LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 VITICULTURAL STATION, RDTHERGLEN, VICTORIA. 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE: 
 
 KECONSTITUTION WITH AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. FOEX, 
 
 41 
 
 Inspector-General of Viticulture , France; 
 Sometime Director of the National School of Agriculture, Montpellier. 
 
 Translated from the Sixth French Edition by 
 
 RAYMOND DUBOIS, B.Sc., 
 
 Diplomt E.A.M., 
 
 Director of the Viticultural Station, Chief Inspector of Vineyards for Victoria , 
 
 AND 
 
 W. PERCY WILKINSON, 
 
 Government Analyst for Victoria. 
 \Vx 
 
 ROBT. S. BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 
 
 1903. 
 
 10890. 
 

 
 
etc. . . 
 
 TRANSLATORS' INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Practical viticulture has undergone remarkable changes 
 since the advent of phylloxera in Europe, particularly in 
 regard to the reconstruction of vineyards on a phylloxera- 
 resistant basis, necessitated by the continuous advance of 
 this terrible scourge. 
 
 For the same reasons, these radical transformations are 
 now being gradually but surely forced on Victorian vine- 
 growers, and will at no distant time become imperative. 
 The phylloxera has, in spite of repeated assertions to 
 the contrary, gained a permanent footing in Victorian 
 vineyards. It would therefore beftebsurd to ignore any 
 longer the necessity for vigorous action in regard to the 
 reconstitution of our infected vineyard areas on phylloxera- 
 proof stock ; costly annual treatmlpts of infected vine- 
 yards with insecticides, on obvious grounds of expense, 
 being simply out of the question in Victoria. 
 
 The advance of the phylloxera has proved throughout 
 European, Asiatic, and American vineyards to be irre- 
 sistible. All attempts to eradicate the insect, or even 
 localize its outbreaks, have been utter failures, notwith- 
 standing enormous public expenditure. It is deliberately 
 courting disaster to disregard the costly experience of all 
 the great wine-growing countries of the world in this 
 matter. Phylloxera eradication and even localization have 
 failed in every country. It would, therefore, be sheer 
 folly to establish new vineyards in Victoria in or near 
 infected areas except on phylloxera-resistant stock, as this 
 method alone assures permanence. 
 
 The practical viticultural operations necessarily involved 
 in reconstitution on phylloxera-resistant stock are, apart 
 from the important questions of affinity, selection, adapta- 
 tion, trenching, and subsoiling, identical with those of 
 
 A 2 
 
ordinary viticulture on European vines and present no 
 difficulty to the average vine-grower. A knowledge, how- 
 ever, of the recent practical advances in reconstructive 
 viticulture is indispensable. To further this object we 
 now offer Australian vine-growers a translation of the sixth 
 French edition of a standard manual on the subject, by 
 Professor Foe'x, Inspector-General of Viticulture, France. 
 
 Among advanced workers in modern viticulture, Pro- 
 fessor Foe'x occupies undoubtedly a foremost position. As 
 former Director of the National School of Agriculture, 
 Montpellier, the Professor has carried out, during the last 
 30 years, numerous epoch-marking studies and investi- 
 gations on phylloxera-resistant stock and the problems 
 connected with reconstitution. The results of this work 
 are of the utmost importance to all engaged in the world's 
 viticulture, and have already been of inestimable value 
 to French vine-growers. 
 
 In his book, Manual of Modern Viticulture: Recon- 
 stitution with American Vines, Professor Foe'x has collected 
 and systematized everything of cultural importance that 
 has stood the test of experience and proved of real utility, 
 and presented the facts to the reader with great clearness. 
 
 The translators entertain the hope that this book may 
 prove useful to those engaged in building up the Australian 
 vine-growing industry, and that a spirit of perseverance 
 and energetic enterprise will enable our growers to fully 
 profit from the information it contains, so that they may 
 be better qualified to meet European and American com- 
 petitors, and gain an ever-increasing share in supplying 
 the demands of Great Britain's wine-market. 
 
 RAYMOND DUBOIS. 
 
 W. PERCY WILKINSON. 
 
 Viticultural Station, 
 Rutherglen, December, 1902. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 Viticulturists are nowadays, so far as choice of remedies 
 against the invasion of phylloxera is concerned, in two 
 distinct situations : some possess vineyards, attacked or not, 
 others do not possess any, as they have been destroyed. The 
 use of insecticides recommends itself to the former, if\ 
 however, the conditions of soil and climate are favorable, and 
 if they are able to provide for the expense of annual treatment. 
 It is a means of saving considerable capital, and of 
 continuing without interrupting the vintages. This book is 
 not written for those who are fortunate enough to be 
 amongst the former ; they will find in the excellent publi- 
 cations of Marion and Crolas, of the old Viticultural 
 Association of Libourne,* in the more recent works of 
 Crozierf and of Gastine and Couanon,J all that they may 
 require with regard to the use of bisulphide of carbon, and 
 in those of Mouillefert everything concerning the nse of 
 sulfo-carbonate of potassium. One could only repeat what 
 has been well condensed already in these different books, 
 they have, therefore, been left apart. We intend taking into 
 consideration only those viticulturists who have lost their 
 vineyards, and who cannot hope to succeed with costly 
 insecticides. The replanting of good soils with European vines, 
 with the object of treating them later on with insecticides, 
 
 * Chemins de fer P. L. M. : Instructions pour le traitement des mgnes par le sutfure de 
 carbone, annee 1878. Paris, imprimerie administrative Paul Dupont, 41 rue J. J. Rousseau. 
 
 Instructions relatives a la disposition des trous d'injection, &c (meme edit.)- 
 
 Crolas et Falieres: Des moyens pratiques et surs de combattre le phylloxera. ParK 
 G. Masson, 1878. 
 
 t F. P. Crozier : Phylloxera et sulfure de carbone. Paris, 1884. 
 
 J G. Gastine et Georges Couanon : Emploi du sulfure de carbone contre le phylloxera. 
 Bordeaux, 1884. 
 
 P. Mouillefert : Le Phylloxera ; moyens proposes pour le eombattre, <kc. Paris, 1878. 
 
6 
 
 has been advocated; but the irregularity of the results, 
 and, above all, the necessity of reconstituting a vineyard in 
 the state of a patient who has to be doctored all his life, 
 forced the majority of vine-growers to abandon this method, 
 and in districts where practical men have already had a long 
 experience of phylloxera, reconstitution of vineyards on 
 other bases are preferred. These are : Planting in sand, 
 submersion, and the use of American vines. 
 
 These different methods, the efficacy of which is not 
 contested in regions where they have been experimented with 
 for many years, have entered the period of cultural applica- 
 tion. The areas so reconstituted are increasing every year ; 
 we, therefore, deemed it advisable to collect all information 
 resulting from experiments made by viticulturists of the 
 South of France, and also those made at the School of 
 Agriculture of Moiitpellier. This work, which does not 
 pretend to be complete, was written with the object of 
 preventing vine-growers from groping in the dark as the 
 pioneer experimenters had to do. All facts which seem to 
 be established by practice and justified by theory have been 
 grouped and condensed methodically. 
 
 The scheme of this book results from the following 
 considerations : If one had to classify the different means 
 of reconstituting vineyards, taking only into account the 
 facility of execution, one would naturally place in the first 
 rank planting in sand, which would simply be following the 
 old track ; then would follow submersion, which means 
 yearly cost, special precautions, but which has the advantage 
 of allowing the culture of varieties already known, without 
 being forced to study the question of adaptation and of 
 grafting, and finally, replanting with resistant stock. 
 
 Unfortunately, we are not generally able to choose, and 
 circumstances almost always oblige us to adopt a given 
 
method. Situations where the two first methods may be 
 applied are very rare, so that the third, which may be applied 
 anywhere, is necessarily the most used, and, therefore, plays 
 the most important part in reconstitution. The American 
 vines will be studied first, at the same time we intend to 
 study the different questions relating to general viticulture) 
 and we will make a rapid survey only of special questions 
 concerning submersion and planting in sand. Such is the 
 idea which originated this work, in which the author has no 
 other object than to facilitate with practical advice the 
 efforts of viticulturists undertaking the great work of 
 reconstituting the vineyards of the South of France. 
 This book is far from being perfect, and would have gained 
 by waiting for longer experience, but it was thought that 
 under actual circumstances it was better to be incomplete 
 than to wait. 
 
 G. FOEX. 
 
 Colas-Montelimar, 
 
 February, 1899. 
 
MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE AND THE 
 CULTURE OF AMERICAN VINES, 
 
 PART I. AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 A. CHOICE OF CEPAGES. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND STUDY OF SPECIES AND CEPAGES. * 
 
 The c6pages cultivated in America do not descend, as is 
 the case in the old world, from a single type (V. Vinifera). 
 They originate from distinct botanical species, possessing 
 well defined characteristics, and endowing with distinct 
 properties the various c6pages springing from them. We 
 do not consider it necessary to give a description of all the 
 forms actually known, as many are of no practical interest. 
 We intend only to study those which gave birth to types 
 presenting some practical value, and to examine the most 
 important forms resulting from them. 
 
 IST. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. 
 
 The only species which are of value to practical viticul- 
 turists, on account of the pure and cross forms to which they 
 gave birth, are the following: 1st, V. ^Estivalis ; 2nd, 
 V. Riparia ; 3rd, V. Rupestris ; 4th, V. Berlandieri ; 5th,. 
 V. Monticola; 6th, V. Labrusca. 
 
 (a) V. JEstivalis. The V. ^Estivalis is generally a vine 
 of medium vigour. Its canes are climbing, large and long, 
 
 * This word is used as it has no true equivalent in the English language. It is usually^ 
 translated as variety ; this, however, does not convey the real meaning, as it may be applied 
 to a species, variety, variation, hybrid, or metis. (Trans.) 
 
10 
 
 MAN DAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 and present some analogy to those of V. Vinifera. They are 
 deep red when lignified. Upper portion of the growing 
 shoot of a carmine colour ; the bursting of the buds and 
 florescence are simultaneous with those of the European 
 vine, s Leaves (Fig. 1) generally entire, but often with more 
 
 Fig. 1. Leaf of Wild V. ^stivalis (after M. Mazade.) 
 
 or less marked lobes. Teeth blunt, upper-face dull, under- 
 
 face covered with a white rust-coloured down on the principal 
 and secondary veins. Bunches of very 
 small berries, covered with bloom, of a 
 peculiar taste. Seeds of medium size, from 
 2 to 3 in number. They are rounded at the 
 top ; beak short, blunt ; chalaze circular, 
 raphe prominent (Fig. 2). 
 
 This species grows in the central and 
 
 eastern part of the United States. It was noticed by P. 
 
 Viala in soils of old formations ; it grows in the wild 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 11 
 
 state in pebbly red-coloured soils rich in silica, and is also 
 found occasionally in dry soils formed of calcareous pebbles 
 and rich blue marl. 
 
 Fig. 3. Leaves of Wild Riparia, young and adult (after M. Mazade). 
 
 (b) V. Riparia. The 
 plant of climbing habit, 
 
 V. Riparia is generally a slender 
 reaching large dimensions. Its 
 
12 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 canes are long and slender, with long internodes, cylindrical 
 from one end to the other. The nodes are not protruding, 
 and there are few secondary ramifications. This species is 
 sometimes glabrous, or sometimes slightly tomentose (at the 
 apex at least), varying greatly in colour (white, grey, 
 mahogany colour or purple). The tendrils are discon- 
 tinuous ; the bursting of the buds and florescence takes place 
 early. The young leaves remain a long time folded along 
 the mid-rib, slightly downy on the upper portion of the 
 shoots which curve downwards ; adult leaves spread out, 
 cordiform, with rather developed teeth, marking the position 
 of the lobes ; teeth sharp, with a few soft hairs over the veins 
 on the under-face (Fig. 3). The bunches generally bear 
 only male flowers, and are therefore sterile. They have the 
 odour of linden. When the flowers are fertile the bunch is 
 small, with small tender pulp berries, pos- 
 sessing a special taste, which is not so- 
 accentuated as that of V. Labrusca. The 
 chalaze of the seed is not prominent, but 
 Fig 4. -seed of wild long, and confused with the raphe sinking 
 in the median depression (Fig. 4). 
 
 The V. Riparia spreads over a large geographical area in 
 the continent of North America. It is found 90 miles south- 
 east of Canada, north of Quebec, and in all the United 
 States except Florida, the larger part of Texas, and in 
 almost the whole region west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 According to P. Viala it grows in alluvial soils formed of 
 rich reddish clay, or in siliceous or clayey-siliceous red soils, 
 pebbly or not, in fertile and fresh sands, in soils formed of 
 hard, calcareous debris, but fresh and rich, and which 
 occupy the largest area in America. In a general way,, 
 lime does not suit the Riparia, especially if the lime is in a 
 soluble form. It does not grow well in soils which are 
 liable to get very dry in summer. 
 
 (c) V. Rupestris. The V. Rupestris is a vigorous plant, 
 with a bushy habit resulting from the development of a 
 great number of ramifications. Trunk large and stout. 
 Canes almost erect, with very short and knotted internodes. 
 Tendrils discontinuous. The bud always bursts with young 
 grapes, carmine in colour, emerging from the young leaves, 
 which are shining and transparent. When adult they are 
 small, entire, cordiform or orbiculate, sometimes wider than 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 13 
 
 long, and folded along the mid-rib, parchment-like, very 
 .glabrous and very shining on the upper-face (Fig. 5). The 
 
 Fig. 5. Leaves of V. Rupestris, young and adult (after M. 
 
 bnnch generally bears only male flowers, ^sterile, but some-" 
 times bears small bluish-black berries without anypeculiar 
 
14 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTTTEE. 
 
 taste. Seeds small, resembling those of V. Riparia, but 
 the chalaze and raphe are less apparent 
 (Fig. 6). Budding and florescence very 
 precocious. 
 
 The V. Rupestris grows in the southern 
 Fig- Ru7e S s e trl ofV - &ey districts of the United States, where 
 it was discovered in more or less clayey 
 soils containing numerous pebbles of silica or hard lime- 
 stone.* 
 
 (a) V. Berlandieri. Vigorous climbing habit. Trunk 
 of medium size. Canes with prominent ribs towards their 
 extremity, dull grey, hazel, or reddish, with fluffy hair. 
 Buds ash-grey or slightly violet. Young leaves bronze 
 colour, with brown hairs. Adult leaves of medium size, 
 almost entire, as wide as long, thick, a little parchment- 
 like, dark-green and shining on the upper-face, light-green 
 with stiff hair on the veins and sub-veins of the under-face ; 
 margins often curled underneath, teeth blunt and very short 
 (Fig. 8). Bunch medium, compact, elongated. Berries 
 very small, black, with bloom, spherical. Seeds medium, 
 stout, with a short beak, rounded and long, chalaze confused 
 with the raphe, which is not very prominent 
 (Fig. 7). 
 
 The V. Berlandieri is only found in the 
 south of the United States, where it grows 
 naturally in the hottest and driest soils. . 
 It is found in chalky and calcareous soils, Flg B 7 e ri~andieri! V * 
 where the leaves retain their green colour, 
 as Viala ascertained during the course of his viticultural 
 mission in America in 1887. 
 
 (e) V, Monticola. The first forms of this vine imported 
 into France were not very vigorous, but it seems that more 
 vigorous types exist in America. Its habit is semi-erect ; 
 canes of medium length, slender, with short or medium 
 internodes of brown mahogany colour, with flat nodes and a 
 few whitish hairs. Numerous secondary ramifications. 
 Leaves small, entire or trilobed, orbicular, or sometimes 
 ended by a point, which gives them a cordiform aspect ; 
 slightly folded conically, with very short and blunt teeth, 
 except the two ending the lateral lobes ; parenchyma 
 thick, parchment-like, cartilaginous, shining on -both faces, 
 
 * Soils of such description are plentiful in the plains of the Norlh-Eastern districts of 
 Victoria. (Trans.) 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 15 
 
 glabrous, except at the points of junction of the veins 
 (Fig. 9). Bunch short and conical, with small berries, 
 
 Fig. 8. -Leaves of V. Berlandieri (after M. Mazade). 
 
 varying in colour from black to pink-grey, shining, with a 
 fine skin, tender pulp, sweet and without any peculiar taste. 
 
16 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Seeds flat, with very short beak ; chalaze circular and pro- 
 truding ; raphe in the shape of a string, rather wide near the 
 chalaze, protruding up to the level of the top depression. 
 
 Fig. 9. Leaves of V. Monticola (after M. Mazade). 
 
 According to P. Viala, the V. Monticola grows on the 
 dry table-lands of the mountains of Texas. It grows fairly 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 17 
 
 well in calcareous soils without the leaves becoming yellow, 
 However, from this point of view it is not equal to th& 
 V. Berlandieri. 
 
 (f) V. Labrusca. Species generally medium in vigour, 
 but climbing sometimes to a great height. Canes stout and 
 long. Sometimes its nodes are covered with glandulous 
 hair, especially in the herbaceous state. Tendrils continuous 
 (this is the only species with continuous tendrils). The 
 buds are pink, and the leaves covered on the upper and 
 under face with dense tomentum, imparting a metallic 
 appearance. The bunches are medium, and 
 generally shouldered with large berries, 
 round or ovate, having a fleshy pulp of very 
 peculiar taste, reminding one of black cur- 
 rants (foxy taste). Skin generally thick, 
 maturation early ; seeds large, chalaze and 
 raphe generally slightly or not apparent at ^ ^brusS f V ' 
 all (Fig. 10). 
 
 The V. Labrusca grows in the east of the United States 
 in non-calcareous soils, and more particularly in granitic 
 soils, covered with forests, retaining the moisture in the 
 ground. 
 
 2ND. DESCRIPTION AND APTITUDES OF CEP AGES. 
 These different species 'have furnished graft-bearers eiher 
 through the selection of certain of their wild forms, or been 
 crossed with European varieties to form hybrids, utilized as 
 direct-producers or graft-bearers. We will now study these 
 different forms and hybrids. 
 
 (A). FORMS DERIVED FROM V. JESTIVALIS. 
 The different forms of V. ^Estivalis may be regarded as 
 specially fit for direct production. The quality of their 
 fruit, which has no peculiar taste, renders them more suit- 
 able than any other for direct-producers. The best known 
 amongst the V. ^Estivalis hybrids are the Jacquez, Herbe- 
 mont, Black-July, Cunningham, and Norton's Virginia. 
 
 JACQUEZ. 
 
 The Jacquez (Fig. 11), although resisting phylloxera 
 -attacks, succumbs and dies if it is not placed under 
 circumstances favorable to its vegetation. For instance, in 
 the department of the Var, where it was cultivated to a 
 
 10890. B 
 
18 MANUAL ,OF MODERN VITICULTUEB. 
 
 large extent, it has generally disappeared in poor and 
 barren regions. On the whole, it gives satisfactory results- 
 
 Fig. 11. Leaf of Jacquez (after M. Mazade). 
 
 in fresh and fertile alluvial plains. Yiala and Eavaz mark 
 it 12 in the scale of resistance, which is established from 
 to 20 (absolute immunity). 
 
AMEKICAN VINES. 19 
 
 Tliis ce"page was, and is even now, used as a direct-pro- 
 ducer in some districts of the Var. The wine it yields is 
 rather rough, of a very special taste, which is not agreeable, 
 and is generally flat, but rather strong in alcohol and colour. 
 Its colour, which is rather bluish or violet when the wine is 
 made with very ripe grapes and in contact with the air, 
 becomes of a bright red when it is made with rather early 
 vintage, and when the percentage of acidity is increased by 
 the addition of plaster or tartaric acid to the vat. It would 
 be a very good wine, but is very difficult to make, and its 
 colour is very liable to alter. 
 
 The yield of the Jacquez is not, unfortunately, large 
 enough to compensate these disadvantages. Placed under 
 similar conditions, it is inferior to other c^pages cultivated in 
 the south of France, such as Aramon or Carignan. This 
 accounts for it being generally discarded as a direct-producer 
 in countries where the vine is cultivated intensively. It 
 was tried as stock, but its middling resistance to the attacks 
 of phylloxera, which is more apparent after the grafting, 
 do not tend to generalize its use. However, its resistance to 
 lime is greater than that of Riparia, and it was not com- 
 pletely discarded until the Rupestris du Lot allowed it to 
 be replaced, as this stock is equally adapted to calcareous 
 soils and more resistant to phylloxera. 
 
 To sum up, the Jacquez, which had a certain importance 
 at the beginning of the reconstitution of vineyards in the 
 south of France, has been generally abandoned. 
 
 Some viticulturists assumed that there were two varieties 
 of Jacquez, one more fructiferous than the other. Nothing 
 up to the present seems to have proved this. We have only 
 seen some vines producing less than others, although they 
 were identical in general characteristics. This can be easily 
 explained by the excessive multiplication to which this 
 cepage was subjected, and which induced the use of cuttings 
 taken trom sterile canes, instead of selecting cuttings only 
 from those which had borne fruit. A sound selection of the 
 cuttings would overcome this defect little by little, and the 
 average yield increased. A Jacquez vine was found at 
 the experimental station of Mas de las Sorres, near Mont- 
 pellier, with a branch bearing grapes with larger berries 
 than usual. The grafts and the cuttings taken from this 
 branch have given rise to vines preserving this character. 
 Dauty multiplied them under the name of Jacquez with 
 large berries of Las Sorres. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE, 
 
 The Jaequez ripens its fruit at the same time as the 
 Ararnon and Carignan. However, as it is advisable to 
 gather the crop before complete maturity, on account of the 
 lack of acidity of its must, it might be cultivated further 
 north and west than the latter if it were not for the attacks 
 of anthracnosis, to which it is very liable. In the Gironde 
 it grows well on the high table-lands, bat dies, on the 
 contrary, in the plains, succumbing to the attacks of this 
 disease. The same thing applies to the valley of the Iih6ne 
 and some districts of the Drdme. In the Ohio and Missouri 
 states of the United States it has been discarded for the 
 same reason. It can therefore be considered as a cpage 
 only fit for the south of France, where its limits would be 
 Nice in the east, Carcassonne in the west, and Montelimar 
 in the north. 
 
 The Jaequez is also attacked by mildew, especially its 
 grapes, resulting in a heavy loss of crop in seasons favorable 
 to the development of this fungus. 
 
 Although the Jaequez does not root as freely as the 
 European varieties and the V. Riparia, we may obtain a 
 satisfactory percentage of strikes when lignified cuttings 
 are used, and if proper care is taken when planting, and 
 especially if the cuttings are grafted. 
 
 This c6page may be pruned with long rods when cultivated 
 in rich soils. The yield is then greater and its vegetation 
 more vigorous. 
 
 HERBEMONT. 
 
 Vigorous plant, semi-erect habit, more spreading than 
 Jaequez. (Janes long and strong. Leaves with three or 
 five lobes (Fig. 12), deep green, glabrous on the upper- 
 face, and light green with hair on the veins of the under- 
 face. Bunches large, long, shouldered, compact. Berries 
 small, bluish-black. 
 
 The resistance of Herbemont to phylloxera is, like that of 
 Jaequez, rather low (12). Like the latter, it may produce 
 wine ; unfortunately its colour is too light, and does not 
 allow it to compete with the wines of the South. The 
 Herbemont fructifies late in the season, and its yield, which 
 is considered large in America where people are not accus- 
 tomed to the large production of the cepages of the south of 
 France is still smaller than that of Jaequez. Finally, 
 this vine does not adapt itself easily to calcareous soils, and 
 is very subject to chlorosis. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 For these reasons it has been discarded almost every- 
 where. A few plantations only are to be found in very 
 favorable situations of the department of the Dr6me ; even 
 there it would be advisable to replace it with grafted stocks. 
 
 F g. 12. -Leaf o' Herheniont (after M. Mazade). 
 
 The Herbeinont ripens its fruit at about the same time as 
 the Jacquez, and is not so subject to anthracnosis. It may 
 be cultivated further north and west. Mildew does not 
 affect it. 
 
 Herbemont seedlings have given rise to different cepages, 
 known under the name of Herbemont of Aurelle, No. ?, and 
 the Herbemont Touzan; unfortunately, these variations do 
 not resist phylloxera sufficiently. 
 
 BLACK-JULY. 
 
 Also known under the names of Devereux and Lenoir 
 (Bash), was never cultivated to a great extent in France, 
 
22 MANUAL OP MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 and is now completely discarded. It is a very vigorous vine 
 of spreading habit, long canes of medium size with numerous 
 ramifications. Adult leaves of medium size, entire or 
 slightly trilobed, deep green and almost glabrous on the 
 upper-face, with very light down on the veins. Lighter 
 green and shorter down forming tufts on the veins of the 
 under-face. Young leaves trilobed, slightly whitish on 
 both faces, with pink margins ; bunch small and compact ; 
 berries small, deep bluish black. 
 
 The resistance of Black- July to phylloxera is 11, accord- 
 ing to Viala. 
 
 The wine made from the Black-July, although not so rich 
 in colour as that of Jacquez, may be considered as a very 
 good table wine. Unfortunately, the small volume of its 
 bunches and berries does not assure a very large yield. It 
 is less subject to chlorosis than the Herbemont, but more so 
 than Jacquez. It seems to grow in all soils which are 
 not too wet or too cold. It ripens its fruit later than the 
 Herbemont, and roots very well from cuttings. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM. 
 
 After Herbemont and Jacquez this has been the most 
 widely cultivated of the .ZEstivalis in the south of France. 
 It has a great analogy to the Black-July, and forms with 
 it a group characterized by their small and Compact grapes, 
 and their almost entire leaves (Fig. 13) if compared with 
 the large grapes, and the lobed leaves of Jacquez and 
 Herbemont. 
 
 The resistance of Cunningham to phylloxera is 12. 
 
 The characteristics of this cepage are a very vigorous 
 stump, a spreading habit, and long ramified canes. The 
 adult leaves are large, entire, or slightly trilobed. The 
 petiolar sinus is generally closed. The teeth are in two 
 series, generally blunt. Leaves slightly goffered between 
 the veins, of a deep g.een and slightly downy on the 
 upper-face, of a whitish green, and covered with long 
 hair on the under-face. The young leaves are trilobed, 
 downy, and white on both faces. The grapes are very com- 
 pact, medium in size and shouldered, with small black or 
 slightly grey berries. The wine made from Cunningham, 
 which is rich in alcohol, and possesses certain qualities, 
 is unfortunately deficient in colour, and its grapes can only 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 be used for white wines, which, when well fermented, have a 
 certain value, but the meagre production of this vine does 
 not allow it to be cultivated with advantage. 
 
 Fig. 13. Leaf of Cunningham (after M. Mazade). 
 
 The Cunningham seems to grow in all soils, provided 
 they are not excessively damp and cold. Among the 
 e"pages derived from V. ^Estivalis it is the most accommo- 
 dating, from this point of view. It grows better than any 
 other in the soils formed of ferruginous and siliceous pebbles 
 of the alpine diluvium. Unfortunately, its maturation is 
 still later than that of the other ce"pages derived from V. 
 ^Estivalis. 
 
 Like the Herbemont it does not strike very well from cut- 
 tings. All the cepages we have mentioned above, and which 
 had a good reputation at the start of reconstitution as direct 
 producers, are now completely discarded. 
 
MANUAL OP MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 (B). FORMS DERIVED FROM V. RIPARIA; 
 
 The forms derived from V. Riparia seem to have been 
 exclusively used as stock, for while the peculiar taste of 
 their grapes and their small fertility, prevent them from 
 being used for the direct production of wine, the facility with 
 which their cuttings root, the small cost of their canes, the 
 rusticity of most of their forms, and, .finally, the ease with 
 which they may be grafted with most of the European 
 varieties, give them a prominent rank for that purpose. 
 
 Two wild forms of this species occupy an important 
 place in the vineyards recently reconstituted. They are 
 the Riparia Gloire de Montpellier and the R. Grand Glabre. 
 Different hybrids, resulting from various crossings, more 
 particularly from crossings with V. Labrusca, were used at 
 first by the Americans. Such are Solonis, Clinton, Taylor, 
 Vialla, Elvira, and Noah. However, they do not occupy a 
 very large area in the new vineyards, but are to be found 
 in certain special situations. 
 
 RIPARIA GLOIRE DE MONTPELLIER. 
 
 Synonyms: R. Gloire, R. Portalis,R. Michel, R. Saporta^ 
 &c. This Riparia was imported for the first time by L. 
 Vialla, on the property of Portalis belonging to Michel. 
 He drew attention to its vigour, which wa's far superior 
 to that of other known types. He multiplied it on hi& 
 property at Saporta. Extended experience has confirmed 
 this opinion, and it is now multiplied almost exclusively 
 among the forms of this species, for the purpose of recon- 
 stituting vineyards. Its resistance to phylloxera is 19. 
 
 Description. Very vigorous plant, spreading habit, trunk 
 of medium size (rather large for a wild Riparia), canes long 
 with long internodes, medium in size, flat near the nodes, 
 light hazel colour, with a very thin and very smooth bark, 
 covered with bloom, and with very few secondary ramifica- 
 tions. The young shoots are of a light purple colour. The 
 adult leaves are very large, rounded, dull, with limb 
 regularly goffered between the ribs of the upper-face,, 
 and with stiff hair on the veins of the under-face. Petiolar 
 sinus having the shape of a U ; sharp teeth ; young 
 leaves folded along the mid-rib (Fig. 14) ; flowers 
 generally male. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 14. -Leave s of Riparia Gloire, young and. adult (after M. Mazade). 
 
 RIPARIA GRAND GLABRE. 
 
 Synonym: Riparia No. 13 of Meissner's collection. This 
 form was selected and propagated by Gideon Arnaud, of 
 Montagnac, who noticed its resistance to chlorosis in the dry 
 
26 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 and poor whitish soils of that district. It may be con- 
 sidered one of the most robust forms of the species, and one 
 which withstands better than any other a small proportion 
 -of limestone. According to Viala, its resistance to 
 phylloxera is 19. 
 
 Description. Vigorous plant, with spreading habit, 
 trunk rather slender, canes long, with long internodes, and 
 numerous secondary ramifications, purple during the her- 
 baceous state, very red when lignified. The leaves are 
 .medium or small, long, without being cordiform, the sides 
 toeing almost parallel. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 Fig. 15. Leaf of Riparia Grand Glabre (after M. Mazade). 
 
 The Riparia Grand Glabre shares many of its qualities 
 with the Riparia Gloire. However, it is not so widely 
 -cultivated, the latter being often preferred. 
 
AMEKICAN VINES. 
 
 27 
 
 Fip-. 16. - Leaves of Solonls, young and a lult (after M. Mazade). 
 SOLONIS. 
 
 Synonyms: V. Solonis, Novo Mexicana. This complex 
 form seems to be the result of crossings between the V. 
 Riparia, V. J'upestris, and V. Candicans. Its inferior 
 
'28 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 resistance to phylloxera seems to be due to the latter. It is 
 only 15, while the V. Riparia, and V. Rupestris are 19, and 
 the V. Candicans 13. The Solonis has been cultivated for 
 a very long time in many botanical gardens in Europe, but 
 the exact date of its importation is not known. Viala found 
 similar forms, or even identical forms in New Mexico. It 
 possesses remarkable properties of resisting limestone, as 
 well as the action of sea salt, and for these reasons it is still 
 used, notwithstanding its inferior resistance to phylloxera. 
 % Its principal characters are : vigorous stump, spreading 
 habit, canes long, with medium internodes, almost cylindrical, 
 slightly sinuous, with long and numerous ramifications, 
 covered with a slight down towards the extremities, and 
 retaining traces of it after lignification. The leaves are 
 medium, entire, with two series of long and sharp teeth, 
 those at the end of the lobes being longer. The three teeth 
 indicating the inferior lobes curl underneath, towards the 
 leaf axis. The leaves are slightly folded along the 
 mid-rib with extremities curled underneath. The young 
 leaves are covered with a whitish down on both faces ; 
 when adult they are of a dull green on the upper-face, with 
 straight hair on the under-face, which is slightly lighter 
 (Fig. 16). The bunches of grapes are small and compact, 
 with small black berries. 
 
 The Solonis grows in soils containing up to 20 per cent, 
 of lime in its worst form. It grows fairly well in damp and 
 even wet soils. It is only in such soils that it may be re- 
 garded as preferable to other stocks, notwithstanding its 
 middling resistance to phylloxera. 
 
 In calcareous soils, where it can grow, it should be 
 replaced by the Rupestris du Lot, or the Riparia x Rupestris 
 3309 or 101-14, more refractory to the action of phylloxera. 
 
 The main defect of the Solonis is in not rooting well from 
 cuttings, especially if these are large. If, however, small 
 cuttings are well preserved and placed under favorable 
 conditions, a strike of 80 to 85 per cent, may be expected. 
 
 CLINTON. 
 
 Synonym: Plant Pouzin (Ardeche). The Clinton was 
 one of the first ce"pages imported to Europe at the beginning 
 of the experiments with American vines. According to the 
 Americans it was considered to be one of the best direct 
 producers, and was cultivated on a large scale as such. Too 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 29 
 
 much was expected from it at first. Vine-growers thought 
 it would make an excellent wine, capable of competing on 
 the French mar- 
 ket, that it would 
 be a universal 
 grafting stock, 
 and alone would 
 suffice for all the 
 needs of recon- 
 stitution of our 
 vineyards. Un- 
 fortunately, ul- 
 though it gives a 
 wine remarkable 
 for its colour 
 and alcoholic 
 strength, it has 
 not been used 
 much as a direct 
 producer, on ac- 
 count of its small 
 yield and its 
 peculiar taste. 
 However, many 
 small growers of 
 the Drome and 
 Ardeche, plant 
 it on trellises 
 around their 
 houses to make 
 their annual 
 stock of wine for 
 home consump- 
 tion. Although 
 it roots freely 
 from cuttings, 
 and gives a very 
 good union when 
 
 f rafted, it has 
 een discarded 
 on account of 
 .the difficulty of 
 adaptation to soils, and above all on account of its small 
 resistance to phylloxera, which is only 8. 
 
 17. -Leaves of Clinton (after M. Mazade). 
 
30 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 It is a strong aiid vigorous plant with a spreading and 
 bushy habit. The canes are long and slender with long 
 internodes and numerous secondary ramifications. The 
 leaves are medium, large, or small, generally entire or cordi- 
 form, sometimes trilobed, more or less folded along the mid- 
 rib or conical, with undulating margins, deep green and 
 glabrous, the upper-face of a lighter green, with stiff hairs 
 on the veins of the under-face. The young leaves are slightly 
 downy, folded along the mid-rib, but not completely envelop- 
 ing the apex of the shoot. When the growth is very vigorous, 
 the margins of the very young leaves are pink (Fig. 17). 
 The bunches are medium or small, compact, and not 
 shouldered. The berries are small, black, firm, with a thick 
 skin and a fleshy pulp. The juice is pink, acid, and foxy. 
 This cepage is a good bearer, but it yields a very small 
 quantity of wine on account of the smallness of its berries. 
 
 TAYLOK. 
 
 This vine, indigenous to America, was the first cultivated 
 there. It was very much extolled by Americans at the 
 beginning of reconstitution of vineyards in France. Its 
 vigour, the large diameter of its trunk, the facility with 
 which it strikes from cuttings, its aptitude to grafting with 
 all European vines, would make it the best graft-bearer if 
 its resistance to phylloxera were higher; it is only 11, and 
 this is probably due to one of its parents, the V. Labrusca. 
 However, in certain fertile and fresh sites and not calcareous 
 soils, it has found very favorable conditions of growth, and 
 even now it is to be found in some vineyards bearing fine and 
 very fructiferous grafts. 
 
 It resembles the Clinton very closely. However, it is easy 
 to distinguish it by the young leaves of the extremities of 
 the shoots which are always glabrous. The trunk is vigorous 
 and the habit spreading. It is even more robust than the 
 Clinton. The canes are long with medium internodes, of 
 medium diameter and slightly sinuous with numerous and 
 long ramifications. The leaves are fairly large, almost 
 entire or slightly trilobed. The petiolar sinus is rather 
 open ; teeth sharp, in two series, glabrous on both faces. 
 Bright green on the upper-face, light green on the under- 
 face. The point of junction of the veins is generally pink. 
 The leaves are folded along the mid-rib or conically (Fig. 18). 
 The bunches are small and frequently liable to nonr 
 setting ; the berries are small, amber white. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 31 
 
 The fertility of this ce"page is small on account of the- 
 abortion of most of its flowers. 
 
 Fig. 18. -Leaves of Taylor (after M. Mazade). 
 
 YlALLA. 
 
 Synonyms: Clinton, Vialla. This vine is of no interest 
 as a direct producer on account of the foxy taste of its fruit 
 
32 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 and of its colour, but it has been used to a certain extent as 
 a graft-bearer in granitic soils, where it roots freely from, 
 cuttings and knits well with most European ce"pages. But 
 its origin (Riparia x Labrmca) endowed it with a small 
 resistance to phylloxera, 12 only~ which prevents its use in 
 dry regions. 
 
 Description. Vigorous plant with spreading habit and 
 robust trunk ; long and vigorous canes, of medium diameter, 
 almost straight, shining, and slightly rugose. Green during 
 the herbaceous state and vinous brown when lignified. Inter- 
 nodes medium, finely striated,, with large nodes, . swollen, 
 covered with a light bloom; continuous tendrils. The buds 
 are brown and become light carmine afterwards, this colour 
 being due to the under-face and the margin of the upper-face 
 of the very young leaves, which are covered on both faces 
 with a dense down, and have the three lobes indicated by 
 longer teeth. They remain a long time closed, enveloping 
 bunches of green flowers, with red tints, which, only appear 
 when blooming. The leaves are fairly large, entire, orbicular, 
 of a deep green, almost glabrous on the upper-face, of a 
 lighter green and covered with a whitish down on the under- 
 face. The teeth are blunt and the petiolar sinus well open 
 (Fig. 19). The petiole is strong, medium in length, and 
 covered with tufts of stiff hair. The flowers are rather large, 
 cylindrical with well-marked ribs, green, of a vinous colour 
 on the top, with a nice scent, calyx entire, well developed, 
 remaining adherent a long time, with well separated urceo- 
 late discs, yellow or whitish. Ovary with long style and 
 flat stigma. The bunches are rather small, cylindrical, or 
 irregular, always long with a long peduncle, tender and 
 rather swollen at the point of insertion ; pedicles rather long, 
 green, with a few disseminated warts. Berries medium or 
 sub-medium, compact, spherical, covered with bloom, of a 
 dark black colour, greenish inside with a few reddish streaks, 
 fleshy pulp. 
 
 The use of the Vialla tends to diminish on account of its 
 small resistance to phylloxera, and we do not think it can 
 be recommended in any circumstances. 
 
 ELVIRA. 
 
 The Elvira is a hybrid of Riparia and Labrusca, very 
 much extolled by the Americans. Some years ago it had a 
 certain reputation in France, where vine-growers thought it 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 33 
 
 would answer as a direct producer. It is completely dis- 
 carded now on account of its very small resistance to 
 phylloxera, which is only 8. 
 
 Fig. 19. -Leaves of Vialla (after M. Marade) 
 
 Description. Vigorous plant, with semi-spreading hahit, 
 medium trunk, with rough and deciduous bark. The canes 
 are long, large, and slightly sinuous, with a few ramifica- 
 tions, rather brownish during the herbaceous state, with a 
 
 10890 
 
34 MANUAL OF MODEBN VITICULTURE. 
 
 few short, hard hairs, the extremities covered with a white- 
 down, browner around the nodes and at the base of the 
 cane after lignification. The internodes are medium, finely 
 striated lengthwise, with protruding flat nodes, continuous 
 tendrils, long, straight, and trifurcated. Very small buds, 
 often double, deep brown becoming very soon white, with a 
 few pink spots on the outer edge of the leaves, which soon 
 become flat, uncovering bunches of green flowers, with dirty 
 looking brown patches here and there. The young leaves 
 are entire, thick, with whitish tomentum, falling off quickly 
 from the upper-face, remaining adherent longer on the 
 under-face, the veins of which are covered with a slight 
 brownish down. The teeth are provided with green glands, 
 lighter in colour towards the extremity. The adult leaves 
 are large, entire, folded conically, goffered between the 
 veins, deep green, teeth generally blunt in two series, light 
 tufts of hair on the under-face; the veins are wide and 
 straight, covered underneath with stiff hair ; petiole strong, 
 covered with numerous stiff hairs, of a light brown hue in 
 places, generally forming an obtuse angle with the plane of 
 the leaf. The flowers are rather small, sub-globular, light 
 yellow, and very odoriferous. Ovaries slightly swollen, sur- 
 mounted by a long style and a very small stigma. Bunches 
 small, spherical, or cylindrical, rarely shouldered ; peduncle 
 strong, of medium length, green, lanigerous ; pedicels stout, 
 without warts, berries detaching easily and leaving a light 
 yellow adherent brush. Berries compact, medium, covered 
 with bloom, light pink or light green when they are not 
 exposed to the light, with fleshy pulp and colourless juice, 
 slight foxy taste. 
 The fertility of this cepage is only middling. 
 
 NOAH. 
 
 The Noah, which was proposed by the Americans as a 
 direct producer, has been brought forward again lately in 
 the south-west, on account of its relative resistance to the 
 attacks of black-rot. But the bad quality of its wine, and 
 its small resistance to phylloxera (13) does not allow it to 
 be used extensively. It is a vigorous plant, with spreading 
 habit, slender trunk, and deciduous bark, falling in irregular 
 lashes. The canes are long and slender, with a few glandu- 
 lous hairs when herbaceous, reddish brown when lignified ; 
 long internodes, finely striated, with slightly flattened nodes 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 35 
 
 and numerous ramifications ; continuous tendrils of medium 
 length, bifurcated, becoming purple as they get older. 
 Small pointed buds, covered with rusty down. Young leaves 
 with carmine mid-rib towards the extremity of the under-face, 
 trilobed, covered with a light down on both faces, which 
 quickly disappears; teeth long, undulating. When the 
 leaves become flat, which takes place rather late, bunches of 
 green flowers may be seen wrapped in a white, lanuginous 
 down. Leaves medium or large, entire, rarely trilobed, 
 inferior lobe always marked by a larger tooth, petiolar sinus 
 slightly open, parenchyma thin ; deep green, shining and 
 glabrous on the upper-face, under-face covered with a dense 
 white felt, becoming slightly rusty coloured. Straight veins 
 protruding underneath, bright red tint at their point of in- 
 sertion on the upper face. Teeth generally blunt in two 
 series ; petiole straight, covered with stiff hair, and turning 
 purple as it gets older, forming an obtuse angle with the 
 plane of the leaf. Flowers large, cylindrical, elongated, 
 flattened on the top, odoriferous, of a light green, with a 
 finely indented calyx not much developed, stamens with 
 long, slender filaments ; nectariferous corona slightly de- 
 tached, of a yellowish green colour, globular ovary with a 
 slender style, rather long, and surmounted by a large 
 stigma, often bifidate. Large bunches, cylindrical or coni- 
 cal ; with large peduncle, ligneous and swollen at the point 
 of insertion, dirty green, rather short and contorted. Small 
 pedicels, short, green, with a few warts, berries detaching 
 easily, and leaving a colourless adherent brush. Berries 
 loose, with thick skin and fleshy pulp ; colourless juice, with 
 foxy taste. Cepage of medium fertility. 
 
 (C). FORMS DERIVED FROM V. RUPESTRIS. 
 The forms generally used for reconstitution are the R. du 
 Lot, R. Martin, R. Ganzin, R* Mission, R. of Fortworth, 
 R. Metallica, Riparia x Rupestris 3306, 3309 and 101-14, 
 Rupestris with Taylor habit. 
 
 RUPESTRIS DU LOT. 
 
 Synonyms: R. Sijas, R. Phdnomene, R. Monticola* 
 R. Saint- Georges, R. Lacastelle, R. Colineau, <fv. 
 This form sppm<* to hare been imported near Montpellier 
 
 ** The name R. Monticola, given to this form, snould be discarded, as it would seem to 
 imply that it is the result of a crossing between V. Rupestris and V. Monticola, which is 
 very improbable. 
 
 C 2 
 
36 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEBN VITICULTURE. 
 
 by Robert Sijas, vine-grower at Montferrier. It proved 
 very hardy and resistant in soils formed from debris of 
 
 Fig. 20. Leaves of Rupestris du Lot<, young and adult (after M. Mazade). 
 
 very calcareous tufa. It seems to withstand lime even 
 better than Jacquez, and has the advantage of being more 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 37 
 
 resistant (19). It has great vigour, and the way in which 
 it grows in compact, dry, and pebbly soils gives it a great 
 value as a graft-bearer, especially for the eastern districts 
 of France, where it is planted instead of Riparias in many 
 limestone soils too dry and too unfertile for the latter. In 
 damp soils it is much affected by pourridie. 
 
 Description. Habit, very erect (the main ramifications 
 alone spreading on the ground) ; canes knotted, very 
 ramified, with short internodes ; leaves very much folded 
 along the mid-rib, with undulating margins, bright, with 
 light metallic sheen, rather thin, petiolar sinus bracket 
 shaped, teeth irregular, rather acute, especially that form- 
 ing the terminal lobe ; leaves of the secondary ramifications 
 sometimes very small, extremities bronze coloured (Fig. 20). 
 If the season is very dry the leaves all fold along the mid- 
 rib and the metallic sheen disappears. Flowers, male ; 
 roots rather stouter than those of the other Rupestris.* 
 
 RUPESTRIS MABTIN. 
 
 The Ruspestris Martin was introduced from Texas in 
 1874, by Martin, at Montels-Eglise, near Montpellier, and 
 may be regarded as the equivalent of Rupestris du Lot 
 for the western regions, where it grows very well in clayey 
 and rather cold soils. It is affected by dry limestone much 
 more than the latter, but it resists phylloxera quite as 
 well (19), and bears grafts equally well. It is an 
 excellent graft-bearer for non-calcareous or only slightly 
 calcareous soils which do not become dry in summer. 
 
 M. Mazade gives the following description of this vine : 
 Leaves (Fig. 21) cordiform, thick, deep green, wrinkly at the 
 centre, irregularly folded along the mid-rib, margins of the 
 leaf largely undulating and curled up ; petiolar sinus V 
 shape ; teeth very large and much rounded ; wood very 
 sinuous. 
 
 RUPESTRIS GANZIN. 
 
 According to Millardet, this form was imported from 
 Texas by Charles Martin, in 1874. Dr. Davin and Couderc 
 noticed and propagated it. In 1880 Millardet studied it 
 
 * Many illustrations and descriptions have been borrowed from M. Mazade's Guide, pour 
 facihter la reconnaissance de quelquen Ctpages, done into English by the present trans- 
 lators, under the title : First Steps in Ampelo^raphy. Department of Agriculture, 
 Victorifc, i90U 
 
38 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 at Ganzin's vineyard. The Rupestris Martin is preferred, as it 
 gives bettt- r results in soils where the R. Ganzin also grows. 
 
 Fig. 21. Leaf of Rupestris Martin (after M. Mazade). 
 
 Description. Stump, large ; habit, bushy; trunk, straight; 
 leaves with undulating margins, regularly folded along the 
 mid-rib ; petiolar sinus, very open, varying in shape 
 according to the size of the leaf. Generally yellowish green 
 or orange yellow towards the extremity of the shoots. 
 Numerous male flowers. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 
 .RUPESTRIS MISSION. 
 
 The Rupestris Mission was imported from America in 
 1887 by Viala. It made a satisfactory growth, and even 
 became vigorous in dry, marly soils with a subsoil com- 
 posed of calcareous concretions at the School of Agriculture, 
 Montpellier. However, it is inferior to the Rupestris 
 du Lot and the Rupestris Martin from the point of view of 
 its resistance to limestone, and perhaps even as a graft- 
 bearer. 
 
 Description. Habit, very spreading ; canes, large and 
 long ; internodes, medium, few secondary ramifications, 
 violet red when herbaceous. The lignified canes are of a 
 light hazel colour. Leaves, small, folded along the mid- 
 rib, margins curled inwards and undulating ; petiolar 
 sinus bracket shaped. 
 
 RUPESTRIS OF FORTWORTH. 
 
 A number of Rupestris sent from Fortworth, in Texas, in 
 1882, by Jaeger, to de Grasset, were grouped under the name 
 of Rupestris of Fortworth. They at first attracted atten- 
 tion on account of their vigour. They may be good graft- 
 bearers in Rip fir id soils, but are inferior to the Rupestris da 
 Lot in dry and calcareous hilly ground. 
 
 Description (according to Vialaand Ravaz). Very vigor- 
 ous, with strong trunk ; canes rather long, light hazel bluish 
 colour, young shoots pink ; leaves, very large, thick, light 
 .green and shining, goffered along the veins, well folded along 
 the mid-rib, margins slightly curled inwards. Of a yellowish 
 light green and shining on the under-face, veins transparent 
 and yellow, teeth wide and acute in two series ; petiolar 
 sinus deep, wide, V shaped, rounded at the base ; petiole 
 light pink. 
 
 RUPESTRIS METALLICA. 
 
 This Rupestris appears to be the result of crossing with 
 Mustang ( V. Candicans). It seems to resist dry soil, but 
 is inferior to the Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 Description. Very vigorous leaves, orbicular, shining, 
 parchment-like, very thick, sombre metallic sheen (hence 
 its name); rather folded along the mid-rib, margins perfectly 
 plane. Teeth regular, petiole forming an acute angle with 
 the limb ; petiolar sinus deep, open V shaped, tufts of 
 woolly down disseminated on the canes and petioles ; buds 
 whitish. 
 
40 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 RIPARIA X RUPESTRIS 3306 AND 3309. 
 
 These hybrids, raised by Conderc of Aubenas, have proved 
 very vigorous and resistant to phylloxera. They grow well 
 in calcareous soils, where all Riparias and most of the 
 Rupestris become yellow, and they bear very fructiferous 
 grafts. With regard to resistance to limestone they are 
 equivalent to the Rupestris du Lot, and withstand pourridie 
 better than the latter. It was noticed in 1897, in the Aude, 
 that folletage had generally affected all the vines grafted 
 on Riparia x Rupestris 101-14, while those grafted on 3309 
 were not subject to this accident. Under these circum- 
 stances these stocks may be considered as excellent graft 
 bearers capable of giving good results in soils which are too- 
 calcareous for Riparia and for certain Rupestris, and not 
 calcareous enough to necessitate the use of V. Berlandieri, 
 and sometimes too wet for the Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 RIPARIA x RUPESTRIS 101-14. 
 
 This hybrid was obtained by Millardet and de GrasseL 
 It shares the same qualities as the two above described, 
 except that its grafts have a tendency io folletage. 
 
 RUPESTRIS WITH TAYLOR HABIT. 
 
 This form, selected at Mas de las Sorres, seems to be a 
 hybrid between the V. ^Estivalis and the V. Rupestris. Its 
 resistance to phylloxera is 16. It is a very vigorous plant 
 with strong trunk and spreading habit. Its canes are 
 sinuous, strong, deep hazel colour, with bloom around the 
 nodes. The leaves are large, wide, thin, long, orbicular, 
 thick, fleshy, goffered between the sub-veins, light and 
 dull green on the under-face, with strong veins covered witli 
 stiff hair, petiolar sinus deep lyre shaped. 
 
 (D). FORMS DERIVED FROM V. BERLANDIERL 
 
 It is only since the viticultural mission ofViala to the 
 United States in 1887, that attention has been directed to 
 the V. Berlandieri, and that a selection to obtain forms more 
 resistant to the action of limestone started. According to 
 Viala the general characters of the forms resisting limestone 
 are : leaves slightly tornentose, of a shining golden yellow. 
 The types most in use are : The B. Resseguier No. 1, B. 
 Resseguier No. 2, B. Daignere,B. of Angeac, B. Viala, and 
 B. Ecole. 
 
AMEKICAN VINES. 41 
 
 BERLANDIERI RESSEGUIER, No. 1. 
 
 This form, selected by E. Resseguier, of Alenya (Pyrenees 
 Orientales), 'has generally grown well in calcareous soils. 
 The general tint is bright, light-green ; wood, hazel colon; 
 and shining ; leaves', large, elongated, margins often parallel, 
 often regularly folded along the mid-rib, sometimes plain, 
 relatively thin, supple, and smooth ; upper portion of grow- 
 ing shoot ashy colour and slightly carmine. Young leaves of a 
 golden yellow passing slowly to the definitive tint ; petiolar 
 sinus V shaped ; very vigorous form. 
 
 BERLANDIERI RESSE*GUIER, No. 2. 
 
 Selected by Resseguier like the No. 1. It has been very 
 much propagated, and has given good results as a graft- 
 bearer in soils where vines get chlorosed easily. General 
 tint very deep-green, varnish like, wood hazel colour, 
 strongly striated and excoriated ; leaves deep-green, shining 
 as if varnished on the upper face, rounded, thick, margins 
 strongly undulating, often folded conically, teeth very blunt, 
 petiolar sinus U or lyre shaped. Apex of shoot whitish, 
 slightly carmine ; young leaves violet bronze, ashy colour, 
 becoming pure bronze, and passing suddenly to the definitive 
 tint. 
 
 BERLANDIERI DAIGNERE. 
 
 Very vigorous and differing very little from the above. 
 Its leaves are more involute. It has generally given good 
 results in calcareous soils. 
 
 BERLANDIERI OF ANGEAC. 
 
 This form, which resists in the Charentes a high percent- 
 age of lime, is very vigorous, and seems to be a good graft- 
 bearer in such soils. Its leaves are rather dull with light- 
 green veins prominent on the limb ; teeth well marked, 
 fluffy hair along the veins of the upper-face ; buds yellowish- 
 white with a light carmine border more accentuated on the 
 young leaves ; wood rather reddish for a Berlandieri. 
 
 BERLANDIERI VIALA. 
 
 This form, selected and dedicated to Viala by Munson, 
 grows in the most chalky soils of Texas, but its vigour is less 
 than that of those already described, it cannot, therefore, be 
 
42 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 considered equivalent as a graft-bearer. Its adult leaves 
 are very large, rounded, and thick ; petiolar sinus almost 
 closed ; young leaves very bronzed and shining. 
 
 BERLANDIERI ECOLE. 
 
 This form was obtained at the School of Agriculture of 
 Montpellier, from seeds imported from Texas in 1876 by 
 Douysset. It is inferior to the above form, its use is therefore 
 not advisable as a graft-bearer. It is easily recognised by 
 its leaves, which, when adult, are depressed in the centre 
 and very involute. 
 
 (E).-VARIOUS HYBRIDS. 
 
 Apart from the hybrids previously described, grouping 
 them under the name of the pure form which seems to pre- 
 dominate in their character, there are a great number of 
 other hybrids offered to vine-growers as graft-bearers or 
 direct producers. We only mention those which are of 
 some value and already known : Aramon x Rupestris 
 Ganzin, No. 1, and A. R. G., No. 2, Gamay Couderc 
 (Colombeau x Rupestris Martin, No. 3103) ; Mourvkdre 
 x Rupestris, No. 1202 ; Chasselas x Berlandieri, No. 41, 
 of Millardet and de Grasset ; Tisserand ( Cabernet x Ber- 
 landieri, No. 333) ; Alicante-Bouschet x Rupestris, No. 
 136 ; Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 33, and B. x R., No. 34; 
 Petit-Bouschet x Riparia, No. 142, of the School of Agricul- 
 ture of Montpellier ; SeibeVs Hybrids, No. 1 and No. 2 ; 
 Franc's Hybrid, Alicante x Rupestris Terras, No. 20, &c. 
 
 ARAMON x RUPESTRIS GANZIN, No. 1. 
 
 Obtained by fecundating Aramon with Rupestris Ganzin. 
 
 Description (according to V. Ganzin). Vigorous plant, 
 strong and stout, with long, spreading canes, buds sombre, car- 
 mine, red, bronze, violet ; young shoots, carmine, violet, with 
 lighter ribs ; leaves medium on the main canes and smaller 
 on the secondary ramifications, almost entire, sometimes 
 trilobed, of a dull green, glabrous ; winter wood large and 
 thick, sometimes striated, but rarely ribbed, varying in 
 colour from light brick red to hazel, with a tint of white or 
 yellow dotted with blackish brown spots. 
 
 The Aramon x Rupestris, No. 1, is certainly one of the 
 most resistant Franco-American hybrids. For this reason 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 43 
 
 it has been recommended as a graft-bearer. However, on 
 account of its origin, it offers less guarantee than many other 
 graft-bearers which adapt themselves better to the same 
 conditions. Its resistance to lime is low ; it becomes 
 yellow, not only in chalky, but even in the groie soils of the 
 Charentes. 
 
 ARAMON x RUPESTRIS GANZIN, No. 2. 
 
 Resulting from the same seedlings. 
 
 Description (according to V. Ganziri). Vigorous plant, 
 strong and stout, with long, spreading canes ; buds, light 
 bronze-green with reddish hue ; young shoots similar to No. 1, 
 but with a lighter tint ; leaves similar to No. 1 ; winter wood 
 stout, striated, often ribbed, light hazel colour with a 
 yellowish-white hue, sometimes reddish-brown covered with 
 black spots, and sometimes mottled with yellow, the general 
 colour being lighter than that of No. 1. 
 
 This hybrid is affected by limestone more than No. 1. 
 
 GAMAY COUDERC. 
 
 Synonym : Colombeau x Rupestris Martin, No. 3103. 
 
 Description (according to Couderc). Very numerous and 
 loose bunches of grapes,' 5^in. to Sin. in length, with oval 
 berries (about ^in.), black, very fine, taste resembling 
 European grapes, acid and sweet at the same time, with no 
 after taste, differing only from those of European vines by 
 less freshness. Its wine is good and of a fine colour ; the 
 alcoholic strength reaches 11 per cent. (19 per cent, proof 
 spirit) ; leaves resembling the Rupestris, bnt trilobed, with 
 characteristic goffered structure towards the centre. Its 
 leaves and semi- erect habit, its large wood with short inter- 
 nodes and large flat nodes, enable it to be easily distinguished, 
 which is of great importance from a commercial and viti- 
 cultural point of view. 
 
 The Garnay Couderc has been recommended as a direct 
 producer and graft-bearer. Unfortunately, its resistance to 
 phylloxera does not seem to be sufficient. It died under the 
 attacks of the parasite at the School of Agriculture of Mont- 
 pellier, and in other places. 
 
 COLOMBEAU x RUPESTRIS, No. 1202. 
 
