 before the disappearance took place — would not this 
 go to prove, that the star, which had disappeared, 
 was not annihilated but only darkened ? 
 
 53. The great astronomer, Bessel, has demonstrated 
 that both Sirius and Procyon are binary systems, 
 that each has a revolution about a common centre of 
 gravity, but that the partner of each is a dark or 
 benighted star. 
 
 54. Since the fact has been revealed to us that 
 dark stars do exist in the firmament, when therefore 
 
40 ASTRAL DAYS AND ASTRAL NIGHTS. 
 
 a self-luminous star disappears from the heavens, is 
 it not more legitimate to suppose that the star which 
 has ceased to be visible, has been darkened rather 
 than annihilated ? And when a new star appears 
 in the heavens, is it not more legitimate to suppose, 
 that a dark star in the firmament has become self- 
 luminous, than to suppose that this new star is a new 
 creation ? 
 
 55, How is it, that during the historical period of 
 astronomical science, stars have disappeared from 
 our firmament, and remain still invisible ? And 
 stars, that were before invisible, are now self- 
 luminous? Is it from this cause: In the sidereal 
 heavens an economy obtains of Astral Days and 
 Astral Nights, and because of this, every star in the 
 firmament undergoes, at distant intervals, a periodic 
 change from light to darkness, and again from dark- 
 ness to light ? 
 
 5Q. Captain Jacob, of the Madras Observatory, 
 in a revision of a portion of the British Association's 
 Catalogue of 8,377 Stars, has made the remarkable 
 discovery, that 46 of those stars, whose positions 
 had been determined, are missing. Is it so, that 
 those stars are now benighted stars, that they have 
 ceased to be self-luminous, because i\ieu Astral Night 
 has set in upon them ? 
 
SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 41 
 
 57. As our sun is a star, if therefore every star in 
 the firmament undergoes, at distant intervals, a 
 periodic change from light to darkness, and again 
 from darkness to light, then are proofs to be found in 
 the crust of the earth, v^hich go to establish the 
 remarkable fact, that in the past history of our globe 
 there has occurred the alternate succession of Solar 
 Days and Solar Nights f 
 
 58. If so, is the number of Solar Days and Solar 
 Nights, which Nature in the history of our globe 
 has recorded, just equal to the number of geological 
 systems, of v^hich the crust of the earth is mainly 
 constituted ? 
 
 59' And if so, was the duration of a Solar Day 
 just that period in which the series of strata that 
 constitutes a geological system was deposited ? And 
 was the duration of a Solar Night just the interval 
 that occurred between the deposition of one geologi- 
 cal system and the commencement of the deposition 
 of another — the next in succession ? 
 
 60. Or was that period in which the animals and 
 plants belonging to the same creation continued to 
 exist — the duration of a Solar Day f And was the 
 interval that occurred between the extinction of one 
 creation of animals and plants and the commence- 
 ment of another creation, the next in succession — • 
 
42 SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 
 
 the duration of a Solar Night? In fine, was a 
 geological period just the duration of a Solar Day, 
 and was the interval that occurred between two 
 consecutive geological periods the duration of a 
 Solar Night f 
 
 61. If a period has intervened between the de- 
 position of one geological system and the commence- 
 ment of the deposition of another, the next in 
 succession — what has been the cause of this remark- 
 able break that has thus occurred in the building up 
 of those stratified masses which mainly constitute 
 the crust of the globe ? How came it, that after 
 the series of strata which constitutes a geological 
 system had been deposited, the precipitation of sedi- 
 mentary matter upon the bed of the ocean was 
 suspended ? What was it that bound up the soil, 
 or locked up the rivers, by which earthy matters 
 ceased to be conveyed to the channels of the deep 
 — and what stayed the waves of the ocean by 
 which the rocks upon the sea-shore ceased to undergo 
 further abrasion ? And how .came it that at this 
 period Death had asserted his dominion over all that 
 is sentient in Nature ? Was it because of this — the 
 sun was darkened, and the earth became frigid, and 
 the rivers were frozen, and the ocean transformed 
 into a mass of ice — and thus a breach was made in 
 
SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 43 
 
 the continuity of deposit, while every living thing 
 that had existed perished, whether a denizen of the 
 air, the earth, or the waters ? 
 
 62. Were the solar nights the glacial periods of 
 geologists ? If so, how is it that there is not 
 the slighest trace of glacial action observable in the 
 earliest geological formations ? Is it from this cause 
 — the innate temperature of the globe at the com- 
 mencement of our geological history was such, that 
 when a solar night did occur, the earth did not 
 become frigid ? 
 
 63. As the seeds of plants must have existed in 
 the soil, and the spawn of fish in the ocean, at the 
 close of the more modern geological periods — how 
 is it that the vegetative principle of the one, and 
 the vital principle of the other, must have both been 
 destroyed during the interval that occurred between 
 two consecutive geological periods, inasmuch as the 
 various species of fish and of plants that are found 
 to occur in any one geological epoch, are not identical 
 with those which are found in that which imme- 
 diately precedes it? Is it because of this — the 
 seeds of plants and the spawn of fish were subjected 
 to a cold so intense during the interval that occurred 
 between the deposition of one geological system and 
 the commencement of the deposition of another, the 
 
44 SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 
 
 next in succession, that the vegetative principle of 
 the one, and the vital principle of the other, were 
 both destroyed ? 
 
 Agassiz states that with respect to the fishes of 
 the tertiary epoch, " I have not yet found a single 
 species which was perfectly identical with any 
 marine existing fish except the little species which 
 is found in nodules of clay of unknown geological 
 age in Greenland." 
 
 64. If an economy obtains in the sidereal uni- 
 verse of Astral Days and Astral Nights, then, since 
 the dawn of this our Solar Day, have six thousand 
 years not yet passed away ; or have six thousand 
 years not yet passed away since " darkness brooded 
 o'er the deep," and God said " Let there be light, 
 and there was light " ? 
 
 ON THE ALTERATION IN THE POSITION 
 OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 
 
 ^h. What has been the cause of the alteration that 
 has taken place in the position of the earth's strata 
 from that which was originally horizontal to that 
 which is vertical ; or, if not, to a position more or 
 less inclined to the horizon ? As the igneous rocks 
 
ALTERATION IN POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 45 
 
 were forced from beneath, not in the mass as they 
 are seen by us on the surface of the globe, but in a 
 state of fusion through clefts or fissures in the crust 
 of the earth, and which are represented to us in 
 geological sections as not of great width, is it so 
 that the formation of those clefts or fissures is a suf- 
 ficient cause for the bendings or inflections of strata 
 throughout entire districts, and at distances from 
 those fissures often very remote ? 
 
 66. If a displacement of the strata in the crust of 
 the earth from their original horizontal position to a 
 position more or less inclined to the horizon, has 
 been effected by the upheaving of igneous matter 
 from beneath, how comes it that entire districts of 
 country do occur in which this alteration in the posr- 
 tion of the strata has taken place, but in which 
 geologists have not discovered throughout the whole 
 extent of those districts any trace whatever of 
 igneous rocks or igneous action ? 
 
 67. Which is the cause or which the effect? 
 Was it by the eruption of igneous matter from be- 
 neath that the strata were made to shift from a 
 horizontal position to a position more or less inclined 
 to the horizon ? or was it under the pressure and 
 friction of enormous masses of strata while shifting 
 from a horizontal to an inclined position, that the 
 
46 ALTERATION IN THE 
 
 subjacent rocks were subjected to a heat so intense 
 that their fusion was effected and their eruption 
 took place ? 
 
 68. If in the remote past, the temperature of the 
 globe was greater than it is now, will not the density 
 of the globe, because of this, be greater now than it 
 was then ? 
 
 69. If the innate temperature of the globe, as 
 some philosophers suppose, has been in a state of 
 constant decrease, will not the density of the globe, 
 because of this, have been in a state of constant 
 increase ? 
 
 70. Does not the oblate spheroidal figure of the 
 earth go to prove that, in the remote past, our planet 
 was less dense than it now is, and therefore the mag- 
 nitude of the globe was gTeater then than it is now ? 
 
 71. Humboldt, in his " Cosmos," states "that many 
 of the phenomena presented by our own planetary 
 system lead to the conclusion that the planets have 
 been solidified from a state of vapour/' If our 
 globe has passed from a state of vapour to that of a 
 solid, or its present state of condensation, must it 
 not have passed through all the intermediate states ? 
 
 72. Has our planet, during the whole course of 
 its past history, ceased not to increase in density, 
 and therefore ceased not to diminish in magnitude ? 
 
POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 
 
 47 
 
 73. If so, then is it because of the great lateral 
 pressure which the circumference of a sphere under- 
 goes, when that sphere ceases not to increase in 
 density, and therefore ceases not to diminish in mag- 
 nitude, that has induced those bondings and inflec- 
 flections, or changes of position, which have taken 
 place in the strata of the crust of the earth since the 
 period of their deposition ? 
 
 74. Dr. M'Culloch, in his " Geology of the Western 
 Isles," has made two representations of strata of 
 gneiss which occur in the Island of Lewis, and 
 which have shifted from their original horizontal 
 position, or that position in which they were de- 
 posited, to one that is highly inclined and incur- 
 vated. (See Figs, 12 and 13.) 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
48 ALTERATION IN THE 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Now these strata, with their inflections, were they 
 extended and restored to their original horizontal 
 position, would be subtended by a horizontal base 
 three times greater than that which they now sub- 
 tend. Whence this contraction of base? Is it 
 because the magnitude of the globe was very much 
 greater when the strata of gneiss were deposited 
 than it is now, and therefore the strata, if soft by 
 virtue of the lateral pressure induced by the con- 
 traction of the circumference of the globe, would 
 undergo bendings and inflections while accommodat- 
 ing themselves to the nucleus of a globe, which 
 ceased not to diminish in magnitude ? Is it thus, that 
 the horizontal base which subtended the strata of 
 gneiss during the period of their deposition was so 
 much greater than that which they now subtend ? 
 
 75. If so, what was the magnitude of the globe 
 at the period when gneiss, the first of stratified 
 rocks, were deposited ? 
 