 Description. Very vigorous plant, with erect habit, 
 trunk large and stout, canes large, straight, or slightly 
 
44 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 sinuous in places, nodes large, slightly prominent, with 
 short internodes ; young shoots slightly violet-purple, with 
 a light fluffy tomentum ; tendrils bifurcated, of a vinous 
 red colour when young, becoming bronze-green later on; 
 buds bursting early, young leaves remaining folded along 
 the mid-rib for a very long period ; adult leaves orbicular, 
 with deep, acute, and regular teeth, upper face smooth, 
 rather like that of the leaf of V. Monticola ; petiolar sinus 
 regular V shape, petiole short, violet colour ; flowers gener- 
 ally male ; bunches rather small with very small spherical 
 berries, bluish-black, without foxy taste, with a deep colour 
 under the skin, often setting badly. 
 
 The 1202 was proposed as a graft-bearer on account of 
 its great vigour and adaptability to limestone soils. Unfor- 
 tunately, like the Gamay-Couderc, it withered under the 
 action of the phylloxera in the collections of the School of 
 Agriculture of Montpellier. 
 
 CHASSELAS x BERLANDIERI, No. 41 B. 
 
 This remarkable hybrid was obtained by Millardet and 
 de Grasset. 
 
 Description (according to Millardet). Very vigorous 
 plant with spreading habit, fertile, resembling at first sight 
 the pure Berlandieri. Wood of the year, large, often bent at 
 the nodes, flattened and often ribbed on one side from one 
 end to the other at the base of the strongest shoots, and 
 rounded towards the extremity. Wood light green or 
 slightly yellow when young, turning to a brown tobacco 
 colour when completely lignified. Internodes long, often 
 irregular (never more than 4|iu.). Nodes slightly 
 prominent ; buds covered with white down on top, rusty 
 coloured under the scales. Leaves with petiole generally 
 shorter than the limb, of a yellowish-green, often slightly 
 vinous colour in autumn, and slightly downy. Leaves 
 generally larger than long, very flat or only slightly 
 folded, generally pentagonal in shape at the base of the 
 canes and rounded at the extremity, with five lobes at the 
 base, three in the mean part, and entire towards the 
 extremity. Acute lobes on the lowest leaves, often very 
 obtuse on the mean and upper leaves. Lateral sinuses 
 sub-acute or obtuse like the lobes. Petiolar sinus, V or U 
 shaped. Teeth generally in one series, small, obtuse, or 
 rounded, downy on the edge. Limb rather thick, upper-face 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 45 
 
 smooth, shining, almost glabrous, mider-face lighter in 
 colour, shining between the veins, which are more or less 
 downy. Hermaphrodite flowers with short stamens. 
 
 Notwithstanding its Franco- American origin, the Chasselas 
 
 x Berlandieri proved resistant to phylloxera, and grew well 
 
 in limestone soils. It seems, therefore, to be a good 
 
 graft-bearer for such soils, but unfortunately does not 
 
 possess very great vigour. 
 
 TISSERAND. 
 
 Synonym: Cabernet x Berlandieri, No. 333. 
 
 The Tisserand was obtained in 1883, at the School of 
 Agriculture of Montpellier, by fecundating Cabernet 
 Sauvignon with Berlandieri. 
 
 Description. Plant of medium vigour, trunk of medium 
 size, deciduous bark detaching in fine thongs, long and 
 sinuous canes of medium diameter, nodes slightly protruding, 
 large buds. Wood fairly hard, with very little pith ; bark 
 deep red, strongly striated ; herbaceous shoots, purple, 
 covered with fluffy hair disseminated towards the extremities, 
 flattened towards the nodes. "When bursting, the buds are 
 bright carmine, then become whitish-pink, with large 
 grapes protruding from the centre. Margins of young 
 leaves and petioles pink, with woolly hair, forming a slight 
 down on the upper-face, white hair on the under-face. 
 Adult leaves medium, sometimes orbicular, five lobed, longer 
 than wide, petiolar sinus generally U shaped, the sides of 
 the sinus often overlapping. Inferior lateral sinus fairly 
 deep, teeth in two series, short and blunt, thick and glabrous, 
 of a brilliant green on the top, of a lighter green with stiff 
 hair on the veins of the under-face. Petiole cylindrical, 
 purple, with a few stiff or woolly hairs. Male flowers. 
 
 The Tisserand resisted, even when grafted, the action of 
 chalky soils in the environs of Cognac. It bears grafts of 
 a fine green colour, but, unfortunately, its Franco- American 
 origin, and the examination of a few lesions produced on its 
 roots by the phylloxera, do not allow us to recommend it as 
 a graft-bearer, 
 
 AUCANTE-BOUSCHET X RUPESTRIS, No. 136. 
 
 This hybrid was obtained in 1881, at the School of 
 Agriculture of Montpellier, by fecundating Alicante-Henri- 
 Bouschet with Rupestris-Ecole. 
 
46 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Description. Very vigorous plant with strong trunk, 
 semi-erect habit, rough bark detaching in irregular thonga 
 of medium length. Long canes, slightly sinuous, rather 
 slender ; internodes medium or short, nodes rather flat and 
 rather deeper than the internode in colour ; small glabrous 
 buds ; tendrils medium, trifurcated, becoming ligneous, 
 light coffee colour, diaphragm thin, flat above, concave 
 underneath. Leaves sub-medium, orbicular or cordiform, or 
 larger than long, like those of the V. Rupestris. Petiolar 
 sinus open, teeth short and blunt, slightly curled. Leaf 
 thick, of a bright green, glabrous and smooth on the 
 upper-face, glabrous and lighter green on the under-face. 
 Petiole rather long, forming a very obtuse angle with the 
 limb. Some of "the flowers are male, others are fertile. 
 Bunches, small, long, shouldered, loose, irregular, peduncles 
 and pedicles tender and herbaceous up to the time of 
 maturity. Berries small, spherical, black, with a slight 
 bloom, hard, with fine but strong skin, juice deep red, sweet 
 taste, but slightly acid after taste. Two or three small 
 seeds with short beak, similar to those of V. Rupestris, in 
 each berry. 
 
 This ce*page is almost sterile. 
 
 The Alicante-Bouschet x Rupestris, No. 136, has proved 
 very resistant to phylloxera notwithstanding its Franco- 
 American origin, its resistance being 19. It is remarkably 
 vigorous, and is a first-rate graft-bearer, knitting easily. It 
 does not withstand chalky soils, and, when grafted in such 
 soils, becomes yellow in bad seasons. It seems to have the 
 aptitudes of the V. Riparia, but has a larger trunk and 
 greater vigour. However, its superiority is not sufficient to 
 allow it to replace the Riparias. 
 
 PETIT-BOUSCHET x IhpAKiA, No. 142 ECOLE. 
 
 This hybrid, obtained at the School of Agriculture of 
 Montpellier, in 1883, is the result of a crossing between 
 Petit-Bouschet and Riparia. 
 
 Description. Plant of medium vigour, trunk of medium 
 size, with deciduous bark detaching in long, fine thongs. 
 Canes long, straight, of medium diameter, internodes rather 
 long, nodes small. Tendrils medium, bifurcated, discon- 
 tinuous, lignifying in autumn. Bark hazel colour, slightly 
 straited ; diaphragm thin ; leaves medium, thin, five lobed, 
 petiolar sinus U shaped, lateral inferior sinuses fairly deep. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 4? 
 
 Teeth short and sharp, in two series ; lobes slightly revolute, 
 limb very slightly goffered between the veins. Light 
 green and glabrous on the upper-face, lighter green and 
 glabrous with a few disseminated stiff hairs on the veins of 
 the under-face, which are slightly protruding. Petiole of 
 medium size, rather long, slightly purple, forming an obtuse 
 angle with the limb. Grapes small, similar to those of the 
 V. Riparia, loose, with short pedicels ; berries small, hard, 
 spherical, with thin skin and umbilic, rather depressed on- 
 the side ; violet black-colour with bloom, red juice, at first 
 reminding of that of green figs. One to three small seeds, 
 resembling those of wild Kiparia. 
 
 This cepage is almost sterile. 
 
 Although this vine is of Franco- American origin, it has a 
 high resistance like the cepage above described. It grows 
 better in calcareous soils, but the same remarks regarding 
 the opportunities for its utilization also apply. 
 
 BERLANDIERI x RIPAKIA, No. 33 ECOLE. 
 
 This hybrid and the following were obtained from seeds 
 brought from America by Viala. 
 
 Description (according to Viala and Ravaz). Strong and 
 vigorous plant, habit spreading, shoots straight, cylindrical, 
 large and strong, slightly ramified, interne >des rather short, 
 finely ribbed. Lignified canes drab coloured. Young shoots 
 glabrous, yellowish-green and pink in places. Leaves 
 medium, entire, with terminal lobes long and sharp, cordi- 
 form, very thick, main veins strong, with a few tufts of 
 hair. Upper-face deep green, shining, goffered between the 
 veins; under-face lighter green, varnish like; petiolar sinus 
 deep Y shaped, with a few hairs on the sides. Teeth blunt,, 
 in two series, regular ; petiole in the same plane as the limb. 
 
 The Riparia x Berlandieri, No. 33, has very great vigour, 
 resists phylloxera well, and roots freely from cuttings. The 
 first experiments made at Cognac seem to prove that it is 
 well adapted to calcareous soils. 
 
 BERLANDIERI x RIPARIA, No. 34 -EcoLE. 
 
 Description (according to Viala and Ravaz). Vigorous 
 plant with stout trunk. Canes cylindrical, largely striated, 
 well-marked ribs on canes of medium size ; internodes of 
 medium length ; young shoots tomentose, covered all over 
 with numerous short hairs extending to the tendrils and 
 
48 . MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 pedicles, of a vinous fawn-brown when lignified ; adult 
 leaves large, very thick, sub-orbicular, entire, terminal 
 lobes well-marked, curled underneath, the margin being 
 slightly revolute. Upper-face deep green, varnish like ; 
 under-face dull, light green, ribs and sub-ribs covered with 
 short regular brush-like hair. Two series of blunt teeth, 
 petiolar sinus wide, V shaped. 
 
 This hybrid seems-to have the same qualities as No. 33. 
 
 SEIBEL'S HYBRID, ]S T o. 1. 
 
 This hybrid, like the No. 2, is the result of seedlings of V. 
 Rupestris x V. Linsecomii (No. 70 of Jaeger), most likely 
 fecundated accidentally by a V. Vinifera. 
 
 Description (according to Rougier). Medium vigour, 
 trunk strong, habit spreading, bushy. Canes long, slightly 
 sinuous, flattened, medium size, slender ; internodes, 
 medium, short, nodes prominent with a protruding pad 
 below the point of insertion of the leaf. Buds small, pointed, 
 chestnut colour, with numerous ramifications like the V. 
 Rupestris. Wood and bark glabrous, shining, hazel colour ; 
 buds glabrous, young leaves very shining and glabrous on 
 both faces, of a very light green ; leaves shaped like those 
 of Y. Rupestris, small, remaining folded along the mid-rib 
 a very short time, entire, with blunt teeth, the lobes being 
 indicated by more developed teeth ; petiolar sinus very 
 wide and shallow, U shape ; teeth short, wide, and pointed, 
 in two series ; upper-face glabrous, light green, varnish 
 like, under-face lighter green, equally glabrous and shining ; 
 bunches medium, loose, cylindrical, sometimes shouldered ; 
 peduncle long, slender, light red near the point of inser- 
 tion ; berries of medium size (yV n - to -roin. in diameter), 
 rather ovoid, thin skin, persistent umbilic, deep red in color, 
 and becoming rather black at maturity. Abundant bloom, 
 soft pulp, colorless juice. 
 
 This hybrid was recommended as a direct producer. It 
 gives a rather fine wine and medium yield. Unfortunately, 
 its resistance to phylloxera is low ; it does not even equal 
 that of Jacquez (13). 
 
 SEIBEL'S HYBRID, No. 2. 
 
 Description (according to Rougier). Very vigorous plant, 
 trunk strong, habit semi-erect. Canes long, straight, stout, 
 -almost cylindrical, with deep ribs, internodes medium, nodes 
 stout ; buds medium, vinous red, covered with whitish-grey 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 49 
 
 down, few ramifications, tendrils discontinuous, very strong, 
 violet colour when herbaceous ; leaves large, orbicular, 
 entire, with more developed teeth indicating the inferior and 
 superior lobes, flat or folded conically ; petiolar sinus open, 
 lyre shaped ; teeth very irregular, often in several series, 
 wide and blunt ; limb thick, tough, upper-face deep green, 
 glabrous, varnish like. In autumn the leaves become red 
 like those of the Tinto's. Veins protruding, strong, covered 
 with a slight, woolly down. Petiole strong, forming an 
 obtuse angle with the limb ; bunches large, shouldered, 
 pyramid-shaped, rather compact and regular. Berries 
 medium, spherical, tender when ripe, with thin skins, red, 
 becoming almost black at maturity. Persistent umbilic, 
 juicy, coloured pulp. Ve y fertile cepage. 
 
 SeibeVs hybrid, No. 2, was also recommended as a direct 
 producer, but its resistance, which is smaller than No. 1 
 (about 8) . does not allow it to be very extensively used for 
 reconstitution. 
 
 FRANC'S HYBBID. 
 
 Obtained by Franc from seeds of Rupestris. In a report 
 to the Minister of Agriculture in 1894, Franc pointed out 
 this hybrid as resisting all cryptogamic diseases and 
 phylloxera. 
 
 Description (according to Franc). Very vigorous plant- 
 habit erect, trunk strong, increasing rapidly in dimensions. 
 Shoots strong, with numerous ramifications ; buds stout, 
 covered with light red scales ; abundant bloom rather late 
 in the season ; flowers never affected by non-setting. Leaves 
 deep green, upper-face very shiny, under-face lighter. 
 Luxuriant vegetation. Bunches varying in size ; berries 
 black spherical, having a thin skin and a fine bright red 
 juice, sweet, with an agreeable taste. 
 
 Franc's hybrid was proposed as a direct producer, but 
 notwithstanding the large number of grapes it bears the 
 yield in juice is small. Its wine is inferior, and the colour, 
 although very bright at first, quickly alters. Its resistance 
 to phylloxera has not yet been ascertained. 
 
 ALICANTE x RUPESTRIS, No. 20, OF TERRAS. 
 Obtained by Terras, in the Var, by crossing the Alicante 
 and Rupestris. Very fertile, notwithstanding the bad 
 quality of its wine ; this vine has been rather boomed by 
 vine-growers, but its small resistance to phylloxera leads 
 us to think that it will soon be discarded. 
 
 10890. D 
 
50 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES WITH REGARD TO 
 DESTINATION AND SITUATION. 
 
 The vine-grower who has decided to reconstitute his vine- 
 yard with American vines has to examine different questions 
 before choosing between forms, the resistance of which he is 
 supposed to know. Is he to plant direct producers ? Is he 
 to plant graft-bearers ? And amongst either of those which 
 are the forms best adapted to his soil and climate ? We 
 shall try to solve these different problems in this chapter by 
 grouping under different headings the indications already 
 published on the principal American vines, completing them 
 when necessary. 
 
 USE OF DIRECT PRODUCERS OR GRAFT-BEARERS. 
 
 Since the resistance of American vines to phylloxera was 
 pointed out, in 1869, at the Congress of Beaune, by Laliman, 
 two solutions to the phylloxera problem were foreseen :. 
 First, the substitution of European by American vines ; 
 second, the grafting of European vines on American roots, 
 as Gaston Bazille so promptly advocated. 
 
 The first solution was naturally preferred, as it seemed to 
 be much easier of execution, and vine-growers were advised 
 to adopt it. Together with the experiments of Laliman and 
 Borty (the two first importers of American vines, with a 
 view to cultivating them for direct production) the Ameri- 
 cans, who had since the failures of the London Company and 
 of the Swiss colonists of jfcew Vevey, only used indigenous 
 vines, assured us that they produced wines equal to those of 
 our best European vineyards. Encouraged by such infor- 
 mation, many vine-growers started reconstituting their 
 phylloxera-destroyed vineyards with Concord, Clinton, and 
 Jacquez (which Douysset had discovered in Texas) ; 
 Herbemontj Cunningham, which were planted extensively ;. 
 and, later on, with York Madeira, Norton's Virginia, Vialla,. 
 Eumelan, Black Defiance, Autuchon, Cornucopia, Secretary, 
 and even Taylor and Othello. . 
 
CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES. 51 
 
 But it was soon recognised that it was impossible to 
 obtain any practical result from such producers. The foxy 
 taste of the wine made from most of them did not suit the 
 French palate, accustomed for a long period of time to the 
 taste of Vinifera wines, while those resulting from V. JEsti- 
 ralis, which gave wine of a clean taste, were far from yielding 
 as much as the old European ce"pages. But the main fact 
 which forced vine-growers to discard them was their 
 insufficient resistance to phylloxera in most soils. These 
 grafted forms resulting from crossings of wild resisting 
 species, such as V. Riparia or V. ^Estivalis, with other 
 species, such as V. Vint/era and V. Labrusca, which are not 
 resisting, can only thrive well in soils which do not allow the 
 phylloxera to develop freely. 
 
 Only a very few of these direct producers are now culti- 
 vated, and only a few acres of Jacquez are to be found in the 
 most fertile parts of the Var cultivated for wine purposes ; 
 all the rest have been either uprooted or grafted. The 
 Clinton, which is now called Pouzin, only forms a few 
 trellises in front of the houses of small growers of Ardeche 
 and Drome. A few blocks of Noah are yet to be found in 
 the vineyards of the south-west of France. It has been 
 done away with in other parts of France, and grafting is 
 now the general rule, which is not surprising if we think of 
 the immense advantages it affords. 
 
 Experience has proved how easy it is to train workmen to 
 perform this operation with success ; the use of grafted and 
 knitted cuttings made on the bench and planted in nurseries, 
 enables vignerons to create regular plantations in the first 
 instance by using well-selected stocks ; by its use it is easy 
 to produce a wine to which commerce is accustomed, and it 
 endows the grafted vines with a maximum resistance to 
 phylloxera, as it renders possible the use of stocks selected 
 amongst American wild forms, which by the process of 
 natural selection in presence of the insect have become 
 practically immune. 
 
 However, the question of direct producers is again 
 brought forward. Those used at first are naturally not 
 mentioned with the exception of the Noah, perhaps, but 
 many new hybrids obtained in France, generally from 
 crossings between American and European vines, are offered 
 to viticulturists. Those nurserymen who offer these direct 
 producers to growers do not try to point out the advantage 
 
 D 2 
 
52 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 of avoiding the grafting operation, as the argument is 
 played out, but they say that their hybrids resist chlorosis 
 better in limestone soils, and are not affected by black-rot 
 and other cryptogamic diseases. 
 
 They have not yet been planted to any extent, but in 
 districts where recoristitution is only starting, and where the 
 work has not yet assumed a decided orientation, small plan- 
 tations are made with the idea of gradually extending them. 
 If we consider these new trials, we are forced to ask the 
 question Is it really necessary to modify the basis upon 
 which the reconstitution of vineyards rests, as it is actually 
 done in France ? We do not think so ; and our opinion 
 on this question rests on the following consideration. As a 
 matter of fact, it would only be necessary if : 
 
 . 1st. The direct producers had an equal or superior 
 value from the point of view of quality and 
 quantity of their produce to our grafted cepages, 
 and if they offered the same guarantees as the 
 latter with regard to their resistance to phyl- 
 loxera. 
 
 2nd. If the graft-bearers were not sufficiently resist- 
 ant to phylloxera, and if they could not adapt 
 themselves, to certain soils for which direct pro- 
 ducers would be better adapted. 
 
 3rd. Finally, if no remedy be known against black- 
 rot, a given direct producer had better qualities 
 of resisting this disease than any other European 
 vine of equal value. 
 
 We think that, so far, neither of these hypotheses have 
 been realized ; and we may say that up to the present no 
 American producer has given wines equal in quality to those 
 of the fine European cepages, neither do they produce it in an 
 equal quantity. No direct producer would bear comparison 
 with Burgundy , Cabernet, or Shiraz with regard to quality, 
 or with Aramon, Terret-Bourret, and Carignan with regard 
 to quantity. We must not forget that their resistance to 
 phylloxera is generally low on account of the strain of V. 
 Labrusca and V. Vinifera which they contain, and that the 
 higher the quality of their wine and their fructivity the 
 lower the resistance. 
 
 On the contrary, the graft-bearers now in use answer all 
 the requirements of viticulture so far as phylloxera is 
 
CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES. 53 
 
 concerned. The tendency to discard types of low resistance, 
 such as Taylor, Vialla, Solouis, Jacquez, &c., has increased 
 every year ; and only a few wild forms have been retained 
 after long and careful selection. These are Riparia Grand 
 Glabrt-, R. Gloire de Montpellier, Rupestris du Lot, 
 R. Martin, Berlandieri (for calcareous soils), or spontaneous 
 or artificial crossings between these species (Riparia x 
 Rupestris, Riparia x Berlandieri, Rupestris x Berlandieri. 
 
 The problem of adaptation to calcareous soils has been 
 solved by the use of well-selected Berlandieris, or hybrids 
 America x Berlandieri, which, if necessary, are treated by 
 the Rassignier process. It has at least given results equal 
 to those obtained with certain direct producers, which never 
 possess a resistance to phylloxera equal to that of Berlan- 
 dieris ; and we must never forget that maximum resistance 
 to phylloxera should always be the first item considered in 
 planting American vines. As a matter of fact, if under certain 
 exceptional conditions, and for reasons it is not always easy 
 to ascertain, a small resistance to phylloxera is sufficient ; in 
 the majority of cases the use of vines of low resistance has 
 always resulted in failure, and compelled resorting to new 
 and expensive planting. To quote an instance already men- 
 tioned : If in certain parts of the Var, fine Jacquez, produc- 
 ing abundantly, are to be found in fresh and fertile soils, it 
 does not follow that in other parts where the soils are dry 
 and poor the Jacquez (which does not resist phylloxera well) 
 will succeed, and those viticulturists who planted it under 
 such conditions regret now that they were unacquainted 
 with the Rupestris du Lot, a graft-bearer growing in most 
 soils, which would have prevented very many failures. 
 
 Finally, with regard to resistance to black-rot, there is 
 no reason to think that onr cepages of good quality will 
 be replaced by direct producers resisting this disease better, 
 as these would always yield an inferior crop. We know the 
 results obtained by treatments with copper salts, and we think 
 it will be possible to obtain still better results in future, 
 and to save expenses by following the prescription published 
 by the Commission appointed to study the black-rot disease. 
 It is only in cases where all means of combating the disease 
 must be abandoned, which would be absurd, that the use of 
 Noah, for instance, should be advocated, as was done in the 
 south-west of France. 
 
54 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 We see from this that none of the direct producers 
 actually known can be recommended, and it is towards 
 European vines grafted on American stocks, strongly 
 resistant to phylloxera, and well adapted to given soils, that 
 vim-growers must exclusively turn their efforts, if they desire 
 to make a success ofreconstitution of phylloxerated vineyards. 
 We will, therefore, only study the selection of graft-bearers 
 fulfilling the conditions indicated : 
 
 1st. RESISTANCE TO PHYLLOXERA. 
 
 So far as resistance to phylloxera is concerned, the graft- 
 bearers actually in use may be classified as follows, the scale 
 of resistance ranging from to 20, 20 being absolute re- 
 sistance : 
 
 Resistance. 
 
 Alicante-Bouschet X Rupestris No. 136 .;- 
 
 Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin No. I ;..' ... ... 1.6? 
 
 Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin No. *2 ,.: ... ... 16? 
 
 Berlandieri (selected forms) ... ... .../<..,. 17 
 
 Chasselas X Berlandieri No. 41 ,,..,:. , ... ... 17? 
 
 Jacquez ... ... ... .'.',.. ... ... li' 
 
 Petit -Bouschet X Riparia ... ... ;,. ... 17 
 
 Riparia X Berlandieri No. 33 ... ..." ! ... 17 
 
 Riparia X Berlandieri No. 34 ... L ...,,.. ... 17 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, or R. Portalis ; : '.'.. 18 
 
 Riparia Grand Glabre ... : ... ... ... 18 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris 101-14... ... ... 18 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris 3306 ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris 3309 ... . . .. ... 18 
 
 Rupestris du Lot, or R. Phenomene ... ..- .... 18 
 
 Rupestris Martin ., ... >-,' ; <.W -v. ; ... 18 
 
 Rupestris Metallica... ... ,\. r ... ... ;. ... 18 
 
 Rupestris Mission ... ... ,''',...' ... ... 18 
 
 Solonis ..'. :..' ... ... ... .. 14 
 
 Taylor ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 
 
 Taylor-Narbonne ... .. ... ... 17 
 
 Tisserand (Cabernet X Berlandieri No. 333) ... ... 16? 
 
 Vialla ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 The natural tendency of vine-growers to use only those 
 vines offering high resistance has caused a great many graft- 
 bearers used at first to be eliminated. These graft-bearers 
 have in some special cases succeeded, but in the majority of 
 cases succumbed. They are given in the above list with 
 marks below 14. Such are Jacquez, Taylor, Vialla, and 
 Solonis, except in soils where they could not be replaced by 
 any other, as we will see later on. It is not advisable to use 
 Franco- American hybrids, for even if their resistance to phyl- 
 loxera seems satisfactory their European strain is not in their 
 
CHOICE OF AMBKICAN VINES. 55 
 
 favour, and they may sometimes result in grave failures. It 
 is only in cases where vines of pure American origin cannot 
 adapt themselves to the soil that the above hybrids may be 
 used, but these circumstances seem to be very exceptional, 
 and, in a general way, we may say that we possess pure 
 American graft-bearers for all varieties of soils where the 
 vine is generally cultivated, as we will show in the study of 
 adaptation to soil. 
 
 2nd. ADAPTATION TO SOIL. 
 
 "With a few exceptions, the species of American vines 
 growing in the United States do not thrive in limestone soils, 
 especially if the limestone is in an easily assimilable form. 
 They become more or less yellow when there is a small pro- 
 portion of this substance, and die if there is a large percentage 
 of it. Sometimes chlorosis brings about complete discolora- 
 tion, and even the destruction of the parenchyma of the leaf, 
 prevents the cane from lignifying, the vine becoming stunted 
 and dying if the evil lasts several consecutive years. The 
 reconstitution of vineyards on limestone soils has been one of 
 the greatest difficulties vine-growers had to contend with ; 
 therefore an exact knowledge of the quantity of limestone 
 different American grafc-bearers can stand is of very great 
 importance with regard to the study of adaptation to soil. 
 
 At the beginning of this question the percentage of car- 
 bonate of lime contained in soils where American vines grew 
 well or became chlorosed was simply measured, and after the 
 mission of P. Viala, in America, in 1887, B. Chauzit gave, 
 in 1889, the following table, showing from personal analysis, 
 the percentage of linie which different American vines could 
 stand : * 
 
 Percentage of Carbonate of Lime ! American Vines Growing Well. 
 
 Less than 10 per cent. ... Most American Vines. 
 From 10 to 20 per cent. ... Riparia, Taylor, Vialla. 
 
 From 20 to 30 per cent Jacquez, Rupestris, Solonis. 
 
 From 30 to 40 per cent. . . . Champin, Othello. 
 From 40 to 50 per cent. ... V. Monticola. 
 Over 60 per cent. ... V. Berlamlieri. 
 
 * B. Chauzit : Etude nut- l\i.aij.,tati(>ii au wl dts dynes Aim'ricuinris, in Utie Mission en 
 Amtrique, by Pierre Viala. Montpellier, 1889. 
 
56 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 These indications are now considered as insufficient. In 
 the first place, they do not give any indication with regard to 
 new graft-bearers studied since, and which have real value ; 
 further, they do not give any information with regard to the 
 nature of the lime contained in the soils analyzed. We know 
 now that the peculiar state of limestones of different physical 
 nature affects American vines differently, assuming the per- 
 centage of carbonate of lime to be equal. They are more 
 affected by soft and friable limestone, such as chalky, pebbly, 
 or pulverized marl, and can, on the contrary, grow without 
 becoming yellow in soils containing a high percentage of lime 
 if tins lime is in a crystalline or saccharoidal state, forming a 
 sandy debris, and not paste or mud in the presence of water. 
 
 It would seem that in this latter form limestone is 
 generally more soluble. Montdesir and Bernard have shown 
 that it is possible to gauge the assimilability of limestone by 
 the rate of disengagement of carbonic acid gas resulting from 
 the action of acids on it. Houdaille and Semichon have 
 continued this study, and made much progress. Bernard 
 invented a calcimeter (Fig. 22), with which it is possible to 
 rapidly ascertain the limestone contained in the soil, and to 
 judge approximately from the rate of disengagement of 
 carbonic acid gas, the more or less facility with which the 
 limestone is decomposed. 
 
 This apparatus, which is easy to manipulate and costs very 
 little, should be in the hands of all viticulturists who wish 
 to study their soils themselves with the object of ascertain- 
 ing which graft-bearer will give the best results. Houdaille's 
 calcimeter is more complicated and provided with a self- 
 registering curve-marking device, with the aid of which it is 
 easy to ascertain the rate of disengagement of carbonic acid, 
 and, therefore, the rate of decomposition of the carbonate of 
 lime, but it is rather a laboratory instrument giving very 
 complete indications. 
 
 The rate of decomposition, however, is not always sufficient 
 to explain certain facts, such as the presence in soils of 
 humus furnishing carbonic acid, decomposing limestone, and 
 water which dissolves it. Most of the soils of the Charentes, 
 in which vines become chlorosed, contained a high per- 
 centage of humus, which, according to the analysis of 
 Chauzit, varies between O412 and 0*803 per cent. 
 
 Many other soils in which vines become chlorosed do not 
 contain a very high percentage of lime, but they always 
 
CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 57 
 
 B 
 
 contain a very high percentage of humus. Finally, the 
 presence of clay closely united to lime seems to be a cause 
 of diminution in the dangerous action of carbonate of lime 
 upon American vines. 
 
 Certain soils, such as the blue marls, near Montpellier> 
 grow (owing to the large proportion of clay which they 
 contain) Ri- 
 parias, which 
 do not be- 
 come yellow 
 even grafted. 
 When the 
 sub-soil is at 
 a depth of 
 less than 20 
 inches, it has 
 an action of 
 the same 
 order upon 
 vines. 
 
 The good 
 growth of 
 many Franco- 
 American hy- 
 brids in cal- 
 careous soils 
 and their 
 ready adapta- 
 tion to graft- 
 ing with 
 American 
 vines, which 
 was pointed 
 out by Viala 
 and Ravaz, 
 induced many 
 
 to work in that direction. Millardet, de Grasset, Couderc, 
 Castel, Terras, MalegUe and ourselves at the School of Agri- 
 culture of Montpellier, with many others, have made ex- 
 periments in that direction. We tried by fecundating V. 
 Vinifera with American species, such as the V. Berlandieri 
 and V. Monticola, having already the power of resisting 
 limestone, to obtain graft-bearers adapting themselves easily 
 to such soils. Unfortunately, although in many instances- 
 
 Fig. 22. Bernard's Calcimeter. 
 
58 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 we were successful in obtaining plants resisting chlorosis, 
 we always failed to obtain vines having sufficient resist- 
 ance to the action of phylloxera in soils in which it 
 multiplies easily ; and this is not surprising, as the 
 strain of Vinifera has always a chance d priori of 
 diminishing the resistance of the American parent. But 
 now the time has come when we cannot sacrifice the 
 resistance to phylloxera in favour of resistance to lime, 
 and this is the reason which induced us to abandon the 
 Tisserand (Cabernet x Berlandieri No. 333) of the School 
 of Agriculture of Montpellier, which always bears in every 
 soil perfectly green grafts, and seems more resistant than 
 Jacquez to phylloxera, that is to say, sufficient in many cases, 
 but not always. We cannot state that the Franco- American 
 hybrids already created will not realize the desired condi- 
 tions, but we feel convinced that the solution to the problem 
 must be looked for in another direction. 
 
 American hybrids have been created without any strain 
 of Vinifera whatever. Some of these resist limestone to a 
 high degree, but those so far created do not resist it as well 
 as the Franco- American (Franco x Berlandieri) hybrids, 
 one of the parents only being resistant. 
 
 However, we can quote amongst these, remarkable types 
 which may render real services in soils in which vines only 
 get slight chlorosis, such as the Groies of the Charentes 
 (Riparia x Rupestris No. 101-14, of Millardet, and de 
 Grasset ; Riparia x Rupestris 3306 and 3309, of Courderc ; 
 Belton or Candicans x Monticola). Further, certain types, 
 such as the Riparia x Berlandieri^ created by Millardet, 
 de Grasset, Courderc, Malegue, &c. ; the Berlandieri x 
 Riparia Nos. 33 and 34, of the School of Agriculture of 
 Montpellier, and a few others, will, perhaps, possess both 
 qualities of resistance to lime and phylloxera, but they 
 require further experimentation. It is self-evident, however, 
 that it is amongst wild species living naturally in chalky 
 soils in the United States that we have the best chance of 
 finding types resisting chlorosis, and from this point of view 
 the only two deserving to be studied are the V. Monticola 
 and V. Berlandieri. 
 
 They both grow in Texas, and seem to be endowed with 
 great power of resistance to phylloxera, drought, and 
 chlorosis. The Monticola resists a little better, but, unfor- 
 tunately, it does not root freely from cuttings, and the forms 
 imported have not up to the present proved very vigorous. 
 
CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES. 59 
 
 Many forms of Berlandieri are vigorous, and furnish large 
 and fructiferous graft-bearers. Unfortunately, they do not 
 root freely when the usual method of planting is followed. 
 However, some nurserymen, such as Euryale Kesseguier, of 
 Alenya, have succeeded in obtaining 50 per cent, of strikes. 
 Viala and Mazade have proved, by experiments conducted at 
 the School of Agriculture of Moutpellier, that the grafting 
 of Berlandieri cuttings increases the strike in a large pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Although we may hope that certain Franco-American 
 and Americo-American hybrids will enable vine-growers to 
 obtain satisfactory results in calcareous soils, it is better to 
 use Berlandieri, which has already proved its good quality. 
 
 We may, therefore, in the actual state of our knowledge, 
 consider this vine as giving the best solution to the question 
 of reconstitution of vineyards in limestone soils. The prac- 
 tical diffkmlties which are met with reside principally in the 
 choice of types. We must, according to Viala, look for the 
 following characters : Vigorous vegetation, very thick 
 leaves shining on both faces, with extremities of shoots only 
 slightly tomentose, and young leaves golden brown. 
 
 These characteristics are to be found in the forms already 
 selected, which we have previously described: B. Resseyuier 
 Nos. 1 and 2, B. Daigribre, B. of Angeac, B. de Lafont No. 9, 
 B. Mazade. 
 
 We have no doubt that if the selection is continued new 
 types of equal, if not superior, value will be found. 
 
 Unfortunately, good Berlandieri forms are expensive, and 
 this prevents their general use, for growers will not risk 
 money if they are not certain of the resistance of the stock 
 offered to them, especially when they know that a less 
 resistant graft-bearer may do. 
 
 No doubt, the grafting of buds on old stumps is a rapid 
 means of propagating cuttings. However, as cuttings of 
 other species are placed on the market at a small cost growers 
 generally prefer buying them if they are adaptable to their 
 soil. For this reason we will study the value of the different 
 stocks most generally used, showing the quantities of lime- 
 stone they can stand. These indications have only an 
 approximate value, as the nature of the lime and the 
 numerous conditions already explained (depth of soil, pre- 
 sence of humus, presence of free carbonic acid, clay, humidity, 
 <fec.) may greatly vary the effects of this substance. Humidity 
 
60 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 seems to have a greater influence than any, and the limits of 
 limestone given hereafter, which were established from 
 experiments made in the dry parts of the Mediterranean 
 region, must he reduced in damper countries. 
 
 V. Riparia. Two 
 wild forms have heen 
 retained, the Riparia 
 Gloire de Montpellier 
 and R. Grand (rlabre, 
 which may he regarded 
 as equivalent. Like all 
 Riparias they have the 
 inconvenience of form- 
 ing a trunk of smaller 
 diameter than that of 
 the scion (Fig. 23), but 
 they certainly consti- 
 tute the best graft- 
 bearers in the majority 
 of soils on account of 
 the abundance of their 
 production. Therefore, 
 whenever the drought 
 and the percentage of 
 limestone is not too 
 great, they should be 
 preferred. They may be 
 used with almost every 
 chance of success in 
 soils containing up to 
 20 per cent, of carbon- 
 ate of lime. In the 
 Mediterranean region 
 we may even use them 
 in soils containing 25 
 per cent., under the 
 condition that the sub- 
 soil is at a, depth of at 
 least 20 inches, and 
 that the soil is fertile. 
 
 V. Rupestris. Again two forms have been selected as 
 superior : the R. Martin and R. du Lot. The former is very 
 resistant to phylloxera, and succeeds under conditions similar 
 
 Fig 1 . 23. V. Vinifera grafted on V. Riparia, 
 
 showing almost normal difference between size of 
 
 stock and scion 
 
CHOICE OF AMERICAN VINES. 01 
 
 to those suiting- Riparias. In calcareous soils they bear less 
 fructiferous grafts, but as they can grow in poorer and more 
 pebbly soils, they are preferred under certain circumstances. 
 It grows better than the latter in rainy and damp climates, 
 such as the centre and west of France. 
 
 The Rapestris da Lot is rerriarkable for its resistance to 
 limestone ; it withstands 40 per cent, in the Mediterranean 
 region, and sometimes 50 per cent, when the soil is deep and 
 the limestone not too soluble ; therefore, it would be advis 
 able to use it in the damper climates of the south-west in 
 soils containing more than 25 per cent. It bears grafts of 
 great vigour, but which (projbably on account of the excess 
 of vegetation) are sometimes little fructiferous. It is, there- 
 fore, in poor, pebbly soils that is should be planted ; in such 
 soils it presents advantages, and is equal, if not superior, to 
 Riparia so far as the fructification of its grafts is concerned. 
 Heavy clayey soils do not affect it provided, however, that 
 they are not too damp, for it is easily attacked by pourridie 
 (Dematophora necatnx). It has sometimes been stated that 
 its resistance to phylloxera is not perfect ; but, although we 
 have seen a few tuberosities on its roots, they were never 
 mi nerous or sufficiently developed to become dangerous. 
 
 The Riparia x Rapestris 101-14, of Millardet and de 
 Grasset, and the 3306 and 3309 of Courderc, are less 
 known as graft-bearers, but, however, have certain real 
 qualities. They seem to be endowed with great resistance 
 to phylloxera, and, with regard to limestone, may be re- 
 garded as equivalent to the Rupestris du Lot. They can 
 even withstand a high percentage of limestone, and bear 
 very fine European grafts. They should be used instead of 
 the Rupestris du Lot in damp soils, where the latter might 
 be attacked by pourridie, or in soils so rich that they cause 
 a powerful vegetation resulting in diminished fructification 
 of grafts. 
 
 V. Berlandieri. The well-selected forms of this species 
 resisting limestone well are also remarkable for their great 
 resistance to phylloxera, the facility with which they knit 
 with Vinifera grafts, their abundant fructification, and great 
 resistance to drought. They may be used in soils containing 
 more than 25 per cent, of limestone in the west, and more 
 than 40 per cent, in the south of France, or in all soils 
 where limestone is in the dangerous form, or where local 
 conditions increase its action. 
 
62 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Salt is also an objectionable substance in soils, and, if the 
 proportion of it is large enough, may render soils unfit for 
 vegetation. 
 
 The graft-bearer, withstanding the greatest percentage of 
 this substance is the Solonis, and it is alone used for recon- 
 stitution in the saline soils of the Aude and the Pyre*nees- 
 Orientales. As it is impossible to use any other stock, one 
 does not take into account its resistance to phylloxera, 
 which, however, is not of such great importance in this case, 
 salt soils being unfavorable to the development of the 
 insect. 
 
 To sum up, the following isa list of the soils in which 
 certain American vines may succeed : 
 
 1st. Fresh, fertile, deep soils, containing less than 25 per cent. 
 
 of limestone : Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, and R. Grand 
 Glabre. 
 
 2nd. Fresh soils but slightly fertile, and of little depth, 
 clayey, containing less than 25 per cent, of limestone : 
 
 Rupestris Martin. 
 
 3rd- Clayey soils, not too damp or not too pebbly, poor, con- 
 taining up to 40 per cent, of limestone in the south 
 and 25 per cent, in the west of France, or up to 80 per 
 cent, in certain well-drained tufas : Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 4tb. Clayey soils more or less damp, containing up to 40 per 
 cent, of limestone : Riparia X Rupestris, No. 101-14, 3306, 
 
 5th. Calcareous soils of a chalky nature, pulverized white 
 
 marl, &C : Berlandieris. 
 6th. Salt soils, Or pourridti soils : Solonis. 
 
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 63 
 
 B. METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 METHODS OF PROPAGATION APPLICABLE TO 
 VINES. PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 
 
 The vine, like most plants of the upper scale of the vege- 
 table kingdom, may be multiplied by seeds or by different 
 methods of segmentation, cuttings, layers, and grafts. All 
 these methods are of different value in different cases, and it 
 is by a sound choice between these that the success of the 
 plantation often depends. We will shortly study them, 
 examining their various applications, and the special care 
 they require. 
 
 Propagation by seeds. We may sow vine seeds with the 
 object of obtaining : first, new c6pages ; second, resistant 
 graft-bearers. 
 
 The creation of new cepages is very tedious work, which 
 cannot be performed by most viticulturists, who generally 
 desire to obtain as quickly as possible a vine with known 
 qualities. However, it possesses a certain interest, and the 
 Americans have by this means obtained, in a relatively short 
 time, many meritorious cepages from their wild types. We 
 think it advisable to describe it for those who would feel 
 disposed to enrich viticulture with new forms perhaps better 
 adapted to special conditions. 
 
 While the different methods of multiplication and segmen- 
 tation simply consist in placing a portion of the plant 
 under conditions allowing it to continue the life begun in 
 common with the mother plant, without modifying it, those 
 of multiplication by seed give rise to a new vine, differing in 
 certain measures from those which produce it, although re- 
 sembling them in its general characters ; for instance, many 
 are unfertile or inferior to their parents, preventing this 
 
r 64 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 mode of reproduction being used with direct producers. But 
 this variation, which is a great obstacle when we desire to 
 preserve a good type, becomes a condition of success when 
 new types are to be created. Viticulturists select amongst 
 the new types produced in this way those which seem best 
 adapted to given soils and conditions, and multiply them 
 afterwards by the ordinary process of segmentation. 
 
 If the variations are too frequent and too considerable in 
 seedlings to allow this method to be used for the production 
 of fruit, we may, however, by observing certain precautions, 
 avoid modifications of the root system special to each vine, 
 and upon which their resistance depends. We can therefore 
 utilize it to create graft-bearers for our European vines, 
 especially in districts not yet infected, where the introduction 
 of rootlings would be inadvisable. 
 
 (A.) Choice of Cepages. With the object of obtaining new 
 types of direct producers, it is advisable to use cultivated 
 varieties having already some of the required characters, but 
 which do not possess such fixed characters as wild types, and 
 which consequently are able to furnish offspring preserving 
 the good qualities of their parents, and at the same time able 
 to acquire additional qualities. Unfortunately, the varieties 
 thus attained do not generally resist phylloxera well, as was 
 proved in the case of Saint-Sauveur, obtained from Jacquez 
 seedlings by Gaston Bazille, and the Herbemont of Aurelle 
 resulting from Herbemont Touzan seedlings. We may, by 
 crossing varieties offering qualities which we would like to 
 pee united in a single individual, try to obtain an interme- 
 diate variety, possessing them all. Crossings between V. 
 Vinifera and certain American species were tried, with the 
 object of obtaining direct producers, endowed with an abund- 
 ant production of grapes of good quality and sufficient 
 resistance to phylloxera. The V. Vinifera arid the V. Berlan- 
 dieri were also crossed, with the idea of obtaining graft- 
 bearers, thriving well in limestone soil. A great number of 
 hybrids obtained in this way will certainly resemble either 
 one or other of the parents, and lack in some qualities, but it 
 is not impossible (although very improbable) to, obtain an 
 individual possessing all the good qualities of both parents. 
 However, it was noticed that the prevailing characters were 
 always those of the male parent ; therefore in a crossing 
 between Vinifera and American vines the latter must always 
 be used as male, so as to diminish as little as possible the 
 
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 
 
 65 
 
 -qualities ot resistance to phylloxera. We have in a previous 
 chapter, when describing' direct producers and graft-bearers, 
 explained the value of the association of different species. 
 
 Hybridization. The operation is carried out in the follow- 
 ing manner : The flower of the vine presents a peculiar dis- 
 position ; its petals, instead of opening tit the top, become 
 separated from the calyx at their base, and remain united at 
 the top, forming a kind of hood maintaining the anthers in 
 contact with the pistil (Figs. 24, 25, and 26). The hood of 
 
 Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 
 
 Different stages in the opening of a normal Vine Flower. 
 
 each flower mast therefore be removed before the petals 
 become detached. When this is done we must ascertain 
 that no pollen has fallen off from the anthers ; the stamens 
 .are then removed with special scissors and forceps (Fig. 27) 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Scissors and Forceps used for 
 the removal of corolla and 
 stamens. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Gauze Bag used for pro- 
 tecting flowers from 
 contamination. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 CJauze Bag kept open with 
 a spiral wire. 
 
 to prevent accidental fecundation. The. flowers of the 
 variety which is to play the part of male are then rubbed 
 or shaken above the former so as to cover them with pollen. 
 The fecundated flowers are then covered with a gauze bag 
 (Fig. 28) so as to protect them from contact with any foreign 
 
 10890. 
 
66 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 pollen. When the periods of florescence do not correspond,, 
 we may forward that of late varieties by growing them under 
 glass, or retard that of early varieties by planting them in the 
 shade and sheltering the bunches of flowers in paper bags. 
 
 After the fecundation has been performed, it is advisable to 
 take some precautions to avoid non-setting, which may result 
 from the washing away of pollen by rain or from a sudden 
 fall in the temperature. To remove the first cause of this 
 accident we must keep the bags open by placing a spiral 
 piece of wire inside (Fig. 29), or sheltering them with little 
 hoods made of paper dipped in linseed oil. The second 
 cause may be removed by repeated sulphuring or by annular 
 incision. 
 
 Sometimes one may be induced to use, not only seeds 
 resulting from direct hybridization, but also those variations 
 produced by hybridized varieties ; unfortunately, such 
 offspring always resemble one or other of the parents and 
 are therefore of no interest. 
 
 When seedlings are used with the object of creating graft- 
 bearers, we should, on the contrary, avoid as far as possible 
 these variations, so as not to lose the quality of resistance 
 to phylloxera, which is after all, the only reason for their 
 existence. We must therefore use wild types, the main 
 characters of which have been fixed by long natural selec- 
 tion, and among these we should choose those of very early 
 florescence, rendering spontaneous fecundation with less 
 resisting species impossible. Wild V. Ripana, V. Rupestris, 
 and V. Berlandieri seem to fulfil these conditions, .and 
 experience has proved the wonderful permanence of these 
 general forms in their offspring. Therefore we think it 
 advisable to use these only when we have not an opportunity 
 of studying the resistance of others by growing them in 
 soils infested with phylloxera. 
 
 (B.) Selection of seeds. The seeds used for propagation 
 must be gathered the same year, from berries which have 
 reached complete maturity. Experience has proved that 
 those fermented with the must germinate in the same pro- 
 portion tis those removed from the berries. 
 
 (C.) preparation of seeds. Seeds planted without any 
 special preparation generally germinate irregularly and 
 successively. With the object of avoiding this we must 
 stratify them in winter in sand kept damp during March.* 
 
 * Corresponding to September in Victoria. 
 
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 67 
 
 If this is not possible on account of the seeds having been 
 received too late, they should be soaked in water for two 
 or three days ; however, stratification is preferable. 
 
 (D.) Sowing. The sowing is done in April* so that the 
 young- plants will not suffer from spring frosts. 
 
 The seeds are buried about ^ inch deep in well-mellowed 
 and manured soil, or covered with from T V to $inch of loose 
 soil or sand if the soil is compact. They are planted in lines 
 1 to 2 feet apart, and every 6 inches on the lines. Experi- 
 ence has proved that the development during the first year 
 is proportionate to the distance between the plants. Finally, 
 it is advisable to cover the bed with a light mulching. 
 
 (E.) Care. Watering every two or three days with a very 
 fine rose, and careful hoeing are necessary. The germina- 
 tion generally takes place a month after the sowing ; the 
 young plants are often very sensitive to the action of the 
 sun ; they must not be watered in the day time, and it is 
 even advisable to shelter them with canvas during the hot 
 hours of the day. 
 
 (F.) Lifting. The seedlings of V. Riparia frequently 
 reach 4 to 5 feet in length the first year ; those of 
 V. ^Estivalis rarely exceed 18 inches to 2 feet. However, it 
 is necessary in both cases to lift them at the end of the 
 winter and plant them out, as they suffer if left longer in 
 the seed bed. 
 
 (G.) Study and Utilization of Seedlings. When the object 
 of hybridization is to obtain new direct producers, the 
 florescence of the young seedlings should be forwarded as 
 much as possible so as to assist the study of their fertility 
 and the quality of their fruit. The time necessary for the 
 young seedlings to fructify has been greatly exaggerated. 
 Some Clinton seedlings produced fruit the third year at the 
 School of Agriculture, Montpellier, and most other seed- 
 lings fructify at the fourth or fifth year. Further, there are 
 different means of forwarding fructification : layering, 
 inarching, annular incision, or ligature of a long rod pre- 
 served for the following year, or still better, grafting a bud 
 of a young seedling on an old stump. Generally the fruit 
 
 Corresponding to October in Victoria. 
 E ^ 
 
68 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 does not acquire at first the size and abundance it would 
 reach in years to come ; we must assist the development of 
 these qualities by the selection of cuttings, repeatedly 
 grafting and layering, rather short pruning, and cultivation 
 in first-class soil. 
 
 When the object is to obtain graft-bearers, the young 
 plants may be utilized in two ways, as it is possible either 
 to use the young plant itself or cuttings from it. 
 
 Seedlings of forms growing rapidly, such as wild 
 Riparias, Solonis, Ac., can often be grafted with the cleft 
 method the first year, but the vigour and the aptitude of 
 each plant not being equal the resulting plantation would be 
 irregular. It is preferable to use cuttings only, these 
 cuttings being selected amongst the strongest and those 
 having the greatest vegetation. 
 
 However, before using seedlings we must ascertain their 
 degree of resistance to phylloxera. The use of a rapid and 
 sure method is necessary, for the fact of a vine dying in 
 phylloxerated ground does not mean that phylloxera is the 
 cause of its death ; it might be a defect in the adaptation, or 
 any other cause. Further, the action of phylloxera is very 
 slight, and sometimes nil in certain soils, so that if trials 
 are made in such soils we may conclude that the resistance 
 is sufficient when, in fact, this is not the case. The study of 
 the lesions produced by phylloxera on the roots is the only 
 means of ascertaining quickly and surely the degree of resis- 
 tance of each type. When the roots, of a vine recently 
 attacked by the insect are examined a great number of 
 swollen radicles are to be seen, distorted and forming 
 nodosities; the larger roots bear protuberances, which have 
 been termed tuberosities. These different swellings alter 
 with time, and penetrate more or less deeply into the tissue 
 of the root, resulting in the death of the root when they 
 develop in great numbers and acquire considerable size. The 
 degree of probable resistance to phylloxera can, therefore, be 
 ascertained by studying the number and the size of these 
 tuberosities. Vines not bearing any trace of the action of 
 phylloxera, although growing in phylloxerated land, may be 
 regarded as indemnified. ( V. Rotundifolia alone fulfils this 
 condition.) The others may be classified according to the 
 scale of resistance which we have mentioned already. The 
 indemnified vines come first, then those bearing more or less 
 numerous nodosities on the rootlets without tuberosities 
 
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 60 
 
 (these give practically the highest degree of resistance); 
 finally, those bearing numerous tuberosities. The larger and 
 the more penetrating these lesions are, the lower the variety 
 must be placed in the scale of resistance. 
 
 A longer study made in different soils and climates 
 eventually enables the nurseryman to gather more exact and 
 complete data, but although it may result in his discarding 
 a few types which, for various reasons, do not show at first 
 very important lesions, it never results in his taking back 
 types eliminated after examination of the lesions of their 
 roots. 
 
 To sum up, seedlings may be used to produce resistant 
 gnift-bearers in countries not yet infested with phylloxera ; 
 their other applications are rather within the domain of 
 nurserymen or amateurs than in that of vine-growers. 
 
MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 Propagation by cuttings is the oldest and most generally 
 used method of multiplication. It is considered by the 
 majority of viticulturists as superior to any other in practice, 
 and certain types of vines are rejected simply because they 
 do not root freely from cuttings. As a matter of fact, it is 
 very easy of execution and has the property, like any other 
 method of propagation by segmentation, of preserving the 
 characters of the type from which the cutting has been 
 taken, and even sometimes the characters of one single 
 branch which differs from other branches on the same 
 plant. The only differences which may arise between the 
 mother plant and the plant resulting from its cuttings are 
 produced by differences in soils and climates, and are 
 generally shown only by modifications in the development 
 and vigour, not altering the fundamental properties of the 
 original type, such as resistance to phylloxera, taste of 
 fruit, <fec. 
 
 The facility with which all the V. Vinifera varieties grow 
 from cuttings contributed to the generalization of this method 
 in Europe. Since it has been applied to American vines, 
 certain forms have been found to strike with difficulty, but 
 vine-growers, far from discarding this method of multiplica- 
 tion when using American vines, have, on the contrary, 
 made a more complete study of the means of insuring its 
 success. 
 
 The art of the viticulturist consists in promoting the 
 growth of roots on the fragments of cane used as cuttings 
 (after selecting the best cuttings capable of producing plants 
 of good quality) by placing these under special conditions. 
 We will study the following items with regard to this 
 method of multiplication : 1st, Choice of canes, care to be 
 taken for their preservation in transit ; 2nd, best type of 
 cuttings ; 3rd, means of promoting root growth ; 4th, 
 time of planting ; 5th, choice of soil (planting out or 
 nurseries). 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. , 71 
 
 l STt CHOICE OF CUTTINGS ; CARE TO BE TAKEN IN 
 PRESERVATION AND TRANSIT. 
 
 (A.) Selection of Cuttings.- The canes should only be cut 
 -when they are well lignified'. This precaution should be 
 more specially observed when we have to deal with vines 
 lignifying late in winter. We should also discard all 
 cuttings from plants attacked by any of the different crypto- 
 gamic diseases, such as anthracnosis, mildew, <fcc. They are 
 generally not well developed and are liable to carry disease 
 into a new vineyard. 
 
 Experience has proved that the mean part of canes of 
 medium development with rather close nodes offers the best 
 chances of strike, and produces the most fructiferous plants, 
 becoming rapidly fertile. The large canes do not root as 
 freely, and grow wood rather than fruit, while those too 
 slender are liable to dry before even throwing roots. They 
 often do not lignify sufficiently, and generally give weak 
 plants. 
 
 When we propagate direct producers we should always 
 choose canes which have borne flowers, which are not 
 subject to non-setting, and which have given abundant and 
 fine fruit.* 
 
 These characters, peculiar to each cane, get well fixed by 
 selection of this kind, and a considerable increase in the 
 production is thus obtained. On the contrary, when we 
 propagate graft-bearers our only object should be to obtain 
 vigorous plants, and we need not take into consideration the 
 .above indications. 
 
 (B.) Preservation of Cuttings. The canes cut just before 
 planting offer the greatest chances of success. It is well 
 known that cuttings which have travelled a long distance, 
 such as those sent from America, are under very unfavor- 
 able conditions when compared with those gathered in the 
 vineyard where they are to be planted, 
 i Packing. However, as it is often necessary to send 
 cuttings abroad or to use cuttings which have travelled, we 
 think it useful to give a few indications with regard 
 io packing, and the care to be given to them when they 
 arrive. 
 
 * These indications must be more particularly followed when multiplying Jacquez, as the 
 variations of this t-epage, which are not very fertile, actually tend to predominate on 
 account^of the indiscriminate use 6f its cuttings. 
 
72 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 To obtain perfect preservation of cuttings they should be 
 placed under such conditions that they neither dry nor 
 absorb more water than they naturally contain. Desiccation 
 kills the cuttings by removing their water of vegetation. 
 An excess of water induces the development of bacteria 
 and moulds which may injure the cuttings. Sometimes, 
 if this does not take place the tissues of the wood, gorged 
 with water, dry away very quickly when exposed to the air. 
 
 Packing in fresh, light, almost dry soils realizes the best 
 conditions. Unfortunately, the weight of such packages 
 renders them impracticable. When the cuttings have not to 
 travel very far the best way is to surround the bundles' with 
 straw, after wrapping the base in slightly damp moss. For 
 longer voyages the bundles may be completely surrounded 
 with moss or saw-dust, mixed with powdered charcoal, the 
 cases being lined with oil paper. 
 
 Care to be given on arrival. On arrival the cuttings 
 should be unpacked and dipped into water for one or two 
 days, or better, stratified in slightly damp soil. The cuttings 
 sent from America are often packed in damp sphagnum; 
 this, however, has the defect of being too wet. If the 
 cuttings packed in this way have not suffered during the 
 voyage they should be stratified in almost dry sand and re- 
 moved in small lots prior to planting out. It is also advis- 
 able to keep them in a bucket with water at the bottom until 
 the moment of planting. When these cuttings have to be 
 kept a certain time before planting the best means of pre- 
 serving their vitality is to stratify them in sand in the cellar 
 or in a shed. 
 
 2ND. BEST TYPES OF CUTTINGS. 
 
 (A.) Different Systems. The types of cuttings most 
 generally used are those known as Crossettes (mallet- 
 cuttings),* that is to say, those having a small piece of 
 wood attached obliquely at their base (Figs. 30 and 31), and 
 those which consist of any part of the cane (Fig. 33). In 
 Crossette cuttings the lower end of the cane is very favorable 
 to the growth of well-placed roots. They have been used for 
 a long time almost exclusively on account of this, but, how- 
 ever, have the defect of not being easily planted with a dibble on 
 account of the slanting disposition of the two-year-old wood ; 
 
 *Columella(2 B.c.-t55 A.D.) mentions this type of cutting as inalleolus. Publii Virgilii 
 Maronis Georgicorum, Libri quatuor. Trans, by John Martin, London, 1755. (Transls.) 
 
PKOPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 und, further, the latter is too old to root well, and often 
 rots, injuring the whole plant. To prevent this accident 
 the piece of two-year-old wood is removed, preserving only 
 the swelling formed by the ring of latent buds (Fig. 32), 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 Figs. 30 and 31. Mallet Cuttings. Fig. 32. Cutting with two years old wood 
 removed. Fig. 33. Ordinary Cutting. 
 
 Unfortunately, the scarcity of certain American varieties 
 and the necessity of utilizing all the wood from the base to 
 the extremity does not allow the use of this method, and 
 generally we have to be content with cuttings taken from any 
 part of the shoot. The latter, which are easy to procure, 
 give satisfactory results in most cases. 
 
 (B.) Lenyih of Cuttings. As a principle, when the future 
 development and good constitution of the plant alone are 
 taken into consideration, the shortest cuttings are best. 
 Cuttings with a single bud, for instance (Fig. 34), give a 
 bundle of very powerful roots in the prolongation of the 
 stem, and produce plants of remarkable vigour (Fig. 35). 
 Very long cuttings, on the contrary (Fig. 36B), grow a large 
 number of tufts of roots at each node. 
 They do not make very large individual 
 development, and, as shown in the 
 figure, diminish in length towards the 
 base, which is incapable of growing 
 roots with any vitality, and often rots 
 and dies away. But the question is not 
 as simple as it appears at first. The necessity of placing 
 the cutting in a sufficiently damp surrounding to insure its 
 
74 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 strike is a complication ; in most cases the required moisture 
 is only found at a certain depth in the soil, and therefore we 
 must make the cutting a greater length than seems pre- 
 ferable at first. 
 
 The drier the soil the longer the cutting should be.* 
 Their length generally varies between 10 and 14 inches. 
 
 One or two buds only are 
 left above the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 The use of single-eye cut- 
 tings, or herbaceous cuttings, 
 has also been recommended, 
 
 j ; the former being sown with 
 
 drills and covered with an 
 inch or so of soil. This 
 method is also used to strike 
 rare varieties under glass ; 
 but, unfortunately, the ce'- 
 pages, which, on account of 
 their great value only, allow 
 the expense of glass frames, 
 do not, even with this 
 method, give a satisfactory 
 percentage of strikes. As 
 for herbaceous cuttings, it 
 can only be practically done 
 with suckers taken off the 
 grafts, planted in light soil, 
 watered, and shaded. They 
 strike easily, but never give 
 such strong plants, and 
 their wood is never well 
 lignified.t 
 
 Therefore, in many cases 
 we are forced to use any 
 part of a shoot (Fig. 37). We will now study the means 
 of promoting their root-growth. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Young plant of average vigour obtained from 
 a one-eye cutting of V. Vinifera. 
 
 * If the soil is very dry, it is better to root the cuttings in the nursery the year before, 
 and plant them out as rootlings. The inconvenience resulting from the use of long cuttings 
 is thus avoided. 
 
 t The Duchess of Fitz-Janies obtained excellent results with this method, using hot- 
 houses established for the purpose. 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. <O 
 
 3RD. MEANS OF PROMOTING THE ROOT-GROWTH ON 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 The evolution of roots can only take place in sufficiently 
 warm and moist surroundings, without, however, being ex- 
 cessively so. In practice, the greatest difficulty met with, is 
 
 Fig. 36. A. Vine resulting from a short cutting. B. Vine resulting from a long cutting. 
 
 to prevent the cutting from drying before it is able 
 to provide for the water it evaporates. Certain American 
 species are very refractory on account of the time elapsing 
 between the bursting of the buds and the development of 
 the roots ; this forces the plant to evaporate largely before 
 it is able to draw the necessary 
 water from the soil. For 
 instance, while the V. Riparia, 
 
 V. Labrusca, and V. Rupestris 
 strike easily from cuttings, V. 
 JZstivalis, and more especially 
 
 V. Berlandieri, strike with difficulty; while I". Candicans 
 and V. Rotundifolia are almost impossible to multiply from 
 cuttings. 
 
 The means of remedying this difficulty have been studied 
 with great care, especially with regard to the ; V. Berlandieri, 
 which contains, as we have seen, most valuable forms for 
 
76 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 calcareous soils. These means may be grouped in two- 
 classes 1st. Those which hasten the development of the 
 roots; '2ml. Those which prevent desiccation till the roots 
 start to grow. 
 
 The tirst means can be arrived at by . stratification^, 
 soaking, barking, torsion or bruising. 
 
 (A.) Stratification. This consists in burying the cutting* 
 during winter in very light soil or slightly moist sand, so a& 
 to determine the formation of callus^} It has been recom- 
 mended to strike the cuttings vertically and upside down, 
 as it was thought that it would cause the sap to run towards 
 the upper bud, which, when planted, would be the lower 
 bud, and furnish the roots with abundant food. The experi- 
 ments carried out at the School of Agriculture of Mont- 
 pellier with this object did not show any difference between 
 this method and the ordinary horizontal method of stratifi- 
 cation. When the cuttings are taken out of the heaps of 
 sand, they should be dipped in water to prevent them from 
 drying before planting. 
 
 (B.) Soaking. The soaking of cuttings in water produces 
 effects similar to those of stratification, but, if prolonged, 
 may cause disadvantages which never happen with the latter 
 process. The wood is liable to lose, through maceration^ 
 a part of the soluble matters it contains, or to rot ; there- 
 fore, it must only be used when stratification is impossible, 
 and should not last more than five or six days. 
 
 (C.) Barking. This is done with the object of inducing the 
 formation of callus, which seems to play the part of roots 
 for a time, and to lay bare the layer of cells from which 
 the roots are thrown. It is done by removing two thongs 
 of bark on the part which is to be buried ; a small tool, 
 made by Leydier and Leucieux, enables this operation to be 
 performed rapidly. We may arrive at the same result by 
 torsion or bruising, but the water always penetrates through 
 the splits, reaching the pith and causing it to decay, so that 
 by the use of the latter method we rarely obtain healthy 
 plants. To sum up, barking, which has been used fora 
 very long time in the South of France, is preferable, and 
 can be applied together with stratification. 
 
 (D.) Watering, fyc. Watering and mulching fix in the 
 soil the water necessary to the growth of the cutting, but 
 can only be used practically in nurseries. It greatly 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 increases the percentage of strikes. The water should be 
 allowed to percolate through the soil. If the soil is very 
 compact and if the quantity of water used is considerable 
 the cuttings will rot. 
 
 Complete covering with sand checks the growth of the 
 buds and consequently the formation of leaves, which are 
 the principal organs of evaporation, but does not prevent 
 the formation of roots. It also acts as a kind of mulching, 
 preventing the desiccation of the soil. If the cuttings ure 
 iit a certain distance apart a small mound of sand is formed 
 round each of them, and if they are planted close together 
 in lines, continuous ridges are formed in that direction. 
 
 Shade greatly diminishes evaporation through the leaves; 
 it may be obtained by canvassing or by placing the nursery 
 under trees with light foliage ; the green rays of light 
 which alone pass through the leaves are not conducive to 
 evaporation. 
 
 We should not forget, however, that although shade helps 
 the strike greatly, it ultimately prevents the development of 
 young plants, which must transpire abundantly to obtain 
 food and rapidly increase in size ; therefore it should only be 
 used as a temporary means. 
 
 4TH. MOST FAVORABLE TIME FOR PLANTING CUTTINGS. 
 
 It was formerly thought, in the South of France, that 
 the earlier the cuttings were put into the ground the 
 larger the percentage of strikes, except in very damp 
 soils, and, as a matter of fact, early planting gave the 
 result vine-growers now obtain by stratification, i.e., 
 callusing. But, when cuttings are planted out early, they 
 are liable to suffer from the excess of humidity during 
 winter, and from the action of frosts. It is evidently 
 preferable to stratify the cuttings in sand and to plant them 
 out rather late, when the temperature is high enough to 
 induce prompt vegetation. 
 
 It is towards the end of March and the beginning of April* 
 in the Mediterranean regions that these conditions seem to 
 be realized. However, the time for planting depends also 
 on the nature of the soil ; light, warm, well-exposed soils 
 should always be planted earlier than cold and damp soils. 
 
 * Septeml>er and October in Victoria. 
 
78 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Finally, Viala and Mazade have shown that with Ber- 
 landieris, which are naturally very difficult to strike from 
 cuttings, a large proportion (40 per cent., instead of 6 to 8 
 per cent.) is obtained if the canes are only pruned when 
 they have herbaceous shoots 3 to 4 inches in length, these 
 being cut away before planting. 
 
 This method, unfortunately, rapidly exhausts the mother 
 plants. 
 
 5TH. SELECTION OF SOILS FOR CUTTINGS. 
 
 Cuttings may be planted out direct, or in nurseries, where 
 they will root, and then be planted out the following year as 
 rootlings. 
 
 (A.) Planting out. The direct planting out of cuttings 
 oifers the following advantages : It saves the expense of 
 transplanting and the check in the development of the plant 
 which results from this operation, but it generally has the 
 disadvantage of placing the cutting in unfavorable conditions 
 for rooting. It should only be adopted in light, fresh, and 
 fertile soils with varieties striking easily. 
 
 (B.) Planting in nurseries. Planting in nurseries enables 
 vine-growers to place their cuttings in more favorable con- 
 ditions for development, by selecting the soil and giving 
 special care to the nurseries. Further, it diminishes the cost 
 during the first year, for the plantation being more compact, 
 the cultural operations are conducted on a much smaller 
 area. It should always be used when a vineyard is to be 
 established in clayey soils, or in dry, pebbly, shallow soils, 
 or when rare varieties are to be propagated. Nurseries 
 should always be established for the purpose of replacing* 
 " misses " in a young vineyard. We will see how this is 
 done when studying the establishment of the vineyard. 
 
 (C.) Establishment of a nursery and care to be given to 
 it. A nursery should be established as far as possible in 
 light, warm, well-drained soil with means of irrigation. 
 The soil should be perfectly cleaned and disturbed to a 
 depth of from 1 to 2 feet ; manured with easily assimilable 
 fertilizers, such as decomposed stable manure, old fowl-yard 
 manure, guano, or chemical fertilizers. The planting is 
 done in the 1 following manner : The : cuttings are placed 
 upright in small trenches with vertical sides (Figs. 38, 39, 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 79 
 
 and 40) ; a part of the mellowed soil is pressed on the base 
 of the cutting with the foot, arid the trench completely filled 
 with the rest of the soil (Figs. 41, 42, 43). The distance 
 generally left between the cuttings is not sufficient to allow 
 the plant to reach complete development during the first 
 year. The most favorable distance would be 20 inches 
 between the lines, and 6 to 8 inches in the lines. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Open trench for the planta- 
 tion of cuttings. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Sand placed at the bottom to 
 promote root growth. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Cuttings placed along the 
 side of the trench. 
 
 When there is no means of irrigation, and when the soil 
 is not naturally moist, it is advisable to cover the whole 
 surface with a mulching. The care to be given to these 
 cuttings simply consists in hoeing to destroy weeds, without, 
 however, removing the mulching during the whole of the 
 summer. When, on the contrary, it is possible to irrigate, 
 the plants are slightly earthed up, so as to leave little drains 
 between the rows in which the water may flow, percolate 
 through the soil, and reach the roots. Frequent hoeing 
 should take place after each watering so as to keep the 
 whole surface loose. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Soil (T) rammed above the 
 sand. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 Mellowed soil (U) placed 
 above the rammed soil. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 Ridge of sand (S) covering 
 the tops of the cuttings. 
 
 The cuttings may be left one or two years in the nursery. 
 Those left two years are naturally stronger, but they do 
 acquire all the development they would if planted 
 
 rt^ vj 
 
 -* 
 
80 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Account of the small space available. Further, the size and 
 the length of their roots renders transplanting rather 
 difficult ; they have to be cut or broken, and, finally, when 
 planted out, their growth is checked to such an extent that 
 no advantage is derived from it. Therefore it is preferable 
 in most cases not to leave the cuttings over a year in the 
 nursery. 
 
 Such are the main results, of experience with regard to 
 the propagation of American vines by cuttings. Although 
 this method may be considered as the most important, and 
 is the most used, American vines may be propagated by 
 layering. 
 
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 81 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 
 
 Layering consists in inducing the growth of roots on a 
 cane before it is separated from the mother plant. This 
 method, which, like propagation by cuttings, preserves all 
 the characters of the mother plant and even those of the 
 cane, offers the advantage of better insuring the strike of 
 the young plant, as it is only separated from the mother 
 stock when it is provided with all organs necessary to its 
 existence. Therefore it should be preferred, although rather 
 complicated, for species not rooting freely, such as V. Candi- 
 cans and V. TBerlandieri, or for rare and expensive c^pages. 
 We will study successively the following items : 1st. Types 
 of layers. 2nd. Means of promoting their root growth. 
 3rd. Best time for layering. 
 
 IST. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF LAYERS. 
 
 These are : A. Ordinary layering ; B. Complete burying 
 of the mother plant; C. Multiple layering ; D. Reversed 
 layering. 
 
 (A.) Ordinary layering. This maybe used for the produc- 
 tion of rootlings, filling up a vacant space [in a vineyard, 
 liberating an American variety grafted on a European vine, 
 or for rooted nodes used as stock for bench grafting. When 
 rootlings alone are required a portion of the cane is buried 
 underground as close as possible to the mother plant, leav- 
 ing two eyes projecting from the soil at a certain distance 
 from it. All the intermediate buds between the mother 
 plant and the point where the cane enters the soil are 
 removed, to prevent the development of shoots at the 
 expense of the layer. The part in the ground must be as 
 short as possible so as to save wood and use the extremity 
 as a cutting, and also to avoid the formation of a great 
 number of tufts of roots, with small individual development. 
 
 This layering may be done with lignified or herbaceous 
 shoots. In the latter case we gain time as we obtain 
 rootlings the same year ; when such rootlings are to be 
 
 10890. F 
 
82 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 transplanted, it is necessary to prune them before planting- 
 out, so as to leave only two tufts of well-constituted roots. 
 These acquire much larger size than if they had all been 
 allowed to remain on the rootling. 
 
 Ordinary layering can also be adopted for filling up 
 vacant places in an old vineyard, or for liberating American 
 canes grafted on European vines. In both these cases the 
 layer has to remain in the place where it is performed. Its 
 execution is shown in Fig. 44 ; after having dug out the dead 
 
 Fig;. 44. Ordinary laj'ering. 
 
 stump and carefully removed all the roots, a trench is opened 
 between the mother plant and the place where the dead vine 
 was growing ; this trench is deep enough to allow the 
 ploughing to be performed in the vineyard without touch- 
 ing the cane (about a foot). A cane sufficiently long is 
 selected in such a position as not to alter the shape of the 
 mother plant after it is cut away. It enters the soil as close 
 as possible to the mother plant, is buried at the 'bottom of 
 the trench, the extremity turned up vertically and tied to a 
 stake, leaving two buds free above the ground. The trench 
 is filled with mellowed soil well rammed against the cane. 
 
 Manure is often put into the trench so as to promote the 
 development of roots. However, it seems preferable to 
 manure only the mother plant the first year, and to manure 
 the layer after it has been separated from the mother plant. 
 One avoids in this way a growth of roots from the mother 
 plant towards fhe trench, which would withdraw assimilable 
 matters before the layer had time to produce roots large 
 enough to allow it to compete. 
 
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 83 
 
 When the cane is not long enough to reach the place where 
 the young plant is to be established, successive layers may 
 be resorted to, or the grafting of another cane by the whip- 
 tongue system, the layering being performed in the usual way.* 
 Further, it is possible, with the layering method, to change the 
 nature of the vine by grafting a cane from another cepage. 
 
 The ordinary layers made in the vineyard are generally 
 separated from the mother plant when two years old. If 
 this operation is done earlier it produces a check in the 
 growth, diminishing the fructification. In certain parts of 
 the valley of the Rhone this method is used to replace a 
 " miss " by a cane of European vine grafted on an American 
 plant. If the graft is well knitted, and if the roots are 
 carefully removed during the two first years, those growing 
 on the European cane are quickly destroyed by phylloxera, 
 and the new plant lives at the expense of the American 
 graft bearer. It goes without saying that in this case the 
 layer must not be separated from the mother plant. This 
 method also enables nurserymen to obtain a great number 
 of rooted eyes by lifting canes buried during the spring. 
 These rooted fragments or rooted nodes may be grafted 
 with every chance of success. (Cham pin method.) 
 
 (B.) Complete burying of the mother plant. This method 
 may be used to replace u misses " in a vineyard, or to 
 liberate American vines grafted on European stumps. It 
 is generally considered as inferior to all others ; it yields 
 plants of little vigour and very short life. This is the re- 
 sult of the bad distribution of the root system, partly 
 grown on the old wood, and spread over too great a length 
 of cane. Further, it is more expensive than the above. It 
 should only be used when we wish to obtain several plants 
 from a single mother plant, in which case it is better than 
 any other. 
 
 These layers are made in the following manner (Fig. 
 45) : A deep trench is formed reaching from the mother 
 plant to the spot where the new plant is to grow ; the main 
 roots of the stump are cut away to allow it to bend down 
 without breaking ; two canes selected for the purpose are 
 brought down and buried at the bottom of the trench, allow- 
 ing the two extremities to project out of the ground, one 
 
 We may also mention Hardy's system of training the layering shoots along a stake 
 for two or three years, as described in The Australian Garden and Field, 1901. (Transls.) 
 
 F 2 
 
MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 in the place where the new plant is to grow and the other 
 in the place where the mother plant was ; manure is then 
 added, and the trench filled with mellowed soil. By making 
 
 Fig. 45. Complete burying of the mother plant. 
 
 trenches radiating from the old stock it is possible to 
 establish many new plants by the layering several shoots 
 from a single stock. 
 
 (C.) Multiple layering. The multiple, or Chinese layering, 
 is used to obtain rootlings, and offers the advantage of allow- 
 ing these to be raised in one season, that is to say, in the 
 time usually necessary to obtain one cutting, and this with- 
 out wasting any wood. 
 
 The operation is conducted in the following manner (Fig. 
 46) : A trench, 10 inches deep, is formed, starting from 
 the mother plant; a cane, selected for the purpose, is 
 stretched at the bottom of this trench, and kept in position 
 with little pegs at a depth of 2-J to 3 inches. All the buds 
 between the old stock and the place where the cane enters 
 the ground are removed ; when vegetation starts each bud 
 develops, and as soon as they reach 6 to 8 inches the trench 
 is carefully filled with soil mixed with manure and sand if 
 the soil is naturally stiff. When it is not naturally moist 
 the surface should be covered with mulching. Numerous 
 roots develop on the cane at the base of each shoot during 
 summer, and when the time for planting out has arrived the 
 cane is unearthed and divided between each node, forming so 
 many healthy rootlings. 
 
 This practice may be considered as the most practical and 
 the most economical for multiplication of species rooting 
 with difficulty, such as V. Candicans and V. Berlandieri. 
 
PROPAGATION BY LAYEES. 
 
 85 
 
 (D.) Reversed layering. Reversed layering may be used 
 for replacing "misses," or for establishing an American 
 
 Fig. 46. Multiple Layering. 
 
 rootling by means of an American scion grafted on a 
 
 European stock. A cane (Fig. 47) is selected on the mother 
 
 plant, its extremity 
 
 bent and driven 
 
 down in the ground 
 
 to a depth of 8 to 10 
 
 inches, the soil 
 
 having been dug up 
 
 and manured. All 
 
 the buds between 
 
 the mother plant ^ 
 
 and the soil, except 
 
 those two nearer the 
 
 soil, are removed. 
 
 RpOting takes place Fig . 4 7. -Reversed Layering. 
 
 within a year, and it 
 
 is cut from the mother the following year. Strange as it 
 may seem, no ill effects result from the turning up-side-down 
 of the stem of the young vine which this process entails, the 
 
86 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 young vine is well constituted, and even bears fruit the very 
 year the operation is performed. To sum up, this method 
 may be considered as superior to any other, its only faults 
 being that it prevents cross ploughing, and requires a great 
 length of wood. 
 
 2ND. MEANS OF PROMOTING ROOTING OF LAYERS. 
 
 Although layers generally root freely when planted in 
 mellowed, moist soil, some means of promoting the growth 
 and development of their root system can be recommended 
 such are : 1st. A ligature made with a piece of wire towards 
 the middle of the underground part of the layer ; 2nd. A split 
 kept open with a small wooden wedge ; 3rd. A tongue 
 separated with a part of the wood, or simply barking. The 
 principle of these operations consists in inducing the forma- 
 tion of callus favorable to the development of roots. 
 
 Watering and mulching to prevent the soil from drying 
 also greatly helps the development of young plants. 
 
 SRD. BEST TIME FOR LAYERING. 
 
 The most favorable time for layering lignified canes is 
 immediately after the fall of the leaves. The cane buried at 
 that time is submitted to a kind of stratification, and throws 
 roots quickly and freely when the vegetation starts again. 
 However, an exception must be made in the case of soils 
 remaining too damp in winter, in which the buds may rot. 
 
 When herbaceous shoots are used they should be buried 
 as soon as they are not too brittle, and can be bent without 
 breaking. The more tender and greener a shoot is the more 
 easily it throws roots. 
 
 To sum up, from the above descriptions we see that layer- 
 ing is generally a more complicated and more expensive 
 method than propagation by cuttings, and this accounts for 
 it not being generally used. However, it can render real 
 services, as it insures a strike of every bud, even with 
 varieties which do not root at all from cuttings. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 The object of grafting is the propagation of a plant by 
 fixing it on another plant called a graft bearer, which 
 furnishes it, by means of its roots, with the nourishment 
 necessary to its life. The graft-bearer is termed stock, and 
 the fragment to be propagated is called the scion. 
 
 Grafting, like other methods of multiplication by segmen- 
 tation, insures the preservation of all the qualities belonging 
 to the scion ; the stock can only influence the scion in-so-far 
 as vigour and development are concerned, but special 
 properties, such as the constitution of the flowers, colour, 
 shape, and taste of fruit for instance, cannot be modified. 
 Sometimes the size and the saccharine strength of the grape 
 are increased; this happens even if a variety is grafted 
 on its own roots. All that has been alleged with regard to 
 the sterility of scions grafted on unfertile stocks, the altera- 
 tion in the taste of fruit of European varieties grafted on 
 American species having foxy grapes, or of the non-affinity 
 between stocks with white fruit and scions with black 
 grapes is quite erroneous, and must be regarded as simply 
 dictated by ignorance. The same thing applies .to the stock 
 which, when grafted with another variety, never modifies 
 the nature of its roots or stem tissues. 
 
 Grafting can only take place between plants belonging 
 to closely related botanical families ; with regard to vines, 
 the limit of affinity seems to remain within the genus. 
 Inter-grafting of the different species of the genus Ampe- 
 lopsis, as also of the genus Cissus and Ampelocissus, has 
 always failed, and a fortiori also when the grafting of vines 
 on plants belonging to other families (mulberry, whortle- 
 berry, blackberry, clematis) was tried. Even the V. 
 rotundifolia, with its peculiar characteristics, does not knit 
 with other species of the same genus. 
 
 The knitting which unites stock and scion is effected by 
 the contact of the generative layers, the tissues of which 
 unite and become modified for that purpose. The sur- 
 rounding conditions necessary for the performance of this 
 
88 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 phenomenon are first, sufficient moisture to prevent the 
 desiccation of the tissues of the graft; second, sufficient 
 temperature to promote the rapid formation of new cells 
 within the generative layers. 
 
 The first condition is so very important with vines that 
 the graft can only be performed with success underground, 
 the surrounding soil preserving the necessary amount of 
 moisture which cannot exist in the surrounding air. 
 
 The Romans grafted vines, and this operation was 
 formerly exclusively used in the South of France. It is 
 possible with this method of propagation to change the 
 nature of a vineyard without wasting any time, and it was 
 used in the He"rault to replace old cepages by Aramon, or 
 cepages sensitive to mildew (Carignan, Grenache) by others 
 resisting this disease better. Grafting also hastens the 
 fructification of varieties naturally ripening their fruit late 
 in the season. Cazalis-Allut recommended it for Muscat of 
 Frontignan, which only gives a complete crop the fifteenth 
 year.* It rapidly recuperates the production of vines 
 weakened by age, and is, as we have already seen, the best 
 method of hastening the florescence of young seedlings. It 
 may be used for the rapid multiplication of rare and expen- 
 sive vines. Finally, by grafting European varieties on 
 American resistant stocks, it prevents the extermination of 
 the former by phylloxera, and preserves 'their undoubted 
 superiority. The reconstitution of vineyards by this means 
 gives to this operation greater importance than ever. 
 
 (A.) Grafting operation. We will study the following 
 items : 
 
 1. Age at which the stock can bear the graft. 
 
 2. Selection of scions. 
 
 3. Best time for grafting. 
 
 4. Different methods used. 
 
 5. Grafting machines and implements. 
 
 6. Ligatures and waxing. 
 
 7. Care to be given to grafts. 
 
 8. Conditions of application of grafting. 
 
 9. Value of different stocks with regard to their 
 
 knitting power. 
 
 * Memoires sur V Agriculture, la Viticulture et VCEnologie, bj Cazalis-Allut. MontpelUer. 
 1848, p. 73. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 IST. AGE AT WHICH STOCK CAN BEAR GRAFTS. 
 
 It is possible to graft a vine at any age, from the time 
 when it is a simple cutting till it is exhausted by many 
 years pruning and production ; in the latter case it imparts 
 new youth and new fertility by replacing old foundation 
 wood with healthy young wood. But during this long period 
 all ages are not equally favorable to the success of the 
 operation ; the grafting of cuttings, for instance, gives a 
 lower percentage of strikes than the grafting of rooted vines, 
 which is easily explained when we remember that a cutting 
 has not only to knit with the scion, but also to root. Not- 
 withstanding this, the grafting of cuttings tends to be 
 generalized, as it enables growers to obtain results quickly, 
 and gives a sufficient strike in certain climates if proper care 
 be taken. 
 
 As far as rootlings are concerned, it may be stated that 
 the younger the plant the greater the proportion of knit- 
 tings. This is explained by the freshness of the tissues in 
 contact, which is favorable to the prompt formation of 
 abundant cells necessary for the knitting to take place, and 
 probably also by the system of grafting used in these cases, 
 cleft graft or whip tongue graft, it may be considered as 
 the best.^The importance of grafting young stocks is more 
 apparent with graft-bearers belonging to certain species, 
 such as wild Riparias, with which the percentage of 
 knittings diminishes as the plant grows older^k However, 
 the herbaceous grafts, which theoretically realize the best 
 conditions, have the disadvantage of being more difficult to 
 perform, but of giving rise to more vigorous vines. As,. 
 therefore, they have been so far very little used in France 
 we will study more especially the grafting of lignified canes, 
 
 2ND. SELECTION OF SCIONS. 
 
 (a) Selection of Canes. As grafting preserves the charac- 
 teristics of the mother plant, and in a certain measnre 
 those of the cane itself, it is important to select canes 
 amongst the most fertile and healthier shoots, showing 
 well defined characteristics of the variety to be propagated. 
 Those having borne non- setting flowers and badly-coloured 
 grapes should be discarded. Further, they should be well 
 lignified, bearing all their buds, of medium development, 
 and containing as little pith as possible. These latter 
 
~90 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 conditions, which are met with on the canes of old stumps, 
 are important, in so far as their wood is not liable to dry 
 before knitting takes place, or to split when the cleft is 
 made ; the strength of the joint, and, therefore, the knitting, 
 are assured. The canes of young plants are softer, dry 
 easier, and offer less chance of success. 
 
 (b) Best Time to Gather Canes. Experience has proved 
 that to insure the success of this operation the vegetation of 
 the scion must take place later than that of the stock. 
 Knitting can then take place before the leaves have 
 developed sufficiently to evaporate water, and, consequently, 
 desiccate the scion. It is therefore important to gather the 
 canes before the sap has started rising, and to preserve 
 them until the moment of grafting. 
 
 (<?) Preservation of Scions. The conditions for good pre- 
 servation of scions are similar to those indicated for 
 cuttings ; they should be prevented from growing to avoid 
 the above-mentioned dangers. To realize these conditions 
 we may, as is done in the South of France, place them in 
 bundles of 50 in cellars where the temperature remains 
 low, and cover them with almost dry sand (10 per cent, of 
 water only), or again, place them vertically in trenches 3 
 to 4 feet in depth, sunk in. a shed or exposed to the south 
 near a wall, the cuttings being covered with sand first and 
 earth on the top. We must take the same care as with 
 cuttings when removing them from the stratifying beds. 
 
 (d) Means of Ascertaining the Vitality of Scions. Acci- 
 dents may happen which prevent the perfect preservation of 
 canes. It is therefore important to be able to ascertain 
 before the grafting operation if such canes are capable of 
 knitting. The following processes may be used with this 
 object: A section is made through a cane, and if the green 
 layer placed under the bark has become dry and black we 
 may be sure that it has lost all its vitality. But this does 
 not mean that the canes which have remained green are 
 capable of knitting. Under these circumstances, the best 
 means of ascertaining their quality consists (as recom- 
 mended by Louis Vialla) in placing a few canes taken here 
 -and there from the bundle in a bucket of water kept slightly 
 warm for a few days, by exposure to the sun or placing over 
 a range in the kitchen. If the buds swell and open, and if 
 drops of water are seen on the top section of the canes, we 
 may be certain that the wood is in good condition. 
 
GRAFTING. 91 
 
 . BEST TIME FOR GRAFTING. 
 
 After the graft is made it must knit as quickly as possible, 
 therefore it should always be performed during the period 
 of vegetation, that is to say, in spring. However, autumn 
 grafts have often been recommended ; these give more time 
 to perform the operation, and enable vine-growers to employ 
 fewer operators. These grafts give excellent results in 
 certain years when growth lasts long enough to allow the 
 knitting to take place before winter. They have also 
 resulted in dismal failures in years of early frosts or 
 abundant rains. We must not forget that grafts remaining 
 a long time before knitting are exposed to various dangers. 
 The tissues left bare dry away, and other deterioration 
 capable of preventing the knitting takes place. Further, 
 spring frosts may destroy the young buds or suddenly 
 arrest the growth, causing grafts to die. It is therefore in 
 spring, from the middle of March to the end of May (about 
 September to November in Victoria) that circumstances are 
 most favorable. 
 
 Dull weather with slight showers preventing the desicca- 
 tion of the scion, but not checking its evolution through 
 excessive humidity, should be preferred, when possible. Dry 
 north winds or abundant and continuous rains are, on the 
 contrary, unfavorable conditions. 
 
 4TH. DIFFERENT METHODS USED. 
 
 Vines may be grafted by all systems used for other woody 
 plants, but a few only give practical results. We shall 
 rapidly survey the different methods recommended, only 
 describing in detail those which have proved successful and 
 are generally adopted. 
 
 In France grafts made on lignifiecl wood are practically 
 alone used ; experience has proved that if they are made 
 above ground they do not succeed on account of the rapid 
 desiccation of the sections exposed to the air. Underground 
 grafts have therefore been almost exclusively adopted. 
 
 It has also been proved that grafts by approach generally 
 give more vigorous plants and more perfect knitting. We 
 will therefore study the different methods of cleft grafting, 
 the most used being : (a) Ordinary cleft graft ; (b) Eng- 
 lish cleft graft; (c) Whip-tongue graft; (d) Side cleft 
 
92 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 graft; (e) Cutting graft. However, as budding and her- 
 baceous grafts have attracted attention lately, we will say a 
 few words about them also. 
 
 (a) Ordinary Cleft Graft. This is the oldest graft used, 
 and has for a very long time been the only one. The soil is 
 dug away from the stump down to the level of the first large 
 roots ; the trunk is cut 1 or \\ inches above the surface of the 
 soil (Fig. 48) so as to avoid as much as possible the libera- 
 tion of the V. vinifera scion when grafted on American 
 stocks. The section is cleaned and 
 smoothed with the grafting knife. It 
 is then split along its diameter with a 
 special chisel, or knife, if the trunk is 
 not too large. In the first case the 
 chisel is placed a little sideways 
 (Fig. 48a), and when the cleft is made 
 
 O 
 
 Fig. 48. Ordinary cleft graft, (a) Section of large stump 
 cut with a chisel. (6) Section of a small stump cut with 
 a pruning bill. 
 
 the upper part is slightly widened by 
 cutting away two tongues of wood on 
 each side, the thickness of which 
 depends on the size of the scion. A 
 more regular and neater section is thus 
 obtained, and the crushing resulting 
 from the pressure of the sides of the Fig. 49.-scion used for 
 
 Cleft is thus avoided. ordinary cleft grafting. 
 
 The scion usually carries three buds and an internode 
 below the inferior bud. This internode is cut wedge-shaped,. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 the two bevels of the wedge being closer together on the side 
 opposite the eye. One of the bevels must be more slanting 
 than the other, so as to avoid cutting into the pith on both 
 sides (Fig. 49) ; by doing so a continuous piece of wood is 
 left strengthening the wedge. This scion is inserted into the 
 cleft, forcing the under-bark to correspond everywhere. 
 This is the main condition of success. 
 Many operators are contented to make 
 the bark correspond outside, but as the 
 bark of old stock is thicker than that of 
 the young canes, it may happen that the 
 generative layers be parallel without 
 
 coinciding. To avoid 
 
 this difficulty the 
 
 scion should be placed 
 
 slightly oblique, so as 
 
 to allow the inner bark 
 
 to correspond in one 
 
 point at least. When 
 
 the scion is in its proper 
 
 position the chisel is 
 
 taken out of the cleft. 
 
 When the stock is very 
 
 large it is better to 
 
 insert two scions to 
 
 sustain proportion be- 
 tween the aerial growth 
 
 and that of the stock Fig 51 ._ Engli8h cleft 
 
 (Fig. 50). The chance *raft. 
 
 of success is thus doubled, and if both scions knit the weaker 
 is removed the following winter. 
 
 This method of grafting is generally used for old stock. 
 For young vines of smaller diameter we may ligature so as 
 to obtain sufficient pressure, or only make a cleft on one 
 side with the grafting knife (Fig. 48 b). 
 
 (b) English Cleft Gra/t.This method (Fig. 51) is very 
 extensively applied for young rootlings, on account of its easy 
 execution and the double chance of success it offers if 
 properly performed. 
 
 The soil is removed from the young rootling as in the 
 previous case ; it is cut level or slightly above the surface, 
 but low enough to allow the soil to be mounded round the 
 
 Fig. 50. Cleft graft 
 with two scions. 
 
94 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 joint, and is split with a chisel or knife. The scion is 
 selected of an equal diameter, so as to obtain knitting on 
 both sides. It is cut wedge shape, the two bevels being 
 equal and inserted in the cleft, being careful to allow both 
 sides to coincide outside, as in this case the bark of both 
 stock and scion is practically of the same thickness. The 
 results obtained with this method are satisfactory, and it is 
 quite equal to the whip-tongue graft. However, the joint is 
 not as strong the two first years, and it produces large pads 
 of knitting tissue. 
 
 (c) Whip-tongue Graft. It is only since the grafting of 
 European vines on American species was started that the 
 whip-tongue graft was invented. It may be considered as 
 giving the best results when well performed, and when the 
 stocks are young enough to allow the grafting of scions of 
 an equal diameter. 
 
 The soil is removed as in the previous case, and the stock 
 cut at a bevel, level with the soil (this is done with a 
 
 special knife), and a vertical 
 cleft made towards the centre 
 of the section. Formerly this 
 bevel was made very long 
 (Fig. 52) so as to increase the 
 surfaces of contact as much as 
 possible, and obtain good knit- 
 ting and a small pad, but 
 experience has proved that 
 long bevels form long tongues, 
 which dry very easily, and 
 therefore cannot knit. Further, 
 the bevels are not'rigid enough, 
 and the joint is weaker. 
 Pulliat* advocates a bevel of 
 28 to 32 per cent., which cor- 
 responds to an angle of 1 6 to 
 19, and a tongue about a 
 quarter of an inch in length 
 
 (Fig. 53). The scion is prepared in exactly the same way, 
 being careful to make the section as close as possible to the 
 bud ; it is assembled with the stock, so that each tongue is 
 inserted in each cleft. If the graft is properly performed all 
 
 Fig. 52. Whip-tongue graft with long 
 bevels: (a) on cutting; (6) on rootling. 
 
 * V. Pulliat, Manuel du greffeiir de vignes. Bibliotheque du Progrbs Agricole, rue 
 d'Albisson, 1, Montpellier, 1885, pages 19 and 20. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 95 
 
 the sections should coincide, not leaving any part exposed 
 
 to the air. It should be assembled in such a way as to- 
 
 keep quite rigid without the aid of a 
 
 ligature. Whip-tongue grafts, which 
 
 can only be made to coincide with the 
 
 aid of a ligature, rarely give good 
 
 knittings ; in this case the ligature 
 
 simply serves to prevent the displacement 
 
 of the joint in case of knocks. 
 
 About one-fifth of an inch is the 
 minimum diameter for a stock to be 
 grafted, the operation being rendered too 
 difficult if it is smaller. The maximum 
 diameter is limited by that of the scion. 
 However, it is possible to graft with this 
 method a stock larger than the scion, 
 but the beneficial effect of the double 
 knitting is then lost ; two to three eyes 
 are left on the scion ; this depends on 
 the length of the internodes. However, 
 in the case of grafted cuttings, one bud 
 only is left, so as to keep a certain pro- 
 portion between the outside growth and 
 the development of the roots at the start, 
 and avoid the desiccation which would 
 result from the evaporation caused by 
 too large a number of leaves. 
 
 The whip-tongue graft, which generally enables growers 
 to replace European vineyards by American vines within a 
 year, gives the best results with regard to the proportion of" 
 knittings and the constitution of the plants. This seems to 
 be due to the large area of the surfaces of contact, which 
 allows better knitting, facilitates the exchange of food 
 material between stock and scion, and forms a long and flat 
 cicatrice, which does not injure the ultimate development of 
 the plant. The whip-tongue graft, on account of these advan- 
 tages, will always be the most used in reconstitution of 
 vineyards, as soon as the number of operators capable of 
 performing it increases. 
 
 The Champin Graft (Fig. 54) is only a modification of the 
 whip-tongue; it is more difficult to perform ; it gives less satis- 
 factory knittings, for a part of the section is exposed to the air; 
 and, moreover, it facilitates the growth of roots on the scion.. 
 
 Fig. 53. - Whip-tongue 
 graft with short bevels. 
 
96 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The Saddle and Camuset grafts (Fig. 55) are the reverse 
 of the cleft graft. These grafts are difficult of execution, 
 and do not form such good unions as the cleft graft. 
 
 Fig. 54. Champin graft : (a) on cutting Fig. 55. (a) Saddle graft ; (b) Camuset 
 
 (6) on rootling. graft. 
 
 (d) Side Cleft Graft. Several methods of side clefts 
 have been recommended ; they do not differ much from one 
 another. The most used are those due to Gaillard, Brignais, 
 Dauty, of Montpellier, and Constant Ballan, of Omey, also 
 known under the name of Cadillac graft. 
 
 These methods consist in placing the scion in a cleft made 
 on the side of the trunk, the head of the stump being re- 
 tained. According to their promoters, they possess the fol- 
 lowing advantages : By preserving the head of the stock a 
 better vegetation is secured while the knitting takes place; in 
 case a graft misses it renders further grafting possible, this 
 being impossible with beheaded stocks, and it preserves the 
 crop of the stock until the scion is capable of yielding fruit. 
 
 Gaillard's graft is performed in the following manner : 
 Level or slightly above the soil a horizontal and shallow cut 
 is made with a saw (Fig. 56 B), a chip of wood is detached 
 from the top by means of a chisel held slantingly. On the 
 horizontal section thus exposed a cleft is made parallel to 
 the axis of the trunk, in which two scions are inserted (Fig. 
 56 , f ). The joint is then strongly bound. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 97 
 
 Dauty's graft is similar, but in this case the graft is made 
 with a 'bent secateur S (Fig. 57), which makes a kind of 
 notch, and the cleft at the same time. 
 
 Cadillac's graft only differs from 
 the two above-mentioned in its cleft, 
 which is made slanting instead of 
 vertical, without previously making 
 a notch. The stock c (Fig. 58) is 
 cut on the side at b about an inch 
 above the level of the soil ; the 
 scion a, cut wedge shape, is inserted 
 in this cleft with the usual precau- 
 tions ; the joint is bound with raffia 
 so as to prevent the scion from being 
 displaced. One bud only is left on 
 the scion so as to prevent the joint 
 from splitting under the weight of 
 long snoots. Finally, the soil is 
 mounded round the joint to prevent 
 it from drying. 
 
 Grafting tools have been invented 
 to render this operation easier. The 
 first is a kind of forceps with flat 
 jaws (Fig. 59). A long opening, 
 d 0, is made in one of the jaws, to 
 allow the passage of a triangular 
 blade of a special knife (Fig. 60). 
 The cane b c is kept in position by 
 the pressure of the jaws and two 
 small pins, d and e ; the cleft is 
 made very neatly by sliding the 
 blade of the knife into the opening. 
 Other methods of grafting or bud- 
 ding, such as the graft by approach, 
 the end to end graft, have been 
 recommended, but very soon discarded on account of the 
 small percentage of strikes.* 
 
 (e) Cutting Graft. This system is only used in very 
 special cases when the graft has to be liberated after the 
 knitting. The stump in this case is only used to temporarily 
 feed the scion which grows independently when it has thrown 
 
 Fig-. 56 Gaillard graft. 
 
 * A. Champin : Traile, theorique et pratique du greffaye, 
 1H890. <- 
 
98 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 its own roots. It is sometimes useful for the propagation 
 of American vines. However, to obtain good results this- 
 
 Fig. 57. Dauty graft. 
 
 graft should be performed in very mellow, rich soil, capable 
 of feeding the new plant in the place where the old stump 
 grew previously. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 99 
 
 The soil is removed, and the stock cut, as in the case of an 
 ordinary cleft graft ; a slightly bent cutting, with a piece of 
 
 Fig. 58. Cadillac side-cleft graft. 
 
 two-year-old wood at its base, is selected ; two slices of bark 
 are taken away on each side, forming like the blade of a 
 
 c knife (Fig. 61). This blade 
 is inserted into the cleft, the 
 inner bark corresponding on 
 as great a length as possible, 
 and the joint bound if the 
 pressure of the sides of the 
 cleft is not sufficient. 
 
 (f) Budding. The advan- 
 tages derived from budding, 
 rig. 59. Forceps used for side-cieft in the case of many plants, in- 
 duced viticulturists to apply 
 
 this method to vine stocks or cuttings. The first trials were 
 not very encouraging, the proportion of strikes being very low. 
 
 Fig. 60. - Knife used for side-cleft grafting. 
 
 However, better results are obtained now, especially in Hun- 
 gary, where this method of grafting has been advocated by 
 
 G 2 
 
100 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Professor Horvath. In France it is used under the name of 
 SaMies graft (Figs. 62 and 63). Lapparent, .Inspector- 
 
 General of Agriculture. 
 and E. Marre, who ex- 
 perimented with it in 
 the Lot, obtained good 
 results. 
 
 Budding of the vine 
 may be done with either 
 or dormant 
 
 growng 
 ees. The latter mode 
 in 
 
 seems preferred 
 Hungary, as it gives 
 stronger and better 
 constituted plants. The 
 budding is done in the 
 following manner : 
 The bud or eye used as scion is taken from the mean part of 
 a shoot which has reached complete development. Alazard, 
 
 Fig. 81.-Cutting graft. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 Salgues Graft. 
 
 Fig. <33. 
 Salgues Graft knitted. 
 
 who has had great experience in budding vines, recommends 
 " to take the buds from nodes in which the wood and the 
 diaphragm are only slightly apparent, and the pith completely 
 green and swollen with water." The scion-bud is f to 1J 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 101 
 
 inches in length, and *U4 to -08 inch of cellular tissue is 
 preserved under the bark. This is to avoid the desiccation of 
 the bark. Half or a third of the petiole is preserved. 
 
 The' stock may be a shoot of the year well developed and 
 well constituted, a lignified cane, an ordinary cutting, or the 
 shoot of a young rootling ; the only condition required is that 
 the bark separates easily. 
 
 On the selected spot, which in herbaceous shoots must be 
 below the last bud, a longitudinal slit 1 to 1^ inches in 
 length is made, the sides being lifted with the grafting knife. 
 
 Fijf. 64. 
 Horvath graft. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 Preparation of stock. 
 
 The bud is inserted under the bark, which is raised by bend- 
 ing the shoot inwards. The joint is bound with wool or 
 cotton (Fig. 62). 
 
 Horvath* recommends, as very important, the grafting of 
 the bud on the place ordinarily occupied by an eye. He 
 operates in the following way : A leaf is removed from the 
 
 * Professor at the School of Viticulture, at Tarczal, Hungary. 
 
102 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE 
 
 shoot used as stock, and an annular incision cutting into the 
 bark only is made above and below a node (Fig. 64 aa' bb'). 
 A third vertical incision passing through the centre of the 
 eye is made joining the two annular incisions xy ; the two 
 flaps of bark are lifted (Fig. 65), the bud (Fig. 66) fitted 
 underneath, and the joint bound (Fig. 67). 
 
 Although the budding of vines is performed with success 
 with these new methods, it unfortunately seems to give plants 
 of short life, and always inferior to those obtained with the 
 cleft methods.* 
 
 (<?) Herbaceous Grafts. Herbaceous grafts have not 
 generally succeeded in France, while, on the contrary, they 
 
 Fig. 66. Horvath method. Preparation of scion 
 
 have generally been applied successfully in Hungary, where 
 this method of grafting was used very long ago for fruit trees. 
 Herbaceous grafting may be done 1st, with a simple 
 cleft ; 2nd, with a whip tongue ; 3rd, with an English cleft ; 
 4th, with a side cleft. 
 
 * For further information see New Methods of Grafting and Budding as applied to 
 Reconstitution with American Vines, by the present translators, Department of Agriculture, 
 Melbourne, 1901. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 103 
 
 E. Jouzier,* who was appointed to study and report on the 
 viticultural methods of Hungary, describes the herbaceous 
 cleft graft as follows : 
 
 " This graft is made on very young shoots. It may be 
 performed when the extremity of the young shoot between 
 the second and third leaf, counting from the top, is still soft, 
 
 Fig. 67. Horvhth graft finished. 
 
 but already flexible (Fig. 69 a and b). This does not 
 happen before the beginning of June, when the shoots are 
 16 to 24 inches in length. Until then the extremity is very 
 soft and too brittle. 
 
 "When the young shoot is fit to be grafted, the apex 
 between the second and third leaf is cut away (Fig. 69 a a') 
 leaving about 1 to 2 inches above the last leaf (Fig. 69 xy\ 
 which is cut away, leaving a small part of the petiole (b b). 
 
 * Late Professor at the School of Viticulture, Ondes ; now Professor at the School of 
 Grand- Jouan. 
 
104 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 A cleft is then made, splitting the shoot down to the first 
 retained node ; the cleft must cut into that node, but not 
 overreach it (Fig. 68 m ri)." 
 
 " The scion is selected amongst similar shoots of the variety 
 to be propagated (Fig 72). The extremity is cut in such a 
 way as to preserve the top bud and two open leaves (x y). 
 
 Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 
 
 Herbaceous Graft. Preparation of 
 stock. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Herbaceous Graft. Preparation of 
 scion. 
 
 These two leaves are cut away, leaving a small part of the 
 petiole (c c' and d cT), the tendrils e e are also cut away 
 with the terminal bud (b b'), and the bottom of the scion is 
 cut wedge shape (Figs. 70 and 71). The angle of the wedge 
 (a b c) should not be too acute that is to say, that the 
 sides (abed) should be rather short ; the wedge should be 
 cut in the node itself, being careful not to touch the eye and 
 the petiole. 
 
 S "The scion thus prepared is fitted into the cleft so as to 
 replace the eye of the stock by that of the scion (Fig. 73), 
 and the joint is bound with wool or raffia. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 105 
 
 u The most practical way of binding consists in making 
 two or three turns round the top of the cleft (Fig. 74A) 
 without tightening it, then, keeping the ligature lightly 
 between the fingers, the sci;>n is adjusted so as to allow its 
 bark to coincide with that of the stock ; the tie is then 
 tightened, and continued downwards so as to completely 
 
 Fig. 74. Herbaceous Cleft Graft completed. 
 
 Fig. 75. Herbaceous Graft 
 (after H. Goethe). 
 
 cover the joint, leaving the eye out. If wool is used, the 
 most practical way of fastening the ligature consists in 
 simply twisting both ends together. It goes without saying 
 that a very sharp grafting knife with a very thin blade 
 should be used."* 
 
 The ordinary herbaceous cleft graft, or the English herba- 
 ceous cleft graft (without tongue), are performed in the 
 same way as with lignified wood. The side cleft graft is made 
 
 * E. Jouzier, Gre/age de la vi-ine en tcusson et en fente herbacte ; in Annales d? 
 I'lnstitut Agronvinique, vol. xii., 1887, page 132. 
 
106 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 as shown in Figs. 75 to 78. The sections on the stock and 
 scion are made upon the node, thus greatly increasing the 
 strike. 
 
 Herbaceous grafts should be made in June.* With the 
 side cleft graft, the extremity of the shoot of the stock is 
 pinched. The buds of the scion develop two or three weeks 
 -after the operation, and its shoots lignify well. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Herbaceous Graft a, b, 
 Scion (after H. Goethe). 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Same after tying. 
 a, scion ; b, ligature ; 
 c, stock (after H. Goethe). 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Section of union (after H. 
 Goethe). 
 
 Herbaceous grafting, notwithstanding the success obtained 
 in Hungary, is a delicate operation, and belongs rather to 
 the~domain of horticulture. It certainly cannot be used in 
 extensive viticulture, as proved by experience in the South 
 of France. 
 
 STH. GRAFTING MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 (a) Tools used for Cleft Grafting. 1st, an iron saw 
 (Fig. 79), used for cutting large stumps ; 2nd, a secateur, 
 
 * November or December in Victoria. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 107 
 
 used for young plants ; 3rd, an iron chisel, described here- 
 after ; 4th, a hammer, or rather a small mattock, which is 
 used for driving the chisel and to clear the soil away from 
 the plant (Fig. 80) ; 5th, a strong grafting knife, used for 
 smoothing the sections and to prepare the scions. 
 
 All these tools are known, and the illustrations are sufrr* 
 cient to give an idea of them ; however, attention is drawn 
 to the grafting chisel, which must be made so as to perform 
 several operations. As a matter of fact, the grafting chisel 
 may be simply considered as a wedge used to split a piece 
 of wood, and if necessary the ordinary cold chisel could be 
 used. But, as we have already seen, in the case of a single 
 
 Fig. 79. Grafting Saw. 
 
 Fig. 80. Mattock. 
 
 Fig. 81. Grafting Chisel. 
 
 scion baing grafted on a stump, the cleft is only made on 
 one side, so as to preserve the stock and allow the side of 
 the cleft to press against the scion. For this purpose the 
 blade of the chisel should not be of the same thickness on 
 both sides ; sometimes it is the shape of a knife having one 
 side sharpened to allow of a cleft being made on the young 
 stumps (Fig. 81). 
 
 (b) Tools used for Cleft-grafting Young Plants. In this 
 case a cleft is made with a strong grafting knife. However, 
 Corny, of Garons, has invented an arrangement greatly 
 facilitating the execution of this operation, and allowing it 
 to be made with great perfection. Comy's arrangement 
 comprises : 1st, A gauge ; 2nd, a scion box; 3rd, a graft- 
 ing knife for the scions ; 4th, a stronger grafting knife for 
 the stocks. 
 
108 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The gauge is made of a brass plate, -on the side of which 
 eight notches are cut varying from ^ to 1^ inches in width, 
 for measuring the diameter of the scions (Figs. 82 and 
 83 J). Each notch bears a number corresponding to the 
 numbers on each compartment of the scion box. 
 
 Fig 82. Comy's Gauge. 
 
 Fig. 83. -Comy's Arrangement. 
 
 This box is divided into eight equal compartments, into 
 which the scions are placed after being gauged ; the larger 
 compartment is used to carry the tools and accessories. On 
 the top of the wooden handle (Fig. 83 t t) a wooden block 
 is fixed, and a blade o b, having one extremity fixed on a 
 pivot o, round which it revolves, the other extremity is 
 provided with a handle b. A horizontal brass guide keeps 
 the blade flat on the wooden block, which is made of oak, 
 on the side of which are 16 inclined grooves, allowing the 
 making of both sides of the wedge for cutting scions of 
 different diameters. The numbers on each pair of notches 
 correspond to the numbers on the gauge. 
 
 The grafting knife (Fig. 84) is of special construction. 
 On the blade is a small brass knob a, and a brass slide b, 
 which can be easily moved with the thumb ; a graduation 
 corresponding to that of the gauge enables the operator to 
 measure the distance between the knob and the slide. 
 
 Comy's arrangement is used in the following way : The 
 scions are first sorted with the gauge and placed in each 
 corresponding compartment in the box, which is taken on 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 109 
 
 the ground where the young plants are decapitated and the 
 cleft made with the. grafting knife. One must be careful 
 while making the cleft to measure the diameter of the stock 
 with the slide. A scion of equal diameter is taken out of 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 Comy's Grafting Knife. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 Champin's Grafting Knife. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 Kunde's Grafting Knife. 
 
 the compartment corresponding to the measurement read on 
 the blade of the knife. This scion is placed in each of the 
 two grooves on the handle corresponding to the number of 
 the compartment, and the two bevels are made with the 
 sliding knife. The scion thus prepared is inserted in the 
 cleft and bound in the usual way. 
 
 The use of this arrangement presents the following 
 advantages : 1st, it allows one to rapidly find scions of 
 diameter exactly equal to that of the stock ; 2nd, to make 
 perfectly plane and exactly symmetrical sections. 
 
 (<?) Tools used for Whip-tongue Grafting. This graft is 
 easily made with an ordinary grafting knife. The only 
 special feature of this knife is that the blade is flat on one 
 side (Fig. 88) so as to allow the making of a perfectly plane 
 section. This can only be insured by sharpening the knife 
 on one side only, for the sharpening of the blade always 
 causes it to become convex near the edge (Fig. 87), inducing 
 
110 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 the knife to oscillate and making uneven sections. This- 
 is avoided if the flat side of the blade alone is used 
 (Fig. 88). 
 
 The grafting knives most used are those of Champin (Fig. 
 85) or Kunde (of Dresden) (Fig. 86). The grafting knife of 
 Rolli, Lausanne (Switzerland), is equal in strength and has 
 the advantage of being cheaper. 
 
 Guides may be used to enable the operator to make very 
 regular plane sections and always obtain the same bevel. 
 Castelbou's guide (Fig. 89) is in the shape of a pentagonal 
 
 Fig. 87. Section of a blade sharpened Fig. 88. Section of a blade sharpened 
 
 on both sides. on one side only. 
 
 frustrum, on the face of which holes are bored reaching the 
 base. These cylindrical holes vary in diameter and are made 
 parallel to the axis of the frustrum, so that their section is 
 oblique on the face. Steel springs fixed at the bottom of 
 
 each face form two kinds of guards, which press against it 
 when submitted to a slight pressure, but remain slightly 
 away from it when in a normal state. 
 
 This guide may be used for out-door grafting or bench- 
 grafting. In the latter case it is fixed on a kind of stand, 
 and is used in the following manner : The stock or scion 
 is placed in one of the holes corresponding to its diameter r 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 Ill 
 
 the blade of the grafting knife is slided against the . face 
 and above the springs of the frustrum, making an oblique 
 and plane section ; the knife is then turned over and placed 
 between the face and the spring, making the cleft in the 
 right position. 
 
 F. Richter makes thousands of whip-tongue grafts every 
 year, and uses a still simpler guide. Each operator has 
 before him three brass tubes, 
 varying in diameter, with one 
 end cut bevel shape at the re- 
 quired angle and fixed on a 
 stand bolted on the table (Fig. 
 90). The canes are passed 
 through one of the tubes cor- 
 responding to its diameter, and 
 the bevel made by sliding a 
 Kunde knife over the side of 
 the tube. A woman makes the 
 tongues by hand with a small 
 knife. 
 
 Finally, a great number of machines have been invented 
 to help the making of the whip tongue graft. The only one 
 generally used now is that devised by Petit, civil engineer at 
 Langon (Gironde). 
 
 This machine (Fig. 91) consists essentially of two blades, 
 one G, used to make the bevel, the other F, used to make 
 
 Fig. 90. -Richter s Grafting Knife. 
 
 Fig. 91. Petit's Grafting Machine, used for whip-tongue grafting. 
 
 the tongue. They are both fixed on a lever provided with a 
 handle P, at one of its extremities, revolving round a pivot 
 at the other extremity. This lever works between the two 
 parallel guides M N, keeping it in a horizontal position and 
 
112 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 limiting its movement sideways. The blade used for the 
 bevels is fixed on the front ; the blade F, used for the 
 tongues, is smaller and placed at the rear. 
 
 Under the blade G is a brass socket T (Fig. 91), and (abed 
 Fig. 92), forming an inclined winding plane. On the top 
 of the socket is a horizonal stop B, limiting the movement of 
 the blade in front. This arrangement of the socket allows the 
 same length of bevel to be obtained with cuttings varying 
 in diameter by placing them in different points on the socket. 
 
 Fig. 92. - Inclined Socket of Petifs Machine. 
 
 Under the blade F is a second wooden socket similar to the 
 former. These different tools are bolted on a cast-iron 
 frame fixed on the side of the bench by a strong vice. 
 
 The machine is used in the following way : 1st, a cane is 
 placed on the socket T in a suitable position, the extremity 
 touching the stop B (Fig. 91) ; the lever is pushed forward by 
 means of the handle P, making the bevel. 2nd, the cane is 
 then placed on the wooden socket section upwards, and by 
 pulling the lever backwards the slit is made at the required 
 depth, forming the tongue at the same time. 
 
 Many machines have been devised with the idea of helping 
 the making of grafts on the ground, but none have so far 
 proved practical. We may state that grafting by hand has 
 a tendency to be generally adopted, and the number of 
 successful operators is increasing every day. It is almost as 
 difficult to teach operators to use grafting machines properly 
 as to teach them to use grafting knives. 
 
 GTH. LIGATURES AND WAXING. 
 
 When grafts are performed on old stumps the joint ia 
 generally strong enough, and does not need any binding. 
 Grafts on stocks of smaller diameter should always be per- 
 formed well enough to be able to do without binding, but it 
 is generally advisable to bind the joints to increase their 
 
GRAFTING. 113 
 
 strength, and to prevent them from getting displaced in case 
 of knocks or wind. String, raffia, rubber, and flexible 
 metal foil are used with this object. 
 