 76. Sir James Hall, in the "Edinburgh Phil. 
 Transactions," vol. vii., has made a representation of 
 
POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 
 
 49 
 
 curved strata of slate, that belong to the transition 
 class of rocks, and which occur near St. Abb's 
 Head. {Ficj, 14.) 
 
 There are sixteen distinct bendings in the course 
 of six miles. Now were those strata extended and 
 restored to their original horizontal position, in place 
 of being subtended, as they now are, by a horizontal 
 base of six miles, they would be subtended by 
 a horizontal base of about ten miles and a half. 
 Whence this contraction of base ? May it not be 
 explained, as before, upon the supposition, that the 
 globe has undergone an increase of density, and 
 therefore a diminution of magnitude, since those 
 strata were deposited ? and as the horizontal base 
 which subtended the primitive strata of gneiss when 
 they were deposited was fully three times greater 
 than that which now subtends them, whereas the 
 
 E 
 
50 ALTERATION IN THE 
 
 horizontal base which subtended the transition strata 
 of slate when they were deposited was only about 
 twice the extent of base which now subtends them, 
 that therefore the strata of gneiss were deposited 
 upon a globe, the magnitude of which was greater 
 than that upon which the transition strata of slate 
 were deposited, and because of this the strata of 
 gneiss suffered a greater contraction of base than 
 the transition strata of slate while adjusting them- 
 selves to the nucleus of a globe which, since their 
 formation, had constantly diminished in magni- 
 tude? 
 
 77. If so, what was the magnitude of the globe 
 when the transition strata of slate were deposited ? 
 
 78. The alterations that have taken place in the 
 position of strata since they were deposited have 
 been referred by geologists to the intrusion of igneous 
 matter into the crust of the earth. The undulations 
 of the strata are supposed to have been induced by 
 that lateral pressure which the adjacent rocks would 
 undergo when a disruption of the strata took place 
 in the formation of the fissure through which the 
 igneous matter was discharged. The strata repre- 
 sented in Fig, 14 have by their inflections suffered 
 a contraction of horizontal base, equal in extent to 
 four miles and a half. This contraction of the base 
 
POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 51 
 
 could not have been greater than was commensurate 
 with the width of the fissure through which the 
 molten matter was discharged. Now in geological 
 sections, the fissures through which the igneous 
 matter is discharged, are represented as not of 
 great width, and quite inadequate to have induced 
 by a lateral pressure those undulations which often 
 extend over a whole district of country. 
 
 79. What is true in respect to the primitive and 
 transition strata holds true in respect to the secondary 
 and tertiary classes of rocks, inasmuch as the hori- 
 zontal base which subtended those strata when they 
 were deposited was greater than the horizontal base 
 which now subtends them, while this difference in 
 respect to the horizontal base of the tertiary strata 
 is less than that of the secondary rocks ; and, as a 
 general law, the difference is always the greater, 
 according to the seniority of strata in respect to the 
 period of their deposition. How is this ? May it 
 not be explained, as before, upon the supposition, 
 that, during the formation of the crust of the earth, 
 the nucleus of the globe has ceased not to undergo 
 a constant increase of density, and therefore a con- 
 stant diminution of magnitude ? 
 
 80. What has been the cause of that want of 
 conformability which is found so often to occur 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 ALTERATION IN THE 
 
 between the strata of two consecutive geological 
 systems ? How came it that after the last mem- 
 ber of a geological system had been deposited, the 
 strata of that system shifted from a horizontal 
 position to one so much inclined to the horizon that 
 the first member of the subsequent formation was 
 deposited upon the edges of those strata ? Was it. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 that during the interval which elapsed between the 
 deposition of one geological system and the com- 
 mencement in the deposition of another — the next 
 in succession — the sun was darkened ; and as the 
 earth during the period in which the solar rays were 
 withdrawn would radiate heat to distant space, and 
 receive no heat ah ewtrd in return, the globe would 
 suffer so great a diminution of temperature that its 
 
POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 53 
 
 density would increase, and therefore its magnitude 
 would diminish ; and because of this, the strata last 
 deposited, when subjected to that lateral pressure 
 which is induced at the circumference of a sphere 
 while that sphere undergoes a diminution of magni- 
 tude, would shift from a horizontal to an inclined 
 position, while adjusting themselves to the nucleus 
 of a globe which had thus diminished in magnitude? 
 Is it thus that the strata of one formation are so 
 often found to lie uncomformable with the strata of a 
 prior formation upon which they are recumbent ? 
 
 The questions which follow in reference to the 
 alteration that has taken place in the position of 
 strata since the period of their deposition, are in- 
 serted from a paper which I contributed to " Black- 
 wood's Magazine," and which appeared in the 
 October number of that journal so long ago as 1819, 
 entitled " Predictions by C. C." 
 
 81. How is it " that strata which were originally 
 horizontal in their position are now inclined to the 
 horizon ? " Is it because " our globe has suffered a 
 constant diminution of magnitude since the strata 
 were deposited which everywhere encompass it ; 
 and, therefore, since those strata at their formation 
 would form as it were the circumference of a larger 
 globe, and are now circumscribing the nucleus of a 
 
54 ALTERATION IN THE 
 
 less, they would, if soft, suffer bendings and inflec- 
 tions while accommodating themselves to a globe 
 constantly diminishing in magnitude ; and if indu- 
 rated, they would break asunder, and assume a posi- 
 tion somewhat inclined to the horizon ; and as the 
 globe diminished more and more in magnitude, the 
 strata would approach more and more to a vertical 
 position ? " 
 
 82. How is it that "strata deviate the more from 
 the horizontal position as they are the more ancient ?" 
 " If this globe has constantly diminished in magni- 
 tude, then the more we recede from the present 
 period the greater will be its magnitude, and, conse- 
 quently, the more ancient the strata, the greater 
 would be the globe upon which they were deposited. 
 Since, therefore, strata, according to their seniority, 
 would, when deposited, form as it were the circum- 
 ference of a larger globe, and they are now all in- 
 vesting the same nucleus, and that the nucleus of a 
 less, it is evident that the strata last formed would 
 require to shift less from their original horizontal 
 position, in order to accommodate themselves to the 
 present magnitude of the globe, than strata of a 
 prior formation ; that, therefore, the more ancient the 
 strata, the more must they be displaced from their 
 first position ; the primitive strata must have there- 
 
POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 55 
 
 fore assumed a position more highly inclined to the 
 horizon than those of a subsequent formation." 
 
 83. " Are earthquakes just the shifting of strata 
 while accommodating themselves to a globe which is 
 constantly diminishing in magnitude ? " 
 
 84. " Was the substance of a vein originally dif- 
 fused throughout the strata which include the vein, 
 and which has been expressed from the strata after 
 the formation of the fissure which now contains it ? " 
 
 ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE 
 BEDS. 
 
 85. What is the origin of those beds of limestone 
 which are found associated with the members of 
 the various geological formations ? As beds of lime- 
 stone are not the result of a mechanical deposit, but 
 of a chemical precipitate, must not the formation of 
 those beds be accounted for, not upon mechanical, 
 but chemical principles ? 
 
 86. It is a fact well known to chemists, that two 
 equivalents of carbonic acid gas, when subjected to 
 a given pressure, will combine with one equivalent 
 of lime, when held in solution, and form the bi-car- 
 bonate of lime — a salt that is soluble in water ; and 
 should the pressure be afterwards removed, one of 
 
56 ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS. 
 
 the equivalents of the bi-carbonate will be given off, 
 and the other equivalent w^ill remain in combination 
 with the lime, which is the carbonate of lime — a 
 salt that is insoluble in water — and is, therefore, 
 precipitated. If, therefore, the ocean, at a remote 
 period, held lime largely in solution, as some geo- 
 logists suppose, and carbonic acid gas escaped then, 
 as it does now, from clefts or fissures in the crust of 
 the earth, it is evident, that if, at a great depth, 
 this gas escaped from a fissure at the bottom of the 
 ocean, it would combine with the lime in solution, 
 and, under the great pressure of the superincumbent 
 waters, would form the bi-carbonate of lime — a salt 
 that is soluble in water. Now, as every soluble 
 body has a tendency to diffuse itself through the 
 menstruum in which it is dissolved, the bi-carbonate 
 of lime, thus formed, would diffuse itself in the 
 waters laterally and vertically, the vertical diffusion 
 being co-extensive with the lateral diffusion; but 
 during the diffusion of the bi-carbonate of lime to- 
 wards the surface of the ocean, the superincumbent 
 pressure of the waters would be gradually removed, 
 until, at length, the bi-carbonate would part with 
 one of its equivalents of carbonic acid gas, and 
 would thus be reduced to a carbonate of lime, 
 which, not being soluble in water, would be preci- 
 
ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS. 57 
 
 pitated : and hence a bed of limestone, co-extensive 
 with the lateral dififusion which had taken place 
 in the ocean of the bi-carbonate of lime, would be 
 formed. 
 
 87- During the process, which we have just de- 
 scribed, by which the bi-carbonate of lime is re- 
 duced to a carbonate, a quantity of carbonic acid 
 gas is given off, precisely equal to the quantity of 
 carbonic acid gas which is precipitated with the 
 lime in the formation of a limestone bed ; that while 
 one equivalent of carbonic acid gas is precipitated 
 with the lime, the other equivalent of the gas is 
 given off, to enter into the composition of the atmo- 
 sphere.* 
 
 88. As the carbonate of lime is insoluble in 
 water, whence was it that the encrinites of the 
 mountain limestone derived their carbonate of lime ? 
 Was it from a bi-carbonate of lime which the ocean 
 held in solution that those encrinites derived their 
 calcareous matter? Was the bi-carbonate decom- 
 posed, of which one equivalent of carbonic acid gas 
 in combination with the lime was appropriated by 
 
 * An analogous process takes place in calcareous springs 
 which are charged with the bi-carbonate of lime — one equiva- 
 lent of carbonic gas is given off to the atmosphere, and the 
 other equivalent in combination with the lime is precipitated. 
 
58 ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS. 
 
 the encrinites, while the other equivalent of carbonic 
 acid gas was given off to the atmosphere ? 
 