 In the South of France string is generally used without 
 any previous preparation. It gives great strength to the 
 joint, and if it is a dry year, it has to be cut away after the 
 knitting has taken place, if not, it might hinder the growth 
 of the plant in diameter. In damper climates, on the contrary, 
 the string must be dipped in sulphate of copper, or tar, so 
 that it will last longer. Raffia (fibre of sagus raphia, of 
 Japan, or raphia taedigera, of Madagascar) is very strong, its 
 flat reedy nature greatly facilitates the operation of binding. 
 It rots quickly when the season is very wet. Champin 
 recommends dipping it in a solution of sulphate of copper, 
 more or less concentrated, in accordance with the desired 
 duration. Vulcanized rubber has even been recommended, 
 used in the shape of tube or rings passed over the graft by 
 means of special tools, or in the shape of fine thongs of about 
 one-fifth inch square section. Rubber tubes have generally 
 been discarded, and the thongs alone are now used. They 
 are more particularly used for grafted cuttings. Their 
 elasticity insures a continuous and regular pressure, never 
 excessive, and forms an excellent ligature. Unfortunately 
 they are rather expensive. The steel ligatures are formed 
 of a flat flexible plate, curved like a kind of collar open on 
 one side. The sides are kept open by means of special pin- 
 cers, and the collar passed over the cane compresses against 
 the joint as soon as it is released. This system has several 
 disadvantages, and has been very little used. 
 
 Cork was recommended some time ago to protect the joint 
 against desiccation, and the action of water. The corks are 
 split in two along their axis, and slightly hollowed in the 
 centre. They are placed on each side of the joint, tightened 
 together by means of special pincers, and kept in position 
 by three ties fastened and tightened with pliers before 
 releasing the pincers (Fig. 93). 
 
 The Cork graft, as it is commonly termed, has sometimes 
 given very satisfactory knittings, but has generally resulted 
 in failure. The difficulty of execution, and the great 'care it 
 requires to give good results, greatly restricted its use, and it 
 is only advantageous for grafts made above ground, and in 
 small numbers. 
 
 The object of waxing is to cover the section of the grafts, 
 o as to prevent their desiccation, and to protect them against 
 
 10890. H 
 
114 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 rain-water. It is only necessary in the case of grafts leaving 
 large sections bare, as happens when old stumps are grafted, 
 
 ov when stocks are placed in 
 pebbly, stiff soils where they are 
 liable to dry quickly. 
 
 On the contrary, when young 
 stocks are grafted with the whip- 
 tongue, or cleft method, in fresh, 
 mellowed soil not too damp, 
 waxing may be dispensed with,, 
 ^more especially if the ligature is 
 carefully made with raffia or 
 string. The substance which 
 has so far given the best results 
 is clay. It must be pure and 
 form a good paste, not too liquid, 
 and not cracking when worked. 
 It is applied in small quantities 
 on sections. 
 
 Tin or lead foils are also used;, 
 placed under the ligature they 
 prevent desiccation, and, to a cer- 
 They are especially used with 
 
 JL.6 
 
 Fiir. 93. Cork Ligature. 
 
 tain extent, root growth, 
 grafted cuttings. 
 
 Resin putty, such as that of Lhomme-Lefort, gives good 
 results above ground, but has never succeeded under ground. 
 
 ?TH. CAHE TO BE GIVEN TO GRAFTS. 
 
 (A) Earthing up and protection of grafts. As we have 
 shown above, a vine graft can only succeed under ground ; 
 however, it is made level with the ground, or slightly above 
 it. Therefore, to place the joint in good condition for growth 
 and to insure knitting, the soil should be heaped around 
 the plant ; a mound is formed with well-moulded soil so as 
 to leave only the last eye of the stock visible (Fig. 94). This 
 operation is done with a triangular hoe (Fig. 95), and should 
 be done very carefully, so as not to dislocate the joint. In 
 nurseries the earthing up is done in long ridges following 
 the line. 
 
 The considerable development of the young shoots the first 
 year often occasions breakages, or displacement of the joint 
 in windy districts. The best way to avoid this accident is. 
 to tie the shoot to a small stake driven near the plant before 
 the mound is formed . 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 115 
 
 (B) Severing roots from the 'scion and shoots from the stock. 
 
 The joint should be examined at least once a month during 
 
 the summer following the operation of grafting, so as to cut 
 
 away roots grow- 
 ing on the scibn 
 and suckers grow- 
 ing from the stock. 
 The success of 
 grafting depends 
 
 Fig. 94. Cleft Graft earthed up. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 Triantrular Hoe used for 
 covering grafts with soil. 
 
 in a great measure 
 on the performance 
 of this operation. 
 When the roots of 
 the scion are left 
 to develop, the vegetation of the stock diminishes, and the 
 growth of the part above ground is more rapid than that 
 under ground. This abnormal increase in size causes the 
 side of the cleft to split, and often results in complete dis- 
 jointing of a graft. However, even if this accident does 
 not occur, the liberation of the scion is always dangerous, 
 its roots develop at the expense of those of the stock which 
 are not sufficient to nourish the graft. (Fig. 96). 
 
 If the suckers are not destroyed they develop at the ex- 
 pense of the shoot of the scion, which often does not knit, 
 or remains sickly, and sometimes withers. At the end of 
 August,* when it is possible to ascertain which grafts have 
 not knitted, the suckers of these are allowed to grow to form 
 grafting wood for the following year. In case these suckers 
 are not strong enough it is always possible to graft lower on 
 the stock, but this weakens the plants in some cases ; there- 
 fore grafting suckers should be preferred when possible. 
 
 STH. CONDITIONS OF APPLICATION OF GRAFTING. 
 (A) Grafting cuttings. The grafting of cuttings gives 
 results varying with the soil and climate. It generally does 
 
 * February in Victoria. 
 H 2 
 
116 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 not succeed well in the dry Mediterranean region, but gives 
 very satisfactory results further north, which is explained very 
 easily, if we remember that the cuttings have not only to knit 
 their scion, but also to grow roots, and that a certain amount 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 A six-year-old vine badly grafted, perishing 
 from phylloxera on roots from scion. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 Old grafted vine showing almost normal 
 difference between size of stock and scion. 
 
 of moisture is necessary for both these phenomena. However, 
 it can be used in dry regions, on the condition that the cuttings 
 are planted in nurseries, well watered, and that certain pre- 
 cautions which we are going to explain are observed ; the 
 cuttings, 10 inches in length, are grafted with the whip 
 tongue method with short bevel, the- scions having only one 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 117 
 
 bud (Fig. 98) ; the joint is sometimes bound with lead foil 
 
 kept in position by raffia ; or, better, rubber ligature. 
 
 Generally the joint is simply bound in 
 
 raffia over which a light emulsion of clay 
 
 is brushed, or sometimes it is plunged 
 
 into the mixture. The cuttings grafted 
 
 in this manner are planted in parallel 
 
 trenches. The lines are placed in groups 
 
 of two, 20 inches apart, with a space of 
 
 28 inches between each group, so as to 
 
 allow the removal of the roots and suckers 
 
 (Fig. 99). The operation of planting may 
 
 be organized in the following way which 
 
 is that of Richter, of Montpellier : 
 
 1st. A trench is opened with a spade 
 along the line, the sides being made almost 
 vertical, and the soil placed on the other 
 side of the line. 
 
 2nd. The line is taken away and replaced 
 by a wooden straight-edge 6 feet in length 
 (A B, Fig. 100), divided into two equal 
 parts by a mark, t. It is kept in a 
 vertical position by a small piece of wood, 
 B C, screwed in a perpendicular direction. 
 
 If the soil is clayey the angle of the 
 trench where the cuttings rest is filled 
 with sand ; if, on the contrary, the soil is light it is simply 
 dug at that angle. 
 
 The cuttings are stuck upright in the sand resting against 
 the side of the trench, the eye of the scion level with the 
 edge of the straight-edge, so as to have all the joints at the 
 same depth. (See Figs. 38 to 43, page 79, and Fig. 101.) 
 
 3rd. The filling up of the trench is done progressively, as 
 follows : A workman half-fills the trench with soil, a second 
 workman rams it down with his foot ; a third rams it over 
 again with a kind of rammer, and a second group of three 
 workmen finish filling the trench in the same way. 
 
 4th. The third group of workmen form the mounds. One 
 man heaps the soil with a little hoe, another compresses it 
 against the scion with his hands, being careful not to shake 
 it ; the third man brings the soil over the scion with a 
 rake. A fourth man finishes the mounds and gives them 
 a regular shape. 
 
 Fig. 98. - Whip-tongue 
 Grafted Cutting. 
 
118 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The plantation should be made in very well mellowed 
 soil, and when it is not too damp. The grafted cuttings 
 must not be brought in large numbers on the ground, for 
 
 Level of soil. 
 
 'mm 
 
 Fig. 99. Arrangement of Cuttings in nursery rows. 
 
 they might become dry and get knocked about. They should 
 be placed in small bundles upright in buckets, the lower 
 parts submerged in water, or covered with a wet rag. 
 
 Certain viticulturists incline the cuttings when they plant 
 them so as to allow the stock to be in the more superficial 
 layers of soil which get warmer and promote the growth of 
 roots. Complete covering of the graft prevents the desicca- 
 tion of short scions. Finally, the system of watering should 
 allow the water to penetrate to the stock without touching 
 
 n 
 
 Fig. 100. Straight-edge for placing cuttings in nursery rows. 
 
 the scion, only giving the required quantity of water to 
 avoid the cooling of the soil, which would result from too 
 much water being applied. We know that heat is one of 
 the conditions promoting root growth. This is so very im- 
 portant that Messrs. Gre"goire and Co., horticulturists at 
 Denice (Rhone), place their grafted cuttings, in small bundles, 
 under heated glass-houses, and obtained in this way fine, well- 
 knitted grafts, made in March, ready to plant in May.* The 
 only inconvenience of this method is the difficulty of 
 acclimatisation in the open air of plants obtained under 
 such artificial conditions. 
 
 The cultural care to be given to nurseries consists in fre- 
 quent hoeing and watering when possible. The water should 
 percolate through the soil without flooding it, to prevent 
 caking. With this object ridges are made along the rows of 
 
 * September and October in Victoria 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 119 
 
120 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 102. White mycelium 
 of Dematophom necatrix 
 developed on dead vine. 
 
 vines, and the water allowed to run in the channels formed 
 between the rows (Fig. 101). Watering should be done as 
 seldom as possible with the minimum quantity of water 
 required. An excess of water some- 
 times prevents knitting, and the cooling 
 of the soil results in some cases in 
 plants which, although well developed, 
 have loose spongy tissues rendering 
 them weak. Finally, under certain cir- 
 cumstances it favours the development 
 of Dematophora necatrix, the most 
 dangerous of fungoid diseases. (Fig. 
 102.) It is preferable to water as late 
 as possible to allow the soil to get 
 warm, which promotes root growth, 
 but this is more particularly useful 
 with grafted cuttings which have to 
 knit at the same time. The soil should 
 always be loosened after watering to 
 prevent it from caking. One should also frequently examine 
 the grafts and sever the young roots which develop very 
 easily in the nursery. 
 
 Nurseries must be carefully protected against mildew 
 on account of the great facility with which the young roots 
 are attacked by this fungus, and of the serious results from 
 the defective lignificatiou caused by it. Notwithstanding 
 the exceptional care which grafted cuttings necessitate, and 
 the smaller percentage of strikes as compared with grafts 
 made on rooted sto -k, they present certain advantages which 
 will always give them a predominant place in reconstitution. 
 They can be made indoors during the winter, preserved by 
 stratification until the planting season, and vine-growers are 
 enabled to have grafted rootlings after a year in the nursery, 
 and after a few weeks only when frames are used. The 
 improvements made in grafting machines, giving better 
 results, and the decrease in the price of American cuttings, 
 add increased importance to this method of propagation. 
 
 The preservation of grafted cuttings by stratification re- 
 quires certain care. If the sand is too damp the sclerotia 
 of a fungus known as the Sclerotinia Fuckdiana develops, 
 sometimes inside the cleft of the graft, preventing knitting 
 (Fig. 103). Under these circumstances stratification of 
 grafted cuttings in damp moss was tried as an alternative. 
 Those who used it were unanimous in recommending it. 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 121 
 
 In this case grafting should be done a month before 
 planting in the nursery, that is to say, in March or April, in 
 the centre of France. Grafts carefully 
 made so as to have their joints perfectly 
 adjusted are not ligatured, and are joined 
 into bundles of ten to fifteen, lightly bound 
 with raffia. These bundles are put in 
 moss in cases in the following way: A 
 layer of damp moss, 3 to 4 inches thick, 
 is put on the bottom of the case ; the 
 bundles are placed on end one against the 
 other separated by a little moss, the sides 
 of the case being also covered with moss. 
 One must be careful not to leave a space 
 allowing desiccation ; finally, a layer ot 
 3 to 4 inches of moss is placed on top 
 of the cuttings.* 
 
 The grafted cuttings should be planted 
 as soon as a few roots have started 
 growing at their base ; at that time the 
 pads of knitting tissues have united and 
 spread over the sections. 
 
 Rougier, who specially studied this 
 method of stratification, points out the following advan- 
 tages : 1st. It dispenses with ligatures ; 2nd. It insures 
 knitting before planting. 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 Sclerotinia Fuckeliana. 
 
 * See an interesting article on this subject by F. Richter in Rioue de Viticulture^ 
 vol. ix., pp. 448-453, 189;\ (Transls.) 
 
122 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 C. ESTABLISHMENT OF A VINEYARD. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 PREPARATION OF SOIL. 
 
 IST. TRENCHING. 
 
 Soils in which American vines are to be planted must be 
 prepared with great care. From the different facts already 
 mentioned in this book, it results that with regard to 
 adaptation to soil the greatest obstacle is, on the one hand, 
 excessive moisture in winter and the cooling of the soil re- 
 sulting from it. and, on the other hand, considerable loss 
 of water through evaporation in dry summers. The best 
 and the only remedy for both these obstacles is deep 
 and thorough trenching. As a matter of fact, if the excess 
 of water percolates easily through well-divided soil, it also 
 remains longer under these circumstances, for the capillary 
 attraction drawing it towards the surface where it evaporates 
 is less felt than in compact soils. Finally, the roots can 
 penetrate deeper, and find moister surroundings in soils 
 deeply disturbed. 
 
 (A) Depth of trenching. Trenching previous to planting 
 is, therefore, essential, but the depth of this cultural opera- 
 tion naturally varies with the nature of the soil. Soils 
 naturally dry and poor must be disturbed deeper than fresh 
 and fertile soils. In the first case the depth should be 24 
 inches, while in the second 16 or 20 inches might be sufficient. 
 However, if the arable soil is shallow, and rests on permeable 
 limestone subsoil, the latter must not be disturbed, for the 
 roots can naturally penetrate it and get sheltered against 
 drought. 
 
 Trenching must be done much deeper when a new vineyard 
 is planted on the site of an old vineyard immediately after 
 it has been uprooted. This is generally the case with 
 American vines. Under these circumstances a depth oj 30 
 to 32 inches is required. 
 
PREPARATION OF SOIL. 123 
 
 (B) Mode of execution of trenching. Trenching may 
 be done either by hand or with ploughs. The former 
 method is evidently preferable on account of the per- 
 fection with which the soil can be loosened, and it is the 
 only possible one in certain rocky soils, but is far more costly 
 than the latter. These can only be applied with efficacy 
 in deep loose soils, unless steam traction is used, which 
 allows considerable obstacles to be overcome, and loosens 
 the soil much better than implements hauled by teams.* 
 
 Whatever may be the system adopted, three cases are to 
 be considered 1st, the arable soil is of superior quality to 
 the subsoil, and the latter cannot be improved by the action 
 of the air ; 2nd, the subsoil may be usefully modified by 
 atmospheric influences ; 3rd, the subsoil may improve the 
 arable soil if mixed with it. 
 
 If the work is done by hand one proceeds in the following 
 way : In the first case part of the men open a trench to the 
 required depth so as to expose the subsoil which other men 
 disturb, leaving it in its place. In the second case the 
 arable soil is thrown into the trench so as to superpose the 
 layers in an inverse order. In the third case narrow vertical 
 slices are cut and mixed together before being modified. 
 
 If, on the contrary, draught teams are used, one may go 
 to a certain depth without bringing the subsoil to the sur- 
 face by ploughing the arable soil with an ordinary plough 
 and following with the subsoiler in the same furrow, disin- 
 tegrating the subsoil without shifting it. 
 
 To completely turn over the soil the best way is to use 
 1st, a plough of medium strength ; 2nd, a Bonnet trenching 
 plough. The first turns over the top layer of arable soil and 
 draws it into the furrow made by the trenching plough ; the 
 second draws from the bottom of the furrow opened by the 
 ordinary plough a new slice of soil which it tips over it. In 
 loose light soils these different implements may be replaced 
 by Coetgreave's trenching plough, which carries them all 
 fixed on the same beam. 
 
 (C) Time most suitable for trenching. The most suitable 
 time seems to be the end of autumn or the beginning of 
 winter, for the soils are not too wet and have not become too 
 hard. It is also a slack time in farm work, which enables 
 the use of all the unengaged draught ; further, the soil 
 
 *For further information see Trenching and Subsoiling for American Vines, by the 
 present translators, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, 1901. 
 
124 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 disturbed at that time of the year becomes loose and 
 mellowed under the influence of frost : it gets well aerated, 
 and has time to settle down before planting. Further, every 
 thing is in favour of autumn trenching. 
 
 2ND. MANURING. 
 
 Manure should be applied before planting, except in the 
 case of soils naturally very rich. This operation is above 
 all necessary when an* old vineyard is uprooted and planted 
 again with new vines. All matters must be restituted to the 
 soil (nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash) which have been 
 abstracted by the old vines. American vines, especially those 
 liable to chlorosis, seem to require these matters more than 
 any others. When a plantation of American vines is made 
 on the site of an old European vineyard in soil of medium 
 fertility 25 to 28 tons per acre of stable manure, or its 
 equivalent, should be applied. Manures or fertilizers decom- 
 posing slowly should be preferred, as it gives them time to 
 wait for the roots of the plant and furnishes it with food for a 
 longer period. Bones, leather, residues from glue manufacture, 
 bamboos, box, rock-rose, lentiscus, and other such material 
 may be advantageously used in these cases. Manures of 
 this kind present the advantage of not forcing the vegetation 
 of the young plant, generally too powerful naturally. 
 
 Fertilizers should be spread all through the thickness of 
 the ploughed part, without, however, resting on the bottom,, 
 where the water would dissolve the matters they contain. 
 
PLANTATION. 125 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PLANTATION. 
 
 IST. ARRANGEMENT OF VINES. 
 
 (A) Shape of the plantation. Plantations in which the 
 whole surface of the soil is covered with vines may be con- 
 sidered as the only ones offering any interest with the actual 
 methods of viticulture. Those in which other plants are 
 cultivated together with vines cannot be considered as having 
 the intensive character of viticulture. But vines may be 
 disposed in different ways, and it is important to study the 
 value of each of these 1st, planting in lines ; 2nd, in squares ; 
 3rd, in quincunx. 
 
 Planting in lines (Fig. 104) is that in which vines are closer 
 on the lines than the lines are between each other. 
 
 This disposition is not favorable to good growth and 
 abundant fructification of vines, the vigour of which 
 diminishes rapidly when c .^ ... _ ^ 
 
 their roots come in con- \l} f '.T 
 
 tact, which happens long \^ 
 before they have grown (^) 
 
 { 
 ' 
 
 
 
 over the whole surface. >} 
 
 Experiments made by (*: (} 
 
 H. Mares have shown {**; (*';. 
 
 that the yield under those (T^ (V) 
 
 circumstances is one-fifth f? : : \\ . ;. 
 
 smaller than that ob- /T^ **' (? $T) 
 
 tained with vines planted /'< >< f*\ 
 
 in squares in which each '*-' *'~' ^ 
 
 vine occupies the same 
 
 surface. But if this arrangement offers less advantages 
 
 from this point of view, it offers other advantages, such as 
 
 allowing ploughing during the whole time of vegetation, even 
 
 with vines of spreading habit, which means a large saving 
 
 of labour. 
 
 Plantation in squares (Fig. 105) is preferable if the yield 
 alone is concerned, and, further, it renders cross ploughing 
 possible, and if the plant dies it can be replaced by layering 
 a cane from one of the four neighbouring vines. 
 
126 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The arrangement in quincunx (Fig. 106) is that in which 
 the plants occupy in groups of three the angles of an equi- 
 lateral triangle, and in groups of four those of a lozenge ; 
 further, it allows cross ploughing in three directions, the 
 replacing of " misses " with the layers of six neighbouring- 
 plants, and finally the planting of a greater number of vines 
 for a given surface, while giving equal space for their develop- 
 ment. Therefore, it increases the yield per acre. 
 
 The only disadvantage of this system is that the surface 
 of the soil is quickly covered with the canes of the vines, 
 especially of those of spreading habit, preventing the use of 
 teams and ploughs. 
 
 To sum up, when vines of an erect habit are planted 
 quincunx or squares should be adopted ; when, on the con- 
 trary, the vines are of a spreading habit one must ascertain 
 
 ><><>< 
 
 ^x'V ...**.. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 'Arrangement of vines in squares. 
 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 Arrangement of vines in quincunx. 
 
 if a sufficient number of hands are available to allow the 
 vineyard to be worked by hand in summer, and if the 
 increased cost of this operation will not absorb the benefit 
 of the increased production. 
 
 (B) Distance apart. This question need only be con- 
 sidered in the case of direct producers. In the case of 
 graft bearers the conditions remaining similar to those of 
 old plantations, the distance apart should be the same as 
 that proved by experience to have given the best results 
 with European varieties. 
 
 (C) Marking out the land. The position of each vine is 
 marked on the land by the intersection of two lines made 
 with strings or traced on the soil with a special implement. 
 
PLANTATION. 127 
 
 2ND. GROUPING THE C^PAGES. 
 
 The system of grouping the different ce"pages in different 
 blocks is generally adopted, and may be considered as far 
 preferable to other systems in which varieties are mixed 
 together. By grouping the varieties more regularity is 
 obtained, as each vine has practically the same vigour and, 
 therefore, cannot live at the expense of another. The 
 maturation of fruit is also more uniform; finally, all the 
 plants have the same habit and can, therefore, be sub- 
 mitted to the same method of treatment. 
 
 3RD. PLANTING. 
 
 Planting is done in different ways according to whether 
 cuttings or rootlings are used. In the first case an iron 
 dibble made of round iron, 1 to 1 inches in diameter, is 
 used ; the dibble may be made of square , 
 iron f inch in section ; it is then called a 
 Birone. A wooden handle is fixed on top 
 in a perpendicular direction in the same 
 manner as those of carpenters' augers (Fig. 
 107). The dibble is sunk down in the 
 ground vertically, drawn out carefully so as 
 to leave an open hole into which the cutting 
 is inserted to the required depth. It is then 
 sunk into the soil again a few inches from 
 the cutting and the earth rammed tightly 
 against it so as to force it to touch the Fig. 107. 
 cutting everywhere. One should not be 
 able to pull the cutting out of the ground if the operation 
 has been well conducted. Two free eyes only are left out 
 of the ground, the rest of the cutting being pruned off. 
 
 When the soil is very pebbly or very rough and lumpy 
 it is advisable to surround the cutting with sand or mellowed 
 soil before ramming. This prevents the contact of the 
 air and therefore desiccation, and places the first root 
 growth under very favorable conditions. 
 
 When rootlings are to be planted an iron rod is sunk 
 into the ground in the places marked for planting. A 
 hole 1 foot square is then made on one side of the rod, 
 and when the latter is pulled out a line is marked on 
 one side of the hole in the place where the young rootling 
 is to be planted. 
 
 Plants must be removed from the nursery with care, 
 preserving as many roots as possible, as these organs are 
 
128 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 provided with matters necessary to the first development 
 of the plant. We must only freshen the roots, that is to 
 say, cut the bruised 'extremities away. The plants are 
 then placed against the side of the hole on the line left 
 "by the rod, the roots spread at the bottom and covered 
 with mellowed soil slightly rammed, finishing by filling 
 the rest of the soil loosely. 
 
 We have already indicated the most favorable time for 
 planting cuttings when studying propagation by cuttings. 
 It is better in the case of rootlings to plant them before the 
 end of winter, except in very damp and cold soil, to allow 
 the earth to settle in the hole before vegetation starts. 
 
 4TH. CARE TO BE GIVEN TO NEW VINEYARDS. 
 
 Frequent ploughing, to keep the surface free from weeds 
 and retain the moisture, must be done during the summer 
 following planting. These operations may be done with 
 hoes or vine scarifiers, and should be completed by hand round 
 the young plants. One must be careful not to shake the 
 young vines which have begun to root. A small stake is 
 often placed near each vine to protect it, or at least at the 
 end of the lines which are more exposed when the teams are 
 turning. At other times five or six buds are left, disbudding 
 the three top ones. This helps at the beginning to show the 
 place occupied by each vine. 
 
 The following winter the soil is ploughed away from the 
 vines and the suckers pruned off, "misses" or "weaklings" 
 -are replaced with rootlings planted in the nursery for that pur- 
 pose. The pruning must be done as late as possible on account 
 of the natural tendency of young plants to make an early 
 growth ; if the top bud develops vigorously it is cut back to 
 two or three eyes and the shoot borne from the bottom bud 
 removed. If, on the contrary, the top bud does not grow, or 
 is weak, the bottom bud is cut to the required height for the 
 establishment of the crown. A large number of eyes must 
 be left on the young plants to force them to grow many 
 shoots. This prevents them from reaching a large individual 
 development and from getting broken by wind in spring. 
 Finally, the soil is rolled up round the young plant, which 
 is secured to a stake to prevent the wind from breaking it. 
 
 The following years the same operations are performed, 
 with the only differences resulting from the degree of rusticity 
 which increases every year. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 129 
 
 D. CULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 Vines require the following cultural operations : 1st, 
 pruning ; 2nd, digging ; 3rd, manuring or fertilizing ; 
 4th, ploughing. We will study these and indicate how 
 they should be carried out in hot districts, pointing out 
 alterations resulting from the cultivation of American vines. 
 
 IST. PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning has such a predominate action on the yield of a 
 vine that everything connected with it deserves to be studied 
 carefully. We will study the following items : #, produc- 
 tion of fruit-bearing shoots ; , establishment of vines ; c, 
 height of vine ; d, time most favorable for pruning ; e, 
 pruning tools. 
 
 (A.) PRODUCTION OF FRUIT-BEARING SHOOTS. 
 
 The vine bears its fruit on shoots of the year resulting 
 from the development of the eyes of the canes of the previous 
 year ; therefore, a certain number of these canes must be 
 preserved every year and pruned to a certain length 
 according to circumstances. When two or three eyes only 
 are preserved on the cane the pruning is termed short, or spur 
 pruning, if, on the contrary, a greater number of eyes are 
 left it is termed long, or rod pruning. 
 
 The choice of either of these systems depends on the 
 special aptitudes of the variety which is to be pruned. 
 Those having their fruit-bearing buds near the base of the 
 cane should be pruned short; those having their fruit- 
 bearing buds at the extremity of the cane should be pruned 
 long ; finally, those which possess fruit-bearing buds all 
 along the cane may be pruned by either of these methods. 
 However, we must not forget that wherever long pruning is 
 possible it always gives the best results. 
 
 10890. I 
 
130 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Most of the old cepages of the South of France only bear 
 crops when primed short, and their grafting on American 
 stocks cannot modify the systems already adopted. But 
 this does not apply to direct producers of the ^Estivalis 
 group. Most of these (Herbemont, Cunningham, Black 
 July) require long pruning. As for the Jacquez, it bears 
 fruit on all its buds, but long rod pruning seems to suit it 
 better and results in a far greater crop ; it should, therefore, 
 be resorted to wherever possible.* 
 
 We will study their mode of execution, beginning with 
 short spur pruning. The first element to consider is the 
 choice of the cane furnishing the spur. From the point of 
 view of the yield, medium, healthy, well lignified canes 
 should be preferred. If they are too large they produce 
 wood ; if, on the contrary, they are too small, their growth 
 is sickly. It is also necessary to preserve a good shape, 
 and, therefore, to choose a spur on the prolongation of the 
 arm which bears it. In the gooseberry bush system canes 
 radiating from the centre should be selected ; they should 
 also be more or less slanting upwards, according to the 
 variety to be cultivated ; for varieties of spreading habit 
 the spur should be selected nearer the vertical, for those of 
 erect habit nearer the horizontal, to prevent the foundation 
 wood from closing at the top. Finally, spurs should be 
 
 selected as close as 
 possible to the parent 
 stem to prevent a 
 too rapid elongation 
 of the arms. 
 
 When these canes 
 have been selected 
 all others are pruned 
 away, and these cut 
 down to the required 
 
 Spur pruning. Spur after pruning. length, that is to 
 
 say, generally two 
 
 eyes and a dormant eye (Figs. 108 and 109). It is 
 sometimes advisable to retain a third eye on varieties 
 starting to grow early in the season and growing in regions 
 
 * From experiments carried out in 1880 at the School of Agriculture, at Montpellier, 
 Jacquez plants, submitted to long pruning, gave 17 Ibs. of grapes, and those submitted 
 to short pruning gave only ll Ibs. All experiments made since seem to corroborate these 
 results. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 131 
 
 where spring frosts are to be feared ; the dormant eye in 
 
 this case generally remains so, and may develop in case 
 
 of accident and furnish some crop, or, at any rate, a 
 
 good cane for the following year's pruning. A section 
 
 must be made on the node immediately 
 
 following the last eye retained, and 
 
 perpendicular to the axis of the shoot ; 
 
 by doing so a ligneous diaphragm (Fig. 
 
 110) is preserved, protecting .the pith 
 
 against atmospheric water, which would 
 
 rot the eye. As it may be rather difficult 
 
 to cut exactly through the diaphragm, it 
 
 is better to make a cut slightly above it, 
 
 and slanting, so as to destroy the bud which 
 
 it is not intended to keep. 
 
 In some cases if the internodes are 
 very long a slanting section is made a 
 few inches above the retained eye ; the 
 slanting disposition prevents water from 
 accumulating in the pith. These general 
 indications apply also to long rod prun- 
 ing. However, in this case, the long 
 rod having to feed a much greater num- 
 ber of shoots, these shoots do not generally 
 develop enough to furnish replacing wood 
 for the following year ; it is therefore 
 indispensable to complete this method 
 by keeping a spur which will furnish more 
 vigorous shoots, better placed, for the 
 following primings. (Dr. Guyot's method.) 
 
 (B.) ESTABLISHMENT OF VINES. 
 
 Vines may be trained in the gooseberry 
 bush, trellis of cordon method. Vines Fig. no. 
 
 pruned according to the gooseberry bush Longitudinal section of 
 
 ,, . . 9 j- 7 .a vine cane showing 
 
 method consist in a trunk and a crown diaphragms, 
 composed of a variable number of arms 
 radiating from the centre (Fig. 111). This is the method 
 generally adopted in the South of France. It has the 
 advantage of allowing the shoots to spread evenly over 
 the surface of the ground and shelter it to a certain 
 extent, keeping it moist. It is easy with this method to 
 cross-plough, to replace " misses," it does away with stakes 
 
 I 2 
 
132 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 111. Gooseberry Bush pruning. 
 
 shelters the grapes against the action of the sun's 
 rays, which might roast them, or, at least, diminish their 
 volume. 
 
 The number of arms to be left on each stump varies with 
 its vigour ; their number must be increased when suckers 
 
 grow only on the trunk ; on 
 the contrary, if a diminution 
 in the vigour of the plant 
 is noticed, the number of 
 arms must be reduced. 
 With this method spurs 
 alone are generally used ; 
 however, it is possible to 
 leave a long rod or leader, 
 which is brought down and 
 fastened to the trunk, form- 
 ing a circle ; or two rods may be left and twisted together 
 (quarante method modified by Coste-Floret). (Figs. 112. and 
 1 18.) We must be careful to select the long rods on different 
 arms every year, on accomnYof the considerable development 
 they promote on that arm. This method gives satisfactory 
 results with Jacquez, Black 
 July, and Herbemont at the 
 School of Agriculture, Mont- 
 pellier, and we are of opinion 
 that it is the best for cSpages 
 of this character in countries 
 where the gooseberry bush is 
 the rule and where stakes 
 are not used. As a matter of 
 fact, the fruit does not lie on 
 the ground, the fruit-bearing 
 shoots being supported at the 
 same height as the spurs, 
 and spreading in exactly the 
 same way as if short spurs 
 alone were retained. As for European varieties grafted on 
 American stock, we are of opinion that there is no reason in 
 favour of an alteration in the methods usually employed. 
 
 The trellis method is that in which the arms are divided 
 symmetrically in the. same plane (Fig. 113). It is adapted 
 to regions where grapes have to be exposed to the action 
 of the sun's rays to ripen ; it is rather more difficult and 
 
 Fig. 112. Gooseberry Bush with long 
 rod bent in a circle. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 133 
 
 requires better knowledge and care to keep an even develop- 
 ment between the different corresponding parts. In regions 
 necessitating the use of 
 this method we would 
 advise replacing it by the 
 
 With 
 
 plant 
 
 cordon method, 
 this method the 
 follows a single direc- 
 tion, which may be 
 horizontal, vertical, or 
 slanting, and is formed 
 by a stem carrying spurs, 
 or spurs and long rods, 
 but no arms (Fig. 114). 
 Under these circum- 
 stances we would not be 
 preoccupied in keeping 
 an equilibrium between 
 
 "V" 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 113. Spalier with rods and spurs. 
 
 the different parts of the plant, as the growth always takes 
 place in the same direction. 
 
 The chaintre method used in Touraine is a modification 
 of the trellis. The plants, very far apart, are formed by 
 
 Fig. 114. Cazenave's Cordon with rods and spurs. 
 
 foundation wood, with symmetrical arms extended horizon- 
 tally above the soil and supported by small wooden forks 
 bearing a long rod (Fig. 115). This system seems to suit 
 Americo-jEstlvalis hybrids. If applied to graft-bearers it 
 would have the advantage of diminishing the number of 
 grafts and the number of plants per acre on account of 
 the considerable distance left between each stump. In 
 hot, dry, Mediterranean regions it is inconvenient, as it 
 requires frequent displacement during summer cultivation, 
 which might cause the grapes to roast. In regions where 
 
134 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 this accident is not to be feared it. is preferable to substi- 
 tute the cordon-chaintre, which is easier to manage.* 
 However, these methods do not allow cross-ploughing. 
 
 Fig. 115. Chaintre. 
 
 (C.) HEIGHT OF VINES. 
 
 Vines may be classified as follows with regard to their 
 development : Low ; medium ; high. 
 
 Low vines are those in which the shoots start near the 
 soil, and the fruit is consequently a few inches from the 
 surface. These give the richest grapes in saccharine matter 
 on account of the proximity to the soil, which reflects 
 the heat and light directly on them. But the action of 
 radiation, which in summer (by an emission during night of 
 the heat absorbed in excess during the day-time by the soil) 
 heats the plant, results on the contrary in spring in reducing 
 the temperature of the soil and the plant often below 
 freezing point. This lowering of temperature results from 
 the loss of heat taking place from the soil towards the 
 atmosphere during clear nights. Low vines are therefore 
 more subject to the influence of spring frosts. This method 
 can therefore only be adopted in warm climates or on hills ; 
 but it must always be adopted where possible on account 
 of the superior quality of the fruit. High and medium 
 vines in which the shoots start from a certain height above 
 the soil give musts poor in sugar, and they should only 
 be used when the short method cannot be applied. These 
 two last methods are rarely used in the South of France, 
 
 * Culture de la Vigne en chaintre, by A. Vias, instituteur. Paris, librairie agricole de la 
 liaison rustique, 26 rue Jacob. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 135 
 
 but in cases where it would be necessary Jacquez seems 
 to be the cepage better suited, on account of the natural 
 alcoholic richness of its wine. 
 
 (D.) PRUNING METHODS RECENTLY RECOMMENDED IN THE 
 SOUTH OF FRANCE. 
 
 Vine-growers have recently tried to increase the yield of 
 their vines in the South by giving them a greater develop- 
 ment and by using long-rod methods, which had never been 
 practiced before in that region. The principal methods 
 recommended are 1st, Royat ; 2nd, Quarante ; 3rd, Quarante 
 modified by Coste-Floret. 
 
 (a) Royat method. Vines planted in lines 6 to 7 feet 
 apart, and 5 to 6 feet on the line, are trained in cordons, and 
 provided with spurs and long rods as in the Cazenave method ; 
 but the long rods, instead of being trained obliquely, are 
 
 Fig. 116. Royat method. 
 
 inarched (Fig. 116). It has a certain analogy to the Sylvoz 
 system, which differs only from it by the absence of replace- 
 ment spurs. 
 
136 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The object of inarching is to promote the fructification"of 
 the shoots growing on the rod and the development of those 
 borne by the spur. The trellising is done by means of wires, 
 the first row of wire 16 to 20 inches above the surface of 
 the soil carries the cordon, a second double row 12 inches 
 above the' first row, and between which the shoots are 
 inserted as they grow ; finally, a third row, 28 or 32 inches 
 higher, serves to fasten the extremities of the shoots. 
 
 This method, which is very productive in fresh and fertile 
 soils, when applied to vigorous varieties easily standing long 
 pruning, does not give satisfactory results in dry places. 
 
 (f) Quarante's method. This method, used in some parts 
 of the He*rault, tends to get generalized. It consists in re- 
 taining, on an ordinary low stump, two long rods and two 
 replacement spurs, symmetrically disposed ; the two long 
 
 Fig. 117. Young vine pruned after Coste-Floret's modification of the Quarante 
 method. A, B, long rods ; C, D, replacing wood. 
 
 rods are twisted together so as to form a loose knot, and the 
 extremities are fastened horizontally on a wire. The eyes 
 of the inarched part of the long rods are cut away or dis- 
 budded. Two other wires placed above support the shoots 
 (Fig. 117). This is practically a trellis with spurs and long 
 rods. 
 
CULTURAL CAKE. 137 
 
 Quarante's method seems also to be preferred iu fertile 
 soils in which vines grow powerfully, but has the same 
 disadvantage as the above of requiring a great outlay of 
 money for establishing the trellises. 
 
 (c) Quarante's method modified by Coste-Floret. Coste- 
 Floret, who appreciated the large production obtainable with 
 this method, and its facility for transforming ordinary goose- 
 berry-bush stumps into Quarante* stumps and bringing these 
 back to the gooseberry bush again if required, tried to render- 
 
 Fig. 118. Quarante method modified by Coste-Floret. 
 
 it more practicable by simplifying the mode of trellising 
 (Fig. 118). He increased also the number of spurs, which he 
 pruned with one free eye only, and dis-budded the crops borne 
 by the spurs. 
 
 This modification allows the branches to trail on the soil, 
 and, according to its inventor, would better suit vines 
 planted in rather dry districts. 
 
 (E.) TIME MOST FAVORABLE FOR PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning may be done the whole time the vine is without 
 leaves ; from the time the canes are well lignified until the 
 vine begins to bleed. However, it is advisable to cease 
 pruning when the weather is very cold and the thermometer 
 below freezing point, for the wood becomes brittle, and the 
 tissues, freshly cut, would be injured by frost. One may be 
 forced to prune late in districts where spring frosts are to be 
 feared, especially with ce*pages starting to grow early in the 
 season. The object of late pruning is to hold back the 
 
138 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 vegetation ; all the sap which would have acted immediately 
 on a certain number of buds and induced early growth if 
 pruning had been performed will be divided on a greater 
 number of buds, .and, therefore, have less influence on each of 
 them. 
 
 But, while the canes are not pruned, one cannot proceed 
 with ploughing. Therefore, in such districts the middle 
 -course is followed, removing all the canes which are not to 
 furnish spurs, and temporarily pruning the others to a length 
 of 18 inches to 2 feet. Later on, when the frosts are over, 
 they may be pruned back to two eyes.* 
 
 (F.) PRUNING TOOLS. 
 
 The tools used for pruning are a strong pruning-knife and 
 secateur. The pruning-knife was for a long time the only 
 tool used, but it is don^ away with now, especially in dis- 
 tricts of large production, and replaced by the secateur. 
 However, it is met with in some places in Bourgogne, 
 Gironde Charentes, and Provence. The pruning-bill of 
 Provence (poudette) (Fig. 119) is formed of a blade having a 
 right angled sharp edge on one side and a small straight 
 edge on the opposite side. The cane is pruned with the part 
 a b, the cane being held slightly curved outwards, so as to 
 
 Fig. 119. Pruning Bill of Provence. Fig. 120. Secateur of Languedoc. 
 
 cut on the projecting part with a movement similar to that 
 of sawing. The part misused to cut suckers on the old 
 stump. It requires long practice to be able to use this 
 pruning-knife, and this explains why it is replaced by the 
 secateur, with which it is impossible, however, to make such 
 .a neat section. The secateur of Languedoc (Fig. 120) consists 
 
 * This method of pruning vines twice is termed in America " Fall pruning." (Trans.) 
 
CULTUKAL CABE. 139 
 
 of two branches, one bearing a hook against which the cane 
 presses, the other a sharpjblade which cuts it. In well-made 
 secateurs the blade and the hook are disposed in such a 
 manner that when they press against the cane the blade does 
 not press normally, but, on the contrary, forms a certain angle 
 with the hook, causing a kind of sawing rather than crushing. 
 The two handles are long, and may be used with both hands ; 
 one of them is straight, and ended by a cold chisel used to 
 remove suckers. 
 
 Primers must always be careful to keep the hook above, 
 so that the part of the cane which bears against it, and is 
 always more or less bruised, will be pruned off. 
 
 2ND. DIGGING. 
 
 Digging should be done so as to form a basin round the 
 vine (Herault) or small trenches perpendicular to the line 
 of vines (parts of Bouches-du-Rhone), or in trenches along 
 the rows. In the first case the work is done by hand ; in 
 the Languedoc's the basins are made 6 to 8 inches deep, 
 they are wide enough to touch each other. This is con- 
 sidered equivalent to cultivating half the surface ; in the 
 second case, the digging is done at the same time as the first 
 ploughing, and may be done by hand (Fig. 121) or with 
 
 Fig. 121. Arrangement of soil after digging. 
 
 ploughs. In this case special ploughs are used (see Figs. 92 
 to 95), and a small ridge left between the vines is dug away 
 by hand. Digging should be done in winter, when heavy 
 frosts are not to be feared any longer, to avoid freezing the 
 trunk. However, it is important not to wait too long, for 
 the efficacy of this operation depends greatly on the length 
 of time the collar of the plant is left exposed to the air. 
 
 The object of digging is to completely cultivate round the 
 vine, to destroy weeds which the plough cannot reach, and 
 kill the larvae or eggs of insects found under the old bark 
 near the collar of the plant. It also helps 'to destroy suckers 
 or superficial roots, which, in the case of grafts especially, 
 may cause different accidents. It is also often used to bury 
 manures or fertilizers in countries where the custom is to 
 put them round the stumps. 
 
140 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 3RD. MANURING OR FERTILIZING. 
 
 (A.) MANURING. 
 
 Vines require nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The 
 two first matters seem to influence the vegetation only, the 
 third seems to promote the production of sugar in the fruit. 
 All manures containing these three matters in suitable 
 preparations, and in a sufficiently assimilable state, may be 
 used. 
 
 According to Miintz, the following are the quantities cor- 
 responding to a yield of '1,056 gallons per acre in -the 
 Mediterranean regions : 
 
 Nitrogen ... ... ... .. 121 Ibs. 
 
 Potash ... ... ... ... 110 // 
 
 Phosphoric acid ... ... ... 88 // 
 
 Vine-growers should, therefore, try to furnish their vines 
 annually with the above-mentioned quantities of these ferti- 
 lizers unless the soil already contains one or more of them 
 accumulated in large quantities. A chemical analysis of the 
 soil is necessary to ascertain if this is the case. 
 
 Deherain considers that phosphoric acid will give iiseful 
 results 1st, in soils containing less than O'OOl of total 
 phosphoric acid ; 2nd, in those containing O'OOl of phos- 
 phoric acid and only 0*0002 of acid soluble in acetic acid ; 
 3rd, in those containing less than 440 Ibs. per acre of phos- 
 phoric acid soluble in tartaric acid. 
 
 Paul de Gasparin considers that potassic manure does not 
 give good results in soils containing more than 1'25 per cent, 
 of potash. An analysis of the soil is not always sufficient 
 to indicate the matters which have to be added to it. When 
 these are not in an easily assimilable form, they may, 
 although existing in large quantities, have no action on the 
 vegetation, and require the addition of the same matters in 
 a more readily assimilable form. 
 
 Cultural experiments are necessary to ascertain these facts. 
 The vineyard to be studied should be divided into plots in 
 squares containing about 100 stumps each, sufficiently far 
 apart for the fertilizers of one square not to influence another. 
 One is used as a check, and does not receive any fertilizer ; 
 another receives a complete manure containing sufficient 
 quantities of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid to replace; 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 141 
 
 those removed annually by the crop. Three other squares 
 are manured with two of these matters only alternating. 
 The crops are carefully weighed, and if one of the squares 
 with incomplete manure give a crop equivalent to that with 
 complete manure, or if the diiference between the value of 
 the crops is less, then the cost of the matter not used in the 
 square considered, we may assume that the soil is in a state 
 to furnish, at least temporarily, the required quantity of this 
 matter, and that it is, therefore, useless to add to the manure. 
 
 NO W A/ t/flf. 
 
 WTAOGEM. 
 PHOSfM/IC. 
 POTASH. 
 
 M7AOGCM 
 M0SPH./IC. 
 
 M7flOG/V. 
 POTASH. 
 
 PHOSPtf. JC. 
 POTASH. 
 
 Fig. 122. Arrangement of Experiments for ascertaining the relative value of 
 different forms of Manures in a given soil. 
 
 Fig. 122 gives an idea of the arrangement of such an 
 experiment ; it is easy by a similar method to ascertain the 
 relative value of the different forms under which manures 
 can be applied. 
 
 In the South of France the manures used are Stable 
 manure, sheep manure,night-soil,woollen ragsjiorns, old boots, 
 marc, bamboos, sea-weed, soot, and, finally, chemical manure. 
 
 Stable manure contains per cent : 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid . . 
 Potash 
 
 0-4 to 2-5 
 0-7 0-8 
 0-4 ,, 0-5 
 
 Eight to 12 tons are applied per acre for four years ; straw is 
 added to it in very cold soils. 
 
 Sheep-yard manures contain : 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0-72 
 1-52 
 
 They are richer than stable manures, and act quicker; that 
 is to say, their effect does not last as long. Six tons are 
 applied per acre every year. 
 
 Night-soils vary greatly in composition, and are not 
 generally used for vines, because they are too strong, and 
 cause production of watery must, giving wines lacking in 
 keeping qualities. Their influence does not last more than 
 a year. This disadvantage may be diminished and better 
 effects obtained by mixing with tan, sawdust, peat-moss, or 
 sea-weeds. 
 
142 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Woollen rags contain 10 to 15 per cent, of nitrogen and 
 a certain proportion of phosphoric acid. They give very good 
 results in dry soils in the South of France, where they main- 
 tain a certain moisture. Ten to 15 cwt. per acre are 
 applied; their effect lasts four to five years. 
 
 Horns containing 14-86 of nitrogen and 46-14 of phosphate 
 of lime and magnesia per cent, have much slower action. The 
 same thing applies to old boots and other waste leather ; it 
 is advisable to decompose them beforehand by putting them 
 in lime composts or manure heaps. 
 
 Oil cakes contain more especially nitrogen and phosphate 
 of lime. Those mostly used are : 
 
 Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Rape cake, Europe ... ... 4 '92 2*83 
 
 ,, ,, Bombay ... .. 5'53 T98 
 
 Black Mustard Cake ... .. 5 "15 1'67 
 
 Corn- cole cake ... ... .. 4'46 1'83 
 
 Indian poppy seed cake ... .. 5 '81 2 '88 
 
 Ravison cake ... ... .. 4'99 1'02 
 
 Rough Castor Oil seed cake .. 3 '67 1*62 
 
 Decorticated Castor Oil seed cake 7 '42 2 -26 
 
 Black Sesame cake ... .. 6 '34 2 '03 
 
 White Sesame cake ... .. 5'81 2'07 
 
 Variegated Sesame cake* ... .. 5 '51 1'94 
 
 They are used in a quantity of about 13 cwt. per acre y 
 and are entirely absorbed the first year. Their small per- 
 centage of potash renders necessary the use of 220 to 440 Ibs. 
 of potassium chloride, potassium sulphide, or sulphate of 
 potash. These should also be added when horns or woollen 
 rags are used. Sulphated oil cakes, that is to say, those in 
 which the oil is removed by carbon bi-sulphide are superior, 
 for the oily matters eliminated are without value as 
 fertilizers. 
 
 Grape marc contains 1*71 of nitrogen and 0'5 of potash 
 per cent.; it may be used in calcareous soils, on account of 
 its acidity, or may be mixed with lime to neutralize its 
 natural acidity, or with ashes or star phosphate to increase 
 their percentage of phosphate. 
 
 Bamboos, sea-weed, box-tree, branches, &c., should be used 
 in stiff soils after having been chopped up, or in light soils 
 after being previously decomposed. These different manures 
 contain the following quantities of nitrogen : 
 
 Box ... ... ... ... T17 per cent. 
 
 Bamboos ... ... ... ... 0'43 ,, 
 
 Sea-weed ... ... ... ... '40 to '55 per cent 
 
 * Deougis, Tourteaux des graines oUagineuses, Toulon, 1876. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 143 
 
 In certain countries green manures are used. Plants with 
 large roots and well-developed tap roots, capable of gather- 
 ing the ammonia of the air and the mineral matters in the 
 soil should be selected. They generally belong to the- 
 leguminous family : Horse bean, Winter vetch, Clover, and 
 sometimes Winter rape. Some of these plants have the 
 following composition : 
 
 Nitrogen. Pctash. Phosphoric acid. 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Vetch 0-56 0'43 0-13 
 
 Rape ... ... 0-46 0'35 0'12 
 
 Clover ... ... 0-42 0'26 0*08 
 
 If we consider the average crop of 4 tons 15 cwt. per 
 acre, when these plants are buried in the ground they 
 furnish the following matters per acre: 
 
 Yield. Nitrogen. Potash. Ph< jgi oric 
 
 Tons cwts. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Vetch ... ... 4 15 61*92 51 '50 1.V60 
 
 Rape ... ... 4 15 55'20 42'00 14*40 
 
 Clover ... ... 4 15 ol'GO 31'20 9-60 
 
 The above table shows that in case of necessity these 
 manures might be sufficient for small grape crops, but we 
 must not forget that a part of the nitrogen, and all the 
 mineral matters they contain were derived from the soil which 
 they have to fertilize, consequently they may be considered as 
 a means of transforming rather than enriching the soil. 
 
 Soot contains 1*15 per cent, of nitrogen, and has a remark- 
 able effect upon vines planted in calcareous soils. Half to- 
 three-quarters ton is used annually per acre. 
 
 Different chemical manures, containing nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, and potash may be used for completing other 
 manures, or, united in -the required proportions, they may 
 sometimes be sufficient for vine requirements. 
 
 Georges Ville recently recommended the following 
 formula : 
 
 Superphosphate of lime ... ... 352 Ibs. per acre. 
 
 Carbonate of potash ... ... 176 n n 
 
 Sulphate of lime ... ... 352 
 
 It results from what we have already said that the 
 quantities of potash and superphosphate indicated above 
 are too considerable for the requirements of one year 
 (maximum duration of these fertilizers); on the other hand, 
 there is no provision made for nitrogen. An admixture of 
 carbonate of potash and sulphate of lime may be advan- 
 tageously replaced by sulphate of potash. 
 
144 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 In the following table we give an idea of the way of 
 establishing formulae for chemical manures. They may vary 
 greatly as far as substances are concerned, but they must all 
 represent the same weight of elements : 
 
 
 Quantity of 
 
 Formulae, 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 fi 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 &-J 
 
 
 & g 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 1st Formula, .-Nitrate of Soda @ 15% Nitrogen 
 
 400 kil. 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Sulphate of Potash @ 50% Potash 
 
 120 
 
 ... 
 
 60 
 
 
 Superphosphate of Lime @ 16% 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 100 \ ... 
 
 
 16 
 
 2nd Formula,: Sulphate of Ammonia @ 20% ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 300 /, 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Sulphate of Potash at 50% Potash 
 
 120 ,, 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 Superphosphate of Lime @ 16% 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 100 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 16 
 
 3rd Formula: Sulphate of Ammonia @ 20% 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 300 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Potassium Chloride @ 50% Potash 
 Superphosphate of Lime @ 16% 
 
 120 /, 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 100 n 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 16 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 
 
 150 n 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 x , 
 
 
 
 
 
 Superphosphate of lime should be applied at the beginning 
 of winter, and well mixed with the soil ; nitrate of soda and 
 sulphate of potash should only be applied in spring. 
 
 Other compositions are possible according to the cheapest 
 way matters can be purchased. Nitrogen may be derived 
 from sulphate and nitrate of ammonia, or nitrates of potash 
 or soda* Phosphoric acid may be derived from mineral 
 phosphates, star phosphates, bones, animal black, and 
 superphosphates. Finally, potash is to be found in alkaline 
 salts, sulphate of potash, potassium chloride, potassium 
 sulphide, nitrate or carbonate of potash, &c. 
 
 Although cost is the main item in purchasing manures, 
 we must not forget that some act better than others in 
 certain soils. Potassium chloride and sulphide, and sulphate 
 of potash, for instance, seem to give better results than other 
 
 * Nitrogen, in the form of nitrates, seems to promote a greater production of sugar in 
 must than when in the form of organic matters. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 145 
 
 potassic salts. Sulphate of potash diffuses better than any 
 other, and has so far given the best results in comparative 
 experiments ; it promotes better fructification and greater 
 richness in sugar. In calcareous soils we should only use 
 superphosphates, as neutral phosphates do not produce any 
 effect. 
 
 Chemical manures are generally absorbed the first year. 
 It is, therefore, better to alternate their use with stable 
 manure. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers are mixtures of different fertilizing 
 matters prepared by manure manufacturers. The variations 
 existing in their composition from the point of view of pro- 
 portion and the forms under which the matters composing 
 them are found prevents the expression of a general opinion 
 on them. One should always ask for a guarantee of the 
 composition of the fertilizer, specifying the proportion of 
 matters in a soluble state, with the method of analysis used. 
 
 (B.) MEANS OF IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 The means of improving the soil of vineyards are similar 
 to those used for other plants : drainage, which is outside 
 the scope of this work; addition of lime, marl, gypsum, 
 paring and burning the sward, and sometimes the addition 
 of coal ashes and hammerslag. 
 
 Lime (carbonate of lime) and marl help to modify the 
 physical properties of the soil as well as its chemical com- 
 position. Their use seems to ameliorate the quality of the 
 wine, giving it a better colour. 
 
 Gypsum (sulphate of lime) exerts a more favorable action 
 on the fructification of vines when the soil is naturally rich. 
 Used in quantities of J to 1 tons per acre it increases the 
 yield in a proportion which seems to increase with the 
 quantity used, and which may reach half or more of the usual 
 crop. 
 
 Raw gypsum, evenly crushed, or burnt gypsum, are used 
 indifferently. It is applied broadcast in March or April, 
 and ploughed over. 
 
 Paring or burning the sward renders clayey soils very 
 permeable, enables them to get warm easily, and, according 
 to Page'zy's experiments, the yield in sugar is increased. 
 This seems due to the transformation of certain mineral 
 
 10890. K 
 
146 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 salts into a more assimilable form, such, for instance, as 
 potash salts retained in clay in a state of insoluble combi- 
 nation. 
 
 (C.) TIME MOST FAVORABLE FOR MANURING. 
 
 The most favorable time for applying manures is generally 
 the end of winter (January, February, March).* The most 
 soluble manure should be applied last. It is important not 
 to expose fertilizing matters dissolving under the action of 
 rain before vines start to throw spring rootlets, which will 
 absorb them rapidly as they become assimilable. We must 
 not wait, especially in the Mediterranean regions, until the 
 period of drought has begun, as the moisture necessary for 
 the dissolution of salts might not be sufficient in the soil. 
 
 (D.) METHODS OF DISTRIBUTING MANURES. 
 
 Manures may be distributed in three different ways : 
 1st, in small basins formed round the plant ; 2nd, in long 
 trenches between the lines ; 3rd, over the whole surface. 
 
 Distribution in basins or over the whole surface seems to 
 give similar results, which is easily explained, as the different 
 ploughings spread it from the basins. Distribution in 
 trenches has the disadvantage of destroying, every time the 
 manuring is renewed, the young rootlets developed in the 
 trenches. 
 
 Chemical fertilizers, occupying a very small volume 
 (sulphate of ammonia, nitrate, potash salts) are placed at the 
 foot of each plant, or simply spread broadcast over the ground, 
 and buried by the ploughs or scarifiers. 
 
 (E.) PLOUGHING. 
 
 Vines require every year a first ploughing to aerate the 
 roots. This may be regarded as the most important and 
 indispensable cultural operation ; and a series of scarifyings 
 with the object of keeping the surface loose. 
 
 These operations have great analogy in the different 
 countries of Europe with regard to their special character 
 and the order in which they are performed. 
 
 1st. First ploughing. The first cultural operation con- 
 sists in ploughing, with the object of aerating the soil ; the 
 future growth of the vine depends greatly on the way in 
 which this is performed. 
 
 * June, July, August in Victoria. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 147 
 
 This first ploughing should be doiie at the end of Winter, 
 at such a time that the vegetation may not be influenced by 
 the last frosts and the first spring rains. In low lands ex- 
 posed to white frosts the first ploughing should not be done too 
 late, for when soil is newly disturbed it favours the production 
 of white frosts. It should not be done too early, for the soil 
 would get covered with weeds before the white frost period, 
 and we know that the presence of weeds equally favours a 
 decrease of temperature. 
 
 The first ploughing should be the deepest. In certain 
 countries it is done to a depth of 6 to 8 inches ; it should 
 allow the access of air as deeply as possible, and also allow the 
 water to penetrate and be retained in the sub-soil. Some 
 viticulturists however, condemn, in a general way, deep 
 ploughing for vines. They are of opinion that the destruc- 
 tion of superficial roots which play an important part in 
 the nutrition of the plant greatly injures its growth, but we 
 must not forget that in very dry countries, which are those 
 requiring deep ploughing, the superficial root system is not 
 found near the surface, for the amount of humidity there 
 is not sufficient to insure their development, or because, 
 after having grown under the influence of spring rains, they 
 dry and die under the influence of summer drought. There- 
 fore, it is only in climates where soils naturally keep moist 
 that shallow first ploughing can be advocated. 
 
 Fig. 123. Arrangement of soil after first ploughing: 
 
 We should try to obtain as high ridges as possible between 
 the rows, so as to increase the surface of soil exposed to the 
 action of the air. To realize this condition we must plough 
 away from the vines, and cover the sods in the centre by 
 
 K 2 
 
148 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 digging (Fig. 121). The soil ploughed in this manner (Fig. 
 123) is termed "saddled" in the Herault. Workmen per- 
 form this with very great skill in Provence, Gironde, and 
 Charente. 
 
 The first ploughing is done by hand or with ploughs. In 
 the first case a hoe or a hook is used, sometimes a spade or 
 a fork. Figs. 124 and 125 show the different tools used for 
 this work. 
 
 The saddled disposition of the soil in the Herault may be 
 considered as the best type of aeration ploughing done by 
 hand. A workman follows the diagonal of the squares, so as 
 to obtain as high a relief as possible, and accumulates 
 the soil, forming a high ridge between the lines and a furrow 
 on the line of stumps (Fig. 121). The lumps should not be 
 broken, so as to retain the surface upon which the air can 
 act. When ploughs are used they should be made so as to 
 get as close as possible to the stump without breaking the 
 spurs. The first furrow should be turned in the centre of 
 the lines, turning the sods towards it, and going as close as 
 possible to the vine. The small strip of non-ploughed ground 
 remaining at the foot of the vines is dug by hand. The ploughs 
 most used in the South of France are : The cabat of the 
 Gironde, which is not a very good plough, 
 but serves the purpose very well ; the vigneron 
 plough of the Aude, which is formed of a 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 Hook used in the 
 
 Herault. 
 
 rt 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 Different tools used for digging in the Herault. 
 (After M. Mares.) 
 
 long beam, used as a shaft on one side ; on this beam a 
 perpendicular swingle-bar is fixed, to the extremity of which 
 is fastened a trace (Fig. 126). The horse is yoked on the 
 side of the plough beam, so that the body is deflected on 
 the side. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 149 
 
 Vernette's mgnerorfs plough (Fig. 127) has a very 
 low body, carrying a narrow mould-board and a long 
 pointed share ; the beam is made of iron, and fits 
 
 Fig. 126. Vineyard Plough used in the Aude. 
 
 on the end of wooden shafts. This arrangement, com- 
 mon to many vine implements of the H6rault, has the 
 defect of rendering the depth of ploughing irregular, 
 
150 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 on account of the rigidity of the plough in the shafts, 
 transmitting all the oscillations of the horse to the point of 
 the share. 
 
 The ploughs which may be considered as most perfect for 
 first ploughing are those of Renault-Goin, of Sainte-Maure, 
 and of Souchu-Pinet, of Langeais. 
 
 Fig 1 . 127. Vernette's Vineyard Plough. 
 
 n s Eenault- Goin's implement (Figs. 128 and 129) is a small 
 iron plough, in which the beam is deflected to the right of the 
 
 
 Fig. 128. Renault-Gouin's Vineyard Plough (elevation). 
 
 point of the share ; owing to this disposition the body can get 
 much closer to the vines without risk of the beam touching 
 the spurs. The two handles may be inclined at any angle. 
 
CULTURAL CARE. 151 
 
 Souchu-Pinet's plough (Fig. 130) resembles the former, and 
 has curved stays and movable handles. A special harness is 
 
 Fig. 129. Renault-Gouin's Vineyard Plough (projection). 
 
 used for hauling this plough ; the swingle-bar is replaced by 
 an iron bow (Fig. 131), upon which a draft chain is hooked. 
 
 Fig. 130. Souchu-Pinet's Vineyard Plough. 
 
 The old Roman foot plough is still in use in the Bas- 
 Languedoc (Fig. 132). The cross ploughing is done so as to 
 leave undisturbed only the part around the stumps, which 
 has already been dug, as described. 
 
 Fig. 131. Special Harness for vineyard ploughs. 
 
 This primitive implement tears the soil instead of turning 
 it over, and leaves it flat instead of rigid; therefore the 
 sooner it is discarded the better. 
 
152 MANUAL OF MODEEN VITICULTUKE. 
 
 To sum up, first ploughing has for its object the aeration 
 of the soil, and must be done deeper than any other, and 
 expose as great a surface as possible to the action of the air. 
 It is often crossed. 
 
 2nd. Scarifying or second dressing. The object of the 
 following ploughing is to maintain the beneficial effect of 
 
 Fig. 132. Old Roman Foot Plough, still in use in Bas-Languedoc for 
 vineyard ploughing. 
 
 the first. These scarifyings are often repeated during the 
 summer in certain districts, while in the Provence only one 
 scarifying is generally clone ; in other districts four or five, 
 but usually only two. 
 
 (a) Spring dressing. Its object is to destroy weeds 
 grown after the spring rains, and to break up the crust formed 
 on the surface of the land, so as to diminish evaporation. 
 
 Fig. 133. Renault-Gouin's Double-furrow Plough. 
 
 The rising of the water, replacing surface evaporation is due 
 to capillary attraction; therefore, the more divided the sur- 
 face the slower the rising. The object of this operation is 
 also to level the surface by ploughing towards the vines, 
 destroying the ridges which in dry climates increase the sur- 
 face of evaporation. Spring scarifying should be done 
 
CULTURAL CAEE. 153 
 
 shallower than first ploughing, but deeper than the follow- 
 ing. It is usually done in May or the beginning of June.* 
 It should not be done at the flowering season as the decrease 
 of temperature resulting from the active evaporation from 
 the surface of the freshly-disturbed soil would risk bringing 
 about non-setting. 
 
 When the distance between the vines or branches spreading 
 over the ground prevents the use of a plough, this may be 
 done by hand ; it is cheaper to use draft implements when 
 possible; it also allows the work to be done quicker at the 
 
 Fig. 134. Portal's Scarifier. 
 
 right time. In the first case the tools shown in Figs. 124 and 
 125 are generally used, and, sometimes, but rarely, a spade. 
 In the second case, special ploughs are used with the body 
 deflected on the opposite side to that of the ploughs we have 
 been studying, or scarifiers and cultivators. These imple- 
 ments are preferable to ploughs when the surface is fairly 
 level, because their work is more rapid, cheaper, and leaves 
 the soil more even. 
 
 We may mention Renault-Goin's double-furrow plough 
 (Fig. 133), and amongst scarifiers those of Portal, used in 
 the Aude, and that used in the H6rault, which costs 4 
 (Fig. 134). 
 
 (p) Summer dressings. The dressings following the spring 
 scarifying, are much shallower. They are generally 
 
 * November in Victoria. 
 
154 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 commenced in June.* We must be careful when scarifying 
 not to touch the grapes or uncover them. This dressing may 
 
 Tig. 135. Hoe used for 
 summer dressing. 
 
 Fig. 136. Shares of vine cultivators. 
 
 be done by hand or with draft implements. In the first case 
 a special hoe (Fig. 135) is used; in the second case special 
 <cultivators (Figs. 134 and 136) are used. Filter-Planet places 
 
 Fig. 137. Filter-Planet's Scarifier. 
 
 on the market different transformable scarifiers and culti- 
 vators, far superior for loose soils, the use of which tends to 
 increase every year (Fig. 137). 
 
 The conditions favorable to effective execution of the 
 different dressings of vines are : 1st. Well-drained soil, 
 not hardened, loosening easily without caking ; 2nd, dry 
 .and warm weather killing weeds quickly. 
 
 * December in Victoria. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 155 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 
 
 IST. ACCIDENTS DUE TO UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS. 
 Although vines are generally favoured in the regions 
 where they are cultivated with all the conditions required for 
 the normal development of the different phases of their 
 vegetation, it sometimes happens that modifications in the 
 meteorological circumstances injure the growth of the crop. 
 We will now study these different accidents, their effects, and 
 the means of avoiding them. 
 
 (A.) FROSTS. 
 
 Vines may be affected by frost in autumn, winter, and 
 spring ; but its action differs in each season and does not 
 have the same effects on account of differences of the 
 state of vegetation and in the intensity of the frost. 
 
 (a) Autumn frosts. These are rarely to be feared in 
 regions where the vine is cultivated. However, they occur 
 sometimes in low-lying lands when heavy rains are followed 
 by north winds. According to Petit-Lafitte this occurs every 
 fourteen years in the Gironde.* 
 
 Their general effect is to suddenly and prematurely check 
 vegetation and injure the ripening of the canes, which 
 generally dry. If the crop is still on the vine it may 
 suffer seriously, the berries being injured by the action of 
 cold, and always resulting in considerable loss. In countries 
 liable to autumn frosts one may remedy this accident by 
 planting cepages ripening early. 
 
 (b) Winter frosts. The stoppage of the vegetation in 
 winter enables the vine to withstand low temperatures 
 without being injured. However, when the cold reaches ' 
 10 to 15C. some stumps may die altogether, others are cut 
 down to the level of the soil or lose some of their arms or 
 spurs ; at other times with less low temperatures 8C., but 
 in damp low-lying lands the buds alone are killed, and 
 shoots, generally sterile, grow on the old wood near the 
 surface. This is commonly termed " return of sap." 
 
 * La Vigne dans le Bordelais, by Petit-Lafitte, Paris, Rothschild, 1868, page 460. 
 
156 MANUAL OF MODEEN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The damper and lower the soil the more affected the vines 
 will be. Old vines or vines ripening -their wood late and 
 imperfectly suffer most. The same thing applies to vines 
 recently dug. If the vines are not pruned they resist cold 
 better. 
 
 In countries where winter frosts are frequent the stumps 
 are sheltered by earthing up the soil to the level of the 
 arms, or by burying the stump. This is generally suffi- 
 cient to prevent them from getting frosted. These methods 
 are used in the Jura, Rhine, Tokay, and Crimea, and the 
 environs of Pekin. In cold regions, such as Beaujolais, it 
 would be advisable to earth up the vines, especially those 
 grafted, for if the plant is cut down to the level of the soil 
 the graft is lost. The cultivation of vines ripening their 
 wood early and late prtining and ploughing are the only 
 remedies. 
 
 If a great number of plants have to be cut back the 
 whole vineyard must be uprooted ; if a few only have been 
 frosted they should be grafted again or cut level with the 
 soil. But in this case the vine does not give any crop for 
 many years, on account of the great vigour of the shoots 
 born from the old wood which grow wood and no fruit ; 
 grafting, on the contrary, enables the vine to produce fruit 
 straight away. 
 
 (c) Spring frosts. Spring frosts are much more fre- 
 quent, and occur at much shorter intervals, even in warm 
 countries. According to Petit-Lafitte, they occur every nine 
 years in the Gironde. Mares states that they occur every . 
 three years in Languedoc. They are not so injurious as- 
 winter frosts as they do not kill the plant but only affect 
 the crop. 
 
 There are two different spring frosts : black frosts and 
 white frosts. The former result from a general cooling of 
 the atmosphere, the temperature on the ground being much 
 colder than is the case with the latter. They generally 
 occur before the white frosts, at the start of vegetation. 
 When the atmosphere and soil are dry, and the thaw slow 
 and progressive, there is not much harm done ; when, on the 
 contrary, the thaw is rapid the shoots dry and the buds die. 
 These frosts often produce swellings (Fig. 1 38) or excrescences 
 at the base of the spurs or on the roots, known under the 
 name of Broussins. The death of the buds often causes the 
 death of the spurs, and sometimes that of the arms. In this 
 case the effects of frost are felt for many years, and the 
 stumps have to be cut back to get them into shape again. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 157 
 
 White frosts are produced by the cooling of the soil 
 resulting from the radiation of the heat from the soil towards 
 the sky. The young shoots close to the soil are influenced by 
 this cold and die if it falls below zero. Low and damp sites 
 are generally more exposed to the action of frosts, and it is 
 in April or May,* towards four or five in the morning, that 
 they are most severe. Farmers have noticed that this 
 phenomenon occurs regularly at certain dates. Edouard 
 Koche established in his studies on the cjimate of Montpellier, 
 resulting from records spreading over 100 years, f that in 
 the He*rault late forests were to be feared towards the 10th 
 or 14th, the 18th or 
 19th, to the 24th \ A 
 
 April ; from the 2nd 
 to the 4th or 5th, and 
 from the llth to the 
 13th of May. Similar 
 observations have 
 
 been made in other Fig 138 ._ Brou8sin Cau8ed by frost, 
 
 vine-growing coun- 
 tries. There is only one means of diminishing the effects 
 of black frost, and that is by trying to throw back the 
 bursting of the buds as far as possible, by cultivating special 
 varieties, or by pruning late, as we have already explained 
 (fall pruning, page 137)4 
 
 These prosecutions may also be useful against white frosts, 
 but other means may be used. Some are permanent, 
 and result from the way the vines are planted ; others are 
 only temporary, and may be repeated every time the frost 
 appears. 
 
 Among the first we may mention planting on hills, 
 where the effect of radiation is lessened. This is generally 
 done in the North, Bourgogne, Champagne, <fcc. The crown 
 may be kept at a certain height above the soil, placing the 
 shoots at a distance from the soil sufficient to diminish the 
 influence of the decrease of temperature. In Savoy vines are 
 trained on high trellises with the object of preventing the 
 action of frosts. 
 
 In countries where spring frosts are prevalent one should 
 not build walls or grow hedges about the vineyard, which 
 
 * October and November in Victoria. 
 
 t Edouard Roche. Les variations pModiques de la temperature dans le cours de 
 I'annee d Montpellier. Messager Agricole du Midi, 10th Mai, 1883. 
 
 J It has been noticed that sulphate of iron used in concentrated solutions to protect 
 
 vines against cryptogamic diseases greatly retards the bursting of 
 therefore be used successfully in certain circumstances. 
 
 solutions to protect 
 the buds. It may 
 
158 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 prevent draughts, and, therefore, help the production oi 
 this phenomenon; also avoid cultivating between the vines,, 
 as it increases the radiating surface. 
 
 A temporary means of protecting vines consists in cover- 
 ing them with a screen preventing radiation from the soil 
 towards the sky, and from the vines towards the soil. Dr. 
 J. Guyot* recommends the use of screens made of straw 
 resting on the stakes, which are used with his system of 
 pruning. He indicated an ingenious arrangement allowing 
 the use of these screens as a preventive of non-setting, &c.. 
 The disadvantage of this system is the high annual expense, 
 which Guyot estimated at 8 per acre, and further, high winds, 
 which may displace the screens and break a great number 
 of young shoots. These remarks also apply to Du Breuil's 
 system,t in which canvas is used, or to Jobard's system, con- 
 sisting in oiled paper hoods fixed over the vines. An efficient 
 and much cheaper shelter is often attained by tying a handful 
 of straw on the stake, and spreading it so as to forma hood;- 
 this diminishes the intensity of the radiation. 
 
 Artificial clouds are also used with success to prevent the 
 action of white frosts. These are obtained by burning 
 matters producing an abundant smoke. 
 
 The matters most used are manure, green grass, dry leaves, 
 burnt over straw or bushes. The addition of coal tar or 
 oil, by-product of the manufacture of gas, which gives a 
 fuliginous flame, increases the smoke. The oil can also be 
 lighted in tins, &c., distributed regularly in the vineyard. When 
 the air is still (which is a necessary condition for the pro- 
 duction of white frost) the smoke spreads horizontally, and 
 its thickness prevents the effects of the radiation, forcing the 
 thaw^to take place slowly by sheltering the ground from the 
 first rays of the sun. One of the difficulties resides in the 
 fact that it is necessary to obtain constant supervision by the 
 man in charge of the fires, which have to be lighted at oppor- 
 tune times ; but electric thermometers have been invented,! 
 which are placed in the vineyard, and by means of an electric 
 battery cause a bell to ring when the thermometer falls to a 
 degree determined beforehand. Lestelle has improved this 
 system by adding an automatic lighter. 
 
 *Dr. Guyot. Culture of the Vine and Wine-making. Translated by L. Marie, pages 
 24-30 and 40-44. Melbourne, 1865. [Transls.] 
 
 t A. du Breuil, Vineyard Culture, translated by John A. Warder, pages 263-273, 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, 1867. [Transls.] 
 
 J Lemaire-Fournier's alarm thermometer has been used su ccessfully at the School of 
 Agriculture, at Montpellier. 
 
 Jour, d'agric. prat., 1884. Vol. II., page 557. 
 
ACCIDEN-TS, DISEASES, PAEASITES. 159' 
 
 Heguilus has also devised a very ingenious automatic 
 lighting system.* 
 
 It has been noticed that newly-disturbed soil, and soil 
 covered with weeds, are more favorable to the production of 
 white frosts than clean and settled soil ; therefore, the first 
 ploughing must be done so as to prevent the realization of 
 these conditions during the period of the first vegetation of" 
 the vine. 
 
 When a vine has been frosted it should not be abandoned 
 without care during the following year, as certain viticul- 
 turists do, arguing that as little as possible should be done 
 to a vineyard which is not going to bear any crop, but, on 
 the contrary, the vegetation should be forwarded as much 
 as possible by ploughing, &c. The crop of the following 
 year generally pays for this work. 
 
 (B.) HAIL. 
 
 Hail frequently causes considerable damage in vineyards 
 exposed to its action. Young shoots and grapes are some- 
 times broken if the hailstones are large enough, but in any 
 case the lesions always compromise the ultimate develop- 
 ment of the plant. 
 
 When the hailstones come in contact with young her- 
 baceous shoots, during the two first months of their vegetation, 
 they cause such lesions that these remain stunted, and the 
 whole plant has a sickly growth during the following year, 
 and, at the pruning season, the wood left for spurs is in a 
 very bad state. Under these conditions the best thing to- 
 do is generally to prune the green shoots immediately after 
 the frost, as if they were lignified. The dormant buds, which 
 normally would have developed the following spring, shoot 
 and furnish canes almost as good as those grown normally. 
 They even sometimes give grapes if the soil is good and if 
 the pruning was done early enough. 
 
 When the hail falls later on, the canes, better lignified, 
 suffer less, but the crop is compromised ; the berries being 
 injured do not reach their normal development, and when 
 the peduncle of the grape is injured, the whole portion below 
 it dries and falls on the ground. No direct remedy is known 
 
 * Cours complet de Viticulture, p. 484, 4th edit. Montpellier. C. Coulet, 1895. See also- 
 Loc. Cit., p. 482 and 483, le precede Schaal et (Eschlin. 
 
160 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 for this evil. Vignerons must try by numerous ploughings, 
 sulphurings, and by particular care, to increase as much as 
 possible the vegetation of the vines. 
 
 Certain regions are particularly liable to hailstorms, and 
 there the losses are very frequent, while in other regions 
 they are unknown. It is this uneven repetition of the 
 damages which has always been an obstacle against the 
 extension of hail insurances. As a matter of fact, only 
 those exposed to hail insured their crops, and the premium 
 required was too considerable to allow the insurance to be 
 of any advantage to them. 
 
 Hail guards have often been recommended to protect the 
 crops. These appliances are formed of a pole stuck into 
 the ground, on the top of which a metal point is fixed. 
 They discharge the electricity of the clouds between which the 
 hailstones are formed. Unfortunately, we cannot hope to 
 derive much good from them, for, assuming that they are 
 efficacious, they could only act on the clouds if immediately 
 above them, and it is often very far from the point where 
 they cause damage that hail storms are formed.* 
 
 (C.) HIGH WINDS. 
 
 High winds often cause great damage in vineyards, 
 especially at the beginning of vegetation. They break a 
 great number of shoots when these are young and brittle, 
 if they are not fastened to a stake or lying on the ground. 
 Young vines, and those newly grafted, suffer most on account 
 of the large development of their shoots during the first 
 years. The future of grafted plantations may often be com- 
 promised on account of the shaking of the young plants, 
 which breaks the rootlets and disjoints the grafts, the tissues 
 not being properly lignified and hardened. To avoid this 
 accident the young plants must be earthed up and the shoots 
 fastened to pegs or stakes. 
 
 The use of cepages with spreading habit cultivated without 
 stakes, as in the He"rault, or with low crowns trellised on wires 
 as in the M6doc, is particularly suitable for regions where 
 strong winds are frequent. The direction of the lines should 
 be such as to be parallel to the direction of the prevailing 
 winds ; the vines sheltering each other offer more resistance 
 than if they were struck sideways by the wind. 
 
 * For further information on this matter see V. Vermorel. Etudes sur la Grele. 
 Montpellier. C. Coulet, 1900. [Trans.] 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 161 
 
 Sea winds have also a dangerous action on vines planted 
 near the coast when they blow with a certain strength. 
 They carry small particles of salt, which are deposited 
 on the leaves, and disintegrate their margins, which dry off. 
 Plantations made in sand on the sea coast are more specially 
 exposed to this accident. The best means of protecting 
 them is to plant bamboo hedges or make bush fences, which 
 diminish the strength of the winds and arrest the greater 
 part of the salt they carry. 
 
 (D.) NON-SETTING. 
 
 The word non-setting applies to abortive flowers which 
 fall before forming a berry. This phenomenon may be the 
 result of three distinct causes 1st. Abnormal constitution 
 of the flowers. 2nd. Excessive vegetation. 3rd. Unfavor- 
 able atmospheric conditions. 
 
 1st. Non-setting resulting from abnormal constitution of 
 the flowers. The vine flower may be regarded as complete 
 when it is hermaphrodite and has a corolla in the shape of 
 a hood detaching from the base (Fig. 139). These alone can 
 bear fruit. The male flowers (Fig. 1 40), which are characterized 
 
 Fig. 139. Hermaphrodite Fig. 140. Male flower. Fig. 141. Sterile 
 
 vine flower. flowers. 
 
 by the abortion of the pistil, the great length of the fila- 
 ments of the stamens, and a very sweet scent, are naturally 
 sterile ; but besides these forms which may be considered as 
 normal, as they are commonly found in wild species, there 
 are abnormal forms which are generally sterile. 
 
 These flowers have been studied by Mares and Planchon. 
 They are characterized (Fig. 141) by an indeciduous corolla 
 opening like a star ; the stamens are generally found in the 
 petals, which are thick and hollow ; the filaments are too 
 short to allow the anther to reach the stigma. Finally, the 
 anthers themselves are imperfectly dehiscent and contain 
 
 10890. L 
 
162 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 sterile pollen. The pistil is well constituted and may play 
 the part of female flower, be fecundated, and form fruit, but 
 this circumstance occurs very rarely, and it is generally 
 abortive. This abnormal constitution of the flowers is fre- 
 quent with Terret, and certain wild Riparias. 
 
 The flowers of certain varieties, such as Clairette, Gamay 
 (V. Vinifera), and Herbemont (V. ,ZEstivalis) are sometimes 
 double, this being the result of the transformation of the 
 pistil and the stamens into rudimentary leaves (Figs. 142 and 
 143). These flowers are naturally sterile. It is generally 
 
 Fig. 142. Fig. 143. 
 
 Flowers rendered sterile through the transformation of the pistil and stamens 
 into rudimentary leaves. 
 
 in stiff, clayey soils, with damp subsoil, where there is an 
 excess of vigour, that these anomalies take place, but they 
 may get fixed by the use of cuttings taken from canes bearing 
 such flowers. Therefore, the best means of getting rid of 
 non-setting is to carefully eliminate all cuttings from vines 
 naturally liable to it. Another remedy is to graft non- 
 setting vines with scions taken from fertile varieties. 
 
 2nd. Non-setting resulting from an excess of vegetation. 
 As we have already seen in studying the general principles 
 of pruning, an excess of vegetation is generally incompatible 
 with abundant fructification. The plant produces wood and 
 leaves rather than flowers, and the scarce flowers which it 
 bears are generally abortive on account of modifications in 
 their reproductive organs. These modifications are generally 
 due to chloranty phenomena. They are frequent with 
 Clairettej Herbemont, &c., but they are only temporary and 
 cease as soon as the vigour of the plant is diminished. The 
 means of remedying this accident, therefore, consists in 
 diminishing the vegetation of the vine by long pruning, 
 inarching, pinching, and annulary incision.* Experience has 
 fully proved the efficacy of these means. 
 
 See Comte de Follenay, La Couhire du Raisin, Montpellier, 1892. [Transls.] 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PAKASITES. 163 
 
 3rd. Non-setting resulting from unfavorable atmospheric 
 co?iditions. Non-setting is much more frequently the result 
 of bad weather. In this case the whole vineyard is affected 
 and the harm much greater. 
 
 It is generally caused by a sudden fail in the temperature, 
 continuous rains, or dry winds at the period of florescence. 
 
 A sudden fall in the temperature prevents fecundation, 
 therefore one must avoid ploughing or disturbing the sur- 
 face of the soil at the time of florescence, as it causes greater 
 radiation and evaporation, which lowers the temperature. 
 Continuous rains wash away the pollen and cool the atmos- 
 phere. Finally, dry winds cause the reproductive organs to 
 dry and therefore prevent fecundation. 
 
 In this case the remedies against non-setting are pinching, 
 annulary incision, and sulphuring a few days before flores- 
 cence. These remedies generally give good results. 
 
 (F.) MlLLERANDAGE. 
 
 Besides non-setting, or complete abortion of flowers, we 
 may sometimes observe that, although the fruit appears to 
 have set properly, differences will be noticeable after a short 
 time between different berries of the same bunch. They do 
 not all assume an even development, so that at vintage time 
 the bunches are loose, formed of uneven berries, some 
 scarcely larger than shot. This is termed Miller an dag e 
 in France ; it is caused by mildew or other diseases, and 
 often by chlorosis, when a cepage is not well adapted to the 
 soil. It also often occurs when cold, damp weather pre- 
 vails immediately after the setting of the flowers. According 
 to L. de Malafosse these small berries are due to the develop- 
 ment of late flowers present in most bunches, which usually 
 abort and are unable to develop on account of the non- 
 setting of some part of the flower. They are not, however, 
 capable of giving normal-sized fruit. 
 
 The same remedies as against non-setting may be success- 
 fully used in this case. 
 
 (G.) SCORCHING. 
 
 This is the result of intense action of solar radiation on the 
 grapes. Grapes which are not covered with leaves, or those 
 which have been sheltered for a long time and are suddenly 
 left bare, are more particularly liable to this accident. The 
 
 L 2 
 
164 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 berries become red, and if they are not fully developed gene- 
 rally dry rapidly. If, on the contrary, they have reached 
 the turning point, and the scorching has not been very 
 severe, their pedicels become flabby, and the berries become 
 red and do not develop completely.* 
 
 The danger there is of grapes getting scorched when left 
 unsheltered from the action of the direct rays of the sun, 
 explains the custom in the South of France of leaving the 
 shoots spread over the ground instead of tying them up to 
 a stake. The fruit is sheltered and protected against the 
 rays of the sun, and the last summer scarifying must not 
 be done too late so as not to move the shoots. 
 
 Vines with low crowns, having their fruit exposed to the 
 direct reflection of the rays of the sun from the soil, 
 and thus bearing watery fruit with herbaceous peduncles, 
 are particularly liable to scorching. The presence of sulphur 
 seems to favour this phenomenon, therefore we must take 
 care not to sulphur during hot weather unless it is possible, 
 as in certain regions of Algeria, to simply deposit the sul- 
 phur on the soil without spreading it over the vines, and still 
 obtain the same results. 
 
 Mares indicates as follow the conditions favorable to 
 scorchingf : " When the weather is still and very dry, and 
 if the atmosphere is influenced by currents from the north 
 or north-west, if the temperature in the shade reaches 33 C. 
 (92 Fahr.) the grapes are scorched on the south side where- 
 ever they have been struck vertically by the sun's rays."J 
 The same author states that scorching not only diminishes 
 the quantity of crop, but also spoils the quality. 
 
 (H.) GBAPE-ROT. 
 
 The grapes of c6pages bearing watery berries having a 
 thin skin sometimes rot when the autumn is damp and rainy, 
 and when the vineyard is in a low situation. This accident 
 is frequently produced by a fungus, the Botrytis cinerea, 
 which seems to cause modifications in the colouring matter 
 to which the casse of wine is due. It is generally called 
 grey-rot. Low vines are more liable to this fungus. The 
 best remedies are drainage and the formation of a high crown 
 on the vines, and, if these precautions are not sufficient, 
 
 * Henri Mares ; Des vignes du midi de la France, Paris, 1863, Loc. Cit., page 353. 
 
 t Id. Loc. Cit., page 352. 
 
 t The directions are, of course, reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. [Transls.] 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 165 
 
 stripping the leaves a few days before vintage. This opera- 
 tion consists in removing some of the leaves so as to facilitate 
 the circulation of air, stripping in preference the leaves 
 growing under the bunch, and not those above it. The fruit 
 is therefore submitted to the action of air currents and of 
 greater heat reflected by the soil, which helps the comple- 
 tion of maturation, which is generally very imperfect in 
 regions where yrey-rot is prevalent. Lime may also be 
 spread over the grapes, but, unluckily, the introduction of 
 lime in the vintage constitutes a danger in fermentation. 
 
 2xD. DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. 
 
 The pricipal parasitic fungi attacking vines are : 
 Oidiim, Anthracnosis, Mildew, Black-rot, Coniothyrium, and 
 
 Pourridic. 
 
 (A.) OIDIUM. (0. Tuckeri or Erysiphe Tuckeri.) 
 
 Vines attacked by oidium may be recognised by the fol- 
 lowing symptoms : The green parts are covered with a 
 whitish dust; after a while grey spots appear on the places 
 attacked, and if no remedy is applied to the plant the canes 
 seem to become stunted, the leaves fall prematurely, and the 
 berries become cracked and dry, losing all their value. Certain 
 species and varieties of vines seem to be more liable than 
 others to the attacks of this parasite. For instance, while 
 the V. Labrusca is not attacked at all, V. ^Estivalis is slightly 
 attacked ; V. Vinifera suffers, on the contrary, greatly, 
 especially certain cpages, such as Carignane and Piquepouls; 
 Grenache, Alicante, and Morrastel resist better. 
 
 Hot and damp weather favours the development of oidium. 
 Vines trained on high trellises suffer most, for they arrest 
 better than others the spores of this cryptogam, which are 
 carried by the wind. 
 
 Sulphur is generally used to combat oidium. At the 
 beginning sublimed sulphur or flowers of sulphur alone was 
 used. Triturated or bolted sulphur are now used ; they are 
 cheaper, remain more adherent to the leaves, and do not 
 injure the eyes of the workmen to the same extent. 
 
 Sulphuring is done by means of different devices : 
 
 1st. A kind of sand-box (Fig. 144) made of tin, and 
 having the shape of a cone, the. bottom being perforated. 
 The box is filled with sulphur, and the machine shaken over 
 
166 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEBN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 144. Sulphur-box. 
 
 Fig. 145. Sulphur Bellows. 
 
 the leaves and the grapes. This contrivance has the dis- 
 advantage of using a great quantity of sulphur (three times 
 more than bellows), and spreads it unevenly. 
 
 2nd. Sulphur bellows (Fig. 145), which is the instrument 
 most used. It is an ordinary bellows without a valve on the 
 
 bottom part and having on the top an 
 
 opening provided with a funnel 0, used for 
 
 filling it with sulphur ; a tube t, provided 
 
 with wire 
 
 gauze, is used 
 
 to direct the 
 
 jet. When 
 
 the instru- 
 
 ment is filled 
 
 and the cork G firmly secured, each movement introduces 
 a certain quantity of air into the bellows, which stirs up the 
 sulphur and expels it at the next motion. The sulphur is 
 spread much more evenly with these tubes. 
 
 3rd. Pensard's sulphuring machine (Fig. 146) is formed 
 of a large tin recipient R, containing from 2J to 3^ gallons 
 
 of powdered sul- 
 phur. A belt b 
 is secured at the 
 back, passing 
 over the shoulder 
 of the operator. 
 The bottom part 
 of the recipient 
 is prolonged by 
 a large rubber 
 tube c, connected 
 
 ft gmall 
 
 Fig. 146.-Pensard's Sulphuring Machine. 
 
 r, surmounted by a cylindrical bellows s, and provided with 
 long tubes t. A spiral spring, secured on the top part of 
 the recipient R and inside the box r, drives the sulphur -in 
 the latter at each motion of the rubber tubes. 
 
 The machine is worked as follows : The operator walks 
 along the rows of vines ; raises and lowers the tube sharply 
 with his right hand at each step, and expels the sulphur 
 from the machine by compressing the bellows with the left 
 hand. The sulphur is thus spread over the vines in fine 
 clouds. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 
 
 167 
 
 This machine has the advantage of enabling work to be 
 -done very rapidly ; one man may sulphur about 5 acres in 
 half a day with it. It also saves the sulphur, as the machine 
 is not filled so often (each filling meaning a certain loss) 
 and distributes the sulphur perfectly. 
 
 4th. Vermorers torpedo sulphuring machine (Fig. 147), 
 is a cylindrical tin box, arranged so as to be carried on the 
 back; its shape is very similar to that of the spray-pump used 
 
 Fig. 147. Verrnorel's Torpedo Sulphuring Machine. 
 
 for sulphate of copper solution. The box contains a sulphur 
 reservoir and bellows worked by a lever; a rubber tube 
 connects the bellows with a long tube, at the end of which 
 is a kind of flat plate spreading the sulphur. 
 
 This machine has the same advantages as Pensard's and is 
 easier to work. 
 
 Three sulphurings are usually applied during the year. 
 The first in May,* at the time of florescence, requires about 
 13 Ibs. of sulphur per acre if the bellows are used; the 
 -second, between the loth and 30th of June,f requires 26 Ibs.; 
 and the third, applied in July,t requires from 30 to 40 Ibs., 
 which makes a total of 70 to 80 Ibs. per acre per annum. 
 
 * November in Victoria. t December in Victoria. \ January in Victoria. 
 
168 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The conditions favorable for effective sulphuring are : 
 Dry and hot weather, leaves perfectly dry, a slight wind 
 facilitating the diffusion of the sulphur, and a temperature 
 reaching from 77 to 86 Fahr.* 
 
 (B.) ANTHRACNOSIS. 
 
 This disease is also caused by a microscopical fungus, the 
 Sphaceloma ampelinum. It is recognisable by spots or 
 cankers appearing on the green parts 
 of the plants (young shoots, veins, 
 green berries) ; these spots are 
 areolar and completely black (punc- 
 tuated antkracnosis of Dunal) ; others 
 are sometimes more or less elon- 
 gated, irregular, and fringed with 
 black (maculate anthracnosis of the 
 same botanist). The spots are small 
 at first and extend little by little, 
 sinking in the tissues (Fig. 148). 
 They may cause the vine to become 
 stunted, and appear as if submitted 
 to strong pinching ; the leaves and 
 berries are stopped in their growth 
 (Fig. 149), the leaves being some- 
 curled. It generally results 
 in complete destruction of the crop 
 and, perhaps, in other phenomena not yet well known. 
 
 It is more especially in damp seasons in low soils and in 
 foggy climates that anthracnosis prevails. The vines most 
 liable to it are : Carignane, Alicante- 
 Bouschet, Clairette, Brun Fourca and 
 Teoulier amongst the V . Vinifera ; Pauline, 
 which has it almost in a chronic state and 
 under a special form ; Jacquez amongst 
 the V. ^Estivalis ; and finally, the Solonis 
 amongst the V. Riparia. 
 
 There are two means of combating anthracuosis : 1st. Pre- 
 ventive treatment ; 2nd. Curative treatment. 
 
 1 st. Preventive treatment. One must avoid planting vines 
 liable to the disease in situations favorable to its develop- 
 ment. Drainage may be applied successfully to remove an 
 
 * See H. Mares (Soufrage des vic/nes malades, &c. Montpellier, 1856. F. Seguin, libr.- 
 edit.). This book has become classical in the South of France. 
 
 Fig. 148. Shoot attacked by timp<? 
 anthracnosis (after H. Mares). 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 Berries attacked by 
 anthracnoyis. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PAEASITES. 169 1 
 
 excess of humidity, but there is a more efficacious treatment 
 generally applied ; this is the swabbing of the stem during 
 the winter, after pruning is done, with a concentrated 
 solution of sulphate of iron. A large number of spores 
 are thus destroyed which would have caused the disease in 
 the following spring. 
 
 This solution is prepared in the following manner : One 
 quart of sulphuric acid is poured over 50 quarts of crushed 
 sulphate of iron, the whole well stirred and then dissolved 
 in 25 gallons of warm water. The solution is applied in 
 February* with a mop made of rags tied at the end of a 
 stick, or better, with a special spray pump. 
 
 2nd. Curative treatment. The substances which give the 
 best results in arresting the development of anthracnosis are 
 sulphur and lime, used alone or mixed. Sulphur must be 
 applied as soon as the disease is detected, the applications 
 being repeated as often as possible, once a week for instance, 
 until the development of the cryptogam is stopped. It is 
 probable, according to R. Goethef, that the action of the 
 sulphur is greater when the leaves are wet, as the spores 
 germinating on them are more sensitive to outside influ- 
 ence; but, as P. Viala pointed outj, the diffusion of sulphur 
 is not as complete when the leaves are covered with dew, 
 and it would be better to apply it directly after the excess 
 of water has evaporated, for it will then come in contact with 
 slightly-developed germs and the above difficulty will be 
 avoided. Mixtures of sulphur and lime seem to have greater 
 efficacy than sulphur or lime used alone. 
 
 Sublimed or triturated sulphur is mixed with bolted lime. 
 The first application is done in the following proportions : 
 
 Sulphur . . ... ... 4 
 
 Lime ... ... ... ... 1 
 
 The second with: 
 
 Sulphur ... ... ... 3 
 
 Lime ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 The third with : 
 
 Sulphur ... ... ... 2 
 
 Lime ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 They are thus repeated for eight or ten days until the 
 development of the disease is completely stopped. 
 
 " August in Victoria. 
 
 t R. Goethe. Mittheilungen iiber den schwarzen Bremer und den Grind der Reben. 
 [Tnuis.] Berlin, 1878. 
 
 t Pierre Viala. Les Maladies de la Vigne. 3rd edit., pages 23S-245. C. Coulet. 
 Montpellier, 1893. [Trans.] 
 
170 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 (C.) MILDEW.* 
 
 This disease was first discovered in Europe in 1878 by 
 J. E. Planchon. Certain viticnltnrists thought they had seen 
 it before in many French vineyards, but it was most likely 
 confused with another disease, and they were not able to 
 assert that the disease they witnessed had the characteristics 
 of mildew. 
 
 Since Planchon discovered it this disease has been found 
 in a great number of places in France, Italy, Spain, Greece, 
 Algeria, &c. It seems to have spread all over the Mediter- 
 ranean littoral. 
 
 The consequences from a viticultural point of view are very 
 important. Mildewed vines do not ripen their fruit, give 
 weak wines, lacking in colour and keeping qualities ; the 
 wood is affected, and does not lignify. It is, therefore, with 
 .good reason that European viticulturists are greatly worried 
 at the progress this disease has made. 
 
 ASPECT OF MILDEWED VINES. 
 
 Leaves and shoots. On the under faces of the leaves wide 
 : spots appear, rather irregular in shape, and resembling a 
 saline efflorescence. Other spots correspond on the upper 
 faces. They have at first a yellowish tint, and gradually 
 .assume the colour of dead leaves. They are usually spread 
 over different points, generally limited by the veins, but 
 sometimes joining each other, and may cover the whole sur- 
 face of the leaves . 
 
 The tissues of the parenchyma get destroyed in the places 
 where the spots appear ; if the disease lasts any length of 
 time holes soon replace the spots ; if the leaf is completely 
 attacked, it may be altogether destroyed and fall prematurely. 
 In some cases, as Prillieux ascertained, the limb becomes 
 detached from the upper part of the petiole. This is due to 
 the mortification of this organ and not to disarticulation. 
 
 The white spots may sometimes be seen on the upper face 
 disseminated along the upper veins. Finally, when the 
 under face is much attacked by erijieum, the upper face often 
 becomes covered with white spots of mildew. 
 
 Towards the end of the vegetating season the leaves get 
 -covered with yellow and brownish spots limited to the under 
 veins, which Cornu compares to tapestry stitches, and, later 
 
 * Mildew or Downy Mildew h is not, up to the present, been identified here. [TranSls.] 
 
171 
 
 -on, when the leaf dries, some of these spots remain green. 
 If, during this period, the weather is very dry, some of the 
 brown spots fall away, leaving a hole in the leaf. 
 
 Mildew also occurs on all the green parts of the vine in 
 the shape of white patches. When on the flowers, it causes 
 non-setting; if on the shoots and grapes, it causes these 
 organs to become brown and fade away, but without ever 
 producing canker. 
 
 The bunches of grapes are only attacked by mildew when 
 they are very young, and sometimes, but rarely, at their 
 turning point, when they are completely covered with fructi- 
 fications of mildew, which entirely stops their development. 
 If they are attacked later on, the skin becomes brown and 
 hard in places ; in this case the fructifications of the fungus 
 may not appear outside, but take place inside in the space 
 existing between the seed and the pulp, as Prillieux 
 ascertained. According to some authors the effects of this 
 disease are identical with those of the disease known in 
 America under the names of gray-rot and common-rot. 
 
 The berries attacked by mildew sometimes become brown 
 around the pedicle, the alteration gradually reaching the top 
 of the berry. , Engelmann pointed out this difference in 
 America, where it is known under the name of brown-rot in 
 Missouri. When the peduncle and pedicle are attacked by 
 the disease they may dry and fall away. It was this action 
 of lesions which caused, in 1885, the loss of the greater part 
 of Jacqtiez crop in certain regions of the Herault. 
 
 CE*PAGES MOST LIABLE TO MILDEW. 
 
 The cepages of the old world which seem to suffer most 
 from mildew are Grenacke* Cariynane, Bobal, Cinsaut, Cot 
 or Malbeck, Opiman, Kawouri, Rosaki, Farrana, (Eillade, 
 Mataro, &c. 
 
 Amongst the American vines, according to Meissner,f are V. 
 ^Estivalis: Elsinburgh^ Eumelan, V. Labrusca: Adirondac^ 
 
 * Mildew is often confused with Erineum, which is the gall of an acarien para'ite. 
 (Phytoptm vitis or Phytocoptes vitig). The leaves attacked by mildew are never bulged, 
 and the erineum always attacks the leaf on the upper face. The parasite puucturesthe leaf, 
 which develops on the under face a dense felt of hair, coating the gall, always widely open. 
 These hairs are bright white at the beginning, and are often confused with the white 
 efflorescence of mildew. They never have the woolly white appearance of mildew, and are 
 adherent. The part of the leaf bulged by the puncture of the parasite always remains green 
 on the upper face. As the galls become older, the hairs become brownish, the tint 
 increasing in intensity. These stiff hairs are constituted by a few superposed cells with a 
 thick membrane, becoming thinner towards the top, the last one having the shape of a 
 point. They are much stouter than the fructiferous filaments of mildew, and naturally do 
 not bear any reproducing organs. 
 
 t Bush and Meissncr, Illustrated descriptive catalogue of American Grape Vines 
 St. Louis, 1883. [Transls.] 
 
 
172 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTUKE. 
 
 Cassady, Creveling, Isabella, lona, Mottled, Maxatawney y 
 Union- Village, Rebecca, Walter; Hybrids : Delaware, Aga- 
 wam, Allen's Hybrid, Aminia, Barry, Black Defiance, 
 Croton, Irwing, Massassoit, Merrimack, Salem, Aittuchon, 
 Canada, Cornucopia, Othello. 
 
 This disease is caused by the action of a cryptogamic 
 parasite, the Plasmopara viticola (Berlese and de Toni) 
 
 Fig. 150. Diagram of a vine leaf attacked by Plasmopara (after Viala). 
 A, Upper face, pallisade parenchyma ; B, Under- face, spongy paren- 
 chyma ; D, Vein ; E, Epidermis of the upper-face ; F, Epidermis of 
 the under-face. a, Mycelium of the fungus growing between the 
 cells of the tissues, after entering through the epidermis of the under- 
 face ; 6, Antheridia and oogonium uniting ; *, Stomatum from which 
 the shoots carrying the conidia emerge ; p, Fructiferous shoot, with 
 summer spores or conidia, <% e ; , t t Sterigmata. 
 
 closely related to the Peronospora of the potato (Phytopht 
 Infestans, of Bary). The name of mildew was given 
 this disease by the Americans. 
 
 ora 
 given to* 
 
f 
 
 ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 173 
 
 If we take a portion of the white efflorescence from a 
 vine leaf attacked by mildew, and examine it under a micro- 
 scope we soon recognise that it is formed by fructiferous 
 filaments covered with spores. These filaments come out 
 ~of the stomata in bunches, and this explains why they are 
 found in great numbers on the under face and only along 
 the veins of the upper face. They are connected with the 
 vegetative part of the fungus, by the mycelium which is 
 ramified between the cells of the parenchyma, from which 
 it derives its food. In certain points swellings takes place, 
 which, after being fecundated, give rise to winter spores 
 or eggs. 
 
 Mycelium: The vegetative part of the Plasmopara or 
 mycelium corresponds to the white underground part of a 
 large mushroom and lives inside the tissues of the leaf 
 (Fig. 150 a). It is a continuous tube without partitions. 
 The mycelium draws all the food necessary to the fungus 
 from the inside of the cells of the leaf by means of spherical 
 suckers, which pierce the cell membrane. At the beginning 
 of spring the mycelium, gorged with nutritive matters, 
 swells in places. Some of these swellings are spherical ; 
 others are smaller and irregular, and by their unions they 
 give birth to the reproducing body (pospore, ova, winter 
 spores). 
 
 The mycelium strongly resists outside agents. Fre"chou 
 proved that under certain circumstances it could remain 
 during winter in the dead leaves, and during the following 
 spring grow new fructiferous filaments which would 
 propagate the disease afresh. 
 
 Fructiferous filaments*. During the winter period of 
 vegetation the mycelium throws out fructiferous filaments 
 from the stomata of the under face of the leaves ; these may 
 grow in one night (Fig. 150 s). These filaments, projecting 
 from the stomata, number 4 to 8 in each stoma, and are 
 from i to mm. in height. 
 
 Each ramification bears on its extremity 2 to 4 small 
 short points (sterigmata,}?\g. 150 ), to which is attached 
 the summer spore. 
 
 * To examine fructiferous filaments with a scalpel, or better, with a razor ; a very small 
 fragment of the whitish fructification is detached from a glabrous leaf tangent to the 
 surface; it is placed on a slide and slightly moistened with methylated spirits. To get 
 rid of a 1 the air interposed between the filaments, a drop of chloride of calcium (50 per 
 cent, solution), or better, a drop of a liquid formed of equal parts of chloride of calcium 
 and glycerine with 50 per cent, of water is placed on it. If only a cursory examination 
 is required the fructifications are immersed in the water after being moistened with 
 methylated spirits. 
 
174 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Summer spore. Conidia. The extremities of the fructi- 
 ferous branches swell and form the summer spores, which 
 become free at complete maturity. New spores are never- 
 born again by the same sterigmata. These conidia are 
 pear shaped, generally longer than wide, inserted at the 
 narrow extremity, constituting an agglomeration of fruit on 
 the top of the small tree formed by each filament (Fig. 
 150 e). They have a regular delicate membrane easily 
 detected and are filled with granular matter (protoplasm). 
 
 Their excessive tenuity and lightness allow them to be 
 carried very rapidly by the wind to great distances. They 
 are from O'OIO mms. to 0*015 mms. in width and 0-015 to- 
 0*30 mms. in length. On young vines they are smaller and 
 more spherical in shape. Towards the end of the vegetative 
 season they are rather larger and filled with granular proto- 
 plasm, the membrane being less distinguishable. 
 
 The conidia propagate the parasite during the whole 
 summer. Their vitality is not very great ; in dry climates 
 they become wrinkled and burst, completely discharging 
 the contents, as we have been able to ascertain from personal 
 experiments in the field. 
 
 If they fall into a drop of water they germinate rapidly at 
 a temperature of 77 to 86 Fahr. The contents of the conidia 
 then become divided by dark lines into 5 to 8 fragments or 
 zoospores ; the membrane of the conidia becomes softer, 
 generally opposite its point of insertion, and, within half-an- 
 hour to an hour, gives birth to these fragments of proto- 
 plasm, deprived of membrane. 
 
 They have an irregular shape, and are provided with two 
 cilia, inserted near a light spot which are usually detected 
 when the zoospore is about to attach itself to the cuticle of 
 a vine leaf. Helped by those two cilia they travel through 
 the liquid, whence their name of zoospore and the name of 
 zoosporangium given to the conidia or bag which contains 
 them. After they have attached themselves to the cuticle of 
 their host they become invested by a delicate, transparent 
 membrane and throw out a tube (mycelium) which per- 
 meates the intercellular spaces of the parenchyma. 
 
 Winter spores. Ovse. (Fig. 150 d, b) : Spherical, large 
 swellings are formed on the mycelium inside the tissue of 
 the leaf, in which the protoplasm accumulates. This 
 spherical body, full of protoplasm, is the origin of the 
 female organ, and is named oogonium. The protoplasm,. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 175- 
 
 coating the inside membrane of the oogonium, contracts 
 after a partition membrane has been formed between the 
 oogonium and the mycelium, and produces a small spherical 
 body inside the oogonium which is termed oosphere. 
 
 Side by side, generally on another branch of mycelium, a 
 small body is formed rather irregular in sh'ape, and filled 
 with granular protoplasm. It is limited by the partition of 
 the tube which bears it; this is the male organ or antheridia* 
 The antheridia gets separated from the mycelium, and, 
 through a special mechanism, which has not been studied in 
 detail for the Plasmopara riticola, the antheridia comes 
 in contact with the oogonium. Its protoplasma passes 
 through the membrane of the oogonium and blends with that 
 of the oosphere without the volume of the latter increasing. 
 After being fertilized in this way the oosphere becomes 
 covered with a cell membrane and develops gradually into an 
 oospore or simply Winter spore, which may grow into a new 
 plant similar to the parent. 
 
 The germination of the spores of mildew is not known, 
 and has not up the present been definitely studied. In the 
 Peronospora family to which the Plasmopara belongs, the 
 spores of these plants germinate like the conidia, and throw 
 out hyphae bearing sporangia or summer spores. 
 
 MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOB THE DEVELOPMENT 
 OF MILDEW. 
 
 In spring, when the maximum temperature reaches 77 to 
 86 Fahr. and the moisture is sufficient, mildew starts 
 growing. It is more particularly noticeable in places where 
 mildewed leaves have been buried. Although the germina- 
 tion of winter spores has not yet been definitely studied, 
 and consequently the exact conditions required for that 
 germination are not yet known, it is probable that the first 
 germs of the disease conie from them. Millardet* thinks 
 that they attach themselves to young seedlings growing 
 accidentally in vineyards. They would develop on these, and 
 after completing the fructification of conidia, the latter, 
 scattered by the winds, would spread the disease to all the 
 old stumps. 
 
 Although our experiments seem to confirm those upon 
 which Millardet based his hypothesis, the fact does not seem 
 to be constant. We have often found plasmopara on 
 
 * A. Millardet, Nouvelles Recherches sur le Developpement et le Tro.item.ent du Mildioit 
 et de I' Anthracnose Bordeaux, 1887. [Transls.] 
 
1 i O MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTUKE. 
 
 seedlings growing in soils where mildewed leaves had been 
 Iwried in Autumn, we have also found it in other isolated 
 parts where mildewed leaves had been buried, but where no 
 seedlings had grown. 
 
 After the invasion has started, the disease is propagated 
 by the conidia during the whole summer if the atmospherical 
 conditions are favorable. The only two conditions neces- 
 sary for the development of mildew are moisture and heat. 
 
 Light showers followed by warm weather, abundant dew 
 followed by a bright sunny day, sea winds, greatly increase 
 the growth of conidiferous filaments, and are the main 
 causes of the germination of these conidia in the drops of 
 water suspended on the leaves. The importance of these 
 causes has been proved by well-established facts. Vines 
 have been completely invaded in 24 hours after foggy 
 weather or heavy dew, so much so that vignerons have often 
 attributed the cause of the destruction of their vines to this 
 excess of humidity, which is called neble in the South of 
 France, me/in in Medoc, sun scald in the state of Missouri, 
 and mehl-thau (flour dew) by the Germans. Finally, it has 
 been noticed that on vines planted under the shelter of trees 
 preventing radiation and, therefore, dew which always 
 follows it, the mildew does not develop. Low vines are more 
 attacked than high-crowned vines, and suffer most. 
 
 The temperature most favorable to the germination of 
 conidia is 77 to 86 Fahr. When the temperature falls 
 below 77 the germination takes place more slowly ; for 1 
 instance, at 62 it takes place irregularly, and only after two 
 or three days when the conditions of humidity are favorable 
 and constant. The germination may even be completely 
 stopped by a temperature of 57 Fahr. However, below this 
 temperature the conidia do not always lose their germinat- 
 ing power. Conidia submitted to a temparature of 32 
 Fahr. have even germinated when progressively brought up 
 to a temperature of 73 to 77 Fahr. 
 
 In dry surroundings germination does not take place, and 
 the spores die. This explains the beneficial effects of north- 
 west winds in the South of France and siroccos in Algeria. 
 
 The disease is propagated from one year to another by 
 means of winter spores or oospores, which are formed, as we 
 have seen, inside the leaf. These oospores are very resistant 
 to the action of outside agencies. They withstand the 
 lowest temperatures reached in regions where the vine grows ; 
 drought and excessive humidity do not deprive them of their 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 177 
 
 germinating power ; they have been found in sheep's excre- 
 ment, and, after passing through the digestive organs of 
 these animals, do not seem to lose their vitality ; finally, 
 some have germinated after having been preserved for over 
 a year. This remarkable vitality is one of the great obstacles 
 against the efforts made to combat mildew* 
 
 MEANS RECOMMENDED TO COMBAT MILDEW. 
 
 None of the curative means used so far have given any 
 results against mildew ; these failures are not surprising if 
 we remember that the mycelium of this cryptogam offers 
 very great resistance to the action of outside agencies, and 
 further, it is difficult to reach it inside the leaf, where it is 
 spread, without destroying the leaf. Experiments have, 
 therefore, been made with the object of finding preventive 
 remedies. The following were at first recommended : 
 
 (a) Use of cepages resisting mildew. The first means pro- 
 posed was to plant or graft only ce*pages resisting mildew, 
 amongst which the following attracted the attention of vine- 
 growers Persan or Etraire de VAdui, Durif, Grapput of 
 Dordogne or Prolongeau, Pignon of Me"doc or Pardotte, 
 Sauvignon, Semillon, &c., amongst V. Vinifera ; and CyntJri- 
 ana, Elvira, Noah, Montefiore, Missouri-Riesling, Herbe- 
 mont, amongst Americans. 
 
 Unfortunately, the resistance of these different cepages to 
 mildew is not constant ; it varies with the year. It probably 
 depends on the state of the tissues of the leaf at the time the 
 disease appears ; the above-mentioned cepages, although 
 suffering less than others from this parasite may, however, 
 be attacked by it. Further, the use of such means is only 
 possible for new plantations ; even in this case it has the dis- 
 advantage of restricting the choice of types to be multiplied. 
 
 (b) Use of copper salts. Since the invasion of mildew in 
 the Gironde, it was noticed that vines planted on the side of 
 roads, where it was the custom to spray the grapes with a 
 mixture of lime and Paris green, or lime and blue-stone, to 
 prevent them being stolen, preserved all their leaves perfectly, 
 while those further from the road which had not been thus 
 treated, lost them when attacked by the disease. This treat- 
 ment was, therefore, applied to whole vineyards, and the results 
 
 * The above remarks have been extracted for the greater part from G. Foe'x and P. Viala, 
 Le Mildiou ou Peronospora de la vigne. Montpellier, 1884. 
 
 10890. M 
 
178 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 were very satifactory. Ultimate researches enabled experi- 
 menters to ascertain that the active substance in this mixture 
 was the copper, and that traces of compounds of this metal 
 in water were sufficient to prevent the germination of Plas- 
 mopara conidia. Different cupric compounds adhering to 
 the leaves were therefore tried, with the object of forming a 
 deposit which would furnish the drops of water resulting 
 from dew or fogs (and in which the spores of the disease 
 germinate), with traces of copper. The principal matters- 
 recommended were : 
 
 A. Liquid matters 
 
 1. Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 2. Blue water. 
 
 3. Copper ammoniacal solution. 
 
 4. Mixture of Dauphinee. 
 
 5. Verdet gris. 
 
 6. Copper sucrate. 
 
 B. Pulverized solid matters 
 
 1 . Mixture of sulphur and sulphate of copper. 
 
 2. Sulpho-steatite. 
 
 3. Skawinski powder and sulphur. 
 
 (a). Liquid Matters. 
 
 1st. Bordeaux mixture. This is a mixture of quick lime 
 and sulphate of copper. If freshly-slacked lime is poured 
 into a solution of sulphate of copper a light blue precipitate 
 is obtained, remaining a certain time in suspension in the 
 liquid, which is a hydrated oxide of copper surrounded with 
 a little sulphate of lime and free lime, the latter soon 
 becomes carbonate of lime. Under this form copper adheres 
 strongly to the parts of the plant upon which it is applied, 
 and dissolves in small quantities in rain water or dew con- 
 taining carbonate of 'ammonia or carbonic acid. 
 
 The Bordeaux mixture is prepared in the following 
 manner : 6 Ibs. of sulphate of copper is added to a gallon 
 of warm water ; after the crystals have dissolved the solution 
 is poured into about 100 gallons of water ; on the other hand, 
 4 Ibs. of freshly-slacked lime (milk of lime) are added to 
 2 gallons of water, and the milk of lime thus obtained slowly 
 poured into the copper solution, stirring the whole time so as 
 to mix it thoroughly and assist combination. The mixture 
 should be prepared in a wooden vessel on account of the 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 179 
 
 action of copper salts on common metals. It should be well 
 stirred before use. The quantities necessary in the South of 
 France are 18 gallons per acre for the first treatment, 27 for 
 the second, and 36 for the third, which are applied when the 
 leaves are fully developed. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture is the remedy most generally used 
 against mildew, black-rot and Coniothyrium. Its general 
 use is due to its effectiveness and fairly good adherence to 
 the leaves, its small cost, and facility of preparation. We 
 will later on study the methods used for applying this and 
 other liquid mixtures. 
 
 2nd. Blue water. Audoynaud, formerly Professor of 
 Chemistry at the School of Agriculture, Montpellier, recom- 
 mended some years ago the replacing of the Bordeaux mixture 
 (the adherence of which he considered was not sufficient, be- 
 cause the proportion of lime was too great) by blue water. 
 This compound is prepared in the following manner: lib. of 
 sulphate of copper is dissolved in 2^ pints of warm water 
 contained in a wooden vessel ; when the dissolution is com- 
 plete and the liquid quite cool, 1 pints of ammonia, of 22 
 Baum6 density, is poured into it. The liquid becomes of a 
 bright blue colour; it is diluted in 10 or 20 gallons of water 
 according to whether we require a solution at J or 1 per cent. 
 This liquid contains sulphate of ammonia, which is useless, 
 and hydrated oxide of copper, which is of a colloid nature, and 
 adheres strongly to the leaves when dry. It forms a cupric 
 deposit on the leaves which furnishes the drops of rain, or 
 dew, with the quantity of copper necessary to kill the 
 spores, and it resists the dissolving actiou of rain for a long 
 time. 
 