 89. If so, was it during the formation of the 
 enormous beds of mountain limestone, when the bi- 
 carbonate of lime, according to the process we have 
 described, was reduced to a carbonate, that the sur- 
 plus carbonic acid gas, which would thus be given 
 off to the atmosphere of the carboniferous period, 
 would be fully adequate to provide for the growth 
 of the luxuriant vegetation of that period ? 
 
 90. How is it that the limestone which occurs in 
 primitive rocks seldom consists of extended beds, 
 but is found in lumpish masses that are included in 
 those rocks ? Is it from this cause — the primitive 
 limestone was deposited in shallow water, when 
 the ocean enveloped the whole globe ; and because 
 of this, when carbonic acid gas escaped from a 
 fissure at the bottom of the ocean, the pressure of 
 the superincumbent waters was not such as to cause 
 the carbonic acid gas to combine with the lime in 
 solution to form a bi-carbonate, but a carbonate of 
 lime ? There would be thus little or no lateral dif- 
 fusion, as the carbonate of lime, when formed, would 
 be immediately precipitated, and thus lumpish 
 masses of limestone would be formed, and not ex- 
 tended beds. 
 
ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS. 59 
 
 ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS. 
 
 91. There is one characteristic of mural cliffs, 
 which, SO far as my observation goes, is common to 
 all, whether those cliffs occur inland or upon the 
 sea-shore. At the base of those cliffs, and along 
 the whole extent of the base, a stratum of rock 
 occurs of softer consistency than the superincumbent 
 rock. When, therefore, a series of strata, somewhat 
 inclined to the horizon, is situated upon the sea- 
 shore, with their escarpments exposed to the action 
 of the waves, and the inferior stratum is composed 
 of softer material than the superincumbent rocks, 
 the stratum of softer consistency undergoes a more 
 rapid abrasion than the rocks above ; and because 
 of this, those rocks are left unsupported, and from 
 time to time give way, and thus a mural cliff, with 
 a perpendicular face, is formed. 
 
 92. On those parts of the coast where the sea has 
 made rapid encroachments upon the dry land, I 
 have observed that this occurs more particularly 
 where a cliff rests upon a thin stratum of rock, of 
 which the consistence is of softer material than the 
 rock of which the cliff is composed. The sea ex- 
 
60 ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS. 
 
 cavates the softer stratum at the base of the cliff, 
 and the superincumbent rock, being left unsupported, 
 gives way. 
 
 Now, might not this inroad of the sea upon the 
 dry land be prevented, and that, too, at a trivial 
 cost, by building up with concrete masonry the ex- 
 cavated part of the stratum at the base of the cliff, 
 which is often not more than one or two inches in 
 thickness ? and thus the further abrasion of the 
 softer stratum, upon which the cliff is recumbent, 
 would be kept in abeyance, and the further en- 
 croachment of the sea effectually prevented. 
 
 93. A mural cliff of sandstone occurs upon the 
 sea-coast near the city of St. Andrew's. The cliff 
 extends from the baths of that city westward, and 
 rests upon a thin stratum of coal. The sea exca- 
 vates the coal at the base of the cliff, and the super- 
 incumbent rock gives way. It is said, that at one 
 period the sea made such rapid encroachments at 
 this place that the inhabitants contemplated the 
 construction of a breakwater, with a view to the 
 protection of the cliff. Now, might not the further 
 demolition of the rock be easily and effectually pre- 
 vented by building up, with solid masonry, the ex- 
 posed part of the coal-bed, which is not more, as 
 far as my recollection goes, now fifty years ago. 
 
ON CAVES. 61 
 
 than six inches in thickness ? The coal would thus 
 be protected from further abrasion, and the further 
 demolition of the cliff prevented. 
 
 94. A mural cliff consisting of basalt, called the 
 King's Craig, is situated betv^een the towns of 
 Burntisland and Kinghorn, and is considerably ele- 
 vated above the present level of the sea. At the 
 bottom of the craig, a thin stratum of coal, about 
 an inch in thickness, extends the whole length of 
 the base. Now, whence came the perpendicularity 
 of that rock ? and whence its mural aspect ? Was 
 that rock, at a former but remote period, exposed to 
 the action of the waves ? and because of this, the 
 stratum of coal at the base of the cliff would 
 undergo a much more rapid abrasion than the rock 
 above ; and, therefore, the exposed part of the 
 superincumbent rock would, from time to time, be 
 left unsupported, which, giving way, a mural cliff 
 presenting a perpendicular face would be formed ? 
 
 ON CAVES. 
 
 95. What is the origin of those caves which 
 occur in the cliffs upon the sea-shore, and which 
 present somewhat the form of a hollow sphere ? 
 Are they formed thus — In a cave which presents 
 
62 
 
 ON CAVES. 
 
 such a form, I have observed, that in the rock in 
 v^hich it occurs, a rent or cleft extends along the 
 roof of the cave from the mouth inwards into the 
 rock above ; and when the sand and gravel at the 
 bottom of the cave is removed, the same cleft is 
 found to extend from the mouth of the cave inwards 
 into the rock ? If, therefore, this cleft existed in the 
 rock before the cave was formed, the waves, as they 
 dashed at random upon the sea-shore, would carry 
 along with them particles of sand, which, as they 
 penetrated the cleft in the rock, would widen it by 
 their attrition, and would continue to enlarge it, until 
 at length gravel as well as sand would be dashed in 
 by the waves ; and while the particles of sand were 
 
 Fia. 16. 
 
 penetrating still further into the cleft of the rock, the 
 
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS. 63 
 
 gravel which had entered would be left behind, to 
 give additional width to that part of the cavity 
 that had already been formed. The breach in the 
 rock would, at length, became so large that boulders 
 as well as gravel would be dashed in by the waves, 
 which, during their continued action, would excavate 
 a cavern, the form of which would be that of a 
 hollow sphere. 
 
 ON ERRATIC BLOCKS. 
 
 96. It would appear that the theory which Sir 
 Charles Lyell has promulgated with the view to 
 account for the transport of erratic blocks — namely, 
 by the agency of icebergs — has not been fully 
 adopted by geologists, as we still read of currents of 
 water and waves of translation as the agents em- 
 ployed in the transport of those blocks. 
 
 97. When erratic blocks have been removed to a 
 distance remote from the parent rock, and have, not- 
 withstanding, preserved their angular parts sharp 
 and entire, does not this argue that those massive 
 fragments have been carried to the place that they 
 now occupy, and there deposited? that as their 
 edges, during their transport, had not been subjected 
 to attrition, therefore, neither currents of water nor 
 waves of translation were the agents by which those 
 
64 ON ERRATIC BLOCKS. 
 
 blocks of stone were impelled forwards to occupy 
 their present position, inasmuch as currents of water, 
 or waves of translation, adequate to the transmission 
 of such masses, must have swept before them all the 
 loose sand and gravel and earthy matters which they 
 met with in their course, and have made that part of 
 the bed of the ocean bare over which they travelled ? 
 Those blocks of stone would have, therefore, been 
 impelled forward over a rocky bottom ; and because 
 of this, their edges would have been subjected to 
 attrition, and their angular parts rounded off. 
 
 In the island of Arran, about a mile east from 
 the village of Lamlash, I found upon the sea-shore 
 blocks of granite of several tons weight. The 
 upper part of each had its angular parts rounded 
 off; but the base of each, which rested upon the 
 level surface of a sandstone rock, was flat, as is 
 here represented. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 65 
 
 Now, how came it that the sharp edges at the 
 base, during the transport of those blocks, should 
 have escaped abrasion, notwithstanding that the 
 parent rock was six miles distant ? Was it because 
 those blocks of granite had been conveyed from the 
 rock in situ upon an iceberg or a raft of ice, with 
 all their angular parts entire, to the place which 
 they now occupy, and there deposited ? and as the 
 flat base of each massive fragment rested upon the 
 level surface of the subjacent rock, the sharp edges 
 at the base were thus protected from the possibility 
 of abrasion? The upper portions of the blocks, 
 however, having been exposed to the action of the 
 waves, sand and gravel were dashed upon them, by 
 the attrition of which the angular parts were, in 
 process of time, rounded off. 
 
 NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 98. Was it by physical and other appliances, on 
 the part of the Creator, that the w^orks of creation 
 were evolved ? Of the three Hebrew^ words " ^^"^2 
 create, r\^y make, '^T form or fashion ; though each 
 of these has its shade of distinction, yet the best 
 critics understand them as so nearly synonymous 
 
66 NOTES ON THE 
 
 that, at least in regard to the idea of making out of 
 nothing, little or no foundation for that doctrine 
 can be obtained from the use of the first of these 
 words ." — Kitto's Cyclopcedia — Creation . 
 
 99. There was a period in the history of the 
 world, when the crust of the globe did not exist ; 
 and there was a period still more remote, when the 
 globe itself was not. Is it not as legitimate to 
 speculate upon the formation of the nucleus of the 
 globe, and the matter from which it sprang, as to 
 speculate upon the formation of the crust of the 
 globe, and the matter by which it was formed ? 
 
 NOTES ON COMETS. 
 
 100. What are those comets which traverse the 
 solar system in vast eccentric orbits? Are they 
 oceans isolated in space ? And because of this is a 
 comet with an eccentric orbit a solid, or a mass of 
 ice as it traverses the region of its aphelion ? Is it 
 a liquid as it nears the sun, and is it a vapour as it 
 moves in the region of its perihelion ? And is it 
 so, that a portion of that vapour from its proximity 
 to the sun is resolved into steam and thus becomes 
 invisible? After the perihelion passage has taken 
 place, and during the comet's recess from the sun, is 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 67 
 
 the portion of that vapour, which from its proximity 
 to the sun had become transparent, again by a 
 reduction of temperature made visible, and during 
 the comet's further recess from the sun is the vapour, 
 from a still greater reduction of temperature, con- 
 densed into a liquid, and thus the comet without a 
 tail and without a nebulous atmosphere presents 
 itself as a star of inferior magnitude — a bright con- 
 centrated point ? 
 