 Blue water has effectively protected vines treated with it, 
 and has the advantage over the Bordeaux mixture in being 
 more lasting; it may be used without previously stirring, and 
 without risk of choking the spray pumps, as the solid matters 
 it contains are dissolved, and not in suspension. The only 
 disadvantage is that if it contains ammonia in excess it is 
 liable to burn the leaves, but it is easy to remedy this by 
 preparing the mixture some time in advance and leaving it 
 exposed to the air, when the free ammonia will evaporate. 
 However, the accidents resulting from its use induced vine- 
 growers to discard it. 
 
 3rd. Ammonical solution of copper. This liquid was first 
 recommended to vine-growers by Bellot des Minieres, who 
 
 M 2 
 
180 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 obtained remarkable results with it in his vineyard of Haut- 
 Bailly (Gironde). It is obtained by combining ordinary am- 
 monia with copper turnings, or copper oxide, in the presence 
 of air. The blue liquid thus obtained is diluted with water, 
 so as to bring the proportion of copper to 1 or 3 per cent. 
 Its adherence is equal to that of blue water, its qualities are 
 similar, and it has the advantage of never burning the leaves. 
 The high cost alone prevents its general use. 
 
 4th. Mixture of DauphinJe. Masson, Professor at the 
 School of Viticulture of Beaune, and Dr. Patrigeon* proposed 
 hydrocarbonate of copper as a substitute for blue water. It 
 is obtained by the action of carbonate of soda or potash (com- 
 mercial) on sulphate of copper. According to the authors, it 
 has the. following advantages: 
 
 1st. The carbonates are much cheaper than liquid ammonia,. 
 
 2nd, The liquid resulting from their combination with 
 sulphate of copper is easier to handle than blue water. 
 
 3rd. The greenish white, or greenish-blue spots left on the 
 leaves allow the proprietor of a vineyard to check the work 
 done by his workmen. 
 
 4th. The colloidal precipitate of hydrocarbonate of copper 
 is very adherent to the leaves, and plays the same part as 
 the hydrate precipitate of blue water. 
 
 5th. This precipitate remains a long time in suspension 
 in the liquid, and does not choke the machines. 
 
 6th. . There is no formation of acid sulphate liable to burn 
 the leaves, as in the case of blue water, the acid remaining 
 constantly neutralized. 
 
 Masson gives the following practical formula for preparing 
 this mixture : 
 
 Water ... ... ... 100 parts 
 
 Sulphate of copper ... ... 1 // 
 
 Carbonate of soda ... ... 2 n 
 
 If the copper percentage is increased the quantity of car- 
 bonate of soda should be increased in the same proportion. 
 Dr. Patrigeon uses the following mixture: 
 
 Sulphate of copper ... ... ... 4 parts 
 
 Carbonate of soda (commercial)... ... 6 n 
 
 Water ... 100 
 
 The mixture of Dauphinee has given good results wherever 
 it has been properly applied. It has more adherence than 
 the Bordeaux mixture, but is rather more expensive. 
 
 * Dr. J. P. G. P*tiigeon, Le Mildiou, peronospora viticola, Puris, 1887. [Transls.] 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 181 
 
 5th. Verdet gris. Georges Beucker*, of Montpellier, 
 recently recommended the use of verdet gris or bibasic acetate 
 of copper against mildew, used in the proportion of 1 part per 
 ] 00 parts of water. According to the author, the solution 
 should be prepared in the following manner: 
 
 About 50 parts of dry granulated verdet gris are dissolved 
 in 500 parts of water three or four days before using, and the 
 mixture stirred as often as possible during this interval. 
 
 The day the treatment is to be applied 20 parts of this 
 preparation are poured through a copper sieve into 200 parts 
 of water. These 200 parts of water contain 2 parts of verdet, 
 therefore the solution contains 1 per cent. This liquid is 
 applied with spray-pumps in the ordinary way. 
 
 Experiments made at the School of Agriculture, Mont- 
 pellier, with verdet gris constantly gave results equal to 
 those obtained with Bordeaux mixture, and it proved to be 
 more adherent. 
 
 6th. Sucrate of copper. Copper forms with sugar a 
 compound capable of preventing the development of mildew. 
 Michel Ferret proposed adding molasses to kydrocarbonate 
 of copper, and originated the following mixture : 
 
 "Two parts of sulphate of copper are dissolved in 15 parts of 
 water ; 3 parts of commercial soda are added to this solution. 
 After the precipitation is completed one-fifth to one-half 
 part of molasses are added, and the mixture left for twelve 
 hours, after which 100 parts of water are added. 
 
 " The mixture thus obtained is of a deep-green colour, easily 
 detected and very adherent ; the part dissolved by the sugar 
 acts directly when applied. The part precipitated prolongs the 
 action of the mixture by dissolving in drops of rain or dew. 
 
 "Experiments proved this year (1889) that this new 
 mixture was more effective on grapes than those used so far." 
 
 Experiments made with sue rate of copper in 1 890 at the 
 School of Agriculture, Montpellier, did not allow us to ascer- 
 tain its action on mildew, as this disease did not appear in 
 the experimental plots ; but the mixture did not remain on 
 the leaves as long as the mixture of Dauphinee or verdet gris. 
 It appears desirable, therefore, to wait for other trials before 
 expressing a definite opinion on the subject. 
 
 Mode of application of cupric compounds. Cupric com- 
 pounds prevent the germination of the conidia or spores 
 
 * Georgns Bencker was the first to suggest th* ue of verdet gris in 1886. See Progrts 
 Agricole, Montpellier, vol. xii, pasje 90, 1889 ; vol. xiv, page 510, 1890 ; and vol. xxvii, pjge 
 222,1897, [Truiisls.] 
 
182 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 which propagate mildew in summer ; they should, therefore, 
 be used before the disease has made its appearance ; that is to 
 say, towards the 15th of May in the Mediterranean regions.* 
 But, as new leaves develop in course of time, it is necessary, 
 to protect them, to further treat the vines. The second 
 treatment should be made at the beginning of July, and a 
 third towards the 15th of August. It may even be necessary 
 
 Fig. 151. Vermorel's Spray-pump (section). 
 
 to give a fourth treatment after the vintage, so as to enable 
 the wood to ripen normally. However, vine-growers must 
 be guided by the atmospherical conditions being more or less 
 favorable to the development of the disease. 
 
 The liquids should be finely sprayed, as the object is not 
 to accumulate a large quantity of copper on a certain spot, 
 but to spread it everywhere ; that is to say, on every part of 
 the plant where drops of dew may be formed. Spray-pumps 
 
 * Towards the middle of Novembi r in Victoria. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 183 
 
 {pulverizers) give the best results, and large numbers have 
 been invented. The best known are those of Vermorel (Fig. 
 151), Vigouroux, Japy Bros., Albrand, Messrs. Lasmolles, 
 Frechou, and R. de La Faye. 
 
 These instruments have been thoroughly described by 
 Ferrouillat.* 
 
 (.) Pulverized Solid Matters. 
 
 1st. Mixtures of sulphur and sulphate oj copper. The 
 necessity of sulphuring vines against oidium incluced viti- 
 eulturists to use sulphur as a vehicle for sulphate of copper 
 by mixing the copper salt with sulphur in a finely triturated 
 state. These mixtures are generally made in the following 
 proportion : 
 
 Sulphate of copper ... ... 5 to 10 parts 
 
 Sulphur ... ... 100 
 
 This powder has sometimes given satisfactory results when 
 the mildew does not develop much, but is quite useless when 
 the disease reaches a certain intensity. It has the disadvan- 
 tage of not adhering to the leaves, and, if it does not rain, 
 the wind carries it away, while it is dissolved and washed 
 off by heavy rains. 
 
 2nd. Sulpho-steatite of copper. With the object of in- 
 creasing its adhering power, Baron de Chefdebien added 
 pulverized steatite (a variety of talc) to the mixture. He 
 obtained better results, but not yet quite perfect in bad years. 
 It is impossible to obtain the lasting effect of hydrated oxides 
 in a colloidal state ; and, further, the sulphate, being easily 
 soluble, is always washed away by rain. 
 
 3rd. Skawinski powders. Skawinski Bros, used, in the 
 Medoc, mixtures of sulphur, sulphate of copper, with different 
 powders and pulverized coal. They recommend the two 
 following formulas : 
 
 1st Mixture 
 
 Sulphur ... ... ... .. 50 parts 
 
 Sulphate of copper ... 
 
 Lime 
 
 Powdered coal 
 
 Calcined and powdered alluvial soil 
 
 2nd Mixture 
 
 Sulphate of copper 
 
 Lime 
 
 Powdered coal 
 
 Calcined and powdered alluvial soil 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 50 n 
 
 10 parts 
 
 3 n 
 
 72 
 
 15 /, 
 
 * Manuel pratique pour le traitement des maladies de la vigne, by P. Viala and P. 
 Ferrouillat, Montpellier, 1888. 
 
184 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 These mixtures have the same disadvantages as those 
 above studied. The first, however, should be preferred to 
 ordinary mixtures of sulphur and sulphate of copper, as far as 
 oidium is concerned, in countries where solar radiation is not 
 intense. The black colour due to the coal favours the 
 absorption of heat, and therefore the heating of the sulphur 
 and the disengagement of sulphurous acid, which acts as a 
 fungicide. 
 
 These powders are applied with the machine used for 
 sulphuring (Fig. 152). They should be applied in the 
 morning when the leaves are covered with dew, to help their 
 adherence (Fig. 153). 
 
 Nobody doubts the efficacy of copper salts against mildew, 
 but many people are alarmed at the idea that their appli- 
 cation might introduce into wine an element dangerous 
 
 Fig. 152. Vermorel's Torpe.io Sulphuring 
 Machine. 
 
 Fig. 153. Woman working a Torpedo 
 Sulphuring Machine. 
 
 to public health. Experiments made in many places prove 
 that the copper is precipitated in an insoluble state in the 
 marc, and that the wines resulting from treated vines do not 
 contain measurable quantities of this metal. Sugar wines 
 and piquettes seem to realize the same conditions. Even 
 the consumption of table grapes treated with these mixtures 
 does not seem to have resulted in any accident. The treatment 
 of vines with copper salts must therefore be considered as 
 completely harmless to consumers. 
 
 It results from the above studies that pulverized mixtures 
 do not give the same guarantee of success against mildew 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 185 
 
 as liquid compounds ; therefore, notwithstanding the great 
 facility of their mode of application, they must only be used as- 
 a supplement, and should never be substituted for the latter. 
 Their action against oidium, which is sufficient when they 
 contain sulphur, enables vine-growers to substitute them for 
 pure sulphur, and to obtain a double object without greatly 
 increasing the cost. 
 
 The Bordeaux mixture, which has been successfully experi- 
 mented upon, and is the most generally used, should always 
 be preferred. One may use the mixture of Dauphinee and 
 the verdet gris with equal chances of success in districts- 
 where high winds and frequent rains would wash away the 
 particles of copper quickly. 
 
 (D.) BLACK-ROT. 
 
 The black-rot was introduced into Europe from America,, 
 where it was first found by B. Batheam, in 1848, in the 
 south of the Ohio State*. Many American authors have 
 mentioned it since. It was first discovered in Europe in 
 1885, by Ricard, manager of the Valmarie vineyard, near 
 Ganges (Herault). It was immediately examined and 
 identified by Viala and Ravaz as similar to the type known 
 in America. Inspection made that year proved that the 
 disease was limited to a small part of the valley of the 
 Herault. Subsequently, it was detected further south at 
 Cournonterral in 1887, and Lunel in 1888. The disease has 
 actually spread along the valley of the Rhone, and has dis- 
 appeared from the places where it was first discovered. 
 
 According to Viala and Ravaz the disease presents the 
 following characters : " A small bluish-red spot is first seen 
 on the berries, rapidly increasing in width and depth, sur- 
 rounding the whole fruit, which is completely altered in 
 two days. It then becomes brown-red, soft, spongy ; the 
 berries drying in three or four days, the colour becoming 
 dark- black, the skin adhering to the pips, the whole surface 
 being covered with small, black, prominent spots. These 
 spots make their first appearance when the berry begins 
 to dry, and are formed by two different fructifications 
 organs of the fungus, which cause black-rot : Pkoma 
 uvicola (Berk, and Curt.)." 
 
 * B. Batheam and Nicholas Longworth were the first to mention the disease. English 
 readers will find studies on the subject in-R. Buchanan, The Culture of the Gi ape and 
 Wine Making, Cincinnati, 1865 ; Andrew Fuller, The Grape Culturist, page 206, New 
 York, 1867 ; Dr. G, Engelmann, In Journal of proceeding Transactions of the Acad. of Sc,,. 
 St. Louis (Missouri), page 265, September. 1861 ; berkeley and Curtis, Grevillea, vol. ii., 
 page 82, 1873 [Transls.] 
 
186 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 a Black-rot has only exceptionally been detected on the 
 canes, petioles, and veins of the leaves. At first it has the 
 appearance of a large, black stain ; the fungus penetrates 
 inside the tissues and over the surface ; blisters, character- 
 izing the disease, may be seen. Finally, black-rot develops 
 but rarely on the parenchyma of young leaves. In this case 
 it is characterized by small stains, in two days both 
 faces of the leaf dry, leaving the fructifications of the 
 fungus apparent. The harm done on the leaves may be 
 overlooked."* 
 
 The fungus is formed by the mycelium penetrating the 
 soft tissues, upon which it develops a series of conceptacles 
 <fpycnidia>) spermogonia,perithecia),vf\\ich contain the repro- 
 ductive bodies serving to propagate it. 
 
 The disease appears to develop naturally in very damp 
 situations, and seems to more readily attack c6pages with 
 .juicy berries. The Ararnon amongst the vines of the South 
 was most attacked, and some years ago over half the crop 
 was lost through it (1885). 
 
 Black-rot requires a high temperature and a great amount 
 of moisture to develop. This explains why it is only found 
 in the damp districts of the south and south-west of France. 
 
 Means of combating the disease. The means used to 
 combat mildew have generally proved successful in prevent- 
 ing black-rot from developing, but to get good results 
 Bordeaux mixture of 3 per cent, strength should be used, 
 sprayed in such a way as to cover all parts of the plant up 
 to the extremities of the shoots. 
 
 The first treatment should be applied as far as possible a 
 few days before the disease makes its appearance. This 
 means that we have to guess the right time, and sometimes 
 if the first appearance of the disease does not take place 
 as early as expected the treatment must be repeated. For 
 ultimate infections the maximum of action of copper salts 
 takes places two to five days after the acute period of 
 infection, that is to say, five to eight days after the 
 appearance of the first stains. It is therefore between 
 these two limits that the treatment should be applied, and 
 viticulturists should follow very closely the development of 
 the fungus in order not to miss the right time. 
 
 The removal of stained leaves as soon as the disease is 
 -detected greatly retards the infection of the vineyard. This 
 
 * P. Viala and L. Ravaz. Le Black-Rot Americain dans les VignoUes Fran?ais. Compt. 
 Rendus, 1886. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 187 
 
 also applies to the removal of tendrils remaining attached in 
 winter to the wires of a trellis if the vine was attacked by 
 black-rot the previous summer. The leaves and tendrils 
 should be burnt on the spot. 
 
 Heaps of old canes from diseased vines should not be left 
 near the vineyard, but should be burnt or removed as soon as 
 possible. 
 
 If these different precautions are followed, and if the 
 applications of Bordeaux mixture are made carefully and at 
 the right time, the vineyard should be protected, in most 
 <;ases with four or five successive treatments. 
 
 (E.) CONIOTHYRIUM DlPLODIELLA OR WHITE-ROT. 
 
 When grapes are affected by this disease, some of 
 the parts are covered with greyish-blue stains. These 
 stains increase rapidly in size, and the whole berry is 
 very soon affected. As the disease progresses numerous 
 small blisters, salmon coloured, appear on the surface ; 
 they are formed by the fructification (pycnidici) of 
 the Coniothyrium diplodiella (Phoma diplodiella ; Phoma, 
 Briosii, Sacc.). Soon after the berries dry away and as- 
 sume the aspect of shagreen, resulting from the high 
 relief of the blisters. Similar alterations take place on the 
 peduncle and the pedicles of the grape, and later on, on the 
 berries. Their colour turns a deeper brown, rapidly 
 extending on the whole surrounding tissues, reaching 
 the berries which are first affected at their point of inser- 
 tion with the pedicle. 
 
 The lesions of the peduncle are frequently so deep that 
 they cause the grape to fall to the ground, especially when 
 ^epages with soft stalks, such as the Aramou, are attacked. 
 In any case they cause the grapes or the berries to dry. 
 Certain vineyards planted with Aramon in the alluvial soils 
 of Vidourle, near the Sommieres (Gard), and in the plains 
 of the Ganges (Herault), completely lost their crop ; the 
 whole ground was covered with grapes as if they had been 
 cut purposely. The alteration to the peduncle seems to be 
 the main cause of the damage. 
 
 In two vineyards at Bollene (Vaucluse), and at Landun 
 and Bagnols (Gard), the same lesions were observed on 
 canes. They seem to attack canes which are not yet ligni- 
 fied ; therefore Grenac/ie, which ripens its wood late in 
 the season, is the most affected, while Clairette and Carig- 
 nane are seldom attacked. The disease rarely affects the 
 
188 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 internodes. In some cases it starts from the peduncle and 
 travels towards the point of insertion on the cane. It 
 
 spreads rapidly 
 over all the sur- 
 ronnding parts, arid 
 sometimes extends 
 regularly round the 
 cane, sometimes in 
 the shape of a long, 
 
 /' \\ /n IM II \l \\1\ Wff \\"\\ narrow strip. In 
 
 U IV, I 11 VI \\y/ II the first kse a 
 
 thick pad of healing 
 tissue is formed 
 above the affected 
 part, the leaves be- 
 come reddish in 
 colour, fall away, 
 and the cane dries. 
 The affected tissues 
 are black at first, 
 but the blisters we 
 have mentioned 
 very soon cover the 
 black stains, which 
 become of a deep- 
 grey colour. The 
 blisters develop on 
 the surface of the 
 bark and sometimes 
 on the affected parts 
 
 of the wood ; in this case the bark detaches in long 
 
 strips. 
 
 Coniothyrium diplodiella was first observed in 1878 in 
 Italy by Spegazzini ; Viala and Bavaz discovered it in 
 the I sere in 1885 ; Prillieux and Marsais found it in Vendee 
 in 1886. It extends over a considerable area in the South 
 of France in certain seasons. It was found in 1887 in the 
 departements of Aude, Herault, Gard, Vaucluse, Ardeche, 
 Drome, Isere, Rhone, Ain, and in Switzerland in the cantons 
 of Geneva and Vaud. It was found in the same year in 
 Italy and Vendee, and many departments of the south-west.. 
 Further, Viala discovered it during the course of his mission 
 in America in 1889. He found it on the boundary of the 
 
 Fig. 154. Brown Mycelium Filaments of Dematophora 
 Necatrix (after P. Viala). 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES, 
 
 189 
 
 Indian Territory and the Missouri State, and on a few vines 
 in the Wyandotte district. The existence of this fungus 
 in the latter district where 
 European vines were never im- 
 ported would prove, according 
 to Viala, that the disease is of 
 American origin. It has never 
 been found in the northern and 
 southern states of the Union 
 where European vines are fre- 
 quently imported. The disease 
 is called white-rot in America, 
 and Viala suggested the reten- 
 tion of this name in France. 
 This disease is not as dangerous 
 as black-rot, and the damage 
 caused by it was located to a 
 few vineyards only of the Gard 
 and Herault. 
 
 Coniotkyrium is formed, like 
 
 the black-rot, by a mycelium 
 
 penetrating the tissues of the 
 
 portion of the plant upon which 
 
 the pycnidia germinate. These 
 
 pycnidia, or conceptacles, con- 
 tain spores (stylospores). This 
 
 is, therefore, also a fungus 
 
 living in the shelter of the 
 
 organs destroyed by it, and 
 
 preventive means only are 
 
 effective. The liquid cupric 
 
 compounds used against mildew 
 
 and black-rot gave SatisfactorV Transparent Colourless Mycelium Fill 
 
 results, and it would appear *-* 
 that the almost complete dis- 
 appearance of this fungus since 1887 is due to the treatment 
 against mildew.* 
 
 (F.) POUERIDIE. 
 
 Pourridie has been known in Europe for a very long 
 time. Fruit and forest trees are affected by it. Affected 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 * Me moire sur le Coniothyrium diplodiella, in Annales de VEcole Rationale d' Agri- 
 culture de Montpellier, VolIIl., p. 304. 
 
190 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 vines, like those having damaged roots, show general 
 signs of weakness ; their fructification increases at first 
 suddenly, the shoots become stunted, the leaves small, 
 although remaining green ; the stump affects the 
 shape of a cabbage, and can be easily pulled out of the. 
 
 Fig. 156. Fructiferous Filaments of Dematophora Necatrix. 
 
 ground. The roots are decayed (whence its name, " pour 
 ries" the French for "decay"). They are brown in colour, 
 saturated with water, which exudes when they are cut ; 
 the trunk alone remains healthy. 
 
 Vines attacked by this disease present the same external 
 symptoms as those attacked by phylloxera or larvas of other ~ 
 insects. The course of the disease is very similar ; it spreads - 
 like a blot of oil on a sheet of paper. Under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances affected vines in the South of France succumb 
 after fifteen or eighteen months. In certain situations where 
 pourridie acquires a large development the harm done may 
 be considerable. 
 
 The condition which seems to induce the growth of pour- 
 ridie" is excessive moisture. Soils resting on an impermeable. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PAKASITES. 
 
 191 
 
 subsoil, forming basins in which water remains stagnant., 
 are those where the disease develops with the greatest in- 
 tensity. Heat seems to play a secondary part. 
 
 Pourridie" is due to the development of the roots of fungi 
 of different species ; Dematophora necatrix (R. Hartig)., 
 
 Fig. 157. Dematophora Necatrix. 
 a, Mass of white filaments. 
 
 Fijr. 158. Fructifications of 
 Dematophora A'ecatrix. 
 
 Agaricus melleus (L.) and Roesleria hypogcea (Thum. anct 
 Pass). These often grow on parts of the tissues already 
 injured. 
 
 Dematophora Necatrix. The roots of vines affected 
 by Dematophora necatrix (Figs. 154 to 158) show,, 
 between the bark and the wood, felty patches of mycelium 
 penetrating the medullary rays, or stuck against the bark. 
 If the conditions of humidity are suitable the fungus will de- 
 velop white fluffy filaments round the roots, assuming later 
 on a felt-like appearance penetrating the whole soil. These 
 filaments become mouse-grey, and, later on, brown. If the 
 surrounding soil is saturated with water, abundant fructifi- 
 cations appear (Fig. 159), giving a special velvety appearance 
 to the parts attacked. 
 
192 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Agaricus Melleus. The mycelium of Agaricus mel- 
 leus forms roots travelling through the soil. They are like 
 those of the Dematophom, brown inside and white outside ; 
 
 Fig. 159. Extremity of Fructiferous Filament 
 of Dernatophera Nteatrix. 
 
 Fig. 160. Vine Root covered 
 with Agaricus Melleus 
 (after Millardet). 
 
 they can only be distinguished by microscopical examina- 
 tion of the filaments composing them. These cords of 
 mycelium travel along the roots of the vine (Fig. 160), 
 insert themselves between the bark, and form white patches 
 (Fig. 163), phosphorescent at night. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PAEASITES. 
 
 193 
 
 Rcesleria hypog&a. Has the aspect of small white 
 l)eads, greyish in colour, 5 to 6 rams, in height (Fig. 164). 
 The mycelium, which is very delicate, lives inside the tissues 
 of the' plant (Fig. 167). The underground development 
 
 Fig. 161. Mycelium of 
 Agaricus Melleus, var. 
 subterranea (after R. 
 Hartig). 
 
 Fig. 162. -Aciaricv* 
 Melleus. 
 
 Fig. 163. Bunch of same at foot 
 of a vine. 
 
 of the organs of the plant affected by pourridit, and the 
 fact that the mycelium of this cryptogam develops inside 
 the tissues of the roots, prevents the plant from being- 
 
 Fig. 164. Rcesleria Hypogcea 
 on vine root. 
 
 Fig. 165. Fructification 
 of Roesleria. 
 
 Fig.166 Section of same 
 (after E. Prillieux). 
 
 cured. We can only practically modify the constitution of 
 the soil so as to prevent the start of this disease or stop 
 its propagation if it has started to develop. The first 
 
 10890. N 
 
194 
 
 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 167. Section of a Vine Root attacked by 
 Rcesleria (after E. Prillieux). 
 
 result may be obtained by deep cultivation and drainage r 
 which removes the excess of water, and renders the soil 
 
 unfit for the develop- 
 
 O. . . i> v f~~^ - - . . - . - 1 - 
 
 , ^ftooife 
 
 i2agioo 
 
 ment of the disease.* 
 To clean the soil one 
 must carefully remove 
 all the roots and burn 
 them on the spot so 
 as to avoid the dif- 
 fusion of the spores, 
 which might take 
 place if the roots were 
 carried away. The 
 affected spot is sur- 
 rounded by a trench 
 18 inches deep, the 
 soil being thrown in- 
 wards, and a treat- 
 ment of bisulphide of 
 carbon at the rate of 600 Ibs, per acre applied. All the 
 fragments of roots and fungi in the ground are killed.. 
 A few days after the soil may be planted again. 
 
 3RD. MALADIES. 
 
 Chlorosis. Vines affected by chlorosis become yellow on 
 ace cunt of the insufficient formation of chlorophyl. 
 
 Most American vines are much more sensitive than 
 European vines to the action of this malady; however, we 
 have seen (page 55) that some species are not affected. 
 
 Th3 grafting of European vines on American stocks gene- 
 rally causes an increase in chlorosis, although sometimes, 
 but very rarely, it diminishes it. We may often notice 
 Riparias becoming yellow after grafting, although they 
 remain green when not grafted. On the other hand 
 chlorosed Herbemont were endowed with a fine vegetation 
 after being grafted with European vines. Amongst our 
 Southern ce"pages, those which seem to improve the condi- 
 tions of existence of varieties upon which they are grafted 
 are Clairette and Carignane. 
 
 The chlorosis of American vines is generally due to the 
 presence of limestone in the soil ; this was studied when 
 
 * See introduction to Trenching and Subsoiling for American Vines, by R. Duboia 
 and W. Peicy Wilkinson. Melbourne, 1901. 
 
ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES. 195 
 
 speaking of adaptation to soil (page 55) ; and it was shown 
 that it is possible to obtain good graft-bearers resisting 
 chlorosis in calcareous soils. But it is possible, however, 
 to efficiently combat this malady on vines established under 
 bad conditions, from the point of view of their adaptation, 
 by using Dr. Rassiguier's process. 
 
 This process consists in painting the sections after pruning 
 with a solution of sulphate of iron, of 30 per cent, strength. 
 The sooner the pruning is done the greater efficiency the 
 remedy seems to have, therefore it should be applied as soon 
 as the vine begins to shed its leaves. If spring frosts are 
 feared the pruning may be done twice, leaving the spurs 
 1 foot or 18 inches long, and painting the sections directly 
 after the first pruning. The action of the liquid is the 
 same in this case as if it had been applied at the definitive 
 pruning. 
 
 The results obtained by this process are excellent, and 
 enable us to recommend it. 
 
196 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 PAET II. 
 
 SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 
 
 Submersion consists in flooding the whole surface of a 
 vineyard with water for a period sufficient to kill phylloxera. 
 This method can only be applied to vineyards established 
 in certain special conditions which we shall now study, 
 together with the installation necessary in practice and the 
 special cultural care necessitated. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO THE SUCCESS OF SUBMERSION. 
 
 These conditions are : 
 
 1st. Possibility of procuring a sufficient quantity of water 
 at the right time without considerably increasing the cost. 
 
 2nd. Application of water in regular sheets to soils 
 capable of retaining it. 
 
 3rd. Use of varieties not suffering from this treatment. 
 
 IST. WATEE. 
 
 (A.) Quantity required. Submersion requires, as a rule, 
 very large quantities of water, varying according to the 
 permeability of the soil and the duration of the operation. 
 Formerly Faucon considered that 123,500 cubic feet per acre 
 were sufficient, but this figure must be considered as a 
 minimum, and it is greatly exceeded in most cases. We. 
 must reckon upon 353,000 to 530,000 cubic feet per acre, 
 and under some circumstances even 1,000,000 cubic feet 
 per acre. A part of this water must be delivered in a 
 constant flow to recuperate the loss by evaporation and 
 imbibition. 
 
 (B.) Quality of water. Waters containing air, such as 
 those pumped by centrifugal machines or collected from 
 natural water-falls, are considered as less efficacious from an 
 insecticidal point of view, for the presence of a small num- 
 ber of air bubbles is sufficient to enable phylloxera to live. 
 Those completely deficient in fertilizing matters would 
 exhaust permeable soils during percolation through them. 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 197 
 
 But this fact is only of secondary importance from a 
 practical point of view, and one should not discard submer- 
 sion if the only reason against it is that water does not con- 
 tain fertilizing matters. 
 
 2ND. SOIL. 
 
 (A.) Permeability. Soils to which submersion is to be 
 applied must not be too permeable. The permeability of 
 the soil is not only an obstacle on account of the large quan- 
 tities of water required and the washing resulting from the 
 current taking place through the soil, but it also fixes in the 
 subsoil a number of small air bubbles on account of the 
 downward movement of the water. These bubbles, as we 
 have seen, enable phylloxera to live. Clayey-calcareous 
 and clayey-siliceous compact subsoils are those which 
 generally realize the best conditions. Those containing 
 pebbles or formed of disintegrated rock have, on the con- 
 trary, often resulted in failure. 
 
 (B.) The contour of .the land. Land to be submerged must 
 be horizontal or only have a slope of 2 to 3 per cent. Greater 
 slopes render necessary the establishment of a large number 
 of banks. This is expensive, and has the disadvantage of 
 diminishing the area of the basins. Further, the surface of 
 the soil must be regular so as to have an even depth of 
 water right through. 
 
 SRD. ADAPTATION OF C^PAGES TO SUBMERSION. 
 
 No cepage to which submersion has been applied so far 
 seems to have suffered directly from its effects, but many 
 have been affected in a more or less acute way by certain 
 accidents to which they were predisposed by nature. 
 
 Clairette and Garignane, for instance, which are sensitive 
 to anthracnosis, are often largely affected by this disease 
 when submerged.* Grenache and Alicante, which ripen 
 their wood late in the season, suffer greatly from the check 
 submersion gives to their vegetation, especially when it is 
 applied rather early in the season. 
 
 Aramon, Mataro, Tinto, Malbeck, Cabernet, Shiraz, and 
 Chasselas may be submerged without detriment. 
 
 *This is probably the result of the special situation of the vineyard rather than 
 of submersion itself. 
 
198 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF SUBMERSION PLANT. 
 
 IST. SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 Water used for submersion may be taken from a river, 
 channel, lake, dam, spring, artesian well, or even drainage 
 channel. It may be carried to the vineyard by channels, 
 elevating machines, or sometimes by temporarily blocking- 
 drainage channels. 
 
 (A.) Channels. This is evidently the simplest means, and 
 should be used every time the water can be taken from a 
 level higher than that of the vineyard, the only expense 
 being the making of small channels. 
 
 (B.) Raising water by mechanical means.* The above 
 method, unfortunately, cannot be applied in every case. It 
 
 is not always possible 
 to make weirs through 
 certain rivers and 
 small differences of 
 level necessitate water 
 being taken from a 
 great distance to 
 travel through neigh- 
 bouring properties ; 
 the intermittence of 
 the rate of flow of 
 certain channels often 
 renders necessary the 
 use of the second sys- 
 tem. The elevating 
 
 Fig. 169. -centrifugal Pump. machines generally 
 
 used are centrifugal 
 
 pumps (Fig. 169) or rouets (Fig. 171), invented by Dellon, 
 engineer, at Montpellier, and built by Bergeron, of 
 Mmes. 
 
 * The centrifugal pumps made by Neut and Dumont, and those of Gwyne, yield 22 gallons 
 per second, and require 1'20 H.P. per 3 feet of elevation. The consumption"of coal is 
 about 4 to 6 Ibs. per hour and per H.P. When the coal is not of very good quality the 
 quantity reaches 9 Ibs. and more. 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 
 
 199 
 
 The rouet seems to give better yield for a difference of 
 level under 16 feet, but it cannot be shifted about like the 
 centrifugal pump, and cannot be used in certain properties 
 where the blocks of vines are far apart. Norias and chain 
 pumps have also been used, but they do not give such good 
 results as the above machines. 
 
 These various elevating machines are generally worked by 
 steam, this being the cheapest and the handiest means of 
 working. The cost of the operation varies between 24s. and 
 
 Fig. 170. Gwyne's Centrifugal Pump. 
 
 32s. per acre when the water has not to be raised over 16 
 feet. This should be the maximum limit in practice. The 
 machinery is sometimes established in a fixed position (Fig. 
 172) on the highest point of the vineyard to allow the water 
 to run all over the surface through small channels made for 
 the purpose. In other cases the machinery is portable and 
 may be shifted from one block to another (Figs. 170 and 173). 
 The system of fixed machinery should be preferred whenever 
 possible ; it is cheaper, works better, and lasts longer. It 
 also saves time and enables the water to be distributed more 
 regularly over the whole vineyard. 
 
200 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 It is possible, in some cases, to use water power derived 
 from rivers or channels from which the water for submersion 
 is taken ; in this case turbines or water wheels are used. 
 The work is done very economically. Wind power, although 
 
 very variable, can be 
 used in conjunction 
 with water power or 
 steam. 
 
 Whatever power is 
 used to raise the 
 water, the latter 
 is brought to the 
 machine by means of 
 sluices made a little 
 below the lowest level 
 of the river, and pro- 
 vided with sluice 
 doors for stopping the 
 
 Fig. m.-Deiion's Rouet. water when required. 
 
 This does away with 
 
 embankments, always necessary when machines are estab- 
 lished near the river. When possible the drainage reticula- 
 tions should bring the water back to the pumping machine. 
 
 (C.) Stopping drainage pipes. Old reclaimed swamps may 
 sometimes be used for submersion by throwing them into 
 their primitive state. The soil must be first levelled so as 
 to have an even depth of water, and the lowest point through 
 which the drainage water is taken away should be stopped by 
 means of sluice boxes placed for that purpose, and if drainage 
 pipes exist they must be stopped at their lowest point during 
 the whole operation. When the submersion is finished the 
 pipes are opened again to allow the soil to dry. Many appli- 
 cations of this system, which has the advantage of being 
 very economical and of great efficiency, have been success- 
 fully carried out. 
 
 2ND. FORMATION OF SUBMERSION BASINS, OR BED-WORK 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 In this system the water is kept on the soil by means of 
 small banks forming a bed-work. 
 
 (A.) Shape of beds. Beds should be made rectangular 
 whenever possible, for they render ploughing easier and 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 
 
 201 
 
MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 203 
 
 ^correspond to the systems of plantation in use. On hori- 
 zontal lands where large beds can be made it is preferable 
 to give them a square shape, as a greater area can be sur- 
 rounded with the same length of bank, and as it allows cross 
 ploughing. If the land is slightly sloped it is necessary to 
 make rectangular beds following the mean line of profile, so 
 as not to increase the height of the lowest bank. 
 
 (B.) . Size of beds. From the point of view of the destruc- 
 tion of phylloxera the larger the bed the better. As a 
 matter of fact the area of the banks is small if compared to 
 the whole surface, and we know that the roots of vines 
 growing under the banks always harbour living insects and 
 become a centre of infection, which must be diminished as 
 much as possible. 
 
 But is it generally impossible in practice to apply this 
 principle to its last limit, which would be that of making 
 a single bed of the whole vineyard, surrounding it by a 
 single bank. The reasons preventing it are 1st, that the 
 soils are not horizontal, thus compelling the slope to be 
 divided in sections to avoid making too high a bank on the 
 lowest side ; 2nd, the impossibility of having a sufficient 
 quantity of water to fill it ; 3rd, the danger of having the 
 banks washed away by the small waves formed by the wind 
 if the surface is too large ; 4th, the large loss which would 
 result from the bank breaking in one point and emptying 
 the whole basin. To sum up, the size which seems to be the 
 most practical is from 7 to 25 acres. 
 
 The beds should be arranged so as to allow the water to 
 overflow from the top into the lower basins ; for that purpose 
 small sluice boxes are placed in suitable positions, these 
 being also fed from the main channel and emptying auto- 
 matically. Finally, drains must be established to enable 
 the soil to be drained quickly after the operation. 
 
 (C.) Banks. The banks should be prism-shaped, with 
 slopes at 45. This shape insures greater strength, and 
 enables them to be used as paths during the operation. The 
 width on the top depends on the depth of the water. It 
 varies between 18 inches for a height of 18 inches, which is 
 the minimum, and 3 feet for a height of 18 inches to 3 feet. 
 If very large beds are made the banks should be large enough 
 to enable them to be used as roads during the vintage. There 
 is no danger in making banks as high as 3 feet, but above 
 
204 MANUAL OF MODEEN VITICULTURE. 
 
 this limit the stumps would be completely covered with water,, 
 which is injurious. In any case the banks must allow a 
 constant depth of 10 inches of water all over the bed, and be 
 made 6 to 8 higher to stop the waves formed by the wind. 
 Further, the banks must be built 10 per cent, higher than 
 the required height, on account of the subsidence of the 
 earth. 
 
 The banks should be built before planting, so as .not to 
 injure the young plants and to leave time for the soil to settle 
 before the water is spread over it ; trenching and levelling 
 should be done before. The soil for forming the banks may 
 be taken on the spot from either side, but it is preferable to 
 take it on the lowest side to equalize the level. 
 
 It is advisable to strengthen the banks by covering them 
 with grass, but care should be taken not to use any grass 
 detrimental to the vineyard ; trifolium repens seems to give 
 the best results. It grows well in very dry or very damp 
 soil, and forms a kind of dense felt all over the soil. In 
 vineyards exposed to the winds, and if the beds are very 
 large, it is advisable to cover the banks with rushes or bam- 
 boos to prevent the erosion caused by the waves. 
 
SUBMEKSION OF VINEYARDS. 205 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IST. MOST FAVOR ABLE TIME FOR SUBMERGING VINEYARDS. 
 Faucon* noticed that phylloxera is very sensitive to the 
 action of water during the most active period of its life, from 
 the 15th of April to the 15th of October, and sometimes later. 
 During winter, on the contrary, when the insect is hiber- 
 nating, it does not suffer much from the action of water ; 
 therefore, if it were only necessary to take into account the 
 efficacy of this treatment against phylloxera it should be 
 done during the summer ; but we must also take into account 
 the life of the vine and its culture, which would suffer from 
 a long submersion during the summer, and would become 
 unworkable at certain times when it is most necessary. 
 During the winter, on the contrary, water does not injure 
 the plant, and the field work being stopped the vines can be 
 inundated without inconvenience. Water can be used with- 
 out danger directly the canes are completely liynified, and 
 the sooner it is applied after that time the better. Most of 
 our southern varieties ripen their wood towards the 1st of 
 November.! Grenache, Alicante, and Carignane, however, 
 are generally not sufficiently lignified by that time, and sub- 
 mersion must be done later on for vineyards in which they 
 are planted. Frequent failures resulted from not taking 
 this fact into consideration with regard to Grenache. 
 
 2ND. DURATION OF SUBMERSION. 
 It varies according to climate, nature of soil, and seasons. 
 
 (A.) Influence of climate. Experience has proved that in 
 our northern districts the duration of submersion may be 
 reduced to 25 or 30 days, while it must last 35 to 40 days 
 in the Herault and Gard (south of France). This fact is 
 explained by the poor multiplication of phylloxera in 
 cold climates, which enables a relatively large quantity 
 of insects to be left living without much detriment 
 resulting. Altitude has probably a similar influence, and in 
 high lands of the southern regions the duration of sub- 
 mersion may be reduced. 
 
 * Louis Fau con, Gutrison des Vigne* phyllox4res Insti-uctions pratiques sur le proctde 
 de la submersion, Montpellier, 1874. [Trans.] 
 t End of May in Victoria. 
 
206 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 (B.) Influence of soil. Compact soils with an impermeable 
 subsoil do not require such long submersion and such a large 
 amount of water as those having a certain permeability and 
 resting on a pebbly subsoil. As a matter of fact, the former 
 get rid of the air they contain quicker than the latter, and, 
 therefore, the insect dies sooner. 
 
 (C.) Influence of season. The season has also an influence 
 on the duration of the operation, for phylloxera, as we have 
 already seen, is more sensitive to the action of water when 
 its life is most active. In autumn it is still laying eggs in 
 the southern climates, and will therefore be killed quicker 
 than in winter, when it is in a state of complete torpor. 
 Therefore the submersion must last 35 to 40 days in autumn, 
 and 40 to 50 in winter. 
 
 To sum up, the duration of submersion is, acccording to 
 circumstances, from 30 to 60 days. A depth of 8 to 10 inches 
 of water should cover the whole surface of the soil throughout 
 the operation. A large number of failures, or accidents, 
 resulted from not following the above rule, which had been 
 pointed out from the very beginning by Faucon;* the slightest 
 interruption is sufficient to allow air to penetrate in the soil, 
 and enable the phylloxera to prolong its existence until the 
 operation is finished. 
 
 One should, therefore, always ascertain before starting 
 submerging that the water course or channel will be able to- 
 furnish water at a regular and even rate during the whole 
 operation. 
 
 3RD. AGE AT WHICH VINES MAY BE SUBMERGED. 
 When new vines are planted in soil, or near vineyards 
 already attacked by phylloxera, they should be submerged as- 
 early as possible during the first year, or better, the land 
 should be inundated before plantation, so as to destroy the- 
 insect, which would attack a large number of young plants 
 as soon as they throw roots, and would cause great damage. 
 When, on the contrary, vines are planted in soils free from 
 phylloxera, it is preferable to wait until the second year. 
 A careful examination of the roots, however, will help to fix 
 the date at which the first operation should be performed; 
 one must start without hesitation, directly the slightest 
 indication of the disease is detected. 
 
 * In work mentioned above. [Trans.] 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 207 
 
 4TH. PERIODICITY OF SUBMERSION. 
 Submersion should be repeated every year. Although this 
 treatment may be considered as the most perfect insecticide, 
 if well applied under proper conditions, and although it is 
 often impossible to detect a single insect on the roots of 
 treated vines in spring, they are always attacked afresh every 
 summer, as proved by Faucon, by the aptrous form travelling 
 over the soil, .and by the winged forms carried by the winds 
 from neighbouring vineyards. It becomes necessary, there- 
 fore, to destroy every winter the insects which arrived during 
 the summer, to prevent their multiplication, which might 
 cause great damage. 
 
:208 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PLANTING AND CULTIVATION. 
 
 The planting and cultivation of submerged vines are in 
 ;a general way governed by the same rules as those set forth 
 for American vines. We will point out a few special pre- 
 cautions necessary in this case. 
 
 IST. PLANTING. 
 
 Vines planted with the object of submerging them should 
 not be mixed, as it is necessary to have the whole vineyard 
 completely lignified before water is applied. It is impossible 
 to fulfil these conditions if a block is planted with different 
 varieties, but this object can be reached if we group the 
 several varieties in different blocks, which may be submerged 
 at different times. We must also avoid planting too close to 
 the banks, for the roots penetrating under them, not being 
 affected by the water, would remain covered with phylloxera, 
 and constitute a danger for the rest of the block during the 
 summer multiplication. 
 
 2ND. CULTIVATION. 
 
 (A.) Pruning. Late pruning is above all necessary for sub- 
 merged vines, to prevent them from being destroyed by white 
 frosts. Spurs should be left 1 to 2 feet long, and pruned 
 finally after the buds have started bursting. 
 
 (B.) Manures. It has been stated that submersion exhausts 
 soils by washing away the soluble matters they contain. 
 This assertion, which seems groundless as far as impermea- 
 bility is concerned, may be true in a certain measure for 
 those which are permeable. It is therefore advisable to 
 furnish vines with manures, containing in an easily assimi- 
 lable form matters necessary for their nourishment during one 
 year, and renew it every year. The following formula, used 
 by Faucon, answers very well: 
 
 Rape cake... ... ... ... ... 90 per cent. 
 
 Sulphate of Potash, Stassfurt (containing 38 per 
 
 cent, of potash) ... ... ... ... 10 ,, 
 
SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 209 
 
 Eight ounces of this mixture are spread around each stump. 
 The mixture indicated on page 144 can also be used with 
 advantage. 
 
 (C.) Ploughing. Ploughings should be frequent, and great 
 care should be taken in their performance, on account of the 
 settling resulting from the long duration of the flooding. 
 We must avoid ploughing when white frosts are feared, 
 on acount of the generally low and damp situations of vine- 
 yards submitted to submersion. 
 
 Numerous sulphurings and sulphatings should be done 
 to prevent non-setting and to combat oidium, mildew, and 
 anthracnosis, which are frequent in such vineyards. 
 
 These indications may be considered as summing up the 
 experiences of submersionists. 
 
 10890. 
 
210 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PLANTING IN SAND. 
 
 Sea sand protects vines from phylloxera. Considerable- 
 areas of downs have been planted with vines during the last 
 few years in the environs of Aiguesmortes (Gard) with the 
 object of utilizing this remarkable property. Although the 
 methods of planting and culture used under these conditions 
 are almost similar to those in ordinary vineyards, there 
 are frequently slight differences of detail necessitated by the 
 special conditions of their application. We shall study 
 these, and also indicate the soils in which such plantations, 
 have succeeded. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SELECTION OF SOIL AND CEPAGES. PL ANTING.- CULTURE. 
 
 IST. SELECTION OF SOIL. 
 
 We will examine this first question from the points of 
 view 1st, of the indemnity the soil may insure to vines ; 
 2nd, the influence it may have upon the development of 
 the vines. 
 
 (A.) Indemnity. All sandy soils, that is to say, those in 
 which the physical properties of sand are predominant, 
 have a more or less marked action on the prolongation of 
 the life of vines, but they only endow them with perfect 
 immunity in sea sand containing more than 60 per cent, of 
 silica* Calcareous sands do not have the same action as 
 siliceous sands. They seem to agglomerate more easily, and 
 immunity increases with the state of division of the soil up 
 to a certain limit. A subsoil composed of siliceous sands 
 of suitable nature, where portion of the vine roots may 
 
 * The insecticide power of sand is due to two different causes : 
 
 1st. The tenuity and mobility of its particles prevents the penetration of the insect into 
 the soil, and therefore its multiplication underground. 
 
 2nd. The capillary power of sand retains the water which reaches it by imbibition or 
 infiltration. This water surrounding the insects ajjd their eggs prevent them from respiring 
 and developing. [Transls.] 
 
PLANTING IN SAND. 211 
 
 develop, is sufficient to insure the life of the plantation ; 
 the roots living in the soil are attacked and destroyed, but 
 those penetrating in the subsoil are protected. 
 
 (B.) Conditions favorable to the success of vines. Vines 
 seem to grow well in almost all the sea sands of Aigues- 
 mortes, even in the soils containing decomposed pines and 
 briars, which are generally considered as injurious. 
 
 Of all the sea sands now planted with vines those where 
 madder was formerly cultivated seem to have given the 
 best results ; they are richer, and they have been ploughed 
 for a great number of years. They have yielded up to 
 the enormous quantity of 5,500 gallons per acre. The 
 accumulation of organic matters in such soils does not seem 
 to have diminished their insecticide power. 
 
 Soils situated near the sea are less favorable. The yield 
 is much smaller, and the vineyards are subject to many 
 accidents. 
 
 2ND. SELECTION OF CE"PAGES. 
 
 Aramon, Petit-Bouschet, Cinsaut, Chasselas, and Carig- 
 nane have succeeded more or less in sea sand. Cinsaut 
 seems to be best adapted for pure sands near the sea. 
 Carignane, on the contrary, which is easily attacked by 
 anthracnosis, suffers very much from the action of winds 
 blowing from the sea. Aramon, Petit-Bouschet, and 
 Chasselas succeed very well if they are furnished with the 
 necessary quantity of fertilizing matter to recuperate their 
 enormous yield, and if they are sheltered against the wind. 
 
 SKD. PLANTING. 
 
 (A.) Preparation of soil. Sandy soils being naturally 
 very loose, it seems at first useless to trench them deeply. 
 However, experience has proved that trenching exerts an 
 important influence on the future of vines planted in sand. 
 This influence may be easily explained, if we remember how 
 great is the importance of dividing the soil, from the point 
 of view of its resistance and its aeration, and the assimila- 
 tion of fertilizing matter, more particularly phosphates, 
 which it already contains. 
 
 Sands must therefore be deeply disturbed with trenching 
 ploughs followed by sub-soilers. This operation is not very 
 expensive in such soils ; it should therefore be performed 
 with the greatest care. 
 
 o 2 
 
212 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTURE. 
 
 (B.) Planting in sand. We may plant rather long 
 cuttings (which grow very well when there is not too much 
 salt in the soil), or sometimes rootlings. 
 
 The quincunx method seems best adapted to the con- 
 ditions of sea sands, because it enables the shoots to cover 
 the whole surface of the soil, and prevents the sand from 
 being blown away by the wind. 
 
 4TH. CULTURAL CARE. 
 
 (A.) Manuring. Care must be taken to avoid, as far as 
 possible, introducing in sandy soil matters which would 
 modify its physical properties, for it may lose its resisting 
 qualities, which, as we have seen, are the result of its 
 mobility. The use of suitable manures even in large 
 quantities does not seem to alter its physical composition, 
 but the accumulation of such matters during a great num- 
 ber of years might have a dangerous influence. Chemical 
 manures and oil cakes seem to be best adapted to these 
 conditions. 
 
 (B.) Summer ploughing. The small number of weeds 
 growing in sea sand does not necessitate numerous plough- 
 ings, and the action of the wind carrying the sand away when 
 it is dry renders ploughing dangerous at certain times. On 
 account of these considerations one ploughing only is given 
 at the end of winter. After this operation rushes, or 
 straw, or marsh plants are spread over the whole surface, 
 and slighly buried with shovels or sharp discs. The object 
 of this is to fix the soil until the autumn rains fall. If, 
 after very heavy rains, weeds grow during the summer, 
 they are pulled out by hand without using a hoe. 
 
 Sulphuring and spraying should be done very thoroughly, 
 on account of the considerable development of cryptogamic 
 diseases resulting from the enormous amount of moisture. 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING EESISTANT VINES. 
 
 213 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 
 
 BY F. T. BlOLETTI AND A. M. DAL PlAZ. 
 
 Bulletin No. 127, University of California, 1900. 
 
 The conviction that the vineyardist has to deal with the 
 phylloxera as a factor in the success or failure of his busi- 
 ness becomes stronger every day. This applies both to the 
 
 Fig. 174. 1. Solonis. 2. Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 3. Riparia Gloire de Montpellier. 
 
214 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 grape-grower who already has -bearing vines and to the 
 intended grape-grower who is engaged in planting his vines. 
 Each succeeding year sees new vineyards and new localities 
 attacked, and the grape-growers who believed their vines 
 safe on account of the richness or sandy nature of their 
 soils, the practice of irrigation, or the isolation of their 
 vineyards are gradually being forced to change their belief 
 by the sad fact of the death of their vines. Yet there are 
 still many who fail to realize the true nature of this disease, 
 and even now there are growers who are planting varieties 
 of Vinifera on their own roots in localities adjacent to 
 infected districts, and even in the infected districts them- 
 selves. 
 
 Even those who are thoroughly persuaded of the neces- 
 sity of establishing their vines upon resistant roots are in 
 doubt as to what species or variety to choose. 
 
 When the phylloxera first invaded the lower parts of the 
 Sonoma and Napa valleys, over twenty years ago, the vine- 
 yardists were completely unprepared for it, and unable to 
 combat it in any way, so most of them allowed the insect to 
 have undisputed sway, with the result that the vineyards 
 disappeared. A few of the more intelligent growers, how- 
 ever, tried the method, first practised in France, of planting 
 resistant stocks. The principal varieties planted were 
 Riparia and Lenoir. Other varieties were planted in small 
 quantities by a few growers, but most of them are at present 
 of little interest. The results varied widely. Though .a 
 certain number of vineyards were fairly or even perfectly 
 successful, the majority were total or partial failures. This 
 lack of general success was due to three principal causes: 
 
 1. Many of the soils and locations were unsuitable for the growth 
 
 of either Riparia or Lenoir. 
 
 2. The Riparia cuttings used were not of one variety, some being 
 
 very small growers, unable to support a large Vinifera. 
 
 3. The Lenoir is not sufficiently resistant in all soils, and therefore 
 
 failed to give full crops on any but the best soils. 
 
 To these should be added, in many cases, ignorance of the 
 methods of planting and grafting resistant stocks. 
 
 Ten or fifteen years later the coast valleys south of San 
 Francisco, which the vine-growers had hitherto considered 
 immune for some mysterious reason, were attacked. They 
 were just as unprepared as the vine-growers of Napa and 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING EESISTANT VINES. 215 
 
 'Sonoma had been when their vineyards were attacked. It is 
 in order to prevent any further unpreparedness and conse- 
 quent costly mistakes that vine-growers of uninfected loca- 
 tions are earnestly advised to commence now to test the 
 most promising resistant stocks on their own places, in order 
 to determine which of these is most suitable for the condi- 
 tions of the soil, climate, and moisture that exist there. 
 This is especially true of such localities as Fresno and others 
 in the lower San Joaquin valley, where there are large 
 stretches of contiguous vineyards as yet uninfected. 
 
 The phylloxera is as menacing a foe to the "raisin- 
 grower " as to the " wine-grower," and it would be well 
 worth while for every vineyardist in California, not only to 
 test various resistants, but also to learn the methods of 
 bench or cutting, grafting, and all the various processes of 
 establishing a vineyard on resistant roots. Then, when the 
 insect enters his own or his neighbour's vineyard he will 
 know exactly what to plant and how to plant it, and not be 
 obliged to experiment for three or four years or trust to the 
 experience of some one else whose conditions may differ in 
 some way from his, and thus run the risk of making costly 
 failures. 
 
 The work of the Experiment Station in this line for the 
 last two or three years has been to establish some general 
 principles to guide the individual grower in his own attempts 
 and to narrow the scope of his experiments in order that he 
 may not waste his time on methods and varieties which have 
 already been proved valueless. Our conclusions have been 
 based on observations of our own experiments, and also of 
 the successes and failures of grape-growers in various parts 
 of the State. These observations have so far been directed 
 principally to: 
 
 1. The adaptability of various resistant varieties to different 
 
 conditions of soil, climate, and moisture. 
 
 2. The best method of grafting for various varieties and conditions. 
 
 3. The growth of various Vinifera varieties upon various resistant 
 
 stocks. 
 
 The problems presented by the phylloxera were studied 
 by Professor E. W. Hilgard very early at this Station, and 
 & certain amount of attention has been given by the Station 
 since then to methods of extermination of the insect and to 
 resistant stock. The results of this work having already 
 been published, the present article deals only with the work 
 done during and since 1896. In that year Professor A. P. 
 
216 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Hayne, of this department, imported the following resistant 
 varieties, which were recommended as the best in France for 
 soils similar to our California soils : Rupestris du Lot, 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier* Riparia Grand Glabre, 
 Rupestris Martin. These varieties were as widely dis- 
 tributed over the various vineyard districts as possible, 
 and particular satisfaction was given by the first two 
 mentioned. 
 
 In 1897 the Station continued this work of distribution, 
 and put upon its " Distribution List " Rupestris du Lot, 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, Riparia Grand Glabre, 
 and Solonis. A more limited distribution was also made of 
 Rupestris Martin, Rupestris Mission, Rupestris Ganzin, 
 Champim, and of three hybrids of Rupestris crossed with 
 Riparia, viz., Rup. x Rip. 101-14, Rup. x Rip. 3306,^^. 
 x Rip. 3309. 
 
 In the same year the station published an appendix to 
 the Viticultural Report of 1896, entitled " Resistant Vines," 
 by Professor Hayne, in which was given a summary of what 
 is known in France of the practical selection and adaptation 
 of resistant vines, and also of the methods of grafting 
 adapted to these vines. During the years 1898 and 1899 
 the two varieties which seemed to have given the most 
 general satisfaction, and for which there was the most 
 demand, were again placed upon the " Distribution List." 
 These varieties were Rupestris du Lot and Riparia 
 Gloire de Montpellier. 
 
 In 1898 the station decided to make a series of practical 
 experiments with these recently imported resistants, \and on 
 various methods of grafting, in order to bring the matter 
 before the vine-growers of California in a practical form, and 
 also to throw light on some doubtful points. This it was 
 enabled to do by the public spirit of Mr. J. K. Moffitt of the 
 First National Bank of San Francisco, who kindly allowed 
 us to use a portion of his vineyard at St. Helena, Napa 
 County, for our experiments. 
 
 These experiments were planned on a somewhat elaborate 
 scale, but unfortunately were almost a complete failure, on 
 account of the bad condition of the resistant cuttings when 
 they arrived from France. There were imported 9,300 cut- 
 tings of various varieties, and of these about 85 per cent, 
 were completely spoiled. They were packed with the 
 greatest care, but had somewhere been exposed to too much 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING EESISTANT VINES. 217 
 
 heat (probably on the steamer) and had suffered a fermenta- 
 tion which had completely blackened the pith and inner 
 bark. These were planted out in the nursery without graft- 
 ing, but failed to grow. The remainder were a little better, 
 but were full of dark streaks, showing that they also had 
 suffered from the heat but in a less degree. These were 
 grafted, and the ill-success of the grafts was undoubtedly 
 due to this bad condition of the stocks. This showed the 
 danger of importing large quantities of cuttings from so 
 distant a place, and it was determined for the next year's 
 experiments to use only cuttings grown in California. 
 
 Adaptability of various Varieties of Vinifera to various 
 Resistant Stocks. One of the principal experiments made 
 was to test the adaptability of certain Vinifera varieties for 
 different stocks, that is to say, to test on which resistant 
 stocks certain varieties did best. The negative results (the 
 cases in which there was very poor or no growth) of course 
 taught nothing, as it was impossible to tell whether the 
 failure was due to lack of affinity of the scion for the stock, 
 or simply to the bad condition of the stock. The positive 
 results, where there was good growth and good unions, are 
 however worth chronicling. 
 
 The varieties which grew well and made good unions on 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier were : 
 
 Aramon Marsanne 
 
 Blue Portuguese Peruno 
 
 Chardonay Petit Bouschet 
 
 Folle Blanche Seedless Sultana 
 
 Gros Mansenc Semillon 
 
 Kleinberger Valdepenas. 
 
 Those which did well on Riparia Grand Glabre were : 
 
 Aramon Marsanne 
 
 Cabernet Sauvignon Mataro 
 
 Chardonay Mourisco Preto 
 
 Cornichon Semillon 
 
 Fresa Sultanina 
 
 Gros Mansenc Verdot 
 
 Huasco Vernaccia. 
 
 Those which did well on Rupestris du Lot were : 
 
 Barbera Palomino 
 
 Beba Peruno 
 
 Cornichon Petit Bouschet 
 
 Franken Riesling Seedless Sultana 
 
 Kleinberger Valdepenas 
 
 Mantuo de Pilas Vernaccia 
 Marsanne. 
 
218 MANUAL OF MODEKX VITICULTURE. 
 
 All these made good growth, and the unions were all 
 apparently strong and well formed. They were planted out 
 in the spring of 1899 in three rows of 2f) vines each, in order 
 to watch their future development. Besides these were also 
 planted out two rows of 25 vines each as follows : One row 
 of Mondeuse, grafted on Riparia Grand Glabre ; one row of 
 Mondeuse, grafted on Rupestris du Lot; and one vine of 
 Mondeuse, grafted on Rupestris x Riparia 3306. 
 
 Eleven other rows of ungraded varieties were planted as 
 follows : One row each of Pinot, Cabernet du Lac, and 
 Hybrid Franc ; two rows each of Rupestris Martin, Rupes- 
 tris x Riparia 101-14, Rupestris x Riparia 3309, and Ru- 
 pestris du Lot; one row each of Vialla and Rupestris 
 Mission. 
 
 On 29th December, 1899, the following notes were taken 
 on the foregoing vines : 
 
 VARIETIES GRAFTED ON RIPARIA GLOIRE DE MONTPELLIER. 
 
 Blue Portuguese. Strong growth, canes 3 feet long, but not very 
 
 ripened. 
 
 Chardonay. Medium growth One dead. 
 Fresa. Poor growth. 
 Folle Blanche. Medium growth. 
 
 Gros Mansenc. Good strong growth, canes 3 feet long. 
 Kleinberger. Medium growth. 
 
 Marsanne. Good strong growth, 3 feet long. One graft dead. 
 Peruno. Medium growth, shoots still green except at the base. 
 Petit- Bouschet. Medium growth. 
 Seedless Sultana. Medium growth, and wood still green except at 
 
 the base. 
 
 Semillon. Medium growth. 
 
 Valdepenas. Good growth of thoroughly ripened wood. 
 Vernaccia. Medium to poor growth. 
 
 VARIETIES GRAFTED ON RIPARIA GRAND GLABRE. 
 
 Aramon. Growth poor, about 1 foot. 
 
 Cabernet Sauvignon. Growth good. 
 
 Chardonay. Good growth, some shoots 3 feet long. 
 
 Cornichon. Medium growth, about 2 feet. 
 
 Frew. Medium growth, about 2 feet. 
 
 Gros Mansenc. Growth about 1 foot. 
 
 Huasco. Good growth, shoots about 3 feet long, but still green at 
 
 the tips. 
 
 Marsanne. Excellent growth of ripe wood. 
 Mataro. From 1 to 2 feet of growth. 
 Mourisco Preto. Good growth. 
 Semillon. Growth about 2 feet. One graft dead. 
 Sultanina. Many shoots, but green at the tips. 
 Verdot. Poor growth. One graft dead. 
 Vernaccia. Poor growth ; thin shoots 2 feet long. 
 
f 
 
 I 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 219 
 
 VARIETIES GRAFTED ON RUPESTRIS DU LOT. 
 
 Barbera. Medium growth. 
 
 Beba. Fine growth. 
 
 Conrichon. Medium growth. 
 
 Franken Riesling. Long growth ; tips still green. 
 
 Kleinberger. Long thin canes. 
 
 Mantuo de Pilas. Poor growth. 
 
 Marsanne. Small growth. 
 
 Palomino. Very vigorous growth of eight or nine canes to a vine. 
 
 Peruno. Strong growth. 
 
 Petit- Bouschet. Vigorous growth, strong canes. 
 
 Sultana. Good growth. 
 
 Valdepenas. Good growth. 
 
 Vernaccia. Medium growth. 
 
 The one graft of Mondeuse on Rupestris X Riparia 3309 had made a very 
 good growth. 
 
 The row of Mondfuse grafted on Riparia Grand Glabre had grown well, 
 with the exception of one graft, which was dead. 
 
 The row of Mondeuse grafted on Rupestris du Lot was more irregular. 
 Two vines were dead and five had lost the Mondeuse scion, and the Rupes- 
 tris was growing from suckers. Where the Mondeuse was growing, how- 
 ever, it was on the whole more vigorous than in the last row. 
 
 VARIETIES ON THEIR OWN ROOTS. 
 
 :T Pinot Cabernet <1u Lac. This variety made very poor growth. Most of 
 the vines lived, but the canes were only a few inches long. The soil, which 
 was black adobe, was evidently unsuited to this vine. 
 
 Hybrid Franc. The growth of this variety was more irregular than that 
 of the last, and no stronger. A few vines had made medium growth, but 
 many were dead and the majority were very poor. 
 
 Rupeslris Martin. This resistant made a fair growth ; in some cases the 
 anes were 4 to 5 feet long, but not thick. 
 
 Rupestris X Riparia 101-14. Fair growth of 2 to 3 feet. 
 
 Rupestris X Riparia 3309. Fair growth, somewhat longer and stronger 
 than the last. 
 
 Rupestris du Lot. Growth good to very good; many canes to each vine. 
 
 Vialla. Good growth of shoots 2 to 3 feet long. 
 
 Rupestris Mission. Good growth, but the canes were rather thiu. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS MADE IN 1899. 
 
 The experiments carried out this year consisted chiefly of 
 tests of various methods of grafting and of planting in the 
 nursery. 
 
 The cuttings used as stock in these experiments were 
 
 1. Rupestris du Lot, 3,000 from Beringer Bros., St. Helena. 
 
 2. Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, 100 from John Swett and Son, 
 Martinez. 
 
 3. Lenoir, 96 from G. Husmann, Napa. 
 
 4. American Rulander, 26 from G. Husmann, Napa. 
 
 5. Herbemont, 21 from G. Husmann, Napa. 
 
 6. Cunningham, 27 from G. Husmann, Napa. 
 
 7. America, 10 (rooted, one year old) from W. B. Munson, Texas. 
 
 8. Champini, 10 (rooted, one year old ) from W. B. Munson, Texas. 
 
 9. Elvicand, 7 (rooted, one year old) from W. B. Munson, Texas. 
 10. Munson, 13 (rooted, 1 year old) from W. B. Munson, Texas. 
 
220 MANUAL OF MODEEN VITICULTUEE. 
 
 The following varieties were used as scions : 
 
 11. Zinfandel, from J. K. Moffit, St. Helena. 
 
 12. Mondeuse, from J. K. Moffit, St. Helena. 
 
 13. Tokay, from John Swett and Son, Martinez. 
 
 14. Ferrara, from John Swett and Son, Martinez. 
 
 The following varieties were used for rooting experi- 
 ments : 
 
 15. Rupestris du Lot, from Beringer Bros., St. Helena. 
 
 16. Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, from John Swett and Son r 
 
 Martinez. 
 
 17. Solonis, from John Swett and Son, Martinez. 
 
 The main objects of this series of experiments were to 
 ascertain the relative value of: 
 
 (a) The English graft and the Champin graft. 
 
 (b) Leaving two eyes on the scions, and leaving only one. 
 
 (c) Preliminary callusing in sand, and planting out in 
 
 the nursery immediately after grafting. 
 
 (d) Callusing in sand alone, and in straw covered with 
 
 sand. 
 
 (e) Rupestris du Lot, Riparia Gloire de Mont- 
 
 pellier, Lenoir, Herbemont, Cunningham, and 
 American Ruldnder as regards root formation 
 when bench-gral'ted. 
 
 (f) Rupestris du Lot, Riparia, Gloire de Mont- 
 
 pellier, and Solonis as regards rooting when not 
 grafted. 
 
 Light was thrown on other points, such as the possibility 
 of grafting successfully various varieties of different habh% 
 such as the small-growing Zinfandel and the large-growing 
 Ferrara, upon Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 GEAFTING. 
 
 Preparation of Cuttings for Grafting. The Rupestris 
 du Lot cuttings used for grafting stock were in excellent 
 condition at the beginning of the grafting season, as they 
 were kept under cover in moist sand during the winter. The 
 cuttings were less than 2 feet long, rather short jointed, and 
 generally too thick at the lower end and too thin at the 
 upper for grafting. This was doubtless due to the dry 
 summer, which resulted in a short growth, and it was rarely 
 possible to obtain more than one graft from a cutting. The 
 sizes used for grafting varied from % to J- inch in diameter. 
 The thin tips which could not be used for grafting were put 
 out in the nursery for rooting. 
 
f 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 221 
 
 The cuttings were all treated in the same way for the 
 various experiments as follows : They were cut into sections 
 of from 6 to 9 inches ; the lower cut was made through the 
 knot of the bud ; the last internode of the upper end was 
 left as long as possible, as the internodes were of rather 
 short length, sometimes scarcely long enough for the graft- 
 ing cut. Special care was given to the perfect removal of 
 all of the buds of the stock, a deep cut being made in order 
 to remove not only the main bud but also the small adven- 
 titious or dormant buds which surround its base, and which 
 often grow out when not carefully excised and form suckers, 
 which grow at the expense of the graft. The cuttings thus 
 prepared were sorted into three sizes according to their 
 thickness, put up in bundles, and placed vertically in a tub 
 of water, so that the lower end was covered with water ; the 
 cuttings thus remained fresh and sappy, which facilitated 
 greatly the making of cuts. The cuttings remained in the 
 water until they were needed for grafting, that is to say, 
 from six to eighteen hours. 
 
 The washing and placing in water had also the object of 
 cleaning the cuttings from all adhering dirt and sand, which 
 would blunt the edge of the sharpest grafting knife in a 
 short time. 
 
 The scions were prepared in. a similar way, with the excep- 
 tion, of course, that the eyes were left. Two kinds of scions 
 were needed for the experiments ; one with the one eye, the 
 other with two eyes. The first kind was cut through the 
 second knot so as to leave the eye protected by a closed inter- 
 node, which on the one hand prevented penetration of moisture 
 and of fungi, and on the other hand drying out of the part 
 above the eye. Scions of the second kind (with two eyes) 
 were treated differently in order not to make them too long, 
 the upper cut being made about an inch above the second 
 eye. 
 
 The scions were also sorted into three sizes corresponding 
 with those of the stock, tied up in bundles, and put in water 
 to keep them fresh and sappy. 
 
 Methods of Grafting. Before grafting, the cuttings of 
 both stock and scion having been carefully sorted into three 
 sizes, and the eyes of those of the stock cut out deeply with 
 a sharp knife in order to prevent the production of 
 suckers, the greatest care was taken to prevent the 
 slightest drying out of the cuttings and afterwards of the 
 grafts. 
 
222 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The raffia used for binding the grafts was soaked in a 3" 
 per cent, solution of bluestone (copper sulphate) for one day 
 and then hung up to dry. Before using it was thoroughly 
 washed in running water to remove the superfluous blue- 
 stone. The raffia was cut into short pieces of 10 to 12 
 inches, and then kept in a box, moist and ready for use. 
 
 The grafting knife was not of the pattern generally used 
 in California, but was one especially constructed for Cham- 
 pin and English tongue grafting ; it had a wooden handle 
 4J inches long to give the hand a firm grasp, a straight and 
 very thin blade of excellent steel which was easy to sharpen, 
 and which kept its edge for a considerable time. A good 
 hone and a razor strop were used for sharpening the knife. 
 
 The object of the experiment in methods of grafting was 
 to ascertain the advantages and disadvantages of the two 
 most commonly practised methods, viz., the English graft 
 
 Fig. 175. English Cleft Graft. 
 
 A. Proper angle of cut for large cuttings. C, D. Proper size and angle of tongues. 
 
 B. Proper angle of cut for small cuttings. E, F. Method of uniting and tying graft. 
 
 and a modification of the old Champin graft ; the first is 
 universally used in European vine nurseries, the latter is 
 less practised there, but is frequently used in California. 
 
 English Cleft or Whip Grafting. This method was 
 applied in the usual way as shown in Fig. 175. The stock 
 and scion were chosen of equal size, and were cut at 
 
f 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 223 
 
 same angle. The length of the cut surface, in cuttings of 
 solid texture and full size, was about three times the 
 diameter of the cuttings, that is to say, the cut was made at 
 an angle of about 19. This maybe taken as the maximum 
 angle that can be used practically. For smaller cuttings 
 the length of the cut was relatively somewhat greater, beiug^ 
 about four times the diameter or about 14, which may be 
 taken as the minimum angle which should be adopted. The 
 tongues were made by a longitudinal cut, care being taken 
 not to split the wood, and usually commenced at about one- 
 third the distance from the sharp end of the cutting, and to 
 a depth about equal to the diameter. Thus when the two 
 cuttings were placed together the sharp end of one corre- 
 sponded exactly to the thick end of the other, so that no 
 portion of the cut surface was exposed, and the maximum 
 contact was obtained. The object of the grafter in making 
 his cuts is to make them as straight as possible, but it will 
 be found that a cut made by the most skilful hand is slightly 
 concave. This is, however, no objection, as this extremely 
 slight concavity is useful in allowing for the slight swelling 
 in the middle due to the insertion of the tongues. This is 
 probably one of the reasons why hand-grafting is generally 
 more successful than grafting with a machine, as a machine 
 makes a cut which is absolutely straight, and the ends have 
 thus a tendency to be drawn away from the cut surface of 
 the other cutting. The cut for the tongue is not made quite 
 parallel to the grain of the wood in order to minimize the 
 danger of splitting. 
 
 Champin Graft. Perhaps the commonest method of 
 grafting used in California for small vines or cuttings is a 
 modification of the Champin method. The Champin graft 
 is made as shown in Fig. II. below. The modified method 
 is a compromise between the true Champin graft and the 
 English tongue graft. It is made in a way similar to that 
 described for the latter, but the tongue is made much deeper 
 and the end of the point (see Fig. 176, No. 12) projecting 
 over the cut of the opposite cutting is cut off. 
 
 The Champin graft is based on the theoretical principle 
 that the greater the surface of contact between the two cut- 
 tings the greater the chances of union. Thus in the English 
 graft the amount of possible contact is theoretically only 
 about half that of the Champin. The latter is apparently 
 twice as great as the former, In practice, however, it is. 
 
224 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 found that the contact in the English graft can be made so 
 much more perfect than in the Champin graft that the 
 actual contact is usually greater in the former than in the 
 latter. Moreover, the strip 
 
 BB 
 
 of bark on the long tongue of 
 
 176. End-to-End and Champin Graft. 
 1, 2. Method of making the End-to-End Grift. 
 3, 4. Cross-section through the union of the above graft, showing 
 how complete!}' the stock unites with the scion on all sides. 
 5. Union of End-to-End Graft. 
 -12. Method of making Champin Graft. 
 
 the Champin graft is more likely to become detached or 
 injured than the well-supported bark on the English graft ; 
 and, finally, the exposed cut at the end of the scion is almost 
 sure to emit strong roots, while that on the stock prevents 
 the complete and thorough union which is possible with the 
 English graft. The tongue, therefore, should be reduced to 
 the minimum, that is to say, should be as short as possible, 
 while giving solidity to the graft until union takes place. 
 For purposes of comparison, parallel experiments were made 
 with both methods. 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 225 
 
 Another method, new and not thoroughly tested as yet, 
 was tried with a few Rupestris St. George cuttings, Mon- 
 deuse being used for scions. This method originated in 
 France, and is called " End to end " grafting. Its nature is 
 shown in Fig. 176. The ends of stock are cut at an angle of 
 about 70, and are held together by a piece of galvanized- 
 iron wire which is pushed into the pith of each piece. The 
 number of successful grafts was low, but those which did 
 unite made such excellent unions that the method seems 
 worthy of further trial. It is especially promising for 
 machine grafting. 
 
 Binding Grafts. Raffia, treated as explained on page 222, 
 was used for binding the grafts. The raffia seemed to have 
 deteriorated somewhat during the twelve months it had been 
 allowed to hang in an open shed. It was weaker than 
 usual, and some of it rather brittle. It was cut into lengths 
 of about 12 inches. 
 
 It has been shown that the grafts would do better without 
 any binding, but for two reasons, first, because it is difficult 
 to handle unbound grafts without disturbing the union ; and 
 second, because the callus does not form simultaneously on 
 all parts of the Union, and the first formed tends to push 
 apart the stock and scion, thus making it difficult or 
 impossible for all parts to unite. The object then in binding 
 is to use as little raffia as is compatible with the thorough 
 firmness of the union. The free ends of both scion and stock 
 should be made firm with about two turns of the raffia, and 
 the rest with wide spiral turns, which leaves as much of the 
 union in direct contact with the sand as possible. The sand, 
 while keeping the union sufficiently moist, does not com- 
 pletely exclude the air, which is necessary to the formation 
 of healing tissue. A somewhat closer tying than this was' 
 adopted in these experiments, on account of the weakness of 
 the raffia used. 
 
 The grafts were tied in bundles often, and then treated in 
 various ways to aid their uniting. 
 
 METHODS OF AIDING CALLUSING. The main reason for 
 callusing the grafts before they are put in the nursery is 
 that we can have more perfect control of the conditions 
 which favour the formation of callus. Those conditions are 
 an even and not too low temperature, and a moisture content 
 of the soil in which the grafts are callused, not exceeding 10 
 per cent., and not falling below 5 per cent. 
 10890 P 
 
226 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Two methods of obtaining those conditions were tried. 
 
 1st. Callusing in Sand. The sand used was taken from 
 Napa Creek, and was very suitable for the purpose. The 
 grafts were put in the sand nearly vertically in bundles of ten, 
 in rows. The sand was moistened sufficiently to give it the 
 compactness necessary for making the piles. The location 
 of the sand pile was chosen on the south side of a building, 
 which protected the sand from the north winds, and 
 rendered it possible to give the grafts the maximum 
 amount of snn. A layer of abont 4 inches of sand was 
 put on the bottom, and then the grafts were put in verti- 
 cally, and covered up as soon as they came from the 
 grafting bench. The tops of the grafts were covered with 
 a thin layer of sand (about 2 inches). The whole pile of 
 sand with the grafts was then covered with a waterproof 
 cloth, in order to protect the grafts from excessive moisture, 
 and to maintain the even temperature of the sand during 
 cold weather and at night. This cover was easily removable 
 in order to facilitate watering, if necessary, and to make it 
 possible to warm the pile on sunny days. This arrangement, 
 somewhat improved, is shown in Fig. 177. 
 
 Fig-. 177. Callusing Bed. 
 
 The grafts were put in the sand from 7th March to 18th 
 March, the time of grafting. 
 
 .2nd. Calhsing in Straw or Moss. To test this method, 
 360 grafts were placed in straw, moss not being obtainable 
 at the time. Moss is considered somewhat better, on account 
 of its hygroscopic power. The method of layering the grafts 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 227 
 
 in straw was as follows : A large box without cover was 
 laid on its side, a layer of about 2 inches of chopped 
 straw was placed on the lower side, and then a single layer 
 of grafts. This was repeated until the box was full. The 
 grafts were so placed that the scion was nearest the bottom 
 of the box, which was then turned upright, and still more 
 straw pushed in between the layers of grafts until they were 
 tightly packed. The box was then placed in the sand pile, 
 2 inches of straw placed on top, and the whole covered with 
 sand, 1 inch of sand being placed over the top layer of straw. 
 The straw was moistened before being used for layering the 
 grafts. 
 
 All the grafts were left from six to eight weeks to 
 callus, and then planted out in the nursery during the first 
 week in May. 
 
 PLANTING GRAFTS IN THE NURSERY. 
 
 Planting immediately after Grafting. There is no doubt 
 about the disadvantage of planting freshly grafted vine 
 cuttings out in the open nursery, as we have there no 
 practical means of sufficiently controlling temperature and 
 moisture. But, in order to have definite data in regard 
 to this method in comparison with a preliminary callusing 
 with more or less perfect control of temperature and 
 moisture, the following experiment was tried: 360 grafted 
 cuttings were planted out in the nursery directly after they 
 were grafted. The soil of the nursery was in good condition. 
 In planting, a trench was dug about 18 inches deep and 15 
 inches wide. The bottom of the trench was then filled in 
 for a few inches, with well-pulverized top soil, in order to 
 facilitate the penetration of the roots. The grafts were 
 placed 4 inches apart nearly vertically, in two rows (one on 
 each side of the trench), sand being previously placed on 
 each side in order that the bases of the stock should be in 
 favorable condition for root formation and growth. The 
 trench was then completely filled by putting in soil and sand 
 alternately in such a manner as to surround the grafts com- 
 pletely with sand. The point of union of scion and stock 
 was placed at a level with the surface of the soil, and was 
 also carefully surrounded with sand. Sand was then heaped 
 completely over the scions, and the rest filled in with soil, 
 thus making a bank, which covered the grafts to a depth of 
 about 2 inches, as shown in Fig. 178. 
 
 p 2 
 
228 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 The reason for completely covering with sand was to pre 
 vent the scions from being* dried out by the wind. 
 
 Fig. 178. Method of Planting in Nursery. 
 
 Planting the Grafts after previous Callusing. The grafts 
 were planted in the nursery after they had been from six to 
 to eight weeks in the callusing bed. 
 
 When the grafts were taken out of the callusing pile it 
 was noticed that the unions of those which had been buried 
 on the south side were much more complete than those 
 buried on the north side, showing the effect of heat in pro- 
 moting the formation of healing tissue. In the warmer 
 parts of the pile the buds of the scions had started, a dis- 
 advantage which was, however, more than counterbalanced 
 by the good callusing, as was proved by their subsequent 
 better growth. The only other difference noted was that 
 the Riparia stock had developed more rootlets than the 
 Eupestris at this time. 
 
 The grafts were planted out in the nursery in trenches 
 about 18 inches deep and 14 to 15 inches wide, as already 
 described. The grafts were planted in a manner similar to 
 that described on page 227, with a few modifications which 
 were found to be necessary. The grafts first planted were 
 put in the soil so as to bring the unions just level with the 
 soil surface. But the loose soil soon settled about 2 inches, 
 so that the unions became actually deeper. The grafts 
 planted later were placed with the unions about 2 inches 
 above the surface to offset this settling. Moreover, some 
 further precautionary measures had to be taken to prevent 
 the soil from drying out too much near the grafts. It was 
 found best to make the bank of piled-up earth wider by 
 putting more soil at the sides so as to preserve the moisture 
 of the soil. 
 
 The soil was moist enough when the grafts were planted, 
 but the sand had to be moistened before putting into the 
 
f 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING EESISTANT VINES. 229 
 
 treDches. A thorough ploughing and harrowing were given 
 the hard soil between the rows in order to prevent excessive 
 evaporation. 
 
 The nursery received but little care after the grafts had 
 been planted. The soil received the same cultivation as that 
 of the neighbouring vineyard, was weeded once, and the 
 grafts were irrigated in July. 
 
 Removal of scion-roots and suckers from the stock. 
 About the middle of July the earth was carefully removed 
 by means of a shovel, and then the sand was taken away 
 from the unions, partly by means of a trowel, partly with 
 the hands, as circumstances required. The smallest rootlets 
 were still soft, and could be rubbed off by the hand; the 
 older and firmer roots had to be cut with a sharp knife. 
 Great care was taken not to disturb the unions of the grafts, 
 as they were still very brittle. 
 
 Few suckers were found, as the eyes of the stock had 
 been carefully cut out before grafting. In cases where the 
 suckers came from the deepest eye, it was found necessary 
 to dig down to the base of the whole graft in order to cut the 
 shoot at its base as well as to properly remove the dormant 
 eyes. The removal of roots was done without injury to the 
 grafts, as they were covered up before they had a chance to 
 dry out, and the soil was irrigated immediately after ; so 
 that the grafts looked as fresh as ever the next morning. 
 
 The soil was found dry to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches, 
 but the soil below this had preserved sufficient moisture to 
 keep the unions of the graft from drying, as they were all in 
 the moist region. The sand on the surface became very 
 much heated in the middle of the day, which may account 
 for the many tender young shoots and leaves which were 
 found dry and withered. The second eye at the base of the 
 scion had in most of these eases developed new shoots, so 
 that the injury done was only in retarding the vegetation of 
 the burnt plants. 
 
 A thorough irrigation was found necessary at this time in 
 order to prevent injury from the drought and heat of 
 summer. The water was run in little ditches about 1 foot 
 from the grafts, and so applied that the soil around the 
 unions was never thoroughly water-soaked, which experience 
 has shown to be deleterious t ) the graft. The soil was cul- 
 tivated as soon as dry enough after irrigation. The raffia in 
 many cases was rotten already. 
 
230 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Condition when scion and suckers were cut. The follow- 
 ing observations were made during 14th to 18th July, when 
 the roots of the scions and the suckers were cut : 
 
 English grafts with scions of two eyes ; 180 Zinfandel on 
 Kupestris du Lot. Almost all the grafts had started to 
 grow; about 50 per cent, of the grafts showed roots on the 
 scions ; 162 grafts had started, that is 90 per cent. 
 
 English grafts with scions of one eye; 180 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot. A lower percentage than of the above 
 had developed shoots (78 per cent.), but the roots on the 
 scions were less developed and fewer in number. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes ; 180 Zinfandel 
 on Rupestris du Lot. The scions had well developed 
 shoots, but also a good many strong roots on the bases of the 
 scions. Of the 180 grafts, 165 were growing, that is about 
 92 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of one eye ; 180 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot. This lot was better developed than 
 that with two eyes left on the scions ; less strong roots were 
 found on the scions, but only 150 were growing, that is about 
 83 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of one eye ; 1 80 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot ; planted out immediately after grafting. 
 The unions of the grafts that were growing seemed to have 
 joined very well ; the soil near to the scions was dry, so that 
 but few roots had developed, the 75 grafts growing made but 
 a low percentage of the whole, about 42 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes ; 180 Zinfandel 
 on Rupestris du Lot ; planted out immediately after 
 grafting. The grafts were in about the same condition, but 
 showed a higher percentage of growing grafts ; of the 180 
 grafts, 98 were growing, that is about 54 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of one eye ; 180 Ziufandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot ; grafts callused in the straw. The 
 scions showed small and few roots, and the number of 
 growing grafts was 154, that is about 85 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes ; 180 Zinfandel 
 on Rupestris du Lot; grafts callused in the straw. The 
 grafts of this and the foregoing experiment (callusing in 
 straw) looked the best of all the grafts made, and had very 
 well developed shoots, with an average length of 10 inches ; 
 the proportion of growing grafts was 90 per cent. 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 231 
 
 America grafted with Zinfanclel ; English graft with 
 scions of two eyes on one-year-old rooted stock. The grafts 
 showed good growth ; six grafts of the ten had started, that 
 is about 60 per cent. 
 
 Munson grafted with Zinfanclel ; one-year-old rooted stock, 
 scions of two eyes, English graft. The grafts showed good 
 growth ; a few only showed small rootlets on the scions ; 
 eleven, or 85 per cent., were growing. 
 
 Champini grafted with Zinfanclel ; one-year-old rooted 
 stock, scions of two eyes, English graft. The scions did not 
 take in most cases, the proportion being about 30 per cent. 
 
 Elvicand grafted with Zinfanclel, one-year-old rooted stock, 
 scions of two eyes, English graft. The grafts showed very 
 poor growth, and only about 29 per cent, growing at all. 
 
 Mondeuse on Rupestris St. George ; Champin graft, scions 
 of two eyes. The shoots were found to be short, about 5 or 
 6 inches long. Only a few rootlets were found on the scions, 
 and many of them were dead already. The proportion of 
 growing grafts was about 63 per cent. Altogether the 
 Mondeuse were growing less vigorously on Kupestris St. 
 George than the Zinfanclel. 
 
 Lenoir grafted with Zinfaudel ; English graft, scions of 
 two eyes. Many of the grafts did not grow, they were 
 found dry and dead ; the few growing were backward in 
 development ; the nourishment came apparently from the 
 reserve food in the cuttings, as there were few or na roots on 
 the stock. Only 28 per cent, were growing. 
 
 American Rulander grafted with Zinfanclel ; English 
 graft, scions of two eyes. Neither scions nor stock had 
 developed roots ; a few were growing somewhat by means of 
 reserve food ; in all 19 per cent. 
 
 Herbemont grafted with Zinfandel ; English graft, scions 
 of two eyes. A few started to grow (about 24 per cent.), 
 but no roots were found on the scions or the stock. 
 
 Cunningham grafted with Zinfandel ; English graft, 
 scions of two eyes. No roots had formed on the scions. 
 The growth was small, and only 26 per cent, showed any. 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier grafted with Zinfandel ; 
 Champin graft, scions of two eyes. The green shoots were 
 5 to 6 inches long, some even smaller (that is, shorter) than 
 those on Rupestris St. George. But few rootlets were found 
 on the scions. The proportion of growing grafts was 58 per 
 cent. 
 
232 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Tokay on Rupestris du Lot; Champin graft, scions of 
 two eyes. The grafts were very well developed, showing 
 abundant foliage. Not many roots were found on the scions, 
 and 87 per cent, were growing. 
 
 Ferrara on Rupestris du Lot ; Champin graft, scions 
 of two eyes. The grafts showed very good growth ; but 
 many roots were found on the scions, and most of them were 
 already well developed. The proportion growing was 96 per 
 cent., which is higher than in any of the other experiments. 
 
 Condition when raffia was cut. The following observations 
 were made from the 28th to the 30th of August, when the 
 raffia was cut : 
 
 In the case of many of the grafts the raffia should have 
 been cut earlier (two or three weeks), the raffia having pre- 
 vented the proper development of the covered unions. In 
 all these cases where the raffia had prevented the proper 
 enlargement of the union, though the parts below and above 
 the raffia showed good development, the scions had developed 
 strong roots. These roots favoured in some cases an un- 
 usually heavy growth of the green parts, often as much a& 
 2 to 3 feet. In these extreme cases when the raffia was cut 
 and the roots of the scions removed, the thin, undeveloped 
 union was unable to support the heavy top, and broke off" 
 at a touch of the spade or a puff of wind. In the first row 
 worked there was a loss of about 3 per cent, from this cause. 
 It was found before the other rows were touched, however, 
 that this loss could be avoided by a heavy pruning-back of 
 the green shoots. This not only lessened the weight of the 
 top, thus preventing breaking, but diminished the evaporat- 
 ing surface of leaves, which was too great for the roots of 
 the stock after those of the scion had been removed. 
 
 The raffia on many grafts (about 20 per cent.) was quite 
 rotten, and cutting was not needed ; very good unions could 
 be observed in all these cases. In other cases the raffia did 
 not show any sign of decaying, and was strong enough to 
 prevent the development of good unions, and was therefore 
 cut. The raffia of the grafts which were planted out im- 
 mediately after grafting, was, contrary to all expectations, 
 still strong, apparently because nearer to the surface and 
 therefore drier. Undoubtedly the raffia should have been 
 cut at least a month earlier on these. 
 
 Conditions when grafts were removed from nursery. 
 The following observations were made from the 26th to the 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 233 
 
 30th of December, when the grafts were taken out of the 
 nursery: 
 
 English grafts with scions of two eyes : 180 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot. Most of the unions were very well 
 joined. The average length of the shoots was from 1 to 2^- 
 feet ; the wood was mature. The roots were well developed 
 and grew mostly straight down to a depth of 3 feet, the fine 
 rootlets even deeper, 4 or 5 feet ; 83 grafts had made good 
 unions, that is 46 per cent.; eleven grafts showed imperfect 
 unions. 
 
 English grafts with scions of one eye: 180 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot. The difference in the development of 
 the grafts with two eyes and with one on the scion was very 
 slightly in favour of the first, and the shoots as well as the 
 roots of the successful grafts looked nearly alike; 51 grafts 
 had developed fine unions, that is 28 per cent. ; twelve grafts 
 made imperfect unions. This experiment shows clearly the 
 advantage of using scions of two eyes for grafting, as 20 per 
 cent, of grafts were lost by using scions with one eye only. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes; 180 Zinfandel 
 on Rupestris du Lot. The unions with this method of 
 grafting did not develop so well as those of the English 
 graft, and though the number of passable unions was 116, 
 they were not of so perfect a character as those of the first 
 experiment, and the number of imperfect unions was 
 greater ; the growth of the shoots was short when compared 
 with the parallel experiment with English grafting. The 
 root system of the stock was well developed, the main roots 
 always going down, with the smaller rootlets mostly 
 horizontal. The main roots had an average length of 3 to 
 4 feet, the shoots a length of about 2 feet. There was 64 per 
 cent, of good unions. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of one eye; 180 Zinfandel on 
 Rupestris du Lot. The unions in this experiment were 
 somewhat inferior to those of the last. A good many roots 
 had formed; all were of smaller diameter than those men- 
 tioned above ; but, like them, going straight down with an 
 average length of 3 feet. The roots were, as a whole, less 
 developed than those of the foregoing experiment. The 
 quality of the unions in this case was decidedly inferior to 
 the parallel experiment with English grafts ; 58 per cent, of 
 the grafts made sufficiently good unions. 
 
"234 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes and one eye, as 
 in the last two experiments, but planted out immediately 
 after grafting without previous callusing in sand; 360 
 Zinfandel on Rupestris du Lot. The unions of the grafts 
 in this experiment were of medium quality, and an especi- 
 ally high amount of second-class grafts were noticed in the 
 lot of 180 grafts with two eyes. The grafts with scions of 
 one eye did, in this experiment, comparatively better than 
 in other parallel experiments, as there was less difference in 
 the percentage of unions ; 28 per cent, of the grafts with 
 two eyes left on the scions had made good unions, and 24 
 per cent, of the grafts with one eye, while in the first case 
 there were found 17 per cent, of grafts with imperfect unions, 
 ajid in the other only 9 per cent. 
 
 Champin grafts with scions of two eyes and one eye, as in 
 last two experiments, but callused in straw; 360 Zinfandel 
 on Rupestris du Lot. The unions of the grafts in this 
 experiment were in every respect inferior to those of the 
 grafts callused in sand, though the shoots were well 
 developed (average length 2 feet), and the roots proportion- 
 ately. There was very little difference in the general 
 appearance of the grafts with two-eye scions and of those 
 with the one-eye scions. The percentage of grown and well- 
 developed grafts of the two kinds are also close together 
 88 grafts grew of the first kind with two eyes, that is at the 
 rate of 49 per cent. ; and 76 grew of the second kind, that 
 is 43 per cent. The second-class grafts with imperfect unions 
 grew at the rate of 17 per cent, and 8 per cent, respectively. 
 
 America grafted with Zinfandel ; ten-year-old roots, scions 
 of two eyes, English graft. Only three grafts had started, 
 and showed imperfect unions and poorly developed shoots. 
 
 Munson grafted with Zinfandel ; thirteen one-year-old 
 roots, scions of two eyes, English graft ; nine of the thirteen 
 grafts grew, that is 69 per cent. The unions were mostly 
 good and strong. The grafts showed a strong root system, 
 but the shoots did not show a proportionate growth. 
 
 Champini grafted with Zinfandel ; ten one-year-old roots, 
 scions of two eyes, English graft. Only a few showed 
 growth, and the unions were very imperfect. 
 
 Elvicand grafted with Zinfandel ; seven one-year-old roots, 
 scions of two eyes, English graft. None had made a good 
 union. 
 
f 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 235 
 
 Mondeuse on Rupestris du Lot; 910 Champin graft, 
 scions of two eyes. The unions of this kind formed 
 better than those of Zinfandel on Rnpestris du Lot ; 
 most of them were well formed and strong. The shoots 
 were well developed, and the roots more numerous than 
 those of the grafts of Zinfandel on Rupestris du Lot 
 with the same kind of treatment. The water level at the 
 time of digging was at a depth of 3 feet, so that the roots 
 could only be followed to a depth of about 4 feet, but they 
 undoubtedly went deeper. It was also observed here that the 
 roots of the Rupestris du Lot penetrated the soil verti- 
 cally through alternating layers of compact soil and layers 
 of coarse but fertile sandy soil without the slightest devia- 
 tion, and sent out an equal growth of secondary rootlets into 
 .all layers, except that most of the finer rootlets and root- 
 hairs were formed on the lower parts of the main roots, 
 3 or more feet deep ; 452 grafts made first-class unions, that 
 is a total of 54 per cent. Moreover, about 10 per cent, made 
 unions that were more or less imperfect. 
 
 Lenoir grafted with Zinfandel ; 96 English grafts, scions 
 of two eyes. Most of the grafts had formed no roots, and 
 only three had started growth, one of which was a strong, 
 good graft, with long, thick roots. 
 
 American Rulander grafted with Zinfandel ; 26 English 
 grafts, scions of two eyes. The grafts were all dead. 
 
 Herbemont grafted with Zinfandel; 21 English grafts, 
 scions of two eyes. The grafts were all dead. 
 
 Cunningham grafted with Zinfandel 27 English grafts, 
 .scions of two eyes. Two grafts showed good unions. They 
 had a well-developed root system with thick roots, which 
 grew horizontally at first and then straight down. Only 
 7 per cent, grew in all. 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier grafted with Zinfandel 
 100 Champin grafts, scions of two eyes. The unions were 
 not of very good quality. The shoots were short and thin 
 and altogether of scanty growth. The roots were mostly 
 thin and branching, but often very long ; most of the main 
 roots did not penetrate the soil, but grew more or less hori- 
 zontally, and scarcely deeper than 1 J feet below the surface. 
 It was noticeable that the roots of the Riparia Gloire de 
 Montpellier followed the softer layers and streaks in the 
 soil and lacked the penetrating power of the Rupestris St. 
 
236 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 George. Only 15 per cent, of the grafts had made good 
 unions, and 12 per cent, of them showed imperfect unions. 
 
 Tokay on Rupestris St. George 100 Champin grafts, 
 scions of two eyes. The unions were nearly all good and 
 strong. The average length of the shoots was 3 feet. The 
 grafts showed a finely-developed root system. with strong* 
 penetratin'g roots, which went directly down into the subsoil. 
 The percentage of well-developed grafts was 60, which is 
 better than the Zinfandel and Mondeuse with the same kind 
 of treatment. There were found only 6 per cent, of imper- 
 fect grafts. 
 
 Ferrara on Rupestris St. George 100 Champin grafts^ 
 scions of two eyes. The unions of this lot were nearly always- 
 found to be well formed, and they were really the best unions 
 in the whole plot. All the shoots were more than 2 feet 
 long, many 3 feet, and a few even 4 feet. The root system 
 showed the same fine development and was fully propor- 
 tionate to the upper development of the grafts. 75 per cent, 
 of the grafts made perfect unions, and 9 per cent, made 
 imperfect unions. 
 
 TABULAR REVIEW OF GRAFTING EXPERIMENTS. 
 Nature of Experiments. Proportion of Unions. Remarks. 
 
 Champin grafts 
 English cleft grafts 
 Scions with two eyes 
 Scions \vith one eye 
 Grafts callused in sand 
 Grafts callused in straw 
 Grafts not callused ... 
 Zinfandel on Rupestris du 
 
 Lot 
 Mondeuse on Rupestris du 
 
 Lot 
 
 Ferrara on Rupestris du Lot 
 Tokay on Rupestris du Lot 
 Rupestris du Lot as stock 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier 
 
 as stock ... 
 Herbemont 
 Lenoir 
 Cunningham 
 American Rulander 
 Munson, rooted vines 
 America, rooted vines 
 Champini, rooted vines 
 Elvicand, rooted vines 
 
 1st 
 Class. 
 
 Per cent. 
 44 
 37 
 46 
 38 
 61 
 46 
 26 
 
 2nd 
 Class. 
 
 Per cent. 
 11 
 
 6 Unions very complete. 
 13 
 
 Unions weak. 
 Growth rather short. 
 
 64 11 Good growth. 
 
 54 
 75 
 
 60 
 64 
 
 10 
 9 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 Good growth. 
 Very strong growth. 
 Strong growth. 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Small growth. 
 Good growth. 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 237 
 
 The figures in the above table must not be taken as repre- 
 senting the exact relative values of the various methods and 
 varieties compared, but taken in connexion with the follow- 
 ing remarks they may be considered as valuable indications. 
 
 A word of explanation is perhaps necessary with regard 
 to certain figures. The 44 per cent, of successful grafts 
 given as the average for Champin grafts and the 37 per 
 cent, for the English cleft grafts are somewhat low, on 
 account of the fact that they include various experiments, 
 some of which were comparative failures, and made only for 
 the sake of comparison and not to attain the maximum 
 number of good grafts. 
 
 The proportion of successful Champin grafts, as shown by 
 the table, is slightly greater than that of the English cleft. 
 The successful English cleft grafts, however, were consider- 
 ably superior to the other in the matter of completeness and 
 strength of the union. The lower percentage is probably 
 due to the fact that the English cleft grafts were placed in 
 the northerly end of the callusing sand heap, where the 
 temperature was too low. (See page 226.) 
 
 The experiments with two-eye and one-eye scions on the 
 whole were in favour of the use of two eyes. The additional 
 chance of success given by two eyes, when the first eye is 
 injured by frost or other cause, no doubt accounts for the 
 higher percentage of success in this case, In the case of 
 the grafts planted out immediately after grafting, the one- 
 eye scions made on the whole the strongest growth. This 
 seems, however, to be due to the fact that the upper eye of 
 the two -eye scions started and broke through the sand early 
 enough to be killed by the spring frosts, while the one-eye 
 scions, being more deeply buried, were later in emerging and 
 escaped the frost. This gave the latter an earlier start, and 
 therefore a longer period of growth, for there was a check 
 of growth and an interval of waste time in the former case 
 between the killing of the upper bud and the starting of the 
 lower. The remedy here, therefore, if this explanation be 
 true, is a deeper layer of sand over the scions, and not the 
 use of only one eye. 
 
 The difference between previously callusing the grafts 
 in sand and planting them directly in the nursery as soon as 
 made is very striking. Those previously callused produced 
 61 per cent, of good unions, while the others produced but 
 
238 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 26 per cent. There was also a difference in the growth of 
 the grafts in favour of those callused in sand. The grafts 
 callused in straw were a disappointment, for, though when 
 planted out they seemed to have callused more successfully 
 than those in sand, they produced only 46 per cent, of 
 sufficiently good unions, and these were weaker than those 
 of the grafts callused in sand. The cause of this was pro- 
 bably the growth of moulds and wood-rot fungi around and 
 in the unions while they were in straw. 
 
 The influence of scions of different varieties on the growth 
 of the grafts is well shown by the four varieties tested. 
 The Mondeuse, though quite satisfactory, gave a smaller 
 percentage of successful grafts than any of the others. 
 They started later than the Zinfandel, and though the 
 growth and root system were somewhat stronger the wood 
 was not quite so well matured. The Zinfandel did very 
 well, giving 64 per cent, of good grafts, and making good 
 growth. The black Ferrara, however, made almost pheno- 
 menal growth, and yielded 75 per cent, of first-class unions. 
 The growth of the Tokay was almost equal to that of the 
 Ferrara, but the number of successful grafts rather less 60 
 per cent. Fig. 179 shows an average Zinfandel graft upon 
 Rupestris St. George in comparison with an average Tokay 
 upon the same stock. It will be noticed that the larger 
 growth of top is accompanied by a corresponding develop- 
 ment of the root system. This dispels the doubt that our 
 very heavy growing varieties, especially table and shipping- 
 grapes, would succeed upon resistant vines, at least as regards- 
 Rupestris du Lot. 
 
 The greater adaptability of Rupestris du Lot for bench- 
 grafting than of Riparia Gloire de Montpellier is well shown 
 in these experiments. Where the Rupestris du Lot gave 
 64 per cent, of first-class grafts, the Riparia Gloire de 
 Montpellier gave only 15 per cent. This is due in great 
 measure to the difference in texture in the wood of the two- 
 species. The Rupestris has thick firm wood, with short 
 joints and small pith, while the wood of the Riparia is softer, 
 more pithy, and longer jointed. In consequence of this 
 difference, it is much qasier to make a well-fitting firm 
 union with the Rupestris than with the Riparia. It would 
 appear from this experiment that grafting in the vineyard 
 when the Riparia is two or three years old would be the 
 best method for varieties of this species. 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 
 
 Fig 179. Vine on left, an average graft of Zinfandel on Rupestris du Lot ; 
 Vine on right, an average graft of Flame Tokay on Rupestris du Lot. 
 
240 
 
 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 t Of the other stock tested, including Lenoir, it is plain, 
 with the possible exception of Munson, that they are 
 unadapted to this method of grafting. This is to a great 
 extent due to the difficulty of making roots with many of 
 these varieties, and their consequent failure to properly feed 
 fche scion. The Munson not only gave a high percentage 
 of first-class grafts, but the unions were particularly good. 
 As this variety's resistance to phylloxera has not been 
 thoroughly tested, however, this success in grafting must not 
 be construed as a proof of its utility as a resistant stock. 
 
 The effect, of failing to cut the raffia or other binding 
 material early enough in the season is well shown by the 
 middle graft of Fig. 180. The graft, as can be seen, had 
 
 Fig. 180. Effect of Black-Knot and of failure to cut the Raffia. 
 
 made a perfect union, but the raffia had been imperfectly 
 removed, one or two turns having been left uncut. This is of 
 course an unusual case, as when the raffia is cut in one place 
 it is usually loosened completely. The same thing occurs, 
 however, when the raffia is not cut at all except that the 
 constricted part is longer, as is the case with the two 
 outer vines. The swelling of the vine above the constriction 
 is due to the difficulty which the food, elaborated by the 
 
f 
 
 / 
 
 BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 
 
 leaves, finds in passing the part where 
 the bark is compressed by the raffia. 
 The large swellings on the two outer 
 vines below the raffia are due to another 
 cause. They are doubtless indicative 
 of disease, and resemble very closely 
 the black-knot which attacks older 
 vines, especially in wet soils. The 
 nature of this disease is not well 
 understood, but as it asually accom- 
 panies an excess of water in the soil it 
 was doubtless due in this case to. heavy 
 rains in late spring after the grafts 
 were planted. 
 
 The accumulation of food material 
 above a constriction of the bark and the 
 consequent starvation of the lower part 
 and root system are similar to what 
 occurs when a vine is girdled. Fig. 
 181 shows an excellent example of this. 
 The vine represented is a Rupestris St. 
 George in the spring after the year it 
 was planted. The first year it made an 
 excellent growth, as evidenced by the 
 roots on the lower part. In the spring 
 of the following year, however, the 
 growth, though at first vigorous, soon 
 stopped and the leaves became yellow. 
 On digging up the vine it represented 
 the appearance shown in the figure. 
 The upper part of the vine had grown 
 to twice the thickness of the previous 
 year down to a point about 4 or 5 
 inches below the surface. Below this 
 point there was no growth at all, and 
 although the roots were still alive they 
 were no larger than the year before. 
 A closer examination revealed the fact 
 that at the point where the change 
 took place the vine had been com- 
 pletely girdled by wire-worms, which 
 had eaten off the bark for about half- 
 an-inch. 
 
 10890. Q 
 
 241 
 
 Figr. 181.- Effect of \Vir 
 Worms on Young- Vine. 
 
242 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 It is unusual for wire-worms to attack such plants as the 
 vine, but the explanation is quickly found. The land in 
 which these Rupestris St. George cuttings were planted had 
 been in grass and hay for several years before, and the roots 
 of grasses being a favorite food for wire-worms they had 
 increased to large numbers. In the spring of the year in 
 which the vines were attacked the land was so thoroughly 
 and carefully cultivated that not a weed was left for the 
 many wire-worms still left in the ground. For this reason 
 they were obliged to attack the only living vegetable 
 substance present. Vines injured as badly as that in the 
 figure died, but the rest were saved by simply digging round 
 each vine and destroying the wire-worms which were con- 
 gregated near each vine at about the same distance from the 
 surface. 
 
 The effect of neglecting to cut the roots which are sent out 
 by the scions is shown in Fig. 182. In the vines shown 
 there the union was good and the top vigorous, but owing 
 to the fact that the roots of the scion were allowed to grow 
 the stock failed to develop. The descending food, which is 
 necessary to the growth of the roots, entered the roots of the 
 scion more easily than it could traverse the irregular and 
 abnormal tissue of the union. Thus there was left a Virii- 
 fera on its own roots with the resistant stock starved and 
 killed. 
 
 COMPAEATIVE EXPERIMENTS IN ROOTING CUTTINGS OF 
 
 RESISTANT STOCKS. 
 
 Rupestris du Lot. 580 cuttings were planted out in 
 the nursery on 18th April, 1 899. Most of those cuttings were 
 the thin tips which could not be grafted on account of their 
 small diameter. No attention beyond the ploughing and 
 cultivation given to the vineyard was given them during the 
 growing period, except that they received one irrigation and 
 one hoeing in June. The roots were nine months old when ' 
 taken from the nursery. The average length of growth of 
 the shoot was 2 feet, usually several were formed on a single 
 plant. The root system was well developed, and from four 
 to six main roots could be counted in most cases on one vine. 
 All the roots were long, strong, and tough, and grew to a 
 depth of 3 to 5 feet ; 480 cuttings had made good rooted 
 vines, that is 83 per cent, of the cuttings planted. 
 
 Kiparia Gloire de Montpellier. 40 cuttings were planted 
 and received the same care as the cuttings of the Rupestris- 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 
 
 24;* 
 
 du Lot. The vines showed scanty growth when taken out 
 of the soil. The average length of the shoots was from 
 1 to 2 feet, but only a few developed on each vine. The root 
 
 Fig. 182. Effect of Failing to Cut Off the Roots of the Scion. 
 
 Q ^ 
 
244 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 system was entirely different from that of the Rupestris St. 
 George. Very few of the main roots went down to the 
 moist regions of the soil ; most of the main roots were 
 superficial, growing about 1 foot below the surface, and 
 sending out small rootlets. The roots were not strong, but 
 rather brittle, and broke easily ; 32 cuttings out of 40 were 
 well rooted, that is 80 per cent. 
 
 Solonis. 45 cuttings were planted in the spring, and 
 were treated like the preceding. The following observations 
 were made on the vines when taken out in the winter : The 
 shoots were thin and of an average length of 2 feet. The 
 roots were well developed and grew down to the moist 
 depths, although not so straight as the roots of the Rupestris 
 St. George. The small rootlets and root hairs were only 
 formed at the end of roots 3 to 4 feet deep in the soil. The 
 main roots were thicker than those of Rupestris St. George 
 and Riparia Gloire de Montpellier. 
 
 The difference in character of the root systems of Rupes- 
 tris, Riparia, and Solonis is well shown by Fig. 183. These 
 are average specimens of the vines rooted at the St. 
 Helena plot in 1899. The tendency of the Riparia to send 
 out horizontal or even slightly rising roots is illustrated. 
 In extreme cases the roots were found to start toward the 
 surface at an angle of about 45, and after rising in this way 
 for several inches to become horizontal. About two-thirds 
 of the roots took this horizontal direction, and the remainder 
 went down at various angles, some being nearly vertical. 
 
 The cause of the failure of the Riparia in the upper part 
 of the Napa Valley is evidently to be found here. The heat 
 and continual drought of summer penetrates to these hori- 
 zontal roots, destroy the root hairs, and deprive the vine of 
 water exactly at the time it is most needed. The more deeply 
 penetrating roots are too weak, and too few to supply the 
 amount of water needed by the evaporating leaf surface. 
 This lack of adjustment of the supply of water to the demand 
 is increased when the Riparia is grafted with strong growing 
 Vinifera varieties. This is evidenced by the many grafted 
 vines which die in their second or third year. 
 
 The deeply-penetrating roots of the Rupestris shown in 
 th e figure explain the resistance of this species to drought. 
 All the roots of this young vine penetrated deeply into the 
 soil in a direction more or less approaching the vertical. As 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 
 
 245 
 
246 MANUAL OF MODEKN VITICULTUHE. 
 
 the vine grows older, as we have found by the examination 
 of three-year-old Rupestris St. George vines, secondary roots 
 are sent out in a direction more approaching the Ijorizontal. 
 These utilize the upper layers of soil, but as they constitute 
 but a small part of the whole root system and injury to them 
 is not severely felt by the vine. 
 
 An injury to the lower roots, however, is more injurious 
 to the Rupestris. This explains the unsuitableness of this 
 species for badly-drained soils, and for soils where the water 
 level is high for a long time in winter and spring, and espe- 
 cially for those irrigated districts where the water level rises 
 during the growing period of spring and summer. The 
 standing water causes the root hairs on the main part of the 
 root system to decay, and deprived thus of its only means 
 of obtaining water the Rupestris dies of drought as truly 
 as does the Riparia when the main part of its rootlets and 
 root hairs are destroyed by the heat and dryness of summer. 
 
 The strong sturdy growth of the Rupestris du Lot, 
 as compared with the comparatively slender growth of what 
 seems to be the best of the Riparias, is also well shown by- 
 the figures. This makes the Rupestris du Lot particu- 
 larly valuable as a stock for our heav}^-growing varieties of 
 Yinifera. This heavy growth of the grafts on Rupestris 
 .du Lot has been fonnd in France to have a tendency to make 
 them bear poorly and " go to wood." This, however, may 
 be considered a good fault, as it is easily counteracted by 
 more generous pruning, by leaving a larger number of buds, 
 and thus by diverting the whole vigour of the vine into a 
 larger number of shoots, decreasing the vigour of each and 
 increasing their fertility. Some grape-growers, especially in 
 the South of France, report enormous crops on vines grafted 
 on Rupestris St. George. 
 
 Following are descriptions of the three varieties of resis- 
 tant stock which at present give the most promise of being 
 adapted to California. The leaves of the three varieties are 
 shown on the title page. 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier. (Synonyms Riparia 
 Portalis, Riparia Michel, Riparia Saporta.) This is one of 
 the most vigorous of all the varieties of Riparia, and is 
 equalled only by the Riparia Grand Glabre and the Scrib- 
 ner Riparia. The stem or trunk is thick ; canes spreading, 
 long, with elongated internodes of medium thickness, 
 slightly bent at the nodes (giving the canes a faint zigzag 
 
BENCH-GRAFTING RESISTANT VINES. 247 
 
 -appearance), of a light nut colour, smooth, rather shining, 
 and a little pruinose near the eyes when the wood is well 
 ripened ; young shoots of a light purple ; leaves large to very 
 large, thick, elongated, somewhat bulging between the main 
 nerves, dark green and shining on the upper surface, lighter 
 green on the under side, with a few stiff hairs on the ribs ; 
 the petiolar sinus is open, U-shaped ; the upper lobes are 
 well marked by large elongated teeth, the lower barely 
 marked at all ; the teeth are sharply pointed and in two 
 series (see figure on title page); the roots are slender and 
 spreading like all varieties of Riparia (see Fig. 183). Re- 
 sistance to phylloxera, 18. 
 
 Rupestris da Lot. (Synonyms Rupestris St. George, 
 Rupestris Phenomene, Rupestris Sijas, Rupestris Monticola, 
 Rupestris St. George erige, Rupestris Lacastelle, Rupestris 
 Colineau, Rupestris Reich, Rupestris Richter.) This variety 
 is extremely vigorous and produces a very strong thick 
 stem ; canes erect (the main laterals spreading), with short 
 iuternodes and prominent nodes ; leaves small, wider than 
 long, with metallic sheen, undulating edges, and relatively 
 thin, those of the laterals often very small and somewhat 
 bronzed at the tips. In hot weather the leaves fold in two at 
 the mid-rib, but less than most varieties of Rupestris. The 
 roots are long and strong, and not so slender as those of 
 other varieties of Rupestris. Resistance to phylloxera, 16. 
 
 Soloms. A vigorous strong grower ; canes spreading, 
 with patches of whitish hairs, which become light brownish 
 grey in autumn ; leaves of medium size, upper lobes marked 
 by very long teeth, lower lobes lacking ; teeth very long 
 acuminate, in two series ; petiolar sinus widely open. The 
 leaves are covered with white web-like hairs when young, 
 becoming almost glabrous when old, except on the ribs and 
 petiole ; roots strong and intermediate in direction between 
 those of Riparia and Rupestris (see Fig. 183). Resistance to 
 phylloxera, 14. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 1. Every grape-grower should insure against phylloxera 
 ty testing the most promising resistant vines on his own 
 place, and by learning the niethods of bench-grafting. 
 
 2. Jt is unsafe to attempt operations on a large scale with 
 cuttings imported from abroad, on account of the danger of 
 injury to such cuttings on the journey. 
 
248 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 3. A cutting graft of suitable varieties makes as large 
 and vigorous growth as a simple cutting, so that by the 
 method of bench-grafting no time is lost in establishing a 
 resistant vineyard. 
 
 4. Resistant varieties which are difficult to root but easy 
 to graft when old, such as Lenoir, should not be bench- 
 grafted. 
 
 5. Care in callusing, planting, and treatment in nursery, 
 and especially in keeping the grafts moist from the time they 
 are made till they are in the callusing bed, will enable even 
 an inexperienced grafter to obtain at least 60 per cent, of 
 good grafted plants. 
 
 6. The Milestone should be washed off the outside of the 
 raffia before tying, or it will injure the bark of the graft. 
 
 7. Callusing in sand insures more perfect unions and a 
 larger percentage of successful grafts than planting directly 
 in the nursery. 
 
 8. The moisture in the callusing bed should not be exces- 
 sive and the temperature should be relatively warm. 
 
 9. The growing grafts should be watched closely, in order 
 to see that the roots of the scions are removed before they 
 become large, and that the raffia is cut before it strangles 
 the graft. 
 
 10. The English cleft graft is preferable to the Champin 
 graft, because it gives more perfect unions and can be made 
 with more accuracy and rapidity. 
 
 1 1 . Scions of two eyes are preferable to those of one eye, 
 as they give more chances of success. 
 
 12. Rupestris St. George seems to be remarkably adapted 
 to California soils (except the heaviest clays) and conditions, 
 and is to be preferred "to any variety yet tested here whenever 
 deep penetration of roots is possible and desirable. 
 
 13. All the eyes of the Rupestris stock should be cut out 
 deeply and carefully. 
 
 14. A vigorous and large growing Vinifera scion promotes 
 an equally vigorous and large growth of Rupestris St. 
 George used as stock. 
 