 Sir John Herschel, in his observations on Halley's 
 comet, which made its appearance in 1835, states, 
 that on the evening of the 28th of October, before 
 the termination of the twilight, he obtained an ex- 
 cellent view of Halley's comet, eighteen days pre- 
 vious to its perihelion passage ; its appearance was 
 about that of a star of the third magnitude, which, 
 as the darkness increased, appeared somewhat hazy. 
 In a night glass the tail 3° in length was con- 
 spicuous. After the perihelion passage had taken 
 place, Sir John Herschel observed that the comet 
 was actually increasing in dimensions and with 
 such rapidity that it might almost be said to be 
 seen to grow. (The increase in the dimensions of 
 comets in their recess from the sun was pointed out 
 by M. Valz.) In the comet's further recess from the 
 sun the continued dilatation of the comet was ob- 
 
 F 2 
 
6& NOTES ON THE 
 
 servable. Sir John Herscbel says, " I can hardly 
 doubt that the comet was fairly evaporated in 
 perihelio by the heat and resolved into transparent 
 vapour, and is nov^ in process of rapid condensation 
 and re-precipitation on the nucleus. During the 
 comet's retreat from the sun the tail began to be 
 developed. The nucleus became more bulky, hazy, 
 and ill defined, and its tail v^as strong, which after- 
 wards gradually and entirely disappeared." 
 
 Henceforward the comet presented the appear- 
 ance of a round nebula, highly and very suddenly 
 condensed in the middle, which gradually died 
 away until finally lost. M. Boguslawski, professor 
 of astronomy, sixty days after the perihelion passage, 
 actually observed the cornet as a star of the sixth 
 magnitude — a bright concentrated point. 
 
 101. Is it not so, that the impact of a comet upon 
 our world is possible ; and when we reflect upon 
 the number of comets which traverse the solar 
 system whose aphelion pas::age is be3''ond that of 
 our planet, but whose perihelion passage is within 
 the earth's orbit, — is it not so, that the imj^act of a 
 comet upon our world is probable ? Moreover when 
 we consider the ages that have rolled on during the 
 past history of our world, and the countless num- 
 bers of comets which have traversed the solar 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 69 
 
 system during that period, and when we reflect that 
 a comet within a given distance of our planet is 
 less attracted towards the sun than towards the 
 earth, — is it not so, that the impact of comets upon 
 our world must have been inevitable ? 
 
 102. If the impact of comets upon our world 
 during its past history must have been inevitable, 
 and a comet which traverses the solar system is an 
 ocean isolated in space, is it so that our world has 
 derived its ocean from the visitation of comets ? 
 
 103. But what are those comets, the discovery 
 of which was made by Encke and Biela? Are 
 they portions of the atmosphere of that planet 
 which by a ** cosmical convulsion," is supposed to 
 have burst into fragments ; and is it so, that other 
 portions of that atmosphere and other fragments of 
 that planet are still in reserve for future discovery ? 
 
 104. If a comet which, in its course of revolution 
 about the sun, traverses the solar system, becomes a 
 solid, a liquid, and a vapour, — will more of the sun's 
 rays be intercepted b}^ it when it is a solid or a 
 liquid, than when it is a vapour, and more when it 
 is a vapour than when, from its proximity to the 
 sun, it is resolved into steam and becomes invisible ? 
 and is it because the mass of a comet in its course of 
 revolution about the sun never varies, but the impul- 
 
70 NOTES ON THE 
 
 sion of the sun's rays upon it vary, that the comet's 
 orbit is eccentric ? 
 
 105. If those comets which circulate about the 
 sun in vast eccentric orbits are oceans isolated in 
 space, would the impact of a comet upon our world 
 be a force adequate to produce those phenomena 
 which are presented to us in the formation of the 
 boulder clay ? 
 
 According to geologists, the boulder clay formation 
 appears to emanate from a common centre, and owes 
 its origin to no ordinary operations of water. It 
 consists of accumulations of sands, gravel, clays, and 
 boulder stones, huddled up in the same indiscriminate 
 mass, without regard to sedimentary deposition, or to 
 gravity, or to any other law of arrangement. 
 
 1 06. When a comet approaches the sun, how is it 
 that the nebulous matter which constitutes the tail, 
 is extended in the wake of that body ; and how is 
 it when a comet recedes from the sun, the nebulous 
 matter which constituted the tail, is extended in 
 advance of the nucleus ? Is it from this cause : 
 Matter ceases not to be projected from the sun, the 
 momentum of which is such, that as it impinges 
 upon the nebulous atmosphere which surrounds the 
 nucleus of a comet, that atmosphere, during a comet's 
 approach to the sun, is impelled behind and beyond 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 71 
 
 the nucleus ; whereas, when the comet recedes from 
 the sun, the matter which is projected from that body, 
 impels the atmosphere to extend in advance of the 
 nucleus ? 
 
 107. If matter is projected from the sun, and if 
 all space is pervaded by a resisting medium, as phi- 
 losophers now suppose, at what distance from the 
 sun will the matter, which is projected from that 
 body, and transmitted through that medium, be 
 brought to a state of rest ? 
 
 108. As there can be no loss of matter anywhere, 
 but there must be an acquisition elsewhere ; if, there- 
 fore, matter is projected from the sun, in what region 
 in space is the acquisition made ? 
 
 109. Is heat matter ? 
 
 110. Is the solid matter of the solar mass now 
 resolving into heat ? 
 
 111. If the solid matter of the solar mass is re- 
 solving into heat, is there a provision in nature by 
 which again the solar heat is reduced to the con- 
 dition of solid matter ? 
 
 112. Is it not at variance with all that is known 
 in regard to the economy of nature, to suppose that 
 the heat which radiates from the sun, save that in- 
 finitesimal quantity that falls upon the planetary 
 bodies, subserves no immediate or ulterior purpose in 
 
72 NOTES ON THE 
 
 creation, but is dissipated and utterly lost in the in- 
 finitudes of space ? 
 
 113. Does the heat, which radiates from a fixed 
 star, traverse the space which intervenes between 
 that star and the earth ; or is it, in its course, inter- 
 cepted by that resisting medium which is said to 
 pervade all space ? 
 
 114. As it is experimentally known that the heat 
 which radiates from a body in a state of incandes- 
 cence may be intercepted by presenting to that body 
 a transparent resisting medium ; if, therefore, all 
 space is pervaded by a resisting medium, will the 
 heat, which radiates from the sun, be obstructed in 
 its passage through that medium, and finally brought 
 to a state of rest ? 
 
 115. If so, at what distance from the sun will the 
 heat, which is projected from that body, and trans- 
 mitted through that medium, be brought to a state 
 of rest? 
 
 116. Is the heat which radiates from the sun pro- 
 jected to the outskirts of the solar system ? And is 
 it arrested there ? And does it accumulate there? 
 And does it suffer condensation, and is ponderable 
 there ? And as the sun moves onward in absolute 
 space, is it collected into one mass in the solar track ? 
 And is that mass dragged forward in the solar path ? 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 73 
 
 117. Is the sun the parent of the planetary 
 system ? 
 
 118. If the sun is the parent of the planetary 
 system, what is that matter by which the worlds 
 were made ? 
 
 119. If the heat which radiates from the sun is 
 matter, and the sun is the parent of the planetary 
 system, is heat that matter by which the worlds 
 were made ? 
 
 120. If the solid matter of the solar mass is 
 resolving into heat, shall the earth, if burnt up, be 
 resolved into heat ? If, therefore, all the ponderable 
 matter of this world is resolvable into heat, is 
 heat that matter by which this world was 
 made? 
 
 121. If the planets cease not to increase in density, 
 which may be inferred from indications observable in 
 the crust of the earth, and from the oblate spheroidal 
 figure of the globe, the mass of each of the planets, 
 consequent upon the lateral, as also vertical pressure, 
 which the particles of a sphere in a state of conden- 
 sation of necessity undergoes, will resolve itself into 
 numerous concentric spheres, or shells of matter, all 
 separated from each other just as the rings which 
 encircle the planet Saturn are separated. 
 
74 NOTES ON THE 
 
 122. If the mass of each of the planets is disposed 
 into numerous concentric spheres, or shells of matter, 
 is the solar mass also so constituted ? 
 
 123. If the solar mass is disposed into numerous 
 concentric spheres, or shells of matter ; and if from 
 the surface of that mass, matter ceases not to be 
 projected, then, as ages roll on, shall those spheres, 
 or shells of matter, successively disappear ; but be- 
 tween the disappearance of one sphere, and the 
 incandescence of another, shall a long period of dark- 
 ness intervene ? 
 
 124. During the continuance of a solar day, is 
 there projected from the sun, to the remote regions 
 of the solar system, the matter of one of those 
 concentric spheres of which we suppose the solar 
 mass is constituted ; and during the continuance of a 
 solar day, is there accumulated, in the remote regions 
 of the solar system, a mass of attenuated matter, 
 but destined to become the solid fabric of a future 
 world ? 
 
 125. If the tail of a comet is educed and elongated 
 by matter which is projected from the sun, what, 
 therefore, must be the intensity of that force which 
 projected the nebulous atmosphere of the comet of 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 75 
 
 1680, one hundred and twelve millions of miles 
 beyond the nucleus of that body ? 
 
 126. If matter is projected from the sun to the 
 remote regions of the solar system, and is arrested 
 there, will the matter at rest be upheld because of 
 the impact upon it of the matter in motion ? but as 
 the matter collected at the outskirts of the solar 
 system increases in density, and, therefore, diminishes 
 in magnitude, the impact upon it of the matter pro- 
 jected from the sun will be always the less, and, 
 therefore, the matter in process of condensation will, 
 because of this, approach nearer and nearer to the 
 sun ? 
 
 127. If matter is projected from the sun to the 
 remote regions of the solar system, and impinges 
 upon the planetary bodies, the planets are, therefore, 
 acted upon by two forces — by gravity, which impels 
 them in a direction towards the sun, and by the 
 matter projected from that body, which impels them 
 in an opposite direction. Are these two forces, at the 
 mean distance of a planet from the sun, in a state of 
 equilibrium ? 
 
 128. If so, the mass and diameter of a planet 
 being given, to find the position of that planet in the 
 solar system. 
 
 It is possible that the masses of all the planetary 
 
76 NOTES ON THE 
 
 bodies may not yet be accurately determined, as it 
 would appear that Encke's comet has recently led to 
 a determination of a smaller mass for the planet 
 Mercury. 
 
 129. Has the ocean of the planet Venus evapo- 
 rated consequent upon its proximity to the sun ? and 
 because of this, is the apparent disc of that planet 
 enlarged ? 
 
 130. If the density of the planet Venus could be 
 determined apart from the atmosphere which sur- 
 rounds it, would it be found that the density of the 
 solid mass of Venus is greater than that of the 
 Earth? 
 
 131. If the densities of the planets could be respec- 
 tively determined apart from the water and atmo- 
 sphere which surround them, would it be found that 
 the density of the solid mass of a planet is always 
 the greater according to the proximity of that planet 
 to the sun ? 
 
 132. In place of a nebula, according to the nebular 
 hypothesis, giving birth to a star, is it so, that every 
 star gives birth to a nebula or cluster of stars ? 
 
 133. Are the unresolved nebulse or clusters of 
 stars, Fi(]s, 18, 19, 20, the products of the visible 
 stars with which each is associated ? 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Fig 10. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 134. Is the reticulated unresolved nebula, Fig, 
 21, the product of the visible stars with v^hich it is 
 associated ? 
 
 135. Sir John Herschel has noticed, in the London 
 Philosophical Transactions for 1833, " that he has 
 
78 NOTES ON THE 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 reticulated nebula. 
 
 often seen, when the sky is quite clear, all the large 
 stars above the seventh magnitude surrounded with 
 photospheres of 2' or 3' or more in diameter, precisely 
 resembling that about the finer specimens of nebu- 
 lous stars." Do these photospheres consist of luminous 
 points or stars, though yet unresolvable by our best 
 telescopes, each photosphere being a portion of that 
 firmament of stars to which, as we suppose, each 
 star or system of stars is destined to give birth ? 
 
 136. If the planets cease not to increase in 
 density, will they at length become incandescent ? 
 
 137. Do self-luminous stars within determinate 
 distances repel each other ? but beyond those dis- 
 tances, have they a tendency to gravitate toward 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 79 
 
 each other ? And is it because of these antagonist 
 forces, that stars are found associated together in 
 clusters, and not concentrated into one self-luminous 
 or incandescent mass ? 
 
 138. In the remote past, has our sun given birth 
 to numerous planetary bodies, which have become 
 self-luminous, and which are now observable as 
 nebulous matter in the distant regions of the solar 
 system ? 
 
 139. What is the zodiacal light ? Is it analogous 
 to those photospheres which have been observed by 
 Sir John Herschel as surrounding the larger stars of 
 our firmament ; but which, though yet unresolvable 
 by our best telescopes, is a portion of that firmament 
 of stars to which the sun, as we suppose, is destined 
 to give birth ? 
 
 From late observations upon the zodiacal light, it 
 would seem that the light is only upon one side of 
 the sun, and if seen from a distant point of view in 
 space, would it, with the sun, present somewhat the 
 appearance of the nebulse. Fig, 22 ? 
 
 140. Shall the Earth, if burned up, and the planets 
 in their turn, become each the parent of a planetary 
 system ; and thus there shall be the creation of suns, 
 and worlds, and systems in never-ending suc- 
 cession ? 
 
80 NOTES ON THE 
 
 Fig. ^2. 
 
 141. When a mass of matter has a motion of 
 translation in space, and draws after it another mass 
 that contains less matter than itself, will the mass 
 which is dragged move with a greater velocity than 
 the mass which drags it ? In what circumstances 
 will the momentum of the first body be communi- 
 cated to the second, and, therefore, the velocity of 
 the second body will be greater than that of the 
 first? 
 
 142. If the sun, the mass of which is 354,936 
 times greater than that of the Earth, has a motion 
 of translation in space, and draws after it the whole 
 of the planetary bodies, will the velocities of the 
 planets be greater than that of the sun ? 
 
 143. If so, is it this tractile force which the sun in 
 his course imparts to the planetary bodies, that gives 
 motion to those bodies, and not the primal projectile 
 
SOLAR SYSTEM. 81 
 
 impulse which has been assumed by astronomers ? 
 And if so, what extent of orbit would the sun 
 require to describe in absolute space, and with what 
 velocity would the sun require to move in that orbit, 
 that so the tractile force wJdch thus becomes tangential 
 would cause those bodies to describe their respective 
 orbits about the sun ? 
 
 144. If the sun in his motion of translation in 
 space imparts to each of the planetary bodies a 
 tractile impulse, is this impulse imparted and ex- 
 pended with every revolution of a planet about the 
 sun? 
 
 145. How is it that the sun's motion of translation 
 in space at the estimated rate of four hundred and 
 twenty-two thousand miles in twenty-four hours; also 
 the tractile force which the sun in his course imparts 
 to the planetary bodies ; and also the repulsive 
 force by which the nebulous atmosphere of a comet 
 is impelled behind it, as it approaches the sun, but 
 in advance of it as it recedes from that body, are all 
 ignored by astronomers in their rationale of the solar 
 system — whereas in their explication of that sys- 
 tem — a primal projectile impulse, an unresisting 
 medium, and the sun's immobility in space, are 
 hypothetically assumed by them ? 
 
 146. If the corpuscular theory of light be the 
 
82 NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 sound one, and all space is pervaded by a resisting 
 medium, is it so, that the velocity of light is not 
 uniform — is the light, as it is projected from a fixed 
 star, of greater velocity than the light of that star as 
 it nears the earth ? 
 
 147. How is it, that when the occultation of a 
 star takes place behind the limb of the moon, the 
 projection of that star upon the moon's disc is 
 sometimes apparent ? Is it because the velocity of 
 the light which is reflected from the moon, is greater 
 than that of the star which is about to be eclipsed, 
 and therefore the star is apparent upon the moon's 
 disc after the limb of the moon is intercepted 
 between that star and the earth ? 
 
TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 ON A GEOGRAPHICAL NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 148. Desideratum. — The invention and adoption 
 of a New Geographical Nomenclature, of such a 
 nature that the name of every place shall include 
 the longitude and latitude of that place, and thus 
 the name of a place being given, we shall be able 
 to point out the position of that place upon the 
 map; also the longitude and latitude of a place 
 being known, we shall be able to give its name. 
 In addition to this an adjunct would be required 
 to indicate the thing signified — whether a town, a 
 lake, a mountain, an island, and so forth. With a 
 view to this, let the consonants of the alphabet be 
 employed — one of the consonants to indicate that 
 the thing signified is a town, another consonant to 
 indicate that the thing signified is a lake, and so on; 
 and let the vowels be employed to represent magni- 
 tudes. Thus the first vowel of the alphabet an- 
 
 G 2 
 
84 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 nexed to the consonant that represented a town, 
 would indicate a town of the first magnitude, the 
 second vowel annexed would represent a town of 
 the second magnitude, and so on down to the last 
 vowel of the alphabet, which would represent a 
 hamlet. So also with mountains, and lakes, and 
 rivers, and seas, and islands, &c., &c. — each having 
 a consonant to represent it, and the vowel annexed 
 to indicate the magnitude of each. The names of 
 oceans, lakes, countries, and islands would require 
 to be indicated by the longitude and latitude of the 
 central parts of these respectively, and that of a 
 river by the longitude and latitude of the mouth of 
 the river. Thus a Geographical Nomenclature so 
 constructed would, analogous to the chemical no- 
 menclature of the neutral salts, enable us to accom- 
 plish in a few hours what cannot now be achieved 
 in a lifetime. 
 
 ON THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 1 49. Montaigne, when he had passed the years 
 of infancy, was put under the tuition of a Latin 
 master ; and when six years of age, it is said that, 
 without Dictionary, Grammar, or any preparatory 
 task-work, he could speak pure Latin. How very 
 
ON THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGES. 85 
 
 few are able to speak pure Latin under the present 
 system of tuition, though engaged with it, for several 
 hours daily, during the whole, or nearly the whole, 
 of their educational course ! 
 
 Some years ago I put to the test Montaigne's 
 method, or one somewhat analogous to it, of acquir- 
 ing the Latin language. Those young gentlemen 
 whose studies were directed with a view to a mer- 
 cantile profession or to a civil appointment, or with 
 a view to enter the army or navy, were placed 
 under the tuition of a Latin master, who required 
 of them no preparatory task-work before they 
 assembled in their respective classes, but proceeded 
 at once to the work of translation — the master being 
 to them the Dictionary and Grammar. The business 
 of the class consisted at the outset of a very simple 
 exercise — the master translating a sentence of an 
 elementary work in Latin, and the young gentlemen 
 rehearsing it. When the class had acquired a con- 
 siderable vocabulary of Latin words, these elemen- 
 tary exercises were discontinued. The young 
 gentlemen now proceeded to the work of translation 
 themselves, the master guiding them when necessary 
 in the construction of sentences, and still being to 
 them the Dictionary and Grammar. The result, 
 after three years' practice, was so very striking and 
 
86 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 satisfactory, as to warrant me in saying, that, with 
 one hour daily during the whole of an educational 
 course, at this work of translation, young gentlemen, 
 without any further tuition, might proceed at once 
 to construct the most involved sentences, and trans- 
 late the most difficult passages of any Latin author. 
 What is true in respect to the acquisition of Latin 
 by this method must also be true in respect to the 
 acquisition of any other language by the same 
 method. 
 
 ON SCHOOLS OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 150. Would not a great boon be accorded to the 
 nation were the State, by the extension and endow- 
 ment of Schools of Natural Science, to pervade the 
 public mind with that wholesome, and might it not 
 be said divine, knowledge, which is derived from 
 the study of that great Book that has God for its 
 Author — the Book of Nature ? 
 