 NUMBER OF VINE SEEDS CONTAINED IN 1 POUND. 
 
 Jacquez ... 15,545 
 
 Herbemont ... 18,600 
 
 Cunningham ... 14,545 
 
 Wild Riparia 25,820 
 
 Solonis 8,300 
 
 Taylor 1Q,000 
 
 V. California ... 8,910 
 
 V. Berlandieri ... 12,000 
 

 LIFE HISTORY OF PHYLLOXERA. 249 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF PHYLLOXERA. 
 (By R. Dubois.) 
 
 The phylloxera vastatrix is seen under different forms- 
 some above ground, others under ground. These are 
 1st, apterous agamous (above and under ground) ; 2nd> 
 nymptia (under ground) ; 3rd, winged agamous (above 
 ground) and sexed (above ground). These different forms- 
 proceed from a common origin. 
 
 1ST. APTEROUS AGAMOUS. 
 
 The Apterous agamous forms are hatched from the egg of 
 the sexed. They usually appear in the Mediterranean 
 climate in April. > They are easily recognised by their rapid 
 movements, and their pale-yellow, rather grey colour, the 
 length of their legs and antenna, and the rigid hair covering 
 these organs. They crawl on the shoots or travel down on 
 the roots in the soil, according to more or less favorable 
 conditions of the atmosphere. 
 
 (a) Galli cole life. In the first case the insect punctuates 
 the parenchyma of the young leaves, herbaceous tender 
 shoots, and even tendrils,, producing galls, in which it fixes 
 itself and constitutes, after three successive moultings, a 
 laying mother. It then becomes swollen and more volumi- 
 nous, laying a large number of eggs (pseudova) in the pouch 
 thus formed. These eggs hatch after a very short period. 
 The youngs of this second generation crawl in turn on to the 
 top leaves, forming new galls, or travel down on the roots, 
 as the case may be. The multiplication of this gallicole 
 form may continue until the fall of the leaves if circum- 
 stances are favorable. 
 
 (b) Radicole life. The insects penetrating underground 
 fix themselves on the roots, and may be divided into two 
 groups those which, like the gallicole, pass after a series of 
 three moultings to the state of laying mothers, and those 
 which after five moultings reach the state of nymphce. 
 
 1st. Laying mothers very similar to those above ground, 
 lay, without being fecundated, from 25 to 30 pseudova, at the 
 rate of two to three for four or five days, after which they 
 die. The pseudova, hatched eight to ten days after, give 
 birth to young, which may come out of the ground through 
 the natural crevices of the soil, and, carried by the wind, 
 may fix themselves on other roots. This new generation 
 
250 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 passes through the same phases as the preceding, and the 
 multiplication continues until the end of October or the 
 beginning of November. 
 
 At that time the laying mothers die, the young ones, 
 recently hatched, spend the winter under the roots in a state 
 of complete torpor. They then assume a brown colour, and 
 become very attenuated. In April the hybernating insect 
 continues the series of agamous generations, and this mode 
 of multiplication may last four years at least. 
 
 2nd. The apterous which do not become laying mothers 
 reach, as we have seen, the state of nympha, after five 
 naoultings, in July. 
 
 2ND. NYMPELE. 
 
 The nymphge have a longer body and a browner colour, 
 and are provided with two winged sheaths of darker colour. 
 After a fortnight the nymphce come out of the ground, and 
 become winged after the last moulting. 
 
 SRD. WINGED AGAMOUS. 
 
 The winged insect resembles a very small fly. It has a 
 long, yellow body, provided with four transparent wings 
 longer than the body and unequal in size, the two upper 
 wings being longer. The winged insect flies, and may be 
 carried by wind to a great distance. It is undoubtedly the 
 principal agent of propagation of the disease to great dis- 
 tances. It stops under the leaves, and lays, without fecun- 
 dation, from three to six pseudova, some being large, others 
 small, from which the sexed are born. 
 
 4TH. SEXED. 
 
 The females are hatched from the large pseudova and the 
 males from the small. These insects are apterous, without 
 beaks or organ of digestion. The female lays one egg, 
 from which are hatched in the following spring new genera- 
 tions of apterous agamous, which we studied previously. 
 
 This egg, which is called winter egg, because it remains 
 under the bark of two-year-old wood (just below the spur of 
 the year) during the whole winter without hatching, was 
 proved by V. Mayet as generally found on stumps which 
 have carried galls many years running. 
 
 We condense in the following table the biological cycle 
 of phylloxera : 
 
LIFE HISTORY OF PHYLLOXERA. 
 
 251 
 
252 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL SCIENTIFIC 
 TERMS USED IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.* 
 
 ABNORMAL Contrary to the general rule. 
 
 ABORTIVE An organ or flower is said to be abortive when its development 
 
 has been arrested at a very early stage. 
 ACUMINATE, leaf (Bot.) Ending in a sharp point. 
 ADAPTABILITY The quality of being capable of adaptation. 
 ADAPTATION When speaking of a plant, that act or process of adapting 
 
 itself to certain conditions of the surroundings. 
 ALLUVIAL (Geol.) Composed of alluvium ; relating to the deposits made 
 
 by flowing waters, washed away from one place and deposited in 
 
 another, as alluvial soil. 
 ALPINE DILUVIUM (Geol.) A deposit of superficial loam, sand, gravel, 
 
 stone, &c., caused by former action of flowing waters, or the melting 
 
 of glacial ice in the Alp ranges, South of France. 
 AMPELOPSIS (Bot.) A family of plants closely related to Vitis, commonly 
 
 called Virginian creepers. 
 ANALOGOUS See Analogy. 
 ANALOGY That resemblance of structure which depends upon similarity 
 
 of relations. Such structures are said to be analogous or analogues to 
 
 each other. 
 
 ANASTOMOSIS Intercommunication between two or more vessels. 
 ANTHERS (Bot.) The summits of the stamens of flowers in which the 
 
 pollen or fertilizing dust is produced. 
 
 APEX (Bot.) The tip, top, point, or summit of a leaf or stem. 
 ARANEOUS (Bot. ) Cobweblike ; extremely thin and delicate down on vine 
 
 leaves. 
 AREOLAR Filled with interstices or small spaces, as between the fibres. 
 
 composing organs or vessels of plants. 
 ASYMETRICAL Having the two sides unlike. 
 ATAVISM See Reversion, 
 ATROPINE A white crystallizable poison, extracted from different plants, 
 
 remarkable for its power of dilating the pupil of the eye. 
 AUTOFECUNDATION Self-impregnation. 
 BATHONIAN Applied to rocks belonging to a certain division of the 
 
 Jurassic age. The term refers to the age of the rocks alone, and not 
 
 to their character or composition. 
 
 BIFURCATION A forking or division into two branches. 
 BINARY HYBRID Hybrid resulting from the crossing of two cepages only. 
 BLOOM When speaking of fruit, the delicate powdery external coating, as- 
 
 on grapes. 
 BOLTED SULPHUR Roll sulphur, sifted by means of a bolter, and reduced 
 
 to a fine powder. 
 
 CALCAREOUS Partaking of the nature of limestone. 
 CALYX The outer covering of a flower. 
 CAMBIUM (Bot.) A series of formative cells lying outside the wood proper 
 
 and inside of the inner bark ; the growth of the new wood takes place 
 
 in the Cambium, which is very soft. 
 
 * This glossary has been given because several viticulturists have complained that 
 some of the terms used in previous publications were unintelligible to them. (Trans. 
 
GLOSSARY. 253 
 
 CAMBRIAN FORMATION (Geol.) A series of very ancient palaeozoic rocks, 
 
 between the Laurentian and Silurian, until recently regarded as the 
 
 oldest fossiliferous rocks. It is named from its occurrence in Cambria, 
 
 or Wales. 
 
 CARBONATE OF LIME Limestone. 
 CARBONIC ACID GAS This term is generally applied to a compound of 
 
 carbon and oxygen, more correctly called carbon dioxide. 
 CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION (Geol.) A series of rocks, including sand- 
 stone, shales, limestone, and conglomerates with beds of coal, which 
 
 make up the strata of the carboniferous age. 
 
 CARTILAGINOUS or CARTILAGINEOUS. Firm and tough, like cartilage. 
 CELL (Biol. ) One of the minute elementary structures of which the greater 
 
 part of the various tissues and organs of plants is composed. 
 CEPAGE (French). H*e no equivalent in English. Any vine when under 
 
 cultivation . 
 CHALAZE or CHALAZA (Bot.) The place on the seed where the outer coats 
 
 cohere with each other and the nucleus. 
 CHALAZIC DEPRESSION (Bot.) Natural depression in a seed formed by the 
 
 chalaze. 
 CHLOROSIS (Bot.) A disease in plants causing the leaves to lose their 
 
 normal green colour and turn yellow. 
 CILIA, sing. CILIUM (Bot.) Small microscopic vibrating appendages found 
 
 on some vegetable organisms. 
 COLLOID NATURE Of the nature of glue or gum. 
 CONCAVE Said of the interior of a curved surface. 
 CONCRETION (Geol.) Rounded mass or nodule produced by the aggregation 
 
 of the material round a centre, as, the calcareous concretions common 
 
 in beds of clay. 
 CONGLOMERATE (Geol.) A bed of fragments of rock, or pebbles, cemented 
 
 together by other material. 
 CONICALLY Having the general shape of a geometrical cone, round, and 
 
 tapering to a point, or gradually decreasing in circumference. 
 CONVEX Said of the outside of a curved surface in opposition to concave. 
 CORALLIAN (Geol.) A deposit of coralliferous limestone forming a portion 
 
 of the middle division of the oolite. 
 CORDIFORM or CORDATE Having the general shape of a heatt, as a cordi- 
 
 form leaf. 
 COROLLA The second envelope of a flower usually composed of coloured 
 
 leaf -like organs (petals) and may be united by their edges in the top 
 
 part, as in vine flowers. 
 
 CORONA OF THE STIGMA Crown-like appendage at the top of the stigma. 
 CRETACEOUS FORMATION (Geol.) The series of strata of various kinds con- 
 taining beds of chalk, green sand, also called chalk formation. 
 CRYPTOGAM (Bot.) Plants belonging to the series or division of flower-less 
 
 plants, propagated by spores, and generally living as parasites on other 
 
 plants. A fungus is a cryptogam. 
 CRYPTOGAMIC DISEASE An alteration in the state or the function of a 
 
 plant, caused by a cryptogam such as mildew, black rot, &c. 
 CUPRIC. Containing copper. 
 
 CUTICLE OF A VINE LEAF The outermost skin of the leaf. 
 DEFOLIATION The falling or shedding of the leaves. 
 DESICCATION The state of being dried up or deprived of moisture. 
 DEVONIAN FORMATION (Geol.) A series of Palaeozoic rocks, including the 
 
 old red sandstone. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM (Bot.) Partition of wood separating the pith of two inter- 
 nodes in a vine cane. 
 DILUVIUM See Alpine Diluvium. 
 DISCOID Having a circular structure like the berries of certain vines. 
 
254 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 ELONGATED or ELONGATE Drawn out in length, as an elongated leaf. 
 
 EMARGINATE (Bot. ) When speaking of a leaf, means that, in en tire leaves, 
 the limb becomes narrow suddenly below the two teeth forming the 
 two lateral lobes. 
 
 ENTIRE (Bot.) When speaking of a leaf, means one consisting of a single 
 piece, having a continuous edge without any lobes. 
 
 EOCENE (Geol ) The earliest of the three divisions of the Tertiary epoch 
 of geologists. Rocks of this age contain shells. 
 
 EXCISION The act of cutting out or cutting off. 
 
 EXCORIATED When speaking of bark, means that detaching in strips. 
 
 EXFOLIATING When speaking of bark, that separating from the trunk and 
 coming off in long pieces. 
 
 FECUND Fruitful ; prolific. 
 
 FERTILITY The state of being fruitful or producing offspring. 
 
 FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES Vegetable tissue composed partly of sap 
 tubes. 
 
 FILAMENT (Bot.) The thread-like part of the stamen supporting the 
 anther. 
 
 FILIFORM Having the shape of a thread or filament. 
 
 FLORESCENCE (Bot.) The bursting into flower or blossoming. 
 
 FLUTED TRUNK Trunk with natural grooves situated lengthwise. 
 
 FOSSILIFEROUS (Geol.) Containing fossils. 
 
 FRUCTIFEROUS (Bot.) Bearing or producing fruit. 
 
 FRUCTIVITY (Bot. ) The quality of bearing fruit. 
 
 FUNGI, sing. FUNGUS (Bot.) A class of cellular and flowerless plants be- 
 longing to the cryptogams. 
 
 FUSION OF CHARACTERS When speaking of a hybrid, means that the 
 characters of both parents are united in the offspring. 
 
 GALL, of phylloxera An excrescence produced on the leaves of American 
 vines by one of the wingless forms of phylloxera. 
 
 GARIGUES SOILS Red, siliceous, dry loam, covering the rock formation of 
 certain hills in the South of France. 
 
 GLABROUS Smooth, having a surface wiihout hairs. 
 
 GLAND An organ which secretes some peculiar product from the sap of 
 plants. 
 
 GLAUCOUS Of a sea-green colour j of a dull green passing into greyish- 
 blue. 
 
 GLOBULAR Having the form of a ball or sphere. 
 
 GOFFERED or GAUFFERED Crimped like the leaves of some vines. 
 
 GRANITE A rock consisting essentially of crystals of felspar and mica in 
 mass of quartz. 
 
 GROIES (French) Applies to certain calcareous soils of the Charante dis- 
 trict. 
 
 HERBACEOUS Having the nature, texture, or characteristics of a herb ; a 
 shoot in a green state. 
 
 HERMAPHRODITE Possessing the organs of both sexes. 
 
 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE When speaking of vine leaves, a symmetrically 
 uneven, wrinkly, or goffered surface. See Goffered. 
 
 HUMID Containing sensible moisture ; damp ; moist. 
 
 HUMIDITY Moisture ; dampness ; a moderate degree of wetness percep- 
 tible to the eye or touch. 
 
 HUMIFEROUS Containing humus. 
 
 HUMUS That portion of the soil formed by the decomposition of animal 
 or vegetable matter. It is a valuable constituent of soil. 
 
 HYBERNATE or HIBERNATE To pass the winter in close quarters, in a. 
 torpid or dormant state, as phylloxera. 
 
 HYBRID The offspring of the union of two different species. 
 
 HYBRIDIZATION The act of hybridizing. 
 
GLOSSARY. 255 
 
 HYBRIDIZE To produce a crossing between two species. 
 HYPHAE The long branching filaments of which the mycelium of a fungus- 
 is formed. 
 
 IMBIBITION The act of absorbing. 
 
 INDENTATION A notch or recess in the margin of a leaf. 
 INDENTED Notched along the margin ; cut on the edge into points, like 
 
 teeth. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants. 
 INTERNODE The space between two nodes or points of the stem from which 
 
 the leaves properly arise. 
 
 INTERSTICES Spaces between closely set soils or rocks. 
 INTRINSIC Real, inherent, not merely apparent or accidental. 
 INULIN A substance found dissolved in the sap of the roots of many Com- 
 posite and other plants. It is intermediate in nature between starch 
 
 and sugar. 
 JURASSIC (Geol.) Of the age of the middle Mesozoic, named from certain 
 
 rocks in the Jura mountains. 
 
 JUXTAPOSITION Being placed side by side with opposite parts corres- 
 ponding. 
 KNIT United ; joined, so as to grow together. Used as a noun, mean* 
 
 the parts joined together ; the union. 
 LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS (Geol.) The deposits which have been accumulated 
 
 in fresh water areas. 
 
 LAMINATED STRATA (Geol.) Divided into thin layers. 
 LANCEOLATE LEAF Rather narrow, tapering to a point at the apex. 
 LANCINATED Torn ; lacerated. 
 LANIGEROUS Bearing woolly hair. 
 LANUGINOUS Covered with down. 
 LENTICLES (Bot.) Small, oval, or rounded spots upon the stem or branches 
 
 of a plant. Small lens-shaped glands on the under face of some 
 
 leaves. 
 LESION Change in the texture of a vegetable organ resulting from an 
 
 injury. 
 
 LIBER The inner bark of plants, lying next to the wood. 
 LIGNEOUS (Bot.) Of the nature of, or resembling wood. 
 LIGNIFI CATION ( Bot. ) Change in the character of an herbaceous shoot by 
 
 which it becomes harder or woody. 
 
 LIGNIFIED (Bot.) Converted into wood or into ligneous substance. 
 LIMB, of a leaf (Bot.) The flat part of the leaf of any plant. 
 LITTORAL Bordering the seashore 
 LOAM A soil formed of a mixture of clay and sand with organic matter, to 
 
 which its fertility is chiefly due. 
 LOBATED or LOBATE (Bot.) Having lobes. 
 LOBE A rounded projection or division of a leaf. 
 MARGIN, of a leaf The outer edge or border. 
 MARL A mixed soil, consisting of carbonate of lime, clay, and sand in very 
 
 variable proportions, and accordingly designated as calcareous, clayey, 
 
 or sandy. 
 MEDULLARY RAYS (Bot.) The rays of cellular tissues seen in a transverse 
 
 section of exogenous wood, which run from the pith to the bark. 
 METIS The offspring of the union of two varieties of the same species. 
 METIZATION The act of producing a crossing bet .veeii two varieties of the 
 
 same .species. 
 
 MIOCENE (Geol.) Middle division of the tertiary. 
 MORPHOLOGY The law of form or structure, independent of function. 
 MUCRO (Bot.) A minute, abrupt point of a leaf. 
 MYCELIUM (Bot.) The white threads or filamentous growth from which a. 
 
 mushroom or fungus is developed ; the so-called mushroom spawn. 
 
256 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 NITROGEN A colourless gas composing four-fifths of the atmosphere by 
 volume. It is incapable of supporting life, but forms many important 
 compounds, as ammonia, nitric acid, &c., and is a constituent of all 
 organized living tissues, animal or vegetable. 
 
 NODE (Bot.) The joint of a stem, or the part where the leaf is inserted. 
 NODOSITIES Small swellings produced on vine roots by phylloxera. 
 NODI:LE A round mass of irregular shape. 
 NORMAL According to an established rule. (Geom. ) Perpendicular to 
 
 a surface or forming a right angle with it. 
 
 NUCLEUS (Bot.) A wh'ole seed, as contained within the seed coats. 
 NUTRITION A process or series of processes by which the living organism 
 
 is maintained in its normal conditions of life and growth 
 NUTRITIVR MATTERS Matters having the quality of nourishing. 
 OBTUSE Not pointed or acute ; blunt. 
 
 OCHEROUS SOILS Containing an impure earthy ore of iron, or a ferru- 
 ginous clay. Such soils are usually red or yellow. 
 OOLITIC A great series of sec mdary rocks, so called from the texture of 
 
 some of its members, which appear to be made up of small egg-like 
 
 calcareous bodies. 
 OOSPORE (Bot. ) A special kind of spore resulting from the fertilization of 
 
 of an oosphere by antherozoids. 
 
 OPERCULUM Any lid-shaped structure in a leaf or flower. 
 ORBICULAR Having a spherical form. 
 OVA, sing. OVUM (Bot.) Eggs. 
 OVATE (Bot.) Having the snape of an egg, that is to say, an oval border 
 
 at the base. 
 
 OVOID (Bot.) Resembling an egg in shape. 
 OVULE, of plants The seed in the earliest condition. 
 
 OXFORDIAN (Geol.) Applied to rocks of a certain age in the Jurassic series. 
 PARABOLA. A kind of geometrical curve ; one of the conic sections formed 
 
 by the intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane parallel to one 
 
 of its sides. 
 
 PARASITE (Bot.) A plant living upon or in another plant. 
 PARENCHYMA (Bot.) The soft cellular substance of the tissues of plants, 
 
 like the pulp of leaves. 
 PEDICLE or PEDICEL (Bot ) A stalk which supports one flower or fruit. 
 
 One of the many divisions of a peduncle. 
 PEDUNCLE (Bot.) The stem or stalk which supports a cluster of flowers 
 
 or fruits. 
 
 PENTAGONAL LEAF Having five sides. 
 
 PERMEABILITY The quality or state of being passed through. 
 PETALS (Bot.) The leaves of the corolla, a second circle of organs in a 
 
 flower. 
 PETIOLAR SINUS Depression between two adjoining lobes into which the 
 
 petiole is inserted. 
 PETIOLE A leaf stalk ; the stalk connecting the stem with the blade or 
 
 limb. 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL Relating to the science of the functions of living 
 
 organisms. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY Study dealing with vegetable or animal life, 
 PINCHING (Hort.) Operation consisting in cutting about one inch off the 
 
 extremity of young shoots a little before or directly after florescence. 
 PISTIL (Bot. ) The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in 
 
 the centre of other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into 
 
 the ovary, the style, and the stigma. 
 PITH (Bot.) The soft, spongy substance in the centre of the stem of many 
 
 plants. 
 PLANE or PLAIN A flat, level, smooth, even surface. 
 
GLOSSARY. 257 
 
 PLASTICITY Retaining any impressed form or shape. 
 
 POLLEN (Bot.) The male element in flowering plants, usually a fine dust 
 produced by the anthers, which by contact with the stigma effects the 
 fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by 
 tubes (pollen tubes) which issue from the pollen grains adhering to 
 the stigma and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the 
 ovary. 
 
 POLYGAMUS PLANTS Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and 
 others hermaphrodite. 
 
 POURRIDIE (Fretich) Disease on the roots of vines caused by different 
 fungi. 
 
 PROCREATION Generation or production of young. 
 
 PRODUCTIVITY The quality or state of being productive. 
 
 PROTOPLASM More or less granular material of vegetable and animal cells, 
 the so-called "physical basis of life," the original cell substance. 
 
 PROTUBERANCE A swelling or prominence, such as the protuberance of a 
 node. 
 
 PUBESCENT Covered with fine short hairs, as the leaves of some vines. 
 
 PYCNIDIA, sing. PICNIDIUM (Bot.) One of certain minute sporiferous 
 organs found in certain fungi. 
 
 QUATERNARY TUFA (Geol.) A soft porous stone formed by deposition 
 from water, usually calcareous, belonging to the quaternary age. 
 
 RADICEL (Bot.) A small branch of a root ; a rootlet. 
 
 RAPHE or RHAPHE (Bot. ) The continuation of the seed stalk along the 
 side of an anatropous seed, forming a ridge or stem. 
 
 REVERSION To return towards some ancestral type or character ; atavism. 
 
 KIB (Bot.) The chief nerve or one of the chief nerves of a leaf ; also any 
 longitudinal ridge on a stem, as in V. Berlandieri. 
 
 ROUNDED LEAF Having a curved outline without lobes. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY Very imperfectly developed ; in an early stage of develop- 
 ment. 
 
 RUGOSE, leaf Having the veinlets sunken and the spaces between them 
 elevated. 
 
 SCHIST Any crystalline rock having a foliated structure. 
 
 SCHISTOSE SOILS Are usually metamorphic clays. 
 
 SCION A piece of branch cut for grafting into another. 
 
 SEMI Prefix signifying half, as in semi-erect, semi-climbing habit, &c. 
 
 SEPALS The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an 
 ordinary flower. They are usually green. 
 
 SHOULDERED GRAPES Those in which the two ramifications of the base 
 are well developed. 
 
 SIEVE TUBES (Bot.) Also called cribriform tubes. Those having here and 
 there places perforated with many holes. 
 
 SILICA Quartz, silicon dioxide. 
 
 SILICEOUS NODULES See Nodule. 
 
 SILICEOUS or SILICIOUS SOILS Those containing silica or quartz. 
 
 SILURIAN (Geol.) A term applied to the earliest of the Palseozoic strata. 
 
 SINUS (PI. SINI or SINUSES) A depression between adjoining lobes in a 
 leaf. 
 
 SPECIES An ideal group of individuals which are believed to have 
 descended from common ancestors, which agree in essential characters 
 and are capable of indefinitely continued fertile reproduction through 
 the sexes. A species as thus defined differs from a variety or sub- 
 species only in the greater stability of its characters and in the absence 
 of individuals intermediate between the related groups. 
 
 SPORANGIA, sing. SPORANGIUM (Bot.) A spore case in fungi. 
 
 SPORE (Bot.) One of the minute grains in flowerless plants which are 
 analogous to seeds, as serving to reproduce the species. 
 
 10890. B 
 
258 MANUAL OF MODERN VITICULTURE. 
 
 STAMENS The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within 
 the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, being the 
 essential part in which the pollen or fecundating dust is formed. 
 
 STERILE Incapable of reproduction ; not able to germinate or bear fruit, 
 as a sterile flower, which bears only stamens. 
 
 STIGMA The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. 
 
 STOCK, grafting Part which bears the scion in plants. 
 
 STOMATA, sing. STOMA (Bot.) The line of opening of a spore case. 
 
 STRATA, sing. STRATUM (Geol.) Beds of earth or rock of one kind formed 
 by natural causes, and consisting usually of a series of layers. 
 
 STRIATED Marked with striae, or fine grooves or lines ; showing narrow 
 structural bands of lines. 
 
 STYLE (Bot.) The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a 
 column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. 
 
 SUBEREOUS TISSUE (suberous or suberose) Having a corky texture. 
 
 SUBLIMATE SULPHUR Lemon-yellow powder, called flower of sulphur, 
 obtained by distillation of raw sulphur. 
 
 SUB-MEDIUM Under the average. 
 
 SUB-ORBICULAR Having an elliptic outline. 
 
 SuB-RiBS Secondary ramifications of the ribs of a leaf. 
 
 SUB-VEINS Same meaning as sub-ribs. 
 
 SULPHATE OF COPPER Compound of sulphuric acid and copper, commonly 
 called bluestone. 
 
 SULPHATE OF IRON Compound of sulphuric acid and iron, commonly called 
 green vitriol. 
 
 TENDRIL (Bot. ) A slender leafless portion of a plant, by which it becomes 
 attached to a supporting body, after which the tendril usually con- 
 tracts by coiling spirally. The tendrils of a vine are metamorphosed 
 grapes. 
 
 TERNARY HYBRID Hybrid resulting from the crossing of three c^pages. 
 
 TERTIARY The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the estab- 
 lishment of the present order of things. 
 
 TOMETOSE (Bot.) Covered with matty woolly hairs. 
 
 TOMENTUM (Bot.) The closely matted hair or downy nap covering the 
 leaves or stems of some plants. 
 
 TOOTH Angular or rounded prominence on the margin or edge of a leaf. 
 
 TRILOBATE Having three lobes. 
 
 TRITURATED SULPHUR Ordinary roll sulphur ground into a powder. 
 
 TUBEROSITIES Knob-like prominences developing on vine roots attacked 
 by phylloxera. 
 
 TUFA See quaternary tufa. 
 
 UNDULATING LEAF Rising and falling like waves. 
 
 VARIATION A varied form of a variety. 
 
 VARIETY Differs from a species in that when propagated by seed it will 
 revert to another form. See species. 
 
 ZOOSPORE (Bot.) A spore provided with one or more slender cilia, by the 
 vibration of which it swims in water. 
 
TABLE OF ILLUSTKATIONS. 259 
 
 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Fig. 1. Leaf of Wild V. .Estivalis (after M. Mazade) ... ... 10 
 
 Fig. 2. Seed of V. ^Estivalis... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Fig. 3. Leaves of Wild Riparia, young and adult (after M. 
 
 Mazade)... ... ... ... ... ... 11 
 
 Fig. 4. Seed of Wild Riparia ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 Fig. 5. Leaves of V. Rupestris, young and adult (after M. 
 
 Mazade).. ... ... ... ... ... 13 
 
 Fig. 6. Seed of V. Rupestris ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 Fig. 7. Seed of V. Berlandieri ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 Fig. 8. Leaves of V. Berlandieri (after M. Mazade) ... ... 15 
 
 Fig. 9. Leaves of V. Monticola (after M. Mazade) ... ... 16 
 
 Fig. 10. Seed of V. Labrusca... ... ... ... ... 17 
 
 Fig. 11. Leaf of Jacquez (after M. Mazade) ... ... ... 18 
 
 Fig. 12. Leaf of Herbemont (after M. Mazade) ... ... ... 21 
 
 Fig. 13. Leaf of Cunningham (after M. Mazade) ... ... 23 
 
 Fig. 14. Leaves of Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, young and 
 
 adult (after M. Mazade) ... ... ... ... 25 
 
 Fig. 15. Leaf of Riparia Grand Glabre (after M. Mazade) ... 26 
 
 Fig. 16.- Leaves of Solonis, young and adult (after M. Mazade) ... 27 
 
 Fig. 17. Leaves of Clinton (after M. Mazade) ... ... ... 29 
 
 Fig. 18. Leaves of Taylor (after M. Mazade) ... ... ... 31 
 
 Fig. 19. Leaves of Vialla (after M. Mazade) . ... ... 33 
 
 Fig. 20. Leaves of Rupestris du Lot (after M. Mazaue) ... ... 36 
 
 Fig. 21. Leaf of Rupestris Martin (after M. Mazade) ... ... 38 
 
 Fig. 22. Bernard's Calcimetre ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 Fig. 23. V. Vinifera grafted on V. Riparia, showing almost normal 
 
 difference between size of stock and scion ... ... 60 
 
 Figs. 24, 25, and 26. Different stages in the opening of a normal 
 
 vine flower ... ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 Fig. 27. Scissors and Forceps used for the removal of Corolla and 
 
 Stamens... ... ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 Fig. 28. Gauze Bag used for protecting flowers from contami- 
 nation ... ... ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 Fig. 29. Gauze Bag kept open with a special wire ... ... 65 
 
 Figs. 30 and 31. Mallet Cuttings ... ... ... .., 73 
 
 Fig. 32. Cutting, with two-years-old wood removed ... ... 73 
 
 Fig. 33. Ordinary Cutting ... ... ... ... ... 73 
 
 Fig. 34. One- eye Cutting ... ... ... 73 
 
 Fig. 35. Young Plant of average vigour obtained from a one-eye 
 
 Cutting of V. Vinifera ... ... ... ... 74 
 
 Fig. 36. A. Vine Resulting from a Short Cutting. B. Vine Re- 
 sulting from a Long Cutting ... ... ... 75 
 
 Fig. 37. Ordinary Bent Cutting ... ... ... ... 75 
 
 Fig. 38. Open Trench for plantation of cuttings ... ... 79 
 
 Fig. 39. Sand placed at the bottom to promote root growth ... 79 
 
 Fig. 40. Cuttings placed along the side of the trench ... ... 79 
 
 Fig. 41. Soil (T) rammed above the sand ... ... ... 79 
 
 Fig. 42. Mellowed Soil placed above the rammed soil ... ... 79 
 
 Fig. 43. Ridge of Sand (s) Covering the Tops of Cuttings ... 79 
 
 Fig. 44. Ordinary Layering ... ... ... ... ... 82 
 
 i: 2 
 
260 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Fig. 45. Complete Burying of the Mother Plant ... ... 84 
 
 Fig. 46. Multiple Layering ... ... ... ... ... 85 
 
 Fig. 47. Reversed Layering ... ... ... ... ... 85 
 
 Fig. 48. Ordinary Cleft Graft (a) Section of Large Stump cut with 
 a chisel. (&) Section of a Small Stump cut with a 
 
 pruning bill ... ... ... .... ... 92 
 
 Fig. 49. Scion used for ordinary Cleft Grafting ... ... 92 
 
 Fig. 50. Cleft Graft with Two Scions ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Fig. 51 . English Cleft Graft ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Fig. 52. Whip-tongue Graft with long bevels (a) on Cutting. (b) 
 
 On Rootling ... ... ... ... ... 94 
 
 Fig. 53. Whip-tongue Graft with Short Bevels ... ... ... 95 
 
 Fig. 54. Champin Graft (a) on Cutting (6) on Rootling ... ... 96 
 
 Fig. 55. (a) Saddle Graft, (b) Camuset Graft ... ... ... 96 
 
 Fig. 56. Gaillard Graft ... ... ... ... ... 97 
 
 Fig. 57. Dauty Graft... ... ... ... ... ... 98 
 
 Fig. 58. Cadillac Side Cleft Graft ... ... ... ... 99 
 
 Fig. 59. Forceps used for side cleft grafting ... ... ... 99 
 
 Fig. 60. Knife used for side cleft grafting ... ... ... 99 
 
 Fig. 61. Cutting Graft ... ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Fig. 62. Salgues Graft ... ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Fig. 63. Salgues Graft, knitted ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Figs. 64 and 65. Horvath. Graft, preparation of stock ... ... 101 
 
 Fig. 66. Horvath Method, preparation of scion ... ... 102 
 
 Fig. 67. Horvath Graft, finished ... ... ... ... 103 
 
 Figs. 68 and 69. Herbaceous Graft, preparation of stock ... 104 
 
 Figs. 70, 71, and 72. Herbaceous Graft, preparation of scion ... 104 
 
 Figs. 73 and 74. Herbaceous Graft, completed ... ... ... 105 
 
 Fig. 75. Herbaceous Graft (after H. Goethe) ... ... .. 105 
 
 Fig. 76. Herbaceous Graft, ab scion ... ... ... 106 
 
 Fig. 77. Same after tying, a scion, b ligature, c stock ... ... 106 
 
 Fig. 78. Section of Union (after H. Goethe) ... ... ... 106 
 
 Fig. 79. Grafting Saw ... ... ... ... ,.. 107 
 
 Fig. 80. Mattock ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 
 
 Fig. .81. Grafting Chisel ... ... ... ... ... 107 
 
 Fig. 82. Comy's Gauge ... ... ... .. ... 108 
 
 Fig. 83. Comy's Arrangement ... ... ... .. 108 
 
 Fig. 84. Comy's Grafting Knife ... ... ... ... 109 
 
 Fig. 85.- Champin's Grafting Knife ... ... ... ... 109 
 
 Fig. 86. Kunde's Grafting Knife ... ... ... ... 109 
 
 Fig. 87. Section of Blade, sharpened on both sides ... ... 110 
 
 Fig. 88. Section of Blade, sharpened on one side only .. ... 110 
 
 Fig. 89. Castelbou's Grafting Guide .. ... .. ... 110 
 
 Fig. 90. Richter's Grafting Guide ... ... ... ... Ill 
 
 Fig. 91. Petit's Grafting Machine, used for whip-tongue grafting 111 
 
 Fig. 92. Inclined Socket of Petit's Machine ... ... ... 112 
 
 Fig. 93. Cork Ligature ... ... ... ... .... 114 
 
 Fig. 94. Cleft Graft, earthed up ... ... ... ... 115 
 
 Fig. 95. Triangular Hoe, used for covering grafts with soil ... 115 
 Fig. 96. A Six-year-old Vine, badly grafted, perishing from 
 
 /hylloxera on scion roots ... ... ... ... 116 
 Grafted Vine, showing almost normal difference 
 
 between size of stock and scion ... ... ... 116 
 
 Fig. 98. Whip- tongue Grafted Cutting ... ... ... 117 
 
 Fig. 99. Arrangement of Cuttings in Nursery Rows ... ... 118 
 
 Fig. 100. Straight-edge for placing cuttings in nursery rows ... 118 
 
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 261 
 
 Page 
 
 Fig. 101. Nursery of grafted cuttings, showing method of planting 
 
 and banking ... ... ... ... ... 119 
 
 Fig. 102. White Mycelium of Dematophora Necatrix developed on 
 
 dead vine ... ... ... ... ... 120 
 
 Fig. 103. Sclerotinia FucMiana ... ... ... ... 121 
 
 Fig. 104. Arrangement of vines in lines ... ... ... 125 
 
 Fig. 105. Arrangement of vines in squares ... ... ... 126 
 
 Fig. 106. Arrangement of vines in quincunx ... ... ... 126 
 
 Fig. 107. Planting dibble ... ... ... ... ... 127 
 
 Fig. 108. Spur pruning ... ... ... ... ... 130 
 
 Fig. 109. Spur after pruning ... ... ... ... ... 130 
 
 Fig. 110. Longitudinal section of vine cane showing diaphragms ... 131 
 
 Fig 111. Gooseberry Bush pruning ... ... ... ... 132 
 
 Fig. 112. Gooseberry Bush with long rod bent in a circle ... 132 
 
 Fig. 113. Spalier with rods and spurs ... ... ... ... 133 
 
 Fig. 114. Cazenave's cordon with rods and spurs ... ... 133 
 
 Fig. 115. Chaintre ... ... ... ... ... ... 134 
 
 Fig. 116. Roy at Method ... ... ... ... ... 135 
 
 Fig. 117. Young vine pruned after Coste Floret's modification of 
 
 the Quarante method ... ... ... ... 136 
 
 Fig. 118. Quarante method modified by Coste-Floret ... ... 137 
 
 Fig. 119. Pruning-bill of Provence ... ... ... ... 138 
 
 Fig. 120. Secateur of Languedoc ... ... ... ... 138 
 
 Fig. 121. Arrangement of soil after digging ... .. ... 139 
 
 Fig. 122. Arrangements of experiments for ascertaining the 
 
 relative value of different forms of manure in a given soil 141 
 
 Fig. 123. Arrangement of soil after first ploughing ... ... 147 
 
 Fig. 124. Hook used in the Herault ... ... ... ... 148 
 
 Fig. 125. Different tools used for digging in the Herault (after M. 
 
 Mares) ... ... ... ... 148 
 
 Fig. 126. Vineyard plough used in the Aude ... ... ... 149 
 
 Fig. 127. Vernette's vineyard plough ... ... ... ... 150 
 
 Fig. 128. Renault-Gouin's vineyard plough (elevation) ... ... 150 
 
 Fig. 129. Renault-Gouin's vineyard plough (projection) ... ... 151 
 
 Fig. 130. Souchu-Pinet's vineyard plough ... ... ... 151 
 
 Fig. 131. Special Harness for vineyard ploughs... ... ... 151 
 
 Fig. 132 Old Roman foot plough still in use in Bas-Languedoc for 
 
 vineyard ploughing ... ... ... ... 152 
 
 Fig. 133. Renault-Gouin's double-furrow vineyard plough ... 152 
 
 Fig. 134. Portal's Scarifier ... ... ... ... ... 153 
 
 Fig. 135. Hoe used for summer dressing ... ... ... 154 
 
 Fig. 136. Shares of Vine Cultivators ... ... ... ... 154 
 
 Fig 137. Pilter-Planet's scarifier ... ... ... ... 154 
 
 Fig. 138. Broussin caused by frost ... .. .. ... 157 
 
 Fig. 139. Hermaphrodite vine flower .., ... ... 161 
 
 Fig. 140. Male flower ... ... ... ... ... 161 
 
 Fig. 141. Sterile flowers ... ... ... ... ... 161 
 
 Figs. 142 and 143. Flowers rendered sterile through the transfor- 
 mation of the pistil and stamens into rudi- 
 mentary leaves ... ... ... ... 162 
 
 Fig. 144. Sulphur box .. ... ... ... ... 166 
 
 Fig. 145. Sulphur bellows ... ... ... ... ... 166 
 
 Tig. 146. Pensard's sulphuring machine ... ... ... 166 
 
 Fig. 147. Vermorel's torpido sulphuring machine . ... 167 
 
 Fig. 148. Shoot attacked by anthracnosis (after H. Mares) ... 168 
 
 Fig. 149. Berries attacked by anthracnosis ... ... ... 168 
 
262 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 150. Diagram of vine leaf attacked by Plasmopara ... 172 
 
 Fig. 151. Vermorel's Spray-pump (section) ... ... ... 182 
 
 Fig. 152. Vermorel's Torpido-sulphuring machine ... ... 184 
 
 Fig. 153. Woman working a Torpido-su3phuring machine ... 184 
 
 Fig. 154. Brown mycelium filaments of Dematophora Necatrix 
 
 (af ter P. Viala) ... ... ... ... .. 188 
 
 Fig. 155. Transparent, colourless mycelium filaments of Demato 
 
 phora Necatrix (after P. Viala) 
 Fig. 156. Fructiferous filaments of Dematophora Necatrix 
 Fie. 157. Dematophora Necatrix a, mass of white filaments 
 
 189 
 190 
 191 
 
 Fig. 158. Fructifications of Dematophora Necatrix ... ... 191 
 
 Fig. 159. Extremity of fructiferous filaments of Dematophora Neca- 
 trix ... ... ... ... ... ... 192 
 
 Fig. 160. Vine root covered with Agaricus Melleus (after Millardet) 192 
 
 Fig. 161. Mycelium of A garicus Melleus var. Subterranea ... 193 
 
 Fig. 162. Agaricus Melleus ... ... ... ... ... 193 
 
 Fig. 163. Bunch of same at foot of a vine ... ... ... 193 
 
 Fig. 164. Rozsleria hypogcea on vine root ... ... ... 193 
 
 Fig. 165. Fructifications of Rcesleria ... ... ... ... 193 
 
 Fig. 166. Section of same (after E. Prillieux) ... ... .. 193 
 
 Fig. 167. Section of vine root attacked by Ho&sleria (after E. Pril- 
 lieux) ... ... ... ... ... ... 194 
 
 Fig. 169. Centrifugal pump ... ... ... .. ... 198 
 
 Fig. 170. Gwyne's centrifugal pump ... ... .. ... 199 
 
 Fig. 171. Dellon's Rouet ... ... ... .. ... 200 
 
 Fig. 172. Pumping station placed in a fixed position .. ... 201 
 
 Fig. 173. Movable pumping station ... ... .. ... 202 
 
 Fig. 174. 1. Solonis. 2. Rupestris du Lot. 3. Riparia Cloire 
 
 de Montpellier ... ... ... ... ... 213 
 
 Fig. 175. English cleft graft. A. Proper angle of cut for large 
 cuttings. B. Proper angle of cut for small cuttings. 
 C, D. Proper size and angle of tongues. E, F. Method 
 
 of uniting and tying graft ... ... ... 222 
 
 Fig. 176. End-to-end and Champin graft ... ... ... 224 
 
 Fig. 177. Callusingbed ... ... ... ... .. 226 
 
 Fig. 178. Method of planting in nursery ... ... ... 228 
 
 Fig. 179. An average graft of Zinfandel on Rupestris du Lot. 
 An average graft of Flame Tokay on Rupestris du 
 
 Lot ... ... ... ... ... ... 239 
 
 1'ig. 180. Effect of Black-knot and of failure to cut the raffia ... 240 ' 
 
 Fig. 181. Effect of wire- worms on young vine ... ... ... 241 
 
 Fig. 182. Effect of failing to cut off the roots of the scion ... 243 
 
 Fig. 183. Root growths of resistant stocks compared ... ... 245 
 
 Plate I. Rupestris X Berlandieri, No. 219 ... ... ... 44 
 
 Plate II. Riparia X Berlandieri, No. 33E ... ... ... 47 
 
 Plate III. Berlandieri X Riparia, No. 420 A ... ... ... 49 
 
 Plate IV. Riparia X Cor difolia Rupestris, No. 106-8 ... ... 49 
 
 Plate V. Non-setting of the grape ... ... ... ... 162 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 263 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Pag-e 
 
 Translator's Introduction 
 
 Author's Preface ... ... 5 
 
 PART I. 
 
 / AMERICAN VINES 
 
 A. CHOICE OF CEPAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION AND STUDY OF SPECIES AND CEPAGES... 9 
 1st. Description of Species 
 
 (a) V. ^Estivalis ... ... ... 9 
 
 (b) V. Riparia 
 
 (c) V. Rupestris 
 
 (d) V. Berlandieri 
 
 (e) V. Monticola 
 (/) V. Labrusca 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Vialla 
 
 Elvira 
 
 Noah 
 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 14 
 17 
 
 2nd. Description and aptitudes of cdpages ... ... 17 
 
 (A) Forms derived from V. JEstivalis... 
 
 Jacquez ... ... ... 17 
 
 Herbemont ... 
 
 Black- July. ... 21 
 
 Cunningham ... 
 
 (B) Forms derived from V. Riparia ... ... 24 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier ... 
 
 Riparia Grand Glabre... ... ... 25 
 
 Solonis -- .- ... ... 27 
 
 28 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 34 
 
 (C) Forms derived from V. Rupestris 
 
 Rupestris du Lot 
 
 Rupestris Martin ... ... ... 37 
 
 Rupestris Ganzin ... ... ... 37 
 
 Rupestris Mission 
 
 Rupestris of Fortworth 
 
 Rupestris Metallica ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris, 3306 and 3309 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris, 101-14 ... ... 40 
 
 Rupestris, with Taylor habit ... 
 
 (D) Forms derived from V. Berlandieri 
 
 Berlandieri Resseguier, No. 1 ... 
 
 Berlandieri Resseguier, No. 2 ... 
 
 Berlandieri Daignere ... 
 
 Berlandieri of Augeac 
 
 Berlandieri Viala 
 
 Berlandieri Ecole ... ... ... ... 42 
 
264 GENEKAL INDEX. 
 
 Pajje 
 CHAPTER I. continued. 
 
 2nd. Description and aptitudes of cepages continued. 
 
 (E) Various Hybrids ... ... ... ... 42 
 
 Arainon X Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1 ... ... 42 
 
 Aramon x Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2 ... ... 43 
 
 Gamay Couderc ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 Colombeau x Rupestris, No. 1202 ... ... 43 
 
 Chasselas X Berlandieri, No. 41 B ..." ... 44 
 
 Tisserand ... ... ... ... ... 45 
 
 Alicante-Bouschet X Rupestris, No. 136 ... 45 
 
 Petit-Bouschet X Riparia, No. 142 Ecole ... 46 
 
 Berlandieri X Ripara, No. 33 Ecole ... ... 47 
 
 Berlandieri X Riparia, No 34 Ecole ... ... 47 
 
 Seibel's Hybrid, No. 1 ... ... ... 48 
 
 Seibel's Hybrid, No. 2 ... ... ... 48 
 
 Franc's Hybrid ... ... ... ... 49 
 
 Alicante X Rupestris, No. 20 of Terrars ... 49 
 
 CHAPTER II. CHOICE or AMERICAN VINES WITH REGARD TO 
 
 DESTINATION AND SITUATION ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 Use of Direct-producers or Graft-bearers ... ... .. 50 
 
 1st. Resistance to Phylloxera ... ... ... 54 
 
 2nd. Adaptation to Soil ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 B. METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 CHAPTER III. METHODS OF PROPAGATION APPLICABLE TO VINES ... 63 
 
 Propagation by Seeds ... ... ... ... ... 63 
 
 (A) Choice of Cepages ... ... ... ... 64 
 
 Hybridization ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 (B) Selection of seeds ... ... ... ... 66 
 
 (C) Propagation of seeds ... ... ... ... 66 
 
 (D) Sowing ... ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 (E) Care ... ... ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 (F) Lifting ... ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 (G) Study of utilization of seedlings ... ... ... 67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS ... ... ... 70 
 
 1st. Choice of cuttings, care to be taken in preservation in 
 
 transit ... ... ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 (A) Selection of cuttings ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 (B) Preservation of cuttings ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 Packing ... ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 Care to be given on arrival ... ... ... 72 
 
 2nd. Best types of cuttings ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 (A) Different systems ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 (B) Length of cuttings ... ... ... ... 73 
 
 3rd. Means of promoting the root-growth on cuttings ... 75 
 
 (A) Stratification ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 (B) Soaking ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 (C) Barking ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 (D) Watering, &c. ... ... ... 76 
 
 4th. Most favourable time for planting cuttings ... ... 77 
 
 5th. Selection of soils for cuttings ... ... ... 78 
 
 (A) Planting out ... ... ... ... ... 78 
 
 (B) Planting in nurseries ... ... ... ... 78 
 
 (C) Establishment of a nursery, and care to be given to it 78 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 265 
 
 Page 
 
 CHAPTER V. PROPAGATION BY LAYERS ... ... ... 81 
 
 1st. Principal types of layers ... ... ... ... 81 
 
 (A) Ordinary layering ..." ... ... ... 81 
 
 (B) Complete burying of the mother plant ... ... 83 
 
 (C) Multiple layering ... ... ... ... 84 
 
 (D) Reversed layering ... ... ... ... 85 
 
 2nd. Means of promoting rooting of layers ... ... ... 86 
 
 3rd. Best time for layering ... ... ... ... 86 
 
 CHAPTER VI. GRAFTING ... ... ... ... ... 87 
 
 (A) Grafting operation ... ... ... ... 88 
 
 1st. Age at which stock can bear grafts ... ... ... 89 
 
 2nd. Selection of scions ... ... ... ... ... 89 
 
 (a) Selection of canes ... ... ... ... 89 
 
 (b) Best time to gather canes ... ... ... 90 
 
 (c) Preservation of scions ... ... ... ... 90 
 
 (d) Means of ascertaining the vitality of scions ... 90 
 3rd. Best time for grafting ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 4th. Different methods used ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 (a) Ordinary cleft graft ... ... ... ... 92 
 
 (b) English cleft graft ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 (c) Whip- tongue graft ... ... ... ... 94 
 
 (d) Side cleft graft ... ... ... ... 96 
 
 (e) Cutting graft ... ... ... ... ... 97 
 
 (/) Budding ... ... ... ... ... 99 
 
 (gr) Herbaceous grafts ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 5th. Graf ting machines and implements ... ... ... 106 
 
 (a) Tools used for cleft grafting ... .. ... 106 
 
 (6) Tools used for cleft grafting young plants ... 107 
 
 (c) Tools used for whip-tongue grafting ... ... 109 
 
 6th. Ligatures and waxing ... ... ... ... 112 
 
 7th. Care to be given to grafts ... ... ... ... 114 
 
 (A) Earthing up and protection of grafts ... ... 114 
 
 (B) Severing roots from the scion and shoots from the 
 
 stock ... ... ... ... ... 115 
 
 8th. Condition of application of grafting ... ... . 115 
 
 (A) Grafting cuttings ... ... ... ... 115 
 
 C. ESTABLISHMENT OF A VINEYARD. 
 
 CHAPTER. VII. PREPARATION OF SOIL ... ... ... 122 
 
 1st. Trenchmg .. ... ... ... ... ... 122 
 
 (A) Depth of trenching ... ... ... ... 122 
 
 (B) Mode of execution of trenching ... ... ... 123 
 
 (C) Time most suitable for trenching ... ... ... 123 
 
 2nd Manuring ... ... ... ... ... ... 124 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. PLANTATION ... ... ... 125 
 
 1st. Arrangement of vines ... ... ... .. ... 125 
 
 (A) Shape of the plantation ... 
 
 (B) Distance apart ... 
 
 (C) Marking out the land 
 2nd. Grouping the cepages 
 
 125 
 125 
 125 
 127 
 
 3rd. Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... 127 
 
 4th. Care to be given to new vineyards ... ... ... 128 
 
'266 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 D. CULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. CULTURAL CARE 
 1st. Pruning 
 
 (A) Production of fruit-bearing shoots 
 
 (B) Establishment of vines ... 
 
 (C) Height of vines ... 
 
 (D) Pruning methods recently recommended in the South 
 
 of France 
 
 (a) Royal method ... 
 
 (b) Quarante's method 
 
 (c) Quarante's method modified by Coste-Floret 
 
 (E) Time most favorable for pruning ... 
 
 (F) Pruning tools ... 
 2nd. Digging 
 
 3rd. Manuring or fertilizing 
 
 (A) Manuring 
 
 Formulae for chemical manures 
 
 (B) Means of improvements ... ... .. ... 
 
 (C) Time most favorable for manuring 
 
 (D) Methods of distributing manures ... 
 
 (E) Ploughing 
 1st. First ploughing 
 
 2nd. Scarifying or second dressing ... 
 "CHAPTER X. ACCIDENTS, DISEASES, PARASITES 
 1st. Accidents due to unfavorable conditions 
 
 (A) Frosts... 
 
 (a) Aiitunm frosts 
 
 (b) Winter frosts 
 
 (c) Spring frosts 
 
 (B) Hail ... 
 
 Hail-guards ... 
 
 (C) High winds 
 
 (D) Non-setting ... ... ... "... 
 
 1st. Non -setting, resulting from the abnormal 
 constitution of the flowers ... 
 
 2nd. Non-setting, resulting from an excess of 
 vegetation 
 
 3rd. Non-setting, resulting from unfavorable 
 atmospheric conditions 
 
 (F) Millerandage ... 
 
 (G) Scorching 
 (H) Grape-rot 
 
 '.2nd. Diseases due to fungi ... ... 
 
 (A) Oidium 
 
 (B) Anthracnosis 
 
 1st. Preventive treatment 
 2nd. Curative treatment 
 
 (C) Mildew 
 
 Aspect of mildewed vines 
 C^pages most liable to mildew 
 
 Mycelium 
 
 Fructiferous filaments ... ... .... 
 
 Summer spore (conidia) ... ... ... 
 
 Winter spores (ovce) 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 267 
 
 Page 
 CHAPTER X. continued. 
 
 2nd. Diseases due to fungi Mildew continued. 
 
 Most favorable conditions for the development of 
 
 mildew ... ... ... ... ... 175 
 
 Means recommended to combat mildew... ... 177 
 
 (a) Use of cepages resisting mildew . . . 177 
 
 (b) Use of copper salts ... ... ... 177 
 
 (a) Liquid matters ... ... .. 178 
 
 1st. Bordeaux mixture ... ... 178 
 
 2nd. Blue water 
 
 3rd. Ammonia solution of copper 
 
 4th. Mixture of dauphinee ... ... 180 
 
 5th. Verdetgris ... ... ... 181 
 
 6th. Lucrate of copper 
 
 Mode of application of cupric compounds 181 
 
 (b) Pulverized solid matters ... ... 183 
 
 1st. Mixture of sulphur and sulphate of 
 
 copper ... ... ... 183 
 
 2nd. Sulpho-steatite of copper 
 
 3rd. Skawinski powders ... ... 183 
 
 (D) Black-rot ... 185 
 
 Means ot combating the disease ... ... 186 
 
 (E) Coniothyrium diplodiella or white-rot ... ... 187 
 
 (F) Pourridie" 
 
 3rd. Maladies ... 194 
 
 Chlorosis. . ... ... ... 194 
 
 PART II. 
 SUBMERSION OF VINEYARDS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO THE SUCCESS OF SUBMERSION. 
 1st. Water 196 
 
 (A) Quantity of water ... ... ... ... 196 
 
 (B) Quality of water 
 
 2nd.-Soil ... 197 
 
 (A) Permeability ... .. .. ... ... 197 
 
 (B) The contour of the land ... 
 
 3rd. Adaptation of cepages to submersion ... ... ... 197 
 
 CHAPTER II. ESTABLISHMENT OF SUBMERSION PLANT. 
 
 1st. Sources of water supply ... ... .. 198 
 
 (A) Channels ..V; ... 198 
 
 (B) Raising water by mechanical means 
 
 (C) Stopping drainage pipes .. ... ... 200 
 
 2nd. Formation of submersion bas ns, or bed-work system ... 200 
 
 (A) Shape of beds... 
 
 (B) Size of beds 
 
 (C) Banks ... 
 
 200 
 203 
 203 
 
268 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Page- 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 1st. Most favorable time for submerging vineyards .. ... 205 
 
 2nd. Duration of submersion ... ... ... ... 205 
 
 (A) Influence of climate ... ... ... ... 205 
 
 (B) Influence of soil ... ... ... ... ... 206 
 
 (C) Influence of season ... .., ... ... 206 
 
 3rd. Age at which vines can be submerged... ... ... 206 
 
 4th. Periodicity of submersion ... ... ... ... 207 
 
 CHAPTER IV. PLANTING AND CULTIVATION. 
 
 1st. Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 2nd. Cultivation... ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 (A) Pruning ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 (B) Manures ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 (C) Ploughing ... ... ... ... ... 209' 
 
 PART III. 
 PLANTING IN SAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. SELECTION OF SOIL AND CEPAGES. PLANTING. CULTURE. 
 
 1st. Selection of soil ... ... ... ... ... 210- 
 
 (A) Indemnity ... ... ... ... ... 210 
 
 (B) Conditions favorable to the success of vines ... 211 
 2nd. Selection of cepages... ... ... ... ... 211 
 
 3rd. Planting ... ... ... ... 211 
 
 (A) Preparation of soil ... ... ... ... 211 
 
 (B) Planting in sand ... ... ... ... 212 
 
 4th Cultural care ... ... ... ... ... 212 
 
 (A) Manuring ... ... ... ... ... 212 
 
 (B) Summer Ploughing ... v... ... ... 212, 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Bench-Grafting Resistant Vines, by F. T. Bioletti and A. M. dal 
 
 Piaz. Bulletin No. 127, University of California, 1900 ... 215 
 
 The work of the experiment station ... ... ... 215 
 
 Adaptability of various varieties of vinifera to various 
 
 resistant stocks ... ... ... ... ... 217 
 
 Grafting... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 
 
 Preparation of cuttings for grafting ... ... ... 220* 
 
 Methods of grafting ... ... ... ... ... 221 
 
 English-cleft or whip graft ... ... ... ... 222 
 
 Champin graft ... ... ... ... ... ... 223 
 
 Binding grafts ... ... ... ... ... 225 
 
 Methods of aiding callusing ... ... ... ... 225 
 
 1st Callusing in sand ... ... ... ... ... 226 
 
 2nd Callusing in straw or moss ... ... ... 226- 
 
i 
 
 GENEBAL INDEX. 269 
 
 Page 
 
 Bench-Grafting Resistant Vines continued. 
 Planting grafts in the nursery 
 
 Planting immediately after grafting ... ... 227 
 
 Planting the grafts after previous callusing ... ... 228 
 
 Removal of scion roots and suckers from the stock . . . 229 
 
 Condition when scion and suckers were cut ... ... 230 
 
 Condition when raffia was cut ... ... ... ... 232 
 
 Condition when grafts were removed from nursery ... 232 
 
 The experiment with two-eye and one-eye scions ... ... 237 
 
 The difference between previously callusing the grafts 
 
 The influence of scions of different varieties ... ... 238 
 
 The effects of failing to cut the raffia ... ... ... 240 
 
 The effects of neglecting to cut the roots ... ... 242 
 
 Comparative experiments in rooting cuttings of resistant stocks 
 
 Rupestris 4u Lot ... ... ... ... ... 242 
 
 Riparia Gloire de Montpellier ... ... ... ... 242 
 
 Solonis ... ... ... ... ... ... 244 
 
 Summary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 247 
 
 Number of vine seeds contained in one pound ... ... 248 
 
 Summary of the life history of phylloxera ... ... 249 
 
 Glossary of the principal scientific terms used in the present volume 252 
 
 Table of Illustrations ... ... ... ... 259 
 
 General Index ... ... ... ... ... 263 
 
 By Authority : ROBT. S. BRAIN, Government Printer, Melbourne 
 
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