 We cannot conceive that any sectarian opposition 
 would be offered to a Government Scheme of Edu- 
 cation, the object of which was to impart to all 
 classes, and to individuals of all ages, that know- 
 ledge which is derived from the study of Natural 
 and Social Science, and which is so intimately con- 
 
SCHOOLS OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. 87 
 
 nected with the progress of society and the realities 
 of hfe — the courses of instruction in Natural Science 
 to be such as are taught in our Universities, but cast 
 in a more popular form. That the people of Scot- 
 land are fully prepared for the acceptance of such a 
 scheme of education, we would infer from the at- 
 tendance of artisans upon those lectures on Natural 
 Science that are delivered in our mechanics' schools ; 
 also from the presence of the middle classes in the 
 hall of a provincial town, when a course of lectures 
 is there delivered on any of the Physical Sciences ; 
 and also from the attendance both of the upper and 
 middle classes in the sections of the Scientific Asso- 
 ciation during their sittings in our larger towns. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Let the following courses of Lectures be insti- 
 tuted : — 
 
 1. Mechanical Philosophy. 
 
 2. Chemistry. 
 
 3. Geology. 
 
 4. Astronomy. 
 
 5. Electricity. 
 
 6. Natural History. 
 
 7. Agriculture, Horticulture, and Floriculture. 
 
 8. Social Science. 
 
 There would be thus a series of lectures — one of 
 
88 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 which delivered annually, would extend the curricu- 
 lum to eight years. It would be well that, at the 
 commencement of the second curriculum, the Lec- 
 tures on Mechanical Philosophy or of any of the 
 other courses should not be delivered by the indi- 
 vidual who had lectured in the same town or dis- 
 trict eight years before on the same subject. For, 
 just as one might not be disposed to read the same 
 book twice on any one subject, but might be dis- 
 posed to read two books on the same subject by 
 two different authors, so one might not be disposed 
 to attend the same course of lectures twice when 
 delivered by the same lecturer ; but might be dis- 
 posed to attend two courses of lectures upon the 
 same subject when delivered at long intervals by 
 two different lecturers. In order to this, the lecturers 
 would require to itinerate. We do think, by this 
 arrangement and the changes which would take 
 place in the course of eight years in the various 
 sciences — arising from new discoveries having been 
 made, and new views adopted in those sciences — a 
 goodly attendance upon those lectures in the smaller 
 towns might be perennially maintained. 
 
 Let the Lectureships be endowed by the State, 
 and in order to supplement the endowment, let a 
 small fee be taken. 
 
THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE. 89 
 
 ON THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE. 
 
 151. In all the old communities of Europe the 
 cry of suffering humanity has been heard but not 
 responded to — thousands are inadequately fed and 
 others famishing. Assuredly in the dark and squalid 
 dens at the bottom of the social fabric the realities 
 of wretchedness are there — a wretchedness, consti- 
 tuted as society now is, hopelessly and helplessly 
 endured. We have, however, no sympathy with 
 the sentiment which for the first time was pro- 
 mulgated, and that too in Parliament, by a member 
 of the House of Commons, to the effect that it 
 was grossly deluding the people to tell them 
 that any thing but misery was the lot of the great 
 mass of mankind ; nor with that of M. Thiers, 
 when he states that " in the general plan of things, 
 misery is the inevitable condition of the human 
 race ;" nor with Sir Robert Peel, when he says the 
 sufferings of the poor are irremediable. All this 
 may be true with society constituted as it now is — 
 in which there are more people than there is food for. 
 Where there is an excess of population there must 
 be destitution somewhere, and the tendency of the 
 Poor Laws for the relief of indigence is just to haul 
 in to the gulf of destitution as many as they drag 
 
90 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 out of it. What is wanted is a state of society in 
 which there shall be a right adjustment of the popu- 
 lation between food and numbers. According to the 
 last census of Scotland, 48 per cent, of the adult 
 population between the ages of twenty and forty 
 were unmarried, and still in Scotland there are more 
 people than there is food for. Is it so, that in the 
 old communities of Europe not more than one third 
 of the adult population can marry with impunity, 
 and as the average duration of human life extends, 
 fewer marriages will be required ? 
 
 Were the French Law of Inheritance somewhat 
 modified, it would go far to solve the problem 
 of a right adjustment between food and num- 
 bers. As the law stands at present, there is no 
 limit to the subdivision of landed property. What 
 is required is a limit, and that limit is palpably ob- 
 vious. When once a property under the present 
 process of subdivision is so reduced as shall just 
 afford to an average family an adequate supply of 
 cereal, vegetable and animal food, the State should 
 then interpose, and by a strict deed of entail the 
 further subdivision of the property should forthwith 
 cease ; and while the members of the family to 
 whom the property belongs should equally partici- 
 pate in the produce of it, they should be dispossessed 
 
THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE. 91 
 
 by the deed of entail of the power either to mort- 
 gage or dispose of it — the last surviving member of 
 the family to inherit the whole, and at his decease 
 the property to descend to the family nearest akin. 
 With the French Law of Inheritance thus modified, 
 and with the growing intelligence of a people conse- 
 quent upon a sound secular education in connection 
 with religious instruction — teaching what is due to 
 God and due to mankind — society might be able to 
 work out for itself the great desideratum in our 
 social condition, namely, a right adjustment between 
 food and numbers. In such a state of society it 
 would be better defined than it now is when a man 
 might marry and when he ought not. 
 
 With an increase in the number of entailed pro- 
 perties, more of the agricultural produce would be 
 consumed by the rural population, and consequently, 
 less to disi)Ose of to the inhabitants of towns. 
 Towns as they now are would, therefore, gradually 
 decline, and the country, with the increase of entailed 
 properties, would ultimately become as one great 
 rural city. In the remote past, human beings con- 
 gregated into towns surrounded with walls for self- 
 preservation. Latterly towns have been built with 
 a view to the convenience of carrying on the various 
 trades and professions ; but now that we have rail- 
 
92 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 ways, steamboats, omnibuses, the electric telegraph 
 and the penny postage, there is not the same neces- 
 sity as formerly for a condensation of the population 
 into towns for commercial purposes. As one of these 
 entailed properties would yield to an average family 
 not more than the first necessaries of life, the mem- 
 bers of a family not engaged in agriculture would 
 require to betake themselves to other trades and 
 professions, in order to procure for themselves the 
 second necessaries. These trades and professions 
 would thus revert to what was their original design, 
 namely, to procure for man all that man requires 
 beyond that of mere aliment. With the growing 
 intelligence of the people a question would arise, 
 whether or not it would be more advantageous for 
 those with entailed properties to cultivate their own 
 respective allotments themselves ; or to incorporate 
 a given number of those entailed properties into one 
 farm, to be cultivated for the benefit of the families 
 to whom they belonged. By this arrangement the 
 members of a family would be free to betake them- 
 selves to other trades and professions. 
 
 152. What could man do if he would? Could 
 he morally exist without doing violence to his natural 
 tendencies ? Could he exterminate, if he would, all 
 
SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 93 
 
 hereditary diseases ? Could he physically improve 
 his own species as surely as he improves some of the 
 species of inferior animals ? And by the ameliora- 
 tion of his social condition, and by sanitary observ- 
 ances, could he add another and another decade to 
 the average life of mankind ? 
 
 153. Desideratum. — A treatise on the sinfulness 
 of neglecting sanitary observances, and of perpetu- 
 ating by marriage hereditary diseases. 
 
 154. Is it so, that the Creator does not directly 
 accord health to human beings, but bestows upon 
 them capabilities by which to promote and preserve 
 it ; leaving it mainly to man himself the alternative, 
 whether he shall or shall not enjoy health ? 
 
 155. Desideratum. — With a view to the extension 
 of the average duration of human life, let no one be 
 allowed to build a dwelling-house until the site, the 
 sewerage, the ventilation, and the plan of the house 
 be approved of by a Sanitary Board.* 
 
 * If so, a lower grade of dwelling-house than the following 
 ought not to be sanctioned by a Sanitary Board. The great 
 desideratum in the improvement of our cottages, is an increase 
 in the number of sleeping apartments. The smallness of those 
 apartments, however, in the subjoined plan, requires that they 
 shall be thoroughly ventilated. And this may be done by a 
 partial opening of the windows, but the changeableness and the 
 severity of our climate forbids it. The air which we exspire 
 
94 
 
 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 156. In the construction or upbuilding of every 
 human fabric, would it not be well for man to 
 assume as his standard of taste, that which is 
 observable in the organic structures of the Great 
 Architect — all of which, with rare exceptions, pre- 
 sent externally symmetrical forms — have the per- 
 fection of fitness impressed upon every part, and 
 with the exception of colour, have mainly the 
 absence of all ornament ? 
 
 from the lungs, ought not to be inspired a second time. At a 
 temperature of 96° or thereabouts, it rises to the ceiling of an 
 apartment, where some way of escape for it should be provided. 
 It is therefore proposed that the space between the upper part of 
 the door of each apartment and the ceiling, should be left open, 
 and fresh air admitted through the ventilator in the lobby from 
 openings in the roof of the cottage, which in its descent would 
 pass through air of a higher temperature, and coming in contact 
 with the walls and floor and furniture, would reach the sleeping 
 apartments divested of its superfluous moisture, and with its 
 temperature considerably modified. 
 
 JinvSE 
 
 (,'3"b>/6'a" 
 
 
SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 95 
 
 157. Desideratum. — A Treatise on the Cure of 
 Incipient Diseases. Is it so, that what palliates a 
 disease in its advanced stage, will cure it in its 
 incipient state ? And is it so that there are numer- 
 ous specifics for diseases in their incipient state, but 
 few specifics, if any, for diseases in their advanced 
 stage ? * 
 
 158. It is well known that gases and vapours 
 possess the power of miscibility with each other so 
 remarkably, that when brought together they 
 speedily constitute themselves into one homogeneous 
 mass. It is therefore evident, that extraneous gases 
 or vapours, when they enter the atmosphere, must 
 be rapidly diffused over the districts from which 
 they emanate. Now if atmospheric diseases arise, 
 as is supposed, from a mephitic gas or vapour exist- 
 ing in the atmosphere, how comes it that an atmo- 
 sphere so impregnated with morbid matter does not 
 
 * I have found that the first touch of sore throat, and the first 
 tendency to cough, may be suppressed simply by the use of an 
 emollient, but that they will not be suppressed by such a simple 
 remedy if allowed to go on for several days, or even hours ; and also 
 that the first touch of tooth-ache may be checked by having re- 
 course to any one of those numerous specifics which are adver- 
 tised as a cure for tooth-ache in its advanced stage ; also I find 
 that rheumatism and sciatica upon their first symptom, may be 
 suppressed by the immediate application of a liniment, but 
 which will fail as a remedy if allowed to go on for several hours. 
 
96 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 at once make an invasion upon all the families of 
 the district over which it extends, but capriciously, 
 as it appears to us, to attack isolated families, while 
 others, who seem equally exposed to the contagion — 
 who live in the same district, or in the immediate 
 neighbourhood, escape ? 
 
 159. Do isolated swarms of insects exist in the 
 atmosphere analogous to the animalcules that exist 
 in water, but which are so minute as not sensibly to 
 impair the transparency of the atmosphere ? * If so, 
 are those insects, during the process of respiration, 
 largely inspired into the lungs, insomuch that a mor- 
 bid taint is imparted to the blood? and is it from 
 this cause that fevers and those other diseases which 
 are supposed to be atmospheric, have their origin — 
 one species of insect as it exists in the atmosphere 
 generating one kind of fever — other species generat- 
 ing fevers of a different kind, and so on with other 
 diseases which are also supposed to be atmospheric ? 
 
 160. If animalcules exist in the atmosphere as 
 well as in water, then as putrid water is the habitat 
 of the one class, may not a putrid vapour existing in 
 the atmosphere be the habitat of the other ; and is 
 
 * Ehrenberg has discovered in bog-iron ore, fossil animalcules 
 so very minute, that a cubic inch of the ore contains two millions 
 of millions of those animalcules. 
 
SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 97 
 
 it SO, that each class of insects derives its nutriment 
 from the putrescence which surrounds it ? 
 
 161. Do animalcules which exist in the atmosphere 
 derive their nutriment from the vapours which arise 
 from vegetable or animal matters in a state of putre- 
 faction or decomposition ? and if so, were all vege- 
 table and animal matters buried beneath the surface 
 of the ground the instant the vegetative principle of 
 the one, and the vital princij)le of the other had 
 departed from them, or before decomposition had 
 begun to take place, would atmospheric diseases 
 cease to prevail? 
 
 162. How is it that swarms of insects are ob- 
 served to maintain the same position in the atmo- 
 sphere, without any perceptible movement either to 
 the one side or to the other ? Is it from this cause — 
 In the atmosphere where the insects swarm, there is an 
 escape of vapour from beneath, arising from vegetable 
 or animal matter in a state of decomposition, from 
 w^hich vapour those insects derive their nutriment ? 
 Upon one occasion we observed a swarm of insects 
 hovering above a piece of cloth which had been 
 steeped in fatty matter ; the insects maintained their 
 position above the cloth for such a length of time, 
 that we could not avoid the inference that the posi- 
 
 H 
 
98 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 tion of the insects at that place was in connection 
 with the cloth beneath. 
 
 We therefore removed the cloth to some distance, 
 and immediately the swarm of insects changed their 
 place, and again t oo up their position as before 
 above the cloth. This we repeated several times, 
 and with the same result. 
 
 163. There are certain classes of artisans, such as 
 flax-dressers, millers, hewers of stone, and others, 
 who, it is said, are particularly subject to chest-com- 
 plaints, arising, as it is supposed, from the gritty, 
 dusty or filamentous particles which they draw into 
 their lungs while engaged in their respective occupa- 
 tions. Thus the flax-dresser inspires the filamentous 
 particles which float so abundantly in the atmosphere 
 that surrounds him. The stone-hewer inhales the 
 gritty particles which are driven off* into the atmo- 
 sphere while operating upon calcareous or siliceous 
 blocks of stone; and at one time, too, the flint-grinders, 
 who before the process of grinding under water was 
 adopted, were enveloped during their operations in 
 an atmosphere charged with minute siliceous parti- 
 cles. All those classes were particularly subject to 
 chest-complaints. Now, how is it that the people 
 of this country are so subject to pulmonary diseases ? 
 
LIBERTY AND PEACE TO ALL NATIONS. 99 
 
 Is it, neither because of the changeableness of our 
 climate, nor because of the cold and damp of our 
 northern region, that those diseases are induced, but 
 mainly because of the quantities of dust which we 
 inhale into our lungs during the process of respira- 
 tion — that dust being largely diffused in the atmo- 
 sphere of our dwelling-houses, and chiefly derived 
 from our open fireplaces, and from the quantities of 
 woollen stuffs which are so much used by us, both 
 as articles of furniture as well as of clothing ? It 
 sometimes happens that the dust which floats in the 
 atmosphere of a room is not visible until a beam of 
 sunshine darts across the apartment ; and it also 
 sometimes happens that the dust is not visible in the 
 sunbeam. If, however, a slip of transparent glass 
 be dipped in a solution of gum and suspended in the 
 atmosphere of a room, it will be found that the glass, 
 when microscopically examined, is covered with an 
 infinitude of minute particles of dust ; which indi- 
 cates that during the process of respiration, particles 
 of dust may be largely inspired into the lungs while 
 the atmosphere seems perfectly pure and trans- 
 parent ? 
 
 164. Might not one great nation give liberty and 
 peace to all the nations of the world — would not 
 
100 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES. 
 
 the people of every nation co-operate with that 
 great nation, and consummate for themselves what 
 to them is so very precious ? 
 
 165. In the present stage of the world's progress, 
 what is the best form of Government? Is it that 
 of a monarchy in which the Sovereign reigns but 
 does not govern ? 
 
 166. Desideratum. — A Map of the Heavens, in 
 which the constellations shall consist of a series of 
 triangles — the angular points of those triangles being 
 stars of the first or second magnitude ; and to each 
 Observatory of the world let one of these constella- 
 tions be allotted, to count the number of its stars, 
 and to observe the changes which it undergoes. 
 
 167. In this age of achievement, to connect, by 
 means of a chain or rope, the summit of Mont Blanc 
 with its base, and by the aid of this connecting 
 medium to guide in safety a balloon with passengers 
 from the base of the mountain to the summit, and 
 again from the summit of the mountain to the base. 
 Desideratum. — The erection of an Observatory on 
 the summit of Mont Blanc. 
 
 London: Printed by Woodfall and Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street. 
 
London, New Burlington Street, 
 March, 1858. 
 
 In I 
 
 ^uMiratinEs, 
 
 MEDICINE, SURGERY^ 
 
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A CLASSIFIED INDEX i 
 
 TO I 
 
 MI. l^lflCHitS r.ATAIc®«Jfl. 1 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Anatomical Remembrancer . . 3 
 
 Beale on Liver 5 
 
 HassaU's Micros. Anatomy .. 14 
 Holden's Human Osteology . . 15 
 Jones' and Sieveking's Patho- 
 logical Anatomy 17 
 
 Maclise's Surgical Anatomy . . 19 
 
 Paget's Catalogue 21 
 
 Sibson's Medical Anatomy ... 25 
 
 Toynbee's Catalogue 28 
 
 Wheeler's Handbook 30 
 
 Wilson's Anatomy 31 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Abel & Bloxam's Handbook . 
 Bowman's Practical Chemistry 
 
 Do. Medical do. 
 
 Fownes' Manual of Chemistry 
 
 Do. Actonian Prize . . 
 
 Do. Qualitative Analysis 
 
 Do. Cliemical Tables . . 
 Fresenius' Chemical Analysis 
 Galloway's First Step 
 
 Do. Analysis . . . . 
 
 Do. Diagrams 
 
 Gi-ifflths' Four Seasons . . 
 Horsley's Chem. Philosophy 
 Jones. — Mulder on Wine . . 
 Odlrng's Practical Chemistry 
 Plattner on Blowpipe 
 Speer's PathoL Chemistry 
 
 CHOLERA. 
 
 Acland on Cholera at Oxford . . 3 
 Baly and GuU— Reports . . . . 4 
 Snow on Cholera 25 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Francis on Change of Climate , . 12 
 
 Hall on Torquay 14 
 
 Haviland on Climate 14 
 
 Lee on Climate 18 
 
 Martin on the UndercUflf . . . , 19 
 
 Martin (J. R.) on Tropical . . 20 
 
 DEFORMITIES, &c. 
 
 Bigg on Deformities 6 
 
 Bishop on Deformities . . , . 6 
 
 Do. Articulate Sounds .. 6 
 
 Brodhurst on Spine 7 
 
 Do. on Clubfoot . . . . 7 
 
 Hare on Spine 14 
 
 Hugman on Hip Joint . . . . 16 
 
 Inman on Spine 16 
 
 Tamplin on Spine 27 
 
 -^^te— ^ — 
 
 DENTISTRY. 
 
 FAOR 
 
 Blundell's Painless Extraction . 7 
 
 Clark's Odontalgist 9 
 
 Gray on the Teeth 13 
 
 Odontological See. Transactions 21 
 
 DISEASES of the URINARY 
 
 and GENERATIVE ORGANS, 
 
 and SYPHILIS. 
 
 Acton on Reproductive Organs 3 
 Do. Urinary and Genera- 
 tive Organs 3 
 
 Coote on Syphilis 9 
 
 Coulson on Bladder 10 
 
 Do. on Lithotomy ,. ..10 
 
 Egan on Syphilis 11 
 
 Judd on Syphilis 17 
 
 Milton on Gonorrhoea . . . . 20 
 
 Parker on Syphilis 22 
 
 Todd on Urinary Organs . . , . 28 
 Wilson on Syphilis 31 
 
 DISEASES OF WOMEN 
 AND CHILDREN. 
 
 Bennet on Uterus 6 
 
 Do. on Uterine Pathology., 5 
 
 Bird on Children 6 
 
 Brown on Women 7 
 
 Do. on Scarlatina 7 
 
 Eyre's Practical Remarks ..11 
 
 Hood on Crowing 16 
 
 Lee's Ovarian and Uterine Dis- 
 eases 18 
 
 Lee on Diseases of Uterus . . 18 
 
 Do. on Speculum 18 
 
 Roberton on Women 24 
 
 Rowe on Females 24 
 
 Smith on LeucoiThoea . . . . 25 
 Tilt on Diseases of Women . . 27 
 Do. on Change of Life . . . . 27 
 Underwood on Children . . . . 28 
 
 West on Women 29 
 
 Whitehead on Abortion . , . . 80 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 Beale's Laws of Health . . . . 4 
 
 Do. Health and Diseases , . 4 
 
 BlundeU's Medicina Mechanica 6 
 
 Carter on Training 8 
 
 Comaro on Long Life . . . , 9 
 
 Hartwig on Sea Bathing . . . . 14 
 
 Do. Physical Education 14 
 
 Hufeland's Art 16 
 
 Lee'sWatering Places of England 1 8 
 Do. do. Germany, 
 
 France, and Switzerland . . 18 
 Lee's Rhenish Watering Places 18 
 
 Robertson on Diet 23 
 
 Roth on Movements 24 
 
 Rumsey's State Medicine . . . . 24 
 
 Van Oven's Decline of Life . . 29 
 
 Wilson on Healtliy Skin . . . . 31 
 
 Do. on Mineral Waters . . 31 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA and 
 PHARMACY. 
 
 SAGS 
 
 Bateman's Magnacopia . . . . 4 
 
 Beasley's Formulary 6 
 
 Do. Receipt Book . . . . S 
 
 Do. Book of Prescriptions 5 
 
 Lane's Materia Medica . . . . 17 
 
 Pereira's Selecta e Prsescriptis 22 
 
 Pharmacopoeia Londinensis . . 22 
 
 Prescriber's Phannacopoeia . . 22 
 
 Royle's Materia Medica . . . . 24 
 
 Spurgin's Materia Medica, . . . 26 
 
 Squire's Pharmacopoeia . . . . 26 
 
 Steggall's Materia Medica . . 26 
 
 Do. First Lines for Chemists 26 
 
 Stowe's Toxicological Chart . . 26 
 
 Taylor on Poisons 27 
 
 Wittstein's Pharmacy . . . . 31 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Adams on Rheumatic Gout . . 
 
 Addison on Cells 
 
 Alexander on Rheumatism 
 Arnott on a Local Anaesthenic 
 Barclay on Diagnosis 
 Barlow's Practice of Medicine 
 BUling's First Principles . . 
 
 Bird on Charcoal 
 
 Brinton on Ulcer 
 
 Budd on the Liver 
 
 Do. on Stomach 
 
 Chambers on Digestion . . 
 
 Davey's Ganglionic 
 
 Eyre on Stomach 
 
 Fuller on Rheumatism . . 
 
 Gairdner on Gout 
 
 Garrett on E. and N. E. Winds 
 Granville on Sudden Death . . 
 Gully's Simple Treatment 
 Habershon on Stomach . . . . 
 
 Hall on Apncea 
 
 Hall's Observations 
 
 Harrison on Lead in Water . . 
 Headland on Medicines . . 
 Hooper's Medical Dictionary . . 
 Hooper's Physician's Vade- 
 
 Mecum 
 
 Jones (H.) on the Stomach . . 
 
 Lugol on Scrofula 
 
 Peacock on Influenza . . . . 
 
 Do. on Heart 
 
 Pym on Yellow Fever 
 
 Robertson on Gout 
 
 Savory's Compendium 
 
 Semple on Cough 
 
 Shaw's Remembrancer . . 
 Steggall's Medical Manual 
 Do. Gregory's Conspectus 
 
 Do. Celsus 
 
 Thomas' Practice of Physic . . 
 
 Wegg's Observations 
 
 WeUs on Gout 
 
 What to Observe 
 
 Whitehead on Transmission . . 
 
 Williams' Principles , 
 
 Wright on Headaches . . . . 
 
 _ }©- 
 
 I i 
 
^@- 
 
 -^^ 
 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX, 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acton on Prostitution . . . . 3 
 
 Atkinson's Bibliography . . . . 4 
 
 Bascome on Epidemics . . . . 4 
 
 Bryce on Sebastopol 8 
 
 Cooley's Cyclopaedia 9 
 
 Forbes' Natureand Art in Disease 1 1 
 
 Gullv on Water Cure 13 
 
 Guy's Hospital Reports .. ..13 
 
 Lane's Hydropathy 18 
 
 Marcet on Food 19 
 
 Massy on Recruits 20 
 
 Oxford Editions 21 
 
 Part's Case Book 22 
 
 Pettigrew on Superstitions . . 22 
 
 NERVOUS DISEASES AND 
 INDIGESTION. 
 
 Anderson on Nervous Affections 
 Amott on Indigestion 
 Carter on Hysteria . . . . 
 Child on Indigestion 
 Downing on Neuralgia . . 
 Hunt on Heartburn . . 
 Lobb on Nervous Affections 
 Radcliffe on Epilepsy 
 Reynolds on the Brain . . 
 Rowe on Nei-vous Diseases 
 Sieveking on Epilepsy . . 
 Todd on Nervous System , . 
 Turnbull on Stomach 
 
 28 
 
 OBSTETRICS. 
 
 Barnes on Placenta Praevia . . 4 
 Lee's Clinical Midwifeiy . . . . 18 
 Pretty's Aids during Labour . . 23 
 Ramsbotham's Obstetrics . . . . 23 
 Do. Midmfery.. .. 23 
 
 Smellie's Obstetric Plates.. ,. 2.5 
 
 Smith's Periodoscope 25 
 
 Swayne's Aphorisms 26 
 
 Waller's Midwifery 29 
 
 OPHTHALMOLOGY. 
 
 Cooper on Near Sight . . . . 9 
 
 Dalrymple on Eye 10 
 
 Dixon on the Eye 11 
 
 Holthouse on Strabismus . . , . 15 
 Do. on Impaired Vision 15 
 
 Jacob on Eye-ball 16 
 
 Jones' Ophthalmic Medicine .. 17 
 Do. Defects of Sight ,. ..17 
 
 Do. Eye and Ear 17 
 
 Walton on Ophthalmic .. ..29 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 PAQE 
 
 Carpenter's Human 8 
 
 Do. Comparative . . . . 8 
 
 Do. Manual 8 
 
 Cottle's Human 10 
 
 Hilton on the Cranium .. ..15 
 Richardson on Coagulation . . 23 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 Burgess on Madness 7 
 
 Burnett on Insanity 8 
 
 ConoUy on Asylums 9 
 
 Davey on Nature of Insanity . . 10 
 Hood on Criminal Lunatics .. 15 
 Jacobi on Hospitals, by Tuke . . 28 
 Knaggs on Ciiminal Lunatics. . 17 
 Millingen on Treatment of In- 
 sane 20 
 
 Monro on Insanity 20 
 
 Do. Private Asylums . . . . 20 
 Noble on Psychology . . . . 20 
 Williams (J.) on Insanity . . 30 
 Williams (J. H) Unsoundness of 
 
 Mind 30 
 
 Winslow's Lettsomian .. ..31 
 Do. Law of Lunacy ..31 
 
 PULMONARY and CHEST 
 DISEASES, &c. 
 
 Addison on Healthy and Dis- 
 eased Structure 3 
 
 BUling on Lungs and Heart , . 5 
 Blakiston on the Chest . . . . 6 
 
 Bright on the Chest 7 
 
 Cotton on Consumption .. ..10 
 Do. on Stethoscope . . . . 10 
 Davies on Lungs and Heart . . 10 
 Fenwick on Consumption . . ..11 
 Laennec on Auscultation . . . . 17 
 Madden on Consumption . . . . 19 
 
 Markham on Heart 20 
 
 Richardson on Consumption . . 23 
 Skoda on Auscultation .. ..19 
 Thompson on Consimiption . . 27 
 Wardrop on the Heart . . . . 29 
 Weber on Auscultation . . . . 29 
 
 RENAL DISEASES. 
 
 Addison on Supra-Renal Capsules 4 
 
 Beale on Urine 5 
 
 Bird's Urinary Deposits . . . . 6 
 Jones' Animal Chemistry . . 17 
 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Beale on Microscope 5 
 
 Beale's How to Work . . . . 5 
 Bird's Natural Philosophy . . 6 
 Burnett's Philosophy of Spirits 8 
 Carpenter on Microscope . . . . 8 
 Gamer's Eutherapeia . . . . 13 
 Hardwich's Photography.. .. 14 
 
 Hinds' Harmonies 15 
 
 Holland on Appendages . . . . 15 
 Jago on Ocular Spectres .. ..16 
 
 Jones on Vision 17 
 
 Do. on Body, Sense, and Mind 17 
 
 Mayne's Lexicon 19 
 
 Nourse's Students' Tables ..21 
 Reymond's Animal Electricity 23 
 Schacht on Microscope . . . . 24 
 Taylor's Medical Jurisprudence 27 
 
 Vestiges of Creation 28 
 
 Sequel to ditto 28 
 
 Unger's Botanical Letters . . 28 
 
 SURGERY. 
 
 Amott on Urethra 3 
 
 Ashton on Rectum 4 
 
 Bellingharoon Aneurism.. .. 5 
 
 Bigg on Artificial Limbs . . . . 6 
 
 Bishop on Bones 6 
 
 Chapman on Ulcers 8 
 
 Do. Varicose Veins . . . . 8 
 
 Cooper (Sir A.) on Testis . . . . 9 
 
 Cooper's (B.) Surgery .. ,. 9 
 
 Do. (S.) Surg. Dictionary 9 
 
 Curling on Rectimi 10 
 
 Do. on Testis 10 
 
 Druitt's Surgery 11 
 
 Fell on Cancer 11 
 
 Fergusson's Surgery U 
 
 Gay on Femoral Rupture . . . . 13 
 
 Do. on Ulcers 13 
 
 HaiTison on Stricture .. .. 14 
 Higginbottom on Nitrate of Silver 15 
 
 Hodgson on Prostate 15 
 
 Hunt on Skin 16 
 
 Laurence on Cancer 18 
 
 Lawrence on Ruptures . . . . 18 
 Lee on Haemorrhoids .. ..18 
 
 Liston's Surgery 18 
 
 Maclise on Fractures 19 
 
 Nottingham on the Ear . . . . 20 
 Nunneley on Erysipelas .. ..21 
 
 Pirrie on Surgery 22 
 
 Skey's Operative Surgery . . 25 
 
 Smith on Stricture 25 
 
 Steggall's Surgical Manual . . 26 
 
 Thompson on Stricture . . . . 27 
 
 Wade on Stricture 29 
 
 Watson on the Larynx . . . . 29 
 
 Wilson on the Skin 31 
 
 Do. Portraits of Skin Diseases 31 
 
 Yearsley on Deafness . . . . 31 
 
 Do. on Throat 31 
 
